document_title: Call of Duty

question_text: when did the first call of duty game come out

text: Call of Duty

text: Main series

text:
Titles in the Call of Duty series

Year

Title

PC

6th Gen

7th Gen

8th Gen

Handheld

Developer

2003

Call of Duty

Windows, OS X

N/A

X360, PS3

N/A

N-Gage

Infinity Ward

2005

Call of Duty 2

Windows, OS X

N/A

X360

Xbox One (BC)

Mobile phone

Infinity Ward

2006

Call of Duty 3

N/A

PS2, Xbox

X360, PS3, Wii

Xbox One (BC)

N/A

Treyarch

2007

Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare

Windows, OS X

N/A

X360, PS3, Wii

Xbox One, PS4 (Remastered)

NDS

Infinity Ward

2008

Call of Duty: World at War

Windows

PS2

X360, PS3, Wii

Xbox One (BC)

NDS, Windows Mobile

Treyarch

2009

Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2

Windows, OS X

N/A

X360, PS3

Xbox One (BC)

NDS

Infinity Ward

2010

Call of Duty: Black Ops

Windows, OS X

N/A

X360, PS3, Wii

Xbox One (BC)

NDS

Treyarch

2011

Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3

Windows, OS X

N/A

X360, PS3, Wii

Xbox One (BC)

NDS

Infinity WardSledgehammer Games

2012

Call of Duty: Black Ops II

Windows

N/A

X360, PS3

Xbox One (BC), Wii U

N/A

Treyarch

2013

Call of Duty: Ghosts

Windows

N/A

X360, PS3

Xbox One, PS4, Wii U

N/A

Infinity Ward

2014

Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare

Windows

N/A

X360, PS3

Xbox One, PS4

N/A

Sledgehammer Games

2015

Call of Duty: Black Ops III

Windows

N/A

X360, PS3

Xbox One, PS4

N/A

Treyarch

2016

Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare

Windows

N/A

N/A

Xbox One, PS4

N/A

Infinity Ward

2017

Call of Duty: WWII

Windows

N/A

N/A

Xbox One, PS4

N/A

Sledgehammer Games

2018

Call of Duty: Black Ops 4

Windows

N/A

N/A

Xbox One, PS4

N/A

Treyarch

text: World War II games

text: Call of Duty

text: Call of Duty is a video game based on id Tech 3, and was released on October 29, 2003. The game was developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. The game simulates the infantry and combined arms warfare of World War II.[2] An expansion pack, Call of Duty: United Offensive, was developed by Gray Matter Interactive with contributions from Pi Studios and produced by Activision. The game follows American and British paratroopers and the Red Army. The Mac OS X version of the game was ported by Aspyr Media. In late 2004, the N-Gage version was developed by Nokia and published by Activision. Other versions were released for PC, including Collector's Edition (with soundtrack and strategy guide), Game of the Year Edition (includes game updates), and the Deluxe Edition (which contains the United Offensive expansion and soundtrack; in Europe the soundtrack was not included). On September 22, 2006, Call of Duty, United Offensive, and Call of Duty 2 were released together as Call of Duty: War Chest for PC.[3] Since November 12, 2007, Call of Duty games have been available for purchase via Valve's content delivery platform Steam.[4]

text: Call of Duty 2

text: Call of Duty 2 is a first-person shooter video game and the sequel to Call of Duty. It was developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision. The game is set during World War II and is experienced through the perspectives of soldiers in the Red Army, British Army, and United States Army. It was released on October 25, 2005 for Microsoft Windows, November 15, 2005 for the Xbox 360, and June 13, 2006, for Mac OS X. Other versions were made for mobile phones, Pocket PCs, and smartphones.

text: Call of Duty 3

text: Call of Duty 3 is a World War II first-person shooter and the third installment in the Call of Duty video game series. Released on November 7, 2006, the game was developed by Treyarch, and was the first major installment in the Call of Duty series not to be developed by Infinity Ward. It was also the first not to be released on the PC platform. It was released on the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii, Xbox, and Xbox 360.[5] Call of Duty 3 follows the American, Canadian, British, and Polish armies as well as the French Resistance after D-Day in the Falaise Gap.[citation needed]

text: Call of Duty: WWII

text: Call of Duty: WWII is the fourteenth game in the series and was developed by Sledgehammer Games.[6] It was released worldwide on November 3, 2017, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One.[7] The game is set in the European theatre, and is centered around a squad in the 1st Infantry Division, following their battles on the Western Front, and set mainly in the historical events of Operation Overlord.

text: Modern Warfare story arc

text: Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare

text: Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare is the fourth installment of the main series, and was developed by Infinity Ward. It is the first game in the series not to be set during World War II, but set in the modern day. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 on November 7, 2007. Download and retail versions for Mac OS X were released by Aspyr in September 2008. As of May 2009, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare has sold over 13 million copies.[8]

text: Remastered

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare Remastered is a remastered version of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare that was released alongside the Legacy Edition, Legacy Pro Edition and Digital Deluxe Edition of Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare on November 4, 2016, for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC.[9] It was later released standalone on June 27, 2017, for PS4, and July 27, 2017, for Xbox One and PC.[10] The game was developed by Raven Software and executive produced by Infinity Ward.[11][12]

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 is the sixth installment of the main series. It was developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision.[13][14] Activision Blizzard announced Modern Warfare 2 on February 11, 2009.[15][16] The game was released worldwide on November 10, 2009, for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Windows.[13] A Nintendo DS iteration of the game, titled Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized, was released alongside the game and the Wii port of Call of Duty : Modern Warfare.[17][18] Modern Warfare 2 is the direct sequel to Call of Duty 4 and continues the same storyline, taking place five years after the first game and featuring several returning characters including Captain Price and "Soap" MacTavish.[19]

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 is a first-person shooter video game. It is the eighth installment of the Call of Duty series and the third installment of the Modern Warfare arc. Due to a legal dispute between the game's publisher Activision and the former co-executives of Infinity Ward – which caused several lay-offs and departures within the company[20] – Sledgehammer Games assisted in the development of the game, while Raven Software was brought in to make cosmetic changes to the menus of the game.[21] The game was said to have been in development since only two weeks after the release of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2.[21] Sledgehammer was aiming for a "bug free" first outing in the Call of Duty franchise, and had also set a goal for Metacritic review scores above 95 percent.[22]

text: The game continues the story from the point at which it ended in the Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 and continues the fictional battle story between the United States and Russia, which evolves into the Third World War between NATO allied nations and ultra-nationalist Russia.

text: Black Ops story arc

text: Call of Duty: World at War

text: Call of Duty: World at War, developed by Treyarch, is the fifth installment of the main series. Released after Modern Warfare, it returns to the World War II setting of earlier titles,[23] featuring the Pacific theater and Eastern front. The game uses the same proprietary game engine as Call of Duty 4 and was released for the PC, PlayStation 3, Wii, Xbox 360 consoles and the Nintendo DS handheld in North America on November 11, 2008, and November 14, 2008 in Europe. As of June 2009, Call of Duty: World at War has sold over 11 million copies.[24] It acts as a prologue for Treyarch's next game, Black Ops, which is in the same universe, sharing characters and story references.[25][26]

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops is the seventh installment in the series,[27][28][29] the third developed by Treyarch, and was published by Activision for release on November 9, 2010. It is the first game in the series to take place during the Cold War and also takes place partially in the Vietnam War. It was initially available for Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 and was later released for the Wii as well as the Nintendo DS.[30]

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops II

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops II is the ninth main installment in the series, developed by Treyarch and published by Activision. The game was revealed on May 1, 2012.[31][32] It was the first game in the series to feature future warfare technology, and the campaign features multiple branching storylines driven by player choice and multiple endings. It was later released on November 12, 2012.

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops III

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops III is the twelfth main installment in the series, developed by Treyarch and published by Activision.  The game was released on November 6, 2015.

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops 4

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops 4 is the fifteenth main installment in the series. It is being developed by Treyarch and published by Activision. The game was released on October 12, 2018.[33]

text: Other story arcs

text: Call of Duty: Ghosts

text: Call of Duty: Ghosts is the tenth main installment in the series, and was developed by Infinity Ward with Neversoft and Raven Software. The game was released on November 5, 2013.[34][35]

text: Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare

text: Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare is the eleventh main installment in the series, developed by Sledgehammer Games with assistance from Raven Software and High Moon Studios. It was released in November 2014.[36]

text: Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare

text: Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare is the thirteenth main installment in the series, developed by Infinity Ward, and was published by Activision. The game was released on November 4, 2016.[37]

text: Primary developer rotation

text: In 2006, Treyarch released Call of Duty 3, their first Call of Duty game of the main series. Treyarch and Infinity Ward signed a contract stating that the producer of each upcoming title in the series would alternate between the two companies. In 2010, Sledgehammer Games announced they were working on a main series title for the franchise. This game was postponed in order to help Infinity Ward produce Modern Warfare 3. In 2014, it was confirmed that Sledgehammer Games would produce the 2014 title, Call of Duty: Advanced Warfare, and the studios would begin a three-year rotation.[38][39] Advanced Warfare was followed by Treyarch's Call of Duty: Black Ops III in 2015, Infinity Ward's Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare in 2016, Sledgehammer Games's Call of Duty: WWII in 2017 and was followed by Treyarch's Call of Duty: Black Ops 4 in 2018.

text: Other games

text: Console titles

text: Call of Duty: Finest Hour

text: Call of Duty: Finest Hour is the first console installment of Call of Duty, and was released on the GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox. The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of the game include an online multiplayer mode which supports up to 32 players. It also includes new game modes.

text: Call of Duty 2: Big Red One

text: Call of Duty 2: Big Red One is a spin-off of Call of Duty 2 developed by Treyarch, and based on the American 1st Infantry Division's exploits during World War II. The game was released on GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox.

text: Call of Duty: World at War – Final Fronts is the PlayStation 2 adaptation of Call of Duty: World at War. Developed by Rebellion Developments, Final Fronts features three campaigns involving the U.S. fighting in the Pacific theater, the Battle of the Bulge, and the British advancing on the Rhine River into Germany.

text: Call of Duty: The War Collection

text: Call of Duty: The War Collection is a boxed set compilation of Call of Duty 2, Call of Duty 3 and Call of Duty: World at War. It was released for the Xbox 360 on June 1, 2010.[40]

text: Handheld titles

text: Call of Duty: Roads to Victory

text: Call of Duty: Roads to Victory is a PSP game which is a portable spin-off of Call of Duty 3.[41]

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized

text: Call of Duty: Modern Warfare: Mobilized is the Nintendo DS companion game for Modern Warfare 2. Developed by n-Space, the game takes place in the same setting as the main console game, but follows a different storyline and cast of characters. Playing as the S.A.S. and the Marines in campaign mode, both forces are trying to find a nuclear bomb.

