document_title: Charlotte King (Home and Away)

question_text: who did hunters mom kill in home and away

text: Charlotte King (Home and Away)

text: Creation and casting[edit]

text: Script executive Dan Bennett intended for Charlotte to become the show's next villain from the start. Series producer Lucy Addario said Charlotte would be central to many plots and she would also make enemies that want to see her leave Summer Bay.[1] On 10 January 2015, Briana Domjen of The Daily Telegraph reported that actress and singer Erika Heynatz had joined the cast of Home and Away as a school teacher.[2] Heynatz admitted to being nervous during her audition for the role, but loved the character breakdown.[3] The role marked Heynatz's first television acting job, and she began filming her first scenes during the week commencing 12 January.[2]

text: Of joining the cast, Heynatz commented "Just like with any new job or new environment, there are always some nerves. But ultimately, I am really thrilled. It feels like the perfect timing, the perfect role and the character is going to be a lot of fun to play."[2] Heynatz said she would turn to her mother and mother-in-law for advice as they were both teachers, and she hoped that her character would be well received by the students.[2] Heynatz had been filming with the show for six months before her character debuted. The actress told Chloe Lal of Woman's Day that she was happy waiting because it prevented her being critical of her portrayal and gave her time to learn.[4] She made her first screen appearance on 23 June 2015.[5]

text: Development[edit]

text: Introduction and characterisation[edit]

text: Charlotte is a biology teacher, who joined the staff at the local high school.[6] Heynatz said that Charlotte came to Summer Bay for a fresh start, something that the actress could relate to. Charlotte was also hiding "a secret history" that was set to affect one of the show's established couples.[6] Debbie Schipp for news.com.au commented that Charlotte would not have a low key arrival, while Heynatz added "there's no slinking into the show in the background – she definitely makes an entrance."[6] Heynatz had originally had reservations about playing Charlotte who is characterised as a "massive bad guy".[7] When the actress read the character breakdown, she was "immediately drawn to her resilience, her instincts and her duplicitous nature." Charlotte is scandalous and has many secrets.[8]

text: Ahead of Charlotte's secret being revealed in August, a reporter for TV Week noted that "it could spell chaos for several people".[9] During a community fundraiser for Leah Patterson-Baker (Ada Nicodemou) and Zac MacGuire (Charlie Clausen), Charlotte was caught off-guard when Hunter King (Scott Lee) turned up and told the attendees that he was her son and Zac was his father.[9][10] Zac was unaware that he had fathered a child with Charlotte and was "gobsmacked" by the revelation. As Charlotte confirmed that Hunter was his son, Zac struggled to understand how she kept it from him and ended up rejecting Hunter.[10] As Zac later forged a relationship with his son, Charlotte realised she still had feelings for him.[11] When Zac and Leah ended their engagement, Charlotte invited Zac to stay with her and Hunter. She then tried to kiss him, but he rejected her.[11]

text: Matt Page[edit]

text:
"Back at the bar, it would never have occurred to Charlotte that the liaison she had was with a student. It was an innocent mistake. But, what happens after that is what people will base their judgements on when it comes to this character."[3]

—Heynatz on Charlotte and Matt's relationship

tag: div

text: Charlotte's first storyline was an affair with school student Matt Page (Alec Snow). She did not initially know that he was a student as they embarked on a one-night stand.[3] The storyline was first discussed by Home and Away producer Lucy Addario; who revealed to Stephen Downie of TV Week that Matt would become embroiled in a new relationship. Fearing other Summer Bay residents will not approve, they conduct their affair in secrecy.[12] Heynatz and Snow did not have time to get better acquainted before they filmed their character's first passionate encounter. Heynatz told Kerry Harvey from Stuff.co.nz that it worked well for the scene, which was a "sexy chance meeting, inherent with all its awkward moments."[8] She added that a "lasting connection" develops between the two characters, but branded their relationship a dangerous one.[8]

text: The couple were pushed together by Leah, who asked Charlotte to tutor Matt. Charlotte realised that she should not be with Matt, but could not help herself when he kissed her.[3] As Charlotte and Matt continued seeing each other, Maddy Osborne (Kassandra Clementi) soon found out about the relationship and urged Matt to end it.[3] Reflecting on the storyline in December 2015, Snow told Bianca La Cioppa from the Daily Mail that he and Heynatz really tried to make their on-screen romance appear truthful and to justify their relationship.[7]

text: Denny's death and blackmail[edit]

text: When Denny Miller (Jessica Grace Smith) made an unannounced visit to Charlotte's flat to offer Hunter her old job, she caught Charlotte with the stolen safe from the Diner.[13] As Denny realised that Hunter had been responsible for the break-in, she urged Charlotte to go to the police. A fight broke out between the two women as Denny tried to take the safe.[13] Charlotte pushed Denny away, causing her to hit her head and die.[13] Despite knowing Denny's death was an accident, Charlotte did not report it to the police. Instead, she buried Denny's body and her belongings out in the bush.[13] Heynatz commented that Charlotte would do anything to protect her son.[13] Not long after, Charlotte began suffering from hallucinations and started seeing Denny around the flat. The images continued to appear, as Charlotte worked to cover up her crime.[14] She hacked into Denny's social media accounts to make it seem like she was alive and enjoying her overseas trip.[14] One particular hallucination of Denny caused Charlotte to throw a glass at a mirror, shattering it. When Andy Barrett (Tai Hara) stops by to ask her out to dinner, he becomes worried by the scene.[14] Hara commented, "it's a side of Charlotte that Andy's never seen. Obviously seeing the glass is a shock."[14] Andy was aware that Charlotte had previously covered up the fact Hunter burnt down Leah's house. Andy believed that she might be covering for Hunter again, but Charlotte refused to talk about it.[14]

text: Charlotte also became the victim of a stalker in the wake of Denny's death. She began receiving notes telling her that someone was watching her every move.[15] As she continued her affair with Matt, his friend Josh Barrett (Jackson Gallagher) asked her to end it, causing Charlotte to lash out and accuse him of sending the notes.[15] Josh then told Matt what had happened, and Matt felt obliged to offer his help. Snow said, "he wants to help her and be that man who steps up and solves all her problems."[15] Charlotte continued to struggle with the images of Denny and the presence of her stalker.[16] Heynatz told Stephen Downie of TV Week that it was a "scary time" for Charlotte. She continued, "She's carrying the burden of guilt over Denny's death and is fearful of the real threat of someone watching her."[16] The actress also said Charlotte was desperate to protect Hunter no matter what, even if it meant lying to him about her strange behaviour.[16]

text: When actor Ben Mingay joined the cast as Trystan Powell, he revealed that his character would cause "a massive headache" for Charlotte.[17] Mingay explained that Trystan would be stirring up Charlotte's storyline and believed that as she was disliked by a lot of viewers, Trystan would be "a bit of a welcome villain".[17] It later emerged that Trystan was Charlotte's stalker and that he was working on behalf of incarcerated criminal Trevor "Gunno" Gunson (Diarmid Heidenreich).[18] Gunno believed former prison inmate Darryl Braxton (Steve Peacocke) was not dead, and he wanted Charlotte to find out information from his friends and family.[18] Charlotte later handed over a large sum of money to Trystan, obtained from Hunter's trust fund. This caused a rift between Charlotte and Hunter and he moved in with Zac. Hunter told Zac that Charlotte had stolen from him and that she had also been having a sexual relationship with Matt.[18] When Charlotte went to Angelo's for a drink, she began flirting with Brax's brother Kyle Braxton (Nic Westaway), who was unaware that she had an ulterior motive.[18]

text: As Trystan continued to pressure her to find out the truth about Brax, Charlotte realised that Kyle might know something.[19] Charlotte went to his house to look for clues, but Kyle soon caught her and she made it clear that she was attracted to him.[19] Westaway told an Inside Soap writer, "Kyle has been working hard recently, so to have a gorgeous woman like Charlotte make a move on him isn't the worst thing ever!"[19] Charlotte and Kyle spent the afternoon together, and the writer noted that Kyle appeared to have fallen "hook, line and sinker" for Charlotte. When Kyle later saw Charlotte being hassled by Trystan, and then learnt that he was black mailing her, Kyle attacked him.[20] The incident prompted Constable Katarina Chapman (Pia Miller) to become involved and she questioned Charlotte about the nature of her relationship with Trystan.[20]

