document_title: Asbestos

question_text: when was asbestosis first recorded by medical authorities

question_tokens: when was asbestosis first recorded by medical authorities

text: Asbestos

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable.[1][8][9] The word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/.

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text: Types and associated fibers[edit]

text: Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine class and those belonging to the amphibole class. All six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens.[10][11] The visible fibers are themselves each composed of millions of microscopic "fibrils" that can be released by abrasion and other processes.[2]

text:
Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos fibers

Asbestos

Asbestos

Blue asbestos (crocidolite). The ruler is 1 cm.

Blue asbestos, teased to show the fibrous nature of the mineral

tag: ul

text: Serpentine[edit]

text: Serpentine class fibers are curly. Chrysotile is the only member of the serpentine class.

text: Chrysotile[edit]

text: Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4.[12] Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.

text: Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.[13] Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor tiles, residential shingles, and gaskets for high temperature equipment.[citation needed]

text: Amphibole[edit]

text: Amphibole class fibers are needle-like. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class.

text: Amosite[edit]

text: Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, often referred to as brown asbestos, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the cummingtonite-grunerite solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial acronym for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles.[13]

text: Crocidolite[edit]

text: Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4, is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2. Crocidolite is seen under a microscope as a blue fiber.

text: Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with breadths less than 1 micrometer in bundles of very great widths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus".

text: Other materials[edit]

text: Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been used in a few consumer products.

text: Other natural asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2, though not regulated, are said by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite.[14] They are termed "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the American Thoracic Society have recommended them for inclusion as regulated materials because they may also be hazardous to health.[14]

text: Production[edit]

text: In late 2011, Canada's remaining two asbestos mines, both located in the Province of Quebec, halted operations.[15] In September 2012, the government in the Province of Quebec halted asbestos mining.[16] In 2009, about 9% of world's asbestos production was mined in Canada.[17]

text: In 2015, 2 million tonnes of asbestos were mined worldwide. The Russian Federation was the largest producer with about 55% world share followed by China (20%), Brazil (15.6%), and Kazakhstan (10.8%).[18]

text: History of use[edit]

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text: Early uses[edit]

text: Asbestos use dates back at least 4,500 years, when the inhabitants of the Lake Juojärvi region in East Finland strengthened earthenware pots and cooking utensils with the asbestos mineral anthophyllite (see Asbestos-ceramic).[19] One of the first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos is in Theophrastus, On Stones, from around 300 BC, although this identification has been questioned.[20] In both modern and ancient Greek, the usual name for the material known in English as "asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure"), which was adapted into the French amiante and Portuguese amianto. In modern Greek, the word ἀσβεστος or ασβέστης stands consistently and solely for lime.

text: The term asbestos is traceable to Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder's manuscript Natural History, and his use of the term asbestinon, meaning "unquenchable".[1][8][19] While Pliny or his nephew Pliny the Younger is popularly credited with recognising the detrimental effects of asbestos on human beings,[21] examination of the primary sources reveals no support for either claim.[22]

text: Wealthy Persians amazed guests by cleaning a cloth by exposing it to fire. For example, according to Tabari, one of the curious items belonging to Khosrow II Parviz, the great Sassanian king (r. 531–579), was a napkin (Persian: منديل) that he cleaned simply by throwing it into fire. Such cloth is believed to have been made of asbestos imported over the Hindu Kush.[23] According to Biruni in his book, Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (Persian: آذرشست, āzarshost) were called shostakeh (Persian: شستكه).[24] Some Persians believed the fiber was the fur of an animal, called the samandar (Persian: سمندر), which lived in fire and died when exposed to water,[25][26] which was where the former belief that the salamander could tolerate fire originated.[27]

text: Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor (800–814), is said to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos.[28]

text: Marco Polo recounts having been shown, in a place he calls Ghinghin talas, "a good vein from which the cloth which we call of salamander, which cannot be burnt if it is thrown into the fire, is made ..."[29]

text: Some archaeologists believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings, in order to preserve only their ashes, and prevent them being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in funeral pyres.[30][31] Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral or other lamps.[25] A famous example is the golden lamp asbestos lychnis, which the sculptor Callimachus made for the Erechtheion.[32] In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term asbestos for soapstone, because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.[30][page needed]

text: Industrial era[edit]

text: The large scale asbestos industry began in the mid-19th century. Early attempts at producing asbestos paper and cloth in Italy began in the 1850s, but were unsuccessful in creating a market for such products. Canadian samples of asbestos were displayed in London in 1862, and the first companies were formed in England and Scotland to exploit this resource. Asbestos was first used in the manufacture of yarn, and German industrialist Louis Wertheim adopted this process in his factories in Germany. [33] In 1871, the Patent Asbestos Manufacturing Company was established in Glasgow, and within the following decades, the Clydebank area became a centre for the nascent industry.[34]

text: Industrial scale mining began in the Thetford hills, Quebec from the 1870s. Sir William Edmond Logan was the first to notice the large deposits of chrysotile in the hills in his capacity as head of Geological Survey of Canada. Samples of the minerals from here were displayed in London, and excited much interest.[33] With the opening up of the Quebec Central Railway in 1876, mining entrepreneurs, such as Andrew Stuart Johnson established the asbestos industry in the province.[35] The 50 ton output of the mines in 1878 rose to over 10,000 tons in the 1890s with the adoption of machine technologies and expanded production.[33][36] For a long time, the world's largest asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of Asbestos, Quebec.[37]

text: Asbestos production began in the Urals of the Russian Empire in the 1880s, and in the Alpine regions of Northern Italy with the formation in Turin of the Italo-English Pure Asbestos Company in 1876, although this was soon swamped by the greater production levels from the Canadian mines. Mining also took off in South Africa from 1893 under the aegis of the British businessman Francis Oates, the Director of the De Beers company.[38] It was in South Africa that the production of amosite began in 1910. The U.S. asbestos industry had an early start in 1858, when fibrous anthophyllite was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a predecessor to the current Johns Manville, at a quarry at Ward's Hill on Staten Island, New York.[39] US production began in earnest in 1899, with the discovery of large deposits in the Belvidere Mountain.

text: The use of asbestos became increasingly widespread towards the end of the 19th century, when its diverse applications included fire retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. In 2011 it was reported that over 50% of UK houses still contained asbestos, despite a ban on asbestos products some years earlier.[40]

text: In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990, when production began to drop dramatically.[41]

text: Discovery of toxicity[edit]

text: In 1899, Dr. Montague Murray noted the negative health effects of asbestos.[42] The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.[43]

text: In the early 1900s researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos-mining towns. The first such study was conducted by Dr. H. Montague Murray at the Charing Cross Hospital, London, in 1900, in which a postmortem investigation of a young man who had died from pulmonary fibrosis after having worked for 14 years in an asbestos textile factory, discovered asbestos traces in the victim's lungs. Adelaide Anderson, the Inspector of Factories in Britain, included asbestos in a list of harmful industrial substances in 1902. Similar investigations were conducted in France and Italy, in 1906 and 1908, respectively.[44]

text: The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in 1924.[43][45][46] Nellie Kershaw was employed at Turner Brothers Asbestos in Manchester, England from 1917, spinning raw asbestos fibre into yarn.[46][47] Her death in 1924 led to a formal inquest. Pathologist Dr William Edmund Cooke testified that his examination of the lungs indicated old scarring indicative of a previous, healed, tuberculosis infection, and extensive fibrosis, in which were visible "particles of mineral matter ... of various shapes, but the large majority have sharp angles."[45] Having compared these particles with samples of asbestos dust provided by Dr S.A. Henry, His Majesty's Medical Inspector of Factories, Cooke concluded that they "originated from asbestos and were, beyond a reasonable doubt, the primary cause of the fibrosis of the lungs and therefore of death".[46][48]

text: As a result of Cooke's paper, parliament commissioned an inquiry into the effects of asbestos dust by Dr E. R. A. Merewether, Medical Inspector of Factories, and C. W. Price, a factory inspector and pioneer of dust monitoring and control.[2] Their subsequent report, Occurrence of Pulmonary Fibrosis & Other Pulmonary Affections in Asbestos Workers, was presented to parliament on 24 March 1930.[49] It concluded that the development of asbestosis was irrefutably linked to the prolonged inhalation of asbestos dust, and included the first health study of asbestos workers, which found that 66% of those employed for 20 years or more suffered from asbestosis.[2] The report led to the publication of the first Asbestos Industry Regulations in 1931, which came into effect on 1 March 1932.[50] These regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work-related disease.[12] The term mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s. Similar legislation followed in the U.S. about ten years later.

text: Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or are terminally ill, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate.[51] Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to insulate piping, boilers, steam engines, and steam turbines. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during WWII; for every 1,000 workers about 14 died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis.[52]

text: The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s, court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.[52]

text: In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1946 and 1980. From the 1970s there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos, and its use was phased out. Mining ceased in 1983. The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia and there is help and support for sufferers from asbestosis or mesothelioma.[53]

text: Usage by industry and product type[edit]

text: Serpentine group[edit]

text: Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile is the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States, chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United States.[citation needed] Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and materials, including:

text:
Chlor Alkali diaphragm membranes used to make chlorine (currently in the USA) [54]
Drywall and joint compound
Plaster
Gas mask filters pre-1960s and gas mask filters from the USSR
Mud and texture coats
Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles[55]
"Transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
Popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings
Fireproofing

text:
Caulk
Industrial and marine gaskets
Brake pads and shoes
Stage curtains
Fire blankets
Interior fire doors
Fireproof clothing for firefighters
Thermal pipe insulation
Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids and wine
Dental cast linings
HVAC flexible duct connectors
Drilling fluid additives

text: In the European Union and Australia it has recently been banned as a potential health hazard[56] and is not used at all. Japan is moving in the same direction, but at a slower pace.

text: Amphibole group[edit]

text: Amphiboles including amosite (brown asbestos) and crocidolite (blue asbestos) were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s.[citation needed] Tremolite asbestos constituted a contaminant of many if not all naturally occurring chrysotile deposits. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and in Japan by 1995.[citation needed] Some products that included amphibole types of asbestos included the following:

text:
Low density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles;
Asbestos-cement pipe (made until the early 1990s by at least one manufacturer);
Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services;
Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets).

text: Cigarette manufacturer Lorillard (Kent's filtered cigarette) used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956.[57]

text: While mostly chrysotile asbestos fibers were once used in automobile brake pads, shoes, and clutch discs, contaminants of amphiboles were present. Since approximately the mid-1990s, brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic and aramid fiber (Twaron or Kevlar—the same material used in bulletproof vests).