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops DS

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops is the Nintendo DS companion game for Black Ops. Developed by n-Space, the game takes place in the same setting as the main console game, but follows a different storyline and cast of characters.[citation needed]

text: Call of Duty: Zombies and Zombies 2

text: Call of Duty: Zombies is a first-person shooter video game developed by Ideaworks Game Studio, and published by Activision for iOS. It is a spin-off of the Call of Duty series, and based on the "Nazi Zombies" mode of Call of Duty: World at War. A sequel for the iPhone and iPod Touch includes Shi No Numa that was originally released on the Xbox 360, PS3, and PC.[citation needed]

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops: Declassified

text: Call of Duty: Black Ops: Declassified is a PlayStation Vita Call of Duty game.[42]

text: Call of Duty: Strike Team

text: Call of Duty: Strike Team is a first and third-person shooter game developed by The Blast Furnace, and published by Activision for iOS. The game is set in 2020 with players tasked with leading a U.S. Joint Special Operations Team after the country "finds themselves in a war with an unknown enemy". The game was released on September 5, 2013.[citation needed]

text: Call of Duty: Heroes

text: Call of Duty: Heroes is a real-time strategy game developed by Faceroll Games, and published by Activision for Android and iOS. The game takes a resemblance to Clash of Clans and was released on November 26, 2014.[citation needed]

text: Call of Duty Online

text: Call of Duty Online was announced by Activision when the company first stated their interest in an Massively multiplayer online game (MMO) in early 2011. By then, it had been in development for two years. Call of Duty Online is free-to-play for mainland China and is hosted by Tencent. Since Activision had lost the publishing rights to Call of Duty and several other franchises in China due to a legal dispute on most of the Western gaming consoles (Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii), it had been rumored that it would be Microsoft Windows-exclusive, since PCs hold the dominant share of gamers in mainland China.[citation needed]

text: Canceled titles

text: Call of Duty: Combined Forces

text: Call of Duty: Combined Forces was a proposed concept draft originally intended to be a sequel to Call of Duty: Finest Hour. However, due to multiple legal issues that arose between Spark Unlimited, Electronic Arts, and Activision as well as other production problems, the game's draft and scripts never came to be. The game was projected to cost $10.5 million to produce after Finest Hour was complete. Eventually Activision deemed the pitch as more of an expansion than something entirely new, causing the company to reject the proposal and end their contract with Spark Unlimited shortly after.[43]

text: Call of Duty: Devil's Brigade

text: Call of Duty: Devil's Brigade was a canceled first-person shooter for the Xbox 360 developed by Underground Entertainment. The game was set in World War II, mainly focusing on the Italian Campaign.[44]

text: Call of Duty: Vietnam

text: Call of Duty: Vietnam was a third-person shooter set during the Vietnam War. It was in development for at least six to eight months at Sledgehammer Games. The development was stopped because Infinity Ward needed help finishing Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 due to the employee firings and departures in 2010.[45][46]

text: Call of Duty: Roman Wars

text: Call of Duty: Roman Wars was a canceled third and first-person video game in the Call of Duty franchise. The game was set in ancient Rome, and allowed players to take control of famous historical figure Julius Caesar, along with "low grunts", and officers of the Tenth Legion. It was eventually canceled, as Activision had uncertainties about branding it as a Call of Duty title.[47]

text: Other media

text: Comic books

text: Modern Warfare 2: Ghost is a six-part comic book mini-series based on Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2. The storyline focuses on the backstory of the character Simon "Ghost" Riley. The series is published by WildStorm and the first issue was released on November 10, 2009, alongside the game.[48]

text: Call of Duty: Zombies is a six-part comic book series published by Dark Horse Comics. The series ties in with the Zombies game mode of the Black Ops subseries developed by Treyarch. The series is co-written by Justin Jordan, Treyarch's Jason Blundell and Craig Houston. The series is illustrated by artist Jonathan Wayshak and colorist Dan Jackson. The cover arts are handled by artist Simon Bisley. The series was announced by Treyarch on July 2016, with the first issue slated for release in October. After a slight delay, the first issue was released on October 26, 2016. The five other issues were released in the months of 2017: issue #2 released on January 11, 2017; issue #3 released on March 1, 2017; issue #4 released on April 19, 2017; issue #5 released on June 21, 2017; and issue #6 released on August 23, 2017. A paperback edition containing all six issues was released on November 15, 2017.[49]

text: Merchandise

text: The Call of Duty Real-Time Card Game was announced by card manufacturer Upper Deck.[50]

text: In 2004, Activision, in cooperation with the companies Plan-B Toys and Radioactive Clown, released the "Call of Duty: Series 1" line of action figures, which included three American soldiers and three German soldiers from the World War II era.[51] While the American G.I. action figure was made in 2004,[52] Plan-B Toys later discontinued a controversial Nazi SS Guard action figure based on the Nazi Totenkopf officer seen in Call of Duty.[53]

text: In 2008, McFarlane Toys announced their partnership with Activision to produce action figures for the Call of Duty series. McFarlane Toys' first series of action figures were released in October 2008 and consists of four different figures: Marine with Flamethrower, Marine Infantry, British Special Ops, and Marine with Machine Gun.[54]

text: Short films

text: Find Makarov is a fan-made film that was well received by Call of Duty publishers, Activision, who contacted We Can Pretend and subsequently produced a second short film, Operation Kingfish.[55]

text: Find Makarov: Operation Kingfish is a fan-made prequel to Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 and was first shown at Call of Duty XP. The video was produced by We Can Pretend, with visual effects by The Junction, and was endorsed by Activision. The video tells the story of how Captain Price ended up in a Russian Gulag set before the events of Modern Warfare 2.

text: Films

text: On November 6, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Activision Blizzard launched a production studio called Activision Blizzard Studios and are planning a live action Call of Duty cinematic universe in 2019.[56]

text: eSports

text: The Call of Duty games were used in eSports, starting in 2006, alongside the game released at the time, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare.[57] Over the years, the series has extended with releases such as Call of Duty: World at War, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, Call of Duty: Black Ops, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3, Call of Duty: Black Ops II, and Call of Duty: Ghosts. Games are played in leagues like Major League Gaming.

text: Players can compete in ladders or tournaments. The ladders are divided into several sub ladders such as: the singles ladder, doubles ladder, team ladder (3v3 – 6v6) and hardcore team ladder (3v3 – 6v6). The difference between the regular team ladder and the hardcore team ladder is the in game settings and thus a rule differentiation. Winning ladder matches on a competitive website rewards the user with experience points which add up to give them an overall rank.[58]

text: The tournaments offered on these websites provide players with the opportunity to win cash prizes and trophies. The trophies are registered and saved on the player's profile if/when they win a tournament and the prize money is deposited into his or her bank account. Call of Duty: Ghosts was the most competitively played game in 2014, with an average of 15,000 teams participating every season.[59]

text: For the past 6 seasons in competitive Call of Duty, Full Sail University has hosted a prize giveaway, giving $2,500 to the top team each season.[60] The other ladders give out credits and medals registered on players' profiles. Tournaments hosted on the Call of Duty: Ghosts's Arena give cost from 15 to 30 credits, thus averaging at a cost of about $18.75 per tournament. If the player competes with a team, the prize money is divided and an equal cut is given to each player. Other tournaments with substantial prizes are hosted in specific cities and countries for LAN teams.

text: The biggest Call of Duty tournament hosted was Call of Duty: Experience 2011, a tournament that began when Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 was released.[61]

text: Playing Call of Duty competitively is most popular in Europe and North America, with users who participate in tournaments and ladder matches daily.[62] Competitive players have an average of 500,000 followers on social media.[63]

text: Call of Duty Endowment

text: The Call of Duty Endowment (CODE) is a nonprofit foundation created by Activision Blizzard to help find employment for U.S. military veterans. The first donation, consisting of $125,000, was presented to the Paralyzed Veterans of America.[64]

text: Co-chairman General James L. Jones is a former U.S. National Security Advisor.[65] Founder Robert Kotick is the CEO of Activision Blizzard. Upon its founding in 2009, the organization announced a commitment to create thousands of career opportunities for veterans, including those returning from the Middle East.[66] Annual awards given by the endowment include the “Seal of Distinction,” a $30,000 initial grant given to selected veteran’s service organizations.[67] In November 2014, the endowment launched the “Race to 1,000 Jobs” campaign to encourage gamers to donate money to and get involved in organizations that provide veterans with services.[68] As of 2015, the Call of Duty Endowment had provided around $12 million in grants to veterans’ organizations in the United States, which has helped find jobs for 14,700 veterans.[69]

text: On March 30, 2010, CODE presented 3,000 copies of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, approximately $180,000 in value, to the U.S. Navy. The copies were delivered to over 300 ships and submarines as well as Navy Morale, Welfare, and Recreation facilities worldwide.[70]


document_title: Pound (currency)

question_text: list of countries having pound as their currency

root

text: Pound (currency)

text: Countries currently using the pound or similar[edit]

text:
Countries
Currency
ISO 4217 code

 United Kingdom
Pound sterling
GBP

 Egypt
Egyptian pound
EGP

 Lebanon
Lebanese pound
LBP

 South Sudan
South Sudanese pound
SSP

 Sudan
Sudanese pound
SDG

 Syria
Syrian pound
SYP

tag: table

text: |- |  Jersey | Jersey pound | syp |}

tag: p

text: Current currencies[edit]

text:
Pound sterling (GBP, represented by the pound sign: "£"), the currency of the United Kingdom, its Crown dependencies (the Isle of Man and the Channel Island bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey) and the British Overseas Territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory[3] and British Indian Ocean Territory.[4][5] See also Isle of Man pound, Jersey pound, Guernsey pound and Alderney pound.
Egyptian pound
Lebanese pound
South Sudanese pound
Sudanese pound
Syrian pound

tag: ul

text: Equal exchange rate[edit]

text: The following currencies are interchangeable at par with the pound sterling. These are issued in the Crown dependencies and certain British Overseas Territories:

text:
Market
Pound

 Saint Helena
Saint Helena pound

 Ascension Island

 Tristan da Cunha

 Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands pound

 Gibraltar
Gibraltar pound

 Guernsey
Guernsey pound

 Jersey
Jersey pound

 Isle of Man
Manx pound

text: Historical currencies[edit]

text:
Anglo-Saxon pound (Anglo-Saxon England
Australian pound (until 1966, replaced by the Australian dollar). The Australian pound was also used in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Nauru, New Hebrides and Papua and New Guinea. It was replaced in the New Hebrides/Vanuatu in 1981 by the Vanuatu vatu.
Bahamian pound (until 1966, replaced by the Bahamian dollar)
Bermudian pound (until 1970, replaced by the Bermudian dollar)
Biafran pound (1968 to 1970, replaced by the Nigerian pound)
British West African pound

in British Cameroon replaced by the CFA franc in 1961
in Gambia, replaced by the Gambian pound in 1968
in Ghana, replaced by the Ghanaian pound in 1958
in Liberia, replaced by the U.S. dollar in 1943
in Nigeria, replaced by the Nigerian pound in 1958
in Sierra Leone, replaced by the leone in 1964

Canadian pound (until 1859, replaced by the Canadian dollar)
Cypriot pound (Cyprus and Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, until 1 January 2008, replaced by the euro)
Fijian pound (until 1969, replaced by the Fijian dollar)
Gambian pound (1968 to 1971, replaced by the dalasi)
Ghanaian pound (1958 to 1965, replaced by the cedi)
Irish pound (Irish: Punt na hÉireann) (until 2002, replaced by the euro)
Israeli pound, also known as the Israeli lira (until 1980, replaced by the sheqel)
Jamaican pound (until 1968, replaced by the Jamaican dollar). The Jamaican pound was also used in Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands until 1968.
Jordanian pound; see Palestine pound.
Libyan pound (until 1971, replaced by the Libyan dinar)
Malawian pound (1964 to 1970, replaced by the Malawian kwacha)
Maltese pound (until 1972, replaced by the Maltese lira which was itself replaced by the euro on 1 January 2008)
New Brunswick pound (until 1860, replaced by the New Brunswick dollar)
Newfoundland pound (until 1865, replaced by the Newfoundland dollar)
New Guinean pound
New Zealand pound (until 1967, replaced by the New Zealand dollar). The New Zealand pound was also used in the Cook Islands and the Pitcairn Islands.
Nigerian pound (1958 to 1973, replaced by the naira)
Nova Scotian pound (until 1860, replaced by the Nova Scotian dollar)
Oceanian pound (1942-1945 under Japanese occupation of Kiribati, Nauru, New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu)
Palestine pound (replaced by the Israeli pound; also served as Jordanian pound, replaced in Jordan by the Jordanian dinar)
Pound Scots of Scotland (until 1707 union with England)
Prince Edward Island pound (until 1871, replaced by the Prince Edward Island dollar)
Rhodesian pound (1964 until 1970 in Rhodesia, replaced by the Rhodesian dollar)
Rhodesia and Nyasaland pound (1955-1964, replaced in Southern Rhodesia renamed Rhodesia by the Rhodesian pound, in Northern Rhodesia renamed Zambia by the Zambian pound, and in Nyasaland renamed Malawi by the Malawian pound)
Samoan pound (1914–1920 provisional issue by the New Zealand Government military administration. 1920–1959 by the New Zealand Government administration (Treasury notes). 1960–1963 by the Bank of Western Samoa. Replaced 1967 by the tala ($).)
Scottish pound; see Pound Scots
Solomon Islands pound (1916-1932, replaced by the Australian pound)
South African pound (until 1961, replaced by South African rand). The South African pound was also used in Basutoland, Bechuanaland, South West Africa and Swaziland.
South African Republic pond (refers to the republic in Transvaal, issued 1867-1902, replaced by the South African pound)
South West African pound (1930s to 1961, replaced by South African rand)
Southern Rhodesian pound (1896-1955, circulated also in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland; replaced by Rhodesia and Nyasaland pound)
Sudanese pound (until 1992 and since January 2007)
Tongan pound (1921–1966 Government of Tonga Treasury notes. 1967 replaced by the pa'anga ($))
Transvaal pound (see above, South African Republic pond)
West Indian pound (until 1949, replaced by East Caribbean dollar)
Western Samoan pound (1920-1967, replaced by Samoan tala)
Zambian pound (1964 to 1968, replaced by the Zambian kwacha)

text: Currencies of the former British colonies in America[edit]

text: All of the following currencies have been replaced by the US dollar.

