document_title: World Series of Poker bracelet

question_text: who has the most world series of poker bracelets

text: World Series of Poker bracelet

text: Bracelet description[edit]

text: The 1976 bracelet looked "like gold nuggets kind of hammered flat."[3] The bracelet in 1976 cost approximately $500. In the 1980s, Las Vegas jeweler Mordechai Yerushalmi became the exclusive manufacturer of WSOP bracelets until Harrah's Entertainment bought the rights to the WSOP in 2004.[3] According to 2003 WSOP Champion Chris Moneymaker, the design of the bracelet remained relatively unchanged under Yerushalmi.[4] In 2005, Gold and Diamond International based in Memphis, TN won the bid from Harrah's Entertainment to manufacture the 2005 World Series of Poker bracelets. The company also manufactures the WSOP circuit rings.[5]

text: In 2006, Frederick Goldman, Inc. made the WSOP bracelets while luxury watch maker Corum introduced some commemorative watches as part of the prize package.[6][7] In 2006, the Champion's bracelet had 259 stones including 7.2 carats (1.4 g) of diamonds, 120 grams of white and yellow gold. It also used rubies to represent the heart and diamond suits, a sapphire to represent the spade and three black diamonds to represent the clubs.[3]

text: In 2007, Corum became the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP. Some of the 2007 World Series of Poker champions received both a watch and a bracelet from Corum. Corum designed four variations for the 2007 World Series of Poker Bracelets. The standard version that is presented to 53 winners features 53 diamonds.[8] The Ladies World Champion receives a bracelet that is adorned with four black diamonds, two rubies and 87 blue sapphires.[9] The $50,000 HORSE Champion Bracelet has 91 black diamonds and two rubies.[10] The World Series of Poker Main Event Bracelet has 120 diamonds on 136 grams of 18 carat (75 percent) white gold.[10] The value of the 2007 bracelets have not been released, but the typical price of a Corum watch ranges from $1,500–$30,000+.[11]

text: In 2008, the Main Event Bracelet had 291 diamonds, totalling 2.81 carats set in 168 grams of 18kt white gold. The other 54 event bracelets consisted of 55 diamonds, totalling 0.25 carats set in 80 grams of 14kt yellow gold.[12]

text: In 2010, an Australian-based company OnTilt Designs Pty Ltd won a multi-year contract to become the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP. OnTilt jewelers decided that the 2010 bracelet design would return to the tradition of the 1970s and 1980s where the bracelet was a heavy piece of unadorned metal. American jewelry designer Steve Soffa was chosen to design and manufacture the entire set of bracelets.[13] The goal was to create a bracelet that somebody would actually want to wear every day. In 2011, OnTilt has also been chosen to manufacture the WSOP Circuit rings.

text: In 2012, Jason Arasheben, famed jewelry designer and owner of Jason of Beverly Hills was chosen as the official bracelet manufacturer of the WSOP. Arasheben had designed the championship rings for the 2009 and 2010 Los Angeles Lakers and the 2011 Green Bay Packers, among others. The Main Event bracelet will feature each suit in the deck in either rubies or black diamonds. In terms of sheer mass, it weighs in at over 160 grams of 14 karat gold and over 35 carats of flawless diamonds.[14]

text: A special platinum bracelet was awarded at the 2012 WSOP to the winner of The Big One for One Drop, Antonio Esfandiari. The event was a $1 million buy-in tournament created as a fundraiser for the One Drop Foundation, a charity established by Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté.[15]

text: Prestige[edit]

text: At first, the bracelets did not have much prestige. Ten-time bracelet winner Doyle Brunson said that his first bracelet "didn't mean anything" to him and that he did not even pick up two of them.[16]

text: Some professional poker players believe that there are two types of poker players; those who have won a bracelet and those who have not. Those who have belong to an exclusive club.[16] "It's impossible to overstate the value of a World Series of Poker gold bracelet to anyone who takes the game seriously," stated World Series of Poker Commissioner Jeffrey Pollack during the 2006 bracelet unveiling. "It is the equivalent of winning the Stanley Cup in hockey or the Lombardi Trophy in football."[17]

text: Many professional poker players desire the recognition that is associated with the bracelet. Former Celebrity Poker Showdown host and poker star Phil Gordon said, "I want that bracelet more than anything."[18] Freddy Deeb said that he did not appreciate his first bracelet because he did not recognize what it meant. He said his 2007 bracelet, however, "means everything to me".[19] Jennifer Tilly says that winning her 2005 Women's Championship bracelet was "better than an Oscar".[16]

text: When the World Poker Tour decided to offer a prize to its event champions, they decided to present them with WPT Bracelets. In so doing, WPT Founder, President and CEO Steve Lipscomb said, "The championship bracelet has become synonymous with poker as a symbol of achievement and respect, and we are honored to continue the tradition that Benny Binion [the founder of the WSOP] began over 30 years ago."[20]

text: History[edit]

text: Bracelets have not always been awarded for winning events. In 1970, the first WSOP Champion received nothing but a silver cup and whatever cash he won during the event.[21] From 1971–1974, according to Becky Behnen (the daughter of WSOP founder Benny Binion), the winner received an undescribed "corny trophy".[3] In 1975, the winners received a sterling plate. The following year, 1976, the WSOP started the tradition of issuing bracelets to the event winners.