text: When Trystan demanded to know what Charlotte had found out about Brax, she begged him for more time. He then had Hunter kidnapped and dumped in the bush by the road.[20] After learning what happened, Charlotte called Trystan and confronted him in her car, where he then threatened her. Upon Trystan leaving the car, Carena Crawford from All About Soap observed "he's forgetting one thing about Ms King – she's a killer! And pushed to the extreme, she makes a split-second decision and slams on the accelerator, charging towards Trystan!"[20] After hitting Trystan with her car, Charlotte got out and looked at his body, as Irene Roberts (Lynne McGranger) arrived on the scene. When Kat came to question her, Charlotte said Trystan had stepped out in front of her.[20] However, Kat soon learned that Trystan's injuries were not consistent with Charlotte's story and she remembered that Trystan had been harassing her. When Trystan later died, Kat realised that Charlotte had not been entirely honest with her.[20]

text: Targeting Kat Chapman[edit]

text: Kat believed Charlotte was responsible for Trystan's death, and during a confrontation she told Charlotte that she would soon be able to prove it.[21] As Kat made it her mission to prove Charlotte deliberately ran down Trystan,[22] Charlotte retaliated by spiking Kat's drink at Angelo's, while Kat was in the bathroom. The drug left Kat groggy and unable to walk straight.[21] She collapsed to the ground and Charlotte took the chance to steal her gun and handcuffs. She then placed an unconscious Kat in her patrol car.[21] As she came round, Kat managed to catch Kyle's attention before collapsing again. Westaway told Melisssa Field of TV Week that the circumstances left Kyle feeling unsettled and he immediately suspected Charlotte was behind the incident.[21] Kat was rushed to the hospital, where she asked the doctor to check her blood for drugs, but the test came back negative, except for a large amount of alcohol.[22] Kat tried to explain that she had been set up, while an unsettled Kyle confronted Charlotte about the incident.[22]

text: Kat continued to investigate Charlotte despite being suspended for having alcohol in her system.[23] She started to suspect Charlotte might also be involved in Denny's disappearance, and confronted her about Denny's connection to Trystan and Gunno. Although Charlotte "coolly pleads her ignorance", it left Kat more suspicious of her.[23] Desperate not to get caught out by Kat, Charlotte targeted her again.[23][24] As Kat was searching through Denny's belongings at the Farmhouse, she was hit from behind by two men and left next to the oven with the gas on.[24] Charlotte then received a text message informing her that Kat had been dealt with per her plan. Charlotte was "filled with relief that her problem has seemingly been sorted".[24]

text: Who Shot Charlotte?[edit]

text: In November 2015, Sophie Dainty of Digital Spy reported that a major character would be killed off in the series finale, broadcast on 9 December.[25] Dainty revealed that the character would die after being shot, but further details were being held back until the scenes were aired.[25] TV Week confirmed that the victim would be either Charlotte, Hunter, Kat or Ash. Dainty added that the repercussions of the death would continue into 2016.[25] On 9 December, Charlotte was revealed to be the victim when she was shot by an unseen culprit, who she knew.[26]

text: In the lead up to the shooting, Charlotte gatecrashed Zac and Leah's wedding intent on getting revenge. She was also carrying Kat's stolen gun in her bag.[27] During the ceremony, Charlotte announced that she knew all of the secrets in Summer Bay and was prepared to expose them. Hunter managed to lead her away, but they argued and Charlotte said that she had sacrificed everything for him. She eventually left the wedding, which continues without any more problems.[27] During the reception, Kat informs Denny's family that Charlotte was responsible for her death. Elsewhere, Kyle informed Andy and Josh that she had threatened him. While Andy admitted that she knew he had killed Jake Pirovic (Fletcher Humphrys). Ash told Phoebe that he had to stop Charlotte telling Ricky that Brax is still alive, while Hunter left town.[27] Charlotte was standing near the local pool when she heard someone approach her. There was a brief fight and she is shot. Charlotte's body then falls into the sea.[27]

text: Charlotte's death started a "whodunit" storyline. There were ten suspects, which included Evelyn MacGuire (Philippa Northeast), Oscar MacGuire (Jake Speer), Zac MacGuire, Irene Roberts, Hunter King, Leah Patterson-Baker, Andy Barrett, Josh Barrett, Kyle Braxton, Martin Ashford (George Mason) and Olivia Fraser Richards (Raechelle Banno).[28] Nicodemou explained that the cast and crew did not know the identity of the shooter, and each suspect filmed a different ending to keep the conclusion to the storyline from being leaked.[28] Viewers were invited to download an app, so they could begin their own investigation. Nicodemou thought it would be funny if someone worked it out before the cast did.[28] She also said that it would take a while for the truth to come out and that some people would be wrongly accused. She quipped, "Basically Charlotte is dead but she keeps ruining all our lives in the Bay for a long time."[28] Nicodemou added that she always knew Heynatz's character would be killed off, but asked the series producer not to make her bad, as she wanted Heynatz to stay around for longer.[28]

text: In a 90-minute episode broadcast on 5 May 2016, Charlotte's killer was revealed to be Josh.[29] After looking at the evidence one last time, Kat realised that a piece recovered from the crime scene belonged to Josh. When she confronted him, he explained that his motives for killing Charlotte were Denny's murder and her knowledge of Andy's role in Jake Pirovic's death.[29] Flashbacks revealed that Josh had regained his sight that evening and he went to find Charlotte. She aimed the gun at Josh, but in the ensuing struggle, he ended up shooting her.[29]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: While enjoying a drink at Angelo's, Charlotte notices Matt Page and he joins her at her table. Charlotte goes back to Matt's caravan and they have sex. The following day, Charlotte goes to the high school and Zac introduces her to Leah Patterson-Baker as his former girlfriend and the new biology teacher. Charlotte soon realises that Matt is a student and they both agree to keep their one-night stand a secret. Charlotte helps Josh Barrett locate his brother Andy, who has taken off in his car while intoxicated. Leah later asks Charlotte to tutor Matt and she reluctantly agrees. During their first session, Charlotte and Matt reignite their affair. Maddy later witnesses Matt trying to give Charlotte a flower and works out that they are dating. Matt takes photos of himself and Charlotte in bed together. Matt informs Charlotte that Maddy knows about them, and she threatens Maddy. Charlotte then ends things with Matt. When Leah tries to work out who she is dating, Charlotte panics and Andy lies that it is him. Matt threatens to release the photos and Charlotte tries to take his phone. He later tells her that the photos are on his laptop. When Leah's house burns down, Matt accuses Charlotte. He later apologises and they agree to move on. Charlotte and Andy kiss and begin dating for real. Charlotte gives Zac a loan after he learns the house insurance lapsed. Charlotte's son Hunter King (Scott Lee) breaks into her motel room and then demands to be introduced to his father – Zac. Charlotte later realises that Hunter set fire to Zac and Leah's house. Charlotte admits to Andy that she is still in love with Zac. She later tries to kiss Zac, but he rejects her and returns to Leah.

text: Charlotte learns that Hunter stole the Diner's safe and left Marilyn Chambers (Emily Symons) injured, Charlotte refuses to let Hunter confess to the police and orders him to leave the Bay. A week later, Charlotte gets an unexpected visit from Zac's niece, Denny Miller, who stops by on her way to the airport to see if Hunter wants to take her job at the bait shop. Denny notices the Diner safe and she tries to take it. The two women fight and Charlotte pushes Denny away, causing her to hits her head and die. After initially deciding to call the police, Charlotte panics and later buries Denny and her belongings in the bush. Charlotte subsequently suffers nightmares about the incident. Charlotte overhears from Denny's family and friends that Denny has not updated her social media account, so she breaks into the Farmhouse and takes her diary to update her account. Trystan Powell (Ben Mingay) appears in the Bay and reveals to Charlotte that he knows she killed Denny. He begins blackmailing her into giving him money. Charlotte steals Hunter's trust fund money to pay Trystan. She and Matt continue their relationship, until Hunter tells Zac and Leah. Charlotte is fired from her job.

