document_title: Home run

question_text: who hit the longest recorded homerun in mlb history

question_tokens: who hit the longest recorded homerun in mlb history

text: Home run

text: Types of home runs[edit]

text: Out of the park[edit]

text: In modern times a home run is most often scored when the ball is hit over the outfield wall between the foul poles (in fair territory) before it touches the ground (in flight), and without being caught or deflected back onto the field by a fielder. A batted ball is also a home run if it touches either foul pole or its attached screen before touching the ground, as the foul poles are by definition in fair territory. Additionally, many major-league ballparks have ground rules stating that a batted ball in flight that strikes a specified location or fixed object is a home run; this usually applies to objects that are beyond the outfield wall but are located such that it may be difficult for an umpire to judge.

text: A batted ball that goes over the outfield wall after touching the ground is not a home run, but an automatic double for the batter (often colloquially called a "ground rule double").

text: A fielder is allowed to reach over the wall to attempt to catch the ball as long as his feet are on or over the field during the attempt, and if the fielder successfully catches the ball while it is in flight the batter is out, even if the ball had already passed the vertical plane of the wall. However, since the fielder is not part of the field, a ball that bounces off a fielder (including his glove) and over the wall without touching the ground is still a home run. A fielder may not deliberately throw his glove, cap, or any other equipment or apparel to stop or deflect a fair ball, and an umpire may award a home run to the batter if a fielder does so on a ball that, in the umpire's judgment, would have otherwise been a home run (this is rare in modern professional baseball).[3]

text: A home run accomplished in any of the above manners is an automatic home run. The ball is dead, even if it rebounds back onto the field (e.g., from striking a foul pole), and the batter and any preceding runners cannot be put out at any time while running the bases. However, if one or more runners fail to touch a base or one runner passes another before reaching home plate, that runner or runners can be called out on appeal, though in the case of not touching a base a runner can go back and touch it if doing so won't cause them to be passed by another preceding runner and they have not yet touched the next base (or home plate in the case of missing third base). This stipulation is in Approved Ruling (2) of Rule 7.10(b).[3]

text: Inside-the-park home run[edit]

text: An inside-the-park home run occurs when a batter hits the ball into play and is able to circle the bases before the fielders can put him out. Unlike with an outside-the-park home run, the batter-runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases. This can only happen if the ball does not leave the ballfield.

text: In the early days of baseball, outfields were relatively much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the-fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside-the-park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down.

text: Modern outfields are much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game's early days, therefore inside-the-park home runs are now a rarity. They usually occur when a fast runner hits the ball deep into the outfield and the ball bounces in an unexpected direction away from the nearest outfielder (e.g., off a divot in the grass or off the outfield wall), or an outfielder misjudges the flight of the ball in a way that he cannot quickly recover from the mistake (e.g., by diving and missing). The speed of the runner is crucial as even triples are relatively rare in most modern ballparks.

text: If any defensive play on an inside-the-park home run is labeled an error by the official scorer, a home run is not scored; instead, it is scored as a single, double, or triple, and the batter-runner and any applicable preceding runners are said to have taken all additional bases on error. All runs scored on such a play, however, still count.

text: An example of an unexpected bounce occurred during the 2007 Major League Baseball All-Star Game at AT&T Park in San Francisco on July 10, 2007. Ichiro Suzuki of the American League team hit a fly ball that caromed off the right-center field wall in the opposite direction from where National League right fielder Ken Griffey, Jr. was expecting it to go. By the time the ball was relayed, Ichiro had already crossed the plate standing up. This was the first inside-the-park home run in All-Star Game history, and led to Suzuki being named the game's Most Valuable Player.

text: Number of runs batted in[edit]

text: Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time. A home run hit with the bases empty is seldom called a "one-run homer", but rather a solo home run, solo homer, or "solo shot". With one runner on base, two runs are scored (the baserunner and the batter) and thus the home run is often called a two-run homer or two-run shot. Similarly, a home runs with two runners on base is a three-run homer or three-run shot.

text: The term "four-run homer" is seldom used; instead, it is nearly always called a "grand slam". Hitting a grand slam is the best possible result for the batter's turn at bat and the worst possible result for the pitcher and his team.

text: Grand slam[edit]

text: A grand slam occurs when the bases are "loaded" (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. According to The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, the term originated in the card game of contract bridge. An inside-the-park grand slam is a grand slam that is also an inside-the-park home run, a home run without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside-the-park home runs.

text: On July 25, 1956, Roberto Clemente became the only MLB player to have ever scored a walk-off inside-the-park grand slam in a 9–8 Pittsburgh Pirates win over the Chicago Cubs, at Forbes Field.

text: On April 23, 1999, Fernando Tatís made history by hitting two grand slams in one inning, both against Chan Ho Park of the Los Angeles Dodgers. With this feat, Tatís also set a Major League record with 8 RBI in one inning.

text: On July 29, 2003 against the Texas Rangers, Bill Mueller of the Boston Red Sox became the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in one game from opposite sides of the plate. In fact, he hit three home runs in that game, and his two grand slams were in consecutive at-bats.

text: On August 25, 2011 the New York Yankees became the first team to hit three grand slams in one game vs the Oakland A's. The Yankees eventually went on to win the game 22–9, after trailing 7–1.

text: Specific situation home runs[edit]

text: These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside-the-park or inside-the-park home run.

text: Walk-off home run[edit]

text: A walk-off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game. The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley,[4] so named because after the run is scored, the losing team has to "walk off" the field.

text: Two World Series have ended via the "walk-off" home run. The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a 9th inning solo home run in the 7th game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship. The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a 9th inning 3-run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series, to help the Toronto Blue Jays capture their second World Series Championship in a row.

text: Such a home run can also be called a "sudden death" or "sudden victory" home run. That usage has lessened as "walk-off home run" has gained favor. Along with Mazeroski's 1960 shot, the most famous walk-off or sudden-death homer would probably be the "Shot Heard 'Round the World" hit by Bobby Thomson to win the 1951 National League pennant for the New York Giants, along with many other game-ending home runs that famously ended some of the most important and suspenseful baseball games.

text: A walk-off home run over the fence is an exception to baseball's one-run rule. Normally if the home team is tied or behind in the ninth or extra innings the game ends as soon as the home team scores enough runs to achieve a lead. If the home team has two outs in the inning, and the game is tied, the game will officially end either the moment the batter successfully reaches 1st base or the moment the runner touches home plate—whichever happens last. However, this is superseded by the "ground rule", which provides automatic doubles (when a ball-in-play hits the ground first then leaves the playing field) and home runs (when a ball-in-play leaves the playing field without ever touching the ground). In the latter case, all base runners including the batter are allowed to cross the plate.

text: Lead-off home run[edit]

text:
A lead-off home run is a home run hit by the first batter of a team, the leadoff hitter of the first inning of the game. In MLB, Rickey Henderson holds the record with 81 lead-off home runs.[5]
[6] Craig Biggio holds the National League record with 53, third overall to Henderson, and Soriano with 54.[7]

text: In 1996, Brady Anderson set a Major League record by hitting a lead-off home run in four consecutive games.

text: Back-to-back[edit]

text:
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text: When two consecutive batters each hit a home run, this is described as back-to-back home runs. It is still considered back-to-back even if both batters hit their home runs off different pitchers. A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back-to-back-to-back.

text: Four home runs in a row by consecutive batters has only occurred nine times in the history of Major League Baseball. Following convention, this is called back-to-back-to-back-to-back. The most recent occurrence was on July 27, 2017, when the Washington Nationals hit four in a row against the Milwaukee Brewers in Nationals Park as Brian Goodwin, Wilmer Difo, Bryce Harper and Ryan Zimmerman homered off pitcher Michael Blazek. Blazek became the fourth pitcher to surrender back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs, following Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, Chase Wright on April 22, 2007, and Dave Bush.

text: On August 14, 2008, the Chicago White Sox defeated the Kansas City Royals 9-2. In this game, Jim Thome, Paul Konerko, Alexei Ramírez, and Juan Uribe hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs in that order. Thome, Konerko, and Ramirez blasted their homers off of Joel Peralta, while Uribe did it off of Rob Tejeda. The next batter, veteran backstop Toby Hall, tried aimlessly to hit the ball as far as possible, but his effort resulted in a strike out.

text: On April 22, 2007 the Boston Red Sox were trailing the New York Yankees 3–0 when Manny Ramirez, J. D. Drew, Mike Lowell and Jason Varitek hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs to put them up 4–3. They eventually went on to win the game 7–6 after a three-run home run by Mike Lowell in the bottom of the 7th inning. On September 18, 2006 trailing 9–5 to the San Diego Padres in the 9th inning, Jeff Kent, J. D. Drew, Russell Martin, and Marlon Anderson of the Los Angeles Dodgers hit back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs to tie the game. After giving up a run in the top of the 10th, the Dodgers won the game in the bottom of the 10th, on a walk-off two run home run by Nomar Garciaparra. J. D. Drew has been part of two different sets of back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs. In both occurrences, his homer was the second of the four.

text: On September 30, 1997, in the sixth inning of Game One of the American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians, Tim Raines, Derek Jeter and Paul O'Neill hit back-to-back-to-back home runs for the Yankees. Raines' home run tied the game. New York went on to win 8–6. This was the first occurrence of three home runs in a row ever in postseason play. The Boston Red Sox repeated the feat in Game Four of the 2007 American League Championship Series, also against the Indians.