text: Artificial Christmas snow, known as flocking, was previously made with asbestos.[58] It was used as an effect in films including The Wizard of Oz and department store window displays and it was marketed for use in private homes under brand names that included "Pure White", "Snow Drift" and "White Magic".[59]

text: Construction[edit]

text: Developed countries[edit]

text: The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions, including the European Union, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. The 5th Circuit Court prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991 because EPA research showed the ban would cost between $450 and 800 million while only saving around 200 lives in a 13-year timeframe, and that the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of alternative products.[60] Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the manufacture of Artex, a decorative stipple finish,[61] however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex were still adding white asbestos until 1999.[62]

text: Prior to the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry in thousands of materials. Some are judged to be more dangerous than others due to the amount of asbestos and the material's friable nature. Sprayed coatings, pipe insulation and Asbestos Insulating Board (AIB) are thought to be the most dangerous due to their high content of asbestos and friable nature. Many older buildings built before the late 1990s contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by ASTM Standard E 2356–04. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency includes some but not all asbestos-contaminated facilities on the Superfund National Priorities list (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos contaminated buildings is subject to EPA NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and of substances containing it are covered by the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006.[63]

text: U.S. asbestos consumption hit a peak of 804,000 tons in 1973; world asbestos demand peaked around 1977, with 25 countries producing nearly 4.8 million metric tons annually.[64]

text: In older buildings (e.g. those built prior to 1999 in the UK, before white asbestos was banned), asbestos may still be present in some areas. Being aware of asbestos locations reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos.[65]

text: Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally provided.[65][66]

text: Outside Europe and North America[edit]

text: Some countries, such as India, Indonesia, China, Russia and Brazil, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C sheets" for roofing and for side walls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C sheets in developing countries following the widespread restrictions in developed nations[citation needed].

text: 11 September 2001 attacks[edit]

text: As New York City's World Trade Center collapsed following the September 11 attacks, Lower Manhattan was blanketed in a mixture of building debris and combustible materials. This complex mixture gave rise to the concern that thousands of residents and workers in the area would be exposed to known hazards in the air and in the dust, such as asbestos, lead, glass fibers, and pulverized concrete.[67] More than 1,000 tons of asbestos are thought to have been released into the air following the buildings' destruction.[68] Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate from cancer of emergency service workers since the disaster.[68] Thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the 'tip of the iceberg'.[68] Some commentators have criticised authorities for using asbestos in the buildings' construction.

text: In May 2002, after numerous cleanup, dust collection, and air monitoring activities were conducted outdoors by EPA, other federal agencies, New York City and the state of New York, New York City formally requested federal assistance to clean and/or test residences in the vicinity of the World Trade Center site for airborne asbestos.[67]

text: Asbestos contaminants in other products[edit]

text: Vermiculite[edit]

text: Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate which resembles mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as insulation. Some deposits of vermiculite have been found to be contaminated with small amounts of asbestos.[69]

text: One vermiculite mine operated by W. R. Grace and Company in Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining vermiculite contaminated with asbestos, typically richterite, winchite, actinolite or tremolite.[70] Vermiculite contaminated with asbestos from the Libby mine was used as insulation in residential and commercial buildings through Canada and the United States. W. R. Grace and Company's loose-fill vermiculite was marketed as Zonolite but was also used in sprayed-on products such as Monokote.

text: In 1999 the EPA began cleanup efforts in Libby and now the area is a Superfund cleanup area.[71] The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.[72]

text: Talc[edit]

text: Talc can sometimes be contaminated with asbestos due to the proximity of asbestos ore (usually tremolite) in underground talc deposits.[73] By 1973, US federal law required all talc products to be asbestos-free,[74] and today there is strict quality control in the production of talc products, separating cosmetic-grade talc (e.g. talcum powder) from industrial-grade talc (often used in friction products) has largely eliminated this issue for consumers.[75]

text: In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos in three out of eight bigger brands of children's crayons that are made partly from talc: Crayola, Prang, and RoseArt.[76] In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels from 0.05% in Carnation Pink to 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands contained more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The Art and Creative Materials Institute, a trade association which tests the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must be incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos.[76] In May 2000, Crayola said tests by Richard Lee, a materials analyst whose testimony on behalf of the asbestos industry has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times, found two of its crayons tested negative for asbestos.[77] In June 2000, Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States.[77]

text: The mining company, R T Vanderbilt Co of Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, states that "to the best of our knowledge and belief" there is no asbestos in its talc.[78] However media reports claim that the United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) had found asbestos in four talc samples tested in 2000.[76] The Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health subsequently wrote to the news reporter, stating that "In fact, the abbreviation ND (non detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers actually were found in the samples",[79] and multiple studies by both mineral studies laboratories[80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88] and biological cell studies[89][90][91] do not report asbestos. These findings have been rejected by other health reports and studies which advocate a "same as" asbestos risk.[92][93]

text: Health impact[edit]

text: All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health hazards in humans.[94][95][96] Amosite and crocidolite are considered the most hazardous asbestos fiber types;[citation needed] however, chrysotile asbestos has also produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant mesothelioma in humans,[97] and mesothelioma has been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.[98]

text: During the 1980s and again in the 1990s it was suggested at times that the process of making asbestos cement could "neutralize" the asbestos, either via chemical processes or by causing cement to attach to the fibers and changing their physical size; subsequent studies showed that this was untrue, and that decades-old asbestos cement, when broken, releases asbestos fibers identical to those found in nature, with no detectable alteration.[99]

text: Exposure to asbestos in the form of fibers is always considered dangerous. Working with, or exposure to, material that is friable, or materials or works that could cause release of loose asbestos fibers, is considered high risk. However, in general, people who become ill from inhaling asbestos have been regularly exposed in a job where they worked directly with the material.

text: The most common diseases associated with chronic exposure to asbestos are asbestosis and mesothelioma.[100]

text: Substitutes for asbestos in construction[edit]

text: Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of insulation material. The safety of this material is also being called into question due to similarities in material structure.[101] However, the International Agency for Research on Cancer removed fiberglass from its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001[102] and a scientific review article from 2011 claimed epidemiology data was inconsistent and concluded that the IARC's decision to downgrade the carcinogenic potential of fiberglass was valid (however, this study was funded by sponsored research contract from the North American Insulation Manufacturer’s Association).[103]

text: In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by Bal Dixit, called Zetex. This fabric is lighter than asbestos, but offers the same bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength.[104]

text: In Europe mineral wool and glass wool are the main insulators in houses.

text: Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as "Eternit" and another "Everite" now use "Nutec" fibers which consist of organic fibers, portland cement and silica. Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.

text: Another potential fiber is polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber is a synthetic fiber with high melting point of 760 °C (1,400 °F) that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by fire departments and space agencies.

text: Recycling and disposal[edit]

text: Asbestos alternatives for industrial use include sleeves, rope, tape, fabric, textiles and insulation batt materials made from fiberglass and silica.

text: In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in landfill sites.

text: The demolition of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the Red Road Flats in Glasgow, Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – here British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed to a landfill site via an approved route at certain times of the day in specially adapted vehicles.

text: Asbestos can be recycled by transforming it into harmless silicate glass. A process of thermal decomposition at 1000–1250 °C produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at temperatures above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass.[105] Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.[106]

text: The combination of oxalic acid with ultrasound fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers.[107]


document_title: Medieval literature

question_text: unlike renaissance texts most medieval texts were written in

root

text: Medieval literature

text: Languages[edit]

text: Since Latin was the language of the Roman Catholic Church, which dominated Western and Central Europe, and since the Church was virtually the only source of education, Latin was a common language for medieval writings, even in some parts of Europe that were never Romanized. However, in Eastern Europe, the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church made Greek and Old Church Slavonic the dominant written languages.

text: The common people continued to use their respective vernaculars. A few examples, such as the Old English Beowulf, the Middle High German Nibelungenlied, the Medieval Greek Digenis Acritas, the Old East Slavic Tale of Igor's Campaign, and the Old French Chanson de Roland, are well known to this day. Although the extant versions of these epics are generally considered the works of individual (but anonymous) poets, there is no doubt that they are based on their peoples' older oral traditions. Celtic traditions have survived in the lais of Marie de France, the Mabinogion and the Arthurian cycles. Another host of vernacular literature has survived in the Old Norse literature and more specifically in the Saga literature of Iceland.

text: Anonymity[edit]

text: A notable amount of medieval literature is anonymous. This is not only due to the lack of documents from a period, but also due to an interpretation of the author's role that differs considerably from the romantic interpretation of the term in use today. Medieval authors often deeply respected the classical writers and the Church Fathers and tended to re-tell and embellish stories they had heard or read rather than invent new stories. And even when they did, they often claimed to be handing down something from an auctor instead. From this point of view, the names of the individual authors seemed much less important, and therefore many important works were never attributed to any specific person.

text: Types of writing[edit]

text: Religious[edit]

text: Theological works were the dominant form of literature typically found in libraries during the Middle Ages. Catholic clerics were the intellectual center of society in the Middle Ages, and it is their literature that was produced in the greatest quantity.

text: Countless hymns survive from this time period (both liturgical and paraliturgical). The liturgy itself was not in fixed form, and numerous competing missals set out individual conceptions of the order of the mass. Religious scholars such as Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas, and Pierre Abélard wrote lengthy theological and philosophical treatises, often attempting to reconcile the teachings of the Greek and Roman pagan authors with the doctrines of the Church. Hagiographies, or "lives of the saints", were also frequently written, as an encouragement to the devout and a warning to others.

text: The Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine reached such popularity that, in its time, it was reportedly read more often than the Bible. Francis of Assisi was a prolific poet, and his Franciscan followers frequently wrote poetry themselves as an expression of their piety. Dies Irae and Stabat Mater are two of the most powerful Latin poems on religious subjects. Goliardic poetry (four-line stanzas of satiric verse) was an art form used by some clerics to express dissent. The only widespread religious writing that was not produced by clerics were the mystery plays: growing out of simple tableaux re-enactments of a single Biblical scene, each mystery play became its village's expression of the key events in the Bible. The text of these plays was often controlled by local guilds, and mystery plays would be performed regularly on set feast-days, often lasting all day long and into the night.

text: During the Middle Ages, the Jewish population of Europe also produced a number of outstanding writers. Maimonides, born in Cordoba, Spain, and Rashi, born in Troyes, France, are two of the best-known and most influential of these Jewish authors.

text: Secular[edit]

text: Secular literature in this period was not produced in equal quantity as religious literature, but much has survived and we possess today a rich corpus. The subject of "courtly love" became important in the 11th century, especially in the Romance languages (in the French, Spanish, Galician-Portuguese, Catalan, Provençal languages, most notably) and Greek, where the traveling singers—troubadours—made a living from their songs. The writings of the troubadours are often associated with unrequited longing, but this is not entirely accurate (see aubade, for instance). In Germany, the Minnesänger continued the tradition of the troubadours.

text: In addition to epic poems in the Germanic tradition (e.g. Beowulf and Nibelungenlied), epic poems in the tradition of the chanson de geste (e.g. The Song of Roland and Digenis Acritas which deal with the Matter of France and the Acritic songs respectively) and courtly romances in the tradition of the roman courtois, which deal with the Matter of Britain and the Matter of Rome, achieved great and lasting popularity. The roman courtois is distinguished from the chanson de geste not only by its subject matter, but also by its emphasis on love and chivalry rather than acts of war.

text: Political poetry was written also, especially towards the end of this period, and the goliardic form saw use by secular writers as well as clerics. Travel literature was highly popular in the Middle Ages, as fantastic accounts of far-off lands (frequently embellished or entirely false) entertained a society that, in most cases, limited people to the area in which they were born. (But note the importance of pilgrimages, especially to Santiago de Compostela, in medieval times, also witnessed by the prominence of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales).

