document_title: Time

question_text: which method of measuring time using time zones

question_tokens: which method of measuring time using time zones

text: Time

text: Temporal measurement and history

text: Generally speaking, methods of temporal measurement, or chronometry, take two distinct forms: the calendar, a mathematical tool for organising intervals of time,[22] and the clock, a physical mechanism that counts the passage of time. In day-to-day life, the clock is consulted for periods less than a day whereas the calendar is consulted for periods longer than a day. Increasingly, personal electronic devices display both calendars and clocks simultaneously. The number (as on a clock dial or calendar) that marks the occurrence of a specified event as to hour or date is obtained by counting from a fiducial epoch – a central reference point.

text: History of the calendar

text: Artifacts from the Paleolithic suggest that the moon was used to reckon time as early as 6,000 years ago.[23] Lunar calendars were among the first to appear, either 12 or 13 lunar months (either 354 or 384 days). Without intercalation to add days or months to some years, seasons quickly drift in a calendar based solely on twelve lunar months. Lunisolar calendars have a thirteenth month added to some years to make up for the difference between a full year (now known to be about 365.24 days) and a year of just twelve lunar months. The numbers twelve and thirteen came to feature prominently in many cultures, at least partly due to this relationship of months to years. Other early forms of calendars originated in Mesoamerica, particularly in ancient Mayan civilization. These calendars were religiously and astronomically based, with 18 months in a year and 20 days in a month, plus five epagomenal days at the end of the year.[24]

text: The reforms of Julius Caesar in 45 BC put the Roman world on a solar calendar. This Julian calendar was faulty in that its intercalation still allowed the astronomical solstices and equinoxes to advance against it by about 11 minutes per year. Pope Gregory XIII introduced a correction in 1582; the Gregorian calendar was only slowly adopted by different nations over a period of centuries, but it is now the most commonly used calendar around the world, by far.

text: During the French Revolution, a new clock and calendar were invented in attempt to de-Christianize time and create a more rational system in order to replace the Gregorian calendar. The French Republican Calendar's days consisted of ten hours of a hundred minutes of a hundred seconds, which marked a deviation from the 12-based duodecimal system used in many other devices by many cultures. The system was later abolished in 1806.[25]

text: History of time measurement devices

text: A large variety of devices have been invented to measure time. The study of these devices is called horology.

text: An Egyptian device that dates to c.1500 BC, similar in shape to a bent T-square, measured the passage of time from the shadow cast by its crossbar on a nonlinear rule. The T was oriented eastward in the mornings. At noon, the device was turned around so that it could cast its shadow in the evening direction.[26]

text: A sundial uses a gnomon to cast a shadow on a set of markings calibrated to the hour. The position of the shadow marks the hour in local time. The idea to separate the day into smaller parts is credited to Egyptians because of their sundials, which operated on a duodecimal system. The importance of the number 12 is due the number of lunar cycles in a year and the number of stars used to count the passage of night.[27]

text: The most precise timekeeping device of the ancient world was the water clock, or clepsydra, one of which was found in the tomb of Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC). They could be used to measure the hours even at night, but required manual upkeep to replenish the flow of water. The Ancient Greeks and the people from Chaldea (southeastern Mesopotamia) regularly maintained timekeeping records as an essential part of their astronomical observations. Arab inventors and engineers in particular made improvements on the use of water clocks up to the Middle Ages.[28] In the 11th century, Chinese inventors and engineers invented the first mechanical clocks driven by an escapement mechanism.

text: The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. Ferdinand Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522).[29] Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330.[30][31] Great advances in accurate time-keeping were made by Galileo Galilei and especially Christiaan Huygens with the invention of pendulum driven clocks along with the invention of the minute hand by Jost Burgi.[32]

text: The English word clock probably comes from the Middle Dutch word klocke which, in turn, derives from the medieval Latin word clocca, which ultimately derives from Celtic and is cognate with French, Latin, and German words that mean bell. The passage of the hours at sea were marked by bells, and denoted the time (see ship's bell). The hours were marked by bells in abbeys as well as at sea.

text: Clocks can range from watches, to more exotic varieties such as the Clock of the Long Now. They can be driven by a variety of means, including gravity, springs, and various forms of electrical power, and regulated by a variety of means such as a pendulum.

text: Alarm clocks first appeared in ancient Greece around 250 BC with a water clock that would set off a whistle. This idea was later mechanized by Levi Hutchins and Seth E. Thomas.[32]

text: A chronometer is a portable timekeeper that meets certain precision standards. Initially, the term was used to refer to the marine chronometer, a timepiece used to determine longitude by means of celestial navigation, a precision firstly achieved by John Harrison. More recently, the term has also been applied to the chronometer watch, a watch that meets precision standards set by the Swiss agency COSC.

text: The most accurate timekeeping devices are atomic clocks, which are accurate to seconds in many millions of years,[34] and are used to calibrate other clocks and timekeeping instruments. Atomic clocks use the frequency of electronic transitions in certain atoms to measure the second. One of the most common atoms used is caesium, most modern atomic clocks probe caesium with microwaves to determine the frequency of these electron vibrations.[35] Since 1967, the International System of Measurements bases its unit of time, the second, on the properties of caesium atoms. SI defines the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation that corresponds to the transition between two electron spin energy levels of the ground state of the 133Cs atom.

text: Today, the Global Positioning System in coordination with the Network Time Protocol can be used to synchronize timekeeping systems across the globe.

text: In medieval philosophical writings, the atom was a unit of time referred to as the smallest possible division of time. The earliest known occurrence in English is in Byrhtferth's Enchiridion (a science text) of 1010–1012,[36] where it was defined as 1/564 of a momentum (1½ minutes),[37] and thus equal to 15/94 of a second. It was used in the computus, the process of calculating the date of Easter.

text: As of May 2010[update], the smallest time interval uncertainty in direct measurements is on the order of 12 attoseconds (1.2 × 10−17 seconds), about 3.7 × 1026 Planck times.[38]

text: Units of time

text: The second (s) is the SI base unit. A minute (min) is 60 seconds in length, and an hour is 60 minutes in length. A day is 24 hours or 86,400 seconds in length.

text: Definitions and standards

text: The Mean Solar Time system defines the second as 1/86,400 of the mean solar day, which is the year-average of the solar day. The solar day is the time interval between two successive solar noons, i.e., the time interval between two successive passages of the Sun across the local meridian. The local meridian is an imaginary line that runs from celestial north pole to celestial south pole passing directly over the head of the observer. At the local meridian the Sun reaches its highest point on its daily arc across the sky.

text: In 1874 the British Association for the Advancement of Science introduced the CGS (centimetre/gramme/second system) combining fundamental units of length, mass and time. The second is "elastic", because tidal friction is slowing the earth's rotation rate. For use in calculating ephemerides of celestial motion, therefore, in 1952 astronomers introduced the "ephemeris second", currently defined as

text: the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time.

text: The CGS system has been superseded by the Système international. The SI base unit for time is the SI second. The International System of Quantities, which incorporates the SI, also defines larger units of time equal to fixed integer multiples of one second (1 s), such as the minute, hour and day. These are not part of the SI, but may be used alongside the SI. Other units of time such as the month and the year are not equal to fixed multiples of 1 s, and instead exhibit significant variations in duration.[40]

text: The official SI definition of the second is as follows:[40][41]

text: The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.

text: At its 1997 meeting, the CIPM affirmed that this definition refers to a caesium atom in its ground state at a temperature of 0 K.[40]

text: The current definition of the second, coupled with the current definition of the metre, is based on the special theory of relativity, which affirms our spacetime to be a Minkowski space. The definition of the second in mean solar time, however, is unchanged.

text: World time

text: While in theory, the concept of a single worldwide universal time-scale may have been conceived of many centuries ago, in practicality the technical ability to create and maintain such a time-scale did not become possible until the mid-19th century. The timescale adopted was Greenwich Mean Time, created in 1847. A few countries have replaced it with Coordinated Universal Time, UTC.

text: History of the development of UTC

text: With the advent of the industrial revolution, a greater understanding and agreement on the nature of time itself became increasingly necessary and helpful. In 1847 in Britain, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) was first created for use by the British railways, the British navy, and the British shipping industry. Using telescopes, GMT was calibrated to the mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in the UK.

text: As international commerce continued to increase throughout Europe, in order to achieve a more efficiently functioning modern society, an agreed upon, and highly accurate international standard of time measurement became necessary. In order to find or determine such a time-standard, three steps had to be followed:

text:
An internationally agreed upon time-standard had to be defined.
This new time-standard then had to be consistently and accurately measured.
The new time-standard then had to be freely shared and distributed around the world.

text: The development of what is now known as UTC time came about historically as an effort which first began as a collaboration between 41 nations, officially agreed to and signed at the International Meridian Conference, in Washington D.C. in 1884. At this conference, the local mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in England was chosen to define the "universal day", counted from 0 hours at Greenwich mean midnight. This agreed with the civil Greenwich Mean Time used on the island of Great Britain since 1847. In contrast astronomical GMT began at mean noon, i.e. astronomical day X began at noon of civil day X. The purpose of this was to keep one night's observations under one date. The civil system was adopted as of 0 hours (civil) 1 January 1925. Nautical GMT began 24 hours before astronomical GMT, at least until 1805 in the Royal Navy, but persisted much later elsewhere because it was mentioned at the 1884 conference. In 1884, the Greenwich meridian was used for two-thirds of all charts and maps as their Prime Meridian.[42]

text: Among the 41 nations represented at the conference, the advanced time-technologies that had already come into use in Britain were fundamental components of the agreed upon method of arriving at a universal and agreed upon international time. In 1928 Greenwich Mean Time was rebranded for scientific purposes by the International Astronomical Union as Universal Time (UT). This was to avoid confusion with the previous system where the day had begun at noon. As the general public had always begun the day at midnight the timescale continued to be presented to them as Greenwich Mean Time. By 1956, universal time had been split into various versions – UT2, which smoothed for polar motion and seasonal effects, was presented to the public as Greenwich Mean Time. Later, UT1 (which smooths only for polar motion) became the default form of UT used by astronomers and hence the form used in navigation, sunrise and sunset and moonrise and moonset tables where the name Greenwich Mean Time continues to be employed. Greenwich Mean Time is also the preferred method of describing the timescale used by legislators. Even to the present day, UT is still based on an international telescopic system. Observations at the Greenwich Observatory itself ceased in 1954, though the location is still used as the basis for the coordinate system. Because the rotational period of Earth is not perfectly constant, the duration of a second would vary if calibrated to a telescope-based standard like GMT, where the second is defined as 1/86 400 of the mean solar day.