text:
Connecticut pound (Connecticut)
Delaware pound (Delaware)
Georgia pound (Georgia)
Maryland pound (Maryland)
Massachusetts pound (Massachusetts)
New Hampshire pound (New Hampshire)
New Jersey pound (New Jersey)
New York pound (New York)
North Carolina pound (North Carolina)
Pennsylvania pound (Pennsylvania)
Rhode Island pound (Rhode Island)
South Carolina pound (South Carolina)
Virginia pound (Virginia)


document_title: List of Olympic medalists in ice hockey

question_text: who won the gold medal in the men's hockey

question_tokens: who won the gold medal in the men 's hockey

text: List of Olympic medalists in ice hockey

text: Men[edit]

text: Individuals who have been inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame (including announced members awaiting induction) are indicated as follows:

text:
Bold type: Inducted as players.
Italics: Inducted in a non-playing role.

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1920 Antwerp
details
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Robert Benson
Walter Byron
Frank Fredrickson
Chris Fridfinnson
Magnus Goodman
Haldor Halderson
Konrad Johannesson
Allan Woodman
 United States (USA) (1)
Raymond Bonney
Anthony Conroy
Herbert Drury
Edward Fitzgerald
George Geran
Frank Goheen
Joseph McCormick
Lawrence McCormick
Frank Synott
Leon Tuck
Cyril Weidenborner
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (1)
Karel Hartmann
Vilém Loos
Jan Palouš
Jan Peka
Karel Pešek
Josef Šroubek
Otakar Vindyš
Karel Wälzer
[Note 1]

1924 Chamonix
details
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Jack Cameron
Ernie Collett
Bert McCaffrey
Harold McMunn
Duncan Munro
Beattie Ramsay
Cyril Slater
Reginald Smith
Harry Watson
 United States (USA) (2)
Clarence Abel
Herbert Drury
Alphonse Lacroix
John Langley
John Lyons
Justin McCarthy
Willard Rice
Irving Small
Frank Synott
 Great Britain (GBR) (1)
William Anderson
Lorne Carr-Harris
Colin Carruthers
Eric Carruthers
Guy Clarkson
Ross Cuthbert
Geoffrey Holmes
Hamilton Jukes
Edward Pitblado
Blaine Sexton

1928 St. Moritz
details
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Charles Delahay
Frank Fisher
Louis Hudson
Norbert Mueller
Herbert Plaxton
Hugh Plaxton
Roger Plaxton
John Porter
Frank Sullivan
Joseph Sullivan
Ross Taylor
Dave Trottier
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Carl Abrahamsson
Emil Bergman
Birger Holmqvist
Gustaf Johansson
Henry Johansson
Nils Johansson
Ernst Karlberg
Erik Larsson
Bertil Linde
Sigfrid Öberg
Wilhelm Petersén
Kurt Sucksdorff
 Switzerland (SUI) (1)
Giannin Andreossi
Mezzi Andreossi
Robert Breiter
Louis Dufour
Charles Fasel
Albert Geromini
Fritz Kraatz
Arnold Martignoni
Heini Meng
Anton Morosani
Luzius Rüedi
Richard Torriani

1932 Lake Placid
details
 Canada (CAN) (4)
William Cockburn
Clifford Crowley
Albert Duncanson
George Garbutt
Roy Henkel
Victor Lindquist
Norman Malloy
Walter Monson
Kenneth Moore
Romeo Rivers
Harold Simpson
Hugh Sutherland
Stanley Wagner
Alston Wise
 United States (USA) (3)
Osborne Anderson
Johnny Bent
John Chase
John Cookman
Douglas Everett
Franklin Farrel
Joseph Fitzgerald
Edwin Frazier
John Garrison
Gerard Hallock
Robert Livingston
Francis Nelson
Winthrop Palmer
Gordon Smith
 Germany (GER) (1)
Rudi Ball
Alfred Heinrich
Erich Herker
Gustav Jaenecke
Werner Korff
Walter Leinweber
Erich Römer
Martin Schröttle
Marquardt Slevogt
Georg Strobl

1936 Garmisch-
Partenkirchen
details
 Great Britain (GBR) (1)
Alexander Archer
James Borland
Edgar Brenchley
James Chappell
John Coward
Gordon Dailley
John Davey
Carl Erhardt
James Foster
John Kilpatrick
Archibald Stinchcombe
Robert Wyman
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Maxwell Deacon
Hugh Farquharson
Kenneth Farmer
James Haggarty
Walter Kitchen
Raymond Milton
Francis Moore
Herman Murray
Arthur Nash
David Neville
Alexander Sinclair
Ralph St. Germain
Bill Thomson
 United States (USA) (1)
John Garrison
August Kammer
Philip LaBatte
John Lax
Thomas Moone
Elbridge Ross
Paul Rowe
Francis Shaughnessy
Gordon Smith
Francis Spain
Frank Stubbs

1948 St. Moritz
details
 Canada (CAN) (5)
Murray Dowey
Bernard Dunster
Jean Gravelle
Patrick Guzzo
Walter Halder
Thomas Hibberd
Henri-André Laperriere
John Lecompte
George Mara
Albert Roméo Renaud
Reginald Schroeter
Irving Taylor
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (1)
Vladimír Bouzek
Augustin Bubník
Jaroslav Drobný
Přemysl Hajný
Zdeněk Jarkovský
Vladimír Kobranov
Stanislav Konopásek
Bohumil Modrý
Miloslav Pokorný
Václav Roziňák
Miroslav Sláma
Karel Stibor
Vilibald Šťovík
Ladislav Troják
Josef Trousílek
Oldřich Zábrodský
Vladimír Zábrodský
 Switzerland (SUI) (2)
Hans Bänninger
Alfred Bieler
Heinrich Boller
Ferdinand Cattini
Hans Cattini
Hans Dürst
Walter Paul Dürst
Emil Handschin
Heini Lohrer
Werner Lohrer
Reto Perl
Gebhard Poltera
Ulrich Poltera
Beat Rüedi
Otto Schubiger
Richard Torriani
Hans-Martin Trepp

1952 Oslo
details
 Canada (CAN) (6)
George Abel
John Davies
Billy Dawe
Robert Dickson
Donald Gauf
William Gibson
Ralph Hansch
Robert Meyers
David Miller
Eric Paterson
Thomas Pollock
Allan Purvis
Gordon Robertson
Louis Secco
Francis Sullivan
Bob Watt
 United States (USA) (4)
Ruben Bjorkman
Len Ceglarski
Joseph Czarnota
Richard Desmond
Andre Gambucci
Clifford Harrison
Gerald Kilmartin
John Mulhern
John Noah
Arnold Oss
Robert Rompre
James Sedin
Alfred Van Allen
Donald Whiston
Ken Yackel
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Göte Almqvist
Åke Andersson
Hans Andersson-Tvilling
Stig Andersson-Tvilling
Lars Björn
Göte Blomqvist
Thord Flodqvist
Erik Johansson
Gösta Johansson
Rune Johansson
Sven "Tumba" Johansson
Åke Lassas
Holger Nurmela
Hans Öberg
Lars Pettersson
Lars Svensson
Sven Thunman

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (1)
Yevgeny Babich
Vsevolod Bobrov
Alexei Guryshev
Nikolay Khlystov
Valentin Kuzin
Yuri Krylov
Alfred Kuchevsky
Grigory Mkrtychan
Viktor Nikiforov
Yuri Pantyukhov
Nikolaï Puchkov
Viktor Shuvalov
Genrikh Sidorenkov
Nikolai Sologubov
Ivan Tregubov
Dmitry Ukolov
Aleksandr Uvarov
 United States (USA) (5)
Wendell Anderson
Wellington Burtnett
Eugene Campbell
Gordon Christian
Bill Cleary
Richard Dougherty
Willard Ikola
John Matchefts
John Mayasich
Daniel McKinnon
Richard Meredith
Weldon Olson
John Petroske
Kenneth Purpur
Don Rigazio
Richard Rodenheiser
Ed Sampson
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Denis Brodeur
Charles Brooker
William Colvin
Alfred Horne
Art Hurst
Byrle Klinck
Paul Knox
Ken Laufman
Howard Lee
James Logan
Floyd Martin
Jack McKenzie
Donald Rope
George Scholes
Gerry Theberge
Robert White
Keith Woodall

1960 Squaw Valley
details
 United States (USA) (1)
Bill Christian
Roger Christian
Bill Cleary
Bob Cleary
Eugene Grazia
Paul Johnson
Jack Kirrane
John Mayasich
Jack McCartan
Robert McVey
Richard Meredith
Weldon Olson
Edwyn Owen
Rodney Paavola
Lawrence Palmer
Richard Rodenheiser
Tommy Williams
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Bob Attersley
Maurice Benoit
James Connelly
Jack Douglas
Fred Etcher
Robert Forhan
Don Head
Harold Hurley
Ken Laufman
Floyd Martin
Robert McKnight
Cliff Pennington
Donald Rope
Bobby Rousseau
George Samolenko
Harry Sinden
Darryl Sly
 Soviet Union (URS) (1)
Veniamin Alexandrov
Aleksandr Almetov
Yury Baulin
Mikhail Bychkov
Vladimir Grebennikov
Yevgeny Groshev
Nikolay Karpov
Alfred Kuchevsky
Konstantin Loktev
Stanislav Petukhov
Viktor Pryazhnikov
Nikolai Puchkov
Genrikh Sidorenkov
Nikolai Sologubov
Yury Tsitsinov
Viktor Yakushev
Yevgeny Yorkin

