document_title: Captain Marvel (film)

question_text: who is doing the music for captain marvel

text: Captain Marvel (film)

text: Premise

text: Set in the mid-1990s, Captain Marvel follows Carol Danvers, a former U.S. Air Force fighter pilot, as she turns into one of the galaxy's mightiest heroes and joins Starforce, an elite Kree military team, before returning home with new questions about her past and identity when the Earth is caught in the center of an intergalactic conflict between two alien worlds.[2][3]

text: Cast

text:
Brie Larson as Carol Danvers / Captain Marvel: An ex-U.S. Air Force fighter pilot and member of an elite Kree military team called Starforce, whose DNA was fused with that of a Kree during an accident, which imbued her with superhuman strength, energy projection, and flight.[4][5][3] Larson described Danvers as a "believer in truth and justice" and a "bridge between Earth and space. She's fighting between the flaws that are within her and all this good that she wants to try and spread and make the world a better place."[6] Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige stated that Larson was cast because she has the ability to balance the character's vast powers with her humanity and relatable flaws.[7] Larson called Danvers aggressive, quick tempered, and invasive, but said while those characteristics can be great in battle, they are also character flaws.[8]  Speaking more to Danvers' flaws and her Kree and human halves "warring against each other", Larson noted that her Kree half is "unemotional... an amazing fighter and competitive," while her human half "is flawed but is also the thing that she ends up leading by. It’s the thing that gets her in trouble, but it’s also the thing that makes her great."[3] Regarding concern that Larson was too young to portray Danvers, an accomplished airman, initial screenwriter Nicole Perlman consulted with the Air Force, who said it was not out of the realm of possibility for someone "to go very far" between the ages of 28 and 34.[9] Larson trained for nine months, learning judo, boxing, and wrestling.[10][3] She also visited Nellis Air Force Base and met with active duty airmen, including Brigadier General Jeannie Leavitt and Thunderbirds pilot Major Stephen Del Bagno to prepare for the role.[2][11][12]
Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury: The future director of S.H.I.E.L.D., who at this time is a low level bureaucrat.[13] Fury appears without his signature eye patch as the film is set in the 1990s, before he loses his eye.[14] Feige stated that the film explores a period of Fury's life when he has no idea about superheroes and that Carol Danvers is the first superhero that he comes across,[15] elaborating that Fury "has reached a point in his career where he thought the Cold War is over and the best days are behind him. And when he encounters certain things in this movie, it sets him on a path that leads us to where we are 19 films later."[16] Jackson said, "This is a mind-changing, attitude-changing moment... He [now] understands that there are these other things out there. He understands that they're not all enemies, and we do need to find allies who have specific kinds of skills that humans don't have." Jackson described Fury at this point in time as a desk jockey, who has not yet become cynical towards bureaucracy.[17] Jackson was digitally de-aged by 25 years, the first time Marvel has done this for an entire film.[18]
Ben Mendelsohn as Talos: The shape-shifting leader of the Skrull invasion of Earth, who is working undercover within S.H.I.E.L.D. as Fury's boss.[19] Mendelsohn described Talos’ human persona as "buttoned up" and his natural Skrull persona as "more laid back, a bit tougher, [and] a little bit nastier." Mendelsohn elaborated, "The thing is, when you’re Skrullin’, there’s a kind of take-no-prisoners vibe about it, which is more relaxed. [As a human] This guy’s got to follow protocol because it’s S.H.I.E.L.D." When portraying Talos, Mendelsohn uses his native Australian accent, and an American accent when he is in his S.H.I.E.L.D. disguise, which Mendelsohn compared to that of American politician Donald Rumsfeld. Mendelsohn noted there was "a very lengthy discussion" regarding the accent for the Skrulls, adding "There’s a certain kind of earthy correctness to an Australian delivery". It took Mendelson a "couple of hours" to have his makeup and prosthetics applied to portray Talos.[19]
Djimon Hounsou as Korath: A Kree mercenary and member of Starforce.[20][21] Hounsou explained that Korath was "at his infancy" in the film compared to his appearance in Guardians of the Galaxy, but was "still a humorless machine".[22]
Lee Pace as Ronan the Accuser: A high-ranking Kree official who is fanatical about their culture and practices.[20][23]
Lashana Lynch as Maria Rambeau: One of Danvers’ oldest friends and fellow Air Force pilot, who goes by the call sign "Photon", and is a single mother to daughter Monica. Lynch described Rambeau as "resilient" and "strong" saying, "Maria’s got a strength that’s undeniable, in that you don’t feel like you need to help her. She is thrown into many a situation in this movie that she’s never been a part of, never seen, never experienced — and she just learns it, immediately." Like Larson, Lynch met with active duty airmen in preparation for the role. In particular, she met with pilots who are also mothers, as her character is also both. Lynch was excited to portray a character the audience would be proud of and could relate to, especially mothers and members of the black community, helping to continue "a real through-line" for African-American characters in the MCU after Black Panther.[24]
Gemma Chan as Minn-Erva: A Kree sniper and member of Starforce.[25][22] Chan noted Minn-Erva was "the star of Starforce" before Danvers joined the team and is "slightly threatened by someone else who has come in and is also very talented."[22]
Algenis Pérez Soto as Att-Lass: A member of Starforce.[2][21]
Rune Temte as Bron-Char: A member of Starforce.[2][21]
Mckenna Grace as young Carol Danvers[2][26]
Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson: A rookie agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. who works closely with Fury.[13] Gregg stated that Coulson would be younger in the film and "a bit of a new guy in S.H.I.E.L.D. ... It's the earliest we will have seen him [in the MCU], so when he says, 'Mr. Stark, this isn’t my first rodeo' in Iron Man, this is maybe the rodeo he's talking about."[27] He felt "there was something really special about going back to the early days when [Coulson] was just kind of coming up the ranks" and had to work to portray Coulson "a little less crusty and jaded" as he is in the present of the MCU.[13] Like Jackson, Gregg was digitally de-aged by 25 years, the first time Marvel has done this for an entire film.[18]
Jude Law as Mar-Vell / Walter Lawson: Danvers' mentor and commander in Starforce, who trains her to use her new powers.[28][29][8] Law said that his character is "driven by a belief in the divine leadership of the Kree people. So he's almost a devout warrior — unquestioning, conservative, but inspirational." Law also stated that his character has a special relationship with Danvers, whom he views as a mentee, which becomes a source of tension in the film with the other members of Starforce. Robert Downey Jr., who portrays Tony Stark in other MCU films and who co-starred with Law in Sherlock Holmes and its sequel, counseled him on working with Marvel, before Law took the part.[25]

text: Additionally, Robert Kazinsky,[30] Annette Bening,[31] Vik Sahay,[32] Colin Ford,[33] Chuku Modu,[34] and Kenneth Mitchell have been cast in undisclosed roles.[35]

text: Production

text: Development

text: By May 2013, a script for Ms. Marvel, the moniker Carol Danvers used in the comics before she took the mantle Captain Marvel, had been written for Marvel Studios through the studio's writing program.[36] Producer Louis D'Esposito stated later that year that the studio was interested in a female-driven superhero film, saying that they have plenty of "strong female characters" from which to choose and suggested Captain Marvel, Black Widow, Pepper Potts, or Peggy Carter as possible candidates.[37] Kevin Feige, President of Production at Marvel Studios, said that if Marvel was to make a female-led film, he would prefer it to be a new character to the Marvel Cinematic Universe like Captain Marvel, who could receive an origin story.[38] In August 2014, Feige stated that Black Panther and Captain Marvel were "both characters that we like, that development work has been done on and is continuing to be done on" and that the studio is often asked about it by the public, "more than Iron Man 4, more than Avengers 3 ... I think that's something that we have to pay attention to."[39]

text:
We've been talking a lot about archetypes and what we want this movie to be about and just how to write a strong female superhero without making it Superman with boobs ... we'll catch ourselves and say, 'Wait a minute, what are we saying [here] about women in power?' Then we have to say, 'Why are we getting so hung up on that? We should just tell the best story and build the best character.' And then we have this constant back-and-forth about how to tell a story that is compelling, entertaining, moving, kick-ass, and fun, and also be aware of what those larger implications might be.
—Co-screenwriter Nicole Perlman[40]

tag: div

text: In October 2014, Feige announced that Captain Marvel would be released on July 6, 2018, as part of the studio's Phase Three slate of films,[41] making it Marvel's first female-led film.[42] He said the film would be based on the Carol Danvers version of the character and that the film "has been in the works almost as long as Doctor Strange or Guardians of the Galaxy before it came out, and one of the key things was figuring out what we wanted to do with it. Her adventures are very earthbound, but her powers are based in the cosmic realm."[41] Feige added that a writer and director would be announced "quite soon", and female filmmakers were being considered, though he could not promise that Marvel would "hire from any one demographic".[43]

text: In February 2015, Marvel pushed back the release date to November 2, 2018.[44] In early April, Feige revealed that Captain Marvel appeared in an early draft of the Avengers: Age of Ultron screenplay, but was removed as "it didn't feel like the time. We didn't want to introduce her fully formed flying in a costume before you knew who she was or how she came to be."[45] He also said that Marvel would be ready to announce writers for the film "hopefully in the next week or two",[46] and by mid-April, Guardians of the Galaxy co-screenwriter Nicole Perlman and Inside Out co-screenwriter Meg LeFauve were announced to be writing the screenplay.[47] The duo were put together as a writing team after impressing Feige with separate takes on the character,[48] and began work on the film within a month.[49] LeFauve found the character being a female superhero to be both "wonderful" and a challenge, particularly because of how powerful the character is which could lead to the "Superman curse. 'What's her vulnerability?' is what we have to figure out."[50]