text: The most prominent authors of Jewish secular poetry in the Middle Ages were Solomon ibn Gabirol and Yehuda Halevi, both of whom were also renowned religious poets.

text: Women's literature[edit]

text: While it is true that women in the medieval period were never accorded full equality with men, some women were able to use their skill with the written word to gain renown. Religious writing was the easiest avenue—women who would later be canonized as saints frequently published their reflections, revelations, and prayers. Much of what is known about women in the Middle Ages is known from the works of nuns such as Clare of Assisi, Bridget of Sweden, and Catherine of Siena.

text: Frequently, however, the religious perspectives of women were held to be unorthodox by those in power, and the mystical visions of such authors as Julian of Norwich, Mechthild of Magdeburg, and Hildegard of Bingen provide insight into a part of the medieval experience less comfortable for the institutions that ruled Europe at the time. Women wrote influential texts in the secular realm as well—reflections on courtly love and society by Marie de France and Christine de Pizan continue to be studied for their glimpses of medieval society.

text: For modern historical reflection, D.H. Green's (2007) historical work entitled, Women Readers of the Middle Ages explores literacy and literature in terms of women in medieval society.[1] The book has been reviewed as "a radical reassessment of women's contribution to medieval literary culture." [2]

text: Allegory[edit]

text: While medieval literature makes use of many literary devices, allegory is so prominent in this period as to deserve special mention. Much of medieval literature relied on allegory to convey the morals the author had in mind while writing—representations of abstract qualities, events, and institutions are thick in much of the literature of this time. Probably the earliest and most influential allegory is the Psychomachia (Battle of Souls) by Aurelius Clemens Prudentius. Other important examples include the Romance of the Rose, Everyman, Piers Plowman, Roman de Fauvel, and The Divine Comedy.

text: Notable literature of the period[edit]

text:
Alexiad, Anna Comnena
Beowulf, anonymous Anglo-Saxon author
Caedmon's Hymn
Cantigas de Santa Maria, Galician
The Book of the City of Ladies, Christine de Pizan
Book of the Civilized Man, Daniel of Beccles
The Book of Good Love, Juan Ruiz
The Book of Margery Kempe, Margery Kempe
Brut, Layamon
Brut, Wace
The Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer
The Cloud of Unknowing, anonymous English author
Consolation of Philosophy, Boethius
David of Sassoun, anonymous Armenian author
Decameron, Giovanni Boccaccio
The Dialogue, Catherine of Siena
Digenis Acritas, anonymous Greek author
The Diseases of Women, Trotula of Salerno
La divina commedia (The Divine Comedy), Dante Alighieri
Dukus Horant, the first extended work in Yiddish.
Elder Edda, various Icelandic authors
Das fließende Licht der Gottheit, Mechthild of Magdeburg
First Grammatical Treatise, 12th-century work on Old Norse phonology
Gesta Danorum, Saxo Grammaticus
Heimskringla, Snorri Sturluson
Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People), the Venerable Bede
The Knight in the Panther Skin, Shota Rustaveli
The Lais of Marie de France, Marie de France
The Letters of Abelard and Heloise
Libro de los ejemplos del conde Lucanor y de Patronio (Book of the Examples of Count Lucanor and of Patronio), Don Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena
Ludus de Antichristo, anonymous German author
Mabinogion, various Welsh authors
Metrical Dindshenchas, Irish onomastic poems
Il milione (The Travels of Marco Polo), Marco Polo
Le Morte d'Arthur, Sir Thomas Malory
Nibelungenlied, anonymous German author
Njál's saga, anonymous Icelandic author
Parzival, Wolfram von Eschenbach
Piers Plowman, William Langland
Poem of the Cid, anonymous Spanish author
Proslogium, Anselm of Canterbury
Queste del Saint Graal (The Quest of the Holy Grail), anonymous French author
Revelations of Divine Love, Julian of Norwich
Roman de la Rose, Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun
Sadko, anonymous Russian author
Scivias, Hildegard of Bingen
Sic et Non, Abelard
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, anonymous English author
The Song of Roland, anonymous French author
Spiritual Exercises, Gertrude the Great
Summa Theologiae, Thomas Aquinas
Táin Bó Cúailnge, anonymous Irish author
The Tale of Igor's Campaign, anonymous Russian author
Tirant lo Blanc, Joanot Martorell
The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, John Mandeville
Tristan, Thomas d'Angleterre
Tristan, Béroul
Tristan and Isolt, Gottfried von Strassburg
Troilus and Criseyde, Geoffrey Chaucer
Waltharius
Younger Edda, Snorri Sturluson
Yvain: The Knight of the Lion, Chrétien de Troyes

text: Specific articles[edit]

text:
Medieval and Renaissance literature

Early medieval

Matter of Rome
Matter of France
Matter of Britain
Byzantine
Kannada

Medieval

Hebrew
Persian
Arabic
Bengali
Telugu

By century

10th
11th
12th
13th
14th

European Renaissance

15th century

 Literature portal

v
t
e

tag: table

text: By region or language[edit]

text:
Anglo-Norman literature
Classical Arabic literature
Medieval Armenian literature
Old Breton literature
Byzantine literature
Medieval Bulgarian literature
Medieval Catalan literature
Medieval Croatian literature
Old and Middle Dutch literature
Old English literature
Middle English literature
Early English Jewish literature
Medieval French literature
Sicilian School
Medieval German literature
Medieval Georgian literature
Medieval Hebrew literature
Icelandic literature
Medieval Irish literature
Medieval Italian literature
Medieval Latin literature

Latin translations of the 12th century

Occitan literature
Old Norse literature
Pahlavi literature
Medieval Persian literature
Medieval Portuguese literature
Medieval Serbian literature
Medieval Scottish literature
Medieval Spanish literature
Medieval Welsh literature

text: By genre[edit]

text:
Medieval poetry
Medieval drama
Medieval allegory
Medieval mysticism
Fabliau
Medieval travel literature
Arthurian literature
Alexander romances
Chanson de geste
Eddic poetry
Skaldic poetry
Alliterative verse
Miracle plays
Morality plays
Mystery plays
Passion plays

text: By period[edit]

text:
Early Medieval literature (6th to 9th centuries)
10th century in literature
11th century in literature
12th century in literature
13th century in literature
14th century in literature


document_title: List of current Premier League and English Football League managers

question_text: who is the longest serving manager in premier league

text: Managers[edit]

text:
Name
Nat.
Date of birth
Club
Division
Appointed
Time as manager
Source

Wenger, ArsèneArsène Wenger

000000001949-10-22-000022 October 1949
Arsenal
1Premier League
000000001996-10-01-00001 October 1996[note 1]
7003770700000000000♠21 years, 37 days
[1]

Tisdale, PaulPaul Tisdale

000000001973-01-14-000014 January 1973
Exeter City
4League Two
000000002006-06-26-000026 June 2006
7003415200000000000♠11 years, 134 days
[2]

Bentley, JimJim Bentley

000000001976-06-11-000011 June 1976
Morecambe
4League Two
000000002011-05-13-000013 May 2011
7003237000000000000♠6 years, 178 days
[3]

Ainsworth, GarethGareth Ainsworth

000000001973-05-10-000010 May 1973
Wycombe Wanderers
4League Two
000000002012-09-24-000024 September 2012
7003187000000000000♠5 years, 44 days
[4][5]

Ardley, NealNeal Ardley

000000001972-09-01-00001 September 1972
AFC Wimbledon
3League One
000000002012-10-10-000010 October 2012
7003185400000000000♠5 years, 28 days
[6]

Howe, EddieEddie Howe

000000001977-11-29-000029 November 1977
Bournemouth
1Premier League
000000002012-10-12-000012 October 2012
7003185100000000000♠5 years, 25 days
[7]

Dyche, SeanSean Dyche

000000001971-06-28-000028 June 1971
Burnley
1Premier League
000000002012-10-30-000030 October 2012
7003183400000000000♠5 years, 8 days
[8]

McCarthy, MickMick McCarthy

000000001959-02-07-00007 February 1959
Ipswich Town
2Championship
000000002012-11-01-00001 November 2012
7003183200000000000♠5 years, 6 days
[9]

Hill, KeithKeith Hill

000000001969-05-17-000017 May 1969
Rochdale
3League One
000000002013-01-22-000022 January 2013
7003175000000000000♠4 years, 289 days
[10]

Brown, PhilPhil Brown

000000001959-05-30-000030 May 1959
Southend United
3League One
000000002013-03-25-000025 March 2013
7003168800000000000♠4 years, 227 days
[11]

Hughes, MarkMark Hughes

000000001963-11-01-00001 November 1963
Stoke City
1Premier League
000000002013-05-30-000030 May 2013
7003162200000000000♠4 years, 161 days
[12]

Clarke, DarrellDarrell Clarke

000000001977-12-16-000016 December 1977
Bristol Rovers
3League One
000000002014-03-28-000028 March 2014
7003132000000000000♠3 years, 224 days
[13]

Pochettino, MauricioMauricio Pochettino

000000001972-03-02-00002 March 1972
Tottenham Hotspur
1Premier League
000000002014-05-27-000027 May 2014
7003126000000000000♠3 years, 164 days
[14]

Coleman, JohnJohn Coleman

000000001962-10-12-000012 October 1962
Accrington Stanley
4League Two
000000002014-09-18-000018 September 2014
7003114600000000000♠3 years, 50 days
[15]

Curle, KeithKeith Curle

000000001963-11-14-000014 November 1963
Carlisle United
4League Two
000000002014-09-19-000019 September 2014
7003114500000000000♠3 years, 49 days
[16]

Hughton, ChrisChris Hughton

000000001958-12-11-000011 December 1958
Brighton & Hove Albion
1Premier League
000000002014-12-31-000031 December 2014
7003104200000000000♠2 years, 311 days
[17]

Pulis, TonyTony Pulis

000000001958-01-16-000016 January 1958
West Bromwich Albion
1Premier League
000000002015-01-01-00001 January 2015[note 2]
7003104100000000000♠2 years, 310 days
[18]

Harris, NeilNeil Harris

000000001977-07-12-000012 July 1977
Millwall
2Championship
000000002015-03-10-000010 March 2015
7002973000000000000♠2 years, 242 days
[19][20]

Johnson, GaryGary Johnson

000000001955-09-28-000028 September 1955
Cheltenham Town
4League Two
000000002015-03-30-000030 March 2015
7002953000000000000♠2 years, 222 days
[21]

Adams, DerekDerek Adams

000000001975-06-25-000025 June 1975
Plymouth Argyle
3League One
000000002015-06-11-000011 June 2015
7002880000000000000♠2 years, 149 days
[22]

Carvalhal, CarlosCarlos Carvalhal

000000001965-12-04-00004 December 1965
Sheffield Wednesday
2Championship
000000002015-06-30-000030 June 2015
7002861000000000000♠2 years, 130 days
[23]

Klopp, JürgenJürgen Klopp

000000001967-06-16-000016 June 1967
Liverpool
1Premier League
000000002015-10-08-00008 October 2015
7002761000000000000♠2 years, 30 days
[24]