text: For the better part of the first century following the "International Meridian Conference," until 1960, the methods and definitions of time-keeping that had been laid out at the conference proved to be adequate to meet time tracking needs of science. Still, with the advent of the "electronic revolution" in the latter half of the 20th century, the technologies that had been available at the time of the Convention of the Metre proved to be in need of further refinement in order to meet the needs of the ever-increasing precision that the "electronic revolution" had begun to require.

text: The ephemeris second

text: An invariable second (the "ephemeris second") had been defined, use of which removed the errors in ephemerides resulting from the use of the variable mean solar second as the time argument. In 1960 this ephemeris second was made the basis of the "coordinated universal time" which was being derived from atomic clocks. It is a specified fraction of the mean tropical year as at 1900 and, being based on historical telescope observations, corresponds roughly to the mean solar second of the early nineteenth century.[43]

text: The SI second

text: In 1967 a further step was taken with the introduction of the SI second, essentially the ephemeris second as measured by atomic clocks and formally defined in atomic terms.[44] The SI second (Standard Internationale second) is based directly on the measurement of the atomic-clock observation of the frequency oscillation of caesium atoms. It is the basis of all atomic timescales, e.g. coordinated universal time, GPS time, International Atomic Time, etc. Atomic clocks do not measure nuclear decay rates, which is a common misconception, but rather measure a certain natural vibrational frequency of caesium-133.[45] Coordinated universal time is subject to one constraint which does not affect the other atomic timescales. As it has been adopted as the civil timescale by some countries (most countries have opted to retain mean solar time) it is not permitted to deviate from GMT by more than 0.9 second. This is achieved by the occasional insertion of a leap second.

text: Current application of UTC

text: Most countries use mean solar time. Australia, Canada (Quebec only), Colombia, France, Germany, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea (Bougainville only), Paraguay, Portugal, Switzerland, the United States and Venezuela use UTC. However, UTC is widely used by the scientific community in countries where mean solar time is official. UTC time is based on the SI second, which was first defined in 1967, and is based on the use of atomic clocks. Some other less used but closely related time-standards include International Atomic Time (TAI), Terrestrial Time, and Barycentric Dynamical Time.

text: Between 1967 and 1971, UTC was periodically adjusted by fractional amounts of a second in order to adjust and refine for variations in mean solar time, with which it is aligned. After 1 January 1972, UTC time has been defined as being offset from atomic time by a whole number of seconds, changing only when a leap second is added to keep radio-controlled clocks synchronized with the rotation of the Earth.

text: The Global Positioning System also broadcasts a very precise time signal worldwide, along with instructions for converting GPS time to UTC. GPS-time is based on, and regularly synchronized with or from, UTC-time.

text: Earth is split up into a number of time zones. Most time zones are exactly one hour apart, and by convention compute their local time as an offset from GMT. For example, time zones at sea are based on GMT. In many locations (but not at sea) these offsets vary twice yearly due to daylight saving time transitions.

text: Time conversions

text: These conversions are accurate at the millisecond level for time systems involving earth rotation (UT1 & TT). Conversions between atomic time systems (TAI, GPS, and UTC) are accurate at the microsecond level.

text:
System
Description
UT1
UTC
TT
TAI
GPS

UT1
Mean Solar Time
UT1
UTC = UT1 – DUT1
TT = UT1 + 32.184 s + LS – DUT1
TAI = UT1 – DUT1 + LS
GPS = UT1 – DUT1 + LS – 19 s

UTC
Civil Time
UT1 = UTC + DUT1
UTC
TT = UTC + 32.184 s + LS
TAI = UTC + LS
GPS = UTC + LS – 19 s

TT
Terrestrial (Ephemeris) Time
UT1 = TT – 32.184 s – LS + DUT1
UTC = TT – 32.184 s – LS
TT
TAI = TT – 32.184 s
GPS = TT – 51.184 s

TAI
Atomic Time
UT1 = TAI + DUT1 – LS
UTC = TAI – LS
TT = TAI + 32.184 s
TAI
GPS = TAI – 19 s

GPS
GPS Time
UT1 = GPS + DUT1 – LS + 19 s
UTC = GPS – LS + 19 s
TT = GPS + 51.184 s
TAI = GPS + 19 s
GPS

text: Definitions:

text:
LS = TAI – UTC = Leap Seconds from http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/tai-utc.dat
DUT1 = UT1 – UTC from http://maia.usno.navy.mil/ser7/ser7.dat or http://maia.usno.navy.mil/search/search.html

text: Sidereal time

text: Unlike solar time, which is relative to the apparent position of the Sun, sidereal time is the measurement of time relative to that of a distant star. In astronomy, sidereal time is used to predict when a star will reach its highest point in the sky. Due to Earth's orbital motion around the Sun, a mean solar day is about 3 minutes 56 seconds longer than a mean sidereal day, or 1⁄366 more than a mean sidereal day.

text: Chronology

text: Another form of time measurement consists of studying the past. Events in the past can be ordered in a sequence (creating a chronology), and can be put into chronological groups (periodization). One of the most important systems of periodization is the geologic time scale, which is a system of periodizing the events that shaped the Earth and its life. Chronology, periodization, and interpretation of the past are together known as the study of history.

text: Time-like concepts: terminology

text: The term "time" is generally used for many close but different concepts, including:

text:
instant[46] as an object – one point on the time axes. Being an object, it has no value;
time interval[47] as an object – part of the time axes limited by two instants. Being an object, it has no value;
date[48] as a quantity characterising an instant. As a quantity, it has a value which may be expressed in a variety of ways, for example "2014-04-26T09:42:36,75" in ISO standard format, or more colloquially such as "today, 9:42 a.m.";
duration[49] as a quantity characterizing a time interval.[50] As a quantity, it has a value, such as a number of minutes, or may be described in terms of the quantities (such as times and dates) of its beginning and end.

text: Religion

text: Linear and cyclical time

text: Ancient cultures such as Incan, Mayan, Hopi, and other Native American Tribes – plus the Babylonians, Ancient Greeks, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and others – have a concept of a wheel of time: they regard time as cyclical and quantic,[clarification needed] consisting of repeating ages that happen to every being of the Universe between birth and extinction.[citation needed]

text: In general, the Islamic and Judeo-Christian world-view regards time as linear[51] and directional,[52] beginning with the act of creation by God. The traditional Christian view sees time ending, teleologically,[53] with the eschatological end of the present order of things, the "end time".

text: In the Old Testament book Ecclesiastes, traditionally ascribed to Solomon (970–928 BC), time (as the Hebrew word עידן, זמן `iddan(age, as in "Ice age") zĕman(time) is often translated) was traditionally regarded[by whom?] as a medium for the passage of predestined events.[citation needed] (Another word, زمان" זמן" zamān, meant time fit for an event, and is used as the modern Arabic, Persian, and Hebrew equivalent to the English word "time".)

text: Time in Greek mythology

text: The Greek language denotes two distinct principles, Chronos and Kairos. The former refers to numeric, or chronological, time. The latter, literally "the right or opportune moment", relates specifically to metaphysical or Divine time. In theology, Kairos is qualitative, as opposed to quantitative.[citation needed]

text: In Greek mythology, Chronos (Ancient Greek: Χρόνος) is identified as the Personification of Time. His name in Greek means "time" and is alternatively spelled Chronus (Latin spelling) or Khronos. Chronos is usually portrayed as an old, wise man with a long, gray beard, such as "Father Time". Some English words whose etymological root is khronos/chronos include chronology, chronometer, chronic, anachronism, synchronise, and chronicle.

text: Time in Kabbalah

text: According to Kabbalists, "time" is a paradox[54] and an illusion.[55] Both the future and the past are recognised to be combined and simultaneously present.

text: Philosophy

text: Two distinct viewpoints on time divide many prominent philosophers. One view is that time is part of the fundamental structure of the universe, a dimension in which events occur in sequence. Sir Isaac Newton subscribed to this realist view, and hence it is sometimes referred to as Newtonian time.[16] An opposing view is that time does not refer to any kind of actually existing dimension that events and objects "move through", nor to any entity that "flows", but that it is instead an intellectual concept (together with space and number) that enables humans to sequence and compare events.[56] This second view, in the tradition of Gottfried Leibniz[17] and Immanuel Kant,[18][19] holds that space and time "do not exist in and of themselves, but ... are the product of the way we represent things", because we can know objects only as they appear to us.

text: Furthermore, it may be that there is a subjective component to time, but whether or not time itself is "felt", as a sensation, or is a judgment, is a matter of debate.[2][6][7][57][58]

text: The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320 million years.[59] Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.[60] Plato, in the Timaeus, identified time with the period of motion of the heavenly bodies. Aristotle, in Book IV of his Physica defined time as 'number of movement in respect of the before and after'.[61]

text: In Book 11 of his Confessions, St. Augustine of Hippo ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He begins to define time by what it is not rather than what it is,[62] an approach similar to that taken in other negative definitions. However, Augustine ends up calling time a "distention" of the mind (Confessions 11.26) by which we simultaneously grasp the past in memory, the present by attention, and the future by expectation.

text: In contrast to ancient Greek philosophers who believed that the universe had an infinite past with no beginning, medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of the universe having a finite past with a beginning. This view is shared by Abrahamic faiths as they believe time started by creation, therefore the only thing being infinite is God and everything else, including time, is finite.