text: Twice in MLB history have two brothers hit back-to-back home runs. On April 23, 2013, brothers Melvin Upton, Jr. (formerly B.J. Upton) and Justin Upton hit back-to-back home runs.[8] The first time was on September 15, 1938, when Lloyd Waner and Paul Waner performed the feat.[9]

text: Simple back-to-back home runs are a relatively frequent occurrence. If a pitcher gives up a homer, he might have his concentration broken and might alter his normal approach in an attempt to "make up for it" by striking out the next batter with some fastballs. Sometimes the next batter will be expecting that and will capitalize on it. A notable back-to-back home run of that type in World Series play involved "Babe Ruth's called shot" in 1932, which was accompanied by various Ruthian theatrics, yet the pitcher, Charlie Root, was allowed to stay in the game. He delivered just one more pitch, which Lou Gehrig drilled out of the park for a back-to-back shot, after which Root was removed from the game.

text: In Game 3 of the 1976 NLCS, George Foster and Johnny Bench hit back-to-back homers in the last of the ninth off Ron Reed to tie the game. The Series-winning run was scored later in the inning.

text: Another notable pair of back-to-back home runs occurred on September 14, 1990, when Ken Griffey, Sr. and Ken Griffey, Jr. hit back-to-back home runs, off Kirk McCaskill, the only father-and-son duo to do so in Major League history.

text: On May 2, 2002, Bret Boone and Mike Cameron of the Seattle Mariners hit back-to-back home runs off of starter Jon Rauch in the first inning of a game against the Chicago White Sox. The Mariners batted around in the inning, and Boone and Cameron came up to bat against reliever Jim Parque with two outs, again hitting back-to-back home runs and becoming the only pair of teammates to hit back-to-back home runs twice in the same inning.[10]

text: On June 19, 2012, José Bautista and Colby Rasmus hit back-to-back home runs and back-to-back-to-back home runs with Edwin Encarnación for a lead change in each instance.[clarification needed]

text: On July 23, 2017 Whit Merrifield, Jorge Bonifacio, and Eric Hosmer of the Kansas City Royals hit back to back to back home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox. The Royals went on to win the game 5-4.

text: On June 20, 2018 George Springer, Alex Bregman, and José Altuve of the Houston Astros hit back to back to back home runs in the sixth inning against the Tampa Bay Rays. The Astros went on to win the game 5-1.

text: Consecutive home runs by one batter[edit]

text: The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is 4. Of the sixteen players (through 2012) who have hit 4 in one game, six have hit them consecutively. Twenty-eight other batters have hit four consecutive across two games.

text: Bases on balls do not count as at-bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, 4 in four games played, during September 17–22, 1957, for the Red Sox.[11] Williams hit a pinch-hit homer on the 17th; walked as a pinch-hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch-homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch-runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd. All in all, he had 4 walks interspersed among his 4 homers.

text: In World Series play, Reggie Jackson hit a record three in one Series game, the final game (Game 6) in 1977. But those three were a part of a much more impressive feat. He walked on four pitches in the second inning of game 6. Then he hit his three home runs on the first pitch of his next three at bats, off of three different pitchers (4th inning- Hooten, 5th inning- Sosa, 8th inning- Hough). He had also hit one in his last at bat of the previous game, giving him four home runs on four consecutive swings. (His home run in game 5 was also hit on the first pitch, although this did not add to any significant streak.) The four in a row set the record for consecutive homers across two Series games.

text: In Game 3 of the World Series in 2011, Albert Pujols hit three home runs to tie the record with Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson. The St. Louis Cardinals went on to win the World Series in Game 7 at Busch Stadium.  In Game 1 of the World Series in 2012, Pablo Sandoval of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs on his first three at-bats of the Series, also tying the record with Pujols, Jackson, and Ruth.

text: Nomar Garciaparra holds the record for consecutive home runs in the shortest time in terms of innings: 3 homers in 2 innings, on July 23, 2002, for the Boston Red Sox.

text: Home run cycle[edit]

text: An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a "home run cycle" is where a player hits a solo, 2-run, 3-run, and grand slam all in one game. This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter to not only hit four home runs in a game (which itself has only occurred 18 times in the Major Leagues[12]), but also to hit those home runs with the specific number of runners already on base. Although it is a rare accomplishment, it is largely dependent on circumstances outside the player's control, such as his preceding teammates' ability to get on base, as well as the order in which he comes to bat in any particular inning.

text: Another variant of the home run cycle would be the "natural home run cycle", which would require a batter to hit a solo, 2-run, 3-run, and grand slam in that order.

text: Though multiple home run cycles have been recorded in collegiate baseball,[13][14] the only home run cycle in a professional baseball game belongs to Tyrone Horne, who stroked four long balls for the minor league, Double-A Arkansas Travelers in a game against the San Antonio Missions on July 27, 1998.[15]

text: A major league player has come close to hitting for the home run cycle several times. Recent examples include:

text:
April 2, 1997, Tino Martinez of the New York Yankees, was a grand slam away from accomplishing this feat against his former team, the Seattle Mariners. He hit a 3-run home run in the first inning, a 2-run home run in the third inning and a solo shot in the fifth inning; all off starting pitcher Scott Sanders.[16]
April 26, 2005 Alex Rodriguez of the New York Yankees hit 3 home runs off Los Angeles Angels pitcher Bartolo Colón. Rodriguez hit a 3-run home run, 2-run home run, and a grand slam in the first, third, and fourth innings, respectively.[17]
May 16, 2008 Jayson Werth of the Philadelphia Phillies hit 3 home runs off Toronto Blue Jays pitchers David Purcey and Jesse Litsch. Werth hit a 3-run home run, a grand slam, and a solo home run in the second, third, and fifth innings, respectively.[18]
June 26, 2009, Andre Ethier of Los Angeles Dodgers hit a three-run home run off Jason Vargas in the second, a two-run home run off Roy Corcoran in the sixth, and a solo home run off Miguel Batista in the eighth inning in a game against Seattle Mariners.[19]
July 7, 2009, Paul Konerko of the Chicago White Sox hit a solo home run in the second inning off Cleveland Indians pitcher Jeremy Sowers, a grand slam in the sixth inning off reliever Chris Perez, and a two-run home run in the seventh inning off reliever Winston Abreu.[20]
August 1, 2009, Andrew McCutchen of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a solo home run in the first inning, a two run home run in the fourth inning, and a three run home run in the sixth inning of a game against the Washington Nationals.[21]
September 17, 2010, Shin-Soo Choo of the Cleveland Indians, hit three home runs against the Kansas City Royals. Choo hit a 2-run homer in the fourth inning, a Grand Slam in the sixth inning and a solo home run in the eighth inning.[22]
June 21, 2015, J.D. Martinez of the Detroit Tigers, hit three home runs against the New York Yankees. Martinez hit a 2-run homer in the first inning, a solo home run in the fifth inning and a 3-run homer in the sixth inning[23]
August 21, 2015, Yoenis Céspedes of the New York Mets, hit three home runs against the Colorado Rockies: a grand slam in the second inning, a solo home run in the fourth inning, and a two-run home run in the sixth inning.[24]
August 29, 2015, Edwin Encarnación of the Toronto Blue Jays hit three home runs against the Detroit Tigers: a 3-run home run in the first inning, a 2-run home run in the sixth inning, and a grand slam in the seventh inning.[25]
September 26, 2015, Jarrett Parker of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs against the Oakland Athletics: a solo home run in the second inning, a 2-run home run in the seventh inning, and a grand slam in the eighth inning.[26]
June 6, 2017, Scooter Gennett of the Cincinnati Reds hit four home runs against the St. Louis Cardinals: a grand slam in the third inning, a 2-run home run in the fourth inning, a solo home run in the sixth inning, and a 2-run home run in the eighth inning. He had an opportunity for a 3-run home run in the 1st inning, which resulted in a RBI single.[27]

text: History[edit]

text: In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety. The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876. The home "run" was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out. This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out. The emphasis was on place-hitting and what is now called "manufacturing runs" or "small ball".

text: The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live-ball era began after World War I. First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the now-mass-produced, cork-centered ball somewhat more lively. Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty. These changes resulted in the baseball being easier to see and hit, and easier to hit out of the park. Meanwhile, as the game's popularity boomed, more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run. The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the "inside game" to the "power game" in order to keep up.

text: Before 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls that reached the seats on a bounce became ground rule doubles in most parks. A carryover of the old rule is that if a player deflects a ball over the outfield fence without it touching the ground, it is a home run.

text: Also, until approximately that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence in fair territory, but to land in the bleachers in fair territory or to still be visibly fair when disappearing behind a wall. The rule stipulated "fair when last seen" by the umpires. Photos from that era in ballparks, such as the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, or a second "foul pole" at the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpire. Ballparks still use a visual aid much like the ropes; a net or screen attached to the foul poles on the fair side has replaced ropes. As with American football, where a touchdown once required a literal "touch down" of the ball in the end zone but now only requires the "breaking of the [vertical] plane" of the goal line, in baseball the ball need only "break the plane" of the fence in fair territory (unless the ball is caught by a player who is in play, in which case the batter is called out).