text: By May, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay about directing Captain Marvel or Black Panther,[51] which Feige confirmed a month later, saying that he had met with DuVernay amongst a number of other directors and expected a decision to be made by mid- to late 2015.[52] That September, Feige said that the casting process would not begin until 2016, as "we're scripting the film, figuring out who we want Carol Danvers to be, and really what the structure of the movie will be and what her part will be in some of our other Phase 3 films." Producer Jeremy Latcham elaborated that "getting the character right first is going to lead the charge. We want to make sure we know who it is before we can start figuring out who should play it."[53] In October 2015, Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it back to March 8, 2019.[54]

text: Feige stated in April 2016 that a director would be announced "in the next month or two" and that the first cast members would be announced in mid-2016. He also mentioned that the film would be about Carol Danvers' journey to become Captain Marvel.[55] The next month, indie filmmaker Emily Carmichael's name surfaced as a possible contender to direct the film,[56] and by June, Brie Larson emerged as the frontrunner to play Captain Marvel.[57] Larson was confirmed for the role at San Diego Comic-Con International 2016,[5] for which she will earn $5 million.[58] Larson was initially hesitant to accept the role, but "couldn't deny the fact that this movie is everything I care about, everything that's progressive and important and meaningful, and a symbol I wished I would've had growing up."[59] She was able to bring "some of those [deep emotional] things" she had used in more "dramatic roles" for the part, which she felt helped set Captain Marvel apart from other superhero films.[3] Also at Comic-Con, Feige said the search for a director had been narrowed down to "a short list of 10", and was hoping to be able to announce the choice "by the end of the summer".[60]

text: Perlman revealed in August that the character's origin story had been changed for the film due to similarities with Green Lantern's,[61] with Feige expanding by saying, "I think we have a very cool and unique way of telling" her story, centered on Danvers finding her limitations and vulnerabilities; he added that the character would be "by far the most powerful character" in the MCU films, and would be a "very important character in our universe".[62] Producer Nate Moore later explained that they sought to break away from the traditional structure of many MCU origin stories, "which is you meet the character, they have a problem, they get powers at the end of the first act, and the end of the second act they learn about the powers, the third act they probably fight a villain who has a function of the same powers," in order to give audiences a new experience;[63] Danvers starts the films with her powers already.[8]

text: In October 2016, Feige admitted that the announcement for a director was taking longer than he previously expected, and explained that the studio was now waiting for "a little more of the story [to be] set" so they could talk to potential directors about it. Once again talking about hiring a female filmmaker to direct the film, Feige said that he did not think it would be a requirement "to make a great version of Captain Marvel, but it's something we think is important," even if that female filmmaker does not know a lot about the comics, as "they just have to fall in love with it once they are presented with it. It's amazing to see all of the filmmakers read through [the source material] and know, 'Oh, a female's writing it now'", speaking in particular to Kelly Sue DeConnick's run in the comics.[62] Feige expected a director to be announced by the end of 2016;[64] however, Perlman and LeFauve turned in a script treatment around December, pushing additional meetings with director candidates into early 2017.[65]

text: In February 2017, Perlman stated that despite her and LeFauve being hired almost a year previously, the duo had only recently gotten their "marching orders" for the script, stating one of the reasons for the delay was figuring out where the film would fit within the MCU. Perlman also discussed the character's femininity, feeling that it was important to make sure she is not "somebody who is a hero in spite of her femininity ... being a woman is part of [her] strength." The writers were also considerate of tropes that could be diminishing to a female character but not for male characters, "things you wouldn't think twice about for Iron Man but you would think twice about for Captain Marvel."[9]

text: Pre-production

text:
This is not a superhero who's perfect or otherworldly or has some godlike connection... what makes her special is just how human she is. She's funny, but doesn't always tell good jokes. And she can be headstrong and reckless and doesn't always make the perfect decisions for herself. But at her core, she has so much heart and so much humanity — and all of its messiness.
—Co-director Anna Boden[8]

text: Marvel hired Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck to direct Captain Marvel in April 2017, after the duo impressed Marvel "time and time again" over numerous meetings with their vision for the character, and because of their experience working in both television and film.[66] Feige noted that he and Marvel were impressed with Boden and Fleck's ability to create character-driven stories in all of their works. He added, "The stories they've told have been so diverse, but regardless of the subject matter, they can dive into it and hone in on that character's journey." Ultimately, Feige felt the film "needs to be about the three-dimensional, multilayered Carol Danvers character. You have to be able to track her and follow her and relate to her at all points of the movie, regardless of how many visual effects and spaceships and bad guys are filling the frame."[67] Filming was scheduled to begin in January 2018, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia,[68] but Feige was expecting it to not begin until February 2018.[69]

text: By July 2017, Samuel L. Jackson was set to appear in the film, reprising his role as Nick Fury.[70] At the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con, Feige revealed that the film would take place in the 1990s and the Skrulls would act as the film's villains, allowing elements from the "Kree–Skrull War" storyline to appear.[14][71] By setting the film in the 1990s, Feige noted it would allow Danvers to "be the singular hero, but place it within timing of the MCU."[15] In response to this announcement, Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter compared the film to Captain America: The First Avenger and the DC Extended Universe film Wonder Woman, as they were also set decades before present day. By setting the film in the 1990s, McMillan felt it would create the question of "what happened to Captain Marvel to take her off the playing field ahead of the Marvel movies that we've seen to date?", and noted Danvers' story might echo the "Captain America narrative", where "a hero from the past... disappears from the world before re-emerging".[72] Also in July, the California Film Commission awarded a $20.7 million tax credit to the production,[73] going towards the first $100 million spent on qualified in-state expenditures,[74] making California the main filming location for Captain Marvel. D'Esposito called this "very exciting" given Marvel Studios' headquarters and post-production facilities are also in the state, allowing them to streamline the production process for this film and others.[73] Awarding of the tax credit was dependent on filming beginning within 180 days.[75] Marvel planned to spend $118.6 million filming in the state, for a net of $97.8 million after the tax credit was applied.[76]

text: Geneva Robertson-Dworet was hired by Marvel by mid-August to take over the scripting duties for Captain Marvel after LeFauve left the project to co-direct Gigantic for Disney Animation.[77] Perlman confirmed her departure from the project as well, and said that the story she and LeFauve worked on in earlier drafts would be retained in the final screenplay.[78] Robertson-Dworet described the film as an action-comedy, and likened her script to an initial one she wrote for Tomb Raider (2018) before that film took a more dramatic tone. She added that it was important to the entire creative team to keep the comedic elements of the film and the "very funny voice" of the character, since Danvers "is one of the funniest comic book characters. She's so sassy, she's such a smartass, she won’t take shit from anyone". Robertson-Dworet also credited Boden for helping to shape Danvers' voice in the film and the desire "to carve our own path and make sure we weren’t retreading the same territory [after the release of Wonder Woman], and showing all facets of what women are capable of."[79] Feige added that Captain Marvel would have "homages to our favorite '90s action films", such as the action from Terminator 2, "cool street level fights, street level car chases, and fun stuff like that", since the 1990s action genre was one Marvel Studios had yet to explore. He also stated much of the film would take place in outer space.[15] Quantum physicist Spyridon Michalakis from the Institute for Quantum Information and Matter at the California Institute of Technology consulted on the film.[80]

text: By October, filming was slated to begin in March 2018. Feige described the film then as "a big part of heading towards" the then untitled Avengers film, set for release after Captain Marvel, and concluding the story being told across the first three phases of the MCU.[81] Ben Mendelsohn entered negotiations to join the film as the main villain,[82] having previously worked with Boden and Fleck on their film Mississippi Grind. They had him in mind for the Captain Marvel villain when they first began working on this film's story, and once they had met with him about the role, Mendelsohn "quickly agreed to pursue" it.[83] By November, Jude Law was in negotiations for the role of Walter Lawson / Mar-Vell in the film.[28] In January 2018, DeWanda Wise was cast as Maria Rambeau,[84][24] and Mendelsohn and Law were confirmed to have been cast.[84] Feige stated that Law was an actor Marvel had "admired for a long time and have wanted to find a role for in our movies", feeling his part in Captain Marvel was "extraordinary". For Law, he felt Marvel was "an interesting party to join in with at an interesting time in their ascendancy. That to me is an interesting playground to work in," noting Marvel's "effort [in recent years] to hire independent directors with distinct voices".[25]

text: Filming

text: Location shooting occurred at the end of January 2018.[85][86] Set photos taken at that time showed Larson in a green and black uniform instead of the character's familiar red and blue suit. Feige responded by saying that Marvel accepts the risk of set photos being leaked as a consequence of location shooting, and felt that "most people are savvy enough to know they're looking at a behind-the-scenes photo, completely out of context." He added that a large amount of scenes in the film would be shot on location.[86]

text: A month later, Gemma Chan joined the cast as Minn-Erva.[87] In mid-March, Wise withdrew from the film due to a scheduling conflict with her television series She's Gotta Have It.[88] The following day, Lashana Lynch entered into negotiations to replace Wise.[89] By the end of the month, Lynch was confirmed while Djimon Hounsou, Lee Pace, and Clark Gregg were set to reprise their roles as Korath, Ronan the Accuser, and Phil Coulson, respectively, from earlier MCU films. Algenis Perez Soto, Rune Temte, and Mckenna Grace were also set to star.[2][20] At the same time, Marvel credited Boden and Fleck and the writing team of Liz Flahive and Carly Mensch with writing the screenplay along with LeFauve, Perlman and Robertson-Dworet.[2] With the inclusion of Korath, Ronan, and Coulson (characters established and killed in earlier films), Richard Newby of The Hollywood Reporter felt the film "provide[d] the MCU with another unique opportunity to strengthen the presence of some characters who may not have lived up to their potential and to give great actors, particularly those who portrayed ill-fated villains, a chance to bring more to their roles than their initial opportunities allowed... Captain Marvel allows these characters to become more prominent, and while their fates are sealed for now, their pasts and the stories that reside there can entirely change our perception of them."[90]