text: Isaac Newton believed in absolute space and absolute time; Leibniz believed that time and space are relational.[63] The differences between Leibniz's and Newton's interpretations came to a head in the famous Leibniz–Clarke correspondence.

text:
Time is not an empirical concept. For neither co-existence nor succession would be perceived by us, if the representation of time did not exist as a foundation a priori. Without this presupposition we could not represent to ourselves that things exist together at one and the same time, or at different times, that is, contemporaneously, or in succession.
“
”

Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason (1781), trans. Vasilis Politis (London: Dent., 1991), p.54.

tag: div

text: Immanuel Kant, in the Critique of Pure Reason, described time as an a priori intuition that allows us (together with the other a priori intuition, space) to comprehend sense experience.[64] With Kant, neither space nor time are conceived as substances, but rather both are elements of a systematic mental framework that necessarily structures the experiences of any rational agent, or observing subject. Kant thought of time as a fundamental part of an abstract conceptual framework, together with space and number, within which we sequence events, quantify their duration, and compare the motions of objects. In this view, time does not refer to any kind of entity that "flows," that objects "move through," or that is a "container" for events. Spatial measurements are used to quantify the extent of and distances between objects, and temporal measurements are used to quantify the durations of and between events. Time was designated by Kant as the purest possible schema of a pure concept or category.

text: Henri Bergson believed that time was neither a real homogeneous medium nor a mental construct, but possesses what he referred to as Duration. Duration, in Bergson's view, was creativity and memory as an essential component of reality.[65]

text: According to Martin Heidegger we do not exist inside time, we are time. Hence, the relationship to the past is a present awareness of having been, which allows the past to exist in the present. The relationship to the future is the state of anticipating a potential possibility, task, or engagement. It is related to the human propensity for caring and being concerned, which causes "being ahead of oneself" when thinking of a pending occurrence. Therefore, this concern for a potential occurrence also allows the future to exist in the present. The present becomes an experience, which is qualitative instead of quantitative. Heidegger seems to think this is the way that a linear relationship with time, or temporal existence, is broken or transcended.[66] We are not stuck in sequential time. We are able to remember the past and project into the future – we have a kind of random access to our representation of temporal existence; we can, in our thoughts, step out of (ecstasis) sequential time.[67]

text: Time as "unreal"

text: In 5th century BC Greece, Antiphon the Sophist, in a fragment preserved from his chief work On Truth, held that: "Time is not a reality (hypostasis), but a concept (noêma) or a measure (metron)." Parmenides went further, maintaining that time, motion, and change were illusions, leading to the paradoxes of his follower Zeno.[68] Time as an illusion is also a common theme in Buddhist thought.[69][70]

text: J. M. E. McTaggart's 1908 The Unreality of Time argues that, since every event has the characteristic of being both present and not present (i.e., future or past), that time is a self-contradictory idea (see also The flow of time).

text: These arguments often center on what it means for something to be unreal. Modern physicists generally believe that time is as real as space – though others, such as Julian Barbour in his book The End of Time, argue that quantum equations of the universe take their true form when expressed in the timeless realm containing every possible now or momentary configuration of the universe, called 'platonia' by Barbour.[71]

text: A modern philosophical theory called presentism views the past and the future as human-mind interpretations of movement instead of real parts of time (or "dimensions") which coexist with the present. This theory rejects the existence of all direct interaction with the past or the future, holding only the present as tangible. This is one of the philosophical arguments against time travel. This contrasts with eternalism (all time: present, past and future, is real) and the growing block theory (the present and the past are real, but the future is not).

text: Physical definition

text:
Part of a series of articles about

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text: Until Einstein's reinterpretation of the physical concepts associated with time and space, time was considered to be the same everywhere in the universe, with all observers measuring the same time interval for any event.[72] Non-relativistic classical mechanics is based on this Newtonian idea of time.

text: Einstein, in his special theory of relativity,[73] postulated the constancy and finiteness of the speed of light for all observers. He showed that this postulate, together with a reasonable definition for what it means for two events to be simultaneous, requires that distances appear compressed and time intervals appear lengthened for events associated with objects in motion relative to an inertial observer.

text: The theory of special relativity finds a convenient formulation in Minkowski spacetime, a mathematical structure that combines three dimensions of space with a single dimension of time. In this formalism, distances in space can be measured by how long light takes to travel that distance, e.g., a light-year is a measure of distance, and a meter is now defined in terms of how far light travels in a certain amount of time. Two events in Minkowski spacetime are separated by an invariant interval, which can be either space-like, light-like, or time-like. Events that have a time-like separation cannot be simultaneous in any frame of reference, there must be a temporal component (and possibly a spatial one) to their separation. Events that have a space-like separation will be simultaneous in some frame of reference, and there is no frame of reference in which they do not have a spatial separation. Different observers may calculate different distances and different time intervals between two events, but the invariant interval between the events is independent of the observer (and his or her velocity).

text: Classical mechanics

text: In non-relativistic classical mechanics, Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen by two different observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical concept of time that works sufficiently well for describing the everyday phenomena of most people's experience. In the late nineteenth century, physicists encountered problems with the classical understanding of time, in connection with the behavior of electricity and magnetism. Einstein resolved these problems by invoking a method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one another measure different elapsed times for the same event.

text: Spacetime

text: Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together merging into spacetime in Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer, and the human perception as well as the measurement by instruments such as clocks are different for observers in relative motion. For example, if a spaceship carrying a clock flies through space at (very nearly) the speed of light, its crew does not notice a change in the speed of time on board their vessel because everything traveling at the same speed slows down at the same rate (including the clock, the crew's thought processes, and the functions of their bodies). However, to a stationary observer watching the spaceship fly by, the spaceship appears flattened in the direction it is traveling and the clock on board the spaceship appears to move very slowly.

text: On the other hand, the crew on board the spaceship also perceives the observer as slowed down and flattened along the spaceship's direction of travel, because both are moving at very nearly the speed of light relative to each other. Because the outside universe appears flattened to the spaceship, the crew perceives themselves as quickly traveling between regions of space that (to the stationary observer) are many light years apart. This is reconciled by the fact that the crew's perception of time is different from the stationary observer's; what seems like seconds to the crew might be hundreds of years to the stationary observer. In either case, however, causality remains unchanged: the past is the set of events that can send light signals to an entity and the future is the set of events to which an entity can send light signals.[74][75][76]

text: Time dilation

text: Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Subatomic particles exist for a well known average fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but when travelling close to the speed of light they are measured to travel farther and exist for much longer than when at rest. According to the special theory of relativity, in the high-speed particle's frame of reference, it exists, on the average, for a standard amount of time known as its mean lifetime, and the distance it travels in that time is zero, because its velocity is zero. Relative to a frame of reference at rest, time seems to "slow down" for the particle. Relative to the high-speed particle, distances seem to shorten. Einstein showed how both temporal and spatial dimensions can be altered (or "warped") by high-speed motion.

text: Einstein (The Meaning of Relativity): "Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relative to K, which register the same simultaneously."

text: Einstein wrote in his book, Relativity, that simultaneity is also relative, i.e., two events that appear simultaneous to an observer in a particular inertial reference frame need not be judged as simultaneous by a second observer in a different inertial frame of reference.

text: Relativistic time versus Newtonian time

text: The animations visualise the different treatments of time in the Newtonian and the relativistic descriptions. At the heart of these differences are the Galilean and Lorentz transformations applicable in the Newtonian and relativistic theories, respectively.

text: In the figures, the vertical direction indicates time. The horizontal direction indicates distance (only one spatial dimension is taken into account), and the thick dashed curve is the spacetime trajectory ("world line") of the observer. The small dots indicate specific (past and future) events in spacetime.

text: The slope of the world line (deviation from being vertical) gives the relative velocity to the observer. Note how in both pictures the view of spacetime changes when the observer accelerates.

text: In the Newtonian description these changes are such that time is absolute:[77] the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event occurs in the 'now' (i.e., whether an event passes the horizontal line through the observer).

text: However, in the relativistic description the observability of events is absolute: the movements of the observer do not influence whether an event passes the "light cone" of the observer. Notice that with the change from a Newtonian to a relativistic description, the concept of absolute time is no longer applicable: events move up-and-down in the figure depending on the acceleration of the observer.

text: Arrow of time

text: Time appears to have a direction – the past lies behind, fixed and immutable, while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. Yet for the most part the laws of physics do not specify an arrow of time, and allow any process to proceed both forward and in reverse. This is generally a consequence of time being modelled by a parameter in the system being analysed, where there is no "proper time": the direction of the arrow of time is sometimes arbitrary. Examples of this include the cosmological arrow of time, which points away from the Big Bang, CPT symmetry, and the radiative arrow of time, caused by light only travelling forwards in time (see light cone). In particle physics, the violation of CP symmetry implies that there should be a small counterbalancing time asymmetry to preserve CPT symmetry as stated above. The standard description of measurement in quantum mechanics is also time asymmetric (see Measurement in quantum mechanics). The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy must increase over time (see Entropy). This can be in either direction – Brian Greene theorizes that, according to the equations, the change in entropy occurs symmetrically whether going forward or backward in time. So entropy tends to increase in either direction, and our current low-entropy universe is a statistical aberration, in the similar manner as tossing a coin often enough that eventually heads will result ten times in a row. However, this theory is not supported empirically in local experiment.[78]

text: Quantized time

text: Time quantization is a hypothetical concept. In the modern established physical theories (the Standard Model of Particles and Interactions and General Relativity) time is not quantized.

text: Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10−44 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.

text: Time travel

text: Time travel is the concept of moving backwards or forwards to different points in time, in a manner analogous to moving through space, and different from the normal "flow" of time to an earthbound observer. In this view, all points in time (including future times) "persist" in some way. Time travel has been a plot device in fiction since the 19th century. Travelling backwards in time has never been verified, presents many theoretical problems, and may be an impossibility.[79] Any technological device, whether fictional or hypothetical, that is used to achieve time travel is known as a time machine.