text: Babe Ruth's 60th home run in 1927 was somewhat controversial, because it landed barely in fair territory in the stands down the right field line. Ruth lost a number of home runs in his career due to the when-last-seen rule. Bill Jenkinson, in The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs, estimates that Ruth lost at least 50 and as many as 78 in his career due to this rule.

text: Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the-fence home run in a sudden-victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to "force" the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by two runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game-winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career.

text: Records[edit]

text: Major League Baseball keeps running totals of all-time home runs by team, including teams no longer active (prior to 1900) as well as by individual players. Gary Sheffield hit the 250,000th home run in MLB history with a grand slam on September 8, 2008.[28] Sheffield had hit MLB's 249,999th home run against Gio González in his previous at-bat.

text: The all-time, verified professional baseball record for career home runs for one player, excluding the U. S. Negro Leagues during the era of segregation, is held by Sadaharu Oh. Oh spent his entire career playing for the Yomiuri Giants in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball, later managing the Giants, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese team. Oh holds the all-time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career.

text: In Major League Baseball, the career record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park off pitcher Mike Bacsik.[29] Only eight other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714),[29] Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630),[29] Albert Pujols (630)[29] and Jim Thome (612), Sammy Sosa (609).

text: The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001.[29]  Other notable single season records were achieved by Babe Ruth who hit 60 in 1927, Roger Maris, with 61 home runs in 1961, and Mark McGwire, who hit 70 in 1998.[29]

text: Negro League slugger Josh Gibson's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit "almost 800" home runs in his career. The Guinness Book of World Records lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800. Ken Burns' award-winning series, Baseball, states that his actual total may have been as high as 950. Gibson's true total is not known, in part due to inconsistent record keeping in the Negro Leagues. The 1993 edition of the MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia attempted to compile a set of Negro League records, and subsequent work has expanded on that effort. Those records demonstrate that Gibson and Ruth were of comparable power. The 1993 book had Gibson hitting 146 home runs in the 501 "official" Negro League games they were able to account for in his 17-year career, about 1 homer every 3.4 games. Babe Ruth, in 22 seasons (several of them in the dead-ball era), hit 714 in 2503 games, or 1 homer every 3.5 games. The large gap in the numbers for Gibson reflect the fact that Negro League clubs played relatively far fewer league games and many more "barnstorming" or exhibition games during the course of a season, than did the major league clubs of that era.

text: Other legendary home run hitters include Jimmie Foxx, Mel Ott, Ted Williams, Mickey Mantle (who on September 10, 1960, mythically hit "the longest home run ever" at an estimated distance of 643 feet (196 m), although this was measured after the ball stopped rolling[30]), Reggie Jackson, Harmon Killebrew, Ernie Banks, Mike Schmidt, Dave Kingman, Sammy Sosa[29] (who hit 60 or more home runs in a season 3 times), Ken Griffey, Jr. and Eddie Mathews.   In 1987, Joey Meyer of the Denver Zephyrs hit the longest verifiable home run in professional baseball history.[31][32]  The home run was measured at a distance of 582 feet (177 m) and was hit inside Denver's Mile High Stadium.[31][32]  Major League Baseball's longest verifiable home run distance is about 575 feet (175 m), by Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and before the double-deck), which landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry.[citation needed]

text: The location of where Hank Aaron's record 755th home run landed has been monumented in Milwaukee.[33] The spot sits outside Miller Park, where the Milwaukee Brewers currently play. Similarly, the point where Aaron's 715th homer landed, upon breaking Ruth's career record in 1974, is marked in the Turner Field parking lot. A red-painted seat in Fenway Park marks the landing place of the 502-ft home run Ted Williams hit in 1946, the longest measured homer in Fenway's history; a red stadium seat mounted on the wall of the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, marks the landing spot of Harmon Killebrew's record 520-foot shot in old Metropolitan Stadium.

text: Instant replay[edit]

text: Replays "to get the call right" have been used extremely sporadically in the past, but the use of instant replay to determine "boundary calls"—home runs and foul balls—was not officially allowed until 2008.

text: In a game on May 31, 1999, involving the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins, a hit by Cliff Floyd of the Marlins was initially ruled a double, then a home run, then was changed back to a double when umpire Frank Pulli decided to review video of the play. The Marlins protested that video replay was not allowed, but while the National League office agreed that replay was not to be used in future games, it declined the protest on the grounds it was a judgment call, and the play stood.[34][35]

text: In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls.[36] The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary/home run call is:

text:
A fair (home run) or foul ball
A live ball (ball hit fence and rebounded onto the field), ground rule double (ball hit fence before leaving the field), or home run (ball hit some object beyond the fence while in flight)
Spectator interference or home run (spectator touched ball after it broke the plane of the fence).

text: On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal. It was first utilized on September 3, 2008 in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field.[37] Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a catwalk behind the foul pole. It was at first called a home run, until Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon argued the call, and the umpires decided to review the play. After 2 minutes and 15 seconds, the umpires came back and ruled it a home run.

text: About two weeks later, on September 19, also at Tropicana Field, a boundary call was overturned for the first time. In this case, Carlos Peña of the Rays was given a ground rule double in a game against the Minnesota Twins after an umpire believed a fan reached into the field of play to catch a fly ball in right field. The umpires reviewed the play, determined the fan did not reach over the fence, and reversed the call, awarding Peña a home run.

text: Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, replay was used four more times in the 2008 MLB regular season: twice at Houston, once at Seattle, and once at San Francisco. The San Francisco incident is perhaps the most unusual. Bengie Molina, the Giants' catcher, hit what was first called a single. Molina then was replaced in the game by Emmanuel Burriss, a pinch-runner, before the umpires re-evaluated the call and ruled it a home run. In this instance though, Molina was not allowed to return to the game to complete the run, as he had already been replaced. Molina was credited with the home run, and two RBIs, but not for the run scored which went to Burriss instead.

text: On October 31, 2009, in the fourth inning of Game 3 of the World Series, Alex Rodriguez hit a long fly ball that appeared to hit a camera protruding over the wall and into the field of play in deep left field.  The ball ricocheted off the camera and re-entered the field, initially ruled a double.  However, after the umpires consulted with each other after watching the instant replay, the hit was ruled a home run, marking the first time an instant replay home run was hit in a playoff game.[38]


document_title: Project Longshot

question_text: how long would it take to get to alpha centauri with current technology

root

text: Project Longshot

text: History[edit]

text: Developed by the US Naval Academy and NASA, from 1987 to 1988, Longshot was designed to be built at Space Station Freedom, the precursor to the existing International Space Station. Similar to Project Daedalus, Longshot was designed with existing technology in mind, although some development would have been required. For example, the Project Longshot concept assumes "a three-order-of-magnitude leap over current propulsion technology".[1]

tag: p

text: Mission[edit]

text: Unlike Daedalus, which used an open-cycle fusion engine, Longshot would use a long-lived nuclear fission reactor for power. Initially generating 300 kilowatts, the reactor would power a number of lasers in the engine that would be used to ignite inertial confinement fusion similar to that in Daedalus. The main design difference is that Daedalus also relied on the fusion reaction to power the ship, whereas in the Longshot design the internal reactor would provide this power.[1]

text: The reactor would also be used to power a laser for communications back to Earth, with a maximum power of 250 kW. For most of the journey, this would be used at a much lower power for sending data about the interstellar medium; but during the flyby, the main engine section would be discarded and the entire power capacity dedicated to communications at about 1 kilobit per second.

text: Longshot would have a mass of 396 tonnes (873,000 lb) at the start of the mission including 264 tonnes of helium-3/deuterium pellet fuel/propellant. The active mission payload, which includes the fission reactor but not the discarded main propulsion section, would have a mass of around 30 tonnes.

text: A difference in the mission architecture between Longshot and the Daedalus study is that Longshot would go into orbit about the target star while the higher speed Daedalus would do a one shot fly-by lasting a comparatively short time.

text: The journey to Alpha Centauri B orbit would take about 100 years, at an average velocity of approximately 13411 km/s (about 4.5% the speed of light) and another 4.39 years would be necessary for the data to reach Earth.

text: According to the Journal article "Alpha Centauri: Our First target for Interstellar Probes," after the completion of the New Horizons primary mission of Pluto Fly-By, we should set our sights at other star systems like Alpha Centauri. This would be a good target because of its proximity to Earth.[2]


document_title: Salivary gland

question_text: where is the salivary gland located in humans

text: Salivary gland

text: Structure[edit]

text: The salivary glands are detailed below:

text: Parotid glands[edit]

text: The two parotid glands are major salivary glands wrapped around the mandibular ramus in humans.[5] These are largest of the salivary glands, secreting saliva to facilitate mastication and swallowing, and amylase to begin the digestion of starches.[6] It is the serous type of gland which secretes alpha-amylase (also known as ptyalin).[7] It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct. The glands are located posterior to the mandibular ramus and anterior to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. They are clinically relevant in dissections of facial nerve branches while exposing the different lobes, since any iatrogenic lesion will result in either loss of action or strength of muscles involved in facial expression.[7] They produce 20% of the total salivary content in the oral cavity.[6] Mumps is a viral infection, caused by infection in the parotid gland.[8]

text: Submandibular glands[edit]

text: The submandibular glands (previously known as submaxillary glands) are a pair of major salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws, superior to the digastric muscles.[5] The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral cavity via the submandibular duct or Wharton duct.[6] Approximately 65-70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, even though they are much smaller than the parotid glands.[6] This gland can usually be felt via palpation of the neck, as it is in the superficial cervical region and feels like a rounded ball. It is located about two fingers above the Adam's apple (laryngeal prominence) and about two inches apart under the chin.

