document_title: Form I-9

question_text: when did the i 9 form became a requirement

text: Form I-9

text: Requirements[edit]

text: The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) required employers to verify that all newly hired employees presented "facially valid" documentation verifying the employee's identity and legal authorization to accept employment in the United States.[3] The I-9 form, or more properly the Employment Eligibility Verification Form, is provided by the federal government for that purpose.[4]

text: Every employee hired after November 6, 1986 must complete an I-9 form at the time of hire. Employees must complete Section 1 of the form upon commencing employment. The employer must complete Section 2 within three days of the employee's starting date at work.[3] The employer is responsible for ensuring that the forms are completed properly and in a timely manner.

text: The I-9 is not required for unpaid volunteers or for contractors.[3] However, a company could still find itself liable if it contracts work to a contractor it knows either is or employs unauthorized workers.[3]

text: On November 14, 2016, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) published a new I-9 Form. Use of the previous 2013 version of the I-9 form was only acceptable until January 22, 2017. Since January 22, 2017, all employers must use the revised I-9 Form.

text: If an employee cannot read or cannot write English, a translator or preparer may complete the form and sign it on their behalf. The form also requires the employee's own signature.

text: In October 2004, new legislation made it possible to complete the I-9 electronically.[3]

text: Prerequisites for employees[edit]

text: In completing form I-9, a prospective employee attests, under penalty of perjury, that she/he is in one of the following categories:

text:
A U.S. citizen
A non-U.S. citizen national
A lawful permanent resident
An alien authorized to work

text: Documentation for proof of identity and/or employment authorization[edit]

text: With the form, a prospective employee must provide documents that prove his/her eligibility to work. A variety of documents is acceptable, some in a specified combination with another, as described below.

text: The prospective employee must provide

text:
One document that establishes both identity and employment eligibility (on List A on the I-9) OR
One document that establishes identity (on List B), together with another document that establishes employment eligibility (on List C)

text: All documentation must be unexpired as of April 3, 2009[5]

text: List A[edit]

text: Documents that may be used under "List A" of the I-9 form to establish both identity and employment eligibility include:

text:
An unexpired U.S. Passport
A U.S. Passport Card
A Permanent Resident Card (often called a "green card") or Alien Registration Receipt Card with photograph
An unexpired Temporary Resident Card
An unexpired foreign passport with an I-551 stamp, or with Form I-94 (For the certain alien who is authorized to work with restrictions. The person should also attach the document(s) which indicate(s) an unexpired employment authorization)
An unexpired Employment Authorization Document issued by the United States Department of Homeland Security that includes a photograph (Form I-766)
An unexpired Employment Authorization Card

text: List B[edit]

text: Documents that may be used under "List B" of the I-9 to establish identity include:

text:
Driver's license or I.D. card issued by a U.S. state or outlying possession of the U.S., provided it contains a photograph or identifying information such as name, date of birth, gender, height, eye color and address.
Federal or state I.D. card provided it contains a photograph or identifying information such as name, date of birth, gender, height, eye color and address.
School I.D. with photograph
U.S. Armed Services identification card or draft record
Voter Registration Card
U.S. Coast Guard Merchant Mariner Card
Native American tribal document
Driver's license issued by a Canadian government authority

text: For individuals under the age of 18 only, the following documents may be used to establish identity:

text:
School record or report card
Clinic, doctor or hospital record
Day-care or nursery school record

text: Employees who supply an item from List B (to establish identity) must also supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility).

text: List C[edit]

text: Documents that may be used under "List C" of the I-9 to establish employment eligibility include:

text:
A U.S. Social Security card issued by the Social Security Administration unless it indicates one of the following:

NOT VALID FOR EMPLOYMENT (generally issued to non-immigrant aliens unauthorized to work)
VALID FOR WORK ONLY WITH INS AUTHORIZATION
VALID FOR WORK ONLY WITH DHS AUTHORIZATION

A birth certificate issued by the U.S. State Department (Form FS-545 or Form DS-1350) Original or certified copy of a birth certificate from the U.S. or an outlying possession of the U.S., bearing an official seal
A Certificate of U.S. Citizenship (Form N-560 or N-561)[6]
A Certificate of Naturalization (Form N-550 or N-570)[6]
Native American tribal document
U.S. Citizen I.D. Card (Form I-197)
An I.D. Card for the use of a Resident Citizen in the United States (Form I-179)
An unexpired employment authorization card issued by the Dept. of Homeland Security (other than those included on List A)

text: U.S. citizens who have lost their social security card can apply for a duplicate at the Social Security Administration.

text: Employees who supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility) must also supply an item from List B (to establish identity).

text: Reverification[edit]

text: Employers must update or reverify certain ID documents at or prior to their expiration date. This does not apply to already presented and accepted non-expired US Passports or Permanent Resident Cards when they reach their expiration date, nor to any List B documents, e.g. state driver's licenses and state ID's. The USCIS website, in the Employer section, Employer Bulletins, lists the limited requirements and allowed instances for reverification.

text: For U.S. citizens, I-9's are valid continuously unless a break of more than a year of employment occurs. International employees on F-1 (student), H-1B (specialty occupation), or J-1 (exchange visitor) visas must have their I-9 reverified each time their visa has expired with a new work authorization permit (renewed visa with work authorization, EAD, Permanent Residence Card, etc.).

text: Retention[edit]

text: Employers must retain a Form I-9 for all current employees. Employers must also retain a Form I-9 for three years after the date of hire, or one year after the date employment ends, whichever is later. Employers must show their employees' I-9 form any time the immigration or labor authority requests it.[citation needed]

text: Anti-discrimination provisions[edit]

text: The Immigration Reform and Control Act which introduced the requirement leading to the promulgation of the I-9 form, also included anti-discrimination provisions.[3] Under the Act, most US citizens, permanent residents, temporary residents or asylee/refugee who are legally allowed to work in the US cannot be discriminated against on the basis of national origin or citizenship status.[3] This provision applies to employers of three or more workers and covers both hiring and termination decisions.[3] In addition, an employer must accept any valid document or combination of documents specified in the I-9 form, as long as the documents appear genuine.[3]

text: For example, an employer could not refuse to hire a candidate because his I-9 revealed that he was a non-citizen (such as a permanent resident or a refugee) rather than a U.S. citizen. For this reason some immigration lawyers advise companies to avoid requiring an I-9 until a candidate is hired rather than risk a lawsuit.[3] As another example, a company could not insist that an employee provide a passport rather than, say, a driver's license and social security card. Another anti-discrimination provision requires that employers must enforce I-9 compliance in a uniform manner.[3] For example, an employer must not require some employees to complete an I-9 before being hired, but allow others to complete the form after starting employment.[3]

text: Employers must not assume that the employee is unauthorized to work just because the individual either could not bring the proof of employment authorization or has brought the unaccepted document(s) until the start date of the employment. Instead, employers should encourage that employee to bring the acceptable document(s) which is/are under the List A, B, and/or C. Employers may terminate the employment only if the employee cannot attest the person's work authorization by bringing the proof after the start date.

text: The Office of Special Counsel for Immigration-Related Unfair Employment Practices ("OSC") is a section within the Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division that enforces the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act ("INA"). The OSC can help workers by calling employers and explaining proper verification practices and, when necessary, by providing victims of discrimination with charge forms. Upon receipt of a charge of discrimination, OSC investigations typically take no longer than 7 months. Victims may obtain various types of relief, including job relief and back pay.

text: OSC also has an extensive outreach program. It provides staff to speak at outreach events throughout the country, and has free informational brochures, posters and tapes for distribution.

text: Types of discrimination[edit]

text: The OSC investigates the following types of discriminatory conduct under the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), 8 U.S.C. § 1324b:

text:
Citizenship or immigration status discrimination with respect to hiring, firing, and recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with four or more employees. Employers may not treat individuals differently because they are, or are not, U.S. citizens or work authorized individuals. U.S. citizens, recent permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees and refugees are protected from citizenship status discrimination. Exceptions: permanent residents who do not apply for naturalization within six months of eligibility are not protected from citizenship status discrimination. Citizenship status discrimination which is otherwise required to comply with law, regulation, executive order, or government contract is permissible by law.

National origin discrimination with respect to hiring, firing, and recruitment or referral for a fee, by employers with more than three and fewer than 15 employees. Employers may not treat individuals differently because of their place of birth, country of origin, ancestry, native language, accent, or because they are perceived as looking or sounding "foreign". All U.S. citizens, lawful permanent residents, and work authorized individuals are protected from national origin discrimination. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has jurisdiction over employers with 15 or more employees.

Unfair documentary practices related to verifying the employment eligibility of employees. Employers may not request more or different documents than are required to verify employment eligibility, reject reasonably genuine-looking documents, or specify certain documents over others with the purpose or intent of discriminating on the basis of citizenship status or national origin. U.S. citizens and all work authorized individuals are protected from document abuse.