text: A central problem with time travel to the past is the violation of causality; should an effect precede its cause, it would give rise to the possibility of a temporal paradox. Some interpretations of time travel resolve this by accepting the possibility of travel between branch points, parallel realities, or universes.

text: Another solution to the problem of causality-based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes cannot arise simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that your grandfather was not killed before his child (your parent) was conceived. This view doesn't simply hold that history is an unchangeable constant, but that any change made by a hypothetical future time traveller would already have happened in his or her past, resulting in the reality that the traveller moves from. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov self-consistency principle.

text: Time perception

text: The specious present refers to the time duration wherein one's perceptions are considered to be in the present. The experienced present is said to be ‘specious’ in that, unlike the objective present, it is an interval and not a durationless instant. The term specious present was first introduced by the psychologist E.R. Clay, and later developed by William James.[80]

text: Biopsychology

text: The brain's judgment of time is known to be a highly distributed system, including at least the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and basal ganglia as its components. One particular component, the suprachiasmatic nuclei, is responsible for the circadian (or daily) rhythm, while other cell clusters appear capable of shorter-range (ultradian) timekeeping.

text: Psychoactive drugs can impair the judgment of time. Stimulants can lead both humans and rats to overestimate time intervals,[81][82] while depressants can have the opposite effect.[83] The level of activity in the brain of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and norepinephrine may be the reason for this.[84] Such chemicals will either excite or inhibit the firing of neurons in the brain, with a greater firing rate allowing the brain to register the occurrence of more events within a given interval (speed up time) and a decreased firing rate reducing the brain's capacity to distinguish events occurring within a given interval (slow down time).[85]

text: Mental chronometry is the use of response time in perceptual-motor tasks to infer the content, duration, and temporal sequencing of cognitive operations.

text: Development of awareness and understanding of time in children

text: Children's expanding cognitive abilities allow them to understand time more clearly. Two- and three-year-olds' understanding of time is mainly limited to "now and not now." Five- and six-year-olds can grasp the ideas of past, present, and future. Seven- to ten-year-olds can use clocks and calendars.[86]

text: Alterations

text: In addition to psychoactive drugs, judgments of time can be altered by temporal illusions (like the kappa effect),[87] age,[88] and hypnosis.[89] The sense of time is impaired in some people with neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease and attention deficit disorder.

text: Psychologists assert that time seems to go faster with age, but the literature on this age-related perception of time remains controversial.[90] Those who support this notion argue that young people, having more excitatory neurotransmitters, are able to cope with faster external events.[85]

text: Use of time

text: In sociology and anthropology, time discipline is the general name given to social and economic rules, conventions, customs, and expectations governing the measurement of time, the social currency and awareness of time measurements, and people's expectations concerning the observance of these customs by others. Arlie Russell Hochschild[91][92] and Norbert Elias[93] have written on the use of time from a sociological perspective.

text: The use of time is an important issue in understanding human behavior, education, and travel behavior. Time-use research is a developing field of study. The question concerns how time is allocated across a number of activities (such as time spent at home, at work, shopping, etc.). Time use changes with technology, as the television or the Internet created new opportunities to use time in different ways. However, some aspects of time use are relatively stable over long periods of time, such as the amount of time spent traveling to work, which despite major changes in transport, has been observed to be about 20–30 minutes one-way for a large number of cities over a long period.

text: Time management is the organization of tasks or events by first estimating how much time a task requires and when it must be completed, and adjusting events that would interfere with its completion so it is done in the appropriate amount of time. Calendars and day planners are common examples of time management tools.

text: A sequence of events, or series of events, is a sequence of items, facts, events, actions, changes, or procedural steps, arranged in time order (chronological order), often with causality relationships among the items.[94][95][96] Because of causality, cause precedes effect, or cause and effect may appear together in a single item, but effect never precedes cause. A sequence of events can be presented in text, tables, charts, or timelines. The description of the items or events may include a timestamp. A sequence of events that includes the time along with place or location information to describe a sequential path may be referred to as a world line.

text: Uses of a sequence of events include stories,[97] historical events (chronology), directions and steps in procedures,[98] and timetables for scheduling activities. A sequence of events may also be used to help describe processes in science, technology, and medicine. A sequence of events may be focused on past events (e.g., stories, history, chronology), on future events that must be in a predetermined order (e.g., plans, schedules, procedures, timetables), or focused on the observation of past events with the expectation that the events will occur in the future (e.g., processes, projections). The use of a sequence of events occurs in fields as diverse as machines (cam timer), documentaries (Seconds From Disaster), law (choice of law), computer simulation (discrete event simulation), and electric power transmission[99] (sequence of events recorder). A specific example of a sequence of events is the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.

text: Spatial conceptualization of time

text: Although time is regarded as an abstract concept, there is increasing evidence that time is conceptualized in the mind in terms of space.[100] That is, instead of thinking about time in a general, abstract way, humans think about time in a spatial way and mentally organize it as such. Using space to think about time allows humans to mentally organize temporal events in a specific way.

text: This spatial representation of time is often represented in the mind as a Mental Time Line (MTL).[101] Using space to think about time allows humans to mentally organize temporal order. These origins are shaped by many environmental factors[100]––for example, literacy appears to play a large role in the different types of MTLs, as reading/writing direction provides an everyday temporal orientation that differs from culture to culture.[101] In western cultures, the MTL may unfold rightward (with the past on the left and the future on the right) since people read and write from left to right.[101] Western calendars also continue this trend by placing the past on the left with the future progressing toward the right. Conversely, Arabic, Farsi, Urdu and Israeli-Hebrew speakers read from right to left, and their MTLs unfold leftward (past on the right with future on the left), and evidence suggests these speakers organize time events in their minds like this as well.[101]

text: This linguistic evidence that abstract concepts are based in spatial concepts also reveals that the way humans mentally organize time events varies across cultures––that is, a certain specific mental organization system is not universal. So, although Western cultures typically associate past events with the left and future events with the right according to a certain MTL, this kind of horizontal, egocentric MTL is not the spatial organization of all cultures. Although most developed nations use an egocentric spatial system, there is recent evidence that some cultures use an allocentric spatialization, often based on environmental features.[100]

text: A recent study of the indigenous Yupno people of Papua New Guinea focused on the directional gestures used when individuals used time-related words.[100] When speaking of the past (such as "last year" or "past times"), individuals gestured downhill, where the river of the valley flowed into the ocean. When speaking of the future, they gestured uphill, toward the source of the river. This was common regardless of which direction the person faced, revealing that the Yupno people may use an allocentric MTL, in which time flows uphill.[100]

text: A similar study of the Pormpuraawans, an aboriginal group in Australia, revealed a similar distinction in which when asked to organize photos of a man aging "in order," individuals consistently placed the youngest photos to the east and the oldest photos to the west, regardless of which direction they faced.[102] This directly clashed with an American group which consistently organized the photos from left to right. Therefore, this group also appears to have an allocentric MTL, but based on the cardinal directions instead of geographical features.[102]

text: The wide array of distinctions in the way different groups think about time leads to the broader question that different groups may also think about other abstract concepts in different ways as well, such as causality and number.[100]


document_title: NBA Rookie of the Year Award

question_text: who won rookie of the year nba 1997

question_tokens: who won rookie of the year nba 1997

root

text: NBA Rookie of the Year Award

text: Winners

text:
Key

^
Denotes player who is still active in the NBA

*
Elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Denotes unanimous winners

DP #
Draft pick number

DY
Draft year

T
Territorial pick

tag: table

text:
Rookie of the Year

Season
Player
Position
Nationality
Team
DP #
DY

1952–53
Meineke, DonDon Meineke
Forward/Center
 United States
Fort Wayne Pistons
12 !12
1952

1953–54
Felix, RayRay Felix
Center
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
01 !1
1953

1954–55
Pettit, BobBob Pettit*
Forward/Center
 United States
Milwaukee Hawks
02 !2
1954

1955–56
Stokes, MauriceMaurice Stokes*
Forward/Center
 United States
Rochester Royals
02 !2
1955

1956–57
Heinsohn, TomTom Heinsohn*
Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics
99 !T
1956

1957–58
Sauldsberry, WoodyWoody Sauldsberry
Forward/Center
 United States
Philadelphia Warriors
60 !60
1957

1958–59
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
Forward
 United States
Minneapolis Lakers
01 !1
1958

1959–60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*[a]
Center
 United States
Philadelphia Warriors
99 !T
1959

1960–61
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson*
Guard
 United States
Cincinnati Royals
01 !1/T
1960

1961–62
Bellamy, WaltWalt Bellamy*
Center
 United States
Chicago Packers
01 !1
1961

1962–63
Dischinger, TerryTerry Dischinger
Forward/Guard
 United States
Chicago Zephyrs
08 !8
1962

1963–64
Lucas, JerryJerry Lucas*[b]
Forward/Center
 United States
Cincinnati Royals
99 !T
1962[b]

1964–65
Reed, WillisWillis Reed*
Center/Forward
 United States
New York Knicks
08 !8
1964

1965–66
Barry, RickRick Barry*
Forward
 United States
San Francisco Warriors
02 !2
1965

1966–67
Bing, DaveDave Bing*
Guard
 United States
Detroit Pistons
02 !2
1966

1967–68
Monroe, EarlEarl Monroe*
Guard
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
02 !2
1967

1968–69
Unseld, WesWes Unseld*[a]
Center/Forward
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
02 !2
1968

1969–70
Alcindor, LewLew Alcindor*
Center
 United States
Milwaukee Bucks
01 !1
1969

1970–71[c]
Cowens, DaveDave Cowens*
Center/Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics
04 !4
1970

1970–71[c]
Petrie, GeoffGeoff Petrie
Guard
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
08 !8
1970

1971–72
Wicks, SidneySidney Wicks
Forward/Center
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
02 !2
1971

1972–73
McAdoo, BobBob McAdoo*
Center/Forward
 United States
Buffalo Braves
02 !2
1972

1973–74
DiGregorio, ErnieErnie DiGregorio
Guard
 United States
Buffalo Braves
03 !3
1973

