document_title: Procedures of the United States Congress

question_text: who writes a bill and introduce them to congress

text: Sessions[edit]

text: A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions", one for each year; Congress has occasionally also been called into an extra, (or special) session (the Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year). A new session commences on January 3 (or another date, if Congress so chooses) each year. Before the Twentieth Amendment, Congress met from the first Monday in December to April or May in the first session of their term (the "long session"); and from December to March 4 in the second "short session". (The new Congress would then meet for some days, for the inauguration, swearing in new members, and organization.)

text: The Constitution forbids either house from meeting any place outside the Capital, or from adjourning for more than three days, without the consent of the other house. The provision was intended to prevent one house from thwarting legislative business simply by refusing to meet. To avoid obtaining consent during long recesses, the House or Senate may sometimes hold pro forma meetings, sometimes only minutes long, every three days. The consent of both bodies is required for Congress's final adjournment, or adjournment sine die, at the end of each congressional session. If the two houses cannot agree on a date, the Constitution permits the President to settle the dispute.

text: Joint sessions[edit]

text: Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include the counting of electoral votes following a Presidential election and the President's State of the Union address. Other meetings of both House and Senate are called Joint Meetings of Congress, held after unanimous consent agreements to recess and meet. Meetings of Congress for Presidential Inaugurations may also be Joint Sessions, if both House and Senate are in session at the time, otherwise they are formal joint gatherings.

text: At some time during the first two months of each session, the President customarily delivers the State of the Union Address, a speech in which he assesses the situation of the country and outlines his legislative proposals for the congressional session. The speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne given by the British monarch, and is mandated by the Constitution of the United States—though it is not necessarily required to be delivered each year or in the customary manner. Thomas Jefferson discontinued the original practice of delivering the speech in person before both houses of Congress, deeming it too monarchical. Instead, Jefferson and his successors sent a written message to Congress each year. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of personally attending to deliver the speech; few Presidents have deviated from this custom since.

text: Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except for the joint session to count electoral votes for President, when the Constitution requires the President of the Senate (the Vice President of the United States) to preside.

text: Bills and resolutions[edit]

text: Ideas for legislation can come from many areas, including members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, an executive agency such as the president or cabinet officer or executive agency, and the usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review.[2] A proposal has usually one of four principal forms: the bill, the joint resolution, the concurrent resolution, and the simple resolution.[3]

text:
Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses.[3] It is presented to the president after both Houses agree.[3]
Joint resolutions There is little practical difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number.[3]
Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate, and accordingly aren't presented to the president for approval later. In the House, it begins with "H.Con.Res."[3]
Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res."[3]

text: Any member of Congress may introduce a bill at any time while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk's desk.[3] A sponsor's signature is required, and there can be many co-sponsors. It's assigned a number by the Clerk. Then it's referred to a committee.[3] Committees study each bill intensely at this stage.[3]

text: The most important executive communication is usually the president's annual message which contains a lengthy budget proposal.[2] Drafting statutes is an art that requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience."[2] Congressional committees sometimes draft bills after studies and hearings covering periods of a year or more.[2] A proposal may be introduced in Congress as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Most legislative proposals are introduced as bills, but some are introduced as joint resolutions. There is little practical difference between the two, except that joint resolutions may include preambles but bills may not. Joint resolutions are the normal method used to propose a constitutional amendment or to declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of Congress, or to regulate procedure. In many cases, lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Congressional lobbyists are legally required to be registered in a central database.

text: How bills become laws[edit]

text: Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution provides that: "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, whenever the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. Nevertheless, while the Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation bills, it does retain the power to amend or reject them. A congressional act in 1974 established procedures to try to establish appropriate annual spending levels.[4]

text: Each bill goes through several stages in each house. The first stage involves consideration by a committee which often seeks input from relevant departments as well as requests feedback from the Government Accountability Office.[5] Most legislation is considered by standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a particular subject matter, such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month.[6] Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting.[6] Open committee meetings may be covered by the media.[6] In some cases, bills may be sent to select committees, which tend to have more narrow jurisdictions than standing committees. If a bill is important, the committee may set a date for public hearings announced by the committee's chairman.[7] Each standing and select committee is led by a chair (who belongs to the majority party) and a ranking member (who belongs to the minority party). Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill.[3] Sometimes transcripts of these meetings are made public.[3] Then, a bill may go to what's called a mark-up session where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions.[3] Committees are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence when considering bills. They may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After considering and debating a measure, the committee votes on whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. Not reporting a bill or tabling it means it has been rejected. If amendments to a bill are extensive, then sometimes a new bill with all the amendments built in will be written, sometimes known as a clean bill with a new number.[3]

text: Both houses provide for procedures under which the committee can be bypassed or overruled, but they are rarely used. If reported by the committee, the bill reaches the floor of the full house which considers it. This can be simple or complex.[3] Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution hammering out the particulars of debate––time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such.[3] Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak.[3] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it.[3] Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions.[8]

text: The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House of Representatives and the Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.

text: Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other, which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill.[3] If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives.[3] One mechanism Congress uses to work within revenue constraints is called the reconciliation process which is a multiple step way to keep new budgets within the bounds of existing ones.[4] In addition, both Houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.[4]

text: In many cases, conference committees have introduced substantial changes to bills and added unrequested spending, significantly departing from both the House and Senate versions. President Ronald Reagan once quipped, "If an orange and an apple went into conference consultations, it might come out a pear."[9] If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes; otherwise, it fails.

text: There are a variety of means for members to vote on bills, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting.[10] Most votes, including quorum votes, are done electronically, and allow members to vote yea or nay or present.[10] They light up when the vote is in process.[10] Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions (yea indicated by the color green, nay by red.)[10] To conduct a voice vote the chairman asks As many as are in favor say Aye, as many as are opposed, say No.[10] Rules permit live media coverage of voting, although prohibit use of these broadcasts for political purposes or political advertisements.[10] House rules require a three-fifths vote to pass a ruling that contains a specified federal income tax rate increase.[10] One member can't cast a vote for another member.[10] It's possible for citizens to learn how congresspersons voted by consulting an online database.[11]

text: After passage by both houses, a bill is considered to be enrolled and is sent to the president for approval.[3] The president may sign the bill and make it law. The President may also choose to veto the bill, returning it to Congress with his objections. In such a case, the bill only becomes law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may choose to take no action, neither signing nor vetoing the bill. In such a case, the Constitution states that the bill automatically becomes law after ten days, excluding Sundays, unless Congress is adjourned during this period. Therefore, the president may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress.

text: Every Act of Congress or joint resolution begins with an enacting formula or resolving formula stipulated by law. These are:

text:
Act of Congress: "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled."
Joint resolution: "Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled."

text: Quorum and vote[edit]

text: The Constitution specifies that a majority of members constitutes a quorum to do business in each house. The rules of each house provide that a quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Representatives and senators rarely force the presence of a quorum by demanding quorum calls; thus, in most cases, debates continue even if a majority is not present.

text: Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters; members shout out "aye" or "no," and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote on the demand of one-fifth of the members present. If the result of the voice vote is unclear, or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually ensues. The Senate uses roll-call votes; a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when his or her name is announced. The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll-call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. In the Senate, the Vice President may (if present) cast the tiebreaking vote.


