document_title: Newspaper endorsements in the United States presidential election, 2012

question_text: who did the washington post endorse for president 2012

text: Barack Obama[edit]

text: The following newspapers endorsed Barack Obama for the 2012 presidential election:

text: Daily newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The New York Times[1]
7006126583900000000♠1,265,839[2]
New York
Barack Obama

Chicago Tribune[3]
7005779440000000000♠779,440[2]
Illinois
Barack Obama

San Jose Mercury News[4]
7005690258000000000♠690,258[2]
California
Barack Obama

Detroit Free Press[5]
7005668332000000000♠668,332[2]
Michigan
Barack Obama

Financial Times US[6]
7005337700000000000♠337,700[2]
United Kingdom
Barack Obama

The Denver Post[7]
7005595363000000000♠595,363[2]
Colorado
Barack Obama

Star Tribune (Minneapolis)[8]
7005544186000000000♠544,186[2]
Minnesota
Barack Obama

The Philadelphia Inquirer[9]
7005517310000000000♠517,310[2]
Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

Los Angeles Times[10]
7005512744000000000♠512,744[2]
California
Barack Obama

The Washington Post[11]
7005507615000000000♠507,615[2]
District of Columbia
Barack Obama

The Plain Dealer (Cleveland)[12]
7005440968000000000♠440,968[2]
Ohio
Barack Obama

Tampa Bay Times (St. Petersburg)[13]
7005432202000000000♠432,202[2]
Florida
Barack Obama

The Star-Ledger[14] (Newark)
7005413472000000000♠413,472[2]
New Jersey
Barack Obama

The Boston Globe[15]
7005365512000000000♠365,512[2]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

San Antonio Express-News[16]
7005353572000000000♠353,572[2]
Texas
Barack Obama

The Seattle Times[17]
7005346589000000000♠346,589[2]
Washington
Barack Obama

St. Louis Post-Dispatch[18]
7005333529000000000♠333,529[2]
Missouri
Barack Obama

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette[19]
7005318962000000000♠318,962[2]
Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

The Kansas City Star[20]
7005310487000000000♠310,487[2]
Missouri
Barack Obama

San Francisco Chronicle[21]
7005296874000000000♠296,874[2]
California
Barack Obama

The Sacramento Bee[22]
7005271610000000000♠271,610[2]
California
Barack Obama

Hartford Courant[23]
7005256900000000000♠256,900[2]
Connecticut
Barack Obama

The San Francisco Examiner[24]
7005255527000000000♠255,527[25]
California
John McCain

Las Vegas Sun[26]
7005252174000000000♠252,174[2][27]
Nevada
Barack Obama

The Buffalo News[28]
7005233069000000000♠233,069[2]
New York
Barack Obama

The Courier-Journal (Louisville)[29]
7005232811000000000♠232,811[2]
Kentucky
Barack Obama

Honolulu Star-Advertiser[30]
7005224973000000000♠224,973[2]
Hawaii
Barack Obama
(Endorsement was from The Honolulu Advertiser in 2008)

The Charlotte Observer[31]
7005216862000000000♠216,862[2]
North Carolina
Barack Obama

The Miami Herald[32]
7005212541000000000♠212,541[2]
Florida
Barack Obama

The News & Observer (Raleigh)[33]
7005196219000000000♠196,219[2]
North Carolina
Barack Obama

The Baltimore Sun[34]
7005195561000000000♠195,561[2]
Maryland
Barack Obama

The Record (Hackensack)[35]
7005167969000000000♠167,969[2]
New Jersey
Barack Obama

Contra Costa Times[36]
7005175535000000000♠175,535[37]
California
Barack Obama

Democrat and Chronicle (Rochester)[38]
7005154922000000000♠154,922[2]
New York
Barack Obama

The Fresno Bee[39]
7005154873000000000♠154,873[2]
California
Barack Obama

Arizona Daily Star (Tucson)[40]
7005154715000000000♠154,715[2]
Arizona
Barack Obama

Asbury Park Press[41]
7005150646000000000♠150,646[2]
New Jersey
Barack Obama

The Salt Lake Tribune[42]
7005140628000000000♠140,628[2]
Utah
Barack Obama

Toledo Blade[43]
7005127953000000000♠127,953[2]
Ohio
Barack Obama

Times Union (Albany)[44]
7005125506000000000♠125,506[2]
New York
Barack Obama

Akron Beacon Journal[45]
7005122598000000000♠122,598[2]
Ohio
Barack Obama

The Providence Journal[46]
7005122377000000000♠122,377[2]
Rhode Island
Barack Obama

The Patriot-News (Harrisburg)[47]
7005118655000000000♠118,655[2]
Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

Lexington Herald-Leader[48]
7005115737000000000♠115,737[2]
Kentucky
Barack Obama

The News Journal (Wilmington)[49]
7005111344000000000♠111,344[2]
Delaware
Barack Obama

The News Tribune (Tacoma)[50]
7005105207000000000♠105,207[2]
Washington
Barack Obama

The Republican (Springfield)[51]
7005103330000000000♠103,330[2]
Massachusetts
John McCain

Philadelphia Daily News[52]

Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

La Opinión (Los Angeles)[53]
7004951480000000000♠95,148[2]
California

El Paso Times[54]
7004919720000000000♠91,972[2]
Texas
John McCain

Ventura County Star[55]
7004804940000000000♠80,494[2]
California

Chattanooga Times Free Press (Times editorial)[56]
7004753360000000000♠75,336[2]
Tennessee
Barack Obama

Winston-Salem Journal[57]
7004740660000000000♠74,066[2]
North Carolina
John McCain

Erie Times-News[58]
7004696590000000000♠69,659[2]
Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

Lincoln Journal Star[59]
7004688160000000000♠68,816[2]
Nebraska
John McCain

The Charleston Gazette[60]
7004666330000000000♠66,633[2]
West Virginia
Barack Obama

The Vindicator (Youngstown)[61]
7004602050000000000♠60,205[2]
Ohio
Barack Obama

Kalamazoo Gazette[62]
7004560790000000000♠56,079[2]
Michigan
No endorsement

Bangor Daily News[63]
7004520930000000000♠52,093[2]
Maine
Barack Obama

The Herald (Everett)[64]
7004507950000000000♠50,795[2]
Washington
No endorsement

Asheville Citizen-Times[65]
7004486530000000000♠48,653[2]
North Carolina
Barack Obama

The Free Lance–Star (Fredricksburg)[66]
7004476650000000000♠47,665[2]
Virginia

The Times-Tribune (Scranton)[67]
7004471310000000000♠47,131[2]
Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

Post-Bulletin (Rochester)[68]

Minnesota
Barack Obama

Montgomery Advertiser[69]
7004440100000000000♠44,010[2]
Alabama
Barack Obama

Staten Island Advance[70]
7004428990000000000♠42,899[2]

The Burlington Free Press[71]
7004352990000000000♠35,299[2]
Vermont
Barack Obama

La Crosse Tribune[72]
7004343390000000000♠34,339[2]
Wisconsin
Barack Obama

Muskegon Chronicle[73]
7004341790000000000♠34,179[2]
Michigan
Barack Obama

Daily Camera (Boulder)[74]
7004327530000000000♠32,753[2]
Colorado
Barack Obama

Marin Independent Journal[75]
7004321500000000000♠32,150[76]
California
Barack Obama

TimesDaily (Florence)[77]

Alabama
Barack Obama

The Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield)[78]
7004262010000000000♠26,201[2]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

The Monterey County Herald[79]
7004260000000000000♠26,000[2]
California
Barack Obama

Mansfield News Journal[80]
7004258930000000000♠25,893[2]
Ohio
Barack Obama

Wausau Daily Herald[81]
7004250600000000000♠25,060[2]
Wisconsin
Barack Obama

Las Cruces Sun-News[82]
7004241670000000000♠24,167[2]
New Mexico
Barack Obama

The Decatur Daily[83]

Alabama
Barack Obama

The Herald (Rock Hill)[84]
7004229480000000000♠22,948[2]
South Carolina
Barack Obama

The Santa Fe New Mexican[85]
7004207810000000000♠20,781[2]
New Mexico
Barack Obama

Valley News (Lebanon)[86]

New Hampshire
Barack Obama

The News Leader (Staunton)[87]
7004161660000000000♠16,166[2]
Virginia
Barack Obama

Chillicothe Gazette[88]
7004100540000000000♠10,054[2]

Del Rio News-Herald[89]

Texas

Oakland Tribune[90]

California
Barack Obama

The Keene Sentinel[91]
7003997800000000000♠9,978[2]
New Hampshire
Barack Obama

The Portsmouth Herald[92]
7003980700000000000♠9,807[2]
New Hampshire
Barack Obama

The Durango Herald[93]

Colorado
Barack Obama

The Daily Astorian[94]
7003800000000000000♠8,000[95]
Oregon
Barack Obama

The Aspen Times[96]
7003900000000000000♠9,000[97]
Colorado
Barack Obama

Post Independent (Glenwood Springs)[98]
7003900000000000000♠9,000[99]
Colorado

The Anniston Star[100]
7004189850000000000♠18,985[2]
Alabama
Barack Obama

AnnArbor.com[101]
7004349230000000000♠34,923[2]
Michigan
No endorsement
(as The Ann Arbor News)