text: In 1980 and 1981, one did not have to win a WSOP event to win a gold bracelet. In 1980 and 1981, H.D. "Oklahoma Johny" Hale and Chip Reese received a gold bracelet for being the "Best All Around Player" at the WSOP, respectively.[22] These bracelets, however, are not considered in the count of WSOP championship bracelets.

text: In 2007, Thomas Bihl became the first person to ever win a WSOP bracelet outside Las Vegas, Nevada. Bihl won the £2,500 World Championship H.O.R.S.E. at the World Series of Poker Europe in London, England.[23] Days later, Annette Obrestad became the youngest player to ever win a WSOP bracelet at 18 years, 364 days, also becoming the first woman to win a World Series Main Event (WSOPE).[24] Caesars Entertainment (known until 2010 as Harrah's Entertainment), the owner of the WSOP, considers the WSOP Europe bracelet to be the same in prestige as those awarded every year in Las Vegas.

text: In 2008, Jesper Hougaard became the first person to have won both a WSOP and WSOPE bracelet.

text: In 2011, a World Series of Poker bracelet was awarded for the first time to the WSOP Circuit National Championship winner in the 100-qualifier event from May 27–29.[1][25] The following year, the Circuit National Championship moved to New Orleans,[26] where it will also be held in 2013.[27]

text: Starting in 2013, bracelets are also awarded in Australia at the World Series of Poker Asia-Pacific, held at Crown Melbourne.[2]

text: Bracelet legacy[edit]

text: Of the three top WSOP bracelet winners, only Johnny Chan still has them all. He keeps them locked in a vault because they are worth, according to him, "millions."[3] Brunson did not pick up two of his. Fourteen-time bracelet winner Phil Hellmuth gave away ten of his. "To me," Hellmuth said, "the bracelets have always been a really huge deal, to me more than the other guys, because I knew that they represented history."[3]

text: Three-time WSOP Bracelet winner Hamid Dastmalchi and six-time winner Ted Forrest had been playing for four days non-stop at the Mirage when Hamid started to complain about the 1992 Main Event Championship Bracelet he received. Bitter about a dispute with the Binion's Horseshoe, the owners of the WSOP at the time, Hamid told the table that the Binion's "say it's worth $5,000, but I'd take $1,500 for it." To which Forrest responded "Sold" and immediately tossed Hamid $1,500 in chips. Dastmalchi mailed Forrest his bracelet.[28][29] Ted Forrest also reported that three of his five bracelets have been stolen over the years, and that he gave his daughter one.[30]

text: In November 2010, Peter Eastgate put his main event bracelet up for auction on eBay with a starting bid of $16,000. It eventually sold for $147,500 [31][32] and this money was donated to UNICEF.[33]

text: Multiple bracelet winners[edit]

text: As of the end of the 2013 World Series of Poker, 22 players have earned five or more WSOP bracelets.[34] Of those, the top bracelet winners are as follows:

text:
Winners of 8 or more WSOP bracelets

Bracelets
Player
Main Event wins

14
Phil Hellmuth
1

10
Doyle Brunson
2

10
Johnny Chan
2

10
Phil Ivey
0

9
Johnny Moss
3

8
Erik Seidel
0

text:
Leaders by decade

Decade
Bracelets
Player
Wins during decade

1970s
7
Johnny Moss
1970, 1971 (2), 1974, 1975, 1976, 1979

1980s
4
Stu Ungar
1980, 1981 (2), 1983

1990s
5
Phil Hellmuth
1992, 1993 (3), 1997

2000s
7
Phil Ivey
2000, 2002 (3), 2005, 2009 (2)

2010s
4
George Danzer
2014 (3), 2016

Jason Mercier
2011, 2015, 2016 (2)

text: (bold = won Main Event)

text: Johnny Moss, with a win at the 1971 WSOP, became the first person to have won multiple lifetime WSOP "bracelets" (as mentioned above, the first actual bracelet was given in 1976).

text: Moss also was the first person to win five lifetime WSOP bracelets, with a win at the 1975 WSOP.

text: Johnny Chan, with a win in Event No. 25 at the 2005 World Series of Poker, became the first person to win 10 lifetime WSOP bracelets, just a few days before Doyle Brunson won his 10th bracelet in Event No. 31 of that same WSOP.

text: The first person to win two bracelets in the same WSOP was Johnny Moss at the 1971 WSOP.

text: The first person to win three bracelets in the same WSOP was Walter "Puggy" Pearson, at the 1973 WSOP. As of the start of the 2016 WSOP, only five other players have won three bracelets in a single WSOP.

text: Bill Boyd and Doyle Brunson are the only players to have won bracelets in four consecutive years (Boyd from 1971 to 1974, and Brunson from 1976 to 1979).

text: WSOP rings[edit]

text: In 2005, the WSOP started hosting Circuit Events at many of their casinos around the country. In order to differentiate these events and to ensure the prestige of the WSOP Bracelet, the circuit events present a ring to the winners. In 2011, the WSOP awarded a bracelet to the winner of the Circuit Event National Championship. The Circuit Event National Championship was an invitation only event that used the standings of players from the various circuit events in determining who was invited.