Retaliation. Individuals who file charges with OSC, who cooperate with an OSC investigation, who contest action that may constitute unfair documentary practices or discrimination based upon citizenship or immigration status, or national origin, or who assert their rights under the INA's anti-discrimination provision are protected from retaliation.

text: Penalties[edit]

text: The IRCA includes penalties for I-9 noncompliance. According to the I-9 form, "federal law provides for imprisonment and/or fines for false statements or use of false documents in connection with the completion of this form." An employer who hires an unauthorized worker can be fined between $250 and $5,500 per worker.[3] In addition, such an employer can be barred from federal government contracts for a year.[3] An employee who knowingly accepts fraudulent documentation can also be criminally prosecuted under other immigration laws.[3]

text: An employer who fails to keep proper records that I-9s are properly filed can be fined $110 per missing item for each form, up to $1100 per form, even if the employee is legally authorized to work in the US.[3] Since 2009, Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) has conducted over 7,500 audits and imposed over $80 million in fines. In 2011 alone, ICE conducted 2,740 audits and assessed over $7 million in fines. [7]

text: An individual who knowingly commits or participates in document fraud may be fined between $375 and $3,200 per document for the first offense, and between $3,200 and $6,500 per document for subsequent offenses.[8]


document_title: Hair coloring

question_text: what is the purpose of hydrogen peroxide in hair color

root

text: Hair coloring

text: History[edit]

text: The dyeing of hair is an ancient art that involves treatment of the hair with various chemical compounds. In ancient times, the dyes were obtained from plants.[3] Some of the most well known are henna (Lawsonia inermis), indigo, Cassia obovata, senna, turmeric and amla. Others include katam, black walnut hulls, red ochre and leeks.[4] In the 1661 book Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art & Nature, various methods of coloring hair black, gold, green, red, yellow, and white are explained.[5] The development of synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the 1860s discovery of the reactivity of para- phenylenediamine (PPD) with air.[6] Eugène Schueller, the founder of L'Oréal, is recognized for creating the first synthetic hair dye in 1907.[7] In 1947 the German cosmetics firm Schwarzkopf launched the first home color product, "Poly Color".[8][non-primary source needed] Hair dyeing is now a multibillion-dollar industry that involves the use of both plant-derived and synthetic dyes.[9]

tag: p

text: Application techniques[edit]

text: Off-scalp[edit]

text: Hair color was traditionally applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use several colors to produce streaks or gradations, not all work on top of a single base color. These are referred to as:

text:
Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners, and they usually create blonde streaks.

Lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair color.

There are also newer application techniques such as ombré, in which hair is dark on the crown and bit by bit becomes lighter toward the ends, and splashlights, in which a horizontal band of bleached hair stretches from ear to ear.

tag: ul

text: These are off-the-scalp techniques, and can be applied by the following methods:

text:
Foiling, where pieces of foil or plastic film are used to separate off the hair to be colored; especially when applying more than one color. This keeps the color only on the desired pieces of hair and protects the rest of the hair.
Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tight on the head and strands are pulled through with a hook. This method is not frequently practiced anymore with the exception of short hair highlighting.
Balayage, where hair color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained. This method is growing in popularity because of its ability to look more natural and less placed.
Dipping or tip dyeing, similar to balayage in that the color is painted directly on the hair, this focuses on a more solid level of coverage on the ends of the hair.[10]

text: All application techniques can be used with any type of color. For lightening, the hair will sometimes have to be bleached before coloring.

text: On-scalp[edit]

text: Hair coloring can also be applied on the scalp for a more solid level of coverage

text:
Root Touch-Up, where color is applied only to the most recent section of re-growth. Usually the first inch of hair from the scalp. Generally those getting root touch-ups get this service repeated every 4–6 weeks as the natural color grows in and becomes apparent. People who color their hair to try and cover gray often do these root touch-ups.
All-Over Color, where the individual desires for all of their hair to be a different solid color.
Block Coloring, where the individual wants 100% coverage but desires two or more colors to be placed resulting in dimension and contrast.

text: Types[edit]

text: The four most common classifications are permanent, demi-permanent (sometimes called deposit only), semi-permanent, and temporary.[6]

text: Permanent[edit]

text: Permanent hair color generally contains ammonia and must be mixed with a developer or oxidizing agent in order to permanently change hair color. Ammonia, in permanent hair color, is used to open the cuticle layer so that the developer and colorants together penetrate into the cortex.[11] The developer or oxidizing agent, comes in various volumes. The higher the developer volume, the higher the lift will be of a person's natural hair pigment. Someone with dark hair wishing to achieve two or three shades lighter may need a higher developer, whereas someone with lighter hair wishing to achieve darker hair will not need a high developer. Timing may vary with permanent hair coloring but is typically 30 minutes or 45 minutes for those wishing to achieve maximum gray coverage.

text: Demi-permanent[edit]

text: Demi-permanent hair color is hair color that contains an alkaline agent other than ammonia (e.g. ethanolamine, sodium carbonate) and, while always employed with a developer, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in that developer may be lower than used with a permanent hair color. Since the alkaline agents employed in demi-permanent colors are less effective in removing the natural pigment of hair than ammonia these products provide no lightening of hair's color during dyeing. As the result, they cannot color hair to a lighter shade than it was before dyeing and are less damaging to hair than their permanent counterpart.

text: Demi-permanents are much more effective at covering gray hair than semi-permanents, but less so than permanents.

text: Demi-permanents have several advantages as compared with permanent color. Because there is essentially no lifting (i.e., removal) of natural hair color, the final color is less uniform/homogeneous than a permanent and therefore more natural looking; they are gentler on hair and therefore safer, especially for damaged hair; and they wash out over time (typically 20 to 28 shampoos), so root regrowth is less noticeable and if a change of color is desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-permanent hair colors are not permanent but the darker shades in particular may persist longer than indicated on the packet.

text: Semi-permanent[edit]

text: Semi-permanent hair coloring involves little or no developer, hydrogen peroxide or ammonia, and is thus less damaging to hair strands. The reduced amount of developer, whether peroxide or ammonia, means that hair previously damaged by applying permanent color or permanent reshaping is less likely to be damaged during the color application process.

text: Semi-permanent hair color uses compounds of low molecular weight than are found in temporary hair color dyes. These dyes penetrate the hair shaft only partially, because of the reduced amount of developer used. For this reason, the color will survive repeated washing, typically 4–5 shampoos or a few weeks, before undergoing significant fading or washing out entirely.

text: Semi-permanents may still contain the suspected carcinogen p-phenylenediamine (PPD) or other related colorants. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported that in rats and mice chronically exposed to PPD in their diet, the PPT appears to simply depress body weight of the animals, with no other clinical signs of toxicity observed in several studies.[12]

text: The final color of each strand of hair will depend on its original color and porosity. Because hair's color and porosity across the head and along the length of a hair strand, there will be subtle variations in shade across the entire head. This gives a more natural-looking result than the solid, all over color of a permanent color. Because gray or white hairs have a different starting color than other hair, they will not appear as the same shade as the rest of the hair when treated with semi-permanent color. If there are only a few grey/white hairs, the effect will usually be enough for them to blend in, but as the gray spreads, there will come a point where it will not be disguised as well. In this case, the move to permanent color can sometimes be delayed by using the semi-permanent as a base and adding highlights.

text: Semi-permanent color cannot lighten the hair.

text: Temporary color[edit]

text: Temporary hair color is available in various forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is typically brighter and more vibrant than semi-permanent and permanent hair color. It is most often used to color hair for special occasions such as costume parties and Halloween.

text: The pigments in temporary hair color are high molecular weight and cannot penetrate the cuticle layer. The color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the surface of the hair shaft and are easily removed with a single shampooing. Temporary hair color can persist on hair that is excessively dry or damaged in a way that allows for migration of the pigment to the interior of the hair shaft.

text: Alternative color[edit]

text: Alternative hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. The available colors are diverse, such as the colors green and fuchsia. Permanent alternatives in some colors are available. Some color shades are blacklight-reactive, and thus show up under certain nightclub lighting, for instance.

text: The chemical formulae of alternative color dyes typically contain only tint and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. People with darker hair (medium brown to black) need to use a bleaching kit before tint application. Some people with fair hair may benefit from prior bleaching as well. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that has not been lightened enough can adversely affect results, especially with pinks, blues and greens. Although some alternative colors are semi-permanent, such as blue and purple, it could take several months to fully wash the color from bleached or pre-lightened hair.

text: Maintaining hair color[edit]

text: There are many ways that people can maintain their hair color such as these:

text:
Using color-protecting shampoos and conditioners
Using sulfate-free shampoo
Using purple shampoos and conditioners to maintain or enhance the blond color in their hair
Using leave-in treatments with UV absorbents
Getting deep-conditioning treatments to smooth and add luster
Avoiding chlorine
Using heat protecting products before using styling appliances

text: Natural hair coloring alternatives[edit]

text: There are many natural ways to color the hair instead of having to use color that contains several chemicals especially, some that may cause irritation to the skin. A lot of the natural hair coloring can be simply done at home. Natural hair coloring alternatives can be done by the use of natural herbs such as henna. Different types of herbs can be used to achieve a certain color. Indigo or black walnut powder lead to a black or dark color and chamomile and calendula lead to a darker blond. Teas such as black or hibiscus that are made from black tea leaves and hibiscus flowers are also natural ways to color the hair, henna and derivatives are also used for hair coloring, especially in South East Asia, to achieve a dark Orange-reddish hue. Although many of the natural hair coloring can be done at home, there are products on the market that come as a kit that can be purchased or salons that use natural ingredients in their hair color.

text: Note that even though these are natural ways to color the hair, it is still important to wear gloves because dye is being worked with.