text: Hunter moves in with Zac and Leah, which devastates Charlotte. Trystan explains to Charlotte that he and Trevor Gunson (Diarmid Heidenreich) believe Darryl Braxton (Steve Peacocke) is still alive and they want her to get information from his family and friends. Charlotte gets close to Brax's brother, Kyle Braxton, after he gives her a job. Charlotte realises many of the residents have turned against her after her car is covered in rubbish and a brick is thrown through her window. When she argues with Irene Roberts, Olivia Fraser Richards takes against her. Charlotte threatens Olivia, and in revenge, Olivia vandalises Charlotte's apartment. Charlotte learns from Alf Stewart (Ray Meagher) that Trystan had Hunter kidnapped and left in the bush. Charlotte confronts Trystan about the kidnapping. After Trystan leaves her car, Charlotte drives it at him, causing him serious injuries. He dies the following day. Charlotte tells Irene and Constable Katarina Chapman that it was an accident, but Kat refuses to believe her.

text: Charlotte receives a call from Trevor Gunson who asks her to visit him in prison. Gunno is unhappy that Charlotte killed Trystan and refuses to believe her when she says it was an accident, reminding her that she also murdered Denny. Charlotte tells Gunno that she is done working for him. When Kat questions Charlotte about her visit to Gunno, Charlotte tells her that Gunno is her ex-boyfriend. Martin "Ash" Ashford knows that Gunno is not her ex-boyfriend and she gets him to admit that Brax is alive. She agrees to keep the secret.

text: Charlotte spikes Kat's drink and when Kat passes out, Charlotte steals her gun and handcuffs. When Kat becomes convinced Charlotte is behind the incident, Charlotte contacts Gunno and arranges for his henchman to kill Kat. They are unsuccessful. A week later, Denny's body is found. Charlotte asks Hunter and Kyle for money, but they refuse her. After overhearing Ash's conversation about Billie being framed for the fire at Leah's house, Charlotte breaks into Ash's caravan and plants Kat's handcuffs in Billie's bag, framing her for drugging Kat too. Ash confronts Charlotte and has to be pulled off of her. Kat finds evidence that proves Charlotte killed Denny and comes to arrest Charlotte, but she has already left the flat. Charlotte turns up at Leah and Zac's wedding and threatens to reveal everyone's secrets. She leaves and goes to the pier, where she is approached by someone she knows. The unseen person shoots Charlotte and she falls into the sea. Her body is recovered the following day. Months later, as the investigation is being closed down, Kat realises Josh Barrett killed Charlotte. He explains that after he regained his eyesight, he found Charlotte by the pier and during a confrontation, she pulled Kat's gun on him. As Josh tried to defend himself, the gun went off and Charlotte was shot.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Harvey (Stuff.co.nz) branded Charlotte a "femme fatale" and "the woman currently turning things upside down in Summer Bay". She added that there is "scandal there is aplenty" when Charlotte is around.[8] After Leah asked Charlotte to tutor Matt, a South Wales Echo reporter noted that "it's lessons in love he will be receiving".[30] An Inside Soap contributor branded Charlotte "wicked",[13] while another called her a "bad girl".[19] A reporter for the Liverpool Echo dubbed her a "villainess".[31]

text: A Soaplife contributor stated, "Crazy Charlotte King's certainly made more than a few waves since she arrived in Summer Bay last year. In fact, she's nothing short of a one-woman tsunami."[32] They also pointed out that Charlotte had a long list of "extra-curricular mayhem", adding "make no mistake, she's a piece of work!"[32] Carena Crawford from All About Soap said of "cunning" Charlotte, "what a nasty piece of work!"[33] After she was evicted and Hunter was kidnapped, a Sunday Mail reporter observed, "Charlotte's troubles are piling up with biblical force".[34] They added that she went into "full vengeance mode" because of these events.[34] A reporter for the Belfast Telegraph thought Charlotte was "vindictive".[35]

text: Following Charlotte's exit, a TV Week columnist quipped "Ding dong, the witch is dead!"[36] They wrote that Charlotte had done "some terrible things" during her stint in the Bay, but believed that she was just trying to protect Hunter.[36] The columnist added that it was not a surprise when she was shot.[36] Sue Yeap of The West Australian praised the character, saying "Heynatz's murderous Charlotte has been one of the show's best baddies".[37]


document_title: 3D printing

question_text: when was the first 3d printer released to the public

question_tokens: when was the first 3d printer released to the public

root

text: 3D printing

text: Terminology[edit]

text: The umbrella term additive manufacturing (AM) gained wide currency in the 2000s,[3] inspired by the theme of material being added together (in any of various ways). In contrast, the term subtractive manufacturing appeared as a retronym for the large family of machining processes with material removal as their common theme. The term 3D printing still referred only to the polymer technologies in most minds, and the term AM was likelier to be used in metalworking and end use part production contexts than among polymer, inkjet, or stereolithography enthusiasts.

tag: p

text: By the early 2010s, the terms 3D printing and additive manufacturing evolved senses in which they were alternate umbrella terms for AM technologies, one being used in popular vernacular by consumer-maker communities and the media, and the other used more formally by industrial AM end-use part producers, AM machine manufacturers, and global technical standards organizations. Until recently, the term 3D printing has been associated with machines low-end in price or in capability.[4] Both terms reflect that the technologies share the theme of material addition or joining throughout a 3D work envelope under automated control. Peter Zelinski, the editor-in-chief of Additive Manufacturing magazine, pointed out in 2017 that the terms are still often synonymous in casual usage[5] but that some manufacturing industry experts are increasingly making a sense distinction whereby AM comprises 3D printing plus other technologies or other aspects of a manufacturing process.[5]

text: Other terms that have been used as AM synonyms or hypernyms have included desktop manufacturing, rapid manufacturing (as the logical production-level successor to rapid prototyping), and on-demand manufacturing (which echoes on-demand printing in the 2D sense of printing). That such application of the adjectives rapid and on-demand to the noun manufacturing was novel in the 2000s reveals the prevailing mental model of the long industrial era in which almost all production manufacturing involved long lead times for laborious tooling development. Today, the term subtractive has not replaced the term machining, instead complementing it when a term that covers any removal method is needed. Agile tooling is the use of modular means to design tooling that is produced by additive manufacturing or 3D printing methods, to enable quick prototyping and responses to tooling and fixture needs. Agile tooling uses a cost effective and high quality method to quickly respond to customer and market needs, and it can be used in hydro-forming, stamping, injection molding and other manufacturing processes.

text: History[edit]

text: 1981 : Early additive manufacturing equipment and materials were developed in the 1980s.[6] In 1981, Hideo Kodama of Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research Institute invented two additive methods for fabricating three-dimensional plastic models with photo-hardening thermoset polymer, where the UV exposure area is controlled by a mask pattern or a scanning fiber transmitter.[7][8]

text: 1984 : On 16 July 1984, Alain Le Méhauté, Olivier de Witte, and Jean Claude André filed their patent for the stereolithography process.[9] The application of the French inventors was abandoned by the French General Electric Company (now Alcatel-Alsthom) and CILAS (The Laser Consortium).[10] The claimed reason was "for lack of business perspective".[11]

text: 1984: Three weeks later in 1984, Chuck Hull of 3D Systems Corporation[12] filed his own patent for a stereolithography fabrication system, in which layers are added by curing photopolymers with ultraviolet light lasers. Hull defined the process as a "system for generating three-dimensional objects by creating a cross-sectional pattern of the object to be formed,".[13][14] Hull's contribution was the STL (Stereolithography) file format and the digital slicing and infill strategies common to many processes today.

text: 1988 : The technology used by most 3D printers to date—especially hobbyist and consumer-oriented models—is fused deposition modeling, a special application of plastic extrusion, developed in 1988 by S. Scott Crump and commercialized by his company Stratasys, which marketed its first FDM machine in 1992.

text: 1993 : The term 3D printing originally referred to a powder bed process employing standard and custom inkjet print heads, developed at MIT in 1993 and commercialized by Soligen Technologies, Extrude Hone Corporation, and Z Corporation.

text: 1993 :The year 1993 also saw the start of a company called Solidscape, introducing a high-precision polymer jet fabrication system with soluble support structures, (categorized as a "dot-on-dot" technique).

text: 1995: In 1995 the Fraunhofer_Institute developed the selective laser melting process.