1974–75
Wilkes, JamaalJamaal Wilkes*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Golden State Warriors
11 !11
1974

1975–76
Adams, AlvanAlvan Adams
Center/Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns
04 !4
1975

1976–77
Dantley, AdrianAdrian Dantley*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Buffalo Braves
06 !6
1976

1977–78
Davis, WalterWalter Davis
Guard/Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns
05 !5
1977

1978–79
Ford, PhilPhil Ford
Guard
 United States
Kansas City Kings
02 !2
1978

1979–80
Bird, LarryLarry Bird*[d]
Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics
06 !6
1978[d]

1980–81
Griffith, DarrellDarrell Griffith
Guard
 United States
Utah Jazz
02 !2
1980

1981–82
Williams, BuckBuck Williams
Forward/Center
 United States
New Jersey Nets
03 !3
1981

1982–83
Cummings, TerryTerry Cummings
Forward
 United States
San Diego Clippers
02 !2
1982

1983–84
Sampson, RalphRalph Sampson*
Center/Forward
 United States
Houston Rockets
01 !1
1983

1984–85
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
Guard
 United States
Chicago Bulls
03 !3
1984

1985–86
Ewing, PatrickPatrick Ewing*
Center
 United States[e]
New York Knicks
01 !1
1985

1986–87
Person, ChuckChuck Person
Forward
 United States
Indiana Pacers
04 !4
1986

1987–88
Jackson, MarkMark Jackson
Guard
 United States
New York Knicks
18 !18
1987

1988–89
Richmond, MitchMitch Richmond*
Guard
 United States
Golden State Warriors
05 !5
1988

1989–90
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*[f]
Center
 United States
San Antonio Spurs
01 !1
1987[f]

1990–91
Coleman, DerrickDerrick Coleman
Forward
 United States
New Jersey Nets
01 !1
1990

1991–92
Johnson, LarryLarry Johnson
Forward
 United States
Charlotte Hornets
01 !1
1991

1992–93
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal*
Center
 United States
Orlando Magic
01 !1
1992

1993–94
Webber, ChrisChris Webber
Forward/Center
 United States
Golden State Warriors
01 !1
1993

1994–95[c]
Hill, GrantGrant Hill*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Detroit Pistons
03 !3
1994

1994–95[c]
Kidd, JasonJason Kidd*
Guard
 United States
Dallas Mavericks
02 !2
1994

1995–96
Stoudamire, DamonDamon Stoudamire
Guard
 United States
Toronto Raptors
07 !7
1995

1996–97
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson*
Guard
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers
01 !1
1996

1997–98
Duncan, TimTim Duncan
Forward/Center
 United States[g]
San Antonio Spurs
01 !1
1997

1998–99
Carter, VinceVince Carter^
Guard/Forward
 United States
Toronto Raptors
05 !5
1998

1999–00[c]
Brand, EltonElton Brand
Forward
 United States
Chicago Bulls
01 !1
1999

1999–00[c]
Francis, SteveSteve Francis
Guard
 United States
Houston Rockets
02 !2
1999

2000–01
Miller, MikeMike Miller
Forward/Guard
 United States
Orlando Magic
05 !5
2000

2001–02
Gasol, PauPau Gasol^
Forward/Center
 Spain
Memphis Grizzlies
03 !3
2001

2002–03
Stoudemire, Amar'eAmar'e Stoudemire
Forward/Center
 United States
Phoenix Suns
09 !9
2002

2003–04
James, LeBronLeBron James^
Forward
 United States
Cleveland Cavaliers
01 !1
2003

2004–05
Okafor, EmekaEmeka Okafor^
Center/Forward
 United States
Charlotte Bobcats
02 !2
2004

2005–06
Paul, ChrisChris Paul^
Guard
 United States
New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets
04 !4
2005

2006–07
Roy, BrandonBrandon Roy
Guard
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
06 !6
2006

2007–08
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^
Forward
 United States
Seattle SuperSonics
02 !2
2007

2008–09
Rose, DerrickDerrick Rose^
Guard
 United States
Chicago Bulls
01 !1
2008

2009–10
Evans, TyrekeTyreke Evans^
Guard/Forward
 United States
Sacramento Kings
04 !4
2009

2010–11
Griffin, BlakeBlake Griffin^[h]
Forward
 United States
Los Angeles Clippers
01 !1
2009[h]

2011–12
Irving, KyrieKyrie Irving^
Guard
 United States
Cleveland Cavaliers
01 !1
2011

2012–13
Lillard, DamianDamian Lillard^
Guard
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
06 !6
2012

2013–14
Carter-Williams, MichaelMichael Carter-Williams^
Guard
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers
11 !11
2013

2014–15
Wiggins, AndrewAndrew Wiggins^
Forward/Guard
 Canada
Minnesota Timberwolves
01 !1
2014

2015–16
Towns, Karl-AnthonyKarl-Anthony Towns^
Center
 United States[i]
Minnesota Timberwolves
01 !1
2015

2016–17
Brogdon, MalcolmMalcolm Brogdon^
Guard
 United States
Milwaukee Bucks
36 !36
2016

text: Unofficial winners

text: Prior to the 1952–53 season, the Rookie of the Year was selected by newspaper writers;[17] however, the NBA does not officially recognize those players as winners. The league did publish the pre-1953 winners in their 1994–95 edition of the Official NBA Guide and the 1994 Official NBA Basketball Encyclopedia, but those winners have not been listed in subsequent publications.[17][18][19]

tag: p

text:
Season
Player
Position
Nationality
Team
DP #
DY

1947–48
Hoffman, PaulPaul Hoffman
Guard/Forward
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
70
1947

1948–49
Shannon, HowieHowie Shannon
Guard/Forward
 United States
Providence Steamrollers
01 !1
1949

1949–50
Groza, AlexAlex Groza
Center
 United States
Indianapolis Olympians
02 !2
1949

1950–51
Arizin, PaulPaul Arizin*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Philadelphia Warriors
99 !T
1950

1951–52[c]
Tosheff, BillBill Tosheff
Guard
 United States
Indianapolis Olympians
32 !32
1951

1951–52[c]
Hutchins, MelMel Hutchins
Forward/Center
 United States
Milwaukee Hawks
02 !2
1951


document_title: Tommy (album)

question_text: who released the rock opera inspired country album tommy bluegrass opera

text: Tommy (album)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Tommy has never had a definitive plot, but the following synopsis was published following the original album's release.[1]

text: British Army Captain Walker goes missing during an expedition and is believed dead ("Overture"). His widow, Mrs. Walker, gives birth to their son, Tommy ("It's a Boy"). Years later, Captain Walker returns home and discovers that his wife has found a new lover. They murder the Captain in an altercation as Tommy watches. Tommy's mother convinces him that he did not see or hear the incident and must never tell anyone about it; as a result, he becomes deaf, dumb, and blind to the outside world ("1921"). Tommy now relies on his sense of touch and imagination, developing a fascinating inner psyche ("Amazing Journey/Sparks").[2]

text: A quack claims his wife can cure Tommy ("The Hawker"), while Tommy's parents are increasingly frustrated that he will never find religion in the midst of his isolation ("Christmas"). They begin to neglect him, leaving him to be tortured by his sadistic "Cousin Kevin" and molested by his uncle Ernie ("Fiddle About"). The Hawker's drug addicted wife, "The Acid Queen", gives Tommy a dose of LSD, causing a hallucinogenic experience that is expressed musically ("Underture").[2]

text: As Tommy grows older, he discovers that he can feel vibrations sufficiently well to become an expert pinball player ("Pinball Wizard"). His parents take him to a respected doctor ("There's a Doctor"), who determines that the boy's disabilities are psychosomatic rather than physical. Tommy is told by the Doctor to "Go to the Mirror!", and his parents notice he can stare at his reflection. After seeing Tommy spend extended periods staring at a mirror in the house, his mother smashes it out of frustration ("Smash the Mirror"). This removes Tommy's mental block, and he recovers his senses, realising he can become a powerful leader ("Sensation"). He starts a religious movement ("I'm Free"), which generates fervor among its adherents ("Sally Simpson") and expands into a holiday camp ("Welcome" / "Tommy's Holiday Camp"). However, Tommy's followers ultimately reject his teachings and leave the camp ("We're Not Gonna Take It"). Tommy retreats inward again ("See Me, Feel Me") with his "continuing statement of wonder at that which encompasses him".[2]

text: Background[edit]

text: Townshend had been looking at ways of progressing beyond the standard three minute pop single format since 1966.[3] Co-manager Kit Lambert shared Townshend's views and encouraged him to develop musical ideas,[4] coming up with the term "rock opera". The first use of the term was applied to a suite called "Quads", set in a future where parents could choose the sex of their children. A couple want four girls but instead receive three girls and a boy, raising him as a girl anyway. The opera was abandoned after writing a single song, the hit single, "I'm a Boy".[5] When the Who's second album, A Quick One ran short of material during recording, Lambert suggested that Townshend should write a "mini-opera" to fill the gap. Townshend initially objected, but eventually agreed to do so, coming up with "A Quick One, While He's Away", which joined short pieces of music together into a continuous narrative.[6] During 1967, Townshend learned how to play the piano and began writing songs on it, taking his work more seriously.[7] That year's The Who Sell Out included a mini-opera in the last track, "Rael", which like "A Quick One..." was a suite of musical segments joined together.[8] A portion of "Rael" is the basis of the Tommy instrumental track "Sparks"[9].