text: Adverse effects[edit]

text: Hair coloring involves the use of chemicals capable of removing, replacing, and/or covering up pigments naturally found inside the hair shaft. Use of these chemicals can result in a range of adverse effects, including temporary skin irritation and allergy, hair breakage, skin discoloration and unexpected hair color results. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), in vitro and in vivo studies (in exposed human populations) have shown that some hair dyes and many chemicals used in the hair dyeing process can be considered mutagenic and carcinogenic.[13][14]

text: Skin irritation and allergy[edit]

text: In certain individuals, the use of hair coloring can result in allergic reactions and/or skin irritation. Individuals allergic to gluten for example, will need to be cautious when purchasing hair color since certain hair dye includes gluten. Gluten does not need to be ingested for it to cause an allergy. Skin contact with gluten may cause a reaction; therefore, leading to an allergy. Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. Symptoms will sometimes not be apparent immediately following the application and processing of the tint, but can also arise after hours or even a day later.

text: To help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the majority of hair color products recommend that the client conduct a patch test before using the product. This involves mixing a small quantity of tint preparation and applying it directly to the skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation develops, manufacturers recommend that the client not use the product.

text: European dermatologists have, however, strongly advised against such pre-use testing, as it entails additional sensitisation (allergy) risk and the interpretation by lay people may not be sufficiently accurate.[15]

text: Hair breakage[edit]

text: Hair that has been damaged by excessive exposure to chemicals is considered over-processed. This results in dry, rough and fragile hair. In extreme cases, the hair can be so damaged that it breaks off entirely. The main cases of hair breakage are: Lack of moisture and oils, poor diet, stress, over processing or illness.

text: Skin discoloration[edit]

text: Skin and fingernails are made of a similar type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint around the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin. That is why it is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.

text: This discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week). Ways of preventing skin discoloration are to wear latex or nitrile gloves to protect the hands and also by applying a thin layer of petroleum jelly or oil-based preparation around the hairline. There are also products that come in wipes or liquid form at beauty supply stores to remove hair dye from skin.

text: Unintended results[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Several factors influence the final color of the hair following the coloring process.

text:
For semi-permanent and demi-permanent color, the final color is a blend of the natural color of the hair and the dye color.
Bleached hair will often require pre-pigmentation before a color application. Dyeing bleached hair brown can result in grey or very ashy (grey sheen) hair.
Previously color treated hair can react unpredictably with subsequent color treatments.
Previous use of shampoos which deposit a layer of plastic on the hair can block the action of the dye.
Presence of minerals, salts, chlorine or other contaminants in the water used in the coloring process
Certain prescription drugs can alter hair chemistry
Coloring dark hair to achieve a desirable shade of blond requires bleaching, followed by a secondary color treatment. Bleached hair can still have a yellow or coppery shade. A violet-based color can cancel out yellow tones, and a blue-based shade will cancel out coppery orange.
Porosity of hair can affect the final shade. Porous hair often absorbs more color, which sometimes results darker than expected.

text: Health concerns[edit]

text:
The salt lead acetate (the active ingredient in gradual darkening products such as Grecian formula) is toxic.[16][17][18] Lead acetate trihydrate has also been shown to cause reproductive toxicity.[19]
Articles link the development of some forms of cancer (including leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, bladder cancer, blood cancer, and multiple myeloma) with use of hair color.[20][21] More specifically, prolonged use of permanent dark hair dyes can double a person's risk of getting some types of blood cancer.[22]
In 2004 a known human carcinogen, 4-aminobiphenyl or 4-ABP, was found in some commercial hair dyes.[22] However, evidence is limited and inconsistent for the link between cancer from hair dye.[23]
Phenylenediamine is known to cause health concerns, such as skin irritation. Exposure to phenylenediamine can occur during manufacturing or during the use of hair dyes. According to the Product Safety Summary Sheet by DuPont, Para-Phenyenediamine (PPD) is labeled as toxic and can cause adverse effects on aquatic organisms and could cause long-term effects in aquatic environments.[24]

text: Chemistry of permanent hair coloring[edit]

text: Permanent hair coloring requires three components: (1) 1,4-diaminobenzene (historically) or 2,5-diaminotoluene (currently), (2) a coupling agent, and (3) an oxidant. The process is typically performed under basic conditions. The mechanism of oxidation dyes involves three steps:[6] 1) Oxidation of 1,4-diaminobenzene derivative to the quinone state. 2) Reaction of this diimine with a coupler compound (more detail below). 3) Oxidation of the resulting compound to give the final dye.

text: The preparation (dye precursors) is in the leuco (colorless) form. Oxidizing agents are usually hydrogen peroxide, and the alkaline environment is usually provided by ammonia. The combination of hydrogen peroxide and ammonia causes the natural hair to be lightened, providing a "blank canvas" for the dye. Ammonia opens the hair shaft pores so that the dye can actually diffuse inside the fiber. These dye intermediates and coupler compounds can undergo oxidation and coupling reaction as shown in the scheme below to form high molecular weight products, which are trapped in the hair matrix and cannot be readily removed through washing.

text: Various combinations of primary intermediates and coupler compounds provide a spectrum of shades of hair colors. The primary intermediates are aromatic para compounds, such as 1,4-diaminobenzene or 4-aminophenol. The coupler compounds (couplers) are meta-substituted derivatives of aniline. They come in three major classes based on the color that they produce when they react with the primary intermediate.

text:
Blue couplers include 1,3-diaminobenzene and its derivatives.
Red couplers include phenols and naphthols, such as 3-aminophenol (CAS#591-27-5), 5-amino-2-methylphenol (CAS#2835-95-2) and 1-naphthol (CAS#90-15-3). The combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with the coupler 3-aminophenol gives a magenta-brown dye, while the combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with the coupler 1-naphthol gives a purple dye.
Yellow-green couplers include resorcinol, 4-chlororesorcinol, and benzodioxoles. These compounds produce broad-band absorption when they react to form dyes, allowing for more natural-looking hair colors. The combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with the coupler resorcinol gives a greenish brown dye.

text: The first step shows the oxidation of p-phenylenediamine to the quinonediimine (C6H4(NH)2):

text: This species exists in equilibrium with the monoprotonated form (C6H4(NH)(NH2)+) (not shown). The second step involves the attack of this quinonediimine on the coupler. In organic chemistry, this reaction is called electrophilic aromatic substitution:

text: In the third and final step, the product from the quinonediimine-coupler reaction oxidizes to the final hair dye.

text: It was once believed that the dye forms in the above reaction bonds to hair permanently.[6] It was later shown that the main reason that this reaction imparts a permanent color on hair by producing larger dye molecules, which is locked inside the hair.[25]

text: Plant-based dyes[edit]

text: Henna is an orange dye commonly used as a deposit-only hair color whose active component, lawsone, binds to keratin. It is therefore considered semi-permanent to permanent, depending on a person's hair type. Most people will achieve a permanent color from henna, especially after the second dye. With repeated use the orange color builds up into red and then auburn. While "natural" henna is generally a red color, variations exist. These variations usually contain ingredients from other plants and even synthetic dyes.

text: Indigo is natural dye from a plant (Indigofera tinctoria, suffructicosa, or arrecta) that can be added to henna or layered on top of it to create brown to black colors in the hair. Henna is orange, and indigo is blue, so as complementaries on a standard color wheel, the two colors' combined effect is to create brown tones. Like henna, indigo may fade after one application, but it becomes permanent on the hair with repeated use.

text: Using a plant-based color such as henna can cause problems later when trying to do a perm or permanent hair color. Some store-bought henna contains metallic salts which reacts to hydrogen peroxide that is used in hair lightening. This may lead to unpredictable results, such as green or blue tones in the hair. Henna is a healthy way to color hair, as long as no metallic salts are used.

text: Legal restrictions[edit]

text: Hair dyes are cosmetic compounds that make contact with the skin during application. Because of this skin contact, there exists some health risk associated with use of hair dyes.[26] Thus, hair dyes are regulated in the commercial marketplace and, as new toxicity data is generated for some hair dyes and health risks are discovered, some of these hair dyes are being legally restricted from the cosmetic marketplace.

text: The European Union is particularly stringent with regard to health regulations. To ensure that hair dyes contain only safe substances, the European Commission adopted the Directive 2012/21/EU to restrict the use of around 45 chemicals in hair dyes.[27] The directive on dyes is part of a general and comprehensive set of regulations, the EU Cosmetics Directive 76/768/EC.


document_title: History of the world's tallest buildings

question_text: was the tallest building in the world until the empire state building was built

text: Definition of terms[edit]

text: Meaning of "building"[edit]

text: The earliest structures now known to be the tallest in the world were the Egyptian pyramids, with the Great Pyramid of Giza, at an original height of 146.5 metres (481 ft), being the tallest man–made structure in the world for over 3,800 years, until the construction of Lincoln Cathedral in 1300. From then until the completion of the Washington Monument (capped in 1884) the world's tallest buildings were churches or cathedrals. Later, the Eiffel Tower and, still later, some radio masts and television towers were the world's tallest structures.

text: However, though all of these are structures, some are not buildings in the sense of being regularly inhabited or occupied. It is in this sense of being regularly inhabited or occupied that the term "building" is generally understood to mean when determining what is the world's tallest building. The non-profit international organization Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), which maintains a set of criteria for determining the height of tall buildings, defines a "building" as "(A) structure that is designed for residential, business or manufacturing purposes" and "has floors".[1]

text: Tall churches and cathedrals occupy a middle ground: their lower areas are regularly occupied, but much of their height is in bell towers and spires which are not. Whether a church or cathedral is a "building" or merely a "structure" for the purposes of determining the title of "world's tallest building" is a subjective matter of definition (this article treats churches and cathedrals as buildings).