text: Circuit National Championship[edit]

text: Starting with the 2011 WSOP Circuit, the Circuit National Championship was held as a closed event for participants of various circuit events.

text: Starting in 2012, qualification for the Circuit National Championship was significantly changed. A total of 100 players now receive automatic seats in the National Championship. The winners of each Circuit main event and the highest point earner at each circuit stop receive seats, with the remaining automatic seats filled by the top points earners throughout the Circuit season who are not already qualified. Additionally, the top 100 players in the "WSOP World Rankings", a points race determined on results in open events of the previous two WSOPs, are eligible to enter. The Circuit qualifiers play the National Championship on a freeroll, while the WSOP World Rankings qualifiers must pay a $10,000 buy-in.[26][27]

text: The winner of the Circuit National Championship wins a World Series of Poker bracelet.

text:
Year
Winner

2011
Sam Barnhart

2012
Ryan Eriquezzo

2013
Jonathan Hilton

2014
Dominik Nitsche

2015
Loni Harwood

2016
Said El-Yousfi

2017
Sean Yu


document_title: Vagina

question_text: what part of the internal female anatomy is self-cleaning

question_tokens: what part of the internal female anatomy is self-cleaning

root

text: Vagina

text: Etymology and definition

text: The term vagina is from Latin vāgīnae, literally "sheath" or "scabbard"; the Latinate plural of vagina is vaginae.[1] The vagina may also be referred to as "the birth canal" in the context of pregnancy and childbirth.[2][3] Although by its dictionary and anatomical definitions, the term vagina refers exclusively to the specific internal structure, it is colloquially used to refer to the vulva or to both the vagina and vulva.[4][5]

tag: p

text: Using the term vagina to mean "vulva" can pose medical or legal confusion; for example, a person's interpretation of its location might not match another person's interpretation of the location.[4][6] Medically, the vagina is the muscular canal between the hymen (or remnants of the hymen) and the cervix, while, legally, it begins at the vulva (between the labia).[4] Scholars such as Craig A. Hill[7] argue that incorrect use of the term vagina is likely because not as much thought goes into the anatomy of the female genitalia. This has contributed to an absence of correct vocabulary for the external female genitals, even among health professionals, which can pose sexual and psychological harm with regard to female development. Because of this, researchers endorse correct terminology for the vulva.[6][7][8]

text: Structure

text: Overview

text: The human vagina is an elastic muscular canal that extends from the vulva to the cervix.[9][10] It is pink in color, and it connects the outer vulva to the cervix of the uterus. The part of the vagina surrounding the cervix is called the fornix.[11] The opening of the vagina lies in the urogenital triangle in the perineum, between the opening of the urethra and the anus. The vaginal canal then travels upwards and backwards, between the urethra at the front, and the rectum at the back. Near the upper vagina, the cervix protrudes into the vagina on its front surface at approximately a 90 degree angle.[12] The vaginal and urethral openings are protected by the labia.[13]

text: In its unexcited state, the vagina is a collapsed tube, with the anterior and posterior walls placed together. The lateral walls, especially their middle area, are relatively more rigid. Because of this, the collapsed vagina has an H-shaped cross section.[10][14] Behind, the inner vagina is separated from the rectum by the recto-uterine pouch, the middle vagina by loose connective tissue, and the lower vagina by the perineal body.[11] Where the vaginal lumen surrounds the cervix of the uterus, it is divided into four continuous regions or vaginal fornices; these are the anterior, posterior, right lateral, and left lateral fornices.[9][10] The posterior fornix is deeper than the anterior fornix.[10]

text: Different muscles and ligaments support the vagina at its upper, middle, and lower portions. At the upper part, three sets of ligaments attached to the upper surface of the levator ani, give support to the cervix and vagina. These are the cardinal ligaments (transverse cervical ligaments), pubocervical ligaments, and the uterosacral ligaments the sacrocervical ligaments. The middle third of the vagina involves the urogenital diaphragm and the pelvic floor. The lower third is supported by the perineal body that is also attached to the levator ani.[9][15][16]

text: Vaginal opening and hymen

text: The vaginal opening is at the outer end of the vulva, posterior to the opening of the urethra, at the posterior end of the vestibule. The opening is closed by the labia minora in virgins and in females who have never given birth (nulliparous), but may be exposed in females who have given birth (parous).[10][17]

text: The hymen is a membrane of tissue that surrounds or partially covers the vaginal opening.[10] The effects of intercourse and childbirth on the hymen are variable. Where it is broken, it may completely disappear or remnants known as carunculae myrtiformes may persist. Otherwise being very elastic it may return to its normal position.[18] Additionally, the hymen may be lacerated by disease, injury, medical examination, masturbation or physical exercise. For these reasons, it is not possible to definitively determine whether or not a female is a virgin by examining her hymen.[18][19]

text: Variations and size

text: The length of the vagina varies between women of child-bearing age. Because of the presence of the cervix in the front wall of the vagina, there is a difference in length between the front (anterior) wall, approximately 7.5 cm (2.5 to 3 in) long, and the back (posterior) wall, approximately 9 cm (3.5 in) long.[10][20] During sexual arousal, the vagina expands both in length and width. If a woman stands upright, the vaginal canal points in an upward-backward direction and forms an angle of approximately 45 degrees with the uterus.[10][15] The vaginal opening and hymen also vary in size; in children, although a common appearance of the hymen is crescent-shaped, many shapes are possible.[10][21]