document_title: List of Better Call Saul episodes

question_text: how many episodes in season 2 of better call saul

root

text: List of Better Call Saul episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)11"Uno"Vince GilliganVince Gilligan & Peter GouldFebruary 8, 2015 (2015-02-08)6.88[5]
22"Mijo"Michelle MacLarenPeter GouldFebruary 9, 2015 (2015-02-09)3.42[6]
33"Nacho"Terry McDonoughThomas SchnauzFebruary 16, 2015 (2015-02-16)3.23[7]
44"Hero"Colin BuckseyGennifer HutchisonFebruary 23, 2015 (2015-02-23)2.87[8]
55"Alpine Shepherd Boy"Nicole KassellBradley PaulMarch 2, 2015 (2015-03-02)2.71[9]
66"Five-O"Adam BernsteinGordon SmithMarch 9, 2015 (2015-03-09)2.57[10]
77"Bingo"Larysa KondrackiGennifer HutchisonMarch 16, 2015 (2015-03-16)2.67[11]
88"RICO"Colin BuckseyGordon SmithMarch 23, 2015 (2015-03-23)2.87[12]
99"Pimento"Thomas SchnauzThomas SchnauzMarch 30, 2015 (2015-03-30)2.38[13]
1010"Marco"Peter GouldPeter GouldApril 6, 2015 (2015-04-06)2.53[14]

text: Season 2 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)111"Switch"Thomas SchnauzThomas SchnauzFebruary 15, 2016 (2016-02-15)2.57[15]
122"Cobbler"Terry McDonoughGennifer HutchisonFebruary 22, 2016 (2016-02-22)2.23[16]
133"Amarillo"Scott WinantJonathan GlatzerFebruary 29, 2016 (2016-02-29)2.20[17]
144"Gloves Off"Adam BernsteinGordon SmithMarch 7, 2016 (2016-03-07)2.20[18]
155"Rebecca"John ShibanAnn CherkisMarch 14, 2016 (2016-03-14)1.99[19]
166"Bali Ha'i"Michael SlovisGennifer HutchisonMarch 21, 2016 (2016-03-21)2.11[20]
177"Inflatable"Colin BuckseyGordon SmithMarch 28, 2016 (2016-03-28)2.03[21]
188"Fifi"Larysa KondrackiThomas SchnauzApril 4, 2016 (2016-04-04)1.93[22]
199"Nailed"Peter GouldPeter GouldApril 11, 2016 (2016-04-11)2.06[23]
2010"Klick"Vince GilliganHeather Marion & Vince GilliganApril 18, 2016 (2016-04-18)2.26[24]

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)211"Mabel"Vince GilliganVince Gilligan & Peter GouldApril 10, 2017 (2017-04-10)1.81[25]
222"Witness"Vince GilliganThomas SchnauzApril 17, 2017 (2017-04-17)1.46[26]
233"Sunk Costs"John ShibanGennifer HutchisonApril 24, 2017 (2017-04-24)1.52[27]
244"Sabrosito"Thomas SchnauzJonathan GlatzerMay 1, 2017 (2017-05-01)1.56[28]
255"Chicanery"Daniel SackheimGordon SmithMay 8, 2017 (2017-05-08)1.76[29]
266"Off Brand"Keith GordonAnn CherkisMay 15, 2017 (2017-05-15)1.72[30]
277"Expenses"Thomas SchnauzThomas SchnauzMay 22, 2017 (2017-05-22)1.65[31]
288"Slip"Adam BernsteinHeather MarionJune 5, 2017 (2017-06-05)1.63[32]
299"Fall"Minkie SpiroGordon SmithJune 12, 2017 (2017-06-12)1.47[33]
3010"Lantern"Peter GouldGennifer HutchisonJune 19, 2017 (2017-06-19)1.85[34]

text: Season 4 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)311"Smoke"Minkie SpiroPeter GouldAugust 6, 2018 (2018-08-06)1.77[35]
322"Breathe"[36]Michelle MacLarenThomas SchnauzAugust 13, 2018 (2018-08-13)TBD
333"Something Beautiful"[4]TBATBAAugust 20, 2018 (2018-08-20)TBD
344"Talk"[4]TBATBAAugust 27, 2018 (2018-08-27)TBD
355"Quite a Ride"[4]TBATBASeptember 3, 2018 (2018-09-03)TBD

text: Ratings[edit]

text: SeasonEp. 1Ep. 2Ep. 3Ep. 4Ep. 5Ep. 6Ep. 7Ep. 8Ep. 9Ep. 1016.883.423.232.872.712.572.672.872.382.5322.572.232.202.201.992.112.031.932.062.2631.811.461.521.561.761.721.651.631.471.8541.77TBDTBDTBDTBDTBDTBDTBDTBDTBD


document_title: List of tectonic plate interactions

question_text: what plate boundary is formed between the philippine plate and the eurasian plate

text: List of tectonic plate interactions

text: Divergent boundaries[edit]

text:
The East African Rift (Great Rift Valley) in eastern Africa
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge system separates the North American Plate and South American Plate in the west from the Eurasian Plate and African Plate in the east
The Gakkel Ridge is a slow spreading ridge located in the Arctic Ocean
The East Pacific Rise, extending from the South Pacific to the Gulf of California
The Baikal Rift Zone in eastern Russia
The Red Sea Rift
The Aden Ridge along the southern shore of the Arabian Peninsula
The Carlsberg Ridge in the eastern Indian Ocean
The Gorda Ridge off the northwest coast of North America
The Explorer Ridge off the northwest coast of North America
The Juan de Fuca Ridge off the northwest coast of North America
The Chile Rise off the southeast Pacific

tag: ul

text: Convergent boundaries (subduction zone)[edit]

text:
The oceanic Nazca Plate subducts beneath the continental South American Plate at the Peru–Chile Trench.
Just north of the Nazca Plate, the oceanic Cocos Plate subducts under the Caribbean Plate and forms the Middle America Trench.
The Cascadia subduction zone is where the oceanic Juan de Fuca, Gorda and Explorer Plates subduct under the continental North American plate.
The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts under the North American Plate (composed of both continental and oceanic sections) forming the Aleutian Trench.
The oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate at the Japan Trench.
The oceanic Philippine Sea Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate at the Ryukyu Trench.
The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts under the oceanic Philippine Sea Plate forming the Mariana Trench.
The oceanic Philippine Sea Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt forming the Philippine Trench and the East Luzon Trench.
The Eurasian Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Manila Trench.
The Sunda Plate is subducting under the Philippine Mobile Belt at the Negros Trench and the Cotobato Trench.
The oceanic Indo-Australian Plate is subducted beneath the continental Sunda Plate along the Sunda Trench.
The oceanic Pacific Plate is subducting under the Indo-Australian Plate north and east of New Zealand, but the direction of subduction reverses south of the Alpine Fault where the Indo-Australian Plate starts subducting under the Pacific Plate.
The South American Plate is subducting under the South Sandwich Plate, forming the South Sandwich Trench.

text: Orogenic belts[edit]

text:
The most dramatic orogenic belt on the planet is the one between the Indo-Australian Plate and African Plate on one side (to the South) and the Eurasian Plate on the other side (to the North). This belt runs from New Zealand in the East-SouthEast, through Indonesia, along the Himalayas, through the Middle East up to the Mediterranean in the West-Northwest. It is also called the "Tethyan" Zone, as it constitutes the zone along which the ancient Tethys Ocean was deformed and disappeared. The following mountain belts can be distinguished:

The European Alps
The Carpathians
The Pyrenees
The Apennines
The Dinarides
The North African mountain belts such as the Atlas Mountains
The Karst Plateau of the Balkan Peninsula
The Caucasus
The Zagros
The Himalayas
The Indonesian Archipelago
The Southern Alps of New Zealand

The Andes orogenic belt is the latest of a series of orogenies along the western margin of the South American Plate.