Ferguson, DarrenDarren Ferguson

000000001972-02-09-00009 February 1972
Doncaster Rovers
3League One
000000002015-10-18-000018 October 2015[note 3]
7002751000000000000♠2 years, 20 days
[25]

Wagner, DavidDavid Wagner

000000001971-10-19-000019 October 1971
Huddersfield Town
1Premier League
000000002015-11-09-00009 November 2015[note 4]
7002729000000000000♠1 year, 363 days
[27]

Derry, ShaunShaun Derry

000000001977-12-06-00006 December 1977
Cambridge United
4League Two
000000002015-11-12-000012 November 2015
7002726000000000000♠1 year, 360 days
[28]

Smith, DeanDean Smith

000000001971-03-19-000019 March 1971
Brentford
2Championship
000000002015-11-30-000030 November 2015
7002708000000000000♠1 year, 342 days
[29]

Way, DarrenDarren Way

000000001979-11-21-000021 November 1979
Yeovil Town
4League Two
000000002015-12-01-00001 December 2015
7002707000000000000♠1 year, 341 days
[30][31]

Clough, NigelNigel Clough

000000001966-03-19-000019 March 1966
Burton Albion
2Championship
000000002015-12-07-00007 December 2015
7002701000000000000♠1 year, 335 days
[32]

Jokanović, SlavišaSlaviša Jokanović

000000001968-08-16-000016 August 1968
Fulham
2Championship
000000002015-12-27-000027 December 2015
7002681000000000000♠1 year, 315 days
[33]

Jones, NathanNathan Jones

000000001973-05-28-000028 May 1973
Luton Town
4League Two
000000002016-01-06-00006 January 2016
7002671000000000000♠1 year, 305 days
[34]

Sarll, DarrenDarren Sarll

000000001983-02-02-00002 February 1983
Stevenage
4League Two
000000002016-02-01-00001 February 2016
7002645000000000000♠1 year, 279 days
[35][36]

Johnson, LeeLee Johnson

000000001981-06-07-00007 June 1981
Bristol City
2Championship
000000002016-02-06-00006 February 2016[note 5]
7002640000000000000♠1 year, 274 days
[37]

Heckingbottom, PaulPaul Heckingbottom

000000001977-07-17-000017 July 1977
Barnsley
2Championship
000000002016-02-06-00006 February 2016
7002640000000000000♠1 year, 274 days
[37][38]

Whitney, JonJon Whitney

000000001970-12-23-000023 December 1970
Walsall
3League One
000000002016-03-07-00007 March 2016
7002610000000000000♠1 year, 245 days
[39][40]

Benítez, RafaelRafael Benítez

000000001960-04-16-000016 April 1960
Newcastle United
1Premier League
000000002016-03-11-000011 March 2016
7002606000000000000♠1 year, 241 days
[41]

Alexander, GrahamGraham Alexander

000000001971-10-10-000010 October 1971
Scunthorpe United
3League One
000000002016-03-22-000022 March 2016
7002595000000000000♠1 year, 230 days
[42]

McCann, GrantGrant McCann

000000001980-04-15-000015 April 1980
Peterborough United
3League One
000000002016-04-23-000023 April 2016
7002563000000000000♠1 year, 198 days
[43][44]

McGreal, JohnJohn McGreal

000000001972-06-02-00002 June 1972
Colchester United
4League Two
000000002016-05-04-00004 May 2016
7002552000000000000♠1 year, 187 days
[45]

Cooper, MarkMark Cooper

000000001968-12-18-000018 December 1968
Forest Green Rovers
4League Two
000000002016-05-09-00009 May 2016
7002547000000000000♠1 year, 182 days
[46]

Wilder, ChrisChris Wilder

000000001967-09-23-000023 September 1967
Sheffield United
2Championship
000000002016-05-12-000012 May 2016
7002544000000000000♠1 year, 179 days
[47]

Cowley, DannyDanny Cowley

000000001978-10-22-000022 October 1978
Lincoln City
4League Two
000000002016-05-13-000013 May 2016
7002543000000000000♠1 year, 178 days
[48]

Mourinho, JoséJosé Mourinho

000000001963-01-26-000026 January 1963
Manchester United
1Premier League
000000002016-05-27-000027 May 2016
7002529000000000000♠1 year, 164 days
[49]

Bowyer, GaryGary Bowyer

000000001971-06-26-000026 June 1971
Blackpool
3League One
000000002016-06-01-00001 June 2016
7002524000000000000♠1 year, 159 days
[50]

Parkinson, PhilPhil Parkinson

000000001967-12-01-00001 December 1967
Bolton Wanderers
2Championship
000000002016-06-10-000010 June 2016
7002515000000000000♠1 year, 150 days
[51]

Stam, JaapJaap Stam

000000001972-07-17-000017 July 1972
Reading
2Championship
000000002016-06-13-000013 June 2016
7002512000000000000♠1 year, 147 days
[52]

McCall, StuartStuart McCall

000000001964-06-10-000010 June 1964
Bradford City
3League One
000000002016-06-20-000020 June 2016
7002505000000000000♠1 year, 140 days
[53]

Guardiola, PepPep Guardiola

000000001971-01-18-000018 January 1971
Manchester City
1Premier League
000000002016-07-01-00001 July 2016
7002494000000000000♠1 year, 129 days
[54]

Conte, AntonioAntonio Conte

000000001969-07-31-000031 July 1969
Chelsea
1Premier League
000000002016-07-03-00003 July 2016
7002492000000000000♠1 year, 127 days
[55]

Rösler, UweUwe Rösler

000000001968-11-15-000015 November 1968
Fleetwood Town
3League One
000000002016-07-30-000030 July 2016
7002465000000000000♠1 year, 100 days
[56]

Warnock, NeilNeil Warnock

000000001948-12-01-00001 December 1948
Cardiff City
2Championship
000000002016-10-05-00005 October 2016
7002398000000000000♠1 year, 33 days
[57]

Bruce, SteveSteve Bruce

000000001960-12-31-000031 December 1960
Aston Villa
2Championship
000000002016-10-12-000012 October 2016
7002391000000000000♠1 year, 26 days
[58]

Hurst, PaulPaul Hurst

000000001974-09-25-000025 September 1974
Shrewsbury Town
3League One
000000002016-10-24-000024 October 2016
7002379000000000000♠1 year, 14 days
[59]

Holloway, IanIan Holloway

000000001963-03-12-000012 March 1963
Queens Park Rangers
2Championship
000000002016-11-11-000011 November 2016
7002361000000000000♠361 days
[60]

Evans, SteveSteve Evans

000000001962-10-30-000030 October 1962
Mansfield Town
4League Two
000000002016-11-16-000016 November 2016
7002356000000000000♠356 days
[61]

Robinson, KarlKarl Robinson

000000001980-09-13-000013 September 1980
Charlton Athletic
3League One
000000002016-11-24-000024 November 2016
7002348000000000000♠348 days
[62]

Warne, PaulPaul Warne

000000001973-05-08-00008 May 1973
Rotherham United
3League One
000000002016-11-28-000028 November 2016
7002344000000000000♠344 days
[63][64][65]

Neilson, RobbieRobbie Neilson

000000001980-06-19-000019 June 1980
Milton Keynes Dons
3League One
000000002016-12-03-00003 December 2016[note 6]
7002339000000000000♠339 days
[66]

Clement, PaulPaul Clement

000000001972-01-08-00008 January 1972
Swansea City
1Premier League
000000002017-01-03-00003 January 2017[note 7]
7002308000000000000♠308 days
[67]

Artell, DavidDavid Artell

000000001980-11-22-000022 November 1980
Crewe Alexandra
4League Two
000000002017-01-08-00008 January 2017
7002303000000000000♠303 days
[68]

Nolan, KevinKevin Nolan

000000001982-06-24-000024 June 1982
Notts County
4League Two
000000002017-01-12-000012 January 2017
7002299000000000000♠299 days
[69][70]

Mowbray, TonyTony Mowbray

000000001963-11-22-000022 November 1963
Blackburn Rovers
3League One
000000002017-02-22-000022 February 2017
7002258000000000000♠258 days
[71]

Robins, MarkMark Robins

000000001969-12-22-000022 December 1969
Coventry City
4League Two
000000002017-03-06-00006 March 2017
7002246000000000000♠246 days
[72]

Flynn, MichaelMichael Flynn

000000001980-10-17-000017 October 1980
Newport County
4League Two
000000002017-03-09-00009 March 2017
7002243000000000000♠243 days
[73][74]

Rowett, GaryGary Rowett

000000001974-03-06-00006 March 1974
Derby County
2Championship
000000002017-03-14-000014 March 2017
7002238000000000000♠238 days
[75]

Warburton, MarkMark Warburton

000000001962-09-06-00006 September 1962
Nottingham Forest
2Championship
000000002017-03-14-000014 March 2017
7002238000000000000♠238 days
[76]

Slade, RussellRussell Slade

000000001960-10-10-000010 October 1960
Grimsby Town
4League Two
000000002017-04-12-000012 April 2017
7002209000000000000♠209 days
[77]

Eames, RossiRossi Eames

000000001985-01-27-000027 January 1985
Barnet
4League Two
000000002017-04-15-000015 April 2017
7002206000000000000♠206 days
[78][79]

Kewell, HarryHarry Kewell

000000001978-09-22-000022 September 1978
Crawley Town
4League Two
000000002017-05-23-000023 May 2017
7002168000000000000♠168 days
[80]

Farke, DanielDaniel Farke

000000001976-10-30-000030 October 1976
Norwich City
2Championship
000000002017-05-25-000025 May 2017
7002166000000000000♠166 days
[81]

Silva, MarcoMarco Silva

000000001977-07-12-000012 July 1977
Watford
1Premier League
000000002017-05-27-000027 May 2017
7002164000000000000♠164 days
[82]

Cook, PaulPaul Cook

000000001967-02-22-000022 February 1967
Wigan Athletic
3League One
000000002017-05-31-000031 May 2017
7002160000000000000♠160 days
[83]

Espírito Santo, NunoNuno Espírito Santo

000000001974-01-25-000025 January 1974
Wolverhampton Wanderers
2Championship
000000002017-05-31-000031 May 2017
7002160000000000000♠160 days
[84]

Jackett, KennyKenny Jackett

000000001962-01-05-00005 January 1962
Portsmouth
3League One
000000002017-06-02-00002 June 2017
7002158000000000000♠158 days
[85]

Flitcroft, DavidDavid Flitcroft

000000001974-01-14-000014 January 1974
Swindon Town
4League Two
000000002017-06-05-00005 June 2017
7002155000000000000♠155 days
[86]

Slutsky, LeonidLeonid Slutsky

000000001971-05-04-00004 May 1971
Hull City
2Championship
000000002017-06-09-00009 June 2017
7002151000000000000♠151 days
[87]

Monk, GarryGarry Monk

000000001979-03-06-00006 March 1979
Middlesbrough
2Championship
000000002017-06-09-00009 June 2017
7002151000000000000♠151 days
[88]