text: Development

text: The vaginal plate is the precursor to the vagina.[22] During development, the vaginal plate begins to grow where the solid ends of the paramesonephric ducts (Müllerian ducts) enter the back wall of the urogenital sinus. As the plate grows, it separates the sinus into the urethra and the vagina and extends the vagina by pushing the cervix deeper. Originally full of cells, as the central cells of the plate break down, the lumen of the vagina is formed.[22] This usually occurs by the twenty to twenty-fourth week of development. If the lumen does not form, or is incomplete, membranes across or around the tract called septae can form, which may cause obstruction of the outflow tract later in life.[22]

text: During sexual differentiation, without testosterone, the urogenital sinus persists as the vestibule of the vagina. The two urogenital folds (elongated spindle-shaped structures that contribute to the formation of the urethral groove on the belly aspect of the genital tubercle) form the labia minora, and the labioscrotal swellings enlarge to form the labia majora.[23][24]

text: Sources differ on which portion of the vagina is formed from the Müllerian ducts and which from the urogenital sinus by the growth of the sinovaginal bulb.[22][25] Dewhurst's Textbook of Obstetrics and Gynaecology states, "Some believe that the upper four-fifths of the vagina is formed by the Müllerian duct and the lower fifth by the urogenital sinus, while others believe that sinus upgrowth extends to the cervix displacing the Müllerian component completely and the vagina is thus derived wholly from the endoderm of the urogenital sinus." It adds, "It seems certain that some of the vagina is derived from the urogenital sinus, but it has not been determined whether or not the Müllerian component is involved."[22]

text: Microanatomy

text: The wall of the vagina from the lumen outwards consists firstly of a mucosa of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying lamina propria of connective tissue. Secondly, there is a layer of smooth muscle with bundles of circular fibers internal to longitudinal fibers. Lastly is an outer layer of connective tissue called the adventitia. Some texts list four layers by counting the two sublayers of the mucosa (epithelium and lamina propria) separately.[26][27]

text: The lamina propria is rich in blood vessels and lymphatic channels. The muscular layer is composed of smooth muscle fibers, with an outer layer of longitudinal muscle, an inner layer of circular muscle, and oblique muscle fibers between. The outer layer, the adventitia, is a thin dense layer of connective tissue, and it blends with loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers that is present between the pelvic organs.[12][27][20] The vaginal mucosa is absent of glands. It forms folds or rugae, which are more prominent in the outer third of the vagina; they appear as transverse ridges and their function is to provide the vagina with increased surface area for extension and stretching.[9][10]

text: The epithelial covering of the cervix is contiguous with the epithelial lining of the vagina.[10] The vaginal epithelium is divided into layers of cells, including the basal cells, the parabasal cells, the superficial squamous flat cells, and the intermediate cells.[28] The basal layer of the epithelium is the most mitotically active and reproduces new cells.[29] The superficial cells exfoliate continuously and basal cells replace them.[10][30][31] Estrogen induces the intermediate and superficial cells to fill with glycogen.[31][32] Cells from the lower basal layer transition from active metabolic activity to death (apoptosis). In these mid-layers of the epithelia, the cells begin to lose their mitochondria and other organelles.[29][33] The cells retain an usually high level of glycogen compared to other epithelial tissue in the body.[29]

text: The permeability of the epithelium allows for an effective response from the immune system since antibodies and other immune components can easily reach the surface.[17] The vaginal epithelium differs from the similar tissue of the skin. The epidermis of the skin is relatively resistant to water because it contains high levels of lipids. The vaginal epithelium contains lower levels of lipids. This allows the passage of water and water-soluble substances through the tissue.[17]

text: Under the influence of maternal estrogen, newborn females have a thick stratified squamous epithelium for two to four weeks after birth. After that, the epithelium remains thin with only a few layers of cells without glycogen.[31] The epithelium also has few rugae and is red in color before puberty.[4] When puberty begins, the epithelium thickens and glycogen containing cells are formed again, under the influence of the girl's rising estrogen levels.[31] Finally, the epithelium thins out during menopause onward and eventually ceases to contain glycogen, because of the lack of estrogen.[10][30][34]

text: Keratinization happens when the epithelium is exposed to the dry external atmosphere.[10] In abnormal circumstances, such as in pelvic organ prolapse, the mucosa may be exposed to air, becoming dry and keratinized.[35]

text: Blood and nerve supply

text: Blood is mainly supplied to the vagina via the vaginal artery, which emerges from a branch of the internal iliac artery or the uterine artery.[9][36] With anastomosis, the vaginal arteries are joined along the side of the vagina with the cervical branch of the uterine artery; this forms the azygos artery,[36] which lies on the midline of the anterior and posterior vagina.[11] Other arteries which supply the vagina include the middle rectal artery and the internal pudendal artery,[10] all branches of the internal iliac artery.[11] Three groups of lymphatic vessels accompany these arteries; the upper group accompanies the vaginal branches of the uterine artery; a middle group accompanies the vaginal arteries; and the lower group, draining lymph from the area outside the hymen, drain to the inguinal lymph nodes.[11][37] Ninety-five percent of the lymphatic channels of the vagina are in the first 3 mm from the surface of the vagina.[38]