text: Transform boundaries[edit]

text:
The San Andreas Fault in California is an active transform boundary. The Pacific Plate (carrying the city of Los Angeles) is moving northwards with respect to the North American Plate.
The Queen Charlotte Fault on the Pacific Northwest coast of North America
The Motagua Fault, which crosses through Guatemala, is a transform boundary between the southern edge of the North American Plate and the northern edge of the Caribbean Plate.
New Zealand's Alpine Fault is another active transform boundary.
The Dead Sea Transform (DST) fault which runs through the Jordan River Valley in the Middle East.
The Owen Fracture Zone along the southeastern boundary of the Arabian Plate.


document_title: List of Tour de France general classification winners

question_text: when was the last time a french rider won the tour de france

text: History[edit]

text: The Tour de France was established in 1903 by newspaper L'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race was won by Frenchman Maurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose. Henri Cornet became the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a points-based system, in which the cyclist who has  the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until 1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour was François Faber of Luxembourg, who won in 1909.[8]

tag: p

text: Belgian riders were more successful before and after the First World War (which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such as Nicolas Frantz won the Tour with the Alcyon team. However, when Alcyon cyclist Maurice De Waele won the Tour in 1929 while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of the Second World War, the Tour de France was suspended from 1940 to 1946.[9]

text: After the Second World War, no one dominated the Tour until Louison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from 1953 to 1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.[10] This was bettered by the French cyclist Jacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from 1961 to 1964. Anquetil, who also won in 1957, became the first to win five Tours.[11] Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx won four successive Tours from 1969 to 1972 and the 1974 Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour.[12]

text: Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in 1975, but Bernard Thévenet beat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in 1977; however, he was eclipsed in following years by fellow Frenchman Bernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in 1978 and 1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx, Hugo Koblet and Fausto Coppi) managed to do so.[13] In 1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won by Joop Zoetemelk.[14] Hinault returned in 1981 and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in 1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in 1985 to win his fifth Tour.

text: American Greg LeMond became the first non-European to win the Tour in 1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.[15] In 1991, Spaniard Miguel Indurain won his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.[16] He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in 1996, but was beaten by Bjarne Riis, who later admitted to using Erythropoietin.[17] Jan Ullrich and Marco Pantani won in 1997 and 1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed by doping scandals.[18]

text: The 1999 Tour saw the first victory of Lance Armstrong,[19] which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.[20] He was stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had used performance-enhancing drugs throughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.[7] Floyd Landis won the Tour in 2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of a skewed testosterone/epitestosterone ratio.[21] Óscar Pereiro was subsequently awarded the victory. Alberto Contador won the 2007 Tour with the Discovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred by doping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in 2008, as his Astana team was banned for its part. Fellow Spaniard Carlos Sastre of Team CSC won.[22] Contador and Astana returned in 2009 to regain the title. He won the Tour again in 2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-up Andy Schleck was awarded the victory.

text: Cadel Evans became the first Australian to win the Tour in 2011.[23] The following year, Bradley Wiggins became the first British cyclist to win the Tour.[24] Chris Froome became the second successive British winner in 2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.[25] He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, with Vincenzo Nibali winning his first Tour.[26] Froome regained the title in 2015 and then successfully defended it in 2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.[27] He then backed it up with a third consecutive win in 2017.[5]

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Key

Winner won points classification in the same year

*

Winner won mountains classification in the same year

#

Winner won young rider classification in the same year

Winner won points and mountains classification in the same year

text:
The "Year" column refers to the year the competition was held, and wikilinks to the article about that season.
The "Distance" column refers to the distance over which the race was held.
The "Margin" column refers to the margin of time or points by which the winner defeated the runner-up.
The "Stage wins" column refers to the number of stage wins the winner had during the race.

text:
Tour de France general classification winners

Year

Country

Cyclist

Sponsor/Team

Distance

Time/Points

Margin

Stage wins

Stages in lead

1903

 France

Maurice Garin

La Française

2,428 km (1,509 mi)

94h 33' 14"

+ 2h 59' 21"

3

6

1904

 France

Maurice Garin Henri Cornet[E]

Conte

2,428 km (1,509 mi)

96h 05' 55"

+ 2h 16' 14"

1

3

1905

 France

Louis Trousselier

Peugeot–Wolber

2,994 km (1,860 mi)

35

26

5

10

1906

 France

René Pottier

Peugeot–Wolber

4,637 km (2,881 mi)

31

8

5

12

1907

 France

Lucien Petit-Breton

Peugeot–Wolber

4,488 km (2,789 mi)

47

19

2

5

1908

 France

Lucien Petit-Breton

Peugeot–Wolber

4,497 km (2,794 mi)

36

32

5

13

1909

 Luxembourg

François Faber

Alcyon–Dunlop

4,498 km (2,795 mi)

37

20

6

13

1910

 France

Octave Lapize

Alcyon–Dunlop

4,734 km (2,942 mi)

63

4

4

3

1911

 France

Gustave Garrigou

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,343 km (3,320 mi)

43

18

2

13

1912

 Belgium

Odile Defraye

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,289 km (3,286 mi)

49

59

3

13

1913

 Belgium

Philippe Thys

Peugeot–Wolber

5,287 km (3,285 mi)

197h 54' 00"

+ 8' 37"

1

8

1914

 Belgium

Philippe Thys

Peugeot–Wolber

5,380 km (3,340 mi)

200h 28' 48"

+ 1' 50"

1

15

1915

World War I

1916

1917

1918

1919

 Belgium

Firmin Lambot

La Sportive

5,560 km (3,450 mi)

231h 07' 15"

+ 1h 42' 54"

1

2

1920

 Belgium

Philippe Thys

La Sportive

5,503 km (3,419 mi)

228h 36' 13"

+ 57' 21"

4

14

1921

 Belgium

Léon Scieur

La Sportive

5,485 km (3,408 mi)

221h 50' 26"

+ 18' 36"

2

14

1922

 Belgium

Firmin Lambot

Peugeot–Wolber

5,375 km (3,340 mi)

222h 08' 06"

+ 41' 15"

0

3

1923

 France

Henri Pélissier

Automoto–Hutchinson

5,386 km (3,347 mi)

222h 15' 30"

+ 30 '41"

3

6

1924

 Italy

Ottavio Bottecchia

Automoto

5,425 km (3,371 mi)

226h 18' 21"

+ 35' 36"

4

15

1925

 Italy

Ottavio Bottecchia

Automoto–Hutchinson

5,440 km (3,380 mi)

219h 10' 18"

+ 54' 20"

4

13

1926

 Belgium

Lucien Buysse

Automoto–Hutchinson

5,745 km (3,570 mi)

238h 44' 25"

+ 1h 22' 25"

2

8

1927

 Luxembourg

Nicolas Frantz

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,398 km (3,354 mi)

198h 16' 42"

+ 1h 48' 41"

3

14

1928

 Luxembourg

Nicolas Frantz

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,476 km (3,403 mi)

192h 48' 58"

+ 50' 07"

5

22

1929

 Belgium

Maurice De Waele

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,286 km (3,285 mi)

186h 39' 15"

+44' 23"

1

16

1930

 France

André Leducq

Alcyon–Dunlop

4,822 km (2,996 mi)

172h 12' 16"

+ 14' 13"

2

13

1931

 France

Antonin Magne

France

5,091 km (3,163 mi)

177h 10' 03"

+ 12' 56"

1

16

1932

 France

André Leducq

France

4,479 km (2,783 mi)

154h 11' 49"

+ 24' 03"

6

19

1933

 France

Georges Speicher

France

4,395 km (2,731 mi)

147h 51' 37"

+ 4' 01"

3

12

1934

 France

Antonin Magne

France

4,470 km (2,780 mi)

147h 13' 58"

+ 27' 31"

3

22

1935

 Belgium

Romain Maes

Belgium

4,338 km (2,696 mi)

141h 23' 00"

+ 17' 52"