text: AM processes for metal sintering or melting (such as selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, and selective laser melting) usually went by their own individual names in the 1980s and 1990s. At the time, all metalworking was done by processes that we now call non-additive (casting, fabrication, stamping, and machining); although plenty of automation was applied to those technologies (such as by robot welding and CNC), the idea of a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape with a toolpath was associated in metalworking only with processes that removed metal (rather than adding it), such as CNC milling, CNC EDM, and many others. But the automated techniques that added metal, which would later be called additive manufacturing, were beginning to challenge that assumption. By the mid-1990s, new techniques for material deposition were developed at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University, including microcasting[15] and sprayed materials.[16] Sacrificial and support materials had also become more common, enabling new object geometries.[17]

text: As the various additive processes matured, it became clear that soon metal removal would no longer be the only metalworking process done through a tool or head moving through a 3D work envelope transforming a mass of raw material into a desired shape layer by layer. The 2010s were the first decade in which metal end use parts such as engine brackets[18] and large nuts[19] would be grown (either before or instead of machining) in job production rather than obligately being machined from bar stock or plate. It is still the case that casting, fabrication, stamping, and machining are more prevalent than AM in metalworking, but AM is now beginning to make significant inroads, and with the advantages of design for additive manufacturing, it is clear to engineers that much more is to come.

text: As technology matured, several authors had begun to speculate that 3D printing could aid in sustainable development in the developing world.[20][21]

text: 2009: Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printing process patents expired in 2009.[22]

text: General principles[edit]

text: Modeling[edit]

text: 3D printable models may be created with a computer-aided design (CAD) package, via a 3D scanner, or by a plain digital camera and photogrammetry software. 3D printed models created with CAD result in reduced errors and can be corrected before printing, allowing verification in the design of the object before it is printed.[23] The manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D scanning is a process of collecting digital data on the shape and appearance of a real object, creating a digital model based on it.

text: Printing[edit]

text: Before printing a 3D model from an STL file, it must first be examined for errors. Most CAD applications produce errors in output STL files,[24][25] of the following types:

text:
holes;
faces normals;
self-intersections;
noise shells;
manifold errors.[26]

tag: ol

text: A step in the STL generation known as "repair" fixes such problems in the original model.[27][28] Generally STLs that have been produced from a model obtained through 3D scanning often have more of these errors.[29] This is due to how 3D scanning works-as it is often by point to point acquisition, reconstruction will include errors in most cases.[30]

text: Once completed, the STL file needs to be processed by a piece of software called a "slicer," which converts the model into a series of thin layers and produces a G-code file containing instructions tailored to a specific type of 3D printer (FDM printers).[citation needed] This G-code file can then be printed with 3D printing client software (which loads the G-code, and uses it to instruct the 3D printer during the 3D printing process).

text: Printer resolution describes layer thickness and X–Y resolution in dots per inch (dpi) or micrometers (µm). Typical layer thickness is around 100 μm (250 DPI), although some machines can print layers as thin as 16 μm (1,600 DPI).[31] X–Y resolution is comparable to that of laser printers. The particles (3D dots) are around 50 to 100 μm (510 to 250 DPI) in diameter.[citation needed] For that printer resolution, specifying a mesh resolution of 0.01–0.03 mm and a chord length ≤ 0.016 mm generate an optimal STL output file for a given model input file.[32] Specifying higher resolution results in larger files without increase in print quality.

text: Construction of a model with contemporary methods can take anywhere from several hours to several days, depending on the method used and the size and complexity of the model. Additive systems can typically reduce this time to a few hours, although it varies widely depending on the type of machine used and the size and number of models being produced simultaneously.[33]

text: Traditional techniques like injection moulding can be less expensive for manufacturing polymer products in high quantities, but additive manufacturing can be faster, more flexible and less expensive when producing relatively small quantities of parts. 3D printers give designers and concept development teams the ability to produce parts and concept models using a desktop size printer.[34]

text: Seemingly paradoxic, more complex objects can be cheaper for 3D printing production than less complex objects.[citation needed]

text: Finishing[edit]

text: Though the printer-produced resolution is sufficient for many applications, printing a slightly oversized version of the desired object in standard resolution and then removing material[35] with a higher-resolution subtractive process can achieve greater precision.

text: The layered structure of all AM processes leads involuntarily to a strain-stepping effect on part surfaces which are curved or tilted in respect to the building platform. The effects strongly depend on the orientation of a part surface inside the building process.[36]

text: Some printable polymers such as ABS, allow the surface finish to be smoothed and improved using chemical vapor processes[37] based on acetone or similar solvents.

text: Some additive manufacturing techniques are capable of using multiple materials in the course of constructing parts. These techniques are able to print in multiple colors and color combinations simultaneously, and would not necessarily require painting.

text: Some printing techniques require internal supports to be built for overhanging features during construction. These supports must be mechanically removed or dissolved upon completion of the print.

text: All of the commercialized metal 3D printers involve cutting the metal component off the metal substrate after deposition. A new process for the GMAW 3D printing allows for substrate surface modifications to remove aluminum[38] or steel.[39]

text: Processes and printers[edit]

text: This section should include only a brief summary of 3D printing processes. See Wikipedia:Summary style for information on how to properly incorporate it into this article's main text. (August 2017)

tag: table

text: A large number of additive processes are available. The main differences between processes are in the way layers are deposited to create parts and in the materials that are used. Each method has its own advantages and drawbacks, which is why some companies offer a choice of powder and polymer for the material used to build the object.[40] Others sometimes use standard, off-the-shelf business paper as the build material to produce a durable prototype. The main considerations in choosing a machine are generally speed, costs of the 3D printer, of the printed prototype, choice and cost of the materials, and color capabilities.[41] Printers that work directly with metals are generally expensive. However less expensive printers can be used to make a mold, which is then used to make metal parts.[42]

text: ISO/ASTM52900-15 defines seven categories of Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes within its meaning: binder jetting, directed energy deposition, material extrusion, material jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, and vat photopolymerization.[43]

text: Some methods melt or soften the material to produce the layers. In Fused filament fabrication, also known as Fused deposition modeling (FDM), the model or part is produced by extruding small beads or streams of material which harden immediately to form layers. A filament of thermoplastic, metal wire, or other material is fed into an extrusion nozzle head (3D printer extruder), which heats the material and turns the flow on and off. FDM is somewhat restricted in the variation of shapes that may be fabricated. Another technique fuses parts of the layer and then moves upward in the working area, adding another layer of granules and repeating the process until the piece has built up. This process uses the unfused media to support overhangs and thin walls in the part being produced, which reduces the need for temporary auxiliary supports for the piece.[44]

text: Laser sintering techniques include selective laser sintering, with both metals and polymers, and direct metal laser sintering.[45] Selective laser melting does not use sintering for the fusion of powder granules but will completely melt the powder using a high-energy laser to create fully dense materials in a layer-wise method that has mechanical properties similar to those of conventional manufactured metals. Electron beam melting is a similar type of additive manufacturing technology for metal parts (e.g. titanium alloys). EBM manufactures parts by melting metal powder layer by layer with an electron beam in a high vacuum.[46][47] Another method consists of an inkjet 3D printing system, which creates the model one layer at a time by spreading a layer of powder (plaster, or resins) and printing a binder in the cross-section of the part using an inkjet-like process. With laminated object manufacturing, thin layers are cut to shape and joined together.