text: Two main veins drain blood from the vagina, one on the left and one on the right. These form a network of smaller veins (an anastomosis) on the sides of the vagina, connecting with similar networks of the uterine, vesical and rectal networks. These ultimately drain into the internal iliac veins.[11]

text: The nerve supply of the upper vagina is provided by the sympathetic and parasympathetic areas of the pelvic plexus. The lower vagina is supplied by the pudendal nerve supplying the lower area.[10][11]

text: Function

text: Secretions

text: The vaginal mucosa and epithelium vary in thickness and composition during the menstrual cycle.[39] The vagina provides a path for menstrual blood and tissue to leave the body. In industrial societies, tampons, menstrual cups and sanitary napkins may be used to absorb or capture these fluids. Vaginal secretions are primarily from the uterus, cervix, and vaginal epithelium in addition to minuscule vaginal lubrication from the Bartholin's glands upon sexual arousal. It takes little vaginal secretion to make the vagina moist; secretions may increase during sexual arousal, the middle of menstruation, a little prior to menstruation, or during pregnancy.[10]

text: The Bartholin's glands, located near the vaginal opening, were originally considered the primary source for vaginal lubrication, but further examination showed that they provide only a few drops of mucus.[40] The significant majority of vaginal lubrication is now believed to be provided by plasma seepage from the vaginal walls, which is called vaginal transudation. Vaginal transudation, which initially forms as sweat-like droplets, is caused by vascular engorgement of the vagina (vasocongestion), resulting in the pressure inside the capillaries increasing the transudation of plasma through the vaginal epithelium.[40][41][42]

text: Before and during ovulation, the mucus glands within the cervix secrete different variations of mucus, which provides an alkaline, fertile environment in the vaginal canal that is favorable to the survival of sperm.[43] Following menopause, vaginal lubrication naturally decreases.[44]

text: Sexual activity

text: Nerve endings in the vagina can provide pleasurable sensations when the vagina is stimulated during sexual activity. Women may derive pleasure from one part of the vagina, or from a feeling of closeness and fullness during vaginal penetration.[45] The vagina is not rich in nerve endings, and this often contributes to a woman's inability to receive sufficient sexual stimulation, including orgasm, solely from penetration of the vagina.[45][46][47] While the literature cites the existence of a greater concentration of nerve endings near the entrance of the vagina (at the outer one-third or lower third), making it more sensitive to touch than the inner (or upper) two-thirds of the vagina,[46][47][48] some scientific examinations of vaginal wall innervation indicate no single area with a greater density of nerve endings.[49][50] Other research indicates that only some women have a greater density of nerve endings in the anterior vaginal wall.[49][51] By having a higher concentration of nerve endings in the outer part rather than along the whole length,[52] childbirth pain is significantly more tolerable.[47][53][54]

text: Vaginal pleasure can come from a variety of different sexual activities. In addition to penile penetration, pleasure may be by masturbation, fingering, oral sex (cunnilingus), or specific sex positions (such as the missionary position or the spoons sex position).[55] Heterosexual couples may engage in cunnilingus or fingering as forms of foreplay to incite sexual arousal, with penile-vaginal penetration as the primary sexual activity, or they may engage in them in addition to penile-vaginal penetration; in other cases, heterosexual couples use the latter acts as a way to preserve virginity or as a type of birth control.[56][57] By contrast, lesbians and other women who have sex with women commonly engage in cunnilingus or fingering as main forms of sexual activity.[58][59] Some women and couples use sex toys, such as a vibrator or dildo, for vaginal pleasure.[60] Other women may adopt Kegel exercises,[61] with the aim of tightening the vagina to increase sexual pleasure.[62] The Kama Sutra, an ancient Hindu text written by Vātsyāyana, which includes a number of sexual positions, may also be used to increase sexual pleasure,[62] with special emphasis on female sexual satisfaction.[63]

text: The clitoris additionally plays a part in vaginal stimulation, as it is a sex organ of multiplanar structure containing an abundance of nerve endings, with a broad attachment to the pubic arch and extensive supporting tissue to the mons pubis and labia; it is centrally attached to the urethra, and research indicates that it forms a tissue cluster with the vagina. This tissue is perhaps more extensive in some women than in others, which may contribute to orgasms experienced vaginally.[46][64][65]

text: During sexual arousal, and particularly the stimulation of the clitoris, the walls of the vagina lubricate. This begins after ten to thirty seconds of sexual arousal, and increases in amount the longer the woman is aroused.[66] It reduces friction or injury that can be caused by insertion of the penis into the vagina or other penetration of the vagina during sexual activity. The vagina lengthens during the arousal, and can continue to lengthen in response to pressure; as the woman becomes fully aroused, the vagina expands in length and width, while the cervix retracts.[66][67] With the upper two-thirds of the vagina expanding and lengthening, the uterus rises into the greater pelvis, and the cervix is elevated above the vaginal floor, resulting in tenting of the mid-vaginal plane.[66] This is known as the tenting or ballooning effect.[68] As the elastic walls of the vagina stretch or contract, with support from the pelvic muscles, to wrap around the inserted penis (or other object),[48] this stimulates the penis and helps to cause a man to experience orgasm and ejaculation, which in turn enables fertilization.[69]