text: Determination of height[edit]

text: The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat based in Chicago uses three different criteria for determining the height of a tall building, each of which may give a different result. "Height of the highest floor" is one criterion, and "height to the top of any part of the building" is another, but the default criterion used by the CTBUH is "height of the architectural top of the building", which includes spires but not antennae, masts or flag poles.[1]

text: Tallest buildings (13th century–1901)[edit]

text: Churches and cathedrals[edit]

text: From the 13th century until 1901, the world's tallest building was always a church or cathedral. In the 13th century Old St Paul's Cathedral with its spire was completed. Completed in the early 14th century, the central spire of Lincoln Cathedral surpassed it. In 1549 this spire collapsed, beginning a long sequence where the status of world's tallest building was borne by shorter and shorter buildings. On the collapse of Lincoln Cathedral's spire, then St. Mary's Church in Stralsund became the world's tallest building. In 1647, the bell tower of St. Mary's burned down, thus making the shorter Strasbourg Cathedral the world's tallest building.

text: It was not until the completion of the Ulm Minster in 1890 that the world's tallest building was again also the tallest building ever, surpassing the original configuration of Lincoln Cathedral.

text: Note: all percentages are calculated on the difference in metres, not feet.

text:
Years tallest
Name
Location
Height
Increase

13th century–1300
Old St Paul's Cathedral*
 London
149 metres (489 ft)
0

1300–1549
Lincoln Cathedral*
 Lincoln
159.7 metres (524 ft)
7.2%

1549–1569
St. Mary's Church
 Stralsund
151 metres (495 ft)
-5.4%

1569–1573
St. Pierre's Cathedral
Beauvais
153 metres (502 ft)
-5.4%

1573–1647
St. Mary's Church
 Stralsund
151 metres (495 ft)
-5.4%

1647–1874
Strasbourg Cathedral
 Strasbourg
142 metres (466 ft)
-6%

1874–1876
Church of St. Nicholas
 Hamburg
147 metres (482 ft)
3.5%

1876–1880
Rouen Cathedral
 Rouen
151 metres (495 ft)
2.7%

1880–1890
Cologne Cathedral
 Cologne
157.38 metres (516.3 ft)
4.2%

1890–1901
Ulm Minster*
 Ulm
161.53 metres (530.0 ft)
2.6%

text: * – Also set record at time of completion as tallest building ever built.

text: The 524 feet (160 m) height of Lincoln Cathedral is disputed by some,[2] but accepted by most sources.[3][4][5][6][7][8] The completion date for the spire is given as 1311 rather than 1300 by some sources.[9] Also the 489 feet (149 m) height of the spire of Old St Paul's Cathedral, destroyed by lightning in 1561, is disputed, for example Christopher Wren (1632–1723) judged that an overestimate and gave a height of 460 feet (140 m).[10]

text: The spire of Mole Antonelliana in Turin, completed in 1889, is claimed to have been 167.5 metres (550 ft) tall;[11] however, the upper part of the structure was destroyed by a 1953 tornado and rebuilt. If the original spire was 167.5 metres tall, then the Mole Antonelliana was the world's tallest building from 1889 to 1908, surpassing Philadelphia City Hall by just 0.5 metres (2 ft).

text: Skyscrapers[edit]

text: The buildings that were the tallest secular skyscrapers, which excludes religious buildings, were:

text:
Years tallest
Name
Location
Height
Increase

1797–1885
Ditherington Flax Mill
 Shrewsbury
16 metres (52 ft)
0

1885–1890
Home Insurance Building
 Chicago
42 metres (138 ft)
162.5%

1890–1894
New York World Building
 New York
94 metres (308 ft)
123.8%

1894–1908
Philadelphia City Hall
 Philadelphia
167 metres (548 ft)
77.7%

text: Tallest buildings (from 1908)[edit]

text:
Years tallest
Name
Location
Height
Increase

1908–1909
Singer Building
 New York City
186.57 metres (612.1 ft)
11.7%

1909–1913
Metropolitan Life Tower
 New York City
213.36 metres (700.0 ft)
14.4%

1913–1930
Woolworth Building
 New York City
241.4 metres (792 ft)
13.1%

1930
Bank of Manhattan Trust Building
 New York City
283 metres (928 ft)
17.2%

1930–1931
Chrysler Building
 New York City
318.8 metres (1,046 ft)
12.65%

1931–1972
Empire State Building
 New York City
381 metres (1,250 ft)
19.5%

1972–1974
World Trade Center
 New York City
417 metres (1,368 ft)
9.45%

1974–1998
Sears Tower
 Chicago
442 metres (1,450 ft)
6%

1998–2004
Petronas Towers
 Kuala Lumpur
451.9 metres (1,483 ft)
2.24%

2004–2010
Taipei 101
 Taipei
509.2 metres (1,671 ft)
12.68%

2010–present
Burj Khalifa
 United Arab Emirates
828 metres (2,717 ft)
62.61%

text: The list of tallest buildings is based on the default metric of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), that of measuring to the highest architectural element. Other criteria would generate a different list. Shanghai World Financial Center is not on the above list, but it surpassed Taipei 101 in 2008 to become the building with the highest occupied floor. Using the criteria of highest tip (including antennae), the World Trade Center in New York City was the world's tallest building from 1972 to 2000, until the Sears Tower in Chicago (which already had a higher occupied floor than the World Trade Center) had its antenna extended to give that building the world's tallest tip; a title it held until the 2010 completion of Burj Khalifa. Petronas Towers and Taipei 101 were never the world's tallest buildings by the highest–tip criteria.

text: Since 2010, Burj Khalifa has been the tallest building by any criteria. It has the highest architectural element, tip and occupied floor, and is indeed the tallest structure of any kind ever built, surpassing the (now destroyed) 646.38 metres (2,120.7 ft) Warsaw Radio Mast.

text: Since the completion of the Washington Monument in 1884, the world's tallest building has not usually also been the world's tallest structure. The exceptions are 1930–1954, when the Chrysler Building and then the Empire State building surpassed the Eiffel Tower (to be surpassed in turn by a succession of broadcast masts, starting with the Griffin Television Tower in Oklahoma), and from 2010 with the completion of Burj Khalifa.

text: Charts[edit]

text: In this chart, time progresses from right to left. Note the early buildings that lost the title as their spires collapsed.

text: History of increment in height of skyscrapers[edit]

text: After the construction of the Home Insurance Building in Chicago in the 19th century, the incrementation in the height of skyscrapers began with the construction of the Chrysler Building, followed by the Empire State Building, in New York City. The Chrysler Building was the first building in the world to break the 300 metres (984 ft) barrier, and the Empire State Building was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It stands at 381 metres (1,250 ft) and has 102 floors. The next tallest skyscraper was the World Trade Center, which was completed in 1971. The north tower was 417 m (1,368 ft) and the south 415 m (1,362 ft) tall. It surpassed the height of the Empire State Building by 36 m (118 ft). Two years later the Sears Tower was built in Chicago, standing at 442 m (1,450 ft) with 110 floors, surpassing the height of the World Trade Center by 25 metres (82 ft). The Petronas Towers rose 10 meters above the Sears Tower, standing at a height of 452 m (1,483 ft) and each having 88 floors.

text: In 2004, the construction of Taipei 101 brought the height of skyscrapers to a new level, standing at 509 m (1,670 ft) with 101 floors. It is 59 metres (194 ft) taller than the previous record holders, the Petronas Towers. Burj Khalifa surpassed the height of Taipei 101 by 319 metres (1,047 ft) in 2009, making it 60% taller.[12] It has broken several skyscraper records, and it is almost twice as tall as the Empire State Building. Burj Khalifa has also broken the record of the world's tallest structure.

text: NOTE: The CTBUH defines a building as a supertall if it is 300 metres (984 ft) or taller.[13]

text: History of supertall skyscrapers by location[edit]

text: Since the early skyscraper boom that took place in North America, the significant number of skyscrapers in North America have dominated the 100 tallest buildings in the world. In 1930, 99 of the 100 tallest buildings in the world were located in North America. In the future, this percentage is expected to decline to only 22 percent.[12] The predominance of skyscrapers in North America is decreasing due to the building of skyscraper construction in other parts of the world, especially in Asia, that are finally catching up to progress that began in North America in the 19th century.[citation needed]

text: In Asia, there has been an increase in the number of supertall skyscrapers beginning with the construction of Petronas Twin Towers. There are currently sixty buildings in the world's 100 tallest that are located in Asia (including the Middle East). However, skyscraper construction is still prevalent in the United States.[citation needed]

text: Increment in usage of skyscrapers[edit]

text: Since the skyscraper boom, the great majority of skyscrapers in the world were used predominantly as office space. From 1930 to 2000 the percentage of office towers never fell below 86 percent, but in the future it is expected to be as low as 46 percent.[12] In 2010 less than half of the 100 tallest buildings in the world were office towers with the majority utilized as residential and mixed use.[12] Today, only four out of the ten tallest buildings in the world, and twenty eight out of the fifty tallest in the world, are used primarily as offices.[14]

text: A mixed-use tall building contains two or more functions (uses), where each of the functions occupies a significant proportion of the tower's total space[A]. Support areas such as car parks and mechanical plant space do not contribute towards mixed-use status.[13]

text: Skyscrapers used as hotels and as residential space are generally smaller. There are only a few super tall skyscrapers of that type among the 100 tallest skyscrapers in the world. The tallest residential building in the world is 432 Park Avenue.[citation needed] There are few supertall hotel skyscrapers in the world.[citation needed] The Emirates Park Towers Hotel & Spa, Rose Tower and Burj Al Arab are the only three supertall hotels standing, while the topped-out Emirates Park Towers Hotel & Spa is currently the tallest hotel in the world at 377 m (1,237 ft).[citation needed]


document_title: Stormtrooper (Star Wars)

question_text: when did the empire start using stormtrooper armor

text: Stormtrooper (Star Wars)

text: Development[edit]

text: In early drafts of Star Wars and Ralph McQuarrie's concept designs, stormtroopers were to wield lightsabers and hand-held shields as common weapons not limited to the Jedi or Sith. George Lucas, when composing background information in 1977, stated that females did exist in the Stormtrooper Corps, although there were few stationed on the Death Star. He suggested that they were numerous in other units.[1][2]

text: Background[edit]

text: Trilogy films[edit]

text: Introduced in Star Wars (1977), the Imperial stormtroopers serve as the army of the Galactic Empire, establishing Imperial authority and putting down any revolts.