text: Other methods cure liquid materials using different sophisticated technologies, such as stereolithography. Photopolymerization is primarily used in stereolithography to produce a solid part from a liquid. Inkjet printer systems like the Objet PolyJet system spray photopolymer materials onto a build tray in ultra-thin layers (between 16 and 30 µm) until the part is completed. Each photopolymer layer is cured with UV light after it is jetted, producing fully cured models that can be handled and used immediately, without post-curing. Ultra-small features can be made with the 3D micro-fabrication technique used in multiphoton photopolymerisation. Due to the nonlinear nature of photo excitation, the gel is cured to a solid only in the places where the laser was focused while the remaining gel is then washed away. Feature sizes of under 100 nm are easily produced, as well as complex structures with moving and interlocked parts.[48] Yet another approach uses a synthetic resin that is solidified using LEDs.[49]

text: In Mask-image-projection-based stereolithography, a 3D digital model is sliced by a set of horizontal planes. Each slice is converted into a two-dimensional mask image. The mask image is then projected onto a photocurable liquid resin surface and light is projected onto the resin to cure it in the shape of the layer.[50] Continuous liquid interface production begins with a pool of liquid photopolymer resin. Part of the pool bottom is transparent to ultraviolet light (the "window"), which causes the resin to solidify. The object rises slowly enough to allow resin to flow under and maintain contact with the bottom of the object.[51] In powder-fed directed-energy deposition, a high-power laser is used to melt metal powder supplied to the focus of the laser beam. The powder fed directed energy process is similar to Selective Laser Sintering, but the metal powder is applied only where material is being added to the part at that moment.[52][53]

text: As of December 2017, additive manufacturing systems were on the market that ranged from $99 to $500,000 in price and were employed in industries including aerospace, architecture, automotive, defense, and medical replacements, among many others. For example, General Electric uses the high-end model to build parts for turbines.[54] Many of these systems are used for rapid prototyping, before mass production methods are employed. Higher education has proven to be a major buyer of desktop and professional 3D printers which industry experts generally view as a positive indicator.[55] Libraries around the world have also become locations to house smaller 3D printers for educational and community access.[56] Several projects and companies are making efforts to develop affordable 3D printers for home desktop use. Much of this work has been driven by and targeted at DIY/Maker/enthusiast/early adopter communities, with additional ties to the academic and hacker communities.[57]

text: Applications[edit]

text: In the current scenario, 3D printing or AM has been used in manufacturing, medical, industry and sociocultural sectors which facilitate 3D printing or AM to become successful commercial technology.[58] The earliest application of additive manufacturing was on the toolroom end of the manufacturing spectrum. For example, rapid prototyping was one of the earliest additive variants, and its mission was to reduce the lead time and cost of developing prototypes of new parts and devices, which was earlier only done with subtractive toolroom methods such as CNC milling, turning, and precision grinding.[59] In the 2010s, additive manufacturing entered production to a much greater extent.

text: Additive manufacturing of food is being developed by squeezing out food, layer by layer, into three-dimensional objects. A large variety of foods are appropriate candidates, such as chocolate and candy, and flat foods such as crackers, pasta,[60] and pizza.[61][62]

text: 3D printing has entered the world of clothing, with fashion designers experimenting with 3D-printed bikinis, shoes, and dresses.[63] In commercial production Nike is using 3D printing to prototype and manufacture the 2012 Vapor Laser Talon football shoe for players of American football, and New Balance is 3D manufacturing custom-fit shoes for athletes.[63][64] 3D printing has come to the point where companies are printing consumer grade eyewear with on-demand custom fit and styling (although they cannot print the lenses). On-demand customization of glasses is possible with rapid prototyping.[65]

text: Vanessa Friedman, fashion director and chief fashion critic at The New York Times, says 3D printing will have a significant value for fashion companies down the road, especially if it transforms into a print-it-yourself tool for shoppers. "There's real sense that this is not going to happen anytime soon," she says, "but it will happen, and it will create dramatic change in how we think both about intellectual property and how things are in the supply chain." She adds: "Certainly some of the fabrications that brands can use will be dramatically changed by technology."[66]

text: In cars, trucks, and aircraft, AM is beginning to transform both (1) unibody and fuselage design and production and (2) powertrain design and production. For example:

text:
In early 2014, Swedish supercar manufacturer Koenigsegg announced the One:1, a supercar that utilizes many components that were 3D printed.[67] Urbee is the name of the first car in the world car mounted using the technology 3D printing (its bodywork and car windows were "printed").[68][69][70]
In 2014, Local Motors debuted Strati, a functioning vehicle that was entirely 3D Printed using ABS plastic and carbon fiber, except the powertrain.[71] In May 2015 Airbus announced that its new Airbus A350 XWB included over 1000 components manufactured by 3D printing.[72]
In 2015, a Royal Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon fighter jet flew with printed parts. The United States Air Force has begun to work with 3D printers, and the Israeli Air Force has also purchased a 3D printer to print spare parts.[73]
In 2017, GE Aviation revealed that it had used design for additive manufacturing to create a helicopter engine with 16 parts instead of 900, with great potential impact on reducing the complexity of supply chains.[74]

tag: ul

text: AM's impact on firearms involves two dimensions: new manufacturing methods for established companies, and new possibilities for the making of do-it-yourself firearms. In 2012, the US-based group Defense Distributed disclosed plans to design a working plastic 3D printed firearm "that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer."[75][76] After Defense Distributed released their plans, questions were raised regarding the effects that 3D printing and widespread consumer-level CNC machining[77][78] may have on gun control effectiveness.[79][80][81][82]

text: Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a history beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical modeling for bony reconstructive surgery planning.[83] Patient-matched implants were a natural extension of this work, leading to truly personalized implants that fit one unique individual.[84] Virtual planning of surgery and guidance using 3D printed, personalized instruments have been applied to many areas of surgery including total joint replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with great success.[85] One example of this is the bioresorbable trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchomalacia [86] developed at the University of Michigan. The use of additive manufacturing for serialized production of orthopedic implants (metals) is also increasing due to the ability to efficiently create porous surface structures that facilitate osseointegration. The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D printing technology.[87]

text: In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident.[88] As of 2012[update], 3D bio-printing technology has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems.[89] Recently, a heart-on-chip has been created which matches properties of cells.[90]

text: In 2005, academic journals had begun to report on the possible artistic applications of 3D printing technology.[91] As of 2017, domestic 3D printing was reaching a consumer audience beyond hobbyists and enthusiasts. Off the shelf machines were incerasingly capable of producing practical household applications, for example, ornamental objects. Some practical examples include a working clock[92] and gears printed for home woodworking machines among other purposes.[93] Web sites associated with home 3D printing tended to include backscratchers, coat hooks, door knobs, etc.[94]

text: 3D printing, and open source 3D printers in particular, are the latest technology making inroads into the classroom.[95][96][97] Some authors have claimed that 3D printers offer an unprecedented "revolution" in STEM education.[98] The evidence for such claims comes from both the low cost ability for rapid prototyping in the classroom by students, but also the fabrication of low-cost high-quality scientific equipment from open hardware designs forming open-source labs.[99] Future applications for 3D printing might include creating open-source scientific equipment.[99][100]

text: In the last several years 3D printing has been intensively used by in the cultural heritage field for preservation, restoration and dissemination purposes.[101] Many Europeans and North American Museums have purchased 3D printers and actively recreate missing pieces of their relics.[102] The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the British Museum have started using their 3D printers to create museum souvenirs that are available in the museum shops.[103] Other museums, like the National Museum of Military History and Varna Historical Museum, have gone further and sell through the online platform Threeding digital models of their artifacts, created using Artec 3D scanners, in 3D printing friendly file format, which everyone can 3D print at home.[104]

text: 3D printed soft actuators is a growing application of 3D printing technology which has found its place in the 3D printing applications. These soft actuators are being developed to deal with soft structures and organs especially in biomedical sectors and where the interaction between human and robot is inevitable. The majority of the existing soft actuators are fabricated by conventional methods that require manual fabrication of devices, post processing/assembly, and lengthy iterations until maturity in the fabrication is achieved. To avoid the tedious and time-consuming aspects of the current fabrication processes, researchers are exploring an appropriate manufacturing approach for effective fabrication of soft actuators. Thus, 3D printed soft actuators are introduced to revolutionise the design and fabrication of soft actuators with custom geometrical, functional, and control properties in a faster and inexpensive approach. They also enable incorporation of all actuator components into a single structure eliminating the need to use external joints, adhesives, and fasteners.[105]

text: Legal aspects[edit]

text: Intellectual property[edit]

text: 3D printing has existed for decades within certain manufacturing industries where many legal regimes, including patents, industrial design rights, copyright, and trademark may apply. However, there is not much jurisprudence to say how these laws will apply if 3D printers become mainstream and individuals and hobbyist communities begin manufacturing items for personal use, for non-profit distribution, or for sale.

text: Any of the mentioned legal regimes may prohibit the distribution of the designs used in 3D printing, or the distribution or sale of the printed item. To be allowed to do these things, where an active intellectual property was involved, a person would have to contact the owner and ask for a licence, which may come with conditions and a price. However, many patent, design and copyright laws contain a standard limitation or exception for 'private', 'non-commercial' use of inventions, designs or works of art protected under intellectual property (IP). That standard limitation or exception may leave such private, non-commercial uses outside the scope of IP rights.