Christiansen, ThomasThomas Christiansen

000000001973-03-11-000011 March 1973
Leeds United
2Championship
000000002017-06-15-000015 June 2017
7002145000000000000♠145 days
[89]

Pellegrino, MauricioMauricio Pellegrino

000000001971-10-05-00005 October 1971
Southampton
1Premier League
000000002017-06-23-000023 June 2017
7002137000000000000♠137 days
[90]

Clotet, PepPep Clotet

000000001977-04-28-000028 April 1977
Oxford United
3League One
000000002017-07-01-00001 July 2017
7002129000000000000♠129 days
[91]

Neil, AlexAlex Neil

000000001981-06-09-00009 June 1981
Preston North End
2Championship
000000002017-07-04-00004 July 2017
7002126000000000000♠126 days
[92]

Hasselbaink, Jimmy FloydJimmy Floyd Hasselbaink

000000001972-03-27-000027 March 1972
Northampton Town
3League One
000000002017-09-04-00004 September 2017
7001640000000000000♠64 days
[93]

Hodgson, RoyRoy Hodgson

000000001947-08-09-00009 August 1947
Crystal Palace
1Premier League
000000002017-09-12-000012 September 2017
7001560000000000000♠56 days
[94]

Wellens, RichieRichie Wellens

000000001980-03-26-000026 March 1980
Oldham Athletic
3League One
000000002017-09-25-000025 September 2017
7001430000000000000♠43 days
[95][96]

Cotterill, SteveSteve Cotterill

000000001964-07-20-000020 July 1964
Birmingham City
2Championship
000000002017-09-29-000029 September 2017
7001390000000000000♠39 days
[97]

Lester, JackJack Lester

000000001975-10-08-00008 October 1975
Chesterfield
4League Two
000000002017-09-29-000029 September 2017
7001390000000000000♠39 days
[98]

Aspin, NeilNeil Aspin

000000001965-04-12-000012 April 1965
Port Vale
4League Two
000000002017-10-04-00004 October 2017
7001340000000000000♠34 days
[99]

Lovell, SteveSteve Lovell[note 8]

000000001960-07-16-000016 July 1960
Gillingham
3League One
000000002017-10-12-000012 October 2017
7001260000000000000♠26 days
[100]

Unsworth, DavidDavid Unsworth[note 9]

000000001973-10-16-000016 October 1973
Everton
1Premier League
000000002017-10-23-000023 October 2017
7001150000000000000♠15 days
[101]

Puel, ClaudeClaude Puel

000000001961-09-02-00002 September 1961
Leicester City
1Premier League
000000002017-10-25-000025 October 2017
7001130000000000000♠13 days
[102]

Lowe, RyanRyan Lowe[note 10]

000000001978-09-18-000018 September 1978
Bury
3League One
000000002017-10-30-000030 October 2017
7000800000000000000♠8 days
[103]

McKinlay, BillyBilly McKinlay[note 11]

000000001969-04-22-000022 April 1969
Sunderland
2Championship
000000002017-10-31-000031 October 2017
7000700000000000000♠7 days
[104]

Stockdale, RobbieRobbie Stockdale[note 11]

000000001979-11-30-000030 November 1979
Sunderland
2Championship
000000002017-10-31-000031 October 2017
7000700000000000000♠7 days
[104]

Moyes, DavidDavid Moyes

000000001963-04-25-000025 April 1963
West Ham United
1Premier League
000000002017-11-07-00007 November 2017
5000000000000000000♠0 days
[105]

text: ‡ indicates player-manager


document_title: List of U.S. states and territories by area

question_text: what is the largest state in the united states

text: Area by state/territory[edit]

text:
Total area[2]
Land area[2]
Water[2]

State/territory
Rank
sq mi
km²
Rank
sq mi
km²
 % land
Rank
sq mi
km²
 % water

 Alaska
7000100000000000000♠1
665,384.04
1,723,337
7000100000000000000♠1
570,640.95
1,477,953
7001857600000000000♠85.76%
7000100000000000000♠1
94,743.10
245,384
7001142400000000000♠14.24%

 Texas
7000200000000000000♠2
268,596.46
695,662
7000200000000000000♠2
261,231.71
676,587
7001972600000000000♠97.26%
7000800000000000000♠8
7,364.75
19,075
7000274000000000000♠2.74%

 California
7000300000000000000♠3
163,694.74
423,967
7000300000000000000♠3
155,779.22
403,466
7001951600000000000♠95.16%
7000600000000000000♠6
7,915.52
20,501
7000484000000000000♠4.84%

 Montana
7000400000000000000♠4
147,039.71
380,831
7000400000000000000♠4
145,545.80
376,962
7001989800000000000♠98.98%
7001260000000000000♠26
1,493.91
3,869
7000102000000000000♠1.02%

 New Mexico
7000500000000000000♠5
121,590.30
314,917
7000500000000000000♠5
121,298.15
314,161
7001997600000000000♠99.76%
7001490000000000000♠49
292.15
757
6999240000000000000♠0.24%

 Arizona
7000600000000000000♠6
113,990.30
295,234
7000600000000000000♠6
113,594.08
294,207
7001996500000000000♠99.65%
7001480000000000000♠48
396.22
1,026
6999350000000000000♠0.35%

 Nevada
7000700000000000000♠7
110,571.82
286,380
7000700000000000000♠7
109,781.18
284,332
7001992800000000000♠99.28%
7001360000000000000♠36
790.65
2,048
6999720000000000000♠0.72%

 Colorado
7000800000000000000♠8
104,093.67
269,601
7000800000000000000♠8
103,641.89
268,431
7001995700000099999♠99.57%
7001440000000000000♠44
451.78
1,170
6999430000000000000♠0.43%

 Oregon
7000900000000000000♠9
98,378.54
254,799
7001100000000000000♠10
95,988.01
248,608
7001975700000099999♠97.57%
7001200000000000000♠20
2,390.53
6,191
7000243000000000000♠2.43%

 Wyoming
7001100000000000000♠10
97,813.01
253,335
7000900000000000000♠9
97,093.14
251,470
7001992600000000000♠99.26%
7001370000000000000♠37
719.87
1,864
6999740000000000000♠0.74%

 Michigan
7001110000000000000♠11
96,713.51
250,487
7001220000000000000♠22
56,538.90
146,435
7001584600000000000♠58.46%
7000200000000000000♠2
40,174.61
104,052
7001415400000000000♠41.54%

 Minnesota
7001120000000000000♠12
86,935.83
225,163
7001140000000000000♠14
79,626.74
206,232
7001915900000000000♠91.59%
7000900000000000000♠9
7,309.09
18,930
7000841000000000000♠8.41%

 Utah
7001130000000000000♠13
84,896.88
219,882
7001120000000000000♠12
82,169.62
212,818
7001967900000000000♠96.79%
7001170000000000000♠17
2,727.26
7,064
7000321000000000000♠3.21%

 Idaho
7001140000000000000♠14
83,568.95
216,443
7001110000000000000♠11
82,643.12
214,045
7001988900000000000♠98.89%
7001330000000000000♠33
925.83
2,398
7000111000000000000♠1.11%

 Kansas
7001150000000000000♠15
82,278.36
213,100
7001130000000000000♠13
81,758.72
211,754
7001993700000000000♠99.37%
7001420000000000000♠42
519.64
1,346
6999630000000000000♠0.63%

 Nebraska
7001160000000000000♠16
77,347.81
200,330
7001150000000000000♠15
76,824.17
198,974
7001993200000099999♠99.32%
7001410000000000000♠41
523.64
1,356
6999680000000000000♠0.68%

 South Dakota
7001170000000000000♠17
77,115.68
199,729
7001160000000000000♠16
75,811.00
196,350
7001983100000000000♠98.31%
7001290000000000000♠29
1,304.68
3,379
7000169000000000000♠1.69%

 Washington
7001180000000000000♠18
71,297.95
184,661
7001200000000000000♠20
66,455.52
172,119
7001932100000099999♠93.21%
7001110000000000000♠11
4,842.43
12,542
7000679000000000000♠6.79%

  North Dakota
7001190000000000000♠19
70,698.32
183,108
7001170000000000000♠17
69,000.80
178,711
7001976000000000000♠97.60%
7001240000000000000♠24
1,697.52
4,397
7000240000000000000♠2.40%

 Oklahoma
7001200000000000000♠20
69,898.87
181,037
7001190000000000000♠19
68,594.92
177,660
7001981300000000000♠98.13%
7001300000000000000♠30
1,303.95
3,377
7000187000000000000♠1.87%

 Missouri
7001210000000000000♠21
69,706.99
180,540
7001180000000000000♠18
68,741.52
178,040
7001986100000000000♠98.61%
7001320000000000000♠32
965.47
2,501
7000138990000099999♠1.39%

 Florida
7001220000000000000♠22
65,757.70
170,312
7001260000000000000♠26
53,624.76
138,887
7001815500000000000♠81.55%
7000300000000000000♠3
12,132.94
31,424
7001184500000000000♠18.45%

 Wisconsin
7001230000000000000♠23
65,496.38
169,635
7001250000000000000♠25
54,157.80
140,268
7001826900000000000♠82.69%
7000400000000000000♠4
11,338.57
29,367
7001173109999900000♠17.31%

 Georgia
7001240000000000000♠24
59,425.15
153,910
7001210000000000000♠21
57,513.49
148,959
7001967800000000000♠96.78%
7001220000000000000♠22
1,911.66
4,951
7000322000000000000♠3.22%

 Illinois
7001250000000000000♠25
57,913.55
149,995
7001240000000000000♠24
55,518.93
143,793
7001958700000000000♠95.87%
7001190000000000000♠19
2,394.62
6,202
7000413000000000000♠4.13%

 Iowa
7001260000000000000♠26
56,272.81
145,746
7001230000000000000♠23
55,857.13
144,669
7001992600000000000♠99.26%
7001450000000000000♠45
415.68
1,077
6999740000000000000♠0.74%

 New York
7001270000000000000♠27
54,554.98
141,297
7001300000000000000♠30
47,126.40
122,057
7001863800000000000♠86.38%
7000700000000000000♠7
7,428.58
19,240
7001136200000099999♠13.62%

 North Carolina
7001280000000000000♠28
53,819.16
139,391
7001290000000000000♠29
48,617.91
125,920
7001903400000000000♠90.34%
7001100000000000000♠10
5,201.25
13,471
7000966000000000000♠9.66%

 Arkansas
7001290000000000000♠29
53,178.55
137,732
7001270000000000000♠27
52,035.48
134,771
7001978500000000000♠97.85%
7001310000000000000♠31
1,143.07
2,961
7000215000000000000♠2.15%

 Alabama
7001300000000000000♠30
52,420.07
135,767
7001280000000000000♠28
50,645.33
131,171
7001966100000000000♠96.61%
7001230000000000000♠23
1,774.74
4,597
7000339000000000000♠3.39%

 Louisiana
7001310000000000000♠31
52,378.13
135,659
7001330000000000000♠33
43,203.90
111,898
7001824800000000000♠82.48%
7000500000000000000♠5
9,174.23
23,761
7001175200000000000♠17.52%