text: In the prequel film Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002), the first clone troopers are cloned from bounty hunter Jango Fett, to be the Army of the Republic in the Clone Wars.[3] In Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (2005), Chancellor Palpatine orders them to slay their Jedi generals in the Great Jedi Purge.

text: The Stormtrooper Corps swell in size after Palpatine completely replaced the clones with recruits and conscripts of the empire, though the replacement of clones with natural beings lowered the effectiveness of the Empire's soldiers. With the Empire firmly stabilized and an Imperial Army/Imperial Navy established, the stormtroopers are integrated into Palpatine's personal army and stationed on Imperial bases and cruisers, as well as on the Death Star.

text: As established in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), after Palpatine's death the stormtroopers continue to serve under the factions that broke apart from the Empire. With redesigned armor, they eventually serve under the leadership of the First Order.[4] In the First Order, an undisclosed number of stormtroopers are abducted as young children, given serial numbers for names and mentally conditioned for loyal service.[5] Stormtrooper FN-2187, later known as Finn, plans his escape when his resistance to this conditioning puts him in line to be reprogrammed.[5]

text: Other appearances[edit]

text: Star Wars Legends expanded universe media such as games and comics feature a number of specialized stormtrooper units.  The Marvel-produced comics of the late 1970s and early 1980s featured Shadow Troopers. Other specialists have included commandos and troopers equipped to work in the vacuum of outer space, such as the zero gravity Spacetroopers depicted engaging in extra vehicular battle in the 1991 novel Star Wars: Heir to the Empire, and its 1995 Dark Horse Comics adaptation.

text: Others, such as the Beach Troopers, are for comical effect. Appearing only briefly in Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy, they are clad in a Speedo and stormtrooper helmet.  In Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga, they also wear life jackets. Shadowtroopers appear in Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast wearing black armour made from a lightsaber-resistant metal called cortosis. This armour has a green synthetic gem set into the breastplate which gives the wearer Force powers. Their armour can also render them near invisible, with only a small area of blue discoloration giving them away. They use this ability to lie in wait and ambush the enemy, most often the game's protagonist, Kyle Katarn. Shadow stormtroopers appear in Star Wars: The Force Unleashed and wear exactly the same type of Phase III armor[clarification needed] as normal stormtroopers but not white in color, but rather a mixture of silver, grey and red detailing. These troopers also possess the invisible feature and use this tactic to ambush their enemies, but only if stormtrooper officers call out for support.

text: Description[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The military philosophy of the Galactic Empire was internally focused and heavily incorporated the "Tarkin-doctrine", which mandated "rule through fear of force", rather than "force itself", would ensure peace and stability across the galaxy. Unlike their Clone Wars predecessors, Imperial Stormtroopers were primarily an internal security and peacekeeping force that had never faced large scale conflict until the latter years of the Galactic Civil War. Disloyalty or failures were heavily punished and individualism was discouraged; command structure was sacred and disobeying orders (no matter how irrational) was forbidden. This meant Imperial Stormtroopers lacked improvisation and were highly ineffective when cut off from command, but also allowed the best trained soldiers who prefer death over retreat.

text: Unable to conscript millions of soldiers to fill its Stormtrooper ranks, yet unwilling to switch back to using a rapidly produced clone troopers, First Order Stormtroopers are bred, trained and indoctrinated from birth, raised their entire lives for no other purpose.  First Order soldiers and crews have constantly trained for combat in war games and simulations, making them much more effective one-on-one than the endless waves of Stormtrooper conscripts fielded by the Galactic Empire.  First Order Stormtroopers are regularly put through mental indoctrination and propaganda programs, to make sure that they remain fanatically loyal and never hesitate or question orders.  Being taken from their families at birth, these soldiers are not even given individual names for themselves but merely serial numbers, such as "FN-2187".[6]

text: Equipment[edit]

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: Weapons[edit]

text: Armor[edit]

text: As established in the original Star Wars trilogy of films, the troopers' most distinctive equipment is their white battle armor, which completely encases the body and typically has no individually distinguishing markings.

text: Based on conceptual drawings by Ralph McQuarrie, Liz Moore and Nick Pemberton sculpted designs for the helmet, Brian Muir sculpted armor pieces for the stormtrooper costume. Muir, who was also responsible for sculpting the Darth Vader costume, worked out of the Art Department at Elstree Studios. The suit was molded and initially cast in plaster, with Muir sharpening the detail at the plaster stage. The plaster casts were then remolded and cast in fiberglass to use as the "tools" for the vacuum forming process. The suits were produced in house by Tashy Baines, the resident vacuum former, but then a problem developed with the machine. As Shepperton Design Studios had already been used to vacuum form the helmets, the fiberglass molds for the armor were then sent to them for vacuum forming the suits. By the end of production, two different helmets were produced; one for the common stunt trooper and a second design for close-ups. Fifty stunt helmets were produced in white-painted HDPE and six hero helmets were produced in white ABS plastic. Besides the material used, the two designs can be differentiated by differences in the eyes, the ears, and the mouth area.[citation needed]

text: The prequel films establish the clone troopers as predecessors to the stormtroopers, and they were also the first generation of stormtroopers after the fall of the Republic.[7] Clone trooper armor is typically shown to have various colorings to denote rank or unit.

text: The copyright status of the armor design has undergone legal challenges.[8] A 2004 lawsuit by Lucasfilm against one of the original prop designers, UK citizen Andrew Ainsworth, who had been selling helmet replicas made with original molds, confirmed the design to be under copyright in the US.[8] However, a 2011 UK court decision in Ainsworth's favor deemed the costume to be industrial design, which is protected there only for 15 years.[8] This puts the armor design in the public domain in the UK, and likely throughout the European Union.[8]

text: The helmet and armor were redesigned for the 2015 film Star Wars: The Force Awakens by costume designer Michael Kaplan with input from director J. J. Abrams.[9]

text: 501st Legion[edit]

text: The 501st Legion Elite Stormtrooper Unit, or "Vader's Fist", is a stormtrooper unit from the Star Wars movies and Star Wars Legends continuity. Considered the best trained soldiers in the galaxy, they serve directly under the command of Darth Vader, who leads the 501st in the Jedi extermination. The 501st spearhead the assault upon the Tantive IV consular ship, and capture Princess Leia. During the Battle of Hoth, the 501st is instrumental in the destruction of the Rebel Alliance base, and nearly succeeds in capturing the Millennium Falcon. Most of the background story linked to the 501st comes from Star Wars novels and games Star Wars: Battlefront II and Star Wars The Force Unleashed.[10]

text: The elite 501st designation is resurrected by Grand Admiral Thrawn, who in the Thrawn trilogy is charged with the defense of the "Hand of the Empire" imperial remnant forces. Thrawn's 501st is composed of aliens, normal humans and Jango Fett clones.

text: The First Order's 501st units wear stark white armor derived from that worn by the Republic's clone troopers and the Empire’s stormtroopers. Members of this new generation of stormtroopers are trained from birth, growing up with unit designations instead of names and fed a steady diet of First Order propaganda to ensure absolute loyalty. Where the Empire opted for numbing routine, the First Order’s training simulations and live-fire drills encourage improvisation on the battlefield, making these stormtroopers more dangerous than their Imperial predecessors.[citation needed]

text: The Legion's name is based on a fan organization of the same name; their inclusion in the official continuity was based on the worldwide organization's dedication to Star Wars fandom.[11]

text: Specialists[edit]

text: Within the original Star Wars trilogy, several types of "military occupation specialist" stormtrooper units are seen. These include:

text: Imperial variants[edit]

text:
Sandtroopers seen on the desert world of Tatooine during Star Wars (1977).  Sandtroopers can be distinguished by their large, black, white or orange shoulder pad, slightly different markings on the rear of their helmets, a diamond-shaped knee-plate, and stomach armor different from that of the regular stormtroopers.
Snowtroopers seen in the assault on Echo Base in The Empire Strikes Back (1980) on Hoth and in the video games Star Wars: Empire at War, Star Wars: Battlefront, Star Wars: Battlefront II, Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy and  Shadows of the Empire on the Nintendo 64 (as well as Lego Star Wars II and Star Wars Battlefront (2015) are regular stormtroopers clad in subzero armor. Their helmets and armor are different, with goggles and a breather hood.
Scout troopers seen in Return of the Jedi (1983). They are trained in advanced reconnaissance and survival skills for all terrains, and are also seen in Star Wars: Battlefront, Star Wars: Battlefront II and Star Wars: The Force Unleashed as marksman and scout snipers.
Death troopers are elite soldiers of Imperial Intelligence, encased in specialized armor with a dark, ominous gleam. These soldiers serve as bodyguards and enforcers for VIP imperial individuals, such as Director Krennic and Grand Admiral Thrawn.[12]
Shoretroopers are stormtrooper specialists stationed at the top secret Imperial military headquarters on Scarif, where the soldiers patrol the beaches and bunkers of the planetary facility.[13]
Combat assault tank pilots and commanders, or tank troopers, operate the Empire’s arsenal of armored repulsor vehicles, from troop transports to heavily armored hovertanks. Combat drivers are lightly armored, relying instead on the thick skin of their vehicles to protect them in battle. The commander stays in contact with his crew and with headquarters to keep updated on changing combat conditions.[14]