text: Sublingual glands[edit]

text: The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior to the submandibular glands.[5] The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature; however, it is categorized as a mixed gland.[7] Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands does not have intercalated ducts and usually does not have striated ducts either, so saliva exits directly from 8-20 excretory ducts known as the Rivinus ducts.[7] Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity comes from these glands.[6]

text: Minor salivary glands[edit]

text: There are 800 to 1,000 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within the submucosa[9] of the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal, labial, and lingual mucosa, the soft palate, the lateral parts of the hard palate, and the floor of the mouth or between muscle fibers of the tongue.[10] They are 1 to 2 mm in diameter and unlike the major glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue, only surrounded by it. The gland has usually a number of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are sometimes associated with minor salivary glands if there is dry mouth present (see further discussion).[9] The minor salivary glands are innervated by the seventh cranial or facial nerve.[10]

text: Von Ebner's glands[edit]

text:
Von Ebner's glands are glands found in a trough circling the circumvallate papillae on the dorsal surface of the tongue near the terminal sulcus.  They secrete a purely serous fluid that begins lipid hydrolysis. They also facilitate the perception of taste through secretion of digestive enzymes and proteins.[9]
The arrangement of these glands around the circumvallate papillae provides a continuous flow of fluid over the great number of taste buds lining the sides of the papillae, and is important for dissolving the food particles to be tasted.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system. Parasympathetic stimulation evokes a copious flow of saliva. In contrast, sympathetic stimulation produces either a small flow, which is rich in protein, or no flow at all.[11]

text:
Parasympathetic innervation to the salivary glands is carried via cranial nerves. The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via the otic ganglion,[12] while the submandibular and sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input from the facial nerve (CN VII) via the submandibular ganglion.[13] These nerves release acetylcholine and substance P, which activate the IP3 and DAG pathways respectively.
Direct sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands takes place via preganglionic nerves in the thoracic segments T1-T3 which synapse in the superior cervical ganglion with postganglionic neurons that release norepinephrine, which is then received by β-adrenergic receptors on the acinar and ductal cells of the salivary glands, leading to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and the corresponding increase of saliva secretion. Note that in this regard both parasympathetic and sympathetic stimuli result in an increase in salivary gland secretions.[14] The sympathetic nervous system also affects salivary gland secretions indirectly by innervating the blood vessels that supply the glands.

tag: ul

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: The gland is internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.

text: Acini[edit]

text: Secretory cells are found in a group, or acinus (plural, acini). Each acinus is located at the terminal part of the gland connected to the ductal system, with many acini within each lobule of the gland. Each acinus consists of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a lumen, a central opening where the saliva is deposited after being produced by the secretory cells. The three forms of acini are classified in terms of the type of epithelial cell present and the secretory product being produced: serous, mucoserous and mucous.[15]

text: Ducts[edit]

text: In the duct system, the lumina are formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or secretory ducts). These are found on most major and minor glands (exception may be the sublingual gland).[15]

text: All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present, however saliva also contains enzymes that are actually activated by stomach acid.

text: Gene and protein expression[edit]

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 60% of these genes are expressed in normal, adult salivary glands.[16][17] Less than 100 genes are more specifically expressed in the salivary gland. The salivary gland specific genes are mainly genes that encode for secreted proteins and compared to other organs in the human body; the salivary gland has the highest fraction of secreted genes. The heterogeneous family of proline-rich, human salivary glycoproteins, such as PRB1 and PRH1, are salivary gland specific proteins with highest level of expression. Examples of other specifically expressed proteins include the digestive amylase enzyme AMY1A, the mucin MUC7 and statherin, all of major importance for specific characteristics of saliva.

text: Development[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)

tag: table

text: Aging[edit]

text: Aging of salivary glands show some structural changes, such as:[18][19][19]

text:
Decrease in volume of acinar tissue
Increase in fibrous tissue
Increase in adipose tissue
Ductal hyperplasia and dilation[18]

text: In addition, there are also changes in salivary contents:

text:
Decrease in concentration of secretory IgA[18]
Decrease in the amount of mucin

text: However, there is no overall change in the amount of saliva secreted.

text: Function[edit]

text: Salivary glands secrete saliva which has many benefits for the oral cavity and health in general. These benefits include:

text: Protection

text: Saliva consists of proteins (for example; mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy visco-elastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.[20]

text: Buffering

text: In general, the higher the saliva flow rate, the faster the clearance and the higher the buffer capacity, hence better protection from dental caries. Therefore, people with a slower rate of saliva secretion, combined with a low buffer capacity, have lessened salivary protection against microbes.[21]

text: Pellicle formation

text:
Saliva forms a pellicle on the surface of the tooth to prevent wearing. The film contains mucins and proline-rich glycoprotein from the saliva.
The proteins (statherin and proline-rich proteins) within the salivary pellicle inhibit demineralisation and promote remineralisation by attracting calcium ions.[22]

text: Maintenance of tooth integrity

text: Demineralization occurs when enamel disintegrates due to the presence of acid. When this occurs, the buffering capacity effect of saliva (increases saliva flow rate) inhibits demineralisation. Saliva can then begin to promote the remineralisation of the tooth by strengthening the enamel with calcium and phosphate minerals.[23]

text: Antimicrobial action

text: Saliva can prevent microbial growth based on the elements it contains. For example, lactoferrin in saliva binds naturally with iron. Since iron is a major component of bacterial cell walls, removal of iron breaks down the cell wall, which in turn breaks down the bacteria. Antimicrobial peptides such as histatins inhibit the growth of Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans. Salivary Immunoglobulin A serves to aggregate oral bacteria such as S. mutans and prevent the formation of dental plaque.[24]

text: Tissue repair

text: Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound contraction.[25]

text: Digestion

text: Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, which hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrin. As a result, saliva allows digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomach.[26]

text: Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.[28]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: A sialolithiasis (a salivary calculus or stone) may cause blockage of the ducts, most commonly the submandibular ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland.[29]

text: Salivary gland dysfunction refers to either xerostomia (the symptom of dry mouth) or salivary gland hypofunction (reduced production of saliva); it is associated with significant impairment of quality of life.[30] Following radiotherapy of the head and neck region, salivary gland dysfunction is a predictable side-effect.[30] Saliva production may be pharmacologically stimulated by sialagogues such as pilocarpine and cevimeline.[31] It can also be suppressed by so-called antisialagogues such as tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, antihypertensives, and polypharmacy.[32] A Cochrane review found there was no strong evidence that topical therapies are effective in relieving the symptoms of dry mouth.[33]

text: Cancer treatments including chemotherapy and radiation therapy may impair salivary flow.[34][35] Radiotherapy can cause permanent hyposalivation due to injury to the oral mucosa containing the salivary glands, resulting in xerostomia, whereas chemotherapy may cause only temporary salivary impairment.[34][35]

text: Graft versus host disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation may manifest as dry mouth and many small mucoceles.[36] Salivary gland tumours may occur, including mucoepidermoid carcinoma, a malignant growth.[37]

text: Clinical tests/investigations[edit]

text: A sialogram is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct that may be used to investigate its function and for diagnosing Sjögren syndrome.[38]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The salivary glands of some species are modified to produce proteins - salivary amylase is found in many, but by no means all, bird and mammal species (including humans, as noted above). Furthermore, the venom glands of venomous snakes (colloquially called poisonous snakes), Gila monsters, and some shrews, are actually modified salivary glands.[32] In other organisms such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins like silk or glues, whilst fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.[39]


document_title: Waterloo Creek massacre

question_text: where did the waterloo creek massacre take place

text: Waterloo Creek massacre

text: The events[edit]

text: A Sydney mounted police detachment was dispatched by acting Lieutenant Governor of New South Wales Colonel Kenneth Snodgrass, to track down the Namoi, Weraerai and Kamilaroi people who had killed five stockmen in separate incidents on recently established pastoral runs on the upper Gwydir River area of New South Wales.[2] After two months the mounted police, consisting of two sergeants and twenty troopers led by Major James Nunn, arrested 15 Aborigines along the Namoi River. They released all but two, one of whom was shot whilst attempting to escape.[3] The main body of Kamilaroi eluded the troopers, thus Major Nunn’s party along with two stockmen pursued the Kamilaroi for three weeks from present-day Manilla on the Namoi River north to the upper Gwydir River.[4] On the morning of January 26 in a surprise attack on Nunn’s party Corporal Hannan was wounded in the leg with a spear and subsequently four or five Aborigines were shot dead in retaliation.[5] The Aborigines fled down the river as the troopers regrouped, rearmed and pursued them led by the second in command Lieutenant George Cobban. Cobban's party found their quarry about a mile down the river now known as Waterloo Creek, where a second engagement took place.[6] The encounter lasted several hours, and no Aborigines were captured.[7] It is this second clash where details of its occurrence contrast substantially.