3

21

1936

 Belgium

Sylvère Maes

Belgium

4,442 km (2,760 mi)

142h 47' 32"

+ 26' 55"

4

14

1937

 France

Roger Lapébie

France

4,415 km (2,743 mi)

138h 58' 31"

+ 7' 17"

3

4

1938

 Italy

Gino Bartali*

Italy

4,694 km (2,917 mi)

148h 29' 12"

+ 18' 27"

2

8

1939

 Belgium

Sylvère Maes*

Belgium

4,224 km (2,625 mi)

132h 03' 17"

+ 30' 38"

2

4

1940

World War II

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

 France

Jean Robic

France

4,642 km (2,884 mi)

148h 11' 25"

+ 3' 58"

3

1

1948

 Italy

Gino Bartali*

Italy

4,922 km (3,058 mi)

147h 10' 36"

+ 26' 16"

7

9

1949

 Italy

Fausto Coppi*

Italy

4,808 km (2,988 mi)

149h 40' 49"

+ 10' 55"

3

5

1950

  Switzerland

Ferdinand Kübler

Switzerland

4,773 km (2,966 mi)

145h 36' 56"

+ 9' 30"

3

11

1951

  Switzerland

Hugo Koblet

Switzerland

4,690 km (2,910 mi)

142h 20' 14"

+ 22' 00"

5

11

1952

 Italy

Fausto Coppi*

Italy

4,898 km (3,043 mi)

151h 57' 20"

+ 28' 17"

5

14

1953

 France

Louison Bobet

France

4,476 km (2,781 mi)

129h 23' 25"

+ 14' 18"

2

5

1954

 France

Louison Bobet

France

4,656 km (2,893 mi)

140h 06' 05"

+ 15' 49"

3

14

1955

 France

Louison Bobet

France

4,495 km (2,793 mi)

130h 29' 26"

+ 4' 53"

2

6

1956

 France

Roger Walkowiak

France

4,498 km (2,795 mi)

124h 01' 16"

+ 1' 25"

0

8

1957

 France

Jacques Anquetil

France

4,669 km (2,901 mi)

135h 44' 42"

+ 14' 56"

4

15

1958

 Luxembourg

Charly Gaul

Luxembourg

4,319 km (2,684 mi)

116h 59' 05"

+ 3' 10"

4

2

1959

 Spain

Federico Bahamontes*

Spain

4,358 km (2,708 mi)

123h 46' 45"

+ 4' 01"

1

6

1960

 Italy

Gastone Nencini

Italy

4,173 km (2,593 mi)

112h 08' 42"

+ 5' 02"

0

14

1961

 France

Jacques Anquetil

France

4,397 km (2,732 mi)

122h 01' 33"

+ 12' 14"

2

21

1962

 France

Jacques Anquetil

Saint-Raphaël–Helyett–Hutchinson

4,274 km (2,656 mi)

114h 31' 54"

+ 4' 59"

2

3

1963

 France

Jacques Anquetil

Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–R. Geminiani

4,138 km (2,571 mi)

113h 30' 05"

+ 3' 35"

4

5

1964

 France

Jacques Anquetil

Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–Dunlop

4,504 km (2,799 mi)

127h 09' 44"

+ 55"

4

6

1965

 Italy

Felice Gimondi

Salvarani

4,188 km (2,602 mi)

116h 42' 06"

+ 2' 40"

3

18

1966

 France

Lucien Aimar

Ford France–Hutchinson

4,329 km (2,690 mi)

117h 34' 21"

+ 1' 07"

0

6

1967

 France

Roger Pingeon

Peugeot–BP–Michelin

4,779 km (2,970 mi)

136h 53' 50"

+ 3' 40"

1

17

1968

 Netherlands

Jan Janssen

Pelforth–Sauvage–Lejeune

4,492 km (2,791 mi)

133h 49' 42"

+ 38"

2

1

1969

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Faema

4,117 km (2,558 mi)

116h 16' 02"

+ 17' 54"

6

18

1970

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx*

Faemino–Faema

4,254 km (2,643 mi)

119h 31' 49"

+ 12' 41"

8

20

1971

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Molteni

3,608 km (2,242 mi)

96h 45' 14"

+ 9' 51"

4

17

1972

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Molteni

3,846 km (2,390 mi)

108h 17' 18"

+ 10' 41"

6

15

1973

 Spain

Luis Ocaña

Bic

4,090 km (2,540 mi)

122h 25' 34"

+ 15' 51"

6

14

1974

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Molteni

4,098 km (2,546 mi)

116h 16' 58"

+ 8' 04"

8

18

1975

 France

Bernard Thévenet

Peugeot–BP–Michelin

4,000 km (2,500 mi)

114h 35' 31"

+ 2' 47"

2

8

1976

 Belgium

Lucien Van Impe

Gitane–Campagnolo

4,017 km (2,496 mi)

116h 22' 23"

+ 4' 14"

1

12

1977

 France

Bernard Thévenet

Peugeot–Esso–Michelin

4,096 km (2,545 mi)

115h 38' 30"

+ 48"

1

8

1978

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Gitane–Campagnolo

3,908 km (2,428 mi)

108h 18' 00"

+ 3' 56"

3

3

1979

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Gitane

3,765 km (2,339 mi)

103h 06' 50"

+ 13' 07"

7

17

1980

 Netherlands

Joop Zoetemelk

TI–Raleigh–Creda

3,842 km (2,387 mi)

109h 19' 14"

+ 6' 55"

2

10

1981

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Elf–Gitane

3,753 km (2,332 mi)

96h 19' 38"

+ 14' 34"

5

18

1982

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Elf–Gitane

3,507 km (2,179 mi)

92h 08' 46"

+ 6' 21"

4

12

1983

 France

Laurent Fignon#

Renault–Elf

3,809 km (2,367 mi)

105h 07' 52"

+ 4' 04"

1

6

1984

 France

Laurent Fignon

Renault–Elf

4,021 km (2,499 mi)

112h 03' 40"

+ 10' 32"

5

7

1985

 France

Bernard Hinault

La Vie Claire

4,109 km (2,553 mi)

113h 24' 23"

+ 1' 42"

2

16

1986

 United States

Greg LeMond

La Vie Claire

4,094 km (2,544 mi)

110h 35' 19"

+ 3' 10"

1

7

1987

 Ireland

Stephen Roche

Carrera Jeans–Vagabond

4,231 km (2,629 mi)

115h 27' 42"

+ 40"

1

3

1988

 Spain

Pedro Delgado

Reynolds

3,286 km (2,042 mi)

84h 27' 53"

+ 7' 13"

1

11

1989

 United States

Greg LeMond

AD Renting–W-Cup–Bottecchia

3,285 km (2,041 mi)

87h 38' 35"

+ 8"

3

8

1990

 United States

Greg LeMond

Z–Tomasso

3,504 km (2,177 mi)

90h 43' 20"

+ 2' 16"

0

2

1991

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,914 km (2,432 mi)

101h 01' 20"

+ 3' 36"

2

10

1992

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,983 km (2,475 mi)

100h 49' 30"

+ 4' 35"

3

10

1993

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,714 km (2,308 mi)

95h 57' 09"

+ 4' 59"

2

14

1994

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,978 km (2,472 mi)

103h 38' 38"

+ 5' 39"

1

13

1995

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,635 km (2,259 mi)

92h 44' 59"

+ 4' 35"

2

13

1996

 Denmark

Bjarne Riis[A]

Team Telekom

3,765 km (2,339 mi)

95h 57' 16"

+ 1' 41"

2

13

1997

 Germany

Jan Ullrich#

Team Telekom

3,950 km (2,450 mi)

100h 30' 35"

+ 9' 09"