text: An area in the vagina that may be an erogenous zone is the G-spot; it is typically defined as being located at the anterior wall of the vagina, a couple or few inches in from the entrance, and some women experience intense pleasure, and sometimes an orgasm, if this area is stimulated during sexual activity.[49][51] A G-spot orgasm may be responsible for female ejaculation, leading some doctors and researchers to believe that G-spot pleasure comes from the Skene's glands, a female homologue of the prostate, rather than any particular spot on the vaginal wall; other researchers consider the connection between the Skene's glands and the G-spot area to be weak.[49][50][51] The G-spot's existence, and existence as a distinct structure, is still under dispute, as its reported location can vary from woman to woman, appears to be nonexistent in some women, and it is hypothesized to be an extension of the clitoris and therefore the reason for orgasms experienced vaginally.[49][53][65]

text: Childbirth

text: The vagina provides a channel to deliver a newborn to its independent life outside the body of the mother. When childbirth (or labor) nears, several symptoms may occur, including vaginal discharge, and the rupture of membranes and resulting gush of amniotic fluid through the vagina (also known as water breaking).[70] When the water breaks, there can be an irregular or small stream of fluid from the vagina, or a gush of fluid.[71][72]

text: When the body prepares for childbirth, the cervix softens, thins, moves forward to face the front, and may begin to open. This allows the fetus to settle or "drop" into the pelvis.[70] When the fetus settles into the pelvis, this may result in pain in the sciatic nerves, increased vaginal discharge, and increased urinary frequency. While these symptoms are likelier to happen after labor has already begun for women who have given birth before, they may happen approximately ten to fourteen days before labor in women experiencing the effects of nearing labor for the first time.[70]

text: The fetus begins to lose the support of the cervix when uterine contractions begin. With cervical dilation reaching a diameter of more than 10 cm (4 in) to accommodate the head of the fetus, the head moves from the uterus to the vagina.[70] The elasticity of the vagina allows it to stretch to many times its normal diameter in order to deliver the child.[20]

text: Injections for pain control during childbirth is often administered through the vaginal wall and near the pudendal nerve. This nerve carries sensations to the lower part of the vagina and vulva. This is only used late in labor, usually right before the baby's head comes out. With a pudendal nerve block, there is some relief from the pain and the laboring woman remains awake, alert, and able to push the baby out. The baby is not affected by this medicine and it has very few disadvantages.[73]

text: Vaginal births are more common, but there are sometimes complications and a woman might undergo a caesarean section (commonly known as a C-section) instead of a vaginal delivery. The vaginal mucosa has an abnormal accumulation of fluid (edematous) and is thin, with few rugae, a little after birth. The mucosa thickens and rugae return in approximately three weeks once the ovaries regain usual function and estrogen flow is restored. The vaginal opening gapes and is relaxed, until it returns to its approximate pre-pregnant state by six to eight weeks in the period beginning immediately after the birth (the postpartum period); however, it will maintain a larger shape than it previously had.[74]

text: Vaginal microbiota

text: The vagina is a complex ecosystem that undergoes long-term changes throughout the life of a woman, from birth to menopause. The vaginal microbiota resides in and on the outermost layer of the vaginal epithelium.[17] This microbiome consists of species and genera which typically do not cause symptoms or infections in women with normal immunity. The vaginal microbiome is dominated by Lactobacillus species.[75] These species metabolize glycogen, breaking it down into sugar. Lactobacilli metabolize the sugar into glucose and lactic acid. Under the influence of hormones, such as estrogen, progesterone and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), the vaginal ecosystem undergoes cyclic or periodic changes.[76] When the normal Lactobacillus-based microbiota changes to a microbiome populated by bacteria characteristic of Bacterial Vaginosis the risk of adverse pregnancy outcome is greater.[77]

text: Clinical significance

text: General

text: The vagina is self-cleansing and therefore usually does not need special hygiene.[78] Clinicians generally discourage the practice of douching for maintaining vulvovaginal health.[78] Since a healthy vagina is colonized by a mutually symbiotic flora of microorganisms that protect its host from disease-causing microbes, any attempt to upset this balance may cause many undesirable outcomes, including abnormal discharge and yeast infection.[78]

text: The healthy vagina of a woman of child-bearing age is acidic, with a pH normally ranging between 3.8 and 4.5.; this is due to the degradation of glycogen to lactic acid by enzymes secreted by the Döderlein's bacillus, which is a normal commensal of the vagina.[76] The acidity delays or slows the growth of many strains of pathogenic microbes.[76] An increased pH of the vagina (with a commonly used cut-off of pH 4.5 or higher) can be caused by bacterial overgrowth, as occurs in bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis, or rupture of membranes in pregnancy.[76][79] There are different types of bacterial vaginosis.[76]

text: The acidic balance of the vagina may also be affected by pregnancy, menstruation, diabetes, oral contraceptive pills (birth control), certain antibiotics, illness, poor diet, and stress (such as from a lack of sleep).[80][81] Any of these changes to the acidic balance of the vagina may contribute to yeast infection.[80]