 Mississippi
7001320000000000000♠32
48,431.78
125,438
7001310000000000000♠31
46,923.27
121,531
7001968900000000000♠96.89%
7001250000000000000♠25
1,508.51
3,907
7000311000000000000♠3.11%

 Pennsylvania
7001330000000000000♠33
46,054.35
119,280
7001320000000000000♠32
44,742.70
115,883
7001971500000000000♠97.15%
7001280000000000000♠28
1,311.64
3,397
7000285000000000000♠2.85%

 Ohio
7001340000000000000♠34
44,825.58
116,098
7001350000000000000♠35
40,860.69
105,829
7001911500000000000♠91.15%
7001140000000000000♠14
3,964.89
10,269
7000885000000000000♠8.85%

 Virginia
7001350000000000000♠35
42,774.93
110,787
7001360000000000000♠36
39,490.09
102,279
7001923200000099999♠92.32%
7001150000000000000♠15
3,284.84
8,508
7000768000000000000♠7.68%

 Tennessee
7001360000000000000♠36
42,144.25
109,153
7001340000000000000♠34
41,234.90
106,798
7001978400000000000♠97.84%
7001350000000000000♠35
909.36
2,355
7000216000000000000♠2.16%

 Kentucky
7001370000000000000♠37
40,407.80
104,656
7001370000000000000♠37
39,486.34
102,269
7001977200000000000♠97.72%
7001340000000000000♠34
921.46
2,387
7000227990000099999♠2.28%

 Indiana
7001380000000000000♠38
36,419.55
94,326
7001380000000000000♠38
35,826.11
92,789
7001983700000000000♠98.37%
7001390000000000000♠39
593.44
1,537
7000162990000000000♠1.63%

 Maine
7001390000000000000♠39
35,379.74
91,633
7001390000000000000♠39
30,842.92
79,883
7001871800000000000♠87.18%
7001120000000000000♠12
4,536.82
11,750
7001128200000000000♠12.82%

 South Carolina
7001400000000000000♠40
32,020.49
82,933
7001400000000000000♠40
30,060.70
77,857
7001938800000000000♠93.88%
7001210000000000000♠21
1,959.79
5,076
7000612000000000000♠6.12%

 West Virginia
7001410000000000000♠41
24,230.04
62,756
7001410000000000000♠41
24,038.21
62,259
7001992100000099999♠99.21%
7001500000000000000♠50
191.83
497
6999790000000000000♠0.79%

 Maryland
7001420000000000000♠42
12,405.93
32,131
7001420000000000000♠42
9,707.24
25,142
7001782500000000000♠78.25%
7001180000000000000♠18
2,698.69
6,990
7001217500000000000♠21.75%

 Hawaii
7001430000000000000♠43
10,931.72
28,313
7001470000000000000♠47
6,422.63
16,635
7001587500000000000♠58.75%
7001130000000000000♠13
4,509.09
11,678
7001412500000000000♠41.25%

 Massachusetts
7001440000000000000♠44
10,554.39
27,336
7001450000000000000♠45
7,800.06
20,202
7001739000000000000♠73.90%
7001160000000000000♠16
2,754.33
7,134
7001261000000000000♠26.10%

 Vermont
7001450000000000000♠45
9,616.36
24,906
7001430000000000000♠43
9,216.66
23,871
7001958400000000000♠95.84%
7001460000000000000♠46
399.71
1,035
7000416000000000000♠4.16%

 New Hampshire
7001460000000000000♠46
9,349.16
24,214
7001440000000000000♠44
8,952.65
23,187
7001957600000000000♠95.76%
7001470000000000000♠47
396.51
1,027
7000424000000000000♠4.24%

 New Jersey
7001470000000000000♠47
8,722.58
22,591
7001460000000000000♠46
7,354.22
19,047
7001843100000000000♠84.31%
7001270000000000000♠27
1,368.36
3,544
7001156900000000000♠15.69%

 Connecticut
7001480000000000000♠48
5,543.41
14,357
7001480000000000000♠48
4,842.36
12,542
7001873500000000000♠87.35%
7001380000000000000♠38
701.06
1,816
7001126500000000000♠12.65%

 Delaware
7001490000000000000♠49
2,488.72
6,446
7001490000000000000♠49
1,948.54
5,047
7001782900000000000♠78.29%
7001400000000000000♠40
540.18
1,399
7001217100000000000♠21.71%

 Rhode Island
7001500000000000000♠50
1,544.89
4,001
7001500000000000000♠50
1,033.81
2,678
7001669200000000000♠66.92%
7001430000000000000♠43
511.07
1,324
7001330800000000000♠33.08%

 District of Columbia
7002100000000000000♠
68.34
177
7002100000000000000♠
61.05
158
7001893300000000000♠89.33%
7002100000000000000♠
7.29
19
7001106700000000000♠10.67%

 Puerto Rico
7002100000000000000♠
5,324.84
13,791
7002100000000000000♠
3,423.78
8,868
7001643000000000000♠64.30%
7002100000000000000♠
1,901.07
4,924
7001357000000000000♠35.70%

 Northern Mariana Islands
7002100000000000000♠
1,975.57
5,117
7002100000000000000♠
182.33
472
7000923000000000000♠9.23%
7002100000000000000♠
1,793.24
4,644
7001907700000000000♠90.77%

 United States Virgin Islands
7002100000000000000♠
732.93
1,898
7002100000000000000♠
134.32
348
7001183309999999999♠18.33%
7002100000000000000♠
598.61
1,550
7001816700000000000♠81.67%

 American Samoa
7002100000000000000♠
581.05
1,505
7002100000000000000♠
76.46
198
7001131600000000000♠13.16%
7002100000000000000♠
504.60
1,307
7001868400000000000♠86.84%

 Guam
7002100000000000000♠
570.62
1,478
7002100000000000000♠
209.80
543
7001367700000000000♠36.77%
7002100000000000000♠
360.82
935
7001632300000000000♠63.23%

 Minor Outlying Islands[3][a]
7002100000000000000♠
16.00
41
7002100000000000000♠
16.00
41
—
7002100000000000000♠
—
—
—

 Contiguous United States
Total
3,120,426.47
8,081,867
7002100000000000000♠
2,954,841.42
7,653,004
7001946900000000000♠94.69%
7002100000000000000♠
165,584.6
428,862
7000530990000099999♠5.31%

 50 states and D.C.
Total
3,796,742.23
9,833,517
7002100000000000000♠
3,531,905.43
9,147,593
7001930200000000000♠93.02%
7002100000000000000♠
264,836.79
685,924
7000698000000000000♠6.98%

 All U.S. territory
Total
3,805,943.26
9,857,348
7002100000000000000♠
3,535,948.12
9,158,064
7001929100000000000♠92.91%
7002100000000000000♠
269,995.13
699,284
7000709000000000000♠7.09%

text: Area by division[edit]

text: All divisions presented below are as configured by the United States Census Bureau.

text:
Total area[2]
Land area[2]
Water[2]

Division
Rank
sq mi
km²
Rank
sq mi
km²
 % land
Rank
sq mi
km²
 % water

East North Central
7000500000000000000♠5
301,368.57
780,541
7000600000000000000♠6
242,902.44
629,114

7000200000000000000♠2
58,466.13
151,427

East South Central
7000700000000000000♠7
183,403.89
475,014
7000700000000000000♠7
178,289.83
461,769

7000900000000000000♠9
5,114.60
13,247

Middle Atlantic
7000800000000000000♠8
109,331.89
283,168
7000800000000000000♠8
99,223.32
256,987

7000600000000000000♠6
10,108.57
26,181

Mountain
7000200000000000000♠2
863,564.63
2,236,622
7000200000000000000♠2
855,766.98
2,216,426

7000800000000000000♠8
7,797.65
20,196

New England
7000900000000000000♠9
71,987.96
186,448
7000900000000000000♠9
62,668.46
162,311

7000700000000000000♠7
9,299.50
24,086

Pacific
7000100000000000000♠1
1,009,687.00
2,615,077
7000100000000000000♠1
895,286.33
2,318,781

7000100000000000000♠1
114,400.67
296,296

South Atlantic
7000600000000000000♠6
292,990.46
758,842
7000500000000000000♠5
265,061.97
686,507

7000300000000000000♠3
27,928.49
72,334

West North Central
7000300000000000000♠3
520,355.80
1,347,715
7000300000000000000♠3
507,620.08
1,314,730

7000500000000000000♠5
12,735.72
32,985

West South Central
7000400000000000000♠4
444,052.01
1,150,089
7000400000000000000♠4
425,066.01
1,100,916

7000400000000000000♠4
18,986.00
49,174

text: Area by region[edit]

text: All regions presented below are as configured by the United States Census Bureau.

text:
Total area[2]
Land area[2]
Water[2]

Region
Rank
sq mi
km²
Rank
sq mi
km²
 % land
Rank
sq mi
km²
 % water

Midwest
7000300000000000000♠3
821,724.38
2,128,256
7000300000000000000♠3
750,522.52
1,943,844

7000200000000000000♠2
71,201.86
184,412

Northeast
7000400000000000000♠4
181,319.85
469,616
7000400000000000000♠4
161,911.78
419,350

7000400000000000000♠4
19,408.07
50,267

South
7000200000000000000♠2
920,446.37
2,383,945
7000200000000000000♠2
868,417.82
2,249,192

7000300000000000000♠3
52,028.55
134,753

West
7000100000000000000♠1
1,873,251.63
4,851,699
7000100000000000000♠1
1,751,053.31
4,535,207

7000100000000000000♠1
122,198.32
316,492

text:
U.S. states by total area

U.S. states by land area

U.S. states by water area

U.S. states by water percentage

Alaska is the largest state by total area, land area, and water area. It is the 7th largest country subdivision in the world.[citation needed]

The area of Alaska is 7001180000000000000♠18% of the area of the United States and 7001210000000000000♠21% of the area of the contiguous United States

The second largest state, Texas, is only 7001400000000000000♠40% of the total area of the largest state, Alaska

Rhode Island is the smallest state by total area and land area

San Bernardino County is the largest county in the contiguous U.S. and is larger than each of the nine smallest states; it is larger than the four smallest states combined.

Michigan is second (after Alaska) in water area, and first in water percentage

Florida is mostly a peninsula, and has the third largest water area and seventh largest water area percentage


document_title: List of years in television

question_text: when did the first television go on sale

text: List of years in television

text: Before 1930[edit]

text:
1900: The word "television" is coined by Constantin Perskyi at the First International Electricity Congress in Paris, part of the International World Fair
1907: Boris Rosing transmits silhouette images of geometric shapes, using a Nipkow disk, mirror-drum, and a cathode ray tube receiver.
1908: In a letter to Nature, A.A. Campbell-Swinton describes the modern electronic camera and display system which others are to develop throughout the 1920s.
1923: Vladimir Zworykin patents the "iconoscope", the first ancestor of the electric scanning television camera.
1925: On October 2, John Logie Baird achieves transmission and remote display of the first television pictures in his laboratory.
1926: On January 26, Baird gives the first public demonstration of mechanical television to members of the Royal Institution. This is generally regarded as the world's first public demonstration of a true television set.
1927: Baird demonstrates the first ever system for recording television. His Phonovision system records pictures and sound on conventional 78rpm gramophone records. On January 1 British Broadcasting Corporation receives a royal charter, the American network NBC is founded. On April 7 Bell Telephone Company transmits a speech by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover 320 kilometers over telephone lines, which becomes the first successful long distance demonstration of television.[1][better source needed]
1928: Baird demonstrates an analog color television system. On May 28, the first television station, W2XB (forerunner to WRGB), begins broadcasting Analog television signals in Schenectady, New York. Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) is founded.
1929: In September, the Baird Television Development Company begins experimental broadcasting in association with the BBC. Regular experimental broadcasting started in Germany by the TV Station Paul Nipkow.