2

12

1998

 Italy

Marco Pantani

Mercatone Uno–Bianchi

3,875 km (2,408 mi)

92h 49' 46"

+ 3' 21"

2

7

1999[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,687 km (2,291 mi)

91h 32' 16"

+ 7' 37"

4

15

2000[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,662 km (2,275 mi)

92h 33' 08"

+ 6' 02"

1

12

2001[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,458 km (2,149 mi)

86h 17' 28"

+ 6' 44"

4

8

2002[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,272 km (2,033 mi)

82h 05' 12"

+ 7' 17"

4

11

2003[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,427 km (2,129 mi)

83h 41' 12"

+ 1' 01"

1

13

2004[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,391 km (2,107 mi)

83h 36' 02"

+ 6' 19"

5

7

2005[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

Discovery Channel

3,593 km (2,233 mi)

86h 15' 02"

+ 4' 40"

1

17

2006

 Spain

Floyd Landis Óscar Pereiro[C]

Caisse d'Epargne–Illes Balears

3,657 km (2,272 mi)

89h 40' 27"

+ 32"

0

8

2007

 Spain

Alberto Contador#

Discovery Channel

3,570 km (2,220 mi)

91h 00' 26"

+ 23"

1

4

2008

 Spain

Carlos Sastre*

Team CSC

3,559 km (2,211 mi)

87h 52' 52"

+ 58"

1

5

2009

 Spain

Alberto Contador

Astana

3,459 km (2,149 mi)

85h 48' 35"

+ 4' 11"

2

7

2010

 Luxembourg

Alberto Contador Andy Schleck#[D]

Team Saxo Bank

3,642 km (2,263 mi)

91h 59' 27"

+ 1' 22"

2

12

2011

 Australia

Cadel Evans

BMC Racing Team

3,430 km (2,130 mi)

86h 12' 22"

+ 1' 34"

1

2

2012

 Great Britain

Bradley Wiggins

Team Sky

3,496 km (2,172 mi)

87h 34' 47"

+ 3' 21"

2

14

2013

 Great Britain

Chris Froome

Team Sky

3,404 km (2,115 mi)

83h 56' 20"

+ 4' 20"

3

14

2014

 Italy

Vincenzo Nibali

Astana

3,660.5 km (2,274.5 mi)

89h 59' 06"

+ 7' 37"

4

19

2015

 Great Britain

Chris Froome*

Team Sky

3,360.3 km (2,088.0 mi)

84h 46' 14"

+ 1' 12"

1

16

2016

 Great Britain

Chris Froome

Team Sky

3,529 km (2,193 mi)

89h 04' 48"

+ 4' 05"

2

14

2017

 Great Britain

Chris Froome

Team Sky

3,540 km (2,200 mi)

86h 20' 55"

+ 54"

0

15

2018

 Great Britain

Geraint Thomas

Team Sky

3,349 km (2,081 mi)

83h 17' 13"

+ 1' 51"

2

11

text: Multiple winners[edit]

text: The following riders have won the Tour de France on 2 or more occasions. Since the retirement of two-time winner Alberto Contador in 2017, the only active rider on the list as of that year is Chris Froome, currently with 4 wins. Contador had originally won three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation.[D]

text: Lance Armstrong was removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. Had his tainted Tour victories been reallocated (as were the victories of Floyd Landis and Contador) to the second placed rider in each race, Jan Ullrich would have joined the list with 4 Tour wins. However, the race organisers ASO decided not to reallocate the titles won in those years, in recognition of the historic doping problem in the sport at that time - Ullrich himself having been banned for a doping violation. Ullrich, therefore, has a single Tour victory to his name.

text:
Multiple winners of the Tour de France general classification

Cyclist

Total

Years

 Jacques Anquetil (FRA)

5

1957, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964

 Eddy Merckx (BEL)

5

1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974

 Bernard Hinault (FRA)

5

1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985

 Miguel Indurain (ESP)

5

1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995

 Chris Froome (GBR)

4

2013, 2015, 2016, 2017

 Philippe Thys (BEL)

3

1913, 1914, 1920

 Louison Bobet (FRA)

3

1953, 1954, 1955

 Greg LeMond (USA)

3

1986, 1989, 1990

 Lucien Petit-Breton (FRA)

2

1907, 1908

 Firmin Lambot (BEL)

2

1919, 1922

 Ottavio Bottecchia (ITA)

2

1924, 1925

 Nicolas Frantz (LUX)

2

1927, 1928

 André Leducq (FRA)

2

1930, 1932

 Antonin Magne (FRA)

2

1931, 1934

 Sylvère Maes (BEL)

2

1936, 1939

 Gino Bartali (ITA)

2

1938, 1948

 Fausto Coppi (ITA)

2

1949, 1952

 Bernard Thévenet (FRA)

2

1975, 1977

 Laurent Fignon (FRA)

2

1983, 1984

 Alberto Contador (ESP)[D]

2

2007, 2009

text: By nationality[edit]

text:
Tour de France general classification winners by nationality

Country

No. of wins

No. of winning cyclists

 France

36

23

 Belgium

18

10

 Spain[D]

12

7

 Italy

10

7

 Great Britain

6

3

 Luxembourg

5

4

 United States[B][C]

3

1

 Netherlands

2

2

  Switzerland

2

2

 Denmark

1

1

 Germany

1

1

 Ireland

1

1

 Australia

1

1

text: Footnotes[edit]

text: A. ^ Bjarne Riis has admitted to doping during the 1996 Tour de France. The organizers of the Tour de France have stated that they no longer consider him to be the winner, although Union Cycliste Internationale has so far refused to change the official status due to the amount of time passed since his win. Jan Ullrich was placed second on the podium in Paris.[28]

text: B. a b c d e f g h Lance Armstrong was declared winner of seven consecutive Tours from 1999 to 2005. However, in October 2012 he was stripped of all titles by the UCI due to the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The Tour director Christian Prudhomme had previously declared that if this happened, there would be no alternate winners for those years, but this has not yet been made official.[29]

text: C. a b Floyd Landis was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2006 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs during stage 17 of the race. The United States Anti-Doping Agency found him guilty of using synthetic testosterone during the race and stripped him of his title on 20 September 2007.[30]

text: D. a b c Alberto Contador was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2010 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for the prohibited substance Clenbuterol on a rest day. The Court of Arbitration for Sport found him guilty of using clenbuterol during the race and stripped him of his title on 6 February 2012.[31]

text: E. ^ Henri Cornet was declared the winner of 1904 race after the disqualification of Maurice Garin for cheating.


document_title: Our Town

question_text: who dies in act 3 of our town

question_tokens: who dies in act 3 of our town

text: Our Town

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Act I: Daily Life[edit]

text: The Stage Manager introduces the audience to the small town of Grover's Corners, New Hampshire, and the people living there as a morning begins in the year 1901. Professor Willard speaks to the audience about the history of the town. Joe Crowell delivers the paper to Doc Gibbs, Howie Newsome delivers the milk, and the Webb and Gibbs households send their children (Emily and George, respectively) off to school on this beautifully simple morning.

text: Act II: Love and Marriage[edit]

text: Three years have passed, and George and Emily prepare to wed. The day is filled with stress. Howie Newsome is delivering milk in the pouring rain while Si Crowell, younger brother of Joe, laments how George's baseball talents will be squandered. George pays an awkward visit to his soon-to-be in-laws. Here, the Stage Manager interrupts the scene and takes the audience back a year, to the end of Emily and George's junior year. Emily confronts George about his pride, and over an ice cream soda, they discuss the future and their love for each other. George resolves not to go to college, as he had planned, but to work and eventually take over his uncle's farm. In the present, George and Emily say that they are not ready to marry—George to his mother, Emily to her father—but they both calm down and happily go through with the wedding.