text: First Order variants[edit]

text:
Flametroopers advance in conjunction with standard First Order infantry. These specialized units flush out entrenched enemies with roaring sheets of flame from their flamethrowers. They wear backpack-style propellant tanks, special helmets with slit-like lenses that reduce glare, and temperature-control body gloves beneath their armor.[15]
Riot Control Stormtroopers in Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015), specialize in riot control and use non-lethal betaplast shields and Z6 batons.[16][17][18]
Snowtroopers are assigned to frigid planets. They wear specialized armor and gear that let them operate effectively in icy conditions. Snowtroopers carry a backpack-style personal environment unit and wear insulated helmets with glare-reducing slit lenses, gloves, a kama, and a heat-resistant body glove beneath an oversuit of wind-resistant fabric. Snowtrooper teams scouted the planet that now housed Starkiller Base, eliminating native life forms that posed a potential threat.[19]
Stormtrooper Executioners are a branch of specialists specifically founded to dispense final justice toward Stormtroopers who are found guilty of treason.[20]

text: Performers[edit]

text: While stormtrooper performers like Michael Leader (Episode IV),[21] Laurie Goode (Episode IV),[21] Peter Diamond (Episode IV-VI), Stephen Bayley (Episode IV), and Bill Weston (Episode IV) have generally been uncredited in the film series,[citation needed] there have been a few exceptions.

text: In Attack of the Clones (2002), Temuera Morrison plays bounty hunter Jango Fett and his multitude of clones, who are the first army of clone troopers.[3]

text: In The Force Awakens (2015), John Boyega stars as Finn, the former Stormtrooper FN-2187 who defects from the First Order and joins the Resistance,[22] and Gwendoline Christie portrays Captain Phasma, commander of the First Order's stormtroopers.[23]  Daniel Craig has a small uncredited role as a stormtrooper whom Rey compels using the Jedi mind trick to let her escape from captivity,[24][25][26]  and director J. J. Abrams also cast Alias and Lost composer Michael Giacchino as FN-3181, and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich as FN-9330.[24] A riot control stormtrooper who calls Finn a traitor during the battle on Takodana, portrayed by stunt performer Liang Yang and voiced by sound editor David Acord, is identified as FN-2199 in the anthology book Star Wars: Before the Awakening (2015) by Greg Rucka.[16][17] The trooper, armed with a "Z6 baton" and dubbed "TR-8R" by fans, quickly inspired multiple memes and fan art.[16][27][28] Actor/director Kevin Smith also voiced a stormtrooper in the Takodana sequence.[29]

text: In Star Wars Rebels, different voice actors have provided the voices of the stormtroopers, including David Acord, Dee Bradley Baker, Steven Blum, Clancy Brown, Robin Atkin Downes, Greg Ellis, Dave Fennoy, Dave Filoni, Tom Kane, Andrew Kishino, Phil LaMarr, Liam O'Brien, Freddie Prinze, Jr., André Sogliuzzo, Stephen Stanton, Greg Weisman, Gary Anthony Williams, and Matthew Wood.[30]

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Stormtroopers have become cultural icons, and a widely recognized element of the Star Wars franchise.[31] In 2015, an Imperial stormtrooper helmet from The Empire Strikes Back that was expected to sell at auction for $92,000[32] actually sold for $120,000.[33]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Snowtrooper (Long Beach Comic & Horror Con 2011)

Sandtrooper (Star Wars Celebration Anaheim 2015)

Scout Trooper (Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo/C2E2 2014)

Endor Imperial Stormtrooper's costume and blaster from Episode VI

First Order Stormtrooper's costume from Episode VII

First Order Snowtrooper's costume from Episode VII


document_title: Hook (film)

question_text: who plays captain hook in hook the movie

text: Hook (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Peter Banning is a successful corporate lawyer living in San Francisco. As a workaholic, he spends little time with his wife, Moira, and children, 12-year-old Jack and 7-year-old Maggie, and even misses Jack's Little League Baseball game, which is straining his relationships with them. They fly to London to visit Moira's grandmother, Wendy Darling. Wendy is ostensibly the true creator of the Peter Pan stories, with J. M. Barrie, her childhood neighbor, merely having transcribed the tales. During their stay, Peter angrily yells at the children while their playing disturbs his important call, leading to an audacious argument with Moira, who throws his cellphone out of the window.

text: Peter, Moira and Wendy go out to a charity dinner honoring Wendy's long life of charitable service to orphans. Upon their return, they discover the house has been ransacked and the children have been abducted. A cryptic ransom note, signed Captain James Hook, has been pinned to the playroom door with a dagger. Wendy confesses to Peter that the stories of Peter Pan are true and that Peter himself is Pan, having lost all of his childhood memories when he fell in love with Moira. In disbelief, he gets drunk up in the playroom, but Tinker Bell appears and takes him to Neverland to rescue his children from Hook.

text: Hook and his pirates confront Peter but become depressed when they realize he does not remember his former life and identity. Tinker Bell makes a deal with Hook that Peter will regain his memories in three days for a climactic battle. He is reacquainted with the Mermaids and meets the new generation of Lost Boys, led by Rufio, who refuses to believe that he is the real Peter Pan. They help him train, and in the process he regains his imagination and lost youth. One of them, Thud Butt, gives him marbles that were left behind by Tootles, who is now an old man living with Wendy. Elsewhere, Smee talks Hook into manipulating Jack and Maggie into loving him to break Peter's will. While Maggie refuses to be taken in, Jack comes to view Hook as a father figure.

text: Hook arranges a makeshift baseball game for Jack, which Peter watches as Hook treats Jack like his own son. Horrified, Peter runs off and tries to fly, but is led to the old treehouse of the Lost Boys by his own shadow. Tinker Bell helps him remember his childhood and how he fell in love with Moira, and he realizes his happy thought is being a father. He flies up into the sky, returning as Peter Pan, and Rufio surrenders his sword and leadership back to him. The child-minded Peter returns to Tinker Bell who grows human-sized and kisses him, confessing her unrequited love to him and reminding him of his reason for being in Neverland. On the third day, he and the Lost Boys attack the pirates as promised, leading to a lengthy battle. He rescues Maggie and promises to be a better father to both her and Jack. Rufio fights a duel with Hook but is mortally wounded and dies in Peter's arms.

text: Peter and Hook duel, leading to Peter's victory. Refusing to leave honorably, Hook attacks Peter one last time, but the stuffed crocodile, whom Hook once feared, springs to life and his mouth falls on top of him, eating Hook. Peter gives his sword to Thud Butt, promoting him the new leader of the Lost Boys, and leaves Neverland for good. He awakens in Kensington Gardens, meeting a sweeper who bears a strong resemblance to Smee and bidding farewell to a tearful Tinker Bell. He climbs up the drain pipe of Wendy's house, reuniting and reconciling with his family and returning Tootles' marbles to him. Tootles discovers the bag contains pixie dust, and he flies out the window to return to Neverland. Wendy wonders if Peter's adventures are over, but he replies, “To live would be an awfully big adventure” as we see Tootles fly off before the screen fades.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Robin Williams as Peter Banning / Peter Pan

Ryan Francis as teenage Peter Pan
Max Hoffman as young Peter Pan
Matthew Van Ginkel as baby Peter Pan

Dustin Hoffman as Captain James Hook
Julia Roberts as Tinker Bell

Lisa Wilhoit as Tinker Bell in a flashback in which Peter is a baby

Bob Hoskins as Mr. Smee
Charlie Korsmo as Jack Banning
Amber Scott as Maggie Banning
Maggie Smith as Wendy Darling

Gwyneth Paltrow as young Wendy Darling

Caroline Goodall as Moira Banning
Laurel Cronin as Liza, Wendy's maid
Phil Collins as Inspector Good, the British police detective[4]
Arthur Malet as the older Tootles
Isaiah Robinson as Pockets
Jasen Fisher as Ace
Dante Basco as Rufio
Raushan Hammond as Thud Butt
James Madio as Don't Ask
Thomas Tulak as Too Small
Alex Zuckerman as Latchboy
Ahmad Stoner as No Nap
Kelly Rowan as Peter Pan's mother
David Crosby as Tickles, a member of Hook's pirate crew
Tony Burton and Nick Tate as Bill Jukes and Noodler, members of Hook's pirate crew who serve as his security entourage
Glenn Close as Gutless, a male pirate who is punished by Hook
Jimmy Buffett (uncredited) as the pirate who attempts to steal Peter's shoes
George Lucas and Carrie Fisher (both uncredited) as the kissing couple on the bridge who are sprinkled with pixie dust as Tinker Bell carries Peter to Neverland

text: Production[edit]