1964 Innsbruck
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (2)
Veniamin Alexandrov
Aleksandr Almetov
Vitaly Davydov
Anatoli Firsov
Eduard Ivanov
Viktor Konovalenko
Victor Kuzkin
Konstantin Loktev
Boris Mayorov
Yevgeni Mayorov
Stanislav Petukhov
Alexander Ragulin
Vyacheslav Starshinov
Leonid Volkov
Victor Yakushev
Boris Zaitzev
Oleg Zaytsev
 Sweden (SWE) (2)
Anders Andersson
Gert Blomé
Lennart Häggroth
Lennart Johansson
Nils Johansson
Sven "Tumba" Johansson
Lars-Eric Lundvall
Eilert Määttä
Hans Mild
Nils Nilsson
Bert-Ola Nordlander
Carl-Göran Öberg
Uno Öhrlund
Ronald Pettersson
Ulf Sterner
Roland Stoltz
Kjell Svensson
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (2)
Vlastimil Bubník
Josef Černý
Jiří Dolana
Vladimír Dzurilla
Jozef Golonka
František Gregor
Jiří Holík
Jaroslav Jiřík
Jan Klapáč
Vladimír Nadrchal
Rudolf Potsch
Stanislav Prýl
Ladislav Šmíd
Stanislav Sventek
František Tikal
Miroslav Vlach
Jaroslav Walter

1968 Grenoble
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (3)
Veniamin Alexandrov
Viktor Blinov
Vitaly Davydov
Anatoli Firsov
Anatoly Ionov
Viktor Konovalenko
Victor Kuzkin
Boris Mayorov
Yevgeni Mishakov
Yuri Moiseev
Victor Polupanov
Alexander Ragulin
Igor Romishevsky
Vyacheslav Starshinov
Vladimir Vikulov
Oleg Zaytsev
Yevgeni Zimin
Victor Zinger
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (2)
Josef Černý
Vladimír Dzurilla
Jozef Golonka
Jan Havel
Petr Hejma
Jiří Holík
Josef Horešovský
Jan Hrbatý
Jaroslav Jiřík
Jan Klapáč
Jiří Kochta
Oldřich Machač
Karel Masopust
Vladimír Nadrchal
Václav Nedomanský
František Pospíšil
František Ševčík
Jan Suchý
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Roger Bourbonnais
Ken Broderick
Ray Cadieux
Paul Conlin
Gary Dineen
Brian Glennie
Ted Hargreaves
Fran Huck
Marshall Johnston
Barry MacKenzie
Bill MacMillan
Steve Monteith
Morris Mott
Terry O'Malley
Danny O'Shea
Gerry Pinder
Herb Pinder
Wayne Stephenson

1972 Sapporo
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (4)
Yury Blinov
Vitaly Davydov
Anatoli Firsov
Valeri Kharlamov
Victor Kuzkin
Vladimir Lutchenko
Aleksandr Maltsev
Boris Mikhailov
Yevgeni Mishakov
Alexander Pashkov
Vladimir Petrov
Alexander Ragulin
Igor Romishevsky
Vladimir Shadrin
Vladislav Tretiak
Gennadiy Tsygankov
Valeri Vasiliev
Vladimir Vikulov
Alexander Yakushev
Yevgeni Zimin
 United States (USA) (6)
Kevin Ahearn
Larry Bader
Henry Boucha
Charles Brown
Keith Christiansen
Mike Curran
Robbie Ftorek
Mark Howe
Stuart Irving
Jim McElmury
Dick McGlynn
Bruce McIntosh
Tom Mellor
Ronald Naslund
Wally Olds
Tim Regan
Frank Sanders
Craig Sarner
Peter Sears
Timothy Sheehy
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (3)
Vladimír Bednář
Josef Černý
Vladimír Dzurilla
Richard Farda
Ivan Hlinka
Jiří Holeček
Jaroslav Holík
Jiří Holík
Josef Horešovský
Jiří Kochta
Oldřich Machač
Vladimír Martinec
Václav Nedomanský
Eduard Novák
František Pospíšil
Bohuslav Šťastný
Rudolf Tajcnár
Karel Vohralík

1976 Innsbruck
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (5)
Boris Aleksandrov
Sergei Babinov
Aleksandr Gusev
Sergei Kapustin
Valeri Kharlamov
Vladimir Lutchenko
Yuri Lyapkin
Aleksandr Maltsev
Boris Mikhailov
Vladimir Petrov
Vladimir Shadrin
Victor Shalimov
Aleksandr Sidelnikov
Vladislav Tretiak
Gennadiy Tsygankov
Valeri Vasiliev
Alexander Yakushev
Viktor Zhluktov
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (3)
Josef Augusta
Jiří Bubla
Milan Chalupa
Jiří Crha
Miroslav Dvořák
Bohuslav Ebermann
Ivan Hlinka
Jiří Holeček
Jiří Holík
Milan Kajkl
Oldřich Machač
Vladimír Martinec
Eduard Novák
Jiří Novák
Milan Nový
Jaroslav Pouzar
František Pospíšil
Bohuslav Šťastný
 West Germany (FRG) (2)
Klaus Auhuber
Ignaz Berndaner
Wolfgang Boos
Lorenz Funk
Martin Hinterstocker
Udo Kiessling
Walter Köberle
Ernst Köpf
Anton Kehle
Erich Kühnhackl
Stefan Metz
Franz Reindl
Rainer Philipp
Alois Schloder
Rudolf Thanner
Josef Völk
Ferenc Vozar
Erich Weishaupt

1980 Lake Placid
details
 United States (USA) (2)
Bill Baker
Neal Broten
Dave Christian
Steve Christoff
Jim Craig
Mike Eruzione
John Harrington
Steve Janaszak
Mark Johnson
Rob McClanahan
Ken Morrow
Jack O'Callahan
Mike Ramsey
Mark Pavelich
Buzz Schneider
Dave Silk
Bob Suter
Eric Strobel
Mark Wells
Phil Verchota
 Soviet Union (URS) (1)
Helmuts Balderis
Zinetula Bilyaletdinov
Viacheslav Fetisov
Aleksandr Golikov
Vladimir Golikov
Alexei Kasatonov
Valeri Kharlamov
Vladimir Krutov
Yuri Lebedev
Sergei Makarov
Aleksandr Maltsev
Boris Mikhailov
Vladimir Myshkin
Vasili Pervukhin
Vladimir Petrov
Aleksandr Skvortsov
Sergei Starikov
Vladislav Tretiak
Valeri Vasiliev
Viktor Zhluktov
 Sweden (SWE) (2)
Mats Åhlberg
Sture Andersson
Bo Berglund
Håkan Eriksson
Jan Eriksson
Thomas Eriksson
Leif Holmgren
Tomas Jonsson
Pelle Lindbergh
Bengt Lundholm
William Löfqvist
Per Lundqvist
Lars Molin
Mats Näslund
Lennart Norberg
Tommy Samuelsson
Dan Söderström
Mats Waltin
Ulf Weinstock

1984 Sarajevo
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (6)
Zinetula Bilyaletdinov
Sergei Shepelev
Nikolai Drozdetsky
Viacheslav Fetisov
Aleksandr Geramisov
Alexei Kasatonov
Andrei Khomutov
Vladimir Kovin
Aleksandr Kozhevnikov
Vladimir Krutov
Igor Larionov
Sergei Makarov
Vladimir Myshkin
Vasili Pervukhin
Aleksandr Skvortsov
Sergei Starikov
Igor Stelnov
Vladislav Tretiak
Viktor Tyumenev
Mikhail Vasiliev
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (4)
Jaroslav Benák
Vladimír Caldr
Milan Chalupa
František Černík
Miloslav Hořava
Jiří Hrdina
Arnold Kadlec
Jaroslav Korbela
Jiří Králík
Vladimír Kýhos
Jiří Lála
Igor Liba
Vincent Lukáč
Dušan Pašek
Pavel Richter
Jaromír Šindel
Radoslav Svoboda
Eduard Uvíra
 Sweden (SWE) (3)
Thomas Åhlén
Pelle Eklund
Thom Eklund
Bo Ericson
Håkan Eriksson
Peter Gradin
Mats Hessel
Michael Hjälm
Göran Lindblom
Tommy Mörth
Håkan Nordin
Rolf Ridderwall
Jens Öhling
Thomas Rundqvist
Tomas Sandström
Håkan Södergren
Mats Thelin
Michael Thelvén
Mats Waltin
Göte Wälitalo

1988 Calgary
details
 Soviet Union (URS) (7)
Ilya Byakin
Vyacheslav Bykov
Aleksandr Chernykh
Viacheslav Fetisov
Alexei Gusarov
Valeri Kamensky
Alexei Kasatonov
Andrei Khomutov
Aleksandr Kozhevnikov
Igor Kravchuk
Vladimir Krutov
Igor Larionov
Andrei Lomakin
Sergei Makarov
Alexander Mogilny
Sergei Mylnikov
Vitali Samoilov
Anatoli Semenov
Sergei Starikov
Igor Stelnov
Sergei Svetlov
Sergei Yashin
 Finland (FIN) (1)
Timo Blomqvist
Kari Eloranta
Raimo Helminen
Iiro Järvi
Esa Keskinen
Erkki Laine
Kari Laitinen
Erkki Lehtonen
Jyrki Lumme
Reijo Mikkolainen
Jarmo Myllys
Teppo Numminen
Janne Ojanen
Arto Ruotanen
Reijo Ruotsalainen
Simo Saarinen
Kai Suikkanen
Timo Susi
Jukka Tammi
Jari Torkki
Pekka Tuomisto
Jukka Virtanen
 Sweden (SWE) (4)
Mikael Andersson
Peter Andersson
Peter Åslin
Bo Berglund
Jonas Bergqvist
Anders Bergman
Thom Eklund
Anders Eldebrink
Peter Eriksson
Thomas Eriksson
Michael Hjälm
Lars Ivarsson
Mikael Johansson
Lars Karlsson
Mats Kihlström
Peter Lindmark
Lars Molin
Jens Öhling
Lars-Gunnar Pettersson
Thomas Rundqvist
Tommy Samuelsson
Ulf Sandström
Håkan Södergren

1992 Albertville
details
 Unified Team (EUN) (1)
Sergei Bautin
Igor Boldin
Nikolai Borschevsky
Vyacheslav Butsayev
Vyacheslav Bykov
Evgeny Davydov
Darius Kasparaitis
Nikolai Khabibulin
Yuri Khmylev
Andrei Khomutov
Andrei Kovalenko
Alexei Kovalev
Igor Kravchuk
Vladimir Malakhov
Dmitri Mironov
Sergei Petrenko
Vitali Prokhorov
Mikhail Shtalenkov
Andrei Trefilov
Dmitri Yushkevich
Alexei Zhamnov
Alexei Zhitnik
Sergei Zubov
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Dave Archibald
Todd Brost
Sean Burke
Kevin Dahl
Curt Giles
Dave Hannan
Gord Hynes
Fabian Joseph
Joé Juneau
Trevor Kidd
Patrick Lebeau
Chris Lindberg
Eric Lindros
Kent Manderville
Adrien Plavsic
Dan Ratushny
Sam St. Laurent
Brad Schlegel
Wally Schreiber
Randy Smith
Dave Tippett
Brian Tutt
Jason Woolley
 Czechoslovakia (TCH) (4)
Patrik Augusta
Petr Bříza
Jaromír Dragan
Leo Gudas
Miloslav Hořava
Petr Hrbek
Otakar Janecký
Tomáš Jelínek
Drahomír Kadlec
Kamil Kašťák
Robert Lang
Igor Liba
Ladislav Lubina
František Procházka
Petr Rosol
Bedřich Ščerban
Jiří Šlégr
Richard Šmehlík
Róbert Švehla
Oldřich Svoboda
Radek Ťoupal
Peter Veselovský