Haaretz (Tel Aviv)[102]
7004950000000000000♠95,000[103]
Israel

The Globe and Mail (Toronto)[104]

Canada

Santa Maria Times (California)[105]
7004179430000000000♠17,943[2]
California
Barack Obama

The Hawk Eye[106]

Iowa
Barack Obama

Stamford Advocate[107]
7004215490000000000♠21,549[2]
Connecticut
Barack Obama

The Enterprise (Brockton)[108]
7004277020000000000♠27,702[2]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

text: Weekly newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The Phoenix[109]

Massachusetts
Barack Obama

The Stranger (Seattle)[110]
7004679990000000000♠67,999[111]
Washington
Barack Obama

Arkansas Times (Little Rock)[112]
7004260330000000000♠26,033[113]
Arkansas
Barack Obama

Aurora Sentinel[114]
7004360000000000000♠36,000[115]
Colorado
Barack Obama

The Flint Journal[116]
7004666220000000000♠66,622[2]
Michigan
Barack Obama

Montclair Times[117]
7003781400000000000♠7,814[118]
New Jersey

Eugene Weekly[119]
7004375760000000000♠37,576[120]
Oregon
Barack Obama

Northwest Asian Weekly (Seattle)[121]
7004250000000000000♠25,000[122]
Washington

The Austin Chronicle[123]
7004827720000000000♠82,772[124]
Texas
Barack Obama

The Capital Times (Madison; 2x weekly)[125]
online
Wisconsin
Barack Obama

St. Louis American[126]
7004660000000000000♠66,000[127]
Missouri
Barack Obama

Falls Church News-Press[128]
7004300000000000000♠30,000
Virginia
Barack Obama

Washington City Paper[129]
7004680590000000000♠68,059[130]
District of Columbia
Barack Obama

Tucson Weekly[131]
7004455830000000000♠45,583[132]
Arizona
Barack Obama

East Bay Express (Oakland)[133]
7004426960000000000♠42,696[134]
California

La Prensa (Toledo)[135]

Ohio

Jackson Free Press[136]
7004170000000000000♠17,000[137]
Mississippi
Barack Obama

Sacramento News & Review[138]
7004705390000000000♠70,539[139]
California
Barack Obama

The Vermont Standard (Woodstock)[140]

Dorchester Reporter[141]
7003600000000000000♠6,000[142]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

City Newspaper (Rochester)[143]
7004400000000000000♠40,000[144]
New York
Barack Obama

The Medfield Press[145]

Massachusetts
Barack Obama

Willamette Week (Portland)[146]
7004900000000000000♠90,000[124]
Oregon
Barack Obama

The Seward Phoenix Log[147]
7003186500000000000♠1,865[148]
Alaska

The Malibu Times[149]
7004120000000000000♠12,000[150]
California

Santa Barbara Independent[151]
7004400000000000000♠40,000[124]
California
Barack Obama

Boulder Weekly[152]
7004250000000000000♠25,000[124]
Colorado
Barack Obama

Colorado Springs Independent[153]
7004360000000000000♠36,000[124]
Colorado
Barack Obama

Seattle Medium[154]
7004135000000000000♠13,500[155]
Washington

Cincinnati CityBeat[156]
7004400000000000000♠40,000[124]
Ohio
Barack Obama

The Athens NEWS (2x-weekly)[157]
7004180180000000000♠18,018[124]
Ohio
Barack Obama

text: Magazines[edit]

text:
Magazine
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The New Yorker[158]
7006104379200000000♠1,043,792[159]
New York
Barack Obama

The Economist[160]
7005847313000000000♠847,313 (North American Edition)[159]
United Kingdom
Barack Obama

The Nation[161]
7005140787000000000♠140,787[159]
New York
Barack Obama

text: College and university newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Institution
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The Michigan Daily[162]
University of Michigan

Michigan
Barack Obama

The Harvard Crimson[163]
Harvard University

Massachusetts
Barack Obama

Columbia Daily Spectator[164]
Columbia University
7003800000000000000♠8,000
New York
Barack Obama

Central Michigan Life[165]
Central Michigan University
7004135000000000000♠13,500
Michigan
Barack Obama

Daily Athenaeum[166]
West Virginia University

West Virginia
Barack Obama

Daily Nebraskan[167]
University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Nebraska

Yale Daily News[168]
Yale University

Connecticut
Barack Obama

The Emory Wheel[169]
Emory University

Georgia

The Daily Orange[170]
Syracuse University

New York
Barack Obama

The Brown Daily Herald[171]
Brown University

Rhode Island

The Daily Princetonian[172]
Princeton University

New Jersey

The Tufts Daily[173]
Tufts University

Massachusetts
Barack Obama

The Justice[174]
Brandeis University

Massachusetts
Barack Obama

The Daily Californian[175]
University of California, Berkeley

California
Barack Obama

UCSD Guardian[176]
University of California, San Diego

California

Daily Bruin[177]
University of California, Los Angeles

California
Barack Obama

Daily 49er[178]
California State University, Long Beach

California

The Post[179]
Ohio University
7004100000000000000♠10,000
Ohio
Barack Obama

The Spartan Daily[180]
San Jose State University

California

Arizona Daily Wildcat[181]
University of Arizona

Arizona
Barack Obama

The Daily Iowan[182]
University of Iowa

Iowa
Barack Obama

The Maneater[183]
University of Missouri

Missouri
Barack Obama

The Pitt News[184]
University of Pittsburgh

Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

The Criterion[185]
Colorado Mesa University

Colorado
John McCain

The State News[186]
Michigan State University
7004145000000000000♠14,500
Michigan
Barack Obama

text: Mitt Romney[edit]

text: The following newspapers endorsed Mitt Romney for the 2012 presidential election:

text: Daily newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

Houston Chronicle[187]
7005916934000000000♠916,934[2]
Texas
Barack Obama

Dallas Morning News[188]
7005702848000000000♠702,848[2]
Texas
John McCain

Daily News (New York)[189]
7005579636000000000♠579,636[2]
New York
Barack Obama

New York Post[190]
7005555327000000000♠555,327[2]
New York
John McCain

The Arizona Republic (Phoenix)[191]
7005538579000000000♠538,579[2]
Arizona
John McCain

Newsday[192]
7005471662000000000♠471,662[2]
New York
Barack Obama

U-T San Diego[193]
7005296331000000000♠296,331[2]
California
John McCain

Orlando Sentinel[194]
7005288328000000000♠288,328[2]
Florida
Barack Obama

The Cincinnati Enquirer[195]
7005278607000000000♠278,607[2]
Ohio
John McCain

Fort Worth Star-Telegram[196]
7005275345000000000♠275,345[2]
Texas
Barack Obama

The Columbus Dispatch[197]
7005264802000000000♠264,802[2]
Ohio
John McCain

The Tampa Tribune[198]
7005262369000000000♠262,369[2]
Florida
John McCain

South Florida Sun-Sentinel (Fort Lauderdale)[199]
7005245869000000000♠245,869[2]
Florida
Barack Obama

Las Vegas Review-Journal[200]
7005220619000000000♠220,619[2]
Nevada
John McCain

The Des Moines Register[201]
7005216648000000000♠216,648[2]
Iowa
Barack Obama

The Tennessean (Nashville)[202]
7005216434000000000♠216,434[2]
Tennessee
Barack Obama

Pittsburgh Tribune-Review[203]
7005202230000000000♠202,230[2]
Pennsylvania
John McCain

The Oklahoman (Oklahoma City)[204]
7005187240000000000♠187,240[2]
Oklahoma
John McCain

Omaha World-Herald[205]
7005168403000000000♠168,403[2]
Nebraska
John McCain

Richmond Times-Dispatch[206]
7005162769000000000♠162,769[2]
Virginia
John McCain

The Florida Times-Union (Jacksonville)[207]
7005157559000000000♠157,559[2]
Florida
No endorsement

The Press-Enterprise (Riverside)[208]
7005156545000000000♠156,545[2]
California
John McCain

The Grand Rapids Press[209]
7005149667000000000♠149,667[2]
Michigan
John McCain

The Detroit News[210]
7005133508000000000♠133,508[2]
Michigan
John McCain

Tulsa World[211]
7005133066000000000♠133,066[2]
Oklahoma
John McCain

Wisconsin State Journal (Madison)[212]
7005112677000000000♠112,677[2]
Wisconsin
Barack Obama

Boston Herald[213]
7005108548000000000♠108,548[2]
Massachusetts
John McCain

Daily Herald (Arlington Heights)[214]
7005106326000000000♠106,326[2]
Illinois
Barack Obama

Albuquerque Journal[215]
7005102150000000000♠102,150[2]
New Mexico

Los Angeles Daily News[216]
7004976060000000000♠97,606[2]
California
Barack Obama

The Times of Northwest Indiana (Munster)[217]
7004916270000000000♠91,627[2]
Indiana
John McCain

Florida Today (Melbourne)[218]
7004892580000000000♠89,258[2]
Florida
Barack Obama

The Spokesman-Review (Spokane)[219]
7004876940000000000♠87,694[2]
Washington
John McCain

Naples Daily News[220]
7004865580000000000♠86,558[2]
Florida
Barack Obama

The Gazette (Colorado Springs)[221]
7004846610000000000♠84,661[2]
Colorado
No endorsement

Press-Telegram (Long Beach)[222]
7004825560000000000♠82,556[2]
California
Barack Obama