text:
The package I hope is going to be called "Deaf, Dumb and Blind Boy." It's a story about a kid that's born deaf, dumb and blind and what happens to him throughout his life ... But what it's really all about is the fact that ... he's seeing things basically as vibrations which we translate as music. That's really what we want to do: create this feeling that when you listen to the music you can actually become aware of the boy, and aware of what he is all about, because we are creating him as we play."
Pete Townshend talking to Jann Wenner, August 1968[10]

text: By 1968, Townshend was unsure about how the Who should progress musically. The group were no longer teenagers, but he wanted their music to remain relevant.[11] His friend, International Times art director Mike McInnerney, told him about the Indian spiritual mentor Meher Baba,[12] and Townshend became fascinated with Baba's values of compassion, love and introspection.[13] The Who's commercial success was on the wane after the single "Dogs" failed to make the top 20, and there was a genuine risk of the band breaking up.[14] Live performances remained strong, and the group spent most of the spring and summer touring the US and Canada[15] but their stage act relied on Townshend smashing his guitar or Moon demolishing his drums, which kept the group in debt. Townshend and Lambert realised they needed a larger vehicle for their music than hit singles, and a new stage show, and Townshend hoped to incorporate his love of Baba into this concept.[16] He decided that the Who should record a series of songs that stood well in isolation, but formed a cohesive whole on the album. He also wanted the material performed in concert, to counteract the trend of bands like the Beatles and the Beach Boys, whose studio output was not designed for live performance.[17]

text: In August 1968, in an interview to Rolling Stone, Townsend talked about a new rock opera, which had the working title of Deaf, Dumb and Blind Boy, and described the entire plot in great detail, which ran to 11 pages.[18] Who biographer Dave Marsh subsequently said the interview described the narrative better than the finished album.[19] Townshend later regretted publishing so much detail, as he felt it forced him to write the album according to that blueprint.[20] The rest of the Who, however, were enthusiastic about the idea, and let him have artistic control over the project.[21]

text: Recording[edit]

text: The Who started recording the album at IBC Studios on 19 September 1968.[22] There was no firm title at this point, which was variously referred to as Deaf, Dumb and Blind Boy, Amazing Journey, Journey into Space, The Brain Opera and Omnibus. Townshend eventually settled on Tommy because it was a common British name, and a nickname for soldiers in World War I.[23] Lambert took charge of the production, with Damon Lyon-Shaw as engineer. Sessions were block booked from 2pm – 10pm, but recording often spilled over into the early morning. [22]

text: The album was recorded onto eight track tape, which allowed various instruments to be overdubbed. Townshend used several guitars in the studio, but made particular use of the Gibson J-200 acoustic and the Gibson SG.[24] As well as their usual instruments, Townshend played piano and organ and bassist John Entwistle doubled on french horn. Keith Moon used a new double bass drum kit owned by roadie Tony Haslam, after Premier had refused to loan him any more equipment due to continual abuse.[22] Though Townshend wrote the majority of the material, the arrangements came from the entire band. Singer Roger Daltrey later said that Townshend often came in with a half-finished demo recording, adding "we probably did as much talking as we did recording, sorting out arrangements and things."[25] Townshend asked Entwistle to write two songs ("Cousin Kevin" and "Fiddle About") that covered the darker themes of bullying and abuse. "Tommy's Holiday Camp" was Moon's suggestion of what religious movement Tommy could lead. Moon got the songwriting credit for suggesting the idea, though the music was composed and played by Townshend.[26]  A significant amount of material had a lighter style than earlier recordings, with greater prominence put on the vocals. Moon later said, "It was, at the time, very un-Wholike. A lot of the songs were soft. We never played like that."[27]

text: Some of the material had already been written for other projects. "Sensation" was written about a girl Townshend had met on the Who's tour of Australia in early 1968, "Welcome" and "I'm Free" were about peace found through Meher Baba and "Sally Simpson" was based on a gig with the Doors which was marred by violence.[28] Other songs had been previously recorded by the Who and were recycled; "It's A Boy" was derived from "Glow Girl", an out-take from The Who Sell Out, while "Sparks" and "Underture" re-used and expanded one of the instrumental themes in "Rael".[29] "Amazing Journey" was, according to Townshend, "the absolute beginning" of the opera and summarised the entire plot.[29] "The Hawker" was a cover of Mose Allison's "Eyesight to the Blind". A cover of Mercy Dee Walton's "One Room Country Shack" was also recorded but was scrapped from the final track listing as Townshend could not figure out a way to incorporate it in the plot.[30]

text: Recording at IBC was slow, due to a lack of a full plot and a full selection of songs. The group hoped that the album would be ready by Christmas, but sessions dragged on. Melody Maker's Chris Welch visited IBC studios in November and while he was impressed with the working environment and the material,[31] the project still did not have a title and there was no coherent plotline.[26] The Who's US record company got so impatient waiting for new product that they released the compilation album Magic Bus: The Who on Tour which received a scathing review from Greil Marcus in Rolling Stone over its poor selection of material and misleading name (as the album contained studio recordings and was not live).[32]

text: The Who took a break from recording at the end of 1968 to tour, including a well received appearance at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus on 10 December.[33] They resumed sessions at IBC in January 1969, block booking Monday to Thursday, but had to do gigs every weekend to stop going further into debt.[34] A major tour was booked for the end of April, and the group's management insisted that the album would have to be finished by then, as it had been well over a year since The Who Sell Out.[35] Lambert wrote a script, Tommy (1914–1984) which he professionally printed, and gave copies to the band, which helped them focus the storyline, and also decide to make the album a double.[34] The group were still coming up with new material; Lambert insisted that the piece should have a proper overture,[35] while Townshend wrote "Pinball Wizard" so that Nik Cohn, a pinball fan, would give the album a favourable review in the New York Times.[36] Lambert wanted an orchestra to appear on the album, but Townshend was strongly against the idea, and time and budget constraints meant it could not happen anyway.[35]

text: By March 1969, some songs had been recorded several times, yet Townshend still thought there were missing pieces.[37] Entwistle had become fed up with recording, later saying "we had to keep going back and rejuvenating the numbers ... it just started to drive us mad."[24] The final recording session took place on 7 March, the same day that "Pinball Wizard" was released as a single.[38] The group started tour rehearsals and promotional activities for the single and Lambert went on holiday in Cairo. The mixing was left to Lyon-Shaw and assistant engineer Ted Sharp, who did not think IBC was well suited for the task.[39] The album overshot its April deadline, as stereo mastering continued into the end of the month.[40]

text: Release[edit]

text: Tommy was finally released on 17 May 1969 in the US, and 23 May in the UK, because of delays with the cover.[41] The original double album was configured with sides 1 and 4 on one disc, and sides 2 and 3 on the other, to accommodate record changers.[42]

text: The album was commercially successful, reaching No. 2 in the UK album charts, and No. 4 in the US.[41] It sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks in the US alone, and was awarded a gold record for sales of 500,000 on August 18.[43]  "Pinball Wizard", "I'm Free" and "See Me, Feel Me" were released as singles and received airplay on the radio. "Pinball Wizard" reached the top 20 in the US and the top five in the UK. "See Me, Feel Me" reached the top 20 in the US and "I'm Free" reached the top 40. An EP of selections from the album was planned to be released in the UK in November 1970, but was withdrawn.[44] As of 2012, Tommy has sold 20 million copies worldwide.[24][45]

text: When it was released, critics were split between those who thought the album was a masterpiece, the beginnings of a new genre, and those that felt it was exploitative. The album had a hostile reception with the BBC and certain US radio stations, with Tony Blackburn describing "Pinball Wizard" as "distasteful".[40] Nevertheless, BBC Radio 1 received an advance copy of the album at the start of May and gave the material its first airplay on Pete Drummond's show on 3 May.[42] Townshend promoted the album's release with interviews in which he attempted to explain the plotline. Unfortunately, because it fundamentally dealt with the abstract concept of Baba's spiritual precepts, the interviews often gave confusing and contradicting details.[46]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllMusic[47]MusicHound Rock4/5[48]Q[49]Rolling Stone[50]The Rolling Stone Album Guide[51]Uncut[52]

text: The initial critical reaction to Tommy was positive. Chris Welch, writing for Melody Maker, went to the press launch show at Ronnie Scott's and although the volume left his ears ringing for 20 hours, he concluded "we wanted more." Disc and Music Echo ran a front-page headline saying "Who's Tommy: A Masterpiece".[43] Critics and fans were confused by the storyline, but Lambert pointed out this made Tommy no less confusing than the operas of Richard Wagner or Giacomo Puccini a century earlier.[53]

text: In a 1969 column for The Village Voice, music critic Robert Christgau said that, apart from The Mothers of Invention's We're Only in It for the Money, Tommy is the first successful "extended work" in rock music, but Townshend's parodic side is more "profound and equivocal" than Frank Zappa. He praised Townshend for deliberately constructing the album so that each song can be enjoyed individually and felt that he is determined to "give his audience what it wants without burying his own peculiarity".[54] Albert Goldman, writing in Life magazine, said that The Who play through "all the kinky complications" of the narrative in a hard rock style that is the antithesis of most contemporary "serious" rock. Goldman asserted that, based on innovation, performance, and "sheer power", Tommy surpasses anything else in studio-recorded rock.[55] Christgau named Tommy the best album of 1969 in his year-end list for Jazz & Pop magazine.[56]

text: According to music journalist Richie Unterberger, Tommy was hailed by contemporary critics as the Who's breakthrough, but its critical standing diminished slightly in the subsequent decades, because of its occasionally pretentious concept and flimsy songs that functioned as devices to "advance the rather sketchy plot."[47] Christgau wrote in 1983, "Tommy's operatic pretensions were so transparent that for years it seemed safe to guess that Townshend's musical ideas would never catch up with his lyrics."[57] In his review for AllMusic, Unterberger said that, despite its slight flaws, the album has "many excellent songs" permeated with "a suitably powerful grace", while Townshend's ability to devise a lengthy narrative introduced "new possibilities to rock music."[47] Uncut wrote that the album "doesn't quite realise its ambitions, though it achieves a lot on the way", and felt it was not as well developed as their later album, Quadrophenia.[52] Mark Kemp, writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), felt that "in retrospect, Tommy isn't quite the masterpiece it was originally hyped to be", suggesting The Who Sell Out was better, though because of Townshend, it produced several "bona fide classic songs".[58]

text: In 1998, the album was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for "historical, artistic and significant value".[45] In 2003, Rolling Stone magazine ranked Tommy number 96 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.[59] The album is one of several by the Who to appear in 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.[60]