text: Principal photography began on March 19 in Los Angeles,[91] under the working title Warbird,[92] with Ben Davis serving as director of photography, marking his fourth time working as a cinematographer in the MCU following Guardians of the Galaxy, Avengers: Age of Ultron, and Doctor Strange.[2] A carnival scene, set in 1986 and featuring Danvers and Fury, was filmed later that week at the Jim Hall Racing Club in Oxnard, California.[93] Filming of Captain Marvel in Los Angeles, along with other big-budget films that took advantage of California's improved tax credit program, helped raise on-location feature film production in the area by 11.7% in the first quarter of 2018, compared to the same period in 2017; it was the first two-figure increase in production since the fourth quarter of 2015.[94] Filming at Shaver Lake outside Fresno, California was set to take place in April under the working title Open World,[95] but was pushed back to mid-May.[96][97] In late April, Feige stated that filming was a little less than halfway completed.[16] The following month, Annette Bening joined the cast in an undisclosed role.[31] In late June, principal photography moved to Baton Rouge, Louisiana and New Orleans for two weeks,[2][98] also using the working title Open World,[1] before concluding on July 6.[99]

text: Post-production

text: Visual effects were created by Lola VFX, with the company working on the de-aging of Jackson and Gregg.[100]

text: Music

text: In May 2018, Clark Gregg indicated the film's soundtrack would include songs from the 1990s.[27] Pinar Toprak signed on to compose the film's score by the following month, making her the first woman to score an MCU film.[101]

text: Marketing

text: Concept art from the film was shown at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con.[14] In June 2018, Feige revealed a look at Larson as Danvers at CineEurope.[102] Larson debuted the first trailer in September 2018 at the National Air and Space Museum on Good Morning America.[103] Petrana Radulovic of Polygon felt the trailer showed "large-scale action and intergalactic mayhem that reaches for Infinity War's heights."[104] Ben Kuchera, also of Polygon, felt opening the trailer with Blockbuster Video was "fitting" and an "anchoring shot" since its logo "remains instantly identifiable to a large audience", and pointed out that the scenes of Danvers as an Airforce pilot "appear to nod at the famously sun-drenched Top Gun" that calls back "to the golden era of films about fighter pilots."[105] Devan Coogan of Entertainment Weekly called the trailer "a powerful introduction to the MCU’s first solo female hero."[106] Graeme McMillian of The Hollywood Reporter noted that Nick Fury's narration dominates the first half of the trailer which "grounds the trailer in something — someone — familiar for the Marvel faithful, and lays the groundwork for Carol Danvers’ first words." He also noted that the film's apparent departure from its' comic book origins removes "the self-determination and agency of Carol Danvers", which was "a risky proposition" to long-time fans of the character.[107] Richard Newby, also of The Hollywood Reporter, felt the trailer "waste[d] no time in not only establishing Captain Marvel’s tremendous power set, but also distinguishing her from the heroes that have come before." Newby also noted, that since Captain Marvel's powers are not as recognizable for the general audience, Marvel does not use their "unfamiliarity to present the character as a joke" as they did with Guardians of the Galaxy and Ant-Man, but "[r]ather it makes a statement that Captain Marvel means business, and if you don’t know her, well buckle up because she’s about to change the universe." Newby commended cinematographer Ben Davis from the trailer for making the film's identity "distinct" from the other MCU films he worked on, noting Captain Marvel seemed "more grounded" than Davis' work on Guardians of the Galaxy or Doctor Strange and appeared to be inspired by the films of Tony Scott, Roland Emmerich, and Richard Donner.[29] The trailer was viewed 109 million times in its first 24 hours, becoming the 11th most viewed trailer in that time period.[108]

text: Release

text: Theatrical

text: Captain Marvel is scheduled to be released in the United States on March 8, 2019,[54] in IMAX and 3D.[109][110] It was originally scheduled for release on July 6, 2018,[41] before moving in February 2015 to November 2, 2018, to accommodate Spider-Man: Homecoming.[44] In October 2015, it moved again to accommodate Ant-Man and the Wasp.[54]

text: Home media

text: Captain Marvel will be the first Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures-distributed film not to stream on Netflix, after Disney decided to let their licensing deal with Netflix expire. Disney plans on releasing Captain Marvel on their own streaming service.[111]


document_title: Neogene

question_text: the uppermost epoch of the neogene period is

root

text: Neogene

text: Divisions[edit]

text: In ICS terminology, from upper (later, more recent) to lower (earlier):

tag: p

text: The Pliocene Epoch is subdivided into 2 ages:

text:
Piacenzian Age, preceded by
Zanclean Age

tag: ul

text: The Miocene Epoch is subdivided into 6 ages:

text:
Messinian Age, preceded by
Tortonian Age
Serravallian Age
Langhian Age
Burdigalian Age
Aquitanian Age

text: In different geophysical regions of the world, other regional names are also used for the same or overlapping ages and other timeline subdivisions.

text: The terms Neogene System (formal) and upper Tertiary System (informal) describe the rocks deposited during the Neogene Period.

text: Geography[edit]

text: The continents in the Neogene were very close to their current positions. The Isthmus of Panama formed, connecting North and South America. The Indian subcontinent continued to collide with Asia, forming the Himalayas. Sea levels fell, creating land bridges between Africa and Eurasia and between Eurasia and North America.

text: Climate[edit]

text: The global climate became seasonal and continued an overall drying and cooling trend which began at the start of the Paleogene. The ice caps on both poles began to grow and thicken, and by the end of the period the first of a series of glaciations of the current Ice Age began.

text: Flora and fauna[edit]

text: Marine and continental flora and fauna have a modern appearance. The reptile group Choristodera became extinct in the early part of the period, while the amphibians known as Allocaudata disappeared at the end. Mammals and birds continued to be the dominant terrestrial vertebrates, and took many forms as they adapted to various habitats. The first hominids, the ancestors of humans, appeared in southern Europe and migrated into Africa [8].

text: In response to the cooler, seasonal climate, tropical plant species gave way to deciduous ones and grasslands replaced many forests. Grasses therefore greatly diversified, and herbivorous mammals evolved alongside it, creating the many grazing animals of today such as horses, antelope, and bison.

text: Disagreements[edit]

text: The Neogene traditionally ended at the end of the Pliocene Epoch, just before the older definition of the beginning of the Quaternary Period; many time scales show this division.

text: However, there was a movement amongst geologists (particularly marine geologists) to also include ongoing geological time (Quaternary) in the Neogene, while others (particularly terrestrial geologists) insist the Quaternary to be a separate period of distinctly different record. The somewhat confusing terminology and disagreement amongst geologists on where to draw what hierarchical boundaries is due to the comparatively fine divisibility of time units as time approaches the present, and due to geological preservation that causes the youngest sedimentary geological record to be preserved over a much larger area and to reflect many more environments than the older geological record.[9] By dividing the Cenozoic Era into three (arguably two) periods (Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary) instead of seven epochs, the periods are more closely comparable to the duration of periods in the Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras.

text: The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) once proposed that the Quaternary be considered a sub-era (sub-erathem) of the Neogene, with a beginning date of 2.58 Ma, namely the start of the Gelasian Stage. In the 2004 proposal of the ICS, the Neogene would have consisted of the Miocene and Pliocene epochs.[10] The International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) counterproposed that the Neogene and the Pliocene end at 2.58 Ma, that the Gelasian be transferred to the Pleistocene, and the Quaternary be recognized as the third period in the Cenozoic, citing key changes in Earth's climate, oceans, and biota that occurred 2.58 Ma and its correspondence to the Gauss-Matuyama magnetostratigraphic boundary.[11] In 2006 ICS and INQUA reached a compromise that made Quaternary a subera, subdividing Cenozoic into the old classical Tertiary and Quaternary, a compromise that was rejected by International Union of Geological Sciences because it split both Neogene and Pliocene in two.[12]

text: Following formal discussions at the International Geological Congress, Oslo Norway, August 2008,[13] the ICS decided in May 2009 to make the Quaternary the youngest period of the Cenozoic Era with its base at 2.58 Mya and including the Gelasian age, which was formerly considered part of the Neogene Period and Pliocene Epoch.[14] Thus the Neogene Period ends bounding the succeeding Quaternary Period at 2.58 Mya.


document_title: Get a Clue (1997 film)

question_text: who plays angela wexler in the westing game movie

text: Get a Clue (1997 film)

text:
Get a Clue

Based on
The Westing Game
by Ellen Raskin

Written by
Dylan Kelsey Hadley

Directed by
Terence H. Winkless

Starring
Ray Walston
Ashley Peldon
Diane Ladd
Sally Kirkland
Cliff De Young

Theme music composer
Parmer Fuller

Country of origin
United States

Original language(s)
English

Production

Producer(s)
Julie Corman

Running time
95 minutes (approx.)