text: There was an inquiry held on 22 July 1839 at the Merton Court house (New South Wales).[8] There were no convictions and the matter was dropped. The only eyewitness accounts of this second engagement were provided to the judicial inquiry by Lieutenant Cobban and Sergeant John Lee.

text: Statements from eyewitnesses[edit]

text: Lieutenant Cobban claims he rode to the rear of the group and found a large cache of Aboriginal weapons in the bush and secured them.[9] When he returned to the river, he admitted to seeing two Aborigines being shot, trying to escape and believed that at most three or four Aborigines had been killed in the conflict.[10]

text: Sergeant John Lee was with the main detachment of mounted police that pursued the Aborigines into the river. He claims that forty to fifty Aborigines were killed.[11]

text: Differing views from historians[edit]

text: In more recent times historians have differed on the site of the collision and the number of casualties.

text: Historian RHW Reece concluded that the site was at the junction of the Slaughterhouse Creek and the Gwydir River, and that sixty or seventy Aborigines had been killed.[12]

text: Military historian Peter Stanley claims at least fifty Aborigines were killed.[13]

text: Historian Lyndall Ryan considered that Sergeant Lee's estimate of 40 to 50 killed was the most reliable.[14]

text: Historian Keith Windschuttle contends that what occurred at Waterloo Creek was a legitimate police action in which at most three to four Aborigines were killed in the second encounter.[15]


document_title: TNT equivalent

question_text: how many tons of tnt is a supernova

question_tokens: how many tons of tnt is a supernova

text: TNT equivalent

text: Kiloton and megaton[edit]

text: The "kiloton (of TNT)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 terajoules.

text: The "megaton (of TNT)" is a unit of energy equal to 4.184 petajoules.

text: The kiloton and megaton of TNT have traditionally been used to describe the energy output, and hence the destructive power, of a nuclear weapon. The TNT equivalent appears in various nuclear weapon control treaties, and has been used to characterize the energy released in such other highly destructive events as an asteroid impact.[2]

text: Historical derivation of the value[edit]

text: A gram of TNT releases 2673–6702 J (joules) upon explosion.[3] The energy liberated by one gram of TNT was arbitrarily defined as a matter of convention to be 4184 J,[4] which is exactly one kilocalorie.

text: An explosive's energy is normally expressed as the thermodynamic work produced by its detonation, which for TNT has been accurately measured as 4686 J/g from a large sample of air blast experiments, and theoretically calculated to be 4853 J/g.[5]

text: The measured, pure heat output of a gram of TNT is only 2724 J,[6][clarification needed] but this is not the important value for explosive blast effect calculations.

text: Alternative TNT equivalency can be calculated as a function of when in the detonation the value is measured and which property is being compared.[7][8][9][10]

text: A kiloton of TNT can be visualized as a cube of TNT 8.46 metres (27.8 ft) on a side.

text:
Grams TNT
Symbol
Tons TNT
Symbol
Energy [Joules]
Energy [Wh]
Corresponding mass loss

gram of TNT
g
microton of TNT
μt
4.184×103 J or 4.184 kilojoules
1.163 Wh
46.55 pg

kilogram of TNT
kg
milliton of TNT
mt
4.184×106 J or 4.184 megajoules
1.163 kWh
46.55 ng

megagram of TNT
Mg
ton of TNT
t
4.184×109 J or 4.184 gigajoules
1.163 MWh
46.55 μg

gigagram of TNT
Gg
kiloton of TNT
kt
4.184×1012 J or 4.184 terajoules
1.163 GWh
46.55 mg

teragram of TNT
Tg
megaton of TNT
Mt
4.184×1015 J or 4.184 petajoules
1.163 TWh
46.55 g

petagram of TNT
Pg
gigaton of TNT
Gt
4.184×1018 J or 4.184 exajoules
1.163 PWh
46.55 kg

text: Conversion to other units[edit]

text: 1 ton TNT equivalent is approximately:

text:
1.0×109 calories
4.184×109 joules
3.96831×106 British thermal units
3.08802×109 foot pounds
1.162×103 kilowatt hours

text: Examples[edit]

text:
Megatons of TNT
Energy [Wh]
Description

6988100000000000000♠1×10−12 (i.e. 1 gram of TNT)
1.162 Wh
≈ 1 food Calorie (large calorie), which is the approximate amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere.

6991100000000000000♠1×10−9 (i.e. 1 kilogram of TNT)
1.162 kWh
Under controlled conditions one kilogram of TNT can destroy (or even obliterate) a small vehicle.

6992100000000000000♠1×10−8
11.62 kWh
The approximate radiant heat energy released during 3-phase, 600 V, 100 kA arcing fault in a 0.5 m × 0.5 m × 0.5 m (20 in × 20 in × 20 in) compartment within a 1-second period.[11][further explanation needed]

6992120000000000000♠1.2×10−8
13.94 kWh
Amount of TNT used (12 kg) in Coptic church explosion in Cairo, Egypt on December 11, 2016 that left 25 dead[12]

6994100000000000000♠1×10−6 (i.e. 1 ton of TNT) – 6995440000000000000♠44×10−6
1.16–51.14 MWh
Conventional bombs yield from less than one ton to FOAB's 44 tons. The yield of a Tomahawk cruise missile is equivalent to 500 kg of TNT, or approximately 0.5 tons.[13]

6994189999999999999♠1.9×10−6
2.90 MWh
The television show MythBusters used 2.5 tons of ANFO to make "homemade" diamonds.

6996500000000000000♠5×10−4
581 MWh
A real 0.5-kilotonne-of-TNT (2.1 TJ) charge at Operation Sailor Hat. If the charge were a full sphere, it would be 1 kilotonne of TNT (4.2 TJ).

500 tons of TNT (5 by 10 m (17 by 34 ft)) awaiting detonation at Operation Sailor Hat.

6997100000000000000♠1×10−3 (1 kiloton of TNT) – 6997200000000000000♠2×10−3
1.16–2.32 GWh
Estimated yield of the Oppau explosion that killed more than 500 at a German fertilizer factory in 1921.

6997230000000000000♠2.3×10−3
2.67 GWh
Amount of solar energy falling on 4,000 m2 (1 acre) of land in a year is 9.5 TJ (2,650 MWh) (an average over the Earth's surface).

6997300000000000000♠3×10−3
3.49 GWh
The Halifax Explosion in 1917 was the accidental detonation of 3,000 tons of TNT.

6997400000000000000♠4×10−3
9.3 GWh
Minor Scale, a 1985 United States conventional explosion, using 4,744 tons of ANFO explosive to provide a scaled equivalent airblast of an eight kiloton (33.44 TJ) nuclear device,[14] is believed to be the largest planned detonation of conventional explosives in history.

6998150000000000000♠1.5×10−2 – 6998200000000000000♠2×10−2
17.4–23.2 GWh
The Little Boy atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 15 kilotons of TNT (63 TJ), and the Fat Man atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, exploded with an energy of about 20 kilotons of TNT (84 TJ). The modern nuclear weapons in the United States arsenal range in yield from 0.3 kt (1.3 TJ) to 1.2 Mt (5.0 PJ) equivalent, for the B83 strategic bomb.

1
1.16 TWh
The energy contained in one megaton of TNT (4.2 PJ) is enough to power the average American household for 103,000 years.[15] The 30 Mt (130 PJ) estimated upper limit blast power of the Tunguska event could power the same average home for more than 3,100,000 years. The energy of that blast could power the entire United States for 3.27 days.[16]

3
3.5 TWh
The total energy of all explosives used in World War II, including the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atom bombs, is estimated to have been three megatons of TNT.

8.6
10 TWh
The energy released by a typical tropical cyclone in one minute, primarily from water condensation. Winds constitute 0.25% of that energy.[17]

21.5
25 TWh
The complete conversion of 1 kg of matter into pure energy would yield the theoretical maximum (E = mc2) of 89.8 petajoules, which is equivalent to 21.5 megatons of TNT. No such method of total conversion as combining 500 grams of matter with 500 grams of antimatter has yet been achieved. In the event of proton–antiproton annihilation, approximately 50% of the released energy will escape in the form of neutrinos, which are almost undetectable.[18] Electron–positron annihilation events emit their energy entirely as gamma rays.

24
28 TWh
Approximate total yield of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.

25, 50, 100
29 TWh, 58 TWh, 116 TWh
During the Cold War, the United States developed hydrogen bombs with maximum theoretical yields of 25 megatons of TNT (100 PJ). The Soviet Union developed a prototype weapon, nicknamed the Tsar Bomba, which was tested at 50 Mt (210 PJ), but had a maximum theoretical yield of 100 Mt (420 PJ).[19] The effective destructive potential of such a weapon varies greatly, depending on such conditions as the altitude at which it is detonated, the characteristics of the target, the terrain, and the physical landscape upon which it is detonated.

26.3
30.6 TWh
Megathrust earthquakes 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake released record ME surface rupture energy, or potential for damage at 26.3 megatons of TNT (110 PJ).

200
232 TWh
The total energy released by the eruption of Mt. Krakatoa in Indonesia in 1883.