Green Bay Press-Gazette[223]
7004808700000000000♠80,870[2]
Wisconsin
John McCain

North County Times (Escondido)[224]
7004807890000000000♠80,789[2]
California
John McCain

Telegram & Gazette (Worcester)[225]
7004799580000000000♠79,958[2]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

Daily Breeze (Torrance)[226]
7004753520000000000♠75,352[2]
California
Barack Obama

Quad-City Times (Davenport)[227]
7004700510000000000♠70,051[2]
Iowa
Barack Obama

Inland Valley Daily Bulletin (Ontario)[228]
7004635530000000000♠63,553[2]
California
Barack Obama

The San Bernardino Sun[229]
7004625360000000000♠62,536[2]
California
Barack Obama

Cedar Rapids Gazette[230]
7004604850000000000♠60,485[2]
Iowa
John McCain

Reno Gazette-Journal[231]
7004535620000000000♠53,562[2]
Nevada
Barack Obama

The Columbian (Vancouver)[232]
7004517640000000000♠51,764[2]
Washington
Barack Obama

The Times (Shreveport)[233]
7004512970000000000♠51,297[2]
Louisiana
Barack Obama

The Forum of Fargo-Moorhead[234]
7004498800000000000♠49,880[2]
North Dakota
John McCain

The Sun (Lowell)[235]
7004482130000000000♠48,213[2]
Massachusetts
John McCain

Statesman Journal (Salem)[236]
7004452180000000000♠45,218[2]
Oregon
Barack Obama

Savannah Morning News[237]
7004463260000000000♠46,326[2]
Georgia
John McCain

Billings Gazette[238]
7004449370000000000♠44,937[2]
Montana
Barack Obama

Lubbock Avalanche-Journal[239]
7004446810000000000♠44,681[2]
Texas
John McCain

New Hampshire Union Leader (Manchester)[240]
7004446650000000000♠44,665[2]
New Hampshire
John McCain

The Pueblo Chieftain[241]
7004414280000000000♠41,428[2]
Colorado
John McCain

Pasadena Star-News[242]
7004404850000000000♠40,485[2]
California
Barack Obama

The Intelligencer (Doylestown)[243]
7004400450000000000♠40,045[2]
Pennsylvania
Barack Obama

Journal & Courier (Lafayette)[244]
7004346300000000000♠34,630[2]
Indiana
Barack Obama

Mitchell Daily Republic[245]

South Dakota

Sun Journal (Lewiston)[246]

Maine

Sioux City Journal[247]
7004361230000000000♠36,123[2]
Iowa
John McCain

The Southern Illinoisan (Carbondale)[248]
7004337820000000000♠33,782[2]
Illinois
John McCain

Northwest Herald (Crystal Lake)[249]
7004344580000000000♠34,458[2]
Illinois
John McCain

Cape Cod Times[250]
7004399700000000000♠39,970[2]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

The Bismarck Tribune[251]
7004291450000000000♠29,145[2]
North Dakota
John McCain

The Intelligencer & Wheeling News Register[252]
7004255560000000000♠25,556[2]
West Virginia
John McCain

The Daily Reflector (Greenville)[253]
7004201770000000000♠20,177[2]
North Carolina
Barack Obama

Longmont Times-Call[254]
7004190620000000000♠19,062[2]
Colorado
John McCain

The Daily Tribune (Royal Oak)[255]
7003618000000000000♠6,180[2]
Michigan
Barack Obama

Cherokee Tribune[256] (Canton)
7003477100000000000♠4,771[2]
Georgia

The Journal (Martinsburg)[257]
7004168510000000000♠16,851[2]
West Virginia
John McCain

Weirton Daily Times[258]
7003457400000000000♠4,574[2]
West Virginia
John McCain

The Parkersburg News and Sentinel[259]
7004280440000000000♠28,044[2]
West Virginia
John McCain

The Inter-Mountain (Elkins)[260]
7003903700000000000♠9,037[2]
West Virginia
John McCain

The Messenger (Fort Dodge)[261]
7004152370000000000♠15,237[2]
Iowa
John McCain

The Daily News (Galveston)[262]

Texas
John McCain

Sentinel & Enterprise (Fitchburg)[263]
7004150310000000000♠15,031[2]
Massachusetts
Barack Obama

Grand Junction Daily Sentinel[264]
7004266540000000000♠26,654[2]
Colorado
John McCain

Estherville Daily News[265]

Iowa

Pensacola News Journal[266]

Florida
Barack Obama

Casper Star-Tribune[267]
7004247910000000000♠24,791[2]
Wyoming
Barack Obama

Bluefield Daily Telegraph[268]
7004161380000000000♠16,138[2]
West Virginia
Barack Obama

Duluth News Tribune[269]

Minnesota
John McCain

Charleston Daily Mail[270]
7004178790000000000♠17,879[2]
West Virginia
John McCain

The Star-Herald (Scottsbluff)[271]
7004128640000000000♠12,864[2]
Nebraska

The Washington Examiner[272]

District of Columbia
John McCain

The Joplin Globe[273]
7004204140000000000♠20,414[2]
Missouri
Barack Obama

Quincy Herald-Whig[274]
7004204190000000000♠20,419[2]
Illinois

Sauk Valley Telegraph & Gazette (Dixon & Sterling)[275]
7004183010000000000♠18,301[2]
Illinois
John McCain

The Lima News[276]
7004368480000000000♠36,848[2]
Ohio
No endorsement

Tyler Morning Telegraph[277]
7004304210000000000♠30,421[2]
Texas
John McCain

The Telegraph (Nashua)[278]
7004221690000000000♠22,169[2]
New Hampshire
Barack Obama

The Bemidji Pioneer[279]
7004107150000000000♠10,715[280]
Minnesota
John McCain

Danville Register & Bee[281]
7004174070000000000♠17,407[2]
Virginia
John McCain

San Angelo Standard-Times[282]
7004221010000000000♠22,101[2]
Texas
Barack Obama

The Washington Times[283]
7004385870000000000♠38,587[284]
District of Columbia
John McCain

The Herald-Dispatch (Huntington)[285]
7004282870000000000♠28,287[2]
West Virginia
Barack Obama

The Daily Courier (Prescott)[286]
7004144050000000000♠14,405[287]
Arizona
John McCain

Casa Grande Dispatch[288]
7003728900000000000♠7,289[2]
Arizona
John McCain

Minot Daily News[289]
7004165350000000000♠16,535[2]
North Dakota
John McCain

Waco Tribune-Herald[290]
7004367160000000000♠36,716[2]
Texas
John McCain

Laredo Morning Times[291]
7004140180000000000♠14,018[2]
Texas

The Morning Journal (Lorain)[292]
7004224870000000000♠22,487[2]
Ohio
John McCain

Grand Forks Herald[293]
7004276360000000000♠27,636[294]
North Dakota
John McCain

The News-Sentinel (Fort Wayne)[295]
7004161730000000000♠16,173[2]
Indiana
John McCain

text: Weekly/monthly newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The New York Observer[296]
7004520000000000000♠52,000[297]
New York
Barack Obama

Chicago Jewish Star[298] (2x monthly)
7004175000000000000♠17,500[299]
Illinois
John McCain

Sun Prairie Star[300]
7003440000000000000♠4,400[301]
Wisconsin

New Richmond News[302]
7003500000000000000♠5,000[303]
Wisconsin
John McCain

South Washington County Bulletin[304]

Minnesota

text: Magazines[edit]

text:
Magazine
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The National Interest[305]

District of Columbia

National Review[306]
7005166755000000000♠166,755[134]
New York
John McCain

text: Gary Johnson[edit]

text: The following newspapers endorsed Gary Johnson for the 2012 presidential election:

text: Daily newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

Chattanooga Times Free Press (Free Press editorial)[307]
75,336
Tennessee
John McCain

text: Weekly newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

Saint Joseph Telegraph[308]

Missouri
No endorsement

text: Jill Stein[edit]

text: The following newspapers endorsed Jill Stein for the 2012 presidential election:

text: Weekly newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

Maui Time Weekly (Wailuku)[309]
7004180000000000000♠18,000[124]
Hawaii

text: College and university newspapers[edit]

text:
Newspaper
Institution
Largest reported
circulation
State
2008 endorsement

The Georgetown Voice[310]
Georgetown University
6,000[311]
District of Columbia
Barack Obama

text: No endorsement[edit]

text: Discontinued endorsing candidates[edit]

text:
Chicago Sun-Times—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[312]
Dayton Daily News—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[313]
Knoxville News Sentinel—Endorsed John McCain in 2008.[314]
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[315]
St. Paul Pioneer Press—Did not endorse in 2008.[316]
The Tuscaloosa News—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[317]
Sarasota Herald-Tribune—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[318]
The Atlanta Journal-Constitution—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[319]

tag: ul

text: No endorsement in 2012[edit]

text:
Austin American-Statesman—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[320]
The Oregonian (Portland) -- Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[321]
The State Journal-Register (Springfield, Illinois) -- Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[322]
The Indianapolis Star—Did not endorse in 2008 either.[323]
Times Record News (Wichita Falls) -- Endorsed John McCain in 2008.[324]
The Times-Picayune (New Orleans) -- Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[325]
The Palm Beach Post—Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[326]
The Birmingham News—Endorsed John McCain in 2008.[327]
The Bakersfield Californian—Endorsed John McCain in 2008.[328]

text: Other[edit]

text: The Post-Standard (Syracuse) -- Listed itself as "undecided" and criticized both candidates. Endorsed Barack Obama in 2008.[329]


document_title: X-ray

question_text: when was the first x ray machine invented

question_tokens: when was the first x ray machine invented

root

text: X-ray

text: History[edit]

text: Discovery[edit]

text: German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen is usually credited as the discoverer of X-rays in 1895, because he was the first to systematically study them, though he is not the first to have observed their effects. He is also the one who gave them the name "X-rays" (signifying an unknown quantity[4]) though many others referred to these as "Röntgen rays" (and the associated X-ray radiograms as, "Röntgenograms") for several decades after their discovery and even to this day in some languages, including Röntgen's native German.