Release

Original network
Showtime

Original release
September 14, 1997

tag: table

text: Get a Clue is a 1997 film based on the Newbery Medal-winning book The Westing Game.

text: The film draws young viewers into the strange mysteries encountered by 13-year-old "Turtle" Wexler and her sister, Angela Wexler. After moving into a new town, Turtle learns the house next door is the notoriously haunted Westing mansion. Discovering the body of the dead millionaire, Turtle attempts to solve the case in hopes of receiving a 20 million dollar reward. The live-action adventure stars Ashley Peldon, Diane Ladd, Sally Kirkland, and Ray Walston.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Ray Walston as Sandy McSouthers, Barney Northrup, Julian R. Eastman and Sam Westing
Ashley Peldon as Tabitha Ruth Wexler "Turtle" or "Alice" T.R
Diane Ladd as Berthe Erica Crow
Sally Kirkland as Sydelle Pulaski
Cliff De Young as Jake Wexler
Sandy Faison as Grace Wexler
June Christopher as Judge J.J. Ford
Lewis Arquette as Otis Amber
Diane Nadeau as Angela Wexler
Billy Morrissette as Ed Plum
Jim Lau as James Shin Hoo
Shane West as Chris Theodorakis
Ernest Liu as Doug Hoo


document_title: Costume Contest

question_text: who does kevin dress up as in the office

text: Costume Contest

text: Plot[edit]

text: The office becomes excited over the annual Halloween costume contest, the prize for which is a Scranton-area coupon book. Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nunez), frustrated that no one else seems to realize what a meager prize a coupon book really is, changes out of his costume and snarkily states that he is dressed up as "a rational consumer". The significance of this gesture goes over the other workers' heads, and Oscar becomes increasingly embarrassed at being virtually the only person not in costume. Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) persistently begs Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) to wear a matching couples costume of Popeye and Olive Oyl with her, but he refuses as he feels he is too old for costumes. As the day goes on, several people realize their costume might not win, so they leave the office to switch into something more recognizable or provocative.

text: Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods) informs the staff that delivery drivers can now suggest additional products for the customers they deliver to, increasing sales for the company. Michael Scott (Steve Carell) realizes this idea is similar to a suggestion made by Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson), which he had shot down. He now realizes this was a mistake and apologizes to Darryl, and Darryl says he holds no grudge against him. However, Michael feels increasingly uncomfortable at Darryl not receiving credit for his idea, and announces to the entire office that he is going to confront corporate about stealing Darryl's idea. Gabe tells Michael that Darryl actually pitched the idea to him, and has already received credit.

text: New salesman Danny Cordray (Timothy Olyphant) invites everyone to a Halloween party at his bar after work. Almost everyone in the office is aware that Danny and Pam had a two-date fling four years ago. Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner) and Andy Bernard (Ed Helms) tell Danny that they are not going to his party because Pam does not want them to, which incites Danny to confront Jim and Pam. They reassure him that Pam does not care if people go to his party, and the three laugh about how their coworkers have been exaggerating the significance of his two dates with Pam; however, it also becomes clear that Pam wants to know exactly why she was rejected. Danny said he never called back because Pam talked about Jim during their dates. Pam reveals she never mentioned Jim, and so Danny admits that he found her too "dorky." Jim realizes he loves Pam for being so dorky, and comes into the office wearing his Popeye costume and carrying CeCe (dressed as Swee'Pea), much to the delight of Pam.

text: Michael is angered that Darryl went over his head, and tries to get Darryl to apologize in front of everyone for 'backstabbing' him. Darryl refuses, criticizing Michael's poor judgment of his idea. Michael changes his costume to Darryl's warehouse uniform, and mocks him. The two bring their argument to Gabe, where Darryl expresses his opinion that Michael has never done anything for him. After some negotiating by Gabe, Darryl and Michael apologize to each other. Darryl wishes he were still operating down in the warehouse, but Andy inspires Darryl to further his career at Dunder Mifflin.

text: Oscar is declared the winner of the costume contest. A series of interviews reveal several employees' reasons for voting for Oscar – Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) voted on whom she thought was least likely to win, Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) for the underdog, and Creed Bratton (Creed Bratton) because he thought Oscar was wearing an excellent Edward James Olmos costume.

text: Production[edit]

text: "Costume Contest" was directed by Dean Holland, an editor on the series, and written by Justin Spitzer. Holland also directed the fifth-season episode, "The Duel". It was the second episode to feature Timothy Olyphant, who was billed as a special guest star, in a guest appearance as Danny Cordray. David Koechner appears as Todd Packer, last seen in the sixth-season episode, "St. Patrick's Day". With the seventh season of The Office being Carell's last, the writers decided to divide the season into two distinct halves; the first half would "celebrate Carell's finale year and highlight different actors on the show", whereas the second half would focus on his departure and the search for a new manager. As such, "Costume Contest" was one of the first episodes of the season to specifically highlight other characters, in this case Robinson's character, Darryl.[1]

text: Within the week of the original air date, Hulu released four deleted scenes from the episode. In the first 87-second clip, Dwight and Michael try to destroy Darryl's idea by having a fake fight which eventually fails.[2] In the second 79-second clip, Dwight kisses up to Darryl in case he is promoted.[3] In the fourth 50-second clip, Toby and Kelly explain why they want the coupon book while Oscar looks for something good in the book.[4]

text: Halloween costumes[edit]

text:
Michael as MacGruber, then Darryl (Oscar's afro wig and a warehouse uniform) before changing back
Dwight as "The Scranton Strangler"
Jim as nothing, then Popeye
Pam as Olive Oyl
Ryan as Justin Bieber
Andy as Bill Compton
Stanley as a Samurai Warrior
Kevin as Michael Moore
Creed as a Mummy
Meredith as Sookie Stackhouse
Kelly as Snooki, then Nicki Minaj
Erin as a hideous Monster
Angela as a Penguin, then a sexy Nurse
Toby as a Clown Hobo (reminiscent of Devon from the second season's Halloween episode)
Oscar as a 70s pimp, then a "rational consumer" (but mistaken by Creed to be Edward James Olmos)
Darryl as Dracula
Phyllis as Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor
Gabe as Lady Gaga
Todd Packer as a pregnant Nun
Bob Vance as Dirty Harry
CeCe as Swee'Pea

text: Reception[edit]

text: In its original American broadcast on October 28, 2010, "Costume Contest" was viewed by an estimated 8.07 million viewers and received a 4.0 rating/11% share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. The episode's rating improved 15% from the previous episode.[5][6] In Canada, the episode was watched by 826,000 viewers.[7]

text: The episode received positive reviews from critics. James Poniewozik of Time said, "It started excellently with "What can Stanley ignore" precredit sequence and it rolled on from there." He also said that this episode contained a number of nice character moments.[8] Joel Keller of AOL's TV Squad called the episode a "slow-building but ultimately winning episode".[9] Margaret Lyons of Entertainment Weekly called the episode "the funniest episode of The Office since season 5".[10]


document_title: Captain America's shield

question_text: where did captain america get vibranium for his shield

text: Captain America's shield

text: Abilities[edit]

text: Vibranium Proto-Adamantium alloy[edit]

text: Captain America's shield is virtually indestructible under normal conditions;[1] while cosmic and magical or godly opponents have broken the shield, the shield proves strong enough to absorb Hulk's strength, and repel an attack from Thor's mystical hammer Mjölnir without any visible damage. As it is made of an alloy of vibranium and proto-adamantium, it is able to absorb all kinetic energy and transfers very little energy from each impact, meaning Captain America does not feel recoil or transferred impact forces from blocking attacks.This alloy also allows him to deflect adamantium blades without damage to the shield. These physical properties also means the shield can bounce off of most smooth surfaces, ricocheting multiple times with minimal loss in aerodynamic stability or velocity. The shield can also absorb the kinetic impact of a fall, allowing Captain America to land safely even when jumping off of several stories, as can be seen in Captain America: Winter Soldier movie when he escaped from the S.H.I.E.L.D.'s STRIKE squad by jumping off an elevator.[volume & issue needed]

text: Ricochet ballistics[edit]

text:
A common misconception is that the shield can "magically" return to Captain America[citation needed]. The "superhuman serum" that enhanced Captain America's physical attributes also improved his mental faculties—such as cognition, perception, balance, aim, and reflexes—to near genius-level. This allows him to instantly calculate ballistic-physics and predict the probable trajectory of objects in motion. This makes him a perfect shot. He can dodge or deflect bullets with his shield without collateral ricochet to civilians, to calculate where or how the shield will bounce and when it will return to his location, or trip a running person to cause them to fall into a specific position.[citation needed]
In Avengers: Age of Ultron, he pulls the shield back to him after it is stuck, but this is through an electromagnet fastened on his arm. After his memories are altered to make him believe that he is a Hydra sleeper agent, Rogers uses his precise knowledge of the shield to put Sam Wilson, its current wielder, in a position where he will fail to save a senator from Flag-Smasher by arranging for Wilson to be forced to throw the shield in a manner that Rogers knows from his own experience will miss its target by mere millimetres, as part of his agenda to undermine Sam's status as Captain America.[2]

text: Original shield[edit]

text: In his debut, Captain America (secretly U.S. Army Private Steve Rogers) is equipped with a triangular, badge-shaped shield made from vibranium. After complaints by rival comic-book publisher MLJ that the design was too similar to that of its own patriotic hero the Shield,[3] Timely Comics replaced the triangular shield with a disc-shaped one.

text: While the origin and fate of the original shield were not described in the original comics from the 1940s, the shield's fate was revealed decades later in 2001 through a retconned story. According to the tale, King T'Chaka of the African nation Wakanda met Captain America in early 1941 and gave him a second sample of vibranium, an alien metal with unique vibration absorption properties and found only in Wakanda and the Savage Land.[4] The new Vibranium sample was used to make Captain America's circular shield and his triangular one was retired.

text: Captain America received a second triangular shield that he used until given his disc-shaped shield, which was personally presented to him by President Franklin Roosevelt.[5] This second triangular shield would be kept in storage with Rogers' other personal effects after the war. It was recovered at some point after Rogers joined the superhero team the Avengers in The Avengers #4, and was kept at Avengers Mansion. It was destroyed by the supervillain Mr. Hyde during a raid on the mansion by Baron Zemo's Masters of Evil, and later "plucked from time" and restored by Zemo in Thunderbolts #105 (Oct. 2006). The shield (along with other sentimental items thought destroyed) was returned to Captain America. A third triangular shield is kept in the Smithsonian Institution. It was used by Captain America when he foiled a terrorist attack on the museum itself after the loss of his usual shield; it was then given to him in gratitude. This shield is destroyed several issues later by a Kree alien warrior.

text: The shield destroyed by Hydra and restored by Zemo was eventually passed on to Elijah Bradley, the teenage hero known as the Patriot and leader of the Young Avengers.