text: Patents cover inventions including processes, machines, manufactures, and compositions of matter and have a finite duration which varies between countries, but generally 20 years from the date of application. Therefore, if a type of wheel is patented, printing, using, or selling such a wheel could be an infringement of the patent.[106]

text: Copyright covers an expression[107] in a tangible, fixed medium and often lasts for the life of the author plus 70 years thereafter.[108] If someone makes a statue, they may have copyright on the look of that statue, so if someone sees that statue, they cannot then distribute designs to print an identical or similar statue.

text: When a feature has both artistic (copyrightable) and functional (patentable) merits, when the question has appeared in US court, the courts have often held the feature is not copyrightable unless it can be separated from the functional aspects of the item.[108] In other countries the law and the courts may apply a different approach allowing, for example, the design of a useful device to be registered (as a whole) as an industrial design on the understanding that, in case of unauthorized copying, only the non-functional features may be claimed under design law whereas any technical features could only be claimed if covered by a valid patent.

text: Gun legislation and administration[edit]

text: The US Department of Homeland Security and the Joint Regional Intelligence Center released a memo stating that "significant advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing capabilities, availability of free digital 3D printable files for firearms components, and difficulty regulating file sharing may present public safety risks from unqualified gun seekers who obtain or manufacture 3D printed guns" and that "proposed legislation to ban 3D printing of weapons may deter, but cannot completely prevent, their production. Even if the practice is prohibited by new legislation, online distribution of these 3D printable files will be as difficult to control as any other illegally traded music, movie or software files."[109]

text: Attempting to restrict the distribution of gun plans via the Internet has been likened to the futility of preventing the widespread distribution of DeCSS, which enabled DVD ripping.[110][111][112][113] After the US government had Defense Distributed take down the plans, they were still widely available via the Pirate Bay and other file sharing sites.[114] Downloads of the plans from the UK, Germany, Spain, and Brazil were heavy.[115][116] Some US legislators have proposed regulations on 3D printers to prevent them from being used for printing guns.[117][118] 3D printing advocates have suggested that such regulations would be futile, could cripple the 3D printing industry, and could infringe on free speech rights, with early pioneer of 3D printing Professor Hod Lipson suggesting that gunpowder could be controlled instead.[119][120][121][122][123][124][125]

text: Internationally, where gun controls are generally stricter than in the United States, some commentators have said the impact may be more strongly felt since alternative firearms are not as easily obtainable.[126] Officials in the United Kingdom have noted that producing a 3D printed gun would be illegal under their gun control laws.[127] Europol stated that criminals have access to other sources of weapons but noted that as technology improves, the risks of an effect would increase.[128][129]

text: Aerospace regulation[edit]

text: In the United States, the FAA has anticipated a desire to use additive manufacturing techniques and has been considering how best to regulate this process.[130] The FAA has jurisdiction over such fabrication because all aircraft parts must be made under FAA production approval or under other FAA regulatory categories.[131] In December 2016, the FAA approved the production of a 3D printed fuel nozzle for the GE LEAP engine.[132] Aviation attorney Jason Dickstein has suggested that additive manufacturing is merely a production method, and should be regulated like any other production method.[133][134] He has suggested that the FAA's focus should be on guidance to explain compliance, rather than on changing the existing rules, and that existing regulations and guidance permit a company "to develop a robust quality system that adequately reflects regulatory needs for quality assurance."[133] As of January 2018

text: Health and safety[edit]

text: Research on the health and safety concerns of 3D printing is new and in development due to the recent proliferation of 3D printing devices. In 2017 the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has published a discussion paper on the processes and materials involved in 3D printing, potential implications of this technology for occupational safety and health and avenues for controlling potential hazards.[135] Most concerns involve gas and material exposures, in particular nanomaterials, material handling, static electricity, moving parts and pressures.[136]

text: A National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) study noted particle emissions from a fused filament peaked a few minutes after printing started and returned to baseline levels 100 minutes after printing ended.[137] Emissions from fused filament printers can include a large number of ultrafine particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).[137][138][139]

text: The toxicity from emissions varies by source material due to differences in size, chemical properties, and quantity of emitted particles.[137] Excessive exposure to VOCs can lead to irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, headache, loss of coordination, and nausea and some of the chemical emissions of fused filament printers have also been linked to asthma.[137][140] Based on animal studies, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers sometimes used in fused filament printing can cause pulmonary effects including inflammation, granulomas, and pulmonary fibrosis when at the nanoparticle size.[141]

text: Carbon nanoparticle emissions and processes using powder metals are highly combustible and raise the risk of dust explosions.[142] At least one case of severe injury was noted from an explosion involved in metal powders used for fused filament printing.[143] Other general health and safety concerns include the hot surface of UV lamps and print head blocks, high voltage, ultraviolet radiation from UV lamps, and potential for mechanical injury from moving parts.[144]

text: The problems noted in the NIOSH report were reduced by using manufacturer-supplied covers and full enclosures, using proper ventilation, keeping workers away from the printer, using respirators, turning off the printer if it jammed, and using lower emission printers and filaments.[137] At least one case of severe injury was noted from an explosion involved in metal powders used for fused filament.[137] Personal protective equipment has been found to be the least desirable control method with a recommendation that it only be used to add further protection in combination with approved emissions protection.[137]

text: Hazards to health and safety also exist from post-processing activities done to finish parts after they have been printed. These post-processing activities can include chemical baths, sanding, polishing, or vapor exposure to refine surface finish, as well as general subtractive manufacturing techniques such as drilling, milling, or turning to modify the printed geometry.[145] Any technique that removes material from the printed part has the potential to generate particles that can be inhaled or cause eye injury if proper personal protective equipment is not used, such as respirators or safety glasses. Caustic baths are often used to dissolve support material used by some 3D printers that allows them to print more complex shapes. These baths require personal protective equipment to prevent injury to exposed skin.[144]

text: Health regulation[edit]

text: Although no occupational exposure limits specific to 3D printer emissions exist, certain source materials used in 3D printing, such as carbon nanofiber and carbon nanotubes, have established occupational exposure limits at the nanoparticle size.[146][137]

text: Impact[edit]

text: Additive manufacturing, starting with today's infancy period, requires manufacturing firms to be flexible, ever-improving users of all available technologies to remain competitive. Advocates of additive manufacturing also predict that this arc of technological development will counter globalization, as end users will do much of their own manufacturing rather than engage in trade to buy products from other people and corporations.[6] The real integration of the newer additive technologies into commercial production, however, is more a matter of complementing traditional subtractive methods rather than displacing them entirely.[147]

text: The futurologist Jeremy Rifkin[148] claimed that 3D printing signals the beginning of a third industrial revolution,[149] succeeding the production line assembly that dominated manufacturing starting in the late 19th century.

text: Social change[edit]

text: Since the 1950s, a number of writers and social commentators have speculated in some depth about the social and cultural changes that might result from the advent of commercially affordable additive manufacturing technology.[150] Amongst the more notable ideas to have emerged from these inquiries has been the suggestion that, as more and more 3D printers start to enter people's homes, the conventional relationship between the home and the workplace might get further eroded.[151] Likewise, it has also been suggested that, as it becomes easier for businesses to transmit designs for new objects around the globe, so the need for high-speed freight services might also become less.[152] Finally, given the ease with which certain objects can now be replicated, it remains to be seen whether changes will be made to current copyright legislation so as to protect intellectual property rights with the new technology widely available.

text: As 3D printers became more accessible to consumers, online social platforms have developed to support the community.[153] This includes websites that allow users to access information such as how to build a 3D printer, as well as social forums that discuss how to improve 3D print quality and discuss 3D printing news, as well as social media websites that are dedicated to share 3D models.[154][155][156] RepRap is a wiki based website that was created to hold all information on 3d printing, and has developed into a community that aims to bring 3D printing to everyone. Furthermore, there are other sites such as Pinshape, Thingiverse and MyMiniFactory, which were created initially to allow users to post 3D files for anyone to print, allowing for decreased transaction cost of sharing 3D files. These websites have allowed greater social interaction between users, creating communities dedicated to 3D printing.