text: Act III: Death and Eternity[edit]

text: Nine years have passed. The Stage Manager opens the act with a lengthy monologue emphasizing eternity, bringing the audience's attention to the cemetery outside of town and the characters who have died since the wedding, including Mrs. Gibbs (pneumonia, while traveling), Wally Webb (burst appendix, while camping), Mrs. Soames, and Simon Stimson (suicide by hanging). Town undertaker Joe Stoddard is introduced, as is a young man named Sam Craig who has returned to Grover's Corners for his cousin's funeral. That cousin is Emily, who died giving birth to her and George's second child. Once the funeral ends, Emily emerges to join the dead; Mrs. Gibbs urges her to forget her life, warning her that being able to see but not interact with her family, all the while knowing what will happen in the future, will cause her too much pain, but she refuses. Ignoring the warnings of Simon, Mrs. Soames, and Mrs. Gibbs, Emily returns to Earth to relive one day, her 12th birthday. Emily watches with joy at being able to see her parents and some of the people of her childhood for the first time in years. However, her joy quickly turns to pain as she realizes how little people appreciate the simple joys of life. The memory proves too painful for her, and she realizes that every moment of life should be treasured. When she asks the Stage Manager if anyone truly understands the value of life while they live it, he responds, "No. The saints and poets, maybe—they do some." Emily returns to her grave next to Mrs. Gibbs and watches impassively as George kneels weeping over her. The Stage Manager concludes the play and wishes the audience a good night.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Stage Manager – a narrator, commentator, and guide through Grover's Corners.  He joins in the action of the play periodically, as the minister at the wedding, the soda shop owner, a local townsman, etc., and speaks directly to Emily after her death.
Emily Webb – one of the main characters; we follow her from a precocious young girl through her wedding to George Gibbs and her early death.
George Gibbs – the other main character; the boy next door, a kind but irresponsible teenager who matures over time and becomes a responsible husband, father and farmer.
Frank Gibbs – George's father, the town doctor.
Julia (Hersey) Gibbs – George's mother.  She dreams of going to Paris but doesn't get there.  She saved $350 for the trip from the sale of an antique furniture piece but willed it to George and Emily.  Dies while visiting her daughter in Ohio.
Charles Webb – Emily's father, Editor of the Grover's Corners Sentinel
Myrtle Webb – Emily and Wally’s mother.

text: Secondary characters

text:
Joe and Si Crowell – local paperboys. Joe's intelligence earns him a full scholarship to MIT where he graduates at the top of his class.  His promise will be cut short on the fields of France during World War I, according to the Stage Manager.  Both he and his brother Si hold marriage in high disdain.
Simon Stimson – the choir director and church organist.  We never learn the specific cause of his alcoholism and suicide, although Joe Stoddard, the undertaker, observes that "He's seen a peck of troubles." He remains bitter and cynical even beyond the grave.
Howie Newsome – the milkman, a fixture of Grover's Corners.
Rebecca Gibbs – George's younger sister.  Later elopes with a traveling salesman and settles in Ohio.
Wally Webb – Emily's younger brother.  Dies of a burst appendix on a Boy Scout camping trip.
Professor Willard – a rather long-winded lecturer
Woman in Auditorium – concerned with temperance
Man in Auditorium – concerned with social justice
Another Woman in Auditorium – concerned with culture and beauty
Mrs. Louella Soames – a gossipy townswoman and member of the choir
Constable Bill Warren – the policeman
Three Baseball Players – who mock George at the wedding
Joe Stoddard – the undertaker
Sam Craig – a nephew of Mrs Gibbs who left town to seek his fortune. He came back after 12 years in Buffalo for Emily's funeral.
Dead Man
Dead Woman
Mr. Carter
Farmer McCarty
Bessie – Howie Newsome's horse (visible to the characters, but not the audience)

text: Composition[edit]

text: Wilder wrote the play while in his thirties. In June 1937, he lived in the MacDowell Colony in Peterborough, New Hampshire, one of the many locations where he worked on the play. It is believed Wilder drafted the entire third act during a visit to Zürich in September 1937, in one day, after a long evening walk in the rain with a friend, author Samuel Morris Steward.[2]

text: Setting[edit]

text: The play is set in the actual theatre where the play is being performed, but the year is always 1938. The Stage Manager of the 1938 production introduces the play-within-the-play which is set in the fictional community of Grover's Corners, New Hampshire. The Stage Manager gives the coordinates of Grover's Corners as 42°40′ north latitude and 70°37′ west longitude (those coordinates are actually in Massachusetts, about a thousand feet off the coast of Rockport).

text: Style[edit]

text: Wilder was dissatisfied with the theatre of his time: "I felt that something had gone wrong....I began to feel that the theatre was not only inadequate, it was evasive."[3] His response was to use a metatheatrical style. Our Town's narrator, the Stage Manager, is completely aware of his relationship with the audience, leaving him free to break the fourth wall and address them directly. According to the script, the play is to be performed with little scenery, no set and minimal props. The characters mime the objects with which they interact. Their surroundings are created only with chairs, tables, staircases, and ladders. For example, the scene in which Emily helps George with his evening homework, conversing through upstairs windows, is performed with the two actors standing atop separate ladders to represent their neighboring houses. Wilder once said: "Our claim, our hope, our despair are in the mind—not in things, not in 'scenery.' "[4]

text: Wilder called Our Town his favorite out of all his works, but complained that it was rarely done right, insisting that it "should be performed without sentimentality or ponderousness--simply, dryly, and sincerely."[citation needed]

text: Production history[edit]

text: Our Town was first performed at McCarter Theater in Princeton, New Jersey on January 22, 1938. It next opened at the Wilbur Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts on January 25, 1938. Its New York City debut was on February 4, 1938 at Henry Miller's Theatre, and later moved to the Morosco Theatre; this production was produced and directed by Jed Harris.[5] Wilder received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1938 for the work.[6]

text: In 1946, the Soviet Union prevented a production of Our Town in the Russian sector of occupied Berlin "on the grounds that the drama is too depressing and could inspire a German suicide wave".[7]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
1938 Pulitzer Prize for Drama
1989 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival
1989 Tony Award for Best Revival

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The play has been adapted numerous times:

text:
Our Town was first performed on radio May 12, 1939, on The Campbell Playhouse. The cast included Orson Welles as the Stage Manager, John Craven of the original stage production as George Gibbs, and Patricia Newton as Emily Webb.
Our Town (1940 film), adaptation starring Martha Scott as Emily and William Holden as George Gibbs, with an original music score composed by Aaron Copland. Many members of the original cast repeated their roles in this film, although the ending was changed so that Emily lived.
Our Town (1940 radio), on May 6, 1940, a radio version was performed by many of the same film actors for Lux Radio Theater.
Our Town (television), a live musical 1955 television adaptation on Producers' Showcase starring Frank Sinatra as the Stage Manager, Paul Newman as George Gibbs, and Eva Marie Saint as Emily. The first and only musical version of the play to be telecast (so far).
Our Town,[8] a 1977 television adaptation of the play, starring Hal Holbrook as the Stage Manager, Robby Benson as George Gibbs and Glynnis O'Connor as Emily Webb.
Grover's Corners, a 1987 musical adaptation performed at the Marriott Theatre.
Our Town,[9] a 1989 telecast of a Lincoln Center stage production starring Spalding Gray, Frances Conroy, Penelope Ann Miller, and Eric Stoltz
OT: Our Town, a 2002 documentary by Scott Hamilton Kennedy about a production of the play by Dominguez High School in Compton, California
Our Town, a 2003 television film adaptation starring Paul Newman as the Stage Manager. It was shown on PBS as part of Masterpiece Theatre after first being shown on the cable channel Showtime. It was filmed at the Booth Theatre in Manhattan, where it played on Broadway in 2002.[citation needed][10]
Our Town (opera), an operatic version of the play with music by Ned Rorem
An award-winning revival of Our Town opened at the Barrow Street Theatre, in New York City, on February 26, 2009. The production was directed by David Cromer, who also performed the role of Stage Manager for much of the show's run. Upon closing, the production had played four preview and 644 regular performances, making it the longest-running production of the play in its history.  In addition to Cromer, other notable actors who performed in the role of Stage Manager included Helen Hunt, Michael McKean, Jason Butler Harner, Stephen Kunken and Michael Shannon.[11]
In 1994, Philip Jerry choreographed a balletic adaptation set to the music of Aaron Copland and has been performed by the American Repertory Ballet in Princeton, New Jersey in the decades since its premiere.[12]
In 2017, Tony Award-winning Deaf West Theater, a Los Angeles-based theater company, co-produced with the Pasadena Playhouse a production of Our Town performed in American Sign Language and spoken English.[13]