text: Revised history[edit]

text: In 2010, the history of the original shield was revised. In the limited series Captain America/Black Panther: Flags of Our Fathers, Captain America, Sergeant Nick Fury and the Howling Commandos meet Azzari (grandfather of T'Challa) -- the Black Panther and king of Wakanda during World War II. Aided by Wakandan military forces, they successfully repel a series of Nazi assaults led by the Red Skull and Baron Strucker. During the battle, the Red Skull (wearing a battle-suit) crushes the triangular shield, and Captain America uses a circular vibranium shield provided by T'Chaka to incapacitate the Skull. The weapon serves as the inspiration for the circular shield that the super-soldier begins using upon his return to America, and the encounter marks the beginning of friendly relations between the United States and Wakanda.[6]

text: Circular shield[edit]

text: The circular shield most associated with Captain America made its debut in Captain America Comics #2 (April 1941). A concavo-convex metal disc approximately 2.5 feet (0.76 m) in diameter, is indestructible and has remained his most constant shield over the decades.[citation needed]

text: In Captain America #255 (March 1981), it is established that the shield was presented to Rogers by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.[7] The shield is created by a fictional American metallurgist named Myron MacLain, who had been commissioned by the US government to create an indestructible armor material to aid the war effort. MacLain experiments with the indestructible vibration-absorbing metal vibranium.[4]

text: During one of his experiments to fuse vibranium with an experimental iron alloy [8] MacLain falls asleep and awakens to find that the resulting alloy had set in a tank hatch mold. It was then painted to become Captain America's symbol. MacLain would later attempt to recreate the shield's metal to no avail, his experiments instead eventually yielding the super-metal adamantium.[citation needed]

text: Rogers' indestructible shield is more durable than regular adamantium and one of the most indestructible objects in The Marvel Universe. Carl "Crusher" Creel, The Absorbing Man, once absorbed the properties  the shield while battling The Avengers. The vibranium grants the shield unusual properties, allowing it to absorb all of the kinetic impact and vibrations from any blows that the shield receives without injuring Rogers in the process. The vibranium is also a factor in the way Rogers throws his shield: he often uses it to ricochet and strike multiple opponents or stationary objects with little loss of velocity in its forward movement after each impact.[citation needed]

text: When Rogers returns from suspended animation, Tony Stark "improves" the shield by incorporating electronic and magnetic components in it so that Rogers can even control it in flight. Rogers soon discards the additional components because he finds that it upsets the balance of the shield when thrown.[citation needed]

text: After Rogers' death, Stark takes over custody of the shield, with one replica on display in a museum, and another replica buried with Rogers. The real one is kept by Stark to be used by the new Captain America, whenever they deem it appropriate to train a new one. After failing to find a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent capable of throwing it properly, Stark offers the shield to Clint Barton (known at that time as Ronin), who does manage to throw it. During a confrontation involving the Young Avengers, he scolds Kate Bishop for using the Hawkeye name. She tells him that the "Real Cap" gave her that name in honor of his at the time dead friend, so this leads Barton to refuse to be Captain America.[9] The shield is subsequently stolen by the Winter Soldier, who did not want anyone else to carry the shield. Inevitably, in an effort to honor Rogers' last wishes, Stark offers to let the Winter Soldier (Bucky Barnes) keep the shield, and to serve as the new Captain America. Bucky accepts. This offer is made "off the books", and only the two of them, the Black Widow, and the Falcon, are aware of the situation.[10]

text: Although Bucky attempted to return the shield to Rogers after his resurrection, Rogers let Bucky keep it as he felt that he could do more good in his new role as Commander Steve Rogers rather than Captain America, using a photonic shield in its place when circumstances called for him to go into combat. He reclaimed the shield for good after Bucky was apparently killed during the Fear Itself event- Bucky really going underground after his past as the Winter Soldier was exposed-, which also resulted in the shield being broken and reassembled by Asgardian blacksmiths, who add some of the mystical metal Uru to the reconstructed shield, making it even stronger than before, although it is left with a noticeable scar that Rogers decided to keep to give the shield character.[11] This premise was not observed in subsequent storylines, or considered canon, as artists have not continued depicting the shield with the scar.[12]

text: JLA/Avengers[edit]

text: In the 2003-2004 Marvel Comics/DC Comics inter-company crossover limited series JLA/Avengers, Superman is given the shield by Captain America to wield in battle in the final confrontation with Krona, and is impressed with its might. When he asks where he could get one just like it while battling foes, Thor replies, "Enjoy it while thou canst, Superman. There is none other like it in all the worlds". Throughout the final battle, the shield changes forms between the pointed shield and the circular shield due to various temporal ripples caused by Krona's equipment, and Superman even loses the shield altogether at one point when he morphs into his energy form while Cap reacquires the photonic shield, although the metal shield reappears on Superman's arm after he morphs back into his regular form.

text: Destruction of the shield[edit]

text: Over time the shield has been damaged or destroyed several times within the confines of the Earth-616 continuity, though they are not considered canon:

text: In The Avengers #215–216, the Molecule Man used his total control over matter to disintegrate the shield, along with Thor's hammer, Iron Man's armor, and the Silver Surfer's board. After he does so, he comments that the board's molecules are "weird", and while there are "odd forces interweaving" among the hammer's molecules, the shield is "weirdest of all". He later reassembles these items, with the exception of the armor, as the electronic circuits are too complicated for him to understand at that time.[13]

text: During the 1984-1985 Secret Wars limited series, the shield is partially destroyed by Doctor Doom, who has stolen the power of the godlike being known as the Beyonder. Even broken, Rogers is able to wield what is left as an effective weapon, with the shield largely retaining its balance when thrown. When the Beyonder reclaims its power, the heroes are temporarily granted the ability to realize their wishes. Rogers uses this to reconstruct the shield.[14]

text: During the 1991 miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos, who possesses near-omnipotence via the Infinity Gauntlet, shatters the shield with a blow of his fist while in combat with Captain America. The shield is soon restored by Thanos' alleged granddaughter, Nebula, when she obtains the Gauntlet and uses it to undo the events of Thanos's temporary godhood, resulting in her erasing the death and destruction that Thanos had caused over the previous 24 hours.[15]

text: Due to a stray molecule being out of place when Rogers reconstructed the shield using the Beyonder's residual power, a vibranium 'cancer' was introduced to the shield, spreading with each subsequent impact until it finally shattered after it was retrieved from the bottom of the ocean. Learning that the vibranium cancer would require the destruction of the shield in order to cure it, Rogers took the shield to the main vibranium deposit in Wakanda so that he could use a device created by Tony Stark to halt the 'cancer' before it could contaminate the Wakandan vibranium and destroy the world, only to be intercepted by the villain Klaw, who sought to absorb the power and become stronger. Fortunately, the amount of energy Klaw had absorbed was released when he struck the shattered shield with full force after Rogers picked it up on reflex, resulting in Klaw unintentionally restoring the shield to its original state, realigning its molecules and destroying the cancer.[16]

text: In Avengers Vol. 3 #63 (March 2003), an enraged Thor, wielding the Odinforce, scrapes the shield. Thor later repairs it.[17]

text: In Thor Vol. 2 #73 (January 2004) an enraged King Thor with Rune Magic, destroyed the shield, killing Steve Rogers with it.[18] This timeline was later erased in Thor Vol. 2 #79.[19]

text: During the 2011 miniseries Fear Itself, the Serpent, the Asgardian god of fear and brother to Odin, breaks it in half with his bare hands.[20] After the battle, the shield is repaired by Asgardian dwarves and Tony Stark with added Asgardian uru-infused enhancements and Stark's own technology to make it stronger, though a scar is left, and the dwarves are unable to repair it. Stark offers a solution to the scar, but Rogers declines, saying that it "gave the old girl a little bit of character". This premise was not observed in subsequent storylines, or considered canon, as artists have not continued depicting the shield with the scar.

text: Other shields[edit]

text:
While Rogers was asleep in suspended animation, three other men used the identity of Captain America, all using steel replicas of the discus shield. The 1950s Captain America was placed in suspended animation after becoming mentally unstable. By the time he was revived years later, Rogers had returned. When the two clashed, the 1950s Captain America's shield was broken.[volume & issue needed]
In the 1980s, in a story written by Mark Gruenwald, Rogers chose to resign his identity rather than submit to the orders of the United States government and took the alias of "The Captain" instead. During this period, the role of Captain America was assumed by John Walker, the former Super-Patriot, who used both the costume and the indestructible shield.[21] In his new identity of "The Captain", Rogers initially used a pure adamantium shield provided by Tony Stark, but a falling out between the two as a result of the "Armor Wars" storyline led Rogers to return it. He then began to use a pure vibranium shield provided by the Black Panther. When Rogers returned to his Captain America identity, Walker became the U.S. Agent and returned the shield to him. Walker would go on to have his own array of different shields over the years, the first of which appeared to be the last vibranium shield Rogers was using as the Captain. The U.S. Agent used shields with an eagle motif and one in the shape of a star, as well as a photonic energy shield.[volume & issue needed]
At one point, when Rogers was exiled from the United States and was briefly unable to use his shield, Sharon Carter provided him with a photonic energy shield designed to mimic a vibranium matrix. This shield was also able to turn into an energy staff that could be used as a weapon.[volume & issue needed]
During the time when the shield was lost in the Atlantic, Rogers tried using a pure adamantium shield, but was unable to get used to the balance. He also tried fighting without a shield but also found it awkward. While up against HYDRA agents in the Smithsonian, he picked up the triangular shield that was being exhibited there and used it for a time before it was crushed by a Kree warrior.[volume & issue needed]
Sharon Carter next provided him with another photonic shield, but one whose shape could be controlled to morph the energy field into a wider force field, a bo staff or even fire a projection of the shield. While he enjoyed the versatility, Rogers noticed a number of drawbacks, particularly its inability to ricochet. Rogers gave one of the energy shield gloves to a freedom fighter in an oppressive future he traveled to and received a replacement from S.H.I.E.L.D. when he got back to his own time. The photonic shield was eventually lost again in a confrontation with Ultron when Hank Pym's use of vibranium resulted in the destruction of the generator that created the shield,[22] leading to Rogers finally reacquiring his original shield.[volume & issue needed]
In Secret Avengers, he uses a new energy shield which could be generated on either arm, or both, and was able to be thrown and ricochet off surfaces to hit targets before it dissipates, preventing enemies from using it against him. A new shield would be generated moments later. Moon Knight, who had acquired a copy of the technology, had it described to him as a "zero point energy shield".[23]
A British analogue, Captain Midlands, wields a golden circular shield in the design of the traditional lion symbol of Britain and coated in an Anti-Magic nanominium gloss.[24]
In Captain America: Steve Rogers, Steve wields a new version of the triangular shield that can deploy an energy blade on its pointy end and can be divided in two, allowing him to use both halves in combat.[25]