1994 Lillehammer
details
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Håkan Algotsson
Charles Berglund
Jonas Bergqvist
Andreas Dackell
Christian Due-Boje
Niklas Eriksson
Peter Forsberg
Roger Hansson
Roger Johansson
Jörgen Jönsson
Kenny Jönsson
Tomas Jonsson
Patrik Juhlin
Patric Kjellberg
Håkan Loob
Mats Näslund
Stefan Örnskog
Leif Rohlin
Daniel Rydmark
Tommy Salo
Fredrik Stillman
Magnus Svensson
 Canada (CAN) (4)
Mark Astley
Adrian Aucoin
David Harlock
Corey Hirsch
Todd Hlushko
Greg Johnson
Fabian Joseph
Paul Kariya
Chris Kontos
Manny Legacé
Ken Lovsin
Derek Mayer
Petr Nedvěd
Dwayne Norris
Greg Parks
Allain Roy
Jean-Yves Roy
Brian Savage
Brad Schlegel
Wally Schreiber
Chris Therien
Todd Warriner
Brad Werenka
 Finland (FIN) (1)
Mika Alatalo
Erik Hämäläinen
Raimo Helminen
Timo Jutila
Sami Kapanen
Esa Keskinen
Marko Kiprusoff
Saku Koivu
Pasi Kuivalainen
Janne Laukkanen
Tero Lehterä
Jere Lehtinen
Mikko Mäkelä
Jarmo Myllys
Mika Nieminen
Janne Ojanen
Marko Palo
Ville Peltonen
Pasi Sormunen
Mika Strömberg
Jukka Tammi
Petri Varis
Hannu Virta

1998 Nagano
details
 Czech Republic (CZE) (1)
Josef Beránek
Jan Čaloun
Roman Čechmánek
Jiří Dopita
Roman Hamrlík
Dominik Hašek
Milan Hejduk
Jaromír Jágr
František Kučera
Robert Lang
David Moravec
Pavel Patera
Libor Procházka
Martin Procházka
Robert Reichel
Martin Ručínský
Vladimír Růžička
Jiří Šlégr
Richard Šmehlík
Jaroslav Špaček
Martin Straka
Petr Svoboda
 Russia (RUS) (1)
Pavel Bure
Valeri Bure
Sergei Fedorov
Sergei Gonchar
Alexei Gusarov
Valeri Kamensky
Darius Kasparaitis
Andrei Kovalenko
Igor Kravchuk
Sergei Krivokrasov
Boris Mironov
Dmitri Mironov
Aleksey Morozov
Sergei Nemchinov
Oleg Shevtsov
Mikhail Shtalenkov
German Titov
Andrei Trefilov
Alexei Yashin
Dmitri Yushkevich
Valeri Zelepukin
Alexei Zhamnov
Alexei Zhitnik
 Finland (FIN) (2)
Aki-Petteri Berg
Tuomas Grönman
Raimo Helminen
Sami Kapanen
Saku Koivu
Jari Kurri
Janne Laukkanen
Jere Lehtinen
Juha Lind
Jyrki Lumme
Jarmo Myllys
Mika Nieminen
Janne Niinimaa
Teppo Numminen
Ville Peltonen
Kimmo Rintanen
Teemu Selänne
Ari Sulander
Jukka Tammi
Esa Tikkanen
Kimmo Timonen
Antti Törmänen
Juha Ylönen

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Canada (CAN) (7)
Ed Belfour
Rob Blake
Eric Brewer
Martin Brodeur
Theoren Fleury
Adam Foote
Simon Gagné
Jarome Iginla
Curtis Joseph
Ed Jovanovski
Paul Kariya
Mario Lemieux
Eric Lindros
Al MacInnis
Scott Niedermayer
Joe Nieuwendyk
Owen Nolan
Michael Peca
Chris Pronger
Joe Sakic
Brendan Shanahan
Ryan Smyth
Steve Yzerman
 United States (USA) (7)
Tony Amonte
Tom Barrasso
Chris Chelios
Adam Deadmarsh
Chris Drury
Mike Dunham
Bill Guerin
Phil Housley
Brett Hull
John LeClair
Brian Leetch
Aaron Miller
Mike Modano
Tom Poti
Brian Rafalski
Mike Richter
Jeremy Roenick
Brian Rolston
Gary Suter
Keith Tkachuk
Doug Weight
Mike York
Scott Young
 Russia (RUS) (1)
Maxim Afinogenov
Ilya Bryzgalov
Pavel Bure
Valeri Bure
Pavel Datsyuk
Sergei Fedorov
Sergei Gonchar
Darius Kasparaitis
Nikolai Khabibulin
Ilya Kovalchuk
Alexei Kovalev
Igor Kravchuk
Oleg Kvasha
Igor Larionov
Vladimir Malakhov
Daniil Markov
Boris Mironov
Andrei Nikolishin
Yegor Podomatsky
Sergei Samsonov
Oleg Tverdovsky
Alexei Yashin
Alexei Zhamnov

2006 Turin
details
 Sweden (SWE) (2)
Daniel Alfredsson
Per-Johan Axelsson
Christian Bäckman
Peter Forsberg
Mika Hannula
Niclas Hävelid
Tomas Holmström
Jörgen Jönsson
Kenny Jönsson
Niklas Kronwall
Nicklas Lidström
Stefan Liv
Henrik Lundqvist
Fredrik Modin
Mattias Öhlund
Samuel Påhlsson
Mikael Samuelsson
Daniel Sedin
Henrik Sedin
Mats Sundin
Ronnie Sundin
Mikael Tellqvist
Daniel Tjärnqvist
Henrik Zetterberg
 Finland (FIN) (2)
Niklas Bäckström
Aki-Petteri Berg
Niklas Hagman
Jukka Hentunen
Jussi Jokinen
Olli Jokinen
Niko Kapanen
Mikko Koivu
Saku Koivu
Lasse Kukkonen
Antti Laaksonen
Jere Lehtinen
Toni Lydman
Antti-Jussi Niemi
Ville Nieminen
Antero Niittymäki
Fredrik Norrena
Petteri Nummelin
Teppo Numminen
Ville Peltonen
Jarkko Ruutu
Sami Salo
Teemu Selänne
Kimmo Timonen
 Czech Republic (CZE) (1)
Jan Bulis
Petr Čajánek
Patrik Eliáš
Martin Erat
Dominik Hašek
Milan Hejduk
Aleš Hemský
Milan Hnilička
Jaromír Jágr
František Kaberle
Tomáš Kaberle
Aleš Kotalík
Filip Kuba
Pavel Kubina
Robert Lang
Marek Malík
Rostislav Olesz
Václav Prospal
Martin Ručínský
Dušan Salfický
Jaroslav Špaček
Martin Straka
Tomáš Vokoun
David Výborný
Marek Židlický

2010 Vancouver
details
 Canada (CAN) (8)
Patrice Bergeron
Dan Boyle
Martin Brodeur
Sidney Crosby
Drew Doughty
Marc-André Fleury
Ryan Getzlaf
Dany Heatley
Jarome Iginla
Duncan Keith
Roberto Luongo
Patrick Marleau
Brenden Morrow
Rick Nash
Scott Niedermayer
Corey Perry
Chris Pronger
Mike Richards
Brent Seabrook
Eric Staal
Joe Thornton
Jonathan Toews
Shea Weber
 United States (USA) (8)
David Backes
Dustin Brown
Ryan Callahan
Chris Drury
Tim Gleason
Erik Johnson
Jack Johnson
Patrick Kane
Ryan Kesler
Phil Kessel
Jamie Langenbrunner
Ryan Malone
Ryan Miller
Brooks Orpik
Zach Parise
Joe Pavelski
Jonathan Quick
Brian Rafalski
Bobby Ryan
Paul Stastny
Ryan Suter
Tim Thomas
Ryan Whitney
 Finland (FIN) (3)
Niklas Bäckström
Valtteri Filppula
Niklas Hagman
Jarkko Immonen
Olli Jokinen
Niko Kapanen
Miikka Kiprusoff
Mikko Koivu
Saku Koivu
Lasse Kukkonen
Jere Lehtinen
Sami Lepistö
Toni Lydman
Antti Miettinen
Antero Niittymäki
Janne Niskala
Ville Peltonen
Joni Pitkänen
Jarkko Ruutu
Tuomo Ruutu
Sami Salo
Teemu Selänne
Kimmo Timonen

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN) (9)
Jamie Benn
Patrice Bergeron
Jay Bouwmeester
Jeff Carter
Sidney Crosby
Drew Doughty
Ryan Getzlaf
Matt Duchene
Dan Hamhuis
Duncan Keith
Chris Kunitz
Roberto Luongo
Patrick Marleau
Rick Nash
Corey Perry
Alex Pietrangelo
Carey Price
Mike Smith
Martin St. Louis
Patrick Sharp
P. K. Subban
John Tavares
Jonathan Toews
Marc-Édouard Vlasic
Shea Weber
 Sweden (SWE) (3)
Daniel Alfredsson
Nicklas Bäckström
Patrik Berglund
Alexander Edler
Oliver Ekman-Larsson
Jhonas Enroth
Jimmie Ericsson
Jonathan Ericsson
Loui Eriksson
Jonas Gustavsson
Carl Hagelin
Niklas Hjalmarsson
Marcus Johansson
Erik Karlsson
Niklas Kronwall
Marcus Krüger
Gabriel Landeskog
Henrik Lundqvist
Gustav Nyquist
Johnny Oduya
Daniel Sedin
Jakob Silfverberg
Alexander Steen
Henrik Tallinder
Henrik Zetterberg
 Finland (FIN) (4)
Juhamatti Aaltonen
Aleksander Barkov
Mikael Granlund
Juuso Hietanen
Jarkko Immonen
Jussi Jokinen
Olli Jokinen
Leo Komarov
Sami Lepistö
Petri Kontiola
Lauri Korpikoski
Lasse Kukkonen
Jori Lehterä
Kari Lehtonen
Olli Määttä
Antti Niemi
Antti Pihlström
Tuukka Rask
Tuomo Ruutu
Sakari Salminen
Sami Salo
Teemu Selänne
Kimmo Timonen
Ossi Väänänen
Sami Vatanen

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR) (1)
Sergei Andronov
Alexander Barabanov
Pavel Datsyuk
Vladislav Gavrikov
Mikhail Grigorenko
Nikita Gusev
Ilya Kablukov
Sergei Kalinin
Kirill Kaprizov
Bogdan Kiselevich
Vasily Koshechkin
Ilya Kovalchuk
Alexei Marchenko
Sergei Mozyakin
Nikita Nesterov
Nikolai Prokhorkin
Igor Shestyorkin
Vadim Shipachyov
Sergei Shirokov
Ilya Sorokin
Ivan Telegin
Vyacheslav Voynov
Yegor Yakovlev
Artyom Zub
Andrei Zubarev
 Germany (GER) (1)
Sinan Akdag
Danny aus den Birken
Daryl Boyle
Yasin Ehliz
Christian Ehrhoff
Dennis Endras
Gerrit Fauser
Marcel Goc
Patrick Hager
Frank Hördler
Dominik Kahun
Marcus Kink
Björn Krupp
Brooks Macek
Frank Mauer
Jonas Müller
Moritz Müller
Marcel Noebels
Timo Pielmeier
Leonhard Pföderl
Matthias Plachta
Patrick Reimer
Felix Schütz
Yannic Seidenberg
David Wolf
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Rene Bourque
Gilbert Brulé
Andrew Ebbett
Stefan Elliott
Chay Genoway
Cody Goloubef
Marc-André Gragnani
Quinton Howden
Chris Kelly
Rob Klinkhammer
Brandon Kozun
Maxim Lapierre
Chris Lee
Maxim Noreau
Eric O'Dell
Justin Peters
Kevin Poulin
Mason Raymond
Mat Robinson
Derek Roy
Ben Scrivens
Karl Stollery
Christian Thomas
Linden Vey
Wojtek Wolski