tag: p

text: X-rays were found emanating from Crookes tubes, experimental discharge tubes invented around 1875, by scientists investigating the cathode rays, which are energetic electron beams that were first created in the tubes. Crookes tubes created free electrons by ionization of the residual air in the tube by a high DC voltage of anywhere between a few kilovolts and 100 kV. This voltage accelerated the electrons coming from the cathode to a high enough velocity that they created X-rays when they struck the anode or the glass wall of the tube. Many of the early Crookes tubes undoubtedly radiated X-rays, because early researchers noticed effects that were attributable to them, as detailed below. Wilhelm Röntgen was the first to systematically study them, in 1895.[7]

text: The discovery of X-rays stimulated a veritable sensation. Röntgen's biographer Otto Glasser estimated that, in 1896 alone, as many as 49 essays and 1044 articles about the new rays were published.[8] This was probably a conservative estimate, if one considers that nearly every paper around the world extensively reported about the new discovery, with a magazine such as Science dedicating as many as 23 articles to it in that year alone.[9] Sensationalist reactions to the new discovery included publications linking the new kind of rays to occult and paranormal theories, such as telepathy.[10][11]

text: Early research[edit]

text: The earliest experimenter thought to have (unknowingly) produced X-rays was actuary William Morgan. In 1785 he presented a paper to the Royal Society of London describing the effects of passing electrical currents through a partially evacuated glass tube, producing a glow created by X-rays.[12] This work was further explored by Humphry Davy and his assistant Michael Faraday.

text: In 1877 Ukrainian-born Ivan Pulyui, a lecturer in experimental physics at the University of Vienna, constructed various designs of vacuum discharge tube to investigate their properties.[13] He continued his investigations when appointed professor at the Prague Polytechnic and in 1886 he found that sealed photographic plates became dark when exposed to the emanations from the tubes. Early in 1896, just a few weeks after Röntgen published his first X-ray photograph, Pulyui published high-quality X-ray images in journals in Paris and London.[13] Although Pulyui had studied with Röntgen at the University of Strasbourg in the years 1873–75, his biographer Gaida (1997) asserts that his subsequent research was conducted independently.[13]

text: X-rays were generated and detected by Fernando Sanford (1854–1948), the foundation Professor of Physics at Stanford University, in 1891. From 1886 to 1888 he had studied in the Hermann Helmholtz laboratory in Berlin, where he became familiar with the cathode rays generated in vacuum tubes when a voltage was applied across separate electrodes, as previously studied by Heinrich Hertz and Philipp Lenard. His letter of January 6, 1893 (describing his discovery as "electric photography") to The Physical Review was duly published and an article entitled Without Lens or Light, Photographs Taken With Plate and Object in Darkness appeared in the San Francisco Examiner.[14]

text: Starting in 1888, Philipp Lenard, a student of Heinrich Hertz, conducted experiments to see whether cathode rays could pass out of the Crookes tube into the air. He built a Crookes tube (later called a "Lenard tube") with a "window" in the end made of thin aluminum, facing the cathode so the cathode rays would strike it. He found that something came through, that would expose photographic plates and cause fluorescence. He measured the penetrating power of these rays through various materials. It has been suggested that at least some of these "Lenard rays" were actually X-rays.[15]

text: Hermann von Helmholtz formulated mathematical equations for X-rays. He postulated a dispersion theory before Röntgen made his discovery and announcement. It was formed on the basis of the electromagnetic theory of light.[16] However, he did not work with actual X-rays.

text: In 1894 Nikola Tesla noticed damaged film in his lab that seemed to be associated with Crookes tube experiments and began investigating this radiant energy of "invisible" kinds.[17][18] After Röntgen identified the X-ray Tesla began making X-ray images of his own using high voltages and tubes of his own design,[19] as well as Crookes tubes.

text: In November 1896, the inventor Dr. Robert D'Unger proposed a X-Ray telephot, supposed able to make transmission of pictures by telegraph wire.[20]

text: Wilhelm Röntgen[edit]

text: On November 8, 1895, German physics professor Wilhelm Röntgen stumbled on X-rays while experimenting with Lenard and Crookes tubes and began studying them. He wrote an initial report "On a new kind of ray: A preliminary communication" and on December 28, 1895 submitted it to Würzburg's Physical-Medical Society journal.[21] This was the first paper written on X-rays. Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. The name stuck, although (over Röntgen's great objections) many of his colleagues suggested calling them Röntgen rays. They are still referred to as such in many languages, including German, Hungarian, Danish, Polish, Swedish, Finnish, Estonian, Russian, Japanese, Dutch,Georgian and Norwegian. Röntgen received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery.[22]

text: There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers:[23][24] Röntgen was investigating cathode rays from a Crookes tube which he had wrapped in black cardboard so that the visible light from the tube would not interfere, using a fluorescent screen painted with barium platinocyanide. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 meter away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow. He found they could also pass through books and papers on his desk. Röntgen threw himself into investigating these unknown rays systematically. Two months after his initial discovery, he published his paper.[citation needed]

text: Röntgen discovered their medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said "I have seen my death."[25]

text: Advances in radiology[edit]

text: There was immediate interest from researchers for the X-ray. A. A. Campbell-Swinton and Nikola Tesla were amongst the firsts to test the new discovery. In 1896, Thomas Edison investigated materials' ability to fluoresce when exposed to X-rays, and found that calcium tungstate was the most effective substance. Around March 1896, the fluoroscope he developed became the standard for medical X-ray examinations. Nevertheless, Edison dropped X-ray research around 1903, even before the death of Clarence Madison Dally, one of his glassblowers. Dally had a habit of testing X-ray tubes on his hands, and acquired a cancer in them so tenacious that both arms were amputated in a futile attempt to save his life.

text: The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate.[26] On February 14, 1896 Hall-Edwards was also the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.[27] In early 1896, several weeks after Röntgen's discovery, Ivan Romanovich Tarkhanov irradiated frogs and insects with X-rays, concluding that the rays "not only photograph, but also affect the living function".[28]

text: The first medical X-ray made in the United States was obtained using a discharge tube of Pulyui's design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of Dartmouth College tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Pulyui tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Pulyui's inclusion of an oblique "target" of mica, used for holding samples of fluorescent material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896 Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the broken bone on gelatin photographic plates obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.[29]

text: In 1901, U.S. President William McKinley was shot twice in an assassination attempt. While one bullet only grazed his sternum, another had lodged somewhere deep inside his abdomen and could not be found. A worried McKinley aide sent word to inventor Thomas Edison to rush an X-ray machine to Buffalo to find the stray bullet. It arrived but wasn't used. While the shooting itself had not been lethal, gangrene had developed along the path of the bullet, and McKinley died of septic shock due to bacterial infection six days later.[30]

text: Hazards discovered[edit]

text: With the widespread experimentation with x‑rays after their discovery in 1895 by scientists, physicians, and inventors came many stories of burns, hair loss, and worse in technical journals of the time. In February 1896, Professor John Daniel and Dr. William Lofland Dudley of Vanderbilt University reported hair loss after Dr. Dudley was X-rayed. A child who had been shot in the head was brought to the Vanderbilt laboratory in 1896. Before trying to find the bullet an experiment was attempted, for which Dudley "with his characteristic devotion to science"[31][32][33] volunteered. Daniel reported that 21 days after taking a picture of Dudley's skull (with an exposure time of one hour), he noticed a bald spot 2 inches (5.1 cm) in diameter on the part of his head nearest the X-ray tube: "A plate holder with the plates towards the side of the skull was fastened and a coin placed between the skull and the head. The tube was fastened at the other side at a distance of one-half inch from the hair."[34]

text: In August 1896 Dr. HD. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia College, suffered severe hand and chest burns from an x-ray demonstration. It was reported in Electrical Review and led to many other reports of problems associated with x-rays being sent in to the publication.[35] Many experimenters including Elihu Thomson at Edison's lab, William J. Morton, and Nikola Tesla also reported burns. Elihu Thomson deliberately exposed a finger to an x-ray tube over a period of time and suffered pain, swelling, and blistering.[36] Other effects were sometimes blamed for the damage including ultraviolet rays and (according to Tesla) ozone.[37] Many physicians claimed there were no effects from X-ray exposure at all.[36] On August 3, 1905 at San Francisco, California, Elizabeth Fleischman, American woman X-ray pioneer, died from complications as a result of her work with X-rays.[38][39][40]

text: 20th century and beyond[edit]

text: The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation cold cathode or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920.