text: Other versions[edit]

text:
In the 1998-1999 time travel mini-series Avengers Forever, various future and alternate versions of Captain America are shown with many different variations of the shield.[26]
Cable claims to have borne the shield into battle many times during his early adulthood, far in the future. In another version, Cable claims that the origin of his techno-organic arm was because his original one was lost when he attempted to retrieve the shield as a symbol for morale in the future war against Apocalypse.[27]
In the future timeline of the Guardians of the Galaxy, the shield is used by Major Victory in battle.[28]
In the Future Imperfect setting, where the Hulk becomes the Maestro and is both the last surviving superbeing and a despotic ruler, an ancient Rick Jones assembles a trophy room as a tribute to the fallen heroes, with the shield among them. Jones uses the shield to defend against one of the Maestro's blows, but the wheelchair used by the disabled Jones was not sturdy enough for such an impact. Jones is sent flying back and is impaled on Wolverine's skeleton. When the Hulk, plucked from the past, throws the shield to attack his future self, he manages to injure the Maestro, causing a large gash on his chest as he attempts to cut the Maestro in half. Throwing the Hulk off, the Maestro attempts to hit Hulk with the shield himself, commenting that Rogers could never throw the shield hard enough to do him any damage, but the Hulk deflects it with the Silver Surfer's old board. After the battle, Jones is cremated and the Hulk poured Jones' ashes over the shield, affixing it with an epoxy. The Hulk then throws it into space, hoping that it will land somewhere exciting.[29]
In the Marvel manga stories, Captain America uses a photonic shield before his death in Volumes 1 and 2, and his bodyguards use shields of metal. The shield also appears in the Rings of Fate mini-series, having been acquired by Carol Danvers after Elektra stole it from Avengers Mansion when she uses the costume of Captain America.
In the Colonel America reality of Marvel Zombies, the shield is held by the last humans, who have formed a new society. As part of a self-defense program, the shield is used by the semi-sentient body/mind configuration of Colonel America's body and the son of Black Panther. It is also used by Forge, who is fighting in Iron Man's old armor. The shield and many zombie allies of the humans are lost in the dimensions due to a traitor.[30]
Captain Mexical is an alternate world version of Captain America from a dimension where the Aztec empire never fell. He is kept in the mainstream Marvel universe. His shield is used by Machine Man as a weapon during a zombie incursion; Mexical himself is slain.[31]
In Mark Millar's 2008-2009 "Old Man Logan" storyline in Wolverine, the Red Skull has a trophy room filled with artifacts belonging to the heroes of the Marvel Universe. Captain America's shield is at the center of the trophy room, and is later used by Wolverine to decapitate the Red Skull.[32]
Within the third and fourth issues of Avengers and Power Pack Assemble! miniseries, the Power Pack were thrown ten years into the future and met older versions of themselves, including a 25-year-old Alex Power. In those issues he shows greater control over his powers, (such as being able to deconstruct an enemy powered-armor suit), and now wields Captain America's shield.[33]
In the Age of Ultron story, Captain America is shown sitting in a storeroom in the base of the last remaining active heroes, with the shattered fragments of his shield around him.[34]

text: In issue #7 of the Marvel series Strikeforce: Morituri the shield is stored in a trophy room belonging to the alien "Horde" invaders.[35]

text:
Ultimate Captain America uses a shield of pure adamantium, although that metal may not possess the same properties in the Ultimate Marvel universe as it does in the mainstream Marvel Universe.[36] The shield was destroyed when Gregory Stark smashed it with Thor's hammer, though Captain America would wield another later.[37]
In Ultimate Nightmare, Ultimate Captain America encounters his Russian counterpart, who has been driven mad due to being trapped in an underground complex for many years. He has created a "replica" of the shield, which turns out to be made out of scrap metal and human remains and grafted directly onto his forearm, and which proves far less powerful than Captain America's own shield.[38]
In the alternate reality shown in What If...? #114, where the heroes and villains are unable to leave Battleworld at the conclusion of the Secret Wars, the shield is passed on to the daughter of Captain America and Rogue.[39]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text:
In the 1970s Captain America TV movies, Steve Rogers is given a transparent plexiglass shield painted with concentric stripes (red and clear transparent) and a central star. The shield was designed to act as the windscreen for his motorcycle, but could be detached and used in its traditional offensive / defensive role when Rogers goes on foot. Furthermore, the shield can apparently return to Rogers in a smooth arc when thrown without needing to be ricocheted and with enough force to knock a man down in the return path.
In 2003, the company Factory X released a line of licensed prop replicas of items from the Marvel Universe. An aluminum replica of Captain America's shield was among their initial line up of props, and was limited to a production of 2,525 pieces.
In the closing of the March 12, 2007 episode of The Colbert Report, Stephen Colbert read a letter from Joe Quesada in response to Colbert's earlier comments toward Captain America. He was then presented with what was said to be Captain America's indestructible shield, reportedly willed to Colbert in the event of Cap's "death". The shield was originally credited to be one of the Factory X replicas, but this is not the case. The shield given to Colbert was originally acquired by the long-time writer and editor (and late) Mark Gruenwald, who either commissioned it or received it as a gift. It eventually found its way into the hands of Marvel Editor Tom Brevoort, and was kept in his office until being passed on to Colbert. In a pre-show conversation with a studio audience, Colbert, speaking out of character, said that when his wife saw the shield and the accompanying note, she started crying. He confessed he was a little bemused by her reaction to a fictional character sending a prop shield to a fictional version of himself. The shield was put on display hanging on the wall along with other trophies on The Colbert Report set for every episode afterwards. After The Colbert Report ended, the shield was moved to the set of Colbert's next talk show, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert where it was put on display since.
In the animated movie Ultimate Avengers, based loosely on The Ultimates, Captain America uses a shield made from vibranium and adamantium compound. Captain America used his triangular shield throughout World War II, only gaining the disc-shaped vibranium-bearing shield after he awoke in the present day. The composition of the triangular shield remains unrevealed. It did prove to be effective against the bullets of German soldiers, but was dented by the punch of a Chitauri taking the form of Herr Kleiser.
In the 2010 iOS game Infinity Blade, the player has the option to purchase a shield called The Patriot. The design of the shield, featuring three concentric rings, a star in the center, and what appears to be red, white, and blue paint all but completely worn off, closely resembles Captain America's shield.
In the video game Marvel Heroes, Captain America is a playable character and uses the shield defensively and offensively, blocking attacks and attacking with it as a bludgeoning and thrown weapon.
In the Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes episode "A Day Unlike Any Other", Loki uses his magic to shatter Captain America's shield while taunting him. In the episode "Behold... The Vision!", Captain America's shield is restored by the Black Panther and scientists in Wakanda using the Vibranium machine that fused the pieces back together.
The adamantium-vibranium alloy version of the shield becomes the main plot device for the story in the Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Not a Toy".

text: Film[edit]

text: Captain America's shield is a recurring image throughout the Marvel Cinematic Universe franchise:

text:
In the 2008 film Iron Man, a partially completed replica of Captain America’s shield appears approximately 1 hour 25 minutes into the movie at the point where Pepper Potts comes in on Tony Stark trying to get out of his damaged armor; the shield is visible in the distance below Tony's right arm. According to a tie-in comic, Tony's father Howard Stark created the shield. Tony subsequently used the alloy of a prototype to create his armor.[40]
In the 2008 film The Incredible Hulk, a deleted opening scene features the shield and Captain America buried in ice. However, the 2011 film Captain America: The First Avenger reveals this scene, or at least the appearance of Captain America to be non-canon.
In the 2010 film Iron Man 2, Tony Stark is building a particle accelerator in his home to create a new element for his arc reactor when S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson finds the replica of Captain America's shield that was seen on Tony's work table in the first Iron Man film and asks if it is what he thinks it is. Stark ignores the question and asks him to hand the shield over, using it as a shim to level the accelerator.
In the 2011 film Captain America: The First Avenger, the round shield (along with Rogers himself) is found by S.H.I.E.L.D. agents in the Arctic within a crashed aircraft in the present day. During World War II, Steve Rogers uses an ornamental version of the triangular shield during a musical tour promoting War Bonds, which he then uses in his first field mission and is rendered useless when Johann Schmidt punches a large dent in it. He later notices an unadorned vibranium shield among Howard Stark's proposed weapons, which Stark says is stronger than steel and weighs only one third as much. Although it is merely a prototype that Stark did not intend for one of Rogers' weapons, Rogers decides to use it after it is painted into the familiar red, white and blue pattern. The shield is later on board the Valkyrie when Rogers crashing the bomber, and becomes frozen along with him in the Arctic.
In the 2012 film The Avengers, Captain America wields the same shield as the one seen in Captain America: The First Avenger.[41] While described in the prequel film as being vibration-absorbent, it is shown here as being rather vibration-reflecting, as the kinetic force from Mjolnir striking the shield rebounds as a powerful shockwave, leveling a small section of heavily forested area in the process. It is also capable of deflecting Iron Man's repulsor blasts against a band of Chitauri invaders.
In the teaser trailer for the 2013 film Iron Man 3, Trevor Slattery has a tattoo resembling the shield on the back of his neck. Slattery's tattoo is visible in the Marvel One-Shot short film All Hail the King.
In the 2014 film Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Rogers takes advantage of the vibranium's properties by jumping out of a building a few dozen stories up, and landing on the shield, thereby surviving without any serious injuries. During his street battle with the Winter Soldier, Rogers temporarily loses the shield to his adversary, with the Winter Soldier wielding it momentarily. Near the end of a confrontation with the Winter Soldier, the shield falls into the Potomac River, but appears again next to the Captain's bed as he is recovering in a hospital.
A 2014 promo for the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. features the show's logo superimposed over Captain America's shield.[42]
The shield appears in the season finale of Agent Carter when Howard Stark was being hypnotized by Johann Fennhoff and sees Peggy Carter holding Captain America's shield, asking him to bring Steve home.
In the 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron, the handles of the shield have been replaced with magnetic elements, allowing Captain America to control the shield and call it back to his gauntlets. Its status as a vibranium construct is referenced when the Avengers determine that Ultron is heading to Wakanda, as vibranium is the only thing from Wakanda that Ultron could want. During his later fight with Ultron, Rogers briefly loses his shield when it is thrown from the top of the truck where he was fighting Ultron, but Black Widow grabs it and returns it to its owner. When Wanda Maximoff triggers a vision of Tony Stark's greatest fear, he sees all of the other Avengers dead and the shield broken next to Rogers.
In the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "The Singularity", Coulson, now director of S.H.I.E.L.D. has an energy shield attached to his prosthetic hand, which is similar to Captain America's energy shield in the comics.[43]
In the 2016 film Captain America: Civil War, Captain America continues to use his shield, although it is confiscated when he is apprehended for aiding the Winter Soldier in violation of the Sokovia Accords. Sharon Carter returns the shield to him, and he uses it in combat with Iron Man and his allies. Black Panther, whose weapons feature vibranium as well, scratches the shield in combat with Captain America. During the final battle featuring Captain America and the Winter Soldier fighting Iron Man, Rogers uses the shield to severely damage Tony Stark's armor, breaking open the helmet and destroying the suit's arc reactor. Ultimately, Captain America leaves his shield behind when Stark berates him for not being deserving of it, since Rogers kept the knowledge of the Winter Soldier killing his parents from him.
In Avengers: Infinity War, T'Challa and Shuri present Rogers new dual-retractable vibranium shields in order to replace his traditional circular one he left behind at the conclusion of Civil War.