document_title: List of Microsoft Office filename extensions

question_text: what is the extension of a saved file in ms publisher

text: The following is a list of Microsoft Office filename extensions, used in Microsoft Office software suite as of January 2017.

text: Word[edit]

text:
.doc – Legacy Word document; Microsoft Office refers to them as "Microsoft Word 97 - 2003 Document"
.dot – Legacy Word templates; officially designated "Microsoft Word 97 - 2003 Template"
.wbk - Legacy Word document backup; referred as "Microsoft Word Backup Document"

text:
.docx – Word document
.docm – Word macro-enabled document; same as docx, but may contain macros and scripts
.dotx – Word template
.dotm – Word macro-enabled template; same as dotx, but may contain macros and scripts
.docb – Word binary document introduced in Microsoft Office 2007

text: Excel[edit]

text:
.xls – Legacy Excel worksheets; officially designated "Microsoft Excel 97-2003 Worksheet"
.xlt – Legacy Excel templates; officially designated "Microsoft Excel 97-2003 Template"
.xlm – Legacy Excel macro

text:
.xlsx – Excel workbook
.xlsm – Excel macro-enabled workbook; same as xlsx but may contain macros and scripts
.xltx – Excel template
.xltm – Excel macro-enabled template; same as xltx but may contain macros and scripts

text:
.xlsb – Excel binary worksheet (BIFF12)
.xla – Excel add-in or macro
.xlam – Excel add-in
.xll – Excel XLL add-in; a form of DLL-based add-in[1]
.xlw – Excel work space; previously known as "workbook"

text: PowerPoint[edit]

text: Legacy

text:
.ppt – Legacy PowerPoint presentation
.pot – Legacy PowerPoint template
.pps – Legacy PowerPoint slideshow

text: OOXML

text:
.pptx – PowerPoint presentation
.pptm – PowerPoint macro-enabled presentation
.potx – PowerPoint template
.potm – PowerPoint macro-enabled template
.ppam – PowerPoint add-in
.ppsx – PowerPoint slideshow
.ppsm – PowerPoint macro-enabled slideshow
.sldx – PowerPoint slide
.sldm – PowerPoint macro-enabled slide

text: Access[edit]

text: Microsoft Access 2007 introduced new file extensions:

text:
ACCDB – The file extension for the new Office Access 2007 file format. This takes the place of the MDB file extension.
ACCDE – The file extension for Office Access 2007 files that are in "execute only" mode. ACCDE files have all Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) source code hidden. A user of an ACCDE file can only execute VBA code, but not view or modify it. ACCDE takes the place of the MDE file extension.
ACCDT – The file extension for Access Database Templates.
ACCDR – is a new file extension that enables you to open a database in runtime mode. By simply changing a database's file extension from .accdb to .accdr, you can create a "locked-down" version of your Office Access database. You can change the file extension back to .accdb to restore full functionality.

text: Other[edit]

text: Publisher[edit]

text: .pub - a Microsoft Publisher publication

text: XPS Document

text: .xps - a XML-based document format used for printing (on Windows Vista and later) and preserving documents.


question_text: who sang there's a guy works down the chip shop

question_tokens: who sang there 's a guy works down the chip shop

text: This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (March 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
"There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop, Swears He's Elvis"

Single by Kirsty MacColl

from the album Desperate Character

A-side
"There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He's Elvis"

B-side
"Hard To Believe
There's a Guy... (country version)"

Released
May 1981

Format
7" Vinyl

Genre
Country pop

Label
Polydor

Songwriter(s)
Kirsty MacColl/Philip Rambow[1]

Producer(s)
Barry Farmer

Kirsty MacColl singles chronology

"Keep Your Hands Off My Baby"
(1981)
"There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop, Swears He's Elvis"
(1981)
"See That Girl"
(1981)

"Keep Your Hands Off My Baby"
(1981)
"There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He's Elvis"
(1981)
"See That Girl"
(1981)

text: "There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He's Elvis" was Kirsty MacColl's first hit single, charting in the UK at #14 in 1981, and remaining in the charts for nine weeks.[2] It reached #9 in the Irish charts. A promotional version was released in the USA, which instead referenced a truck stop as opposed to the very British chip shop, but this was only available to DJs and did not get a full release.

text: Norwegian singer Elisabeth Andreasson covered the song on her 1981 country album Angel of the Morning, with lyrics in Swedish by Hasse Olsson as "Killen ner' på Konsum svär att han är Elvis" ("The guy down Konsum" swears he's Elvis).[3]

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He's Elvis" (K. MacColl / P. Rambow)
"Hard to Believe" (K. MacColl)
"There's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He's Elvis (country version)" (K. MacColl / P. Rambow)

tag: ol


document_title: Dorian Shainin

question_text: who said quality defects are unequal in frequency

text: Dorian Shainin

text: Early life[edit]

text: Dorian Shainin was born in San Francisco on September 26, 1914.He grew up in San Francisco, Shanghai, and New York.  He attended Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn, New York.[5]

text: Early career[edit]

text: After receiving his degree in aeronautical engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1936, Shainin became a design engineer at the Hamilton Standard Division of United Aircraft Corporation (now United Technologies Corporation).[6]

text: In 1939 US industry  had begun to focus on the war effort, and Shainin became a licensee coordinator responsible for helping new Hamilton Standard licensees solve problems. By the end of the war, Shainin was in charge of quality and reliability at Hamilton Standard, having gained national recognition for his invention of the Hamilton Standard Lot Plot.[7]

text: Lot Plot[edit]

text: Lot Plot refers to a statistical method for acceptance sampling developed by Dorian Shainin in the 1940s.  This statistical technique uses the graphical analysis of variable sample data in order to determine if a lot consisting of potentially faulty parts should be accepted or set aside for 100% inspection.[8]

text: Walter A. Shewhart’s development of control charts demonstrated the application of statistical techniques to manufacturing and illustrated the effectiveness of graphical presentation and analysis. Shainin incorporated these concepts in his development of Lot Plot.[9]

text: In 1946 Shainin was able to demonstrate to the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics that Lot Plot was more effective than 100% inspection. Following this, the Navy agreed to make Lot Plot a standard.  Soon Lot Plot was adopted as a standard across many industries.[10]

text: Taking the advice of his friend and mentor Joseph M. Juran, Shainin turned to the world of consulting.  In 1952 Shainin joined Rath & Strong, Inc., a management consulting firm based in Lexington, Massachusetts, holding the position of Senior Vice President.[11]

text: Red X and Pareto[edit]

text: Shainin's development of  the "Red X" concept originated from his association with Joseph Juran. In the 1940s Juran coined and popularized the notion of "the vital few and trivial many," also known as "The Pareto Principle," recognizing the uneven impact of problems on business performance to be the same phenomenon that Vilfredo Pareto had observed in respect to the distribution of wealth.[12]    As suggested by Juran, "I observed (as had many others before me) that quality defects are unequal in frequency, i.e., when a long list of defects was arranged in the order of frequency, a relative few of the defects accounted for the bulk of the defectiveness."[13]

text: In the 1950s Shainin recognized that the Pareto principle could be applied effectively to the solving of variation problems.  Shainin concluded that, amongst the thousands of variables that could cause a change in the value of an output, one cause-effect relationship had to be stronger than the others.  Shainin called this primary cause the "Big Red X"[14] and demonstrated that the cause can exist as an interaction among independent variables.  The effect of the Red X is then magnified by the square-root-of-the-sum-of-the-squares law, thereby isolating the root cause.