540
628 TWh
The total energy produced worldwide by all nuclear testing and combat combined, from the 1940s till now[when?] is about 540 megatons.

1,460
1.69 PWh
The total global nuclear arsenal is about 15,000 nuclear warheads[20][21][22] with a destructive capacity of around 1460 megatons[23][24][25][26] or 1.460 gigatons (1,460 million tons) of TNT.

62,500
73 PWh
The total solar energy received by Earth per minute is 440 exajoules.

875,000
1,000 PWh
Approximate yield of the last eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano.

6,000,000 = 7006600000000000000♠6×106
6,973 PWh
The estimated energy at impact when the largest fragment of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 struck Jupiter is equivalent to 6 million megatons (6 trillion tons) of TNT.

7006932000000000000♠9.32×106
10,831 PWh
The energy released in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami was over 200,000 times the surface energy and was calculated by the USGS at 7022390000000000000♠3.9×1022 joules,[27] slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake. This is equivalent to 9,320 gigatons of TNT, or approximately 600 million times the energy of the Hiroshima bomb.

7006956000000000000♠9.56×106
11,110 PWh
Megathrust earthquakes record huge MW values, or total energy released. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake released 9,560 gigatons TNT equivalent.

7008100000000000000♠1×108
116,222 PWh
The approximate energy released when the Chicxulub impact caused the mass extinction 66 million years ago was estimated to be equal to 100 teratons (i.e. 100 exagrams or approximately 220.462 quadrillion pounds) of TNT. That is roughly 8 billion times stronger than each of the bombs that hit Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the most energetic event on the history of Earth for hundreds of millions of years, far more powerful than any volcanic eruption, earthquake or firestorm. Such an explosion annihilated everything within a thousand miles of the impact in a split second. Such energy is equivalent to that needed to power the whole Earth for several centuries.

7015597200000000000♠5.972×1015
6.94 × 1027 Wh
The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT the mass of Earth.

7015789000000000000♠7.89×1015
9.17 × 1027 Wh
Total solar output in all directions per day.

7021198000000000000♠1.98×1021
2.3 × 1033 Wh
The explosive energy of a quantity of TNT the mass of the Sun.

7028239999999999999♠2.4×1028 – 7028479999999999999♠4.8×1028
2.8–5.6 × 1040 Wh
A type 1a supernova explosion gives off 1–7044200000000000000♠2×1044 joules of energy, which is about 2.4 to 4.8 hundred billion yottatons (24 to 48 octillion (2.4–7028479999999999999♠4.8×1028) megatons) of TNT, equivalent to the explosive force of a quantity of TNT over a trillion (1012) times the mass of the planet Earth.

7030240000000000000♠2.4×1030 – 7030480000000000000♠4.8×1030
2.8–7042560000000000000♠5.6×1042 Wh
The largest type of supernova observed, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) release more than 1046 joules of energy.[28]

7032130000000000000♠1.3×1032
7044150000000000000♠1.5×1044 Wh
A merger of two black holes, first observation of gravitational waves, released 7047530000000000000♠5.3×1047 joules

text: Relative effectiveness factor[edit]

text: The relative effectiveness factor (RE factor) relates an explosive's demolition power to that of TNT, in units of the TNT equivalent/kg (TNTe/kg). The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is equivalent: The greater the RE, the more powerful the explosive.

text: This enables engineers to determine the proper masses of different explosives when applying blasting formulas developed specifically for TNT. For example, if a timber-cutting formula calls for a charge of 1 kg of TNT, then based on octanitrocubane's RE factor of 2.38, it would take only 1.0/2.38 (or 0.42) kg of it to do the same job. Using PETN, engineers would need 1.0/1.66 (or 0.60) kg to obtain the same effects as 1 kg of TNT. With ANFO or ammonium nitrate, they would require 1.0/0.74 (or 1.35) kg or 1.0/0.42 (or 2.38) kg, respectively.

text: RE factor examples[edit]

text:
Some RE factor examples

Explosive, grade
Density
(g/ml)
Detonation
vel. (m/s)
R.E.

Ammonium nitrate (AN + <0.5% H2O)
0.88
2700[29]
0.42

Black powder (75% KNO3 + 19% C + 6% S, ancient explosives)
1.65
600
0.50

Mercury(II) fulminate
4.42
4250
0.51[30]

Tanerit Simply (93% granulated AN + 6% red P + 1% C)
0.90
2750
0.55

Hexamine dinitrate (HDN)
1.30
5070
0.60

Dinitrobenzene (DNB)
1.50
6025
0.60

HMTD (hexamine peroxide)
0.88
4520
0.74

ANFO (94% AN + 6% fuel oil)
0.92
5270
0.74

TATP (acetone peroxide)
1.18
5300
0.80

Tovex Extra (AN water gel) commercial product
1.33
5690
0.80

Hydromite 600 (AN water emulsion) commercial product
1.24
5550
0.80

ANNMAL (66% AN + 25% NM + 5% Al + 3% C + 1% TETA)
1.16
5360
0.87

Amatol (50% TNT + 50% AN)
1.50
6290
0.91

Nitroguanidine
1.32
6750
0.95

Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
1.60
6900
1.00

Hexanitrostilbene (HNS)
1.70
7080
1.05

Nitrourea
1.45
6860
1.05

Tritonal (80% TNT + 20% aluminium)*
1.70
6650
1.05

Amatol (80% TNT + 20% AN)
1.55
6570
1.10

Nitrocellulose (13.5% N, NC; AKA guncotton)
1.40
6400
1.10

Nitromethane (NM)
1.13
6360
1.10

PBXW-126 (22% NTO, 20% RDX, 20% AP, 26% Al, 12% PU's system)*
1.80
6450
1.10

Diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN)
1.38
6610
1.17

PBXIH-135 EB (42% HMX, 33% Al, 25% PCP-TMETN's system)*
1.81
7060
1.17

PBXN-109 (64% RDX, 20% Al, 16% HTPB's system)*
1.68
7450
1.17

Triaminotrinitrobenzene (TATB)
1.80
7550
1.17

Picric acid (TNP)
1.71
7350
1.17

Trinitrobenzene (TNB)
1.60
7300
1.20

Tetrytol (70% tetryl + 30% TNT)
1.60
7370
1.20

Dynamite, Nobel's (75% NG + 23% diatomite)
1.48
7200
1.25

Tetryl
1.71
7770
1.25

Torpex (aka HBX, 41% RDX + 40% TNT + 18% Al + 1% wax)*
1.80
7440
1.30

Composition B (63% RDX + 36% TNT + 1% wax)
1.72
7840
1.33

Composition C-3 (78% RDX)
1.60
7630
1.33

Composition C-4 (91% RDX)
1.59
8040
1.34

Pentolite (56% PETN + 44% TNT)
1.66
7520
1.33

Semtex 1A (76% PETN + 6% RDX)
1.55
7670
1.35

Hexal (76% RDX + 20% Al + 4% wax)*
1.79
7640
1.35

RISAL P (50% IPN + 28% RDX + 15% Al + 4% Mg + 1% Zr + 2% NC)*
1.39
5980
1.40

Hydrazine mononitrate
1.59
8500
1.42

Mixture: 24% nitrobenzene + 76% TNM
1.48
8060
1.50

Mixture: 30% nitrobenzene + 70% nitrogen tetroxide
1.39
8290
1.50

Nitroglycerin (NG)
1.59
8100
1.54

Octol (80% HMX + 19% TNT + 1% DNT)
1.83
8690
1.54

Nitrotriazolon (NTO)
1.87
8120
1.60

DADNE (1,1-diamino-2,2-dinitroethene, FOX-7)
1.77
8330
1.60

Gelignite (92% NG + 7% nitrocellulose)
1.60
7970
1.60

Plastics Gel® (in toothpaste tube: 45% PETN + 45% NG + 5% DEGDN + 4% NC)
1.51
7940
1.60

Composition A-5 (98% RDX + 2% stearic acid)
1.65
8470
1.60

Erythritol tetranitrate (ETN)
1.72
8100
1.60

Hexogen (RDX)
1.78
8700
1.60

PBXW-11 (96% HMX, 1% HyTemp, 3% DOA)
1.81
8720
1.60

Penthrite (PETN)
1.71
8400
1.66

Ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN)
1.49
8300
1.66

TNAZ (trinitroazetidine)
1.85
8640
1.70

Octogen (HMX grade B)
1.86
9100
1.70

HNIW (CL-20)
1.97
9380
1.80

Hexanitrobenzene (HNB)
1.97
9400
1.85

MEDINA (Methylene dinitroamine)
1.65
8700
1.93

DDF (4,4’-Dinitro-3,3’-diazenofuroxan)
1.98
10000
1.95

Heptanitrocubane (HNC)
1.92
9200
N/A

Octanitrocubane (ONC)
1.95
10600
2.38

text: *: TBX (thermobaric explosives) or EBX (enhanced blast explosives), in a small, confined space, may have over twice the power of destruction. The total power of aluminized mixtures strictly depends on the condition of explosions.