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: Spielberg found close personal connection to the Peter Pan story from his own childhood. The troubled relationship between Peter and Jack in the sequel echoed Spielberg's relationship with his own father. Previous Spielberg films that explored a dysfunctional father-son relationship included E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Peter's "quest for success" paralleled Spielberg starting out as a film director and transforming into a Hollywood business magnate.[5] "I think a lot of people today are losing their imagination because they are work-driven. They are so self-involved with work and success and arriving at the next plateau that children and family almost become incidental. I have even experienced it myself when I have been on a very tough shoot and I've not seen my kids except on weekends. They ask for my time and I can't give it to them because I'm working."[6] Like Peter at the beginning of the film, Spielberg has a fear of flying. He feels that Peter's "enduring quality" in the storyline is simply to fly. "Anytime anything flies, whether it's Superman, Batman, or E.T., it's got to be a tip of the hat to Peter Pan," Spielberg reflected in a 1992 interview. "Peter Pan was the first time I saw anybody fly. Before I saw Superman, before I saw Batman, and of course before I saw any superheroes, my first memory of anybody flying is in Peter Pan."[6]

text: Pre-production[edit]

text: J. M. Barrie considered writing a story in which Peter Pan grew up; his 1920 notes for the latest stage revival of Peter Pan included possible titles for another play: The Man Who Couldn't Grow Up or The Old Age of Peter Pan.[7] The genesis of the film started when Spielberg's mother often read him Peter and Wendy as a bedtime story. He explained in 1985, "When I was eleven years old I actually directed the story during a school production. I have always felt like Peter Pan. I still feel like Peter Pan. It has been very hard for me to grow up, I'm a victim of the Peter Pan syndrome."[8]

text: In the early 1980s, Spielberg began to develop a film with Walt Disney Pictures that would have closely followed the storyline of the 1924 silent film and 1953 animated film.[6] He also considered directing it as a musical with Michael Jackson in the lead.[9] Jackson expressed interest in the part, but was not interested in Spielberg's vision of an adult Peter Pan who had forgotten about his past.[10] The project was taken to Paramount Pictures, where James V. Hart wrote the first script with Dustin Hoffman already cast as Captain Hook.[9] It entered pre-production in 1985 for filming to begin at sound stages in England. Elliot Scott had been hired as production designer.[6] With the birth of his first son, Max, in 1985, Spielberg decided to drop out. "I decided not to make Peter Pan when I had my first child," Spielberg commented. "I didn't want to go to London and have seven kids on wires in front of blue screens. I wanted to be home as a dad."[9] Around this time, he considered directing Big, which carried similar motifs and themes with it.[9] In 1987, he "permanently abandoned" it, feeling he expressed his childhood and adult themes in Empire of the Sun.[11]

text: Meanwhile, Paramount and Hart moved forward on production with Nick Castle as director. Hart began to work on a new storyline when his son, Jake, showed his family a drawing. "We asked Jake what it was and he said it was a crocodile eating Captain Hook, but that the crocodile really didn't eat him, he got away," Hart reflected. "As it happens, I had been trying to crack Peter Pan for years, but I didn't just want to do a remake. So I went, 'Wow. Hook is not dead. The crocodile is. We've all been fooled'. In 1986 our family was having dinner and Jake said, 'Daddy, did Peter Pan ever grow up?' My immediate response was, 'No, of course not'. And Jake said, 'But what if he did?' I realized that Peter did grow up, just like all of us baby boomers who are now in our forties. I patterned him after several of my friends on Wall Street, where the pirates wear three-piece suits and ride in limos."[12]

text: Filming[edit]

text: By 1989, Ian Rathbone changed the title to Hook, and took it from Paramount to TriStar Pictures, headed by Mike Medavoy, who was Spielberg's first talent agent. Robin Williams signed on, but he and Hoffman had creative differences with Castle. Medavoy saw the film as a vehicle for Spielberg and Castle was dismissed, but paid a $500,000 settlement.[12] Dodi Fayed, who owned certain rights to make a Peter Pan film, sold his interest to TriStar in exchange for an executive producer credit.[13] Spielberg briefly worked together with Hart to rewrite the script[6] before hiring Malia Scotch Marmo to rewrite Captain Hook's dialog and Carrie Fisher for Tinker Bell's. The Writers Guild of America gave Hart and Marmo screenplay credit, while Hart and Castle were credited with the story. Fisher went uncredited. Filming began on February 19, 1991, occupying nine sound stages at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California.[2] Stage 30 housed the Neverland Lost Boys playground, while Stage 10 supplied Captain Hook's ship cabin. Hidden hydraulics were installed to rock the setpiece to simulate a swaying ship, but the filmmakers found the movement distracted the dialogue, so the idea was dropped.[14]

text: Stage 27 housed the full-sized Jolly Roger and the surrounding Pirate Wharf.[14] Industrial Light & Magic provided the visual effects sequences. This marked the beginning of Tony Swatton's career, as he was asked to make weaponry for the film. It was financed by Amblin Entertainment and TriStar Pictures, with TriStar distributing it. Spielberg brought on John Napier as a "visual consultant", having been impressed with his work on Cats. The original production budget was set at $48 million, but ended up between $60–80 million.[2][15] The primary reason for the increased budget was the shooting schedule, which ran 40 days over its original 76-day schedule. Spielberg explained, "It was all my fault. I began to work at a slower pace than I usually do."[15]

text: Spielberg's on-set relationship with Julia Roberts was troubled, and he later admitted in an interview with 60 Minutes, "It was an unfortunate time for us to work together." In a 1999 Vanity Fair interview, Roberts said that Spielberg's comments “really hurt my feelings.” She “couldn’t believe this person that I knew and trusted was actually hesitating to come to my defense . . . it was the first time that I felt I had a turncoat in my midst.”[16]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Hook: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

Film score by John Williams

Released
November 26, 1991 (1991-11-26) (original)
March 27, 2012 (2012-03-27) (reissue)[17]

Length
75:18 (original)
140:34 (reissue)

Label
Epic Records (original)
La-La Land Records (reissue)

John Williams chronology

Home AloneString Module Error: Match not foundString Module Error: Match not found
Hook
JFKString Module Error: Match not foundString Module Error: Match not found

text: The film score was composed and conducted by John Williams. He was brought in at an early stage when Spielberg was considering making the film as a musical. Accordingly, he wrote around eight songs for the project at this stage. The idea was later abandoned. Most of his song ideas were incorporated into the instrumental score, though two songs survive as songs in the finished film: "We Don't Wanna Grow Up" and "When You're Alone", both with lyrics by Leslie Bricusse.

text: The original 1991 issue was released by Epic Records.[18] In 2012, a limited edition of the soundtrack, called Hook: Expanded Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, was released by La-La Land Records and Sony Music. It contains almost the complete score with alternates and unused material. It also contains liner notes that explain the film's production and score recording.

text:
"Pick'em Up" – Music by John Williams and lyrics by Leslie Bricusse
"Take Me Out to the Ball Game" – Written by Jack Norworth and Albert Von Tilzer

text: Video games[edit]

text: A video game based on the film and bearing the same name was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1991. The game was released for additional game consoles in 1992.[19]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Spielberg, Williams, and Hoffman did not take salaries for the film. Their deal called for them to split 40% of TriStar Pictures' gross revenues. They were to receive $20 million from the first $50 million in gross theatrical film rentals, with TriStar keeping the next $70 million in rentals before the three resumed receiving their percentage.[2] The film was released in North America on December 11, 1991, earning $13,522,535 in its opening weekend. It went on to gross $119,654,823 in North America and $181,200,000 in foreign countries, accumulating a worldwide total of $300,854,823.[20] It is the sixth-highest-grossing "pirate-themed" film, behind all five films in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series.[21] In North America totals, it was the sixth-highest-grossing film in 1991,[22] and fourth-highest-grossing worldwide.[23] It ended up making a profit of $50 million for the studio, yet it was still declared a financial disappointment,[24] having been overshadowed by the release of Disney's Beauty and the Beast and a decline in box-office receipts compared to the previous years.[25]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 29% of critics have given the film a positive review, based on 41 reviews, certifying it "Rotten", with an average rating of 4.4/10. The site's consensus states: "The look of Hook is lively indeed but Steven Spielberg directs on autopilot here, giving in too quickly to his sentimental, syrupy qualities."[26] On Metacritic, the film has a 52 out of 100 rating, based on 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[27] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times stated that "The sad thing about the screenplay for Hook is that it’s so correctly titled: This whole construction is really nothing more than a hook on which to hang a new version of the Peter Pan story. No effort is made to involve Peter’s magic in the changed world he now inhabits, and little thought has been given to Captain Hook’s extraordinary persistence in wanting to revisit the events of the past. The failure in Hook was its inability to re-imagine the material, to find something new, fresh or urgent to do with the Peter Pan myth. Lacking that, Spielberg should simply have remade the original story, straight, for the '90s generation."[28] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine felt it would "only appeal to the baby boomer generation" and highly criticized the sword-fighting choreography.[29] Vincent Canby of The New York Times felt the story structure was not well balanced, feeling Spielberg depended too much on art direction.[30] Hal Hinson of The Washington Post was one of few who gave it a positive review. Hinson elaborated on crucial themes of children, adulthood, and loss of innocence. However, he observed that Spielberg "was stuck too much in a theme park world".[31] Perry Seibert of allmovie gave the film his very low star rating, and described it as the worst film in Steven Spielberg's Career.