text: Shainin asserted that his application of statistical methods was more cost-effective and simpler than Taguchi methods.  In order to determine the "Red X," Shainin would swap pairs of parts between functional and faulty equipment until the one part responsible for the failure is discovered.  Shainin would claim that he could often find the primary defective part within a dozen paired swaps.[15]

text: Shainin's policy of "talking to the parts" was the primary distinguishing factor that set his methods apart from Taguchi's.  In  classical or Taguchi DOE (Design of Experiments), engineers would brainstorm to form hypotheses regarding possible causes of a problem.  Shainin's methods postpone this theoretical step, requiring first the diagnosis of causes via one or more of four clue generation techniques designed to determine, through the empirical testing of the actual parts in question, the root cause, or "Red X".[16]

text: In the 1940s Leonard Seder, an MIT classmate and friend, developed the Multi-vari chart, a graphical method for analysis of variance. Shainin was an early adopter of this method, discovering that with Multi-vari charts, he could quickly converge on the root cause of a problem.[17] Multi-vari charts also played an influential role in Shainin’s development of the Red X concept.[18]

text: Influences[edit]

text: Among the statisticians and mathematicians who influenced Shainin’s thinking were Ronald Fisher, John Tukey, and Waloddi Weibull.

text: Shainin’s convergence techniques have the capability of reducing the number of Red X possibilities to a few options.  Ronald Fisher’s statistically designed experiments would then isolate the Red X, revealing potential interactions while confirming the identity of the Red X with statistical confidence.[19]

text: John Tukey, a proponent of simple statistical techniques, was another influence of Shainin’s.  As a result of Tukey’s work, Shainin developed a simple confirmation test known as a "Six Pack Test."  Six Pack Tests were known for being much simpler than t-tests, being non-parametric and having a basic rule set.  Shainin further developed this work into an analysis of variance, or ANOVA, permitting non-parametric analysis of Fisher’s full factorial experiments.[20]

text: Like Seder’s Multi-Vari charts, Waloddi Weibull’s now famous continuous probability distribution fascinated Shainin.  Weibull’s distribution, along with Shainin’s experiences at Hamilton Standard, planted the seed that would eventually become Shainin’s system for product reliability.[21] This system was used in the development of Grumman’s Lunar Module as well as General Motors’ initial production of their anti-lock (ABS) brake system.

text: NASA/Apollo 13[edit]

text:
During the 1960s Shainin worked for Grumman Aerospace as a reliability consultant for NASA's Apollo Lunar Module. In order to ensure a statistical margin of safety, Shainin developed a completely new approach to reliability assessment, which was applied to the empirical testing of Grumman's Lunar Module prototype components and systems.[22]
Shainin’s approach to reliability testing was crucial to Grumman’s bid in the development of the Lunar Module. The effectiveness of his approach was demonstrated by zero failures in eleven manned missions, six of which featured moon landings. When the command module became uninhabitable during the failed Apollo 13 mission, the Lunar Module became the lifeboat that brought the Apollo 13 astronauts to lunar orbit and back to Earth.[23]

text: During the years that Shainin served as a reliability consultant for Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, he worked on the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell that powered Apollo environmental life support in addition to the RL-10 cryogenic liquid rocket engine. The RL-10 soon became America's most reliable space engine, at one point logging 128 ignitions in space without a single failure.[24]

text: Further contributions[edit]

text: For 38 years Shainin served as statistical consultant on the medical staff at the Newington Children’s Hospital in Connecticut.  Here, Shainin was able to adapt his techniques to the problems surrounding the etiology of infirmities, specifically amongst disabled children.[25]

text: From 1950 to 1983 Shainin was on the faculty of the University of Connecticut, where he originated and conducted the continuing education program for people in industry.[26]

text: In 1987 Shainin further refined his problem prevention approach through his assistance with the introduction of the Detroit Diesel Series 60 engine.  Shainin’s "Overstress Probe Testing" techniques exposed design weaknesses early in the development process of the engine, which enabled improvements to be made before the final design.[27]

text: Bob Galvin was assisted by Shainin in his effort to improve quality at Motorola during the 1980s.  As a result of Galvin’s work, Motorola received the first Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award in 1989.[28]

text: Having served for many years on the editorial and technical advisory board of Quality, the Hitchcock journal published by the American Broadcasting Company, Shainin was also appointed to the editorial board of Quality Engineering, the journal for the American Society for Quality (ASQ).

text: Shainin is the author or co-author of eight books, including "Managing Manpower in the Industrial Environment"(Wm. C. Brown Co.), "Tool Engineers Handbook" (McGraw-Hill), "Industrial Engineering Handbook" (McGraw-Hill), "Quality Control Handbook" (McGraw-Hill), "New Decision-Making Tools for Managers" (Harvard University Press), "Manufacturing, Planning, and Estimating Handbook" (McGraw-Hill), and "Statistics In Action."[29]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: In 1952 Shainin, a Fellow of the American Society for Quality, received the ASQ Brumbaugh Award–honoring the best contribution to industry for that year–in response to his paper, "The Lot Plot Plan."[30]  Shainin also received the ASQ Edwards Medal for "best contribution to the management of quality control" for the year 1970. In 1982 he received the ASQ Eugene L. Grant Award for his educational programs. Shainin also received the ASQ's Shewart Medal, becoming the first person to win all four of these prestigious ASQ medals. The Institute of Management Consultants designated Shainin as a Certified Management Consultant, and the American Arbitration Association appointed him to the Panel of Arbitrators. Shainin was additionally elected "Academician" by the International Academy for Quality, and in 1996 ASQ made Shainin its 15th honorary member.  Shainin was finally honored by the ASQ with the creation of the Dorian Shainin Medal in 2004.[31]

text: Quotes[edit]

text:
"My particular technique is to say to people, ‘Let’s stop guessing.  Instead, let’s find clues–sources of knowledge that you just would not have otherwise.’"[32]
–Dorian Shainin

text:
"Talk to the parts; they are smarter than the engineers."[33]
–Dorian Shainin

text:
Shainin Tool Development Highlights[34]

1946
Lot Plot (Shainin)

1948
Reliability Service Monitoring (Shainin)

1952
Precontrol (Shainin/Purcell/Carter/Satterthwaite)

1956
Component Search (Shainin)

Circa 1958
Operation Search (Shainin)

Circa 1960
Tolerance Parallelogram (Shainin)

1964
Overstress Testing (Shainin)

1968
B vs C (Shainin)

1971
Paired Comparisons (Shainin)

1972
Isoplot (Shainin/Pollard)

1973
Variable Search (Shainin)

1976
Randomized Sequencing  (Shainin)

circa 1976
Resistant Limit Transform (Shainin)

1977
Rank Order ANOVA (Shainin)

1988
Shainin System for Quality Improvement (Shainin)