text: Nuclear examples[edit]

text:
Nuclear weapons and the most powerful non-nuclear weapon examples

Weapon
Total yield
(kilotons of TNT)
Weight
(kg)
R.E. ~

Davy Crockett (nuclear device)
0.022
23
1,000

Fat Man (dropped on Nagasaki) A-bomb
20
4600
4,500

Classic (one-stage) fission A-bomb
22
420
50,000

Hypothetical suitcase nuke
2.5
31
80,000

Typical (two-stage) nuclear bomb
500–1000
650–1120
900,000

W56 thermonuclear warhead
1,200
272–308
4,960,000

W88 modern thermonuclear warhead (MIRV)
470
355
1,300,000

B53 nuclear bomb (two-stage)
9,000
4050
2,200,000

B41 nuclear bomb (three-stage)
25,000
4850
5,100,000

Tsar nuclear bomb (three-stage)
50,000–56,000
26,500
2,100,000

GBU-57 bomb (Massive Ordnance Penetrator, MOP)
0.0035
13,600
0.26

Grand Slam (Earthquake bomb, M110)
0.0065
9,900
0.66

Bomb used in Oklahoma City (ANFO based on racing fuel)
0.0018
2,300
0.78

BLU-82 (Daisy Cutter)
0.0075
6,800
1.10

MOAB (non-nuclear bomb, GBU-43)
0.011
9,800
1.13

FOAB (advanced thermobaric bomb, ATBIP)
0.044
9,100
4.83


document_title: Addition polymer

question_text: what kind of polymers are prepared by addition reactions of alkenes

text: Addition polymer

text: Polyolefins[edit]

text: Many common addition polymers are formed from unsaturated monomers (usually having a C=C double bond).[3] The most prevalent addition polymers are polyolefins, i.e. polymers derived by the conversion of olefins (alkenes) to long-chain alkanes.  The stoichiometry is simple:

text: This conversion can be induced by a variety of catalysts including free radicals, acids, carbanions and metal complexes.

text: Examples of such polyolefins are polyethenes, polypropylene, PVC, Teflon, Buna rubbers, polyacrylates, polystyrene, and PCTFE.

text: Copolymers[edit]

text: When two or more types of monomers undergo addition polymerization, the resulting polymer is an addition copolymer. Saran wrap, formed from polymerization of vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride, is an addition copolymer.[4]

text: Ring-opening polymerization[edit]

text: Ring-opening polymerization is an additive process but tends to give condensation-like polymers but follows the stoichiometry of addition polymerization.  For example, polyethylene glycol is formed by opening ethylene oxide rings:

text: Nylon 6 (developed to thwart the patent on nylon 6,6) is produced by addition polymerization, but chemically resembles typical polyamides.

text: Further contrasts with condensation polymers[edit]

text: One universal distinction between polymerization types is development of molecular weight by the different modes of propagation.  Addition polymers form high molecular weight chains rapidly, with much monomer remaining.  Since addition polymerization has rapidly growing chains and free monomer as its reactants, and condensation polymerization occurs in step-wise fashion between monomers, dimers, and other smaller growing chains, the effect of a polymer molecule's current size on a continuing reaction is profoundly different in these two cases.  This has important effects on the distribution of molecular weights, or polydispersity, in the finished polymer.

text: Biodegradation[edit]

text: Addition polymers are generally chemically inert, involving strong C-C . For this reason they are non-biodegradable and difficult to recycle. In contrast, condensation polymers tend to be more readily bio-degradable because their backbones contain weaker bonds.

text: History[edit]

text: The first useful addition polymer was made by accident in 1933 by ICI chemists Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett. They were carrying out a series of experiments that involved reacting organic compounds under high temperatures and high pressures. They set up an experiment to react ethene with benzaldehyde in the hope of producing a ketone. They left the reaction vessel overnight, and the next morning they found a small amount of a white waxy solid. It was shown later that this solid was polyethylene.

text:
IUPAC definition
Chain polymerization: Chain reaction in which the growth of a polymer chainproceeds exclusively by reaction(s) between monomer(s) and active site(s)on the polymer chain with regeneration of the active site(s) at the end ofeach growth step.[5]

tag: div

text: The term "addition polymerization" is deprecated by IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) which recommends the alternative term chain polymerization.


document_title: Men's pole vault world record progression

question_text: what is the world record for the highest pole vault

text: Record progression[edit]

text:
Record
Athlete
Nation
Venue
Date
#[2]

4.02 m (13 ft 21⁄4 in)
Marc Wright
 United States
Cambridge, U.S.
June 8, 1912[1]
1

4.09 m (13 ft 5 in)
Frank Foss
 United States
Antwerp, Belgium
August 20, 1920[1]
1

4.12 m (13 ft 6 in)
Charles Hoff
 Norway
Copenhagen, Denmark
September 22, 1922[1]
1

4.21 m (13 ft 91⁄2 in)
Charles Hoff
 Norway
Copenhagen, Denmark
July 22, 1923[1]
2

4.23 m (13 ft 101⁄2 in)
Charles Hoff
 Norway
Oslo, Norway
August 13, 1925[1]
3

4.25 m (13 ft 111⁄4 in)
Charles Hoff
 Norway
Turku, Finland
September 27, 1925[1]
4

4.27 m (14 ft 0 in)
Sabin Carr
 United States
Philadelphia, U.S.
May 27, 1927[1]
1

4.30 m (14 ft 11⁄4 in)
Lee Barnes
 United States
Fresno, U.S.
April 28, 1928[1]
1

4.37 m (14 ft 4 in)
William Graber
 United States
Palo Alto, U.S.
July 16, 1932[1]
1

4.39 m (14 ft 43⁄4 in)
Keith Brown
 United States
Boston, U.S.
June 1, 1935[1]
1

4.43 m (14 ft 61⁄4 in)
George Varoff
 United States
Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.
July 4, 1936[1]
1

4.54 m (14 ft 101⁄2 in)
Bill Sefton
 United States
Los Angeles, U.S.
May 29, 1937[1]
1

4.54 m (14 ft 101⁄2 in)
Earle Meadows
 United States
Los Angeles, U.S.
May 29, 1937[1]
1

4.60 m (15 ft 1 in)
Cornelius Warmerdam
 United States
Fresno, U.S.
June 29, 1940[1]
1

4.72 m (15 ft 53⁄4 in)
Cornelius Warmerdam
 United States
Compton, U.S.
June 26, 1941[1]
2

4.77 m (15 ft 73⁄4 in)
Cornelius Warmerdam
 United States
Modesto, U.S.
May 23, 1942[1]
3

4.78 m (15 ft 8 in)
Robert Gutowski
 United States
Palo Alto, U.S.
April 27, 1957[1]
1

4.80 m (15 ft 83⁄4 in)
Don Bragg
 United States
Palo Alto, U.S.
July 2, 1960[1]
1

4.83 m (15 ft 10 in)
George Davies
 United States
Boulder, U.S.
May 20, 1961[1]
1

4.89 m (16 ft 01⁄2 in)
John Uelses
 United States
Santa Barbara, U.S.
March 31, 1962[1]
1

4.93 m (16 ft 2 in)
Dave Tork
 United States
Walnut, U.S.
April 28, 1962[1]
1

4.94 m (16 ft 21⁄4 in)
Pentti Nikula
 Finland
Kauhava, Finland
June 22, 1962[1]
1

5.00 m (16 ft 43⁄4 in)
Brian Sternberg
 United States
Philadelphia, U.S.
April 27, 1963[1]
1

5.08 m (16 ft 8 in)
Brian Sternberg
 United States
Compton, U.S.
June 7, 1963[1]
2

5.13 m (16 ft 93⁄4 in)
John Pennel
 United States
London, England
August 5, 1963[1]
1

5.20 m (17 ft 01⁄2 in)
John Pennel
 United States
Coral Gables, U.S.
August 24, 1963[1]
2

5.23 m (17 ft 13⁄4 in)
Fred Hansen
 United States
San Diego, U.S.
June 13, 1964[1]
1

5.28 m (17 ft 33⁄4 in)
Fred Hansen
 United States
Los Angeles, U.S.
July 25, 1964[1]
2

5.32 m (17 ft 51⁄4 in)
Bob Seagren
 United States
Fresno, U.S.
May 14, 1966[1]
1

5.34 m (17 ft 6 in)
John Pennel
 United States
Los Angeles, U.S.
July 23, 1966[1]
3

5.36 m (17 ft 7 in)
Bob Seagren
 United States
San Diego, U.S.
June 10, 1967[1]
2

5.38 m (17 ft 73⁄4 in)
Paul Wilson
 United States
Bakersfield, U.S.
June 23, 1967[1]
1

5.41 m (17 ft 83⁄4 in) A
Bob Seagren
 United States
Echo Summit, U.S.
September 12, 1968[1]
3

5.44 m (17 ft 10 in)
John Pennel
 United States
Sacramento, U.S.
June 21, 1969[1]
4

5.45 m (17 ft 101⁄2 in)
Wolfgang Nordwig
 East Germany
Berlin, Germany
June 17, 1970[1]
1

5.46 m (17 ft 103⁄4 in)
Wolfgang Nordwig
 East Germany
Turin, Italy
September 3, 1970[1]
2

5.49 m (18 ft 0 in)
Christos Papanikolaou
 Greece
Athens, Greece
October 24, 1970[1]
1