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1
 Canada
9
4
3

2
 Soviet Union
7
1
1

3
 United States
2
8
1

4
 Sweden
2
3
4

5
 Czech Republic
1
4
4

6
 United Kingdom
1
1
1

7
 Unified Team
1

 Olympic Athletes from Russia (OAR)
1

9
 Finland

2
4

10
 Germany

1
2

11
 Russia

1
1

12
  Switzerland

2

text: Women[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1998 Nagano
details
 United States (USA) (1)
Chris Bailey
Laurie Baker
Alana Blahoski
Lisa Brown-Miller
Karyn Bye
Colleen Coyne
Sara Decosta
Tricia Dunn-Luoma
Cammi Granato
Katie King
Shelley Looney
Sue Merz
Allison Mleczko
Tara Mounsey
Vicki Movsessian
Jenny Potter
Angela Ruggiero
Sarah Tueting
Gretchen Ulion
Sandra Whyte
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Jennifer Botterill
Thérèse Brisson
Cassie Campbell
Judy Diduck
Nancy Drolet
Lori Dupuis
Danielle Goyette
Geraldine Heaney
Jayna Hefford
Becky Kellar
Kathy McCormack
Karen Nystrom
Lesley Reddon
Manon Rhéaume
Laura Schuler
Fiona Smith
France St-Louis
Vicky Sunohara
Hayley Wickenheiser
Stacy Wilson
 Finland (FIN) (1)
Sari Fisk
Kirsi Hänninen
Satu Huotari
Marianne Ihalainen
Johanna Ikonen
Sari Krooks
Emma Laaksonen
Sanna Lankosaari
Katja Lehto
Marika Lehtimäki
Riikka Nieminen
Marja-Helena Pälvilä
Tuula Puputti
Karoliina Rantamäki
Tiia Reima
Katja Riipi
Päivi Salo
Maria Selin
Liisa-Maria Sneck
Petra Vaarakallio

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Canada (CAN) (1)
Dana Antal
Kelly Bechard
Jennifer Botterill
Thérèse Brisson
Cassie Campbell
Isabelle Chartrand
Lori Dupuis
Danielle Goyette
Geraldine Heaney
Jayna Hefford
Becky Kellar
Caroline Ouellette
Cherie Piper
Cheryl Pounder
Tammy Lee Shewchuk
Sami Jo Small
Colleen Sostorics
Kim St-Pierre
Vicky Sunohara
Hayley Wickenheiser
 United States (USA) (1)
Chris Bailey
Laurie Baker
Karyn Bye
Julie Chu
Natalie Darwitz
Sara Decosta
Tricia Dunn-Luoma
Cammi Granato
Courtney Kennedy
Andrea Kilbourne
Katie King
Shelley Looney
Sue Merz
Allison Mleczko
Tara Mounsey
Jenny Potter
Angela Ruggiero
Sarah Tueting
Lyndsay Wall
Krissy Wendell
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Annica Åhlén
Lotta Almblad
Anna Andersson
Gunilla Andersson
Emelie Berggren
Kristina Bergstrand
Ann-Louise Edstrand
Joa Elfsberg
Erika Holst
Nanna Jansson
Maria Larsson
Ylva Lindberg
Ulrica Lindström
Kim Martin
Josefin Pettersson
Maria Rooth
Danijela Rundqvist
Evelina Samuelsson
Therese Sjölander
Anna Vikman

2006 Turin
details
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Meghan Agosta
Gillian Apps
Jennifer Botterill
Cassie Campbell
Gillian Ferrari
Danielle Goyette
Jayna Hefford
Becky Kellar
Gina Kingsbury
Charline Labonté
Carla MacLeod
Caroline Ouellette
Cherie Piper
Cheryl Pounder
Colleen Sostorics
Kim St-Pierre
Vicky Sunohara
Sarah Vaillancourt
Katie Weatherston
Hayley Wickenheiser
 Sweden (SWE) (1)
Cecilia Andersson
Gunilla Andersson
Jenni Asserholt
Ann-Louise Edstrand
Joa Elfsberg
Emma Eliasson
Erika Holst
Nanna Jansson
Ylva Lindberg
Jenny Lindqvist
Kristina Lundberg
Kim Martin
Frida Nevalainen
Emilie O'Konor
Maria Rooth
Danijela Rundqvist
Therese Sjölander
Katarina Timglas
Anna Vikman
Pernilla Winberg
 United States (USA) (1)
Caitlin Cahow
Julie Chu
Natalie Darwitz
Pam Dreyer
Tricia Dunn-Luoma
Molly Engstrom
Chanda Gunn
Jamie Hagerman
Kim Insalaco
Kathleen Kauth
Courtney Kennedy
Katie King
Kristin King
Sarah Parsons
Jenny Potter
Helen Resor
Angela Ruggiero
Kelly Stephens
Lyndsay Wall
Krissy Wendell

2010 Vancouver
details
 Canada (CAN) (3)
Meghan Agosta
Gillian Apps
Tessa Bonhomme
Jennifer Botterill
Jayna Hefford
Haley Irwin
Rebecca Johnston
Becky Kellar
Gina Kingsbury
Charline Labonté
Carla MacLeod
Meaghan Mikkelson
Caroline Ouellette
Cherie Piper
Marie-Philip Poulin
Kim St-Pierre
Colleen Sostorics
Shannon Szabados
Sarah Vaillancourt
Catherine Ward
Hayley Wickenheiser
 United States (USA) (2)
Kacey Bellamy
Caitlin Cahow
Lisa Chesson
Julie Chu
Natalie Darwitz
Meghan Duggan
Molly Engstrom
Hilary Knight
Jocelyne Lamoureux
Monique Lamoureux
Erika Lawler
Gisele Marvin
Brianne McLaughlin
Jenny Schmidgall-Potter
Angela Ruggiero
Molly Schaus
Kelli Stack
Karen Thatcher
Jessie Vetter
Kerry Weiland
Jinelle Zaugg-Siergiej
 Finland (FIN) (2)
Anne Helin
Jenni Hiirikoski
Venla Hovi
Michelle Karvinen
Mira Kuisma
Emma Laaksonen
Rosa Lindstedt
Terhi Mertanen
Heidi Pelttari
Mariia Posa
Annina Rajahuhta
Karoliina Rantamäki
Noora Räty
Mari Saarinen
Saija Sirviö
Nina Tikkinen
Minnamari Tuominen
Saara Tuominen
Linda Välimäki
Anna Vanhatalo
Marjo Voutilainen

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN) (4)
Meghan Agosta-Marciano
Gillian Apps
Mélodie Daoust
Laura Fortino
Jayna Hefford
Haley Irwin
Brianne Jenner
Rebecca Johnston
Charline Labonté
Geneviève Lacasse
Jocelyne Larocque
Meaghan Mikkelson-Reid
Caroline Ouellette
Marie-Philip Poulin
Lauriane Rougeau
Natalie Spooner
Shannon Szabados
Jenn Wakefield
Catherine Ward
Tara Watchorn
Hayley Wickenheiser
 United States (USA) (3)
Kacey Bellamy
Megan Bozek
Alexandra Carpenter
Julie Chu
Kendall Coyne
Brianna Decker
Meghan Duggan
Lyndsey Fry
Amanda Kessel
Hilary Knight
Jocelyne Lamoureux
Monique Lamoureux-Kolls
Gisele Marvin
Brianne McLaughlin
Michelle Picard
Josephine Pucci
Molly Schaus
Anne Schleper
Kelli Stack
Lee Stecklein
Jessie Vetter
 Switzerland (SUI) (1)
Janine Alder
Livia Altmann
Sophie Anthamatten
Laura Benz
Sara Benz
Nicole Bullo
Romy Eggimann
Sarah Forster
Angela Frautschi
Jessica Lutz
Julia Marty
Stefanie Marty
Alina Müller
Katrin Nabholz
Evelina Raselli
Florence Schelling
Lara Stalder
Phoebe Stanz
Anja Stiefel
Nina Waidacher

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 United States (USA) (2)
Cayla Barnes
Kacey Bellamy
Hannah Brandt
Dani Cameranesi
Kendall Coyne
Brianna Decker
Meghan Duggan
Kali Flanagan
Nicole Hensley
Megan Keller
Amanda Kessel
Hilary Knight
Jocelyne Lamoureux
Monique Lamoureux
Gigi Marvin
Sidney Morin
Kelly Pannek
Amanda Pelkey
Emily Pfalzer
Alex Rigsby
Maddie Rooney
Haley Skarupa
Lee Stecklein
 Canada (CAN) (2)
Meghan Agosta
Bailey Bram
Emily Clark
Mélodie Daoust
Ann-Renée Desbiens
Renata Fast
Laura Fortino
Brianne Jenner
Rebecca Johnston
Geneviève Lacasse
Brigette Lacquette
Meaghan Mikkelson
Marie-Philip Poulin
Lauriane Rougeau
Jillian Saulnier
Natalie Spooner
Laura Stacey
Shannon Szabados
Blayre Turnbull
Jenn Wakefield
 Finland (FIN) (3)
Sanni Hakala
Jenni Hiirikoski
Venla Hovi
Mira Jalosuo
Michelle Karvinen
Rosa Lindstedt
Petra Nieminen
Tanja Niskanen
Emma Nuutinen
Isa Rahunen
Annina Rajahuhta
Meeri Räisänen
Noora Räty
Saila Saari
Ronja Savolainen
Eveliina Suonpää
Sara Säkkinen
Susanna Tapani
Noora Tulus
Minnamari Tuominen
Ella Viitasuo
Riikka Välilä
Linda Välimäki

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1
 Canada
4
2

2
 United States
2
3
1

3
 Sweden

1
1

4
 Finland

3

5
  Switzerland

1

text: Athlete medal leaders[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Wickenheiser, HayleyHayley Wickenheiser
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2014
4
1
0
5

Hefford, JaynaJayna Hefford
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2014
4
1
0
5

Ouellette, CarolineCaroline Ouellette
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2014
4
0
0
4

Tretiak, VladislavVladislav Tretiak
 Soviet Union (URS)
1972–1984
3
1
0
4

Botterill, JenniferJennifer Botterill
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2010
3
1
0
4

Kellar, BeckyBecky Kellar
 Canada (CAN)
1998–2010
3
1
0
4

Agosta, MeghanMeghan Agosta
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2018
3
1
0
4

Kravchuk, IgorIgor Kravchuk
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
 Russia (RUS)
1988
1992
1998–2002
2
1
1
4

Ruggiero, AngelaAngela Ruggiero
 United States (USA)
1998–2010
1
2
1
4

Potter, JennyJenny Potter
 United States (USA)
1998–2010
1
2
1
4

Chu, JulieJulie Chu
 United States (USA)
2002–2014
0
3
1
4

Holík, JiříJiří Holík
 Czechoslovakia (TCH)
1964–1976
0
2
2
4

Selänne, TeemuTeemu Selänne
 Finland (FIN)
1992, 1998–2014
0
1
3
4

Timonen, KimmoKimmo Timonen
 Finland (FIN)
1998–2014
0
1
3
4

Koivu, SakuSaku Koivu
 Finland (FIN)
1994–2010
0
1
3
4

Lehtinen, JereJere Lehtinen
 Finland (FIN)
1994–2010
0
1
3
4

Peltonen, VilleVille Peltonen
 Finland (FIN)
1994–2010
0
1
3
4

Firsov, AnatoliAnatoli Firsov
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Kuzkin, VictorVictor Kuzkin
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Ragulin, AlexanderAlexander Ragulin
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Davydov, VitalyVitaly Davydov
 Soviet Union (URS)
1964–1972
3
0
0
3

Khomutov, AndreiAndrei Khomutov
 Soviet Union (URS)
 Unified Team (EUN)
1984–1988
1992
3
0
0
3

Piper, CherieCherie Piper
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2010
3
0
0
3

St-Pierre, KimKim St-Pierre
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2010
3
0
0
3

Sostorics, ColleenColleen Sostorics
 Canada (CAN)
2002–2010
3
0
0
3

Apps, GillianGillian Apps
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2014
3
0
0
3