text: The multiple layers of the vagina provide protection from pathogens, such as Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae.[17] The vaginal lymph nodes can trap cancerous cells that originate from the vagina so that they can be assessed for the presence of disease. Selective assessment (rather total and more invasive removal) of vaginal lymph nodes reduces the risk of complications that can accompany more radical surgeries. These selective nodes act as sentinel lymph nodes.[38] Instead of surgery, the lymph nodes of concern are sometimes treated with radiation therapy administered to the patient's pelvic or inguinal lymph nodes, or both.[82]

text: The vagina and cervix are examined during gynecological examinations of the pelvis, often using a speculum, which holds the vagina open for visual inspection or taking samples (see pap smear).[83] This and other medical procedures involving the vagina, including digital internal examinations and administration of medicine,[83][84] are referred to as being per vaginam, the Latin for "via the vagina",[85] often abbreviated to "p.v.".[84] Examination of the vagina may also be done during a cavity search.[86]

text: Intravaginal administration is a route of administration where the medication is applied to vaginal wall. Pharmacologically, it has the potential advantage to result in effects primarily in the vagina or nearby structures (such as the vaginal portion of cervix) with limited systemic adverse effects compared to other routes of administration.[87][88]

text: Injuries to the vagina can occur during sexual assault. These can be tears, bruises, inflammation and abrasions. Sexual assault with objects can damage the vagina and X-ray examination may reveal the presence of foreign objects.[4]

text: Effects of aging and childbirth

text: Average vaginal pH varies significantly during a woman's lifespan, from 7.0 in premenarchal girls, to 3.8-4.4 in women of reproductive age to 6.5-7.0 during menopause without hormone therapy and 4.5-5.0 with hormone replacement therapy (HRT).[89] Estrogen, glycogen and lactobacilli are important factors in this variation.[76]

text: After menopause, the body produces less estrogen, which causes the vaginal walls to thin out significantly.[10][30][90] The effects of menopause can lead to vaginal dryness (due to a decrease in vaginal lubrication), which causes vaginal discomfort on its own or discomfort or pain during sexual intercourse.[91] This can be alleviated with hormone replacement therapy,[92] estrogen-containing vaginal creams,[5] or non-prescription, non-hormonal products,[91] but there are risks and adverse effects associated with hormone replacement therapy.[93]

text: Vaginal support structures also change in composition after menopause. Specific collagens become altered in composition and ratios. It is thought that the weakening of the support structures of the vagina is due to the physiological changes in this connective tissue.[94]

text: Stress can impact every system of the body,[81] trigger hot flashes,[95] and make hot flashes worse during menopause,[81] although the exact origin of hot flashes are not well understood.[95] Some women have an increase in sexual desire following menopause.[91] Masters and Johnson's research indicates that menopausal women who continue to engage in sexual activity regularly experience vaginal lubrication similar to levels in women who have not entered menopause, and can enjoy sexual intercourse fully.[91]

text: Vaginal changes that happen with aging and childbirth include mucosal redundancy, rounding of the posterior aspect of the vagina with shortening of the distance from the distal end of the anal canal to the vaginal opening, diastasis or disruption of the pubococcygeus muscles caused by poor repair of an episiotomy, and blebs that may protrude beyond the area of the vaginal opening.[96] Other vaginal changes related to aging and childbirth are stress urinary incontinence, rectocele, and cystocele.[96] Similar vaginal and labial changes may be due to significant weight gain and subsequent loss.[96]

text: During the third stage of labor, while the infant is being born, the vagina undergoes significant changes. A gush of blood from the vagina may be seen right before the baby is born. Lacerations to the vagina that can occur during birth vary in depth, severity and the amount of adjacent tissue involvement.[4][97] The laceration can be so extensive as to involve the rectum and anus. This event can be especially distressing to a new mother.[97][98] When this occurs, fecal incontinence develops and stool can leave through the vagina.[97] Lacerations can occur unrelated to childbirth.[4]

text: Sometimes the attending physician performs an episiotomy. This is a surgical incision that widens the opening of the vagina to reduce the tissue resistance. It is performed right before the baby is born.[17][99] The incision is made through the skin, vaginal epithelium, subcutaneous fat, perineal body and superficial transverse perineal muscle and extends from the vagina to the anus.[100][101] The two types of episiotomies performed are the medial incision and the medio-lateral incision. The median incision is a perpendicular cut between the vagina and the anus and is the most common.[17][102] The medio-lateral incision is made between the vagina at an angle and is not as likely to tear through to the anus. The medio-lateral cut takes more time to heal than the median cut.[17] Lacerations and episiotomies can be painful after delivery. Some surgical techniques result in less pain than others. Close to 85% of spontaneous vaginal births develop some form of tearing. Out of these, 60-70% require suturing. Women often report pain during sexual intercourse up to three months after laceration repair or an episiotomy.[103][104] Lacerations from labor do not always happen, and not having an episiotomy is found to have better results than episiotomy.[17]

text: Infections, safe sex, and disorders

text: There are infections, diseases and disorders that can affect the vagina, including candidal vulvovaginitis, vaginitis, vaginismus, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and cancer. Vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina, and is attributed to several vaginal diseases, while vaginismus is an involuntary tightening of the vagina muscles caused by a conditioned reflex, or disease, during vaginal penetration.[105] HIV/AIDS, human papillomavirus (HPV), genital herpes and trichomoniasis are some of the STIs that may affect the vagina, and health sources recommend safe sex (or barrier method) practices to prevent the transmission of these and other STIs.[106][107]