text: Some call attention to the conjunction of Commons-based peer production with 3D printing and other low-cost manufacturing techniques.[157][158][159] The self-reinforced fantasy of a system of eternal growth can be overcome with the development of economies of scope, and here, society can play an important role contributing to the raising of the whole productive structure to a higher plateau of more sustainable and customized productivity.[157] Further, it is true that many issues, problems, and threats arise due to the democratization of the means of production, and especially regarding the physical ones.[157] For instance, the recyclability of advanced nanomaterials is still questioned; weapons manufacturing could become easier; not to mention the implications for counterfeiting[160] and on IP.[161] It might be maintained that in contrast to the industrial paradigm whose competitive dynamics were about economies of scale, Commons-based peer production 3D printing could develop economies of scope. While the advantages of scale rest on cheap global transportation, the economies of scope share infrastructure costs (intangible and tangible productive resources), taking advantage of the capabilities of the fabrication tools.[157] And following Neil Gershenfeld[162] in that "some of the least developed parts of the world need some of the most advanced technologies," Commons-based peer production and 3D printing may offer the necessary tools for thinking globally but acting locally in response to certain needs.

text: Larry Summers wrote about the "devastating consequences" of 3D printing and other technologies (robots, artificial intelligence, etc.) for those who perform routine tasks. In his view, "already there are more American men on disability insurance than doing production work in manufacturing. And the trends are all in the wrong direction, particularly for the less skilled, as the capacity of capital embodying artificial intelligence to replace white-collar as well as blue-collar work will increase rapidly in the years ahead." Summers recommends more vigorous cooperative efforts to address the "myriad devices" (e.g., tax havens, bank secrecy, money laundering, and regulatory arbitrage) enabling the holders of great wealth to "avoid paying" income and estate taxes, and to make it more difficult to accumulate great fortunes without requiring "great social contributions" in return, including: more vigorous enforcement of anti-monopoly laws, reductions in "excessive" protection for intellectual property, greater encouragement of profit-sharing schemes that may benefit workers and give them a stake in wealth accumulation, strengthening of collective bargaining arrangements, improvements in corporate governance, strengthening of financial regulation to eliminate subsidies to financial activity, easing of land-use restrictions that may cause the real estate of the rich to keep rising in value, better training for young people and retraining for displaced workers, and increased public and private investment in infrastructure development—e.g., in energy production and transportation.[163]

text: Michael Spence wrote that "Now comes a … powerful, wave of digital technology that is replacing labor in increasingly complex tasks. This process of labor substitution and disintermediation has been underway for some time in service sectors—think of ATMs, online banking, enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, mobile payment systems, and much more. This revolution is spreading to the production of goods, where robots and 3D printing are displacing labor." In his view, the vast majority of the cost of digital technologies comes at the start, in the design of hardware (e.g. 3D printers) and, more important, in creating the software that enables machines to carry out various tasks. "Once this is achieved, the marginal cost of the hardware is relatively low (and declines as scale rises), and the marginal cost of replicating the software is essentially zero. With a huge potential global market to amortize the upfront fixed costs of design and testing, the incentives to invest [in digital technologies] are compelling."[164]

text: Spence believes that, unlike prior digital technologies, which drove firms to deploy underutilized pools of valuable labor around the world, the motivating force in the current wave of digital technologies "is cost reduction via the replacement of labor." For example, as the cost of 3D printing technology declines, it is "easy to imagine" that production may become "extremely" local and customized. Moreover, production may occur in response to actual demand, not anticipated or forecast demand. Spence believes that labor, no matter how inexpensive, will become a less important asset for growth and employment expansion, with labor-intensive, process-oriented manufacturing becoming less effective, and that re-localization will appear in both developed and developing countries. In his view, production will not disappear, but it will be less labor-intensive, and all countries will eventually need to rebuild their growth models around digital technologies and the human capital supporting their deployment and expansion. Spence writes that "the world we are entering is one in which the most powerful global flows will be ideas and digital capital, not goods, services, and traditional capital. Adapting to this will require shifts in mindsets, policies, investments (especially in human capital), and quite possibly models of employment and distribution."[164]

text: Naomi Wu regards the usage of 3D printing in the Chinese classroom (where rote memorization is standard) to teach design principles and creativity as the most exciting recent development of the technology, and more generally regards 3D printing as being the next desktop publishing revolution.[165]


document_title: List of the verified oldest men

question_text: who is the oldest man who ever lived

question_tokens: who is the oldest man who ever lived

text: List of the verified oldest men

text: This is a list of the 100 verified oldest men, arranged in descending order of each individual's age in years and days. A year typically refers to a calendar year, the time between two dates of the same name. However, years can be of different lengths due to the presence or absence of a leap day within the year, or to the conversion of dates from one calendar to another.

text: The oldest man ever whose age has been verified is Jiroemon Kimura (1897–2013) of Japan, who died at the age of 116 years, 54 days.

text: There are two living men on this list, the older of whom is Masazou Nonaka of Japan, aged 112 years, 309 days.

text: Since all the men on this list have lived to at least the age of 110, all of them have been, or still are, supercentenarians.

text: 100 verified oldest men

text:
Deceased   Living
†^ denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of 30 May 2018