text: Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated. However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate "harder" X-rays until it soon stopped operating. Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as "softeners". These often took the form of a small side tube which contained a small piece of mica, a mineral that traps relatively large quantities of air within its structure. A small electrical heater heated the mica, causing it to release a small amount of air, thus restoring the tube's efficiency. However, the mica had a limited life, and the restoration process was difficult to control.

text: In 1904, John Ambrose Fleming invented the thermionic diode, the first kind of vacuum tube. This used a hot cathode that caused an electric current to flow in a vacuum. This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called "Coolidge tubes", completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920.

text: In about 1906, the physicist Charles Barkla discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic X-ray spectrum. He won the 1917 Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.

text: In 1912, Max von Laue, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of Paul Peter Ewald, William Henry Bragg, and William Lawrence Bragg, gave birth to the field of X-ray crystallography.

text: The Coolidge X-ray tube was invented during the following year by William D. Coolidge. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. X-ray tubes similar to this are still in use in 2012.

text: The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of radiation therapy) was pioneered by Major John Hall-Edwards in Birmingham, England. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of X-ray dermatitis on his arm.[41]

text: In 1914 Marie Curie developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in World War I. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate.[42]

text: From the 1920s through to the 1950s, x-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores.[43][44][45] Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s,[46][47] leading to the practise's eventual end that decade.[48]

text: The X-ray microscope was developed during the 1950s.

text: The Chandra X-ray Observatory, launched on July 23, 1999, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the universe which produce X-rays. Unlike visible light, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features stars being torn apart by black holes, galactic collisions, and novae, and neutron stars that build up layers of plasma that then explode into space.

text: An X-ray laser device was proposed as part of the Reagan Administration's Strategic Defense Initiative in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser "blaster" or death ray, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was de-funded (though was later revived by the second Bush Administration as National Missile Defense using different technologies).

text: Phase-contrast X-ray imaging refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of a coherent x-ray beam to image soft tissues. It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range of biological and medical studies. There are several technologies being used for x-ray phase-contrast imaging, all utilizing different principles to convert phase variations in the x-rays emerging from an object into intensity variations.[49][50] These include propagation-based phase contrast,[51] talbot interferometry,[50] refraction-enhanced imaging,[52] and x-ray interferometry.[53] These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-contrast x-ray imaging, making it possible to see smaller details. A disadvantage is that these methods require more sophisticated equipment, such as synchrotron or microfocus x-ray sources, X-ray optics, and high resolution x-ray detectors.

text: Energy ranges[edit]

text: Soft and hard X-rays[edit]

text: X-rays with high photon energies (above 5–10 keV, below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called soft X-rays.[54] Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e.g., in medical radiography and airport security. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to a radiographic image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the attenuation length of 600 eV (~2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.[55]

text: Gamma rays[edit]

text: There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus.[56][57][58][59] This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these high-energy photons, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m (0.1 Å), defined as gamma radiation.[60] This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X-ray tubes generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei.[56] Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.[citation needed]

text: Properties[edit]

text: X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer. In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.

text: Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g. industrial radiography and industrial CT scanning) and research (e.g. small animal CT). The penetration depth varies with several orders of magnitude over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient transmission through the object and at the same time provide good contrast in the image.

text: X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal microscope. This property is used in X-ray microscopy to acquire high resolution images, and also in X-ray crystallography to determine the positions of atoms in crystals.

text: Interaction with matter[edit]

text: X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through photoabsorption, Compton scattering, and Rayleigh scattering. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies. At higher energies, Compton scattering dominates.

text: Photoelectric absorption[edit]

text: The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to Z3/E3, where Z is the atomic number and E is the energy of the incident photon.[61] This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called absorption edges. However, the general trend of high absorption coefficients and thus short penetration depths for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number substances this limit is higher. The high amount of calcium (Z=20) in bones together with their high density is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs.

text: A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a characteristic photon[clarification needed] or an Auger electron. These effects can be used for elemental detection through X-ray spectroscopy or Auger electron spectroscopy.

text: Compton scattering[edit]

text: Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging.[62] Compton scattering is an inelastic scattering of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a direction similar to the original direction is more likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles are described by the Klein–Nishina formula. The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the conservation of energy and momentum.

text: Rayleigh scattering[edit]

text: Rayleigh scattering is the dominant elastic scattering mechanism in the X-ray regime.[63] Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1.[64]

text: Production[edit]

text: Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.

text: Production by electrons[edit]

text:
Characteristic X-ray emission lines for some common anode materials.[65][66]

Anode
material
Atomic
number
Photon energy [keV]
Wavelength [nm]

Kα1
Kβ1
Kα1
Kβ1

W
74
59.3
67.2
0.0209
0.0184

Mo
42
17.5
19.6
0.0709
0.0632

Cu
29
8.05
8.91
0.154
0.139

Ag
47
22.2
24.9
0.0559
0.0497

Ga
31
9.25
10.26
0.134
0.121

In
49
24.2
27.3
0.0512
0.455

tag: table

text: X-rays can be generated by an X-ray tube, a vacuum tube that uses a high voltage to accelerate the electrons released by a hot cathode to a high velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the anode, creating the X-rays.[67] In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually tungsten or a more crack-resistant alloy of rhenium (5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes molybdenum for more specialized applications, such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a copper target is most common, with cobalt often being used when fluorescence from iron content in the sample might otherwise present a problem.

text: The maximum energy of the produced X-ray photon is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:

text:
Characteristic X-ray emission (X-ray fluorescence): If the electron has enough energy it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner electron shell of a metal atom, and as a result electrons from higher energy levels then fill up the vacancy and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as the spectral lines. The spectral lines generated depend on the target (anode) element used and thus are called characteristic lines. Usually these are transitions from upper shells into K shell (called K lines), into L shell (called L lines) and so on.
Bremsstrahlung: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the high-Z (proton number) nuclei. These X-rays have a continuous spectrum. The intensity of the X-rays increases linearly with decreasing frequency, from zero at the energy of the incident electrons, the voltage on the X-ray tube.

tag: ol

text: So the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines. The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV.[68]

text: Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with a production efficiency of only about one percent, and thus most of the electric power consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.

text: Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15-keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced by triboelectric charging. The intensity of X-ray triboluminescence is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging.[69]

text: A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is synchrotron radiation, which is generated by particle accelerators. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent collimation, and linear polarization.[70]

text: Production by fast positive ions[edit]

text: X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or particle-induced X-ray emission is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production cross section is proportional to Z12Z2−4, where Z1 refers to the atomic number of the ion, Z2 to that of the target atom.[71] An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference.

text: Production in lightning and laboratory discharges[edit]

text: X-rays are also produced in lightning accompanying terrestrial gamma-ray flashes. The underlying mechanism is the acceleration of electrons in lightning related electric fields and the subsequent production of photons through Bremsstrahlung.[72] This produces photons with energies of some few keV and several tens of MeV.[73] In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed.[74] A possible explanation is the encounter of two streamers and the production of high-energy run-away electrons;[75] however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significantly number of run-away electrons.[76]Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges.[77] [78]

text: Detectors[edit]

text: X-ray detectors vary in shape and function depending on their purpose. Imaging detectors such as those used for radiography were originally based on photographic plates and later photographic film, but are now mostly replaced by various digital detector types such as image plates and flat panel detectors. For radiation protection direct exposure hazard is often evaluated using ionization chambers, while dosimeters are used to measure the radiation dose a person has been exposed to. X-ray spectra can be measured either by energy dispersive or wavelength dispersive spectrometers.

text: Medical uses[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Since Röntgen's discovery that X-rays can identify bone structures, X-rays have been used for medical imaging. The first medical use was less than a month after his paper on the subject.[29] Up to 2010, 5 billion medical imaging examinations had been conducted worldwide.[79] Radiation exposure from medical imaging in 2006 made up about 50% of total ionizing radiation exposure in the United States.[80]

text: Projectional radiographs[edit]

text: Projectional radiography is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using x-ray radiation. Bones contain much calcium, which due to its relatively high atomic number absorbs x-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.

text: Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of the skeletal system as well as for detecting some disease processes in soft tissue. Some notable examples are the very common chest X-ray, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung cancer, or pulmonary edema, and the abdominal x-ray, which can detect bowel (or intestinal) obstruction, free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in ascites). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as gallstones (which are rarely radiopaque) or kidney stones which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or muscle. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in evaluating how an orthopedic implant, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with evaluating implant position from plain radiographs.[81][82]

text: Dental radiography is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such as cavities.

text: In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of aluminium, called an X-ray filter, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called hardening the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) x-rays.

text: To generate an image of the cardiovascular system, including the arteries and veins (angiography) an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest. A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated contrast agent has been injected into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels. The radiologist or surgeon then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel.

text: Computed tomography[edit]

text: Computed tomography (CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where tomographic images or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions.[83] These cross-sectional images can be combined into a three-dimensional image of the inside of the body and used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines.

text: Fluoroscopy[edit]

text: Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians or radiation therapists to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed. However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an X-ray image intensifier and CCD video camera allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use a contrast material. Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine for coronary artery blockages) and barium swallow (to examine for esophageal disorders and swallowing disorders).