Labonté, CharlineCharline Labonté
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2014
3
0
0
3


document_title: Two-party system

question_text: when did america become a 2 party system

text: Two-party system

text: Examples[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: There is general agreement that the United States has a two-party system; historically, there have been few instances in which third party candidates won an election. In the First Party System, only Alexander Hamilton's Federalist Party and Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party were significant political parties. Toward the end of the First Party System, the Republicans dominated a one-party system (primarily under the Presidency of James Monroe). Under the Second Party System, the Democratic-Republican Party split during the election of 1824 into Adams' Men and Jackson's Men. In 1828, the modern Democratic Party formed in support of Andrew Jackson. The National Republicans were formed in support of John Quincy Adams. After the National Republicans collapsed, the Whig Party and the Free Soil Party quickly formed and collapsed. In 1854, the modern Republican Party formed from a loose coalition of former Whigs, Free Soilers and other anti-slavery activists. Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican president in 1860.

text: During the Third Party System, the Republican Party was the dominant political faction, but the Democrats held a strong, loyal coalition in the Solid South. During the Fourth Party System, the Republicans remained the dominant Presidential party, although Democrats Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson were both elected to two terms. In 1932, at the onset of the Fifth Party System, Democrats took firm control of national politics with the landslide victories of Franklin D. Roosevelt in four consecutive elections. Other than the two terms of Republican Dwight Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961, Democrats retained firm control of the Presidency until the mid-1960s. Since the mid-1960s, despite a number of landslides (such as Richard Nixon carrying 49 states and 61% of the popular vote over George McGovern in 1972; Ronald Reagan carrying 49 states and 58% of the popular vote over Walter Mondale in 1984), Presidential elections have been competitive between the predominant Republican and Democratic parties and no one party has been able to hold the Presidency for more than three consecutive terms, except for the elections from 1932 through 1948 when FDR won 4 elections and Truman one, both as Democrats. In the election of 2012, only 4% separated the popular vote between Barack Obama (51%) and Mitt Romney (47%), although Obama won the electoral vote by a landslide (332–206).

text: Throughout every American party system, no third party has won a Presidential election or majorities in either house of Congress. Despite that, third parties and third party candidates have gained traction and support. In the election of 1912, Theodore Roosevelt won 27% of the popular vote and 88 electoral votes running as a Progressive. In the 1992 Presidential election, Ross Perot won 19% of the popular vote but no electoral votes running as an Independent.

text: Commonwealth countries[edit]

text: In countries such as Britain, two major parties emerge which have strong influence and tend to elect most of the candidates, but a multitude of lesser parties exist with varying degrees of influence, and sometimes these lesser parties are able to elect officials who participate in the legislature. In political systems based on the Westminster system, which is a particular style of parliamentary democracy based on the British model and found in many commonwealth countries, a majority party will form the government and the minority party will form the opposition, and coalitions of lesser parties are possible; in the rare circumstance in which neither party is the majority, a hung parliament arises. Sometimes these systems are described as two-party systems but they are usually referred to as multi-party systems. There is not always a sharp boundary between a two-party system and a multi-party system.

text: Generally, a two-party system becomes a dichotomous division of the political spectrum with an ostensibly right-wing and left-wing party: the Nationalist Party vs. the Labour Party in Malta, Labor vs. Liberal/National Coalition in Australia, Republicans vs. Democrats in the United States and the Conservative Party vs. the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.

text: Other parties in these countries may have seen candidates elected to local or subnational office, however. Historian John Hicks claims that the United States has never possessed for any considerable period of time the two party system in its pure and undefiled form.[14]

text: In some governments, certain chambers may resemble a two-party system and others a multi-party system. For example, the politics of Australia are largely two-party (the Liberal/National Coalition is often considered a single party at a national level due to their long-standing alliance in forming government and additionally rarely compete for the same seat) for the Australian House of Representatives, which is elected by instant-runoff voting, known within Australia as preferential voting. However, third parties are more common in the Australian Senate, which uses a proportional voting system more amenable to minor parties.

text: In the politics of Canada, while having a multiparty system federally and in the largest provinces of Ontario, Quebec and Alberta, many of the provinces have effectively become two-party systems in which only two parties regularly get members elected. Examples include British Columbia (where the battles are between the New Democratic Party and the BC Liberals), Saskatchewan (between the Saskatchewan Party and New Democratic Party), New Brunswick (between the Liberals and the Progressive Conservatives) and Prince Edward Island (between Liberals and Progressive Conservatives).

text: India[edit]

text: India also shows characteristics of a two party system with the United Progressive Alliance (UPA)[15] and National Democratic Alliance (NDA)[16] as the two main players. It is to be noted that both UPA and NDA are not two political parties but alliances of several smaller parties. Other smaller parties not aligned with either NDA or UPA exist,[17] and overall command about 20% of the 2009 seats in the Lok Sabha and had further increased to 28% in 2014 general elections

text: Malta[edit]

text: Malta is somewhat unusual in that while the electoral system is single transferable vote (STV), traditionally associated with proportional representation, minor parties have not earned much success. Politics is dominated between the centre-left Labour Party and the centre-right Nationalist Party, with no third parties winning seats in Parliament between 1962 and 2017.[18]

text: Other examples[edit]

text: The English speaking countries of the Caribbean while inheriting their basic political system from Great Britain have become two party systems. The politics of Jamaica are between the People's National Party and the Jamaica Labour Party. The politics of Guyana are between the People's Progressive Party and APNU which is actually a coalition of smaller parties. The politics of Trinidad and Tobago are between the People's National Movement and the People's Partnership which is also a coalition. The Politics of Belize are between the United Democratic Party and the People's United Party. The Politics of the Bahamas are between the Progressive Liberal Party and the Free National Movement. The politics of Barbados are between the Democratic Labour Party and the Barbados Labour Party.

text: The politics of Zimbabwe are effectively a two party system between the Robert Mugabe led Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front and the opposition coalition Movement for Democratic Change.

text: South Korea has a multi-party system[19] that has sometimes been described as having characteristics of a two-party system.[20]

text: Furthermore, the Lebanese Parliament is mainly made up of two bipartisan alliances. Although both alliances are made up of several political parties on both ends of the political spectrum the two way political situation has mainly arisen due to strong ideological differences in the electorate.[21] Once again this can mainly be attributed to the winner takes all thesis.

text: Historically, Brazil had a two-party system for most of its military dictatorship (1964–1985): the military junta banned all existing parties when it took power and created a pro-government party, the National Renewal Alliance and an official opposition party, the Brazilian Democratic Movement. The two parties were dissolved in 1979, when the regime allowed other parties to form.[22]

text: A report in The Christian Science Monitor in 2008 suggested that Spain was moving towards a "greater two-party system" while acknowledging that Spain has "many small parties".[23] However a 2015 article published by WashingtonPost.com written by academic Fernando Casal Bértoa noted the decline in support for the two main parties, the People's Party (PP) and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in recent years, with these two parties winning only 52 percent of the votes in that year's regional and local elections. He explained this as being due to the Spanish economic crisis, a series of political corruption scandals and broken campaign promises. He argued that the emergence of the new Citizens and Podemos parties would mean the political system would evolve into a two-bloc system, with an alliance of the PP and Citizens on the right facing a leftist coalition of PSOE, Podemos and the United Left.[24]

text: Comparisons with other party systems[edit]

text: Two-party systems can be contrasted with:

text:
Multi-party systems. In these, the effective number of parties is greater than two but usually fewer than five; in a two-party system, the effective number of parties is two (according to one analysis, the actual average number of parties varies between 1.7 and 2.1.)[25] The parties in a multi-party system can control government separately or as a coalition; in a two-party system, however, coalition governments rarely form. Examples of nations with multi-party systems include Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and Taiwan.
One-party systems or dominant-party systems happen in nations where no more than one party is codified in law and/or officially recognized, or where alternate parties are restricted by the dominant party which wields power. Examples include rule by the Communist Party of China and the People's Action Party of Singapore.

text: Causes[edit]

text: There are several reasons why, in some systems, two major parties dominate the political landscape. There has been speculation that a two-party system arose in the United States from early political battling between the federalists and anti-federalists in the first few decades after the ratification of the Constitution, according to several views.[2][26] In addition, there has been more speculation that the winner-takes-all electoral system as well as particular state and federal laws regarding voting procedures helped to cause a two-party system.[2]

text: Political scientists such as Maurice Duverger[27] and William H. Riker claim that there are strong correlations between voting rules and type of party system. Jeffrey D. Sachs agreed that there was a link between voting arrangements and the effective number of parties. Sachs explained how the first-past-the-post voting arrangement tended to promote a two-party system:

text: The main reason for America's majoritarian character is the electoral system for Congress. Members of Congress are elected in single-member districts according to the "first-past-the-post" (FPTP) principle, meaning that the candidate with the plurality of votes is the winner of the congressional seat. The losing party or parties win no representation at all. The first-past-the-post election tends to produce a small number of major parties, perhaps just two, a principle known in political science as Duverger's Law. Smaller parties are trampled in first-past-the-post elections.

text: Consider a system in which voters can vote for any candidate from any one of many parties. Suppose further that if a party gets 15% of votes, then that party will win 15% of the seats in the legislature. This is termed proportional representation or more accurately as party-proportional representation. Political scientists speculate that proportional representation leads logically to multi-party systems, since it allows new parties to build a niche in the legislature:

text: Because even a minor party may still obtain at least a few seats in the legislature, smaller parties have a greater incentive to organize under such electoral systems than they do in the United States.

text: In contrast, a voting system that allows only a single winner for each possible legislative seat is sometimes termed a plurality voting system or single-winner voting system and is usually described under the heading of a winner-takes-all arrangement. Each voter can cast a single vote for any candidate within any given legislative district, but the candidate with the most votes wins the seat, although variants, such as requiring a majority, are sometimes used. What happens is that in a general election, a party that consistently comes in third in every district is unlikely to win any legislative seats even if there is a significant proportion of the electorate favoring its positions. This arrangement strongly favors large and well–organized political parties that are able to appeal to voters in many districts and hence win many seats, and discourages smaller or regional parties. Politically oriented people consider their only realistic way to capture political power is to run under the auspices of the two dominant parties.[2]

text: In the U.S., forty-eight states have a standard winner-takes-all electoral system for amassing presidential votes in the Electoral College system.[29] The winner-takes-all principle applies in presidential elections, since if a presidential candidate gets the most votes in any particular state, all of the electoral votes from that state are awarded. In all but two states, Maine and Nebraska, the presidential candidate winning a plurality of votes wins all of the electoral votes, a practice called the unit rule.[2]

text: Duverger concluded that "plurality election single-ballot procedures are likely to produce two-party systems, whereas proportional representation and runoff designs encourage multipartyism."[27] He suggested there were two reasons why winner-takes-all systems leads to a two-party system. First, the weaker parties are pressured to form an alliance, sometimes called a fusion, to try to become big enough to challenge a large dominant party and, in so doing, gain political clout in the legislature. Second, voters learn, over time, not to vote for candidates outside of one of the two large parties since their votes for third party candidates are usually ineffectual.[2] As a result, weaker parties are eliminated by voters over time. Duverger pointed to statistics and tactics to suggest that voters tended to gravitate towards one of the two main parties, a phenomenon which he called polarization, and tend to shun third parties.[6] For example, some analysts suggest that the Electoral College system in the United States, by favoring a system of winner-takes-all in presidential elections, is a structural choice favoring only two major parties.[30]

text: Gary Cox suggested that America's two-party system was highly related with economic prosperity in the country:

text: The bounty of the American economy, the fluidity of American society, the remarkable unity of the American people, and, most important, the success of the American experiment have all mitigated against the emergence of large dissenting groups that would seek satisfaction of their special needs through the formation of political parties.

text: An effort in 2012 by centrist groups to promote ballot access by Third Party candidates called Americans Elect spent $15 million to get ballot access but failed to elect any candidates.[31] The lack of choice in a two-party model in politics has often been compared to the variety of choices in the marketplace.