5.51 m (18 ft 03⁄4 in)
Kjell Isaksson
 Sweden
Austin, U.S.
April 8, 1972[1]
1

5.54 m (18 ft 2 in)
Kjell Isaksson
 Sweden
Los Angeles, U.S.
April 15, 1972[1]
2

5.55 m (18 ft 21⁄2 in)
Kjell Isaksson
 Sweden
Helsingborg, Sweden
June 12, 1972[1]
3

5.63 m (18 ft 51⁄2 in)
Bob Seagren
 United States
Eugene, U.S.
July 2, 1972[1]
4

5.65 m (18 ft 61⁄4 in)
David Roberts
 United States
Gainesville, U.S.
March 28, 1975[1]
1

5.67 m (18 ft 7 in)
Earl Bell
 United States
Wichita, U.S.
May 29, 1976[1]
1

5.70 m (18 ft 81⁄4 in)
David Roberts
 United States
Eugene, U.S.
June 22, 1976[1]
2

5.72 m (18 ft 9 in)
Władysław Kozakiewicz
 Poland
Milan, Italy
May 11, 1980[1]
1

5.75 m (18 ft 101⁄4 in)
Thierry Vigneron
 France
Paris, France
June 1, 1980[1]
1

5.75 m (18 ft 101⁄4 in)
Thierry Vigneron
 France
Lille, France
June 29, 1980[1]
2

5.77 m (18 ft 11 in)
Philippe Houvion
 France
Paris, France
July 17, 1980[1]
1

5.78 m (18 ft 111⁄2 in)
Władysław Kozakiewicz
 Poland
Moscow, Soviet Union
July 30, 1980[1]
2

5.80 m (19 ft 01⁄4 in)
Thierry Vigneron
 France
Mâcon, France
June 20, 1981[1]
3

5.81 m (19 ft 01⁄2 in)
Vladimir Polyakov
 Soviet Union
Tbilisi, Soviet Union
June 26, 1981[1]
1

5.82 m (19 ft 1 in)
Pierre Quinon
 France
Cologne, Germany
August 28, 1983[1]
1

5.83 m (19 ft 11⁄2 in)
Thierry Vigneron
 France
Rome, Italy
September 1, 1983[1]
4

5.85 m (19 ft 21⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
May 26, 1984[1]
1

5.88 m (19 ft 31⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Paris, France
June 2, 1984[1]
2

5.90 m (19 ft 41⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
London, England
July 13, 1984[1]
3

5.91 m (19 ft 41⁄2 in)
Thierry Vigneron
 France
Rome, Italy
August 31, 1984[1]
5

5.94 m (19 ft 53⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Rome, Italy
August 31, 1984[1]
4

6.00 m (19 ft 8 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Paris, France
July 13, 1985[1]
5

6.01 m (19 ft 81⁄2 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Moscow, Soviet Union
June 8, 1986[1]
6

6.03 m (19 ft 91⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Prague, Czechoslovakia
June 23, 1987[1]
7

6.05 m (19 ft 10 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Bratislava, Czechoslovakia
June 9, 1988[1]
8

6.06 m (19 ft 101⁄2 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Nice, France
July 10, 1988[1]
9

6.07 m (19 ft 103⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Shizuoka, Japan
May 6, 1991[1]
10

6.08 m (19 ft 111⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Moscow, Soviet Union
June 9, 1991[1]
11

6.09 m (19 ft 113⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Formia, Italy
July 8, 1991[1]
12

6.10 m (20 ft 0 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Soviet Union
Malmö, Sweden
August 5, 1991[1]
13

6.11 m (20 ft 01⁄2 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Ukraine
Dijon, France
June 13, 1992[1]
14

6.12 m (20 ft 03⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Ukraine
Padua, Italy
August 30, 1992[1]
15

6.13 m (20 ft 11⁄4 in)
Sergey Bubka
 Ukraine
Tokyo, Japan
September 19, 1992[1]
16

6.14 m (20 ft 11⁄2 in) A[3]
Sergey Bubka
 Ukraine
Sestriere, Italy
July 31, 1994[1]
17

6.16 m (20 ft 21⁄2 in) i[4]
Renaud Lavillenie
 France
Donetsk, Ukraine
February 15, 2014
1

text:
A = mark set at altitude
i = indoor mark


document_title: Triple sec

question_text: where is triple sec in the grocery store

text: Triple sec

text:
Triple sec

Type
Liqueur

Manufacturer
(various)

Country of origin
Saumur, France

Introduced
1849

Alcohol by volume
15% to 40% [1]

Color
Clear, golden, blue

Flavor
Orange

text: Triple sec, (meaning "Triple distilled") originally Curaçao triple sec, is a strong, sweet and colorless orange flavored liqueur. It is a variety of Curaçao liqueur, an orange-flavoured liqueur made from the dried peels of bitter and sweet orange.

text: 'Triple sec' is so named because of the triple-copper-still-distillation process through which the oranges or fruits that go into it are subjected.[citation needed] The 'sec' part of 'triple sec' means "dry" and is borrowed directly from French, sec, which, in turn, received it from the Classical Latin word, siccus and the cognate Classical Latin verbal infinitive, siccare, which means "to dry; to dry up; to make dry; to remove moisture."[2] This sense of 'dry' is not dry in the sense of 'lack of sweetness' of the liquor or spirit, as is in the case with wine-speak; it is a semantic derivative of it. It is the fact that the oranges and fruits that go into triple sec are dried prior to the distillation process.[3][not in citation given][better source needed]

text: Triple sec may be consumed neat as a digestif or on the rocks, but is more typically used as an ingredient in a variety of cocktails such as sangria, margarita, Kamikaze, White Lady, Long Island Iced Tea, Sidecar, Skittle Bomb, Corpse Reviver #2 and Cosmopolitan.

text: History[edit]

text: The Combier distillery claims that triple sec was invented some time between 1834 and 1848 by Jean-Baptiste Combier in Saumur, France.[4] However, Combier was more famous for its élixir Combier, which contained orange but also many other flavorings.[5]

text: According to Cointreau, its orange liqueur was created in 1849.[6]

text: Triple sec was certainly widely known by 1878; at the Exposition Universelle of 1878 in Paris, several distillers were offering "Curaço  [sic] triple sec" as well as "Curaço doux".[7]


document_title: Home Town (TV series)

question_text: where is the tv show home town filmed

question_tokens: where is the tv show home town filmed

text: Home Town (TV series)

text:
Home TownStarring
Ben NapierErin NapierNo. of seasons
2No. of episodes
21ProductionRunning time
One hour and four minutesReleaseOriginal network
HGTVOriginal release
March 21, 2017 (2017-03-21) – presentExternal links
Website

text: Home Town is an American television series starring husband and wife team Ben and Erin Napier that premiered on March 21, 2017 on HGTV. The married couple restores Southern homes in Laurel, Mississippi.[1]


document_title: How Stella Got Her Groove Back

question_text: who played winston in how stella got her groove back

text: How Stella Got Her Groove Back

text: Plot[edit]

text: Stella Payne is a very successful 40-year-old stockbroker raising her son, Quincy, and living in Marin County, California, who is persuaded by her best friend from college, Delilah Abraham, to take a well-deserved, first-class vacation to Montego Bay, Jamaica. As she soaks in the beauty of the island, she encounters a handsome young islander, Winston Shakespeare, who is twenty years younger. His pursuit of her turns into a blossoming romance that forces Stella to take personal inventory of her life and try to find a balance between her desire for love and companionship, and her responsibilities as a mother and corporate executive.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Angela Bassett as Stella Payne
Taye Diggs as Winston Shakespeare
Whoopi Goldberg as Delilah Abraham
Regina King as Vanessa
Suzzanne Douglas as Angela
Michael J. Pagan as Quincy Payne
Sicily as Chantel
Richard Lawson as Jack
Barry Shabaka Henley as Buddy
Lee Weaver as Nate
Glynn Turman as Dr. Shakespeare
Phyllis Yvonne Stickney as Mrs. Shakespeare
Denise Hunt as Ms. Thang
James Pickens, Jr. as Walter Payne
Carl Lumbly as Judge Spencer Boyle
Victor Garber (uncredited) as Isaac

text: Reception[edit]

text: The reception from critics was mixed.[4][5][6] How Stella Got Her Groove Back currently holds a 48% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 48 reviews.

text: Box office[edit]

text: In its opening weekend, Stella grossed $11,318,919, ranking #2 in the domestic box office behind Saving Private Ryan's fourth weekend.[7] The film would go on to gross $36,672,941 domestically and an additional $1,605,781 overseas for a worldwide total of $39,278,722. From an estimated $20 million budget, this can be considered a moderate success.[2]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack containing mostly R&B and reggae music was released on August 11, 1998, by MCA Records. It peaked at #8 on the Billboard 200 and #3 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and was certified gold on September 22, 1998.

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Best Actress — Angela Bassett (won)
Best Actor — Taye Diggs (nominated)
Best Actress — Whoopi Goldberg (won)
Best Director — Kevin Rodney Sullivan (nominated)
Best Film (won)
Best Screenplay — Terry McMillan (nominated)
Best Soundtrack (won)

text:
Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture — Angela Bassett (won)
Outstanding Motion Picture (won)
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture — Whoopi Goldberg (won)
Outstanding Youth Actor/Actress — Michael J. Pagan (won)