text: Radiotherapy[edit]

text: The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for the management (including palliation) of cancer; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy x-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast.[84][85]

text: Adverse effects[edit]

text: Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed.[86][87][88] X-rays are classified as a carcinogen by both the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer and the U.S. government.[79][89] It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to computed tomography (CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.[90]

text: Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a threshold dose of radiation below which there is no increased risk of cancer.[91] However, this is under increasing doubt.[92] It is estimated that the additional radiation will increase a person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by 0.6–1.8%.[93] The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved.[94] CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays.

text: To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from background radiation that people are exposed to (depending upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation.[95] Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000.[95] This is compared to the roughly 40% chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime.[96] For instance, the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy.[97] A head CT scan (1.5mSv, 64mGy)[98] that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head. Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for adult head scans depending upon the method used.[99]

text: The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus.[100][101] In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children.[94] Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk.[102]

text: Medical X-rays are a significant source of man-made radiation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of exposure from man-made sources in the United States. Since man-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical X-rays only accounted for 10% of total American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including nuclear medicine) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure. By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. population from all sources. The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular computed tomography (CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine.[80][103]

text: Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 0.5 to 4 mrem. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up to 6 (digital) to 18 (film) mrem, for a yearly average of up to 40 mrem.[104][105][106][107][108][109][110]

text: Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays.[111]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Other notable uses of X-rays include

text:
X-ray crystallography in which the pattern produced by the diffraction of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice. In the early 1990s, experiments were done in which layers a few atoms thick of two different materials were deposited in a Thue-Morse sequence. The resulting object was found to yield X-ray diffraction patterns.[112] A related technique, fiber diffraction, was used by Rosalind Franklin to discover the double helical structure of DNA.[113]
X-ray astronomy, which is an observational branch of astronomy, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects.
X-ray microscopic analysis, which uses electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects.
X-ray fluorescence, a technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample.
Industrial radiography uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts, particularly welds.

text:
Authentication and quality control, X-ray is used for authentication and quality control of packaged items.
Industrial CT (computed tomography) is a process which uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions.
Paintings are often X-rayed to reveal underdrawings and pentimenti, alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers. Many pigments such as lead white show well in radiographs.
X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings. For example, in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of van Gogh[115]
Airport security luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft.
Border control truck scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks.

text:
X-ray art and fine art photography, artistic use of X-rays, for example the works by Stane Jagodič
X-ray hair removal, a method popular in the 1920s but now banned by the FDA.[116]
Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes were popularized in the 1920s, banned in the US in the 1960s, banned in the UK in the 1970s, and even later in continental Europe.
Roentgen stereophotogrammetry is used to track movement of bones based on the implantation of markers
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy is a chemical analysis technique relying on the photoelectric effect, usually employed in surface science.
Radiation implosion is the use of high energy X-rays generated from a fission explosion (an A-bomb) to compress nuclear fuel to the point of fusion ignition (an H-bomb).

text: Visibility[edit]

text: While generally considered invisible to the human eye, in special circumstances X-rays can be visible. Brandes, in an experiment a short time after Röntgen's landmark 1895 paper, reported after dark adaptation and placing his eye close to an X-ray tube, seeing a faint "blue-gray" glow which seemed to originate within the eye itself.[117] Upon hearing this, Röntgen reviewed his record books and found he too had seen the effect. When placing an X-ray tube on the opposite side of a wooden door Röntgen had noted the same blue glow, seeming to emanate from the eye itself, but thought his observations to be spurious because he only saw the effect when he used one type of tube. Later he realized that the tube which had created the effect was the only one powerful enough to make the glow plainly visible and the experiment was thereafter readily repeatable. The knowledge that X-rays are actually faintly visible to the dark-adapted naked eye has largely been forgotten today; this is probably due to the desire not to repeat what would now be seen as a recklessly dangerous and potentially harmful experiment with ionizing radiation. It is not known what exact mechanism in the eye produces the visibility: it could be due to conventional detection (excitation of rhodopsin molecules in the retina), direct excitation of retinal nerve cells, or secondary detection via, for instance, X-ray induction of phosphorescence in the eyeball with conventional retinal detection of the secondarily produced visible light.

text: Though X-rays are otherwise invisible, it is possible to see the ionization of the air molecules if the intensity of the X-ray beam is high enough. The beamline from the wiggler at the ID11 at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility is one example of such high intensity.[118]

text: Units of measure and exposure[edit]

text: The measure of X-rays ionizing ability is called the exposure:

text:
The coulomb per kilogram (C/kg) is the SI unit of ionizing radiation exposure, and it is the amount of radiation required to create one coulomb of charge of each polarity in one kilogram of matter.
The roentgen (R) is an obsolete traditional unit of exposure, which represented the amount of radiation required to create one electrostatic unit of charge of each polarity in one cubic centimeter of dry air. 1 roentgen= 2.58×10−4 C/kg.

text: However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter (especially living tissue) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the charge generated. This measure of energy absorbed is called the absorbed dose:

text:
The gray (Gy), which has units of (joules/kilogram), is the SI unit of absorbed dose, and it is the amount of radiation required to deposit one joule of energy in one kilogram of any kind of matter.
The rad is the (obsolete) corresponding traditional unit, equal to 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rad= 1 gray.

text: The equivalent dose is the measure of the biological effect of radiation on human tissue. For X-rays it is equal to the absorbed dose.

text:
The Roentgen equivalent man (rem) is the traditional unit of equivalent dose. For X-rays it is equal to the rad, or, in other words, 10 millijoules of energy deposited per kilogram. 100 rem = 1 Sv.
The sievert (Sv) is the SI unit of equivalent dose, and also of effective dose. For X-rays the "equivalent dose" is numerically equal to a Gray (Gy). 1 Sv= 1 Gy. For the "effective dose" of X-rays, it is usually not equal to the Gray (Gy).

text:
Radiation related quantities view ‧ talk ‧ edit

Quantity
Unit
Symbol
Derivation
Year
SI equivalence

Activity (A)
curie
Ci
3.7 × 1010 s−1
1953
3.7×1010 Bq

becquerel
Bq
s−1
1974
SI

rutherford
Rd
106 s−1
1946
1,000,000 Bq

Exposure (X)
röntgen
R
esu / 0.001293 g of air
1928
2.58 × 10−4 C/kg

Fluence (Φ)
(reciprocal area)

m−2
1962
SI

Absorbed dose (D)
erg

erg⋅g−1
1950
1.0 × 10−4 Gy

rad
rad
100 erg⋅g−1
1953
0.010 Gy

gray
Gy
J⋅kg−1
1974
SI

Dose equivalent (H)
röntgen equivalent man
rem
100 erg⋅g−1
1971
0.010 Sv

sievert
Sv
J⋅kg−1 × WR
1977
SI


document_title: 1961 college football season

question_text: who won the 1961 college football national championship

text: 1961 college football season

text: Conference and program changes[edit]

text:
School
1960 Conference
1961 Conference

Denver Pioneers
Mountain States
dropped program

Marquette Golden Avalanche
Independent
dropped program

text: Progress of #1[edit]

text:
Week
#1 Team
Event

Preseason
IOWA

1 (Sep 23)
IOWA
Did not play

2 (Sep 30)
IOWA
Iowa 28, California 7

3 (Oct 7)
IOWA
Iowa 35, USC 34

4 (Oct 14)
OLE MISS
Ole Miss 47, Houston 7

5 (Oct 21)
MICHIGAN STATE
MSU 17, Notre Dame 7

6 (Oct 28)
MICHIGAN STATE
MSU 35, Indiana 0

7 (Nov 4)
MICHIGAN STATE
Minnesota 13, MSU 0

8 (Nov 11)
TEXAS
Texas 33, Baylor 7

9 (Nov 18)
TEXAS
TCU 6, Texas 0

10 (Nov 25)
ALABAMA
(Idle)

11 (Dec 2)
ALABAMA
Alabama 34, Auburn 0

text: September[edit]

text: In the preseason poll released on September 18, Iowa was the #1, and its Big Ten rival Ohio State #2. SEC teams Alabama and LSU were third and fifth, and Texas was fourth. Rounding out the top ten were 6.Michigan State 7.Penn State 8.Kansas 9.Mississippi and 10.Syracuse.[2]

text: As the regular season progressed, a new poll would be issued on the Monday following the weekend's games. The Big Ten schools would not kick off until September 30. On September 23, #3 Alabama won 32-6 at Georgia and #4 Texas won at California 28-3. In Houston, #5 LSU fell to Rice 16-3. #10 Syracuse, which had beaten Oregon State 19-8 in Portland, rose to fifth. In the poll that followed, Iowa remained #1, followed by 2.Mississippi 3.Ohio State 4.Alabama and 5.Syracuse. Texas dropped to sixth place.

text: September 30 California played a top-ranked team for the second straight week, losing at #1 Iowa 28-7. #2 Mississippi won 20-6 at Kentucky. Texas Christian University (TCU) tied #3 Ohio State 7-7 at Columbus. In a game at Mobile, #4 Alabama beat Tulane 9-0. #5 Syracuse defeated visiting West Virginia 29-14, but fell out of the poll. #6 Texas, which beat Texas Tech at home, 42-14, returned to the Top Five, along with previously unranked Georgia Tech, which shut out Rice 24-0.