text: According to music critic Martha Bayles, Tommy did not mix rock with classical music, as its "rock opera" title may have suggested, but instead was "dominated by the Who's mature style: ponderous, rhythmically monotonous hard rock".[61] Bayles argued that it was more acceptable to audiences than the art rock "concoctions" of the time because of the cultural climate during the late 1960s: "Tommy was considered more authentic, precisely because it consists of hard rock, rather than doctored-up Mussorgsky ... and avoids the typical pseudoromantic themes of art rock (fairy-tale bliss and apocalyptic angst) in favor of the more up-to-date subject of popular culture itself."[61] High Fidelity magazine also characterized the Who's album as a "reasonably hard-rock version" of the opera.[62]

text: Marsh thought the problem with the album's narrative is that there isn't enough transitional material provided by the lyrics. There are no stage directions, no cast, and narration is restricted to key phrases (such as "Tommy can you hear me?")[46] Key problems included an unclear explanation of what Tommy didn't hear or see in "1921", how or why he plays pinball, why "Smash the Mirror" leads into "I overwhelm as I approach you" (the opening line in "Sensation"), why Tommy tells his followers in "We're Not Gonna Take It" they cannot drink or smoke but can play pinball, and what the "you" is in "Listening to you, I get the music".[63]

text: Editions and cover art[edit]

text: Original edition[edit]

text: Tommy was originally released as a two-LP set with artwork designed by McInnerney, which included a booklet including lyrics and images to illustrate parts of the story. The cover is presented as part of a triptych-style fold-out cover, and the booklet contained abstract artwork that outlined the story.[1] Although the album included lyrics to all the songs, indicating individual characters, it did not outline the plot, which led to a concert programme being prepared for shows, that carried a detailed synopsis.[1]

text: Townshend thought McInnerney, a fellow follower of Baba, would be a suitable choice to do the cover. As recording was near completion, McInnerney received a number of cassettes with completed songs and a brief outline for the story, which he immediately recognised as being based on Baba's teachings.[64] He wanted to try and convey the world of a deaf, dumb and blind boy, and decided to "depict a kind of breaking out of a certain restricted plane into freedom."[65] The finished cover contained a blue and white web of clouds, a fist punching into the black void to the left of it. The inner triptych, meanwhile, showed a hand reaching out to light and a light shining in a dark void.[65] Townshend was too busy finishing the recording to properly approve the artwork, but Lambert strongly approved of it, and said it would work. The final step was for record company approval, who decided the cover was more sensible than The Who Sell Out,[65] though making one concession that pictures of the band should appear on the cover. These were added to the web on the front.[66]

text: Reissues[edit]

text: Tommy was first released on CD in 1984 as a two disc set.[67] Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab subsequently released a special single-disc edition of the album in 1990, featuring an alternate take of "Eyesight to the Blind" and a low volume extensive break on the glass in "Smash The Mirror".[68] It was also remastered by Erick Labson for single disc release in 1993.[69]

text: MCA released a newly remastered version on single disc in 1996, which had been remixed by Jon Astley. Astley was able to access the original 8 track tapes and bring out instruments that had been buried, such as the guitar in "Christmas", the French Horn in "Sparks", the cymbals in "The Acid Queen" and the organ in "We're Not Gonna Take it".[70] This release came with McInnerney's complete artwork and a written introduction by Richard Barnes.[66] For this edition, the cover was revised to remove the Who's faces, which were originally placed at the request of the record label.

text: In 2003 Tommy was made available as a deluxe two-disc hybrid Super Audio CD with a 5.1 multi-channel mix. The remastering was done under the supervision of Townshend and also includes related material not on the original album, including "Dogs-Part 2" (the B-Side to "Pinball Wizard"), "Cousin Kevin Model Child" and "Young Man Blues", plus demos for the album and other unreleased songs that were dropped from the final running order.[71]

text: In 2013, a super deluxe version of Tommy was released as a 3-CD / Blu-ray disc box set. As well as the original album, the package includes additional demos, and a live performance mostly taken from the Who's show at the Capital Theatre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada on 15 October 1969. The live disc was significant, as it debunked a long-standing myth that the tapes for the tour were burned in preference for the Leeds University show in February 1970 that made up Live at Leeds.[72]

text: Live performances[edit]

text: The Who had planned to perform Tommy live since starting the project. The group spent April 1969 rehearsing a live version of the show at the Hanwell Community Centre in Ealing including a final run down of the entire stage piece on 23 April.[40] The running order was changed, and four songs ("Cousin Kevin", "Underture", "Sensation" and "Welcome") were dropped entirely.[73] Townshend later said the group "did the whole thing from start to finish and that was when we first realized we had something cohesive and playable."[74] Daltrey's voice had improved substantially since the group's early tours, and they realised their new live act could completely change their career.[40]

text: After a few warm up gigs towards the end of April,[42] the group gave a preview concert to the press at Ronnie Scotts, London on 1 May. Realising the opera's narrative was difficult to understand, Townshend explained a synopsis of the story, before the Who played Tommy all the way through at full stage volume.[43] The next day, the group flew out to New York to start the US tour, with the first gig on 9 May at the Grande Ballroom, Detroit.[42] At the end of May, the group played four nights at the Kinetic Playground, Chicago, and they noticed the audience would all stand up at the same time, and stay standing. This indicated that live performances of Tommy had a significant positive response.[75]

text: The group continued to play large halls in the US, organised by tour promoter Frank Barsalona, and generally avoided festivals,[76] but made an important exception with the Woodstock Festival on 16 August. After spending all night arguing with Barsalona, the band agreed to perform at Woodstock for $12,500.[77] The festival ran late and the Who did not take to the stage until the early morning of 17 August. During "Pinball Wizard", Abbie Hoffman took to the stage to protest about the imprisonment of John Sinclair before being kicked offstage by Townshend, while during "See Me, Feel Me", the sun rose, almost as if on cue.[78] Two weeks later, the group played the second Isle of Wight Festival, using one of the largest live PAs available.[79] Though media attention was on Bob Dylan playing his first major live concert since 1966, the Who stole the show. Townshend later said, "We know that the stage act we had, with Tommy in it, would work under any circumstances, because it had worked many times on tour."[80]

text: Tommy remained in the Who's live set through the rest of the year and into 1970. In October 1969, The Who played six shows at the Fillmore East, where Leonard Bernstein praised them for their new music.[81] The group's show on 14 December at the Coliseum Theatre, London, was filmed for a possible future Tommy feature.[82] Lambert was keen for Tommy to be taken seriously and wanted the Who to perform at opera houses.[83] In June 1970, the group performed two shows at the Metropolitan Opera House, which was the first time Townshend announced the show as being the "last Tommy ever".[84] The group made a second trip to the Isle of Wight, appearing at the 1970 festival on 29 August, before an audience of 600,000.[73] The last live performance for 1970 was at The Roundhouse, London on 20 December. Townshend said "This is the very last time we'll play Tommy on stage", to which Moon promptly cried, "Thank Christ for that!"[85]

text: Public reaction to the Who's concerts that included Tommy was overwhelmingly positive. The touring helped keep the album in the public eye, and cleared the band's debts.[86] Several live recordings of Tommy from the Who's 1969–70 tours have been released. A complete performance is available on the 2002 Deluxe Edition of the live album Live at Leeds, recorded on 14 February 1970. The second Isle of Wight performance is available on Live at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970, released in 1996.[73] The Coliseum Theatre gig is available on the 2007 video release At Kilburn 1977 + Live at the Coliseum. Portions of the Woodstock performance of Tommy were released on the Woodstock film and later on The Kids Are Alright.[87] The complete show was recorded, but has never been officially released.[88]

text: The Who continued to play a smaller selection of Tommy live in subsequent tours throughout the 1970s.[89] They revived Tommy as a whole for its twentieth anniversary during their 1989 reunion tour, reinstating the previously overlooked "Cousin Kevin" and "Sensation" but still omitting "Underture" and "Welcome". Recordings from this tour can be found on the Join Together live album and the Tommy and Quadrophenia Live DVD. The Los Angeles version of this show featured Phil Collins as Uncle Ernie, Patti LaBelle as the Acid Queen, Steve Winwood as the Hawker, Elton John as the Pinball Wizard and Billy Idol as Cousin Kevin.[90][91]

text: Other incarnations[edit]

text: 1970 Les Grands Ballets Canadiens[edit]

text: In 1970 Ferdinand Nault of the Montreal ballet group Les Grands Ballets Canadiens created the first dance-based adaptation of Tommy.[92] The ballet performance toured New York in April 1971, which included a light show and accompanying films by the Quebec Film Bureau.[93][94]

text: 1971 Seattle Opera production[edit]

text: In 1971, the Seattle Opera under director Richard Pearlman produced the first ever fully staged professional production of Tommy at Seattle's Moore Theatre. The production included Bette Midler playing the role of the Acid Queen and Mrs. Walker, and music by the Syracuse, New York band Comstock, Ltd.[95]

text: London Symphony Orchestra version[edit]

text: On 9 December 1972, entrepreneur Lou Reizner presented a concert version of Tommy at the Rainbow Theatre, London. There were two performances that took place on the same evening. The concerts featured the Who, plus a guest cast, backed by the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by David Measham.[96] The concerts were held to promote the release of Reizner's new studio recording of this symphonic version of Tommy.[97]

text: The album and concerts featured an all-star cast, including Graham Bell (as The Lover), Maggie Bell (as The Mother), Sandy Denny (as The Nurse), Steve Winwood (as The Father), Rod Stewart (as The Local Lad), Richie Havens (as The Hawker), Merry Clayton (as The Acid Queen) and Ringo Starr (as Uncle Ernie). Townshend played some guitar, but otherwise the music was predominantly orchestral.[98] Richard Harris played the role of the specialist on the record, but he was replaced by Peter Sellers for the stage production. The stage show had a second run on 13 and 14 December 1973 with a different cast including David Essex, Elkie Brooks, Marsha Hunt, Vivian Stanshall, Roy Wood, and Jon Pertwee.[99]