text:
Rank
Name
Birth date
Death date
Age [†]
Place of death or residence

1
Jiroemon Kimura[1]
19 April 1897
12 June 2013
116 years, 54 days
Japan

2
Christian Mortensen[1]
16 August 1882
25 April 1998
115 years, 252 days
United States[a]

3
Emiliano Mercado del Toro[1]
21 August 1891
24 January 2007
115 years, 156 days
Puerto Rico

4
Mathew Beard[1]
9 July 1870
16 February 1985
114 years, 222 days
United States

5
Walter Breuning[1]
21 September 1896
14 April 2011
114 years, 205 days
United States

6
Yukichi Chuganji[1]
23 March 1889
28 September 2003
114 years, 189 days
Japan

7
Joan Riudavets[1]
15 December 1889
5 March 2004
114 years, 81 days
Spain

8
Fred Hale[1]
1 December 1890
19 November 2004
113 years, 354 days
United States

9
Yisrael Kristal[2]
15 September 1903
11 August 2017
113 years, 330 days
Israel[b]

10
Johnson Parks[1]
15 October 1884
17 July 1998
113 years, 275 days
United States

11
Tomoji Tanabe[1]
18 September 1895
19 June 2009
113 years, 274 days
Japan

12
John Ingram McMorran[1]
19 June 1889
24 February 2003
113 years, 250 days
United States

13
Frederick Frazier[1]
27 January 1880
14 June 1993
113 years, 138 days
United States

14
James Sisnett[1]
22 February 1900
23 May 2013
113 years, 90 days
Barbados[c]

15
Walter Richardson[1]
7 November 1885
25 December 1998
113 years, 48 days
United States

16
Francisco Núñez Olivera[2]
13 December 1904
29 January 2018
113 years, 47 days
Spain

17
Henry Allingham[1]
6 June 1896
18 July 2009
113 years, 42 days
United Kingdom

18
Antonio Todde[1]
22 January 1889
3 January 2002
112 years, 346 days
Italy

19
Moses Hardy[1]
6 January 1894
7 December 2006
112 years, 335 days
United States

20
Yasutaro Koide[3]
13 March 1903
19 January 2016
7004412200000000000♠112 years, 312 days
Japan

21
Masazou Nonaka[2]
25 July 1905
Living
7004412170000000000♠112 years, 309 days
Japan

22
John Evans[1]
19 August 1877
10 June 1990
112 years, 295 days
United Kingdom

23
George Francis[1]
6 June 1896
27 December 2008
112 years, 204 days
United States

24
Denzo Ishizaki[1]
20 October 1886
29 April 1999
112 years, 191 days
Japan

25
Josep Armengol[1]
23 July 1881
20 January 1994
112 years, 181 days
Spain

26
Giovanni Frau[1]
29 December 1890
19 June 2003
112 years, 172 days
Italy

27
John Painter[1]
20 September 1888
1 March 2001
112 years, 162 days
United States

28
Masamitsu Yoshida[2]
30 May 1904
29 October 2016
112 years, 152 days
Japan

29
Sakari Momoi[2]
5 February 1903
5 July 2015
112 years, 150 days
Japan

30
Alphaeus Philemon Cole[1]
12 July 1876
25 November 1988
112 years, 136 days
United States

31
Augusto Moreira[1]
6 October 1896
13 February 2009
112 years, 130 days
Portugal

32
George Johnson[1]
1 May 1894
30 August 2006
112 years, 121 days
United States

33
Salustiano Sanchez[1]
8 June 1901
13 September 2013
112 years, 97 days
United States[d]

34
Gengan Tonaki[1]
30 October 1884
24 January 1997
112 years, 86 days
Japan

35
Tadanosuke Hashimoto[1]
27 April 1891
31 May 2003
112 years, 34 days
Japan

36
Kumekichi Tani[1]
20 April 1891
12 May 2003
112 years, 22 days
Japan

37
Richard Arvin Overton[2]
11 May 1906
Living
7004409270000000000♠112 years, 19 days
United States

38
James Wiggins[1]
15 October 1879
16 October 1991
112 years, 1 day
United States

39
Arturo Licata[1]
2 May 1902
24 April 2014
111 years, 357 days
Italy

40
Walter H. Seward[1]
13 October 1896
14 September 2008
111 years, 337 days
United States

41
Maurice Floquet[1]
25 December 1894
10 November 2006
111 years, 320 days
France

42
James McCoubrey[1]
13 September 1901
5 July 2013
111 years, 295 days
United States[e]

43
John Mosely Turner[1]
15 June 1856
21 March 1968
111 years, 280 days
United Kingdom

44
Hermann Dörnemann[1]
27 May 1893
2 March 2005
111 years, 279 days
Germany

45
Antonio Urrea[1]
18 February 1888
15 November 1999
111 years, 270 days
Spain

46
Choki Miyagi[2]
15 November 1904
7 August 2016
111 years, 266 days
Japan

47
Arthur Carter[1]
5 October 1889
11 June 2001
111 years, 249 days
United States

48
Jan Machiel Reyskens[1]
11 May 1878
7 January 1990
111 years, 241 days
Netherlands[f]

49
Joe Thomas[1]
1 May 1875
14 December 1986
111 years, 227 days
United States

50
James Zackry[1]
15 August 1881
14 March 1993
111 years, 211 days
United States

51
Tanekichi Onishi[1]
15 February 1900
11 September 2011
111 years, 208 days
Japan

52
Kiyoshi Igarashi[1]
2 August 1897
23 February 2009
111 years, 205 days
Japan

53
Herman Smith-Johannsen[1]
15 June 1875
5 January 1987
111 years, 204 days
Norway

54
Ernest Pusey[1]
5 May 1895
19 November 2006
111 years, 198 days
United States

55
Thomas Nelson, Sr.[1]
8 July 1895
9 January 2007
111 years, 185 days
United States

56
Jokichi Ikarashi[1]
26 January 1902
23 July 2013
111 years, 178 days
Japan

57
Earl Brush[1]
17 July 1893
10 January 2005
111 years, 177 days
United States

58
Antonio de Castro[1]
6 January 1898
22 June 2009
111 years, 167 days
Portugal

59
Sukesaburo Nakanishi[1]
15 March 1896
22 August 2007
111 years, 160 days
Japan

60
Luther Goding[1]
1 July 1884
5 December 1995
111 years, 157 days
United States

61
Jan Pieter Bos[1]
12 July 1891
15 December 2002
111 years, 156 days
Netherlands

62
Emile Fourcade[1]
29 July 1884
29 December 1995
111 years, 153 days
France[g]

63
Benjamin Harrison Holcomb[1]
3 July 1889
2 December 2000
111 years, 152 days
United States

64
Aarne Arvonen[1]
4 August 1897
1 January 2009
111 years, 150 days
Finland[h]

65
George Frederick Ives[1]
17 November 1881
12 April 1993
111 years, 146 days
Canada[i]

66
Jan Goossenaerts[1]
30 October 1900
21 March 2012
111 years, 143 days
Belgium

67
Garland Adair[1]
30 July 1898
11 December 2009
111 years, 134 days
United States

68
Anders Engberg[1]
1 July 1892
6 November 2003
111 years, 128 days
Sweden

69
Alexander Imich[1]
4 February 1903
8 June 2014
111 years, 124 days
United States[j]

70
Jack Lockett[1]
22 January 1891
25 May 2002
111 years, 123 days
Australia[k]

71
Henry Hartmann[1]
14 July 1894
10 November 2005
111 years, 119 days
United States

72
Shelby Harris[1]
31 March 1901
25 July 2012
111 years, 116 days
United States

73
Daniel Guzmán-García[1]
6 February 1897
21 May 2008
111 years, 105 days
Colombia

74
Sadayoshi Tanabe[1]
20 October 1888
18 January 2000
111 years, 90 days
Japan

75
Makaru Nakanishi[1]
15 December 1901
28 February 2013
111 years, 75 days
Japan

76
Henry Pfeiffer[1]
22 March 1881
23 May 1992
111 years, 62 days
United States

77
Zachariah Blackistone[1]
16 February 1871
18 April 1982
111 years, 61 days
United States

78
Antonio Baldo[1]
6 July 1887
28 August 1998
111 years, 53 days
Italy

79
Edward Bernard[1]
22 June 1889
11 August 2000
111 years, 50 days
United States

80
Francisco Fernández[1]
24 July 1901
7 September 2012
111 years, 45 days
Spain

81
Norio Kawada[1]
25 April 1892
6 June 2003
111 years, 42 days
Japan

82
Kama Nakasone[1]
23 November 1891
1 January 2003
111 years, 39 days
Japan

83
Harry Patch[1]
17 June 1898
25 July 2009
111 years, 38 days
United Kingdom

84
Peter Solum[1]
3 May 1882
5 June 1993
111 years, 33 days
United States

85
Masao Kaga[1]
1 June 1902
26 June 2013
111 years, 25 days
Japan

86
Giovanni Ligato[1]
18 February 1901
2 March 2012
111 years, 13 days
Italy

87
Domenico Minervino[1]
10 May 1880
21 May 1991
111 years, 11 days
Italy

88
Nijiro Tokuda[1]
10 June 1895
12 June 2006
111 years, 2 days
Japan

89
Valentino Stella[1]
2 January 1886
1 January 1997
110 years, 365 days
Italy

90
Giichi Okumura[1]
18 October 1896
13 October 2007
110 years, 360 days
Japan

91
Charles Shebanek[1]
9 September 1883
27 August 1994
110 years, 352 days
United States

92
Antonio Pierro[1]
22 February 1896
8 February 2007
110 years, 351 days
United States[l]

93
Carl Berner[1]
27 January 1902
7 January 2013
110 years, 346 days
United States[m]

94
Gregory Pandazes[1]
15 January 1873
22 December 1983
110 years, 341 days
United States[n]

Eiju Tsuru[1]
4 February 1879
11 January 1990
110 years, 341 days
Japan

96
Charlie Nelson[1]
21 September 1867
20 August 1978
110 years, 333 days
United States

Yoshio Nakagawa[1]
19 December 1901
16 November 2012
110 years, 333 days
Japan

98
Masatake Kinoshita[1]
20 August 1897
17 July 2008
110 years, 332 days
Japan

99
Linus Reinhart[1]
28 July 1892
14 June 2003
110 years, 321 days
United States

100
Lloyd Myers[1]
20 March 1892
1 February 2003
110 years, 318 days
United States

text:
a^ Mortensen was born in Denmark.
b^ Kristal was born in Maleniec, which was then a part of the Russian Empire. It is now in Poland.
c^ Sisnett was born in Barbados, which was at the time of his birth a British colony; now it is an independent country.
d^ Sanchez was born in Spain.
e^ McCoubrey was born in Newfoundland, which was then a separate British colony in 1901. It is now a part of Canada.
f^ Reyskens was born in Belgium and never obtained Dutch citizenship.
g^ Fourcade was born in French Algeria; it is now Algeria.
h^ Arvonen was born in Finland, then an autonomous state of the Russian Empire.
i^ Ives was born in the United Kingdom.
j^ Imich was born in Częstochowa, which was then a part of the Russian Empire. It is now in Poland.
k^ Lockett was born in the former British colony Victoria, which is now part of Australia.
l^ Pierro was born in Italy.
m^ Berner was born in Germany.
n^ Pandazes was born in Greece.