text: In the poll that followed, Iowa remained #1, followed by 2.Mississippi 3.Georgia Tech 4.Alabama and 5.Texas

text: October[edit]

text: October 7 #1 Iowa won 35-34 at USC #2 Mississippi won 33-0 against Florida State #3 Georgia Tech lost to LSU 10-0 #4 Alabama won 35-6 at Vanderbilt #5 Texas routed Washington State 41-8 #6 Michigan State #7 Syracuse lost 22-21 to Maryland #8 Ohio State beat UCLA 13-3 In the poll that followed, Mississippi took over first place from Iowa, which dropped to second. These were followed by 3.Alabama and 4.Texas and 5.Michigan State (had beaten Stanford 31-3)

text: October 14 #1 Mississippi met the Houston Cougars at Memphis and won 47-7. #2 Iowa beat Indiana 27-8 at home. #3 Alabama beat North Carolina State 26-7 at Birmingham, and #4 Texas played its annual game against Oklahoma at Dallas, winning 28-7. #5 Michigan State won at Michigan, shutting out the Wolverines 28-0. On the next poll, Michigan State took the #1 spot from Ole Miss by a margin of only two points (431 to 429), though the Rebels had more first place votes than the Spartans (21 vs. 16). They were followed by 3.Texas 4.Iowa and 5.Alabama.

text: On October 21, #1 Michigan State got by Notre Dame 17-7 at home, and #2 Mississippi shut out Tulane in a game at Jackson, 41-0. #3 Texas won at Arkansas, 33-7, #4 Iowa hosted Wisconsin, winning 47-15, and #5 Alabama defeated Tennessee at Birmingham, 34-3. The top three (Michigan State, Ole Miss and Texas) were unchanged, while Alabama and Iowa traded places at 4th and 5th.

text: October 28 In a week of shutouts, #1 Michigan State beat Indiana 35-0, and #2 Mississippi had an even bigger blowout, 47-0, against Vanderbilt. #3 Texas beat the visiting Rice Owls, 34-7, while #4 Alabama won at Houston over the Cougars, 17-0. #5 Iowa was on the wrong side of scoreless, losing 9-0 at Purdue. The top 4 stayed the same, while #6 Ohio State, which had won at Wisconsin 30-21, took fifth place from Iowa, whom they would play the following Saturday.

text: November[edit]

text: November 4 #1 Michigan State fell to unranked Minnesota, 13-0. At the same time, #2 Mississippi lost to #6 LSU 10-7 at Baton Rouge. The #3 Texas Longhorns beat the SMU Mustangs at Dallas, 27-0. #4 Alabama shut out Mississippi State 24-0. At Columbus, #5 Ohio State beat #9 Iowa 29-13. Texas, Alabama and Ohio State moved up from 3, 4 and 5 to 1st, 2nd and 3rd, and giant-killers LSU and Minnesota were 4th and 5th. Michigan State and Ole Miss fell to 6 and 7.

text: November 11 #1 Texas beat Baylor, 33-7. #2 Alabama crushed the visiting Richmond Spiders (which would be I-AA later) 66-0 at home. #3 Ohio State won 16-7 at Indiana, #4 LSU won 30-0 at North Carolina, and #5 Minnesota handed formerly first place Iowa its second straight loss, at home, 16-9. #6 Michigan State, too, lost its second straight, falling 7-6 at Purdue. The Top Five remained unchanged.

text: November 18 Texas Christian University had earlier tied Ohio State 6-6 in Columbus, and bested that with a win over #1 Texas in Austin, 6-0. After the 6-0 loss, legendary Texas coach Darrell Royal uttered his immortal description of TCU:

text: "They're like a bunch of cockroaches," Royal said. "It's not what they eat and tote off, it's what they fall into and mess up that hurts."

text: #2 Alabama beat Georgia Tech in Birmingham, 10-0. #3 Ohio State defeated visiting Oregon, 22-12, and #4 LSU hosted Mississippi State and won 14-6 #5 Minnesota defeated #7 Purdue, 10-7, at home. Alabama (9-0-0) rose to #1, with Ohio State (7-0-1) at #2. Minnesota rose to #3, LSU stayed at #4 and Texas (8-1-0) fell from #1 to #5.

text: Post-Thanksgiving (November 25) #1 Alabama was idle. #2 Ohio State won at Michigan, 50-20. #3 Minnesota narrowly lost to Wisconsin 23-21. #4 LSU crushed visiting Tulane, 62-0, and #5 Texas 25-0 over Texas A & M. Ole Miss, which was idle, returned to the Top Five.

text: December 2, #1 Alabama won its annual Birmingham game against the Auburn Tigers, 34-0, to close the season with a 10-0-0 record. #5 Mississippi closed its season at 9-1-0 with a 37-7 win against Mississippi State. The AP's final poll was a Top 20 ranking. With 26 of the 48 first place votes the Alabama Crimson Tide was awarded the AP Trophy, ahead of Ohio State (with 20 votes). The point total was even closer, with 16 points separated the Tide from the Buckeyes (452 to 436).

text: The final poll was: 1.Alabama 2. Ohio State 3. Texas 4.LSU 5.Mississippi 6.Minnesota 7.Colorado 8.Michigan State 9.Arkansas 10.Utah State 11.Missouri 12.Purdue 13.Georgia Tech 14.Syracuse 15.Rutgers 16.UCLA. Arizona, Penn State and Rice were tied for 17th place, followed by 20.Duke. Unbeaten and tied only once, Ohio State University qualified for the Rose Bowl. In a move that stunned the sports world, however, the University's faculty council voted 28-25 on November 28 not to accept the invitation, declaring that the school's emphasis on sports over academics was excessive. The wire service commented that "A team of 57 Ohio State University faculty members handed the second ranked Buckeyes their only defeat of the season.".[3] The University of Minnesota took the Buckeyes' place at Pasadena.

text: Conference standings[edit]

text:
1961 AAWU football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

No. 16 UCLA $
3
–
1
–
0

7
–
4
–
0

USC
2
–
1
–
1

4
–
5
–
1

Washington
2
–
1
–
1

5
–
4
–
1

Stanford
1
–
3
–
0

4
–
6
–
0

California
1
–
3
–
0

1
–
8
–
1

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 ACC football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team

W

L

W

L

No. 20 Duke $

5
–
1

7
–
3

North Carolina

4
–
3

5
–
5

Maryland

3
–
3

7
–
3

Clemson

3
–
3

5
–
5

NC State

3
–
4

4
–
6

South Carolina

3
–
4

4
–
6

Wake Forest

3
–
4

4
–
6

Virginia

2
–
4

4
–
6

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from AP Poll[4]

1961 Big 8 football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

No. 7 Colorado $
7
–
0
–
0

9
–
2
–
0

No. 11 Missouri
5
–
2
–
0

7
–
2
–
1

Kansas
5
–
2
–
0

7
–
3
–
1

Oklahoma
4
–
3
–
0

5
–
5
–
0

Iowa State
3
–
4
–
0

5
–
5
–
0

Oklahoma State
2
–
5
–
0

4
–
6
–
0

Nebraska
2
–
5
–
0

3
–
6
–
1

Kansas State
0
–
7
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 Big Ten football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

No. 2 Ohio State $
6
–
0
–
0

8
–
0
–
1

No. 6 Minnesota
6
–
1
–
0

8
–
2
–
0

No. 8 Michigan State
5
–
2
–
0

7
–
2
–
0

No. 12 Purdue
4
–
2
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Wisconsin
4
–
3
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Michigan
3
–
3
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Iowa
2
–
4
–
0

5
–
4
–
0

Northwestern
2
–
4
–
0

4
–
5
–
0

Indiana
0
–
6
–
0

2
–
7
–
0

Illinois
0
–
7
–
0

0
–
9
–
0

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 Border Conference football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Arizona State §
3
–
0
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

West Texas State
3
–
1
–
0

6
–
4
–
0

New Mexico State
2
–
1
–
0

5
–
4
–
1

Texas Western
1
–
3
–
0

3
–
7
–
0

Hardin–Simmons
0
–
4
–
0

0
–
10
–
0

$ – Conference champion

1961 IIAC football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Southern Illinois $
5
–
1
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

Northern Illinois State
3
–
2
–
1

4
–
4
–
1

Central Michigan
1
–
5
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 NCAA University Division independents football records

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

No. 15 Rutgers

–

9
–
0
–
0

No. 17 Arizona

–

8
–
1
–
1

Memphis State

–

8
–
2
–
0

Mississippi Southern

–

8
–
2
–
0

Villanova

–

8
–
2
–
0

No. 17 Penn State

–

8
–
3
–
0

No. 14 Syracuse

–

8
–
3
–
0

Holy Cross

–

7
–
3
–
0

Navy

–

7
–
3
–
0

Miami (FL)

–

7
–
4
–
0

Army

–

6
–
4
–
0

San Jose State

–

6
–
4
–
0

Xavier

–

6
–
4
–
0

Colgate

–

5
–
4
–
0

Detroit

–

5
–
4
–
0

Pacific

–

5
–
4
–
0

Houston

–

5
–
4
–
1

Notre Dame

–

5
–
5
–
0

Oregon State

–

5
–
5
–
0

Florida State

–

4
–
5
–
1

Boston University

–

4
–
5
–
0

Boston College

–

4
–
6
–
0

Oregon

–

4
–
6
–
0

Air Force

–

3
–
7
–
0

Pittsburgh

–

3
–
7
–
0

Washington State

–

3
–
7
–
0

Idaho

–

2
–
7
–
0

Dayton

–

2
–
8
–
0

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 Ivy League football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Columbia +
6
–
1
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Harvard +
6
–
1
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Dartmouth
5
–
2
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Princeton
5
–
2
–
0