text: The orchestral version was also performed twice in Australia on 31 March 1973 at Melbourne's Myer Music Bowl and on 1 April at Sydney's Randwick Racecourse. Moon appeared as Uncle Ernie (in Melbourne only), Graham Bell as the Narrator, with local stars Daryl Braithwaite (as Tommy), Billy Thorpe, Doug Parkinson, Wendy Saddington, Jim Keays, Broderick Smith, Colleen Hewett, Linda George, Ross Wilson, Bobby Bright, Ian Meldrum (as Uncle Ernie in Sydney), and a full orchestra.[100][101] The Melbourne concert was videotaped, then televised by Channel 7 on 13 April 1973.[102]

text: 1975 film[edit]

text: In 1975 Tommy was adapted as a film, produced by expatriate Australian entrepreneur Robert Stigwood and directed by British auteur Ken Russell. The movie version starred Daltrey as Tommy, and featured the other members of the Who, plus a supporting cast that included Ann-Margret as Tommy's mother, Oliver Reed as "the Lover", with appearances by Elton John, Tina Turner, Eric Clapton, Arthur Brown, and Jack Nicholson. Russell insisted on having a known cast, though Townshend wanted people who could sing the material, and was particularly disappointed at not being allowed to cast Stevie Wonder as the Pinball Wizard.[103] In several cinemas, the film supported a multi-track soundtrack billed as quintaphonic sound, which placed speaker banks in the four quadrants of the house and directly behind the centre of the screen.[104]

text: Townshend also oversaw the production of a soundtrack album, on which the unrecorded orchestral arrangements Lambert had envisaged for the original Tommy LP were realised by the extensive use of synthesizer.[105] He started work on the soundtrack album immediately after the Who's 1973 US tour in December, and worked on it almost continuously for the next four months.[103] As well as the Who, the film's music track and the original soundtrack LP also employed several session musicians including Caleb Quaye, Ronnie Wood, Nicky Hopkins, Chris Stainton, and longtime Who associate John "Rabbit" Bundrick.[106] Due to Moon's commitments with the filming of Stardust, Kenney Jones (who would take over as the Who's drummer after Moon's death in 1978) played drums on much of the soundtrack album.[107]

text: "Pinball Wizard" was a major hit when released as a single. This sequence in the film depicts Elton being backed by the Who (dressed in pound-note suits); the band portrayed the Pinball Wizard's band for filming,[108] but on the music track and soundtrack album, the music was performed entirely by him and his regular touring band.[106] Most of the extras were students at Portsmouth Polytechnic and were paid with tickets to a Who concert after filming wrapped.[109]

text: The film and its soundtrack album featured six new songs, all written by Townshend, and an alteration to the running order compared to the original album. The CD reissue of the film soundtrack also included an additional Overture.[110]

text: Broadway musical[edit]

text: In 1991, Townshend broke his wrist in a cycling accident and could not play guitar. Looking for alternative work while recuperating, he responded to a request from the PACE Theatrical Group for the rights to a Broadway musical adaptation of Tommy. The group introduced him to La Jolla Playhouse director Des McAnuff, and the pair began to develop the musical together. It opened at La Jolla in summer 1992, and was an immediate commercial success.[111] Townshend wrote a new song, "I Believe My Own Eyes", to explain the relationship between Tommy's parents, but otherwise tried to be faithful to the music on the original album.[112]

text: The musical had a mixed response from critics,[113] while Daltrey and Entwistle thought the show was too passive.[112] Anthony DeCurtis, writing in Rolling Stone, said the orchestra drummer had "the thankless task of having to reproduce Keith Moon's parts".[114] Townshend and McAnuff rewrote parts of the musical when it moved from La Jolla to Broadway, to show a darker side for the title character.[115] McAnuff won a Tony Award in 1993 for Best Director, while Wayne Cilento won the award for Best Choreographer.[116] The Broadway run lasted from 1993 to 1995.[117] McAnuff revisited Tommy during the 2013 season of the Stratford Shakespeare Festival.[118]

text: Bluegrass[edit]

text: In 2015, bluegrass band The Hillbenders released a cover of the album, arranged by Jim Rea and produced by Louis Jay Meyers. The group have informed Townshend and Daltrey in order to get official blessing.[119] The performance of the bluegrass version has been critically praised, with Rolling Stone marking the Hillbenders appearance at South by Southwest one of the "50 Best Things We Saw At SXSW 2015". Townshend met with the group after the band's May 2015 performance in Nashville.[120]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Track names and timings vary across editions; some editions have two tracks merged into one and vice versa. "See Me, Feel Me", for example, is the second half of "We're not Gonna Take It", but is its own track as a single and on the 2003 deluxe edition.[68]All tracks written by Pete Townshend, except where noted.

text: Side oneNo.TitleLead vocalsLength1."Overture"Townshend3:502."It's a Boy"Townshend2:073."1921"Townshend, Roger Daltrey on chorus3:144."Amazing Journey"Daltrey3:255."Sparks"Instrumental3:456."The Hawker" (Sonny Boy Williamson)Daltrey2:15Total length:18:36

text: Side twoNo.TitleLead vocalsLength1."Christmas"Daltrey, Townshend in middle eight5:302."Cousin Kevin" (John Entwistle)Entwistle and Townshend4:033."The Acid Queen"Townshend3:314."Underture"Instrumental9:55Total length:22:59

text: Side threeNo.TitleLead vocalsLength1."Do You Think It's Alright?"Daltrey and Townshend0:242."Fiddle About" (Entwistle)Entwistle1:263."Pinball Wizard"Daltrey, Townshend on bridge3:014."There's a Doctor"Townshend, with Daltrey and Entwistle0:255."Go to the Mirror!"Daltrey and Townshend3:506."Tommy Can You Hear Me?"Daltrey, Townshend and Entwistle1:357."Smash the Mirror"Daltrey1:208."Sensation"Townshend2:32Total length:14:33

text: Side fourNo.TitleLead vocalsLength1."Miracle Cure"Daltrey, Townshend and Entwistle0:102."Sally Simpson"Daltrey4:103."I'm Free"Daltrey2:404."Welcome"Daltrey, Townshend ("more at the door") and Entwistle (spoken part)4:305."Tommy's Holiday Camp" (Keith Moon)Townshend0:576."We're Not Gonna Take It"Daltrey, Townshend and Entwistle6:45Total length:19:12

text: Deluxe editions[edit]

text: 2003 bonus disc: Demos and outtakes

text: This is a CD/SACD hybrid disc containing 5.1 mixes of all but the last five of these tracks

text:
"I Was" – 0:17
"Christmas" (Outtake 3) – 4:43
"Cousin Kevin Model Child" – 1:25
"Young Man Blues" (Version one) (Allison) – 2:51
"Tommy Can You Hear Me?" (Alternate version) – 1:59
"Trying to Get Through" – 2:51
"Sally Simpson" (Outtake) – 4:09
"Miss Simpson" – 4:18
"Welcome" (Take two) – 3:44
"Tommy's Holiday Camp" (Band's version) – 1:07
"We're Not Gonna Take It" (Alternate version) – 6:08
"Dogs (Part Two)" (Moon) – 2:26
"It's a Boy" – 0:43
"Amazing Journey" – 3:41
"Christmas" – 1:55
"Do You Think It's Alright" – 0:28
"Pinball Wizard" – 3:46

tag: ol

text: 2013 live disc

text: All tracks are from the Capitol Theatre, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 15 October 1969,[121] except for "I'm Free", "Tommy's Holiday Camp", "We're Not Gonna Take It" and "See Me, Feel Me" which are from Swansea City Football Club, 12 June 1976.[122]

text:
"Overture" (Including Introduction) – 7:00
"It's A Boy" – 0:39
"1921" – 2:29
"Amazing Journey" – 5:07
"Sparks" – 2:49
"The Hawker (Eyesight To The Blind)" – 1:54
"Christmas" – 3:11
"The Acid Queen" – 3:30
"Pinball Wizard" – 2:47
"Do You Think It's Alright?" – 0:21
"Fiddle About" – 1:12
"Tommy, Can You Hear Me?" – 0:55
"There's A Doctor" – 0:24
"Go To The Mirror!" – 3:12
"Smash The Mirror" – 1:10
"Miracle Cure" – 0:12
"Sally Simpson" – 4:01
"I'm Free" – 2:12
"Tommy's Holiday Camp" – 0:48
"We're Not Gonna Take It" – 3:28
"See Me, Feel Me" – 7:51

text: Personnel[edit]

text: The Who

text:
Roger Daltrey – vocals, harmonica
Pete Townshend – vocals, guitar, keyboards, banjo
John Entwistle – bass, french horn, vocals
Keith Moon – drums

tag: ul

text: Charts[edit]

text: Album

text:
Year

Chart

Peakposition

1969

Billboard Pop Albums

4[123]

1969

Cash Box Album Charts

5

1969

Record World Album Charts

1

1969

UK Chart Albums

2[41]

1975

UK Chart Albums

37[124]

text: Singles

text:
Year

Single

Chart

Peakposition

1969

"Pinball Wizard"

Billboard Pop Singles

19[125]

1969

"Pinball Wizard"

UK Singles Charts

4[42]

1969

"Pinball Wizard"

Dutch Singles Charts

12[126]

1969

"I'm Free"

Billboard Pop Singles

37[125]

1969

"I'm Free"

Dutch Singles Charts

20[127]

1970

"See Me, Feel Me"

Billboard Pop Singles

12[128]

1970

"See Me, Feel Me"

Dutch Singles Charts

2[129]

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region

Certification
Certified units/Sales

France (SNEP)[130]

Gold

174,300[131]

Italy (FIMI)[132]

Gold

50,000*

United Kingdom (BPI)[133]Awarded to the soundtrack to the film too

Gold

100,000^

United States (RIAA)[134]

2× Platinum

2,000,000^

*sales figures based on certification alone^shipments figures based on certification alone