document_title: Mohenjo-daro

question_text: in which city of harappan civilization was the great granary excavated

text: Mohenjo-daro

text: Etymology

text: The city's original name is unknown. Based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the city's ancient name could have been Kukkutarma ("the city [-rma] of the cockerel [kukkuta]").[5] Cock-fighting may have had ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there for sacred purposes, rather than as a food source. Mohenjo-daro may also have been a point of diffusion for the eventual worldwide domestication of chickens.[6]

text: Mohenjo-daro, the modern name for the site, has been variously interpreted as "Mound of the Dead Men" in Sindhi, and as "Mound of Mohan" (where Mohan is Krishna).[2][7]

text: Location

text: Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, in a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River. It is situated on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres (17 mi) from the town of Larkana.[8] The ridge was prominent during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding flood, but subsequent flooding has since buried most of the ridge in silt deposits. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the western side is now dry.[9]

text: Historical context

text: Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE.[10] It was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization,[11] which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. At its height, the Indus Civilization spanned much of what is now Pakistan and North India, extending westwards to the Iranian border, south to Gujarat in India and northwards to an outpost in Bactria, with major urban centers at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi. Mohenjo-daro was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning.[12] When the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned.[10][13]

text: Rediscovery and excavation

text: The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D. Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of India, visited the site in 1919–20, identifying the Buddhist stupa (150–500 CE) known to be there and finding a flint scraper which convinced him of the site's antiquity. This led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro led by Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in 1925–26.[14] In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar and Ernest Mackay. Further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Mortimer Wheeler and his trainee, Ahmad Hasan Dani. The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales. After 1965 excavations were banned due to weathering damage to the exposed structures, and the only projects allowed at the site since have been salvage excavations, surface surveys, and conservation projects. However, in the 1980s, German and Italian survey groups led by Dr. Michael Jansen and Dr. Maurizio Tosi used less invasive archeological techniques, such as architectural documentation, surface surveys, and localized probing, to gather further information about Mohenjo-daro.[3] A dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistan's National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area.[15]

text: Architecture and urban infrastructure

text: Mohenjo-daro has a planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a grid plan.[16] Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick and wooden superstructures. The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares.[17] The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers a "weak" estimate of a peak population of around 40,000.[18]

text: The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization.[19] The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City. The Citadel – a mud-brick mound around 12 metres (39 ft) high – is known to have supported public baths, a large residential structure designed to house about 5,000 citizens, and two large assembly halls. The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual households or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably those of more prestigious  inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace (known as a hypocaust), possibly for heated bathing. Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened onto side-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.[citation needed]

text: Major buildings

text: In 1950, Sir Mortimer Wheeler identified one large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary". Certain wall-divisions in its massive wooden superstructure appeared to be grain storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. According to Wheeler, carts would have brought grain from the countryside and unloaded them directly into the bays. However, Jonathan Mark Kenoyer noted the complete lack of evidence for grain at the "granary", which, he argued, might therefore be better termed a "Great Hall" of uncertain function.[13] Close to the "Great Granary" is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath. From a colonnaded courtyard, steps lead down to the brick-built pool, which was waterproofed by a lining of bitumen. The pool measures 12 metres (39 ft) long, 7 metres (23 ft) wide and 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) deep. It may have been used for religious purification. Other large buildings include a "Pillared Hall", thought to be an assembly hall of some kind, and the so-called "College Hall", a complex of buildings comprising 78 rooms, thought to have been a priestly residence.[citation needed]

text: Fortifications

text: Mohenjo-daro had no series of city walls, but was fortified with guard towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. Considering these fortifications and the structure of other major Indus valley cities like Harappa, it is postulated that Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout, and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, but the extent and functioning of an administrative center remains unclear.

text: Flooding and rebuilding

text: The city also had large platforms perhaps intended as defense against flooding.[19] According to a theory first advanced by Wheeler, the city could have been flooded and silted over, perhaps six times, and later rebuilt in the same location.[21]

text: Notable artefacts

text: Numerous objects found in excavation include seated and standing figures, copper and stone tools, carved seals, balance-scales and weights, gold and jasper jewellery, and children's toys.[22] Many important objects from Mohenjo-daro are conserved at the National Museum of India in Delhi and the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi. In 1939, a representative collection of artefacts excavated at the site was transferred to the British Museum by the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India.[23]

text: Dancing Girl

text: A bronze statuette dubbed the "Dancing Girl", 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in) high[24] and about 4,500 years old, was found in 'HR area' of Mohenjo-daro in 1926.[24] In 1973, British archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler described the item as his favorite statuette:

text: "She's about fifteen years old I should think, not more, but she stands there with bangles all the way up her arm and nothing else on. A girl perfectly, for the moment, perfectly confident of herself and the world. There's nothing like her, I think, in the world."

text: John Marshall, another archeologist at Mohenjo-daro, described the figure as "a young girl, her hand on her hip in a half-impudent posture, and legs slightly forward as she beats time to the music with her legs and feet."[25] The archaeologist Gregory Possehl said of the statuette, "We may not be certain that she was a dancer, but she was good at what she did and she knew it". The statue led to two important discoveries about the civilization: first, that they knew metal blending, casting and other sophisticated methods of working with ore, and secondly that entertainment, especially dance, was part of the culture.[24]

text: Priest-King

text: In 1927, a seated male soapstone figure was found in a building with unusually ornamental brickwork and a wall-niche. Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled Mohenjo-daro, archaeologists dubbed this dignified figure a "Priest-King." The sculpture is 17.5 centimetres (6.9 in) tall, and shows a neatly bearded man with pierced earlobes and a fillet around his head, possibly all that is left of a once-elaborate hairstyle or head-dress; his hair is combed back. He wears an armband, and a cloak with drilled trefoil, single circle and double circle motifs, which show traces of red. His eyes might have originally been inlaid.[26]

text: Pashupati seal

text: A seal discovered at the site bears the image of a seated, cross-legged and possibly ithyphallic figure surrounded by animals. The figure has been interpreted by some scholars as a yogi, and by others as a three-headed "proto-Shiva" as "Lord of Animals".

text: Seven-stranded necklace

text: Sir Mortimer Wheeler was especially fascinated with this artifact, which he believed to be at least 4,500 years old. The necklace has an S-shaped clasp with seven strands, each over 4 ft long, of bronze-metal bead-like nuggets which connect each arm of the "S" in filigree. Each strand has between 220 and 230 of the many-faceted nuggets, and there are about 1,600 nuggets in total. The necklace weighs about 250 grams in total, and is presently held in a private collection in India.[citation needed]

text: Conservation and current state

text: An initial agreement to fund restoration was agreed through the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris on 27 May 1980.  Contributions were made by a number of other countries to the project:

text:
Country
Contribution US$

 Australia
$62,650.00

 Bahrain
$3,000.00

 Cameroon
$1,000.00

 Egypt
$63,889.60

 Germany
$375,939.85

 India
$49,494.95

 Iraq
$9,781.00

 Japan
$200,000.00

 Kuwait
$3,000.00

 Malta
$275.82

 Mauritius
$2,072.50

 Nigeria
$8,130.00

 Saudi Arabia
$58,993.63

 Sri Lanka
$1,562.50

 Tanzania
$1,000.00

text: Preservation work for Mohenjo-daro was suspended in December 1996 after funding from the Pakistani government and international organizations stopped. Site conservation work resumed in April 1997, using funds made available by the UNESCO. The 20-year funding plan provided $10 million to protect the site and standing structures from flooding. In 2011, responsibility for the preservation of the site was transferred to the government of Sindh.[27]

text: Currently the site is threatened by groundwater salinity and improper restoration. Many walls have already collapsed, while others are crumbling from the ground up. In 2012, Pakistani archaeologists warned that, without improved conservation measures, the site could disappear by 2030.[4][28]

text: 2014 Sindh Festival

text: The Mohenjo-daro site was further threatened in January 2014, when Bilawal Bhutto Zardari of the Pakistan People's Party chose the site for Sindh Festival's inauguration ceremony. This would have exposed the site to mechanical operations, including excavation and drilling. Farzand Masih, head of the Department of Archaeology at Punjab University warned that such activity was banned under the Antiquity Act, saying "You cannot even hammer a nail at an archaeological site."  On 31 January 2014, a case was filed in the Sindh High Court to bar the Sindh government from continuing with the event.[29][30]The festival was held by PPP at the historic site, despite all the protest by both national and international historians and educators.