text: The film was nominated for five categories at the 64th Academy Awards. This included Best Production Design (Norman Garwood, Garrett Lewis) (lost to Bugsy), Best Costume Design (lost to Bugsy), Best Visual Effects (lost to Terminator 2: Judgment Day), Best Makeup (lost to Terminator 2: Judgment Day) and Best Original Song ("When You're Alone", lost to Beauty and the Beast).[32] It lost the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film to Aladdin, in which Williams co-starred,[33] while cinematographer Dean Cundey was nominated for his work by the American Society of Cinematographers.[34] Hoffman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy (lost to Williams for The Fisher King).[35] John Williams was given a Grammy Award nomination for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media;[36] Julia Roberts received a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actress (lost to Sean Young as the dead twin in A Kiss Before Dying).[37]

text: In 2011, Spielberg told Entertainment Weekly: "There are parts of Hook I love. I'm really proud of my work right up through Peter being hauled off in the parachute out the window, heading for Neverland. I'm a little less proud of the Neverland sequences, because I'm uncomfortable with that highly stylized world that today, of course, I would probably have done with live-action character work inside a completely digital set. But we didn't have the technology to do it then, and my imagination only went as far as building physical sets and trying to paint trees blue and red."[38] Spielberg gave a more blunt assessment in a 2013 interview on Kermode & Mayo's Film Review Show: "I wanna see Hook again because I so don't like that movie, and I'm hoping someday I'll see it again and perhaps like some of it."[39]

text: In 2018, Spielberg told Empire Magazine, "I felt like a fish out of water making Hook ... I didn’t have confidence in the script. I had confidence in the first act and I had confidence in the epilogue. I didn’t have confidence in the body of it." He added "I didn’t quite know what I was doing and I tried to paint over my insecurity with production value," admitting “the more insecure I felt about it, the bigger and more colorful the sets became."[40]


document_title: Book of Proverbs

question_text: how many chapters are in the book of proverbs

text: Book of Proverbs

text: Structure[edit]

text: The superscriptions divide the collections as follows:

text:
Proverbs 1–9: "Proverbs of Solomon, Son of David, King of Israel"
Proverbs 10–22:16: "Proverbs of Solomon"
Proverbs 22:17–24:22: "The Sayings of the Wise"
Proverbs 24:23–34: "These Also are Sayings of the Wise"
Proverbs 25–29: "These are Other Proverbs of Solomon that the Officials of King Hezekiah of Judah Copied"
Proverbs 30: "The Words of Agur"
Proverbs 31:1–9: "The Words of King Lemuel of Massa, Which his Mother Taught Him"
Proverbs 31:10–31: the ideal wise woman (elsewhere called the "woman of substance").[6]

text: Contents[edit]

text: "Proverbs" translates to the Hebrew word mashal, but "mashal" has a wider range of meaning than the short catchy sayings implied by the English word. Thus, while roughly half the book is made up of "sayings" of this type, the other half is made up of longer poetic units of various types. These include "instructions" formulated as advice from a teacher or parent addressed to a student or child, dramatic personifications of both Wisdom and Folly, and the "words of the wise" sayings, longer than the Solomonic "sayings" but shorter and more diverse than the "instructions".[7]

text: The first section (chapters 1–9) consists of an initial invitation to young men to take up the course of wisdom, ten "instructions", and five poems on personified Woman Wisdom.[8] Proverbs 10:1–22:16, with 375 sayings, consists of two parts, the first contrasting the wise man and the fool (or the righteous and the wicked), the second addressing wise and foolish speech.[9] Chapters 25–29, attributed to editorial activity of "the men of Hezekiah," contrasts the just and the wicked and broaches the topic of rich and poor.[10] Chapter 30:1–4, the "sayings of Agur", introduces creation, divine power, and human ignorance.[11]

text: Composition[edit]

text: It is impossible to offer precise dates for the sayings in Proverbs, a "collection of collections" relating to a pattern of life which lasted for more than a millennium.[2] The phrase conventionally used for the title is taken from chapter 1:1, mishley shelomoh, Proverbs of Solomon (the phrase is repeated at 10:1 and 25:1), is likely more concerned with labeling the material than ascribing authorship.[12]

text: The book is an anthology made up of six discrete units. The first, chapters 1–9, was probably the last to be composed, in the Persian or Hellenistic periods. This section has parallels to prior cuneiform writings.[13] The second, chapters 10–22:16, carries the superscription "the proverbs of Solomon", which may have encouraged its inclusion in the Hebrew canon. The third unit is headed "bend your ear and hear the words of the wise": a large part of it is a recasting of a second-millennium BCE Egyptian work, the Instruction of Amenemope, and may have reached the Hebrew author(s) through an Aramaic translation. Chapter 24:23 begins a new section and source with the declaration, "these too are from the wise." The next section at chapter 25:1 has a superscription to the effect that the following proverbs were transcribed "by the men of Hezekiah", indicating at face value that they were collected in the reign of Hezekiah in the late 8th century BCE. Chapters 30 and 31 (the "words of Agur," the "words of Lemuel," and the description of the ideal woman) are a set of appendices, quite different in style and emphasis from the previous chapters.[14]

text: The "wisdom" genre was widespread throughout the ancient Near East, and reading Proverbs alongside the examples recovered from Egypt and Mesopotamia reveals the common ground shared by international wisdom.[15] The wisdom literature of Israel may have been developed in the family, the royal court, and houses of learning and instruction;[16] nevertheless, the overwhelming impression is of instruction within the family in small villages.[17]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Along with the other examples of the Biblical wisdom tradition – Job and Ecclesiastes and some other writings – Proverbs raises questions of values, moral behavior, the meaning of human life, and righteous conduct. The three retain an ongoing relevance for both religious and secular readers, Job and Ecclesiastes through the boldness of their dissent from received tradition, Proverbs in its worldliness and satiric shrewdness. Wisdom is as close as Biblical literature comes to Greek philosophy, of which it was a contemporary; it shares with the Greeks an inquiry into values and reflections on the human condition, although there is no discussion of ontology, epistemology, metaphysics, and the other abstract issues raised by the Greeks.[3]

text: Proverbs was almost excluded from the Bible because of its contradictions (the result of the book's origins as not just an anthology but an anthology of anthologies). The reader is told, for example, both to "not answer a fool according to his folly", according to 26:4, and to "answer a fool according to his folly", as 26:5 advises. More pervasively, the recurring theme of the initial unit (chapters 1–9) is that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, but the following units are much less theological, presenting wisdom as a transmissible human craft, until with 30:1–14, the "words of Agur," we return once more to the idea that God alone possesses wisdom.[14]

text: "The fear of God is the beginning of wisdom" (Proverbs 9:10 – the phrase implies submission to God's will[4]). Wisdom is praised for her role in creation ("God by wisdom founded the earth; by understanding he established the heavens" – Proverbs 3:19). God acquired her before all else, and through her he gave order to chaos ("When [God] established the heavens...when he drew a circle on then face of the Deeps...when he marked out the foundations of the earth, then I was beside him" – Proverbs 8:27–31). Since humans have life and prosperity by conforming to the order of creation, seeking wisdom is the essence and goal of the religious life.[5] Wisdom, or the wise person, is compared and contrasted with foolishness or the fool, meaning one who is lacking in wisdom and uninterested in instruction, not one who is merely silly or playful (though see the words of Agur for a "fool" who has wisdom, and could be seen as playful).

text: For the most part Proverbs offers a simplistic view of life with few grey areas: life lived according to the rules brings reward, life in violation of them is certain to bring disaster. In contrast, Job and Ecclesiastes appear to be direct contradictions of the simplicities of Proverbs, each in its own way all but dismissing the assumptions of the "wise".[18] Noteworthy also is the fact that the "mighty acts of God" (the Exodus, the giving of the Torah at Sinai, the Covenant between God and Israel, etc.) which make up Israel's history are completely or almost completely absent from Proverbs and the other Wisdom books: in contrast to the other books of the Hebrew bible, which appeal to divine revelation for their authority ("Thus says the Lord!"), wisdom appeals to human reason and observation.[19]

text: Later interpretation and influence[edit]

text: The pre-Exilic (i.e. pre-586 BCE) Old Testament allowed no equals to YHWH in heaven, despite the continued existence of an assembly of subordinate servant-deities.[20] The post-Exilic writers of the Wisdom tradition developed the idea that Wisdom existed before creation and was used by God to create the universe:[21] "Present from the beginning, Wisdom assumes the role of master builder while God establishes the heavens, restricts the chaotic waters, and shapes the mountains and fields."[22] Borrowing ideas from Greek philosophers who held that reason bound the universe together, the Wisdom tradition taught that God's Wisdom, Word and Spirit were the ground of cosmic unity.[23] Christianity in turn adopted these ideas and applied them to Jesus: the Epistle to the Colossians calls Jesus "...image of the invisible God, first-born of all creation...", while the Gospel of John identifies him with the creative word ("In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God").[24]

text: In the 4th century, when Christianity was caught up in heresies and still developing the creeds which would define its beliefs, Proverbs 8:22 was used both to support and refute the claims of the Arians. The Arians, assuming that Christ could be equated with the "Wisdom of God" (1 Corinthians 1:24), argued that the Son, like Wisdom, was "created" (Proverbs 8:22), and therefore subordinate to the Creator; their opponents, who argued that the relevant Hebrew word should be translated as "begot", won the debate, and the Nicene Creed declared that the Son was "begotten, not made", meaning that God and Christ were consubstantial.[25]