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1930: Baird installs a television at 10 Downing Street, London, the British Prime Minister's residence. On July 14, Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and his family use it to watch the first ever television drama, The Man with the Flower in His Mouth.
1931: Allen B. DuMont perfects long-lasting reliable cathode ray tubes later used for television reception. TV reaches the Soviet Union and France.
1932: The BBC starts a regular public television broadcasting service in the UK.
1933: The first television revue, Looking In, is broadcast on the BBC. The musical revue featured the Paramount Astoria dancing girls. Broadcast live by the BBC using John Logie Baird's 30-line mechanical television system, part of this performance was recorded onto a 7" aluminum disc using a primitive home recording process called Silvatone. This footage, which runs to just under four minutes, is the oldest surviving recording of broadcast television.
1934: Philo Farnsworth demonstrates a non-mechanical television system. The agreement for joint experimental transmissions by the BBC and John Logie Baird's company comes to an end. First 30 Line Mechanical Television Test Transmissions commence in April in Brisbane Australia conducted by Thomas Elliott and Dr Val McDowall.
1935: First regular scheduled TV broadcasts in Germany by the TV Station Paul Nipkow. The final transmissions of John Logie Baird's 30-line television system are broadcast by the BBC. First TV broadcasts in France on February 13 on Paris PTT Vision.
1936: The 1936 Summer Olympics becomes the first Olympic Games to be broadcast on television
1937: The BBC Television Service broadcasts the world's first televised Shakespeare play, a thirty-minute version of Twelfth Night, and the first football match, Arsenal F.C. vs. Arsenal reserves.
1938: DuMont Laboratories manufactures and sells the first all-electronic television sets to the public. Baird gives the first public demonstration of color projection television. The BBC broadcasts the world's first ever television science fiction (R.U.R.), and television crime series (Telecrime); in one of the lengthiest experimental television broadcasts, the BBC broadcasts a 90-minute version of Edmond Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac, starring Leslie Banks, Constance Cummings, and James Mason
1939: The BBC suspends its television service owing to the outbreak of the Second World War. Broadcasts from 1939 New York World's Fair. Japan is the first Asian country to air television.

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1940: the American Federal Communications Commission holds public hearings on television
1941: First television advertisements aired. The first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on July 1, 1941 over New York station WNBT (now WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement was for Bulova watches.
1942: FCC terminates all American television broadcasting because of the war; DuMont petitions FCC to resume broadcasting and receives approval
1943: Hänsel und Gretel is the first complete opera to be broadcast on television, but only in New York; first (experimental) telecast of Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol. Many more telecasts of the story will follow in later years, but until film begins to be used on television, no two of the television versions of the story will have the same casts
1944: American Broadcasting Company (ABC) formed
1945: National Broadcasting Company (NBC) begins the first regularly scheduled television network service in the United States
1946: RCA demonstrates all-electronic color television system; the DuMont Television Network begins broadcasting
1947: First broadcast of Howdy Doody, Kraft Television Theatre and Meet the Press; the World Series is broadcast live for the first time; the 1947 Tournament of Roses Parade becomes the very first parade ever televised;
1948: First broadcast of The Ed Sullivan Show and Texaco Star Theater
1949: First broadcast of The Lone Ranger, Crusader Rabbit and Mama; the first Emmy Awards are given

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1950: First broadcast of Come Dancing, Broadway Open House, Your Show of Shows, Sua vida me pertence and What's My Line?; Cuba is the first Caribbean country to receive TV; Brazil is the first South American country to receive TV; Nielsen Media Research begins to provide television ratings data; Jack Benny and Burns & Allen move from radio to TV; Bob Hope appears in his first TV special
1951: The first broadcast of live United States transcontinental television takes place in San Francisco, California from the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference. First broadcast of I Love Lucy, See It Now, Dragnet, the Hallmark Hall of Fame, Search for Tomorrow, Love of Life, and The Roy Rogers Show
1952: First broadcast of Today (NBC), Omnibus, and Flower Pot Men; Hockey Night in Canada and The Guiding Light move from radio to TV
1953: First broadcast of Panorama; the coronation of Elizabeth II is the first of its kind to be broadcast on television
1954: First broadcast of The Tonight Show, Father Knows Best, Disneyland and Lassie; NTSC video standard for color television is introduced, and National Educational Television (NET) is launched
1955: First broadcast of The Honeymooners, The Mickey Mouse Club, Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Gunsmoke, Captain Kangaroo; ITV launches in the UK, Sunday Night at the London Palladium first broadcast
1956: First broadcast of The Edge of Night, As the World Turns, The Price Is Right, Playhouse 90, the Eurovision Song Contest, Hancock's Half Hour
1957: First broadcast of Perry Mason, Have Gun — Will Travel, Leave It to Beaver, Senda prohibida and Carosello
1958: First broadcast of Blue Peter, Quatermass and the Pit, The Donna Reed Show, Moonlight Mask, and The Huckleberry Hound Show; the quiz show scandals wipe out The $64,000 Question and Twenty One
1959: First broadcast of Telejornal (main news broadcast of Portugal's public television, still running to this day), The Twilight Zone, Rocky and His Friends, The Untouchables Rawhide and Bonanza (which runs for fourteen years)

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1960: First broadcast of The Andy Griffith Show, The Flintstones, and Coronation Street; American presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon debate live on television
1961: First broadcast of The Avengers, The Defenders, The Dick Van Dyke Show, The Morecambe and Wise Show and Car 54, Where Are You?
1962: First broadcast of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, The Beverly Hillbillies, Steptoe and Son, The Jetsons, University Challenge, Elgar, That Was The Week That Was, The Late Late Show (Ireland) and Sábado Gigante; first satellite television relayed by Telstar
1963: First broadcast of General Hospital, The Fugitive, The Outer Limits and Doctor Who
1964: First broadcast of Gilligan's Island, The Munsters, Bewitched, The Man from U.N.C.L.E, The Addams Family, Top of the Pops, Match of the Day, Jeopardy!, Jonny Quest, and the Up series. The Beatles appear on The Ed Sullivan Show
1965: First broadcast of Days of Our Lives, Get Smart, Hogan's Heroes, Till Death Us Do Part, Des chiffres et des lettres, Thunderbirds, Tomorrow's World, The Magic Roundabout and The War Game; airing of A Charlie Brown Christmas, the first Peanuts TV special; Nigeria is the first African country to receive TV
1966: First broadcast of Star Trek, Batman (the live-action TV series), The Monkees, Dark Shadows, Ultra Series, That Girl, Cathy Come Home, and Mission: Impossible
1967: First broadcast of The Carol Burnett Show, The Prisoner, The Flying Nun, The Phil Donahue Show, Ambassador Magma; PAL and SECAM colour standards introduced in Europe, with BBC2 making their first colour broadcasts
1968: First broadcast of 60 Minutes, One Life to Live, Dad's Army, Julia, Columbo, Elvis, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, Hawaii Five-O, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In and Adam-12The Beatles perform "all you need is love" in the first worldwide simultaneous broadcast.
1969: First broadcast of Sesame Street, Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!, On the Buses, The Brady Bunch, Clangers, Nu, pogodi! and Monty Python's Flying Circus; Apollo 11 Moon landing broadcast live worldwide; completion of Fernsehturm Berlin

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1970: First broadcast of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Odd Couple, Monday Night Football, All My Children; PBS is launched
1971: First broadcast of All in the Family, Kamen Rider, The Old Grey Whistle Test, Chespirito, Parkinson
1972: first broadcast of M*A*S*H, Emmerdale, Mastermind, Kamiondžije, El Chavo, Rainbow, El Chapulín Colorado, The Bob Newhart Show, Great Performances and Maude
1973: First broadcast of The Ascent of Man, Moonbase 3, The Wombles, The Young and the Restless, An American Family, Ein Herz und eine Seele, Seventeen Moments of Spring, Last of the Summer Wine and The World at War
1974: First broadcast of Chico and the Man, Derrick, Happy Days, Little House on the Prairie, Police Woman, Porridge, Rhoda, Good Times, The Rockford Files and Tiswas; Richard M. Nixon announces his resignation on live television
1975: First broadcast of Starsky & Hutch, Baretta, Barney Miller, Fawlty Towers, Good Morning America, One Day at a Time, Saturday Night Live, Space: 1999, The Jeffersons, The Naked Civil Servant, Welcome Back, Kotter, Wheel of Fortune, Wonder Woman; Sony introduces the Betamax home video tape recorder
1976: First broadcast of The Muppet Show, I, Claudius, Grlom u jagode, Loriot, Austin City Limits, Charlie's Angels, Family Feud, Laverne and Shirley and Nuts in May; videocassette recorders go on sale; completion of CN Tower
1977: First broadcast of Abigail's Party, CHiPs, Eight Is Enough, ¿Qué Pasa, USA?, Roots, Soap, Lou Grant, Hungarian Folktales, Three's Company and Top Gear; Live from the Met
1978: First broadcast of An Ordinary Miracle, Abarembo Shogun, Battlestar Galactica, Dallas, Diff'rent Strokes, Fantasy Island, Grange Hill, Matador, Mork & Mindy, Pennies from Heaven, Taxi, Future Boy Conan, Deeply Regretted By...
1979: First broadcast of Benson, Blue Remembered Hills, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, Hart to Hart, Knots Landing, Life on Earth, Los Ricos También Lloran, Real People, The Dukes of Hazzard, The Facts of Life, You Can't Do That on Television, The Meeting Place Cannot Be Changed, The Very Same Munchhausen, Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy, Arabela; ESPN and Nickelodeon launched