document_title: Queen bee

question_text: how many bees does a queen bee produce

question_tokens: how many bees does a queen bee produce

text: Queen bee

text: Development[edit]

text: When conditions are favorable for swarming, the queen will start laying eggs in queen cups. A virgin queen will develop from a fertilized egg. The young queen larva develops differently because it is more heavily fed royal jelly, a protein-rich secretion from glands on the heads of young workers. If not for being heavily fed royal jelly, the queen larva would develop into a regular worker bee. All bee larvae are fed some royal jelly for the first few days after hatching but only queen larvae are fed the jelly exclusively. As a result of the difference in diet, the queen will develop into a sexually mature female, unlike the worker bees.

text: Queens are raised in specially constructed queen cells. The fully constructed queen cells have a peanut-like shape and texture. Queen cells start out as queen cups. Queen cups are larger than the cells of normal brood comb and are oriented vertically instead of horizontally. Worker bees will only further build up the queen cup once the queen has laid an egg in a queen cup. In general, the old queen starts laying eggs into queen cups when conditions are right for swarming or supersedure. Swarm cells hang from the bottom of a frame while supersedure queens or emergency queens are generally raised in cells built out from the face of a frame.

text: As the young queen larva pupates with her head down, the workers cap the queen cell with beeswax. When ready to emerge, the virgin queen will chew a circular cut around the cap of her cell. Often the cap swings open when most of the cut is made, so as to appear like a hinged lid.

text: During swarming season, the old queen will likely leave with the prime swarm before the first virgin queen emerges from a queen cell.

text: Virgin queen bee[edit]

text:
Metamorphosis of the queen bee

Egg
hatches on Day 3

Larva (several moltings)
Day 3 to Day 8 1⁄2

Queen cell capped
~ Day 7 1⁄2

Pupa
~ Day 8 until emergence

Emergence
~Day 15 1⁄2 - Day 17

Nuptial Flight(s)
~Day 20 - 24

Egg Laying
~Day 23 and up

text: A virgin queen is a queen bee that has not mated with a drone. Virgins are intermediate in size between workers and mated, laying queens, and are much more active than the latter. They are hard to spot while inspecting a frame, because they run across the comb, climbing over worker bees if necessary, and may even take flight if sufficiently disturbed. Virgin queens can often be found clinging to the walls or corners of a hive during inspections.

text: Virgin queens appear to have little queen pheromone and often do not appear to be recognized as queens by the workers. A virgin queen in her first few hours after emergence can be placed into the entrance of any queenless hive or nuc and acceptance is usually very good, whereas a mated queen is usually recognized as a stranger and runs a high risk of being killed by the older workers.

text: When a young virgin queen emerges from a queen cell, she will generally seek out virgin queen rivals and attempt to kill them. Virgin queens will quickly find and kill (by stinging) any other emerged virgin queen (or be dispatched themselves), as well as any unemerged queens. Queen cells that are opened on the side indicate that a virgin queen was likely killed by a rival virgin queen. When a colony remains in swarm mode after the prime swarm has left, the workers may prevent virgins from fighting and one or several virgins may go with after-swarms. Other virgins may stay behind with the remnant of the hive. Some virgins have been seen to escape the hive to avoid being killed and seek out another without a queen, such as in the eusocial bee Melipona scutellaris.[3] As many as 21 virgin queens have been counted in a single large swarm.[citation needed] When the after-swarm settles into a new home, the virgins will then resume normal behavior and fight to the death until only one remains. If the prime swarm has a virgin queen and the old queen, the old queen will usually be allowed to live. The old queen continues laying. Within a couple of weeks she will die a natural death and the former virgin, now mated, will take her place.

text: Unlike the worker bees, the queen's stinger is not barbed and she is able to sting repeatedly without dying.

text: Piping[edit]

text: Piping describes a noise made by virgin and mated queen bees during certain times of the virgin queens' development. Fully developed virgin queens communicate through vibratory signals: "quacking" from virgin queens in their queen cells and "tooting" from queens free in the colony, collectively known as piping. A virgin queen may frequently pipe before she emerges from her cell and for a brief time afterwards. Mated queens may briefly pipe after being released in a hive.

text: Piping is most common when there is more than one queen in a hive. It is postulated that the piping is a form of battle cry announcing to competing queens and the workers their willingness to fight. It may also be a signal to the worker bees which queen is the most worthwhile to support.

text: The piping sound is a G♯ (aka A♭). The adult queen pipes for a two-second pulse followed by a series of quarter-second toots. [4] The queens of Africanized bees produce more vigorous and frequent bouts of piping because they are more aggressive.

text: Reproduction cycle[edit]

text: The surviving virgin queen will fly out on a sunny, warm day to a "drone congregation area" where she will mate with 12-15 drones. If the weather holds, she may return to the drone congregation area for several days until she is fully mated. Mating occurs in flight. The young queen stores up to 6 million sperm from multiple drones in her spermatheca. She will selectively release sperm for the remaining 2–7 years of her life.[5]

text: The young virgin queen has a limited time to mate. If she is unable to fly for several days because of bad weather and remains unmated, she will become a "drone layer." Drone-laying queens usually signal the death of the colony, because the workers have no fertilized (female) larvae from which to raise worker bees or a replacement queen. (Pearcy et al. 2004)

text: Though timing can vary, matings usually take place between the sixth and tenth day after the queen emerges. Egg laying usually begins 2 to 3 days after the queen returns to the beehive, but can start earlier than this.[6]

text: A special, rare case of reproduction is thelytoky: the reproduction of female workers or queens by laying worker bees. Thelytoky occurs in the Cape bee, Apis mellifera capensis, and has been found in other strains at very low frequency.

text: Supersedure[edit]

text: As the queen ages her pheromone output diminishes. A queen bee that becomes old, or is diseased or failing, is replaced by the workers in a procedure known as "supersedure".

text: Supersedure may be forced by a beekeeper, for example by clipping off one of the queen's middle or posterior legs. This makes her unable to properly place her eggs at the bottom of the brood cell; the workers detect this and then rear replacement queens. When a new queen becomes available, the workers kill the reigning queen by "balling" her, clustering tightly around her. Death through balling is accomplished by surrounding the queen bee and raising her body temperature, causing her to overheat and die. Balling is often a problem for beekeepers attempting to introduce a replacement queen.

text: If a queen suddenly dies, the workers will attempt to create an "emergency queen" by selecting several brood cells where a larva has just emerged which are then flooded with royal jelly. The worker bees then build larger queen cells over the normal-sized worker cells which protrude vertically from the face of the brood comb. Emergency queens are usually smaller and less prolific than normal queens.

text: Daily life[edit]

text: Although the name might imply it, a queen bee does not directly control the hive. Her sole function is to serve as the reproducer. A well-mated and well-fed queen of quality stock can lay about 1,500 eggs per day during the spring build-up—more than her own body weight in eggs every day. She is continuously surrounded by worker bees who meet her every need, giving her food and disposing of her waste. The attendant workers also collect and then distribute queen mandibular pheromone, a pheromone that inhibits the workers from starting queen cells.[7]

text: The queen bee is able to control the sex of the eggs she lays. The queen lays a fertilized (female) or unfertilized (male) egg according to the width of the cell. Drones are raised in cells that are significantly larger than the cells used for workers. The queen fertilizes the egg by selectively releasing sperm from her spermatheca as the egg passes through her oviduct.

text: Identification[edit]

text:
Color
Year
ends in

white

1 or 6

yellow

2 or 7

red

3 or 8

green

4 or 9

blue

5 or 0

text: The queen bee's abdomen is longer than the worker bees surrounding her and also longer than a male bee's. Even so, in a hive of 60,000 to 80,000 honey bees, it is often difficult for beekeepers to find the queen with any speed; for this reason, many queens in non-feral colonies are marked with a light daub of paint on their thorax. The paint used does no harm to the queen and makes her much easier to find when necessary.

text: Although the color is sometimes randomly chosen, professional queen breeders use a color that identifies the year a queen hatched, which helps them to decide whether their queens are too old to maintain a strong hive and need to be replaced. The mnemonic taught to assist beekeepers in remembering the colour order is Will You Raise Good Bees (white, yellow, red, green, blue). Sometimes tiny convex disks marked with identification numbers (Opalithplättchen) are used when a beekeeper has many queens born in the same year.

text: Queen rearing[edit]

text: Queen rearing is the process by which beekeepers raise queen bees from young fertilized worker bee larvae. The most commonly used method is known as the Doolittle method.[8] In the Doolittle method, the beekeeper grafts larvae, which are 24 hours or less of age, into a bar of queen cell cups. The queen cell cups are placed inside of a cell-building colony.[9]A cell-building colony is a strong, well-fed, queenless colony that feeds the larva royal jelly and develops the larvae into queen bees.[10]

text: After approximately ten days, the queen cells are transferred from the cell building colony to small mating nuclei colonies, which are placed inside of mating yards. The queen cells hatch inside of the mating nuclei.  After approximately 7-10 days, the virgin queens take their mating flights, mate with 10-20 drone bees, and return to their mating nuclei as mated queen bees. [9]

text: Queen rearing can be practiced on a small scale by hobbyist or sideline beekeepers raising a small amount of queens for their own use, or can be practiced on a larger, commercial scale by companies that produce queen bees for sale to the public. As of 2017, the cost of a queen honeybee ranges from $25 to $32.[11]

text: Beekeepers can also utilize alternative methods of queen rearing. Examples are the Jenter kit, walk-away split, Cloake board, and artificial insemination.