5
–
4
–
0

Yale
3
–
4
–
0

4
–
5
–
0

Cornell
2
–
5
–
0

3
–
6
–
0

Penn
1
–
6
–
0

2
–
7
–
0

Brown
0
–
7
–
0

0
–
9
–
0

+ – Conference co-champions

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 Missouri Valley Conference football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Wichita $
3
–
0
–
0

8
–
3
–
0

North Texas State
1
–
2
–
0

5
–
4
–
1

Cincinnati
1
–
2
–
0

3
–
7
–
0

Tulsa
1
–
2
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

$ – Conference champion

1961 MSC football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Utah State +
5
–
0
–
1

9
–
1
–
1

Wyoming +
5
–
0
–
1

6
–
1
–
2

Utah
3
–
3
–
0

6
–
4
–
0

New Mexico
3
–
3
–
0

7
–
4
–
0

Montana
2
–
4
–
0

2
–
6
–
0

BYU
2
–
4
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

Colorado State
0
–
6
–
0

0
–
10
–
0

+ – Conference co-champions
Final season for conference

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 SEC football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

No. 1 Alabama +
7
–
0
–
0

11
–
0
–
0

No. 4 LSU +
6
–
0
–
0

10
–
1
–
0

No. 5 Ole Miss
5
–
1
–
0

9
–
2
–
0

No. 13 Georgia Tech
4
–
3
–
0

7
–
4
–
0

Tennessee
4
–
3
–
0

6
–
4
–
0

Florida
3
–
3
–
0

4
–
5
–
1

Auburn
3
–
4
–
0

6
–
4
–
0

Kentucky
2
–
4
–
0

5
–
5
–
0

Georgia
2
–
5
–
0

3
–
7
–
0

Mississippi State
1
–
5
–
0

5
–
5
–
0

Tulane
1
–
5
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

Vanderbilt
1
–
6
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

+ – Conference co-champions

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 Southern Conference football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

The Citadel $
5
–
1
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

Richmond
5
–
2
–
0

5
–
5
–
0

VMI
4
–
2
–
0

6
–
4
–
0

West Virginia
2
–
1
–
0

4
–
6
–
0

Furman
2
–
2
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

George Washington
3
–
4
–
0

3
–
6
–
0

VPI
2
–
3
–
0

4
–
5
–
0

Davidson
1
–
4
–
0

4
–
4
–
0

William & Mary
1
–
6
–
0

1
–
9
–
0

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from AP Poll

1961 Southwest Conference football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

No. 3 Texas +
6
–
1
–
0

10
–
1
–
0

No. 9 Arkansas +
6
–
1
–
0

8
–
3
–
0

No. 17 Rice
5
–
2
–
0

7
–
4
–
0

Texas A&M
3
–
4
–
0

4
–
5
–
1

TCU
2
–
4
–
1

3
–
5
–
2

Baylor
2
–
5
–
0

6
–
5
–
0

Texas Tech
2
–
5
–
0

4
–
6
–
0

SMU
1
–
5
–
1

2
–
7
–
1

+ – Conference co-champions

Rankings from AP Poll

text: Bowl games[edit]

text: Major bowls[edit]

text: Monday, January 1, 1962

text:
Bowl

SUGAR
#1 Alabama Crimson Tide
10
#9 Arkansas Razorbacks
3

COTTON
#3 Texas Longhorns
12
#5 Mississippi Rebels
7

ORANGE
#4 LSU Tigers
25
#7 Colorado Buffaloes
7

ROSE
#6 Minnesota Golden Gophers
21
#16 UCLA Bruins
3

text: Other bowls[edit]

text:
BOWL
Location
Date
Winner
Score
Runner-up

SUN
El Paso, TX
December 30
Villanova
17–9
Wichita State

GATOR
Jacksonville, FL
December 30
#17 Penn State
30–15
#13 Georgia Tech

TANGERINE
Orlando, FL
December 29
Lamar
21–14
Middle Tennessee

BLUEBONNET
Houston, TX
December 16
Kansas
33–7
#17 Rice

LIBERTY
Philadelphia, PA
December 16
#14 Syracuse
15–14
Miami (FL)

AVIATION
Dayton, OH
December 9
New Mexico
28–12
W. Michigan

GOTHAM
New York, NY
December 9
Baylor
24–9
#10 Utah State

MERCY
Los Angeles, CA
November 23
Fresno State
36–6
Bowling Green

text: Prior to the 1975 season, the Big Ten and AAWU (later Pac-8) conferences allowed only one postseason participant each, for the Rose Bowl.

text: Heisman Trophy[edit]

text:
Ernie Davis, HB - Syracuse, 824 points
Bob Ferguson, FB - Ohio State, 771
Jimmy Saxton, HB - Texas, 551
Sandy Stephens, QB - Minnesota, 543
Pat Trammell, QB - Alabama, 362
Joe Romig, G - Colorado, 279
John Hadl, QB - Kansas, 172
Gary Collins, WR - Maryland, 167
Roman Gabriel, QB - North Carolina State, 155
Merlin Olsen, DT - Utah State, 93

text: Other champions[edit]

text: Small college poll[edit]

text: In 1961, both United Press International (UPI) and the Associated Press (AP) conducted "small college" polls. The number one selection of both wire services was the Pittsburg State Gorillas,[7][8] who compiled a regular season record of 9–0 while outscoring opponents 299–25 and registering seven shutouts.[9] The Gorillas would go on to win two NAIA postseason games and finished 11–0 for the season.

text:
United Press International (coaches) final poll
Published on November 22[10]

Rank
School
Record
No. 1
votes
Total
points

1
Pittsburg State (KS)
9–0
14
250

2
Baldwin Wallace
8–0
1
179

3
Mississippi Southern
7–2
4
163

4
Southeastern Louisiana
9–1

148

5
Fresno State
9–0
8
147

6
Florida A&M
8–0

82

7
Wheaton
8–0

68

8
Whittier
9–0

59

9
Butler
9–0

56

10
Northern Michigan
6–2

55

Baldwin Wallace actually 9–0 when the poll was taken.[11]

Associated Press (writers) final poll
Published on November 22[12]

Rank
School
Record
No. 1
votes
Total
points

1
Pittsburg State (KS)
9–0
5
70

2
Baldwin Wallace
9–0

60

3
Fresno State
9–0

46

4
Florida A&M
8–0

42

T5
Whittier
9–0

34

T5
Lehigh
7–2

34

7
Linfield
9–0
1
26

8
Southeastern Louisiana
9–1

21

9
Lenoir–Rhyne
7–1–1
1
16

T10
Butler
9–0

13

T10
Mississippi Southern
7–2

13

text: Conference standings[edit]

text:
1961 California Collegiate Athletic Association football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

#3 AP / #5 UPI Fresno State $
5
–
0
–
0

10
–
0
–
0

Cal Poly
3
–
2
–
0

5
–
3
–
0

San Diego State
2
–
2
–
1

7
–
2
–
1

Los Angeles State
2
–
2
–
1

4
–
4
–
1

Long Beach State
2
–
3
–
0

5
–
5
–
0

UC Santa Barbara
0
–
5
–
0

2
–
8
–
0

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from College Division poll

1961 Far Western Conference football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

#16 UPI Humboldt State +
4
–
1
–
0

8
–
2
–
0

San Francisco St. +
4
–
1
–
0

8
–
2
–
0

UC Davis
3
–
2
–
0

5
–
4
–
0

Nevada
2
–
3
–
0

5
–
4
–
0

Sacramento State
2
–
3
–
0

4
–
5
–
0

Chico State
0
–
5
–
0

4
–
6
–
0

+ – Conference co-champions

Rankings from College Division poll

1961 Ohio Valley football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Tennessee Tech $
6
–
0
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

Middle Tennessee State
5
–
1
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

Western Kentucky
4
–
2
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Eastern Kentucky
3
–
3
–
0

4
–
5
–
0

Murray State
2
–
4
–
0

4
–
6
–
0

East Tennessee State
1
–
5
–
0

3
–
7
–
0

Morehead State
0
–
6
–
0

1
–
6
–
1

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from College Division poll

1961 SWAC football standings

v
t
e

Conf

Overall

Team
W

L

T

W

L

T

Jackson State $
6
–
1
–
0

9
–
2
–
0

Grambling
5
–
2
–
0

8
–
2
–
0

Southern
5
–
2
–
0

7
–
3
–
0

Texas Southern
5
–
2
–
0

6
–
3
–
0

Prairie View A&M
3
–
4
–
0

5
–
4
–
1

Wiley
2
–
4
–
1

4
–
4
–
1

Arkansas AM&N
1
–
5
–
1

3
–
6
–
1

Texas College
0
–
7
–
0

0
–
9
–
0

$ – Conference champion

Rankings from College Division poll

text: NAIA[edit]

text: The Pittsburg State Gorillas competed in the NAIA playoffs, reached the Camellia Bowl championship game, and defeated Linfield College of Oregon, 12–7.

text: Minor conference champions[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016)

text:
Conference
Champion(s)
Record

Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association
Albion
5–0–0