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1980: First broadcast of Berlin Alexanderplatz, Magnum PI, Nightline, Vruć vetar, Strumpet City and Yes Minister; Cable News Network (CNN) launched
1981: First broadcast of The Smurfs, Hill Street Blues, Urusei Yatsura, Wetten, dass..?, Danger Mouse, Dynasty, Postman Pat, Falcon Crest, Only Fools and Horses and Brideshead Revisited; MTV launched; hundreds of millions watch Prince Charles marry Diana Spencer
1982: First broadcast of Remington Steele, Cheers, Knight Rider, Family Ties, Brookside, The Mysterious Cities of Gold, Chiquilladas, The Snowman, Boys from the Blackstuff, Newhart and St. Elsewhere; Channel 4 (UK) and The Weather Channel launched
1983: First broadcast of The A-Team, The Day After, He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, Oshin, Auf Wiedersehen, Pet, Reading Rainbow, Press Your Luck, The Joy of Painting, An Englishman Abroad, Blackadder and Terrahawks; Disney Channel launched
1984: First broadcast of Airwolf, Blue Thunder, Murder, She Wrote, Miami Vice, Who's the Boss?, Top lista nadrealista, The Cosby Show, The Transformers, Night Court, Tales from the Darkside, Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends, La piovra, Santa Barbara, Heimat and The Jewel in the Crown; A&E and Canal+ launched
1985: First broadcast of MacGyver, Growing Pains, ThunderCats, Neighbours, Mr. Belvedere, G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero, Larry King Live, Edge of Darkness, EastEnders, The Golden Girls; the Discovery Channel is established; first WrestleMania event
1986: First broadcast of The Oprah Winfrey Show, Perfect Strangers, Double Dare, Designing Women, Malgudi Days, Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin, Dragon Ball, Vasko de Gama from Rupcha Village, Casualty, Alternatywy 4, Pee-wee's Playhouse, Saint Seiya, The Singing Detective and Pingu; the Fox Broadcasting Company is launched
1987: First broadcast of Full House, DuckTales, Headbangers Ball, Thirtysomething, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Ramayan, Fireman Sam, Inspector Morse, The Bold and the Beautiful, Married... with Children, Star Trek: The Next Generation and 21 Jump Street (TV series)
1988: First broadcast of Roseanne, Mystery Science Theater 3000, In the Heat of the Night, Murphy Brown, Yo! MTV Raps, Garfield and Friends, America's Most Wanted, The Wonder Years and Mahabharat; TNT (Turner Network Television) is launched; first LCD televisions go on sale; a writers' strike disrupts U.S. television for five months
1989: First broadcast of Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers, The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!, Baywatch, Seinfeld, Saved By The Bell, American Gladiators, Dekalog, Wallace and Gromit, Hey Dude, Red Dwarf, America's Funniest Home Videos, Quantum Leap, COPS, Agatha Christie's Poirot, Shining Time Station, Family Matters, The Simpsons, Coach, Inside Edition; CNBC and Eurosport launched

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1990: First broadcast of TaleSpin, Beverly Hills, 90210, In Living Color, The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Wings, Law & Order, Tiny Toon Adventures, Twin Peaks, Bobby's World, Mr. Bean and Northern Exposure
1991: First broadcast of Home Improvement, Darkwing Duck, Step By Step, Nummer 28, The Julekalender, Æon Flux, Doug, Rugrats, Ren and Stimpy, The Jerry Springer Show
1992: First broadcast of The Larry Sanders Show, Mad About You, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Batman: The Animated Series, Barney & Friends, Martin, The Real World, Cha Cha Cha, YuYu Hakusho, Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon, Melrose Place, X-Men: The Animated Series and Absolutely Fabulous; Cartoon Network launched
1993: First broadcast of Late Show with David Letterman, Animaniacs, Beavis and Butt-head, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, WWE Monday Night Raw, Walker, Texas Ranger, Boy Meets World, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Rocko's Modern Life, Cracker, The X-Files, seaQuest DSV, The Nanny, Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic the Hedgehog and Frasier
1994: First broadcast of Friends, Party of Five, The Kingdom, Babylon 5, Inside the Actors Studio, Space Ghost Coast to Coast, Spider-Man: The Animated Series, The Tick, ER, All That and Gullah Gullah Island; Turner Classic Movies is launched. Several TV stations in the US switch their affiliates until 1996.
1995: First broadcast of Father Ted, NileCity 105,6, Star Trek: Voyager, The Wayans Bros., WCW Monday Nitro, Road Rules, The Drew Carey Show, JAG, El y Ella, Sevcec and O. J. Simpson murder trial televised; The History Channel launched
1996: First broadcast of Jamais deux sans toi...t, Percy tårar, Detective Conan, The Crocodile Hunter, 3rd Rock from the Sun, Blues Clues, Hey Arnold!, Spin City, Kenan and Kel, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, Judge Judy, Arthur, Dexter's Laboratory, Our Friends in the North and Everybody Loves Raymond; first high-definition television broadcasts; Al Jazeera launched; first DVDs and DVD players go on sale
1997: First broadcast of Pokémon, Fóstbræður, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Oz, Un gars, une fille, Johnny Bravo, King of the Hill, South Park, Teletubbies, Alles Kan Beter, Daria and I'm Alan Partridge; first plasma televisions on sale; millions watch the funeral of Princess Diana
1998: First broadcast of Dawson's Creek, Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, Will & Grace, Charmed, One Piece, Bob The Builder, The Powerpuff Girls, Cowboy Bebop, That '70s Show, Sex and the City, WCW Thunder, The Royle Family and The King of Queens; Kingston Communications launches the first major video-on-demand service.
1999: First broadcast of The Sopranos, Family Guy, SpongeBob SquarePants, Futurama, The West Wing, Digimon: Digital Monsters, Ed, Edd n Eddy, WWE SmackDown, The Amanda Show, Big Brother (Netherlands), Walking with Dinosaurs, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Yo soy Betty, la fea, ECW on TNN, Farscape, Freaks and Geeks, Trick, Judging Amy, Angel; first digital video recorders go on sale

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2000: First broadcast of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Malcolm in the Middle, Survivor, Jackass, Da Ali G Show, 106 & Park, Dora The Explorer, Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Gilmore Girls
2001: First broadcast of 24, Scrubs, Band of Brothers, Sangdo, Merchants of Joseon, The Secret Life of Us, Fear Factor, The Fairly OddParents, Invader Zim, The Office (UK), Samurai Jack, Yu-Gi-Oh!, Lizzie McGuire, How It's Made, Smallville and Six Feet Under
2002: First broadcast of American Idol, CSI: Miami, The Shield, City of Men, I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, Madventures, Firefly, 100 Greatest Britons, Winter Sonata, Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex, George Lopez, The Wire and Naruto
2003: First broadcast of Two and a Half Men, One Tree Hill, The O.C., That's So Raven, Teen Titans, Chappelle's Show, Reno 911!, Mythbusters, Dae Jang Geum, NCIS, Jimmy Kimmel Live, All In, Little Britain, Peep Show, Arrested Development, Los Serrano, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and The Venture Bros.
2004: First broadcast of Bleach, Desperate Housewives, Battlestar Galactica, Hassan and Habibah, Peppa Pig, Drake & Josh, Super Girl, Veronica Mars, Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, LazyTown, Entourage, The Apprentice, Lost, The X Factor; Euro1080 launches the first high-definition television broadcast
2005: First broadcast of It's Always Sunny In Philadelphia, Grey's Anatomy, Spiral, Noghtechin, Dancing with the Stars, Numb3rs, Ben 10, My Name is Earl, The Closer, So You Think You Can Dance, Bones, The Colbert Report, Robot Chicken, American Dad!, Everybody Hates Chris, How I Met Your Mother, Criminal Minds, Deal or No Deal, The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, Supernatural, Prison Break, My Lovely Sam Soon, Sto Para Pente, Avatar: The Last Airbender and Doctor Who returns to Television.
2006: First broadcast of Türkisch für Anfänger, Planet Earth, Jumong, Heroes, Psych, Dexter, Friday Night Lights, America's Got Talent, Hannah Montana, Charlie Brooker's Screenwipe, Code Geass, 30 Rock and High School Musical; the Netherlands is the first country to move to digital television; France 24 launched; HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc launched
2007: First broadcast of The Big Bang Theory, Chowder, Gossip Girl, iCarly, Shaun the Sheep, Burn Notice, Wilfred, Wizards of Waverly Place, Golden Bride, Phineas and Ferb, The Killing, Mad Men, and Damages; a writers' strike shuts down US scripted programming in November.
2008: First broadcast of Breaking Bad, Sons of Anarchy, Total Drama, Wipeout, True Blood, Fringe, Underbelly, The Inbetweeners, Radio Arvyla and 19 Kids and Counting; first 3D TV broadcasts; the historical miniseries John Adams premieres on HBO and wins a record-breaking thirteen Emmys
2009: First broadcast of Pawn Stars, Cake Boss, Tosh.0, Jersey Shore, Castle, Horrible Histories, Modern Family, The Vampire Diaries, The Good Wife, The Mentalist, NCIS: Los Angeles, Cougar Town, Archer, Late Night With Jimmy Fallon, United States of Tara, The Middle, Glee, Parks and Recreation, Community and Misfits

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2010: First broadcast of Adventure Time, Glass Home, Borgen, Sherlock, Downton Abbey, Solsidan, Pretty Little Liars, My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, Boardwalk Empire, Mike & Molly, Rizzoli and Isles, Parenthood, Treme, Regular Show, Hawaii Five-O (2010), Good Luck Charlie, The Walking Dead, Blue Bloods, and The Voice (Holland)
2011: First broadcast of Game of Thrones, Black Mirror, Bob's Burgers, Leyla ile Mecnun, Once Upon a Time, American Horror Story, The Killing, Austin & Ally, Suits, Teen Wolf, Shameless, 2 Broke Girls, New Girl and Homeland; millions watch Prince William marry Kate Middleton
2012: First broadcast of Duck Dynasty, Satyamev Jayate, Girls, Scandal, Nashville, Državni posao, Call the Midwife, Oliver Stone's Untold History of the United States, House of Lies, Veep, Arrow, Omar, Key & Peele, The Legend of Korra, Daniel Tiger's Neighborhood, Gravity Falls and Kitchen
2013: First broadcast of Rick and Morty, Steven Universe, Peaky Blinders, Marvel's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., Mom, The Following, House of Cards (which debuts on Netflix rather than cable or commercial), Bates Motel, Broadchurch, Teen Titans Go!, Hannibal, Vikings, Orange is the New Black, Liv and Maddie and Brooklyn Nine-Nine
2014: First broadcast of The Flash, True Detective, Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, Fargo, Gotham, Scorpion, Gomorrah, The 100, Outlander, Lucha Underground, Transparent, The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Silicon Valley, The Leftovers, Chrisley Knows Best and Girl Meets World
2015: First broadcast of Better Call Saul, Star vs. the Forces of Evil, Danger Mouse (2015), Empire, Narcos, The Late Late Show with James Corden, Daredevil, Crazy Ex-Girlfriend, Lucifer, Poldark, Supergirl, Mr. Robot, Deutschland 83, Lip Sync Battle and Superstore; Super Bowl XLIX breaks the record for most-watched program in the history of American television; Mayweather–Pacquiao boxing match is history's biggest pay-per-view fight; ten are killed during a helicopter crash during filming of reality series Dropped

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2016: First broadcast of The Night Of, Stranger Things, The Loud House, War & Peace, Mann Mayal, This Is Us, American Crime Story, Milo Murphy's Law, The Good Place, Westworld, Victoria, DC's Legends of Tomorrow and The Crown
2017: First broadcast of American Gods, Star Trek: Discovery, Big Little Lies, The Defenders, The End of the F***ing World, DuckTales (2017), The Handmaid's Tale, Legion and A Series of Unfortunate Events
2018: First broadcast of Krypton, Close Enough, Tom Clancy's Jack Ryan
2019: First broadcast of