text: Politics has lagged our social and business evolution ... There are 30 brands of Pringles in our local grocery store. How is it that Americans have so much selection for potato chips and only two brands—and not very good ones—for political parties?

text: Third parties[edit]

text: Third parties, meaning a party other than one of the two dominant parties, are possible in two-party systems, but they are often unlikely to exert much influence by gaining control of legislatures or by winning elections.[2] While there are occasional opinions in the media expressed about the possibility of third parties emerging in the United States, for example, political insiders such as the 1980 presidential candidate John Anderson think the chances of one appearing in the early twenty-first century is remote.[32] A report in The Guardian suggested that American politics has been "stuck in a two-way fight between Republicans and Democrats" since the Civil War, and that third-party runs had little meaningful success.[33]

text: Third parties in a two-party system can be:

text:
Built around a particular ideology or interest group
Split off from one of the major parties or
Focused on a charismatic individual.[32]

text: When third parties are built around an ideology which is at odds with the majority mindset, many members belong to such a party not for the purpose of expecting electoral success but rather for personal or psychological reasons.[2] In the U.S., third parties include older ones such as the Libertarian Party and the Green Party and newer ones such as the Pirate Party.[2][34] Many believe that third parties don't affect American politics by winning elections, but they can act as "spoilers" by taking votes from one of the two major parties.[2] They act like barometers of change in the political mood since they push the major parties to consider their demands.[2] An analysis in New York Magazine by Ryan Lizza in 2006 suggested that third parties arose from time to time in the nineteenth century around single-issue movements such as abolition, women's suffrage, and the direct election of senators, but were less prominent in the twentieth century.[35]

text: A so-called third party in the United Kingdom are the Liberal Democrats. In the 2010 election, the Liberal Democrats received 23% of the votes but only 9% of the seats in the House of Commons. While electoral results do not necessarily translate into legislative seats, the Liberal Democrats can exert influence if there is a situation such as a hung parliament. In this instance, neither of the two main parties (at present, the Conservative Party and the Labour Party) have sufficient authority to run the government. Accordingly, the Liberal Democrats can in theory exert tremendous influence in such a situation since they can ally with one of the two main parties to form a coalition. This happened in the Coalition government of 2010. Yet in that more than 13% of the seats in the British House of Commons are held in 2011 by representatives of political parties other than the two leading political parties of that nation, contemporary Britain is considered by some to be a multi-party system, and not a two-party system.[36] The two party system in the United Kingdom allows for other parties to exist, although the main two parties tend to dominate politics; in this arrangement, other parties are not excluded and can win seats in Parliament. In contrast, the two party system in the United States has been described as a duopoly or an enforced two-party system, such that politics is almost entirely dominated by either the Republicans or Democrats, and third parties rarely win seats in Congress.[37]

text: Advantages[edit]

text: Some historians have suggested that two-party systems promote centrism and encourage political parties to find common positions which appeal to wide swaths of the electorate. It can lead to political stability[4][not in citation given] which leads, in turn, to economic growth. Historian Patrick Allitt of the Teaching Company suggested that it is difficult to overestimate the long term economic benefits of political stability. Sometimes two-party systems have been seen as preferable to multi-party systems because they are simpler to govern, with less fractiousness and greater harmony, since it discourages radical minor parties,[4] while multi-party systems can sometimes lead to hung parliaments.[38] Italy, with a multi-party system, has had years of divisive politics since 2000, although analyst Silvia Aloisi suggested in 2008 that the nation may be moving closer to a two-party arrangement.[39] The two-party has been identified as simpler since there are fewer voting choices.[4] One analyst suggested the two-party system, in contrast with proportional representation, prevented excessive government interference with economic policy.[8]

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: Two-party systems have been criticized for downplaying alternative views,[4][5] being less competitive,[8] encouraging voter apathy since there is a perception of fewer choices,[4] and putting a damper on debate[5] within a nation. In a proportional representation system, lesser parties can moderate policy since they are not usually eliminated from government.[4] One analyst suggested the two-party approach may not promote inter-party compromise but may encourage partisanship.[5] In The Tyranny of the Two-party system, Lisa Jane Disch criticizes two-party systems for failing to provide enough options since only two choices are permitted on the ballot. She wrote:

text: Herein lies the central tension of the two–party doctrine. It identifies popular sovereignty with choice, and then limits choice to one party or the other. If there is any truth to Schattschneider's analogy between elections and markets, America's faith in the two–party system begs the following question: Why do voters accept as the ultimate in political freedom a binary option they would surely protest as consumers? ... This is the tyranny of the two–party system, the construct that persuades United States citizens to accept two–party contests as a condition of electoral democracy.

text: There have been arguments that the winner-take-all mechanism discourages independent or third-party candidates from running for office or promulgating their views.[8][41] Ross Perot's former campaign manager wrote that the problem with having only two parties is that the nation loses "the ability for things to bubble up from the body politic and give voice to things that aren't being voiced by the major parties."[32] One analyst suggested that parliamentary systems, which typically are multi-party in nature, lead to a better "centralization of policy expertise" in government.[42] Multi-party governments permit wider and more diverse viewpoints in government, and encourage dominant parties to make deals with weaker parties to form winning coalitions.[43] While there is considerable debate about the relative merits of a constitutional arrangement such as that of the United States versus a parliamentary arrangement such as Britain, analysts have noted that most democracies around the world have chosen the British multi-party model.[43] Analyst Chris Weigant of the Huffington Post wrote that "the parliamentary system is inherently much more open to minority parties getting much better representation than third parties do in the American system".[43] After an election in which the party changes, there can be a "polar shift in policy-making" when voters react to changes.[4]

text: Political analyst A. G. Roderick, writing in his book Two Tyrants, argued that the two American parties, the Republicans and Democrats, are highly unpopular in 2015, and are not part of the political framework of state governments, and do not represent 47% of the electorate who identify themselves as "independents".[44] He makes a case that the American president should be elected on a non-partisan basis,[45][44][46] and asserts that both political parties are "cut from the same cloth of corruption and corporate influence."[47]

text: History[edit]

text: Beginnings of parties in Britain[edit]

text: The two-party system, in the sense of the looser definition, where two parties dominate politics but in which third parties can elect members and gain some representation in the legislature, can be traced to the development of political parties in the United Kingdom. There was a division in English politics at the time of the Civil War and Glorious Revolution in the late 17th century.[48] The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule and the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Parliament.[49] In the following century, the Whig party's support base widened to include emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants.

text: The basic matters of principle that defined the struggle between the two factions, were concerning the nature of constitutional monarchy, the desirability of a Catholic king,[50][page needed] the extension of religious toleration to nonconformist Protestants, and other issues that had been put on the liberal agenda through the political concepts propounded by John Locke,[51] Algernon Sidney and others.[52]

text: Vigorous struggle between the two factions characterised the period from the Glorious Revolution to the 1715 Hanoverian succession, over the legacy of the overthrow of the Stuart dynasty and the nature of the new constitutional state. This proto two-party system fell into relative abeyance after the accession to the throne of George I and the consequent period of Whig supremacy under Robert Walpole, during which the Tories were systematically purged from high positions in government. However, although the Tories were dismissed from office for half a century, they still retained a measure of party cohesion under William Wyndham and acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government; however, the ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party.

text: Emergence of the two-party system in Britain[edit]

text: The old Whig leadership dissolved in the 1760s into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs[53] under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the two party system was centred on a set of core principles held by both sides and that allowed the party out of power to remain as the Loyal Opposition to the governing party.[54]

text: A genuine two-party system began to emerge,[55] with the accession to power of William Pitt the Younger in 1783 leading the new Tories, against a reconstituted "Whig" party led by the radical politician Charles James Fox.[56][57][58]

text: The two party system matured in the early 19th century era of political reform, when the franchise was widened and politics entered into the basic divide between conservatism and liberalism that has fundamentally endured up to the present. The modern Conservative Party was created out of the "Pittite" Tories by Robert Peel, who issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism; - the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone. The two party system had come of age at the time of Gladstone and his Conservative rival Benjamin Disraeli after the 1867 Reform Act.[59]

text: History of American political parties[edit]

text: Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan,[60] early political controversies in the 1790s saw the emergence of a two-party political system, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, centred on the differing views on federal government powers of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.[61][62] However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.[63]

text: Partisan politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay. The former evolved into the modern Democratic Party and the latter was replaced with the Republican Party as one of the two main parties in the 1850s.


document_title: Andrey Kivilev

question_text: when did helmets become mandatory in the tour de france

text: Andrey Kivilev

text: Career[edit]

text: Born in Taldykorgan, Almaty Province, Kivilev began his amateur racing career in Spain, before moving to France, where he wore the EC Saint-Etienne jersey.[1] In 1993, he had a successful Regio-Tour as part of a successful tour for the Kazakh team: Kivilev won the points competition; team mate Alexander Vinokourov won the combined competition; and the team won the team competition.[2] He secured a professional contract with Festina in 1998 and rode with them until the end of 1999. Kivilev had a modest time at Festina, where his best results were fifth at the Championship of Zurich[3] and seventh at the Critérium International.[4] Despite his lack of professional victories, Kivilev attracted admirers for his riding style, and despite interest from US Postal Service,[5] signed with Ag2r Prévoyance in 2000, before moving to Cofidis in 2001. It was at Cofidis that his career started to take off: in his first season, not only did he win the Route du Sud and stage five of the Dauphiné Libéré race, between Romans-sur-Isère and Grenoble,[6] but also had a sensational performance in the Tour de France. Having lost over eighteen minutes on a windswept and attritional stage 4 between Huy and Verdun,[7] Kivilev was allowed to form part of a fourteen-man breakaway on stage 8 between Colmar and Pontarlier and gained 33 minutes on the race favourites.[8] Kivilev was an able climber, and limited his losses on the big hills. His time trialling let him down when he lost a podium place to Joseba Beloki on the final time trial. Nevertheless, Kivilev finished the tour in 4th position.[9] In fact, with later doping scandals eliminating those ahead of him on the podium, the French newspaper Le Monde retroactively (and unofficially) named Kivilev winner of the 2001 Tour de France.[10]

text: Death[edit]

text: On 11 March 2003 Kivilev was racing in the second stage of Paris–Nice, between La Clayette and Saint-Étienne. Approximately forty kilometres from the stage finish, as the peloton passed through Saint-Chamond, Kivilev collided with Polish teammate Marek Rutkiewicz and German Volker Ordowski of Team Gerolsteiner. Rutkiewicz and Ordowski were not seriously hurt and finished the stage, but the helmetless Kivilev hit the ground and did not rise. Kivilev immediately fell into a coma, initially being taken to the Saint-Chamond hospital before being transferred via air to the intensive care unit at Saint-Étienne hospital, where he was diagnosed with a serious skull fracture and two broken ribs. His condition worsened overnight, and Kivilev died of his injuries at 10 a.m. on 12 March 2003. He was survived by his wife Natalia and six-month-old son Leonardo. A few days later, his friend Alexander Vinokourov won the race.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: After Kivilev's death, the UCI made the wearing of helmets compulsory.[11] They had previously tried to introduce this requirement in 1991, but some riders protested this at the Paris–Nice race, so the rule was not introduced. The nature of Kivilev's death, in that he was a lead rider, in one of the top French cycling teams, racing in a top stage race, coupled with advances in helmet technology, brought the debate back to the fore and conclusively so for the UCI. Whilst many riders were initially still against compulsory helmet use, the UCI ensured the rules requiring helmets to be worn at all times would be in place for the 2003 Giro d'Italia, which started just eight weeks after Kivilev's death. Dissension to the rule was initially high, but the new rules were affirmed in October 2003. Whilst at first the rule was loose and not tightly enforced, especially on mountain-top finishes, it has since been enforced more strictly and helmet-wearing is now ubiquitous in the peloton.

text: Major results[edit]