text: Safe sex commonly involves the use of condoms (also known as male condoms), but female condoms, which give women more control during the safe sex practice, may also be used; both condoms keep semen from coming in contact with the vagina, which can help prevent unwanted pregnancy.[108][109] There is, however, little research on whether female condoms are as effective as male condoms at preventing STIs,[109] and they are slightly less effective than male condoms at preventing pregnancy, which may be due to the female condom not fitting as tightly as the male condom or because it can slip into the vagina and spill semen.[110]

text: Cervical cancer may be prevented by pap smear screening and HPV vaccines, but HPV vaccines only cover HPV types 16 and 18, the cause of 70% of cervical cancers.[111][112] Vaginal cancer and vulvar cancer are very rare, and are primarily matters for elderly women.[113][114] Because vaginal cancer often occurs at the same time or develops consequently in relation to cervical cancer, it may be that their causes are the same.[113][115] Some symptoms of cervical and vaginal cancer are dyspareunia, and abnormal vaginal bleeding or vaginal discharge, especially after sexual intercourse or menopause.[116][117] However, most cervical cancers are asymptomatic (present no symptoms).[116] Vaginal intracavity brachytherapy (VBT) is used to treat endometrial, vaginal and cervical cancer. An applicator is inserted into the vagina to allow the administration of radiation as close to the site of cancer as possible.[99][118] Survival rates increase with VBT when compared to external beam radiation therapy.[99] By using the vagina to place the emitter as close to the cancerous growth as possible, the systemic effects of radiation therapy are less and cure rates for vaginal cancer are higher.[119]

text: There can be a vaginal obstruction, such as one caused by agenesis, an imperforate hymen or, less commonly, a transverse vaginal septum; these cases require differentiation because surgery for them significantly varies.[120] When there is a lump obstructing the vaginal opening, it is likely a Bartholin's cyst.[121]

text: Vaginal prolapse is characterized by a portion of the vaginal canal protruding (prolapsing) from the opening of the vagina. It may result from weakened pelvic floor muscles, due to childbirth. Kegel exercises have been used to strengthen the pelvic floor muscles, and may help to prevent or remedy a prolapse.[61]

text: Modification

text: The vagina, including the vaginal opening, may be altered as a result of genital modification during vaginectomy, vaginoplasty or labiaplasty.[96][122] Those who undergo vaginoplasty are usually older and have given birth to one or more children.[96] A thorough examination of the vagina before a vaginoplasty is standard, as well as being referred to a urogynecologist for possible vaginal disorders.[96] With regard to labiaplasty, reduction of the labia minora is quick without hindrance, and any complications are rare and can be corrected. The complications are minor enough that those with them may still be satisfied with the procedure. Any scarring from the procedure is minimal, and long-term chronic problems have not been identified.[96]

text: Vaginectomy is surgery to remove all or part of the vagina, and is usually used as a treatment for vaginal cancer.[122] The vulva or vagina may be altered in the case of gynecologic cancers (such as cervical cancer, vaginal cancer or vulvar cancer). Removal of some or all of the reproductive organs and genitalia can result in damage to the nerves and leave behind scarring or adhesions.[123] Sexual function may also be impaired as a result, as in the case of some cervical cancer surgeries, which impact vaginal lubrication, elasticity, pain, and sexual arousal. This mostly resolves after one year of recovery, but remedying vaginal dryness and decreased sexual satisfaction may take longer.[123]

text: Female genital mutilation (FGM), another aspect of female genital modification, may additionally be known as female circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC).[124][125] FGM has no known health benefits. The most severe form of FGM is infibulation, in which there is removal of all or part of the inner and outer labia (labia minora and labia majora) and the closure of the vagina; this is called Type III FGM, and it involves a small hole being left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood, with the vagina being opened up for sexual intercourse and childbirth.[125]

text: Society and culture

text: Perceptions, symbolism and vulgarity

text: Various perceptions of the vagina have existed throughout history, including the belief it is the center of sexual desire, a metaphor for life via birth, inferior to the penis, unappealing to sight or smell, or vulgar.[126][127][128] These views can largely be attributed to sex differences, and how they are interpreted. David Buss, an evolutionary psychologist, stated that because a penis is significantly larger than a clitoris and it is readily visible while the vagina is not, and males urinate through the penis, boys are taught from childhood to touch their penises while girls are often taught that they should not touch their vulva or vagina, which implies that there is harm in doing so. Buss attributed this to the reason why many women are not as familiar with their genitalia as men are familiar with their own, and that researchers assume these sex differences explain why boys learn to masturbate before girls, and masturbate more often than girls.[129]

text: The word vagina is commonly avoided in conversation,[130] and many people are confused about the vagina's anatomy, including that it is not used for urination.[131][132][133] This is exacerbated by phrases such as "boys have a penis, girls have a vagina", which causes children to think that girls have one orifice in the pelvic area.[132] Author Hilda Hutcherson stated, "Because many [women] have been conditioned since childhood through verbal and nonverbal cues to think of [their] genitals as ugly, smelly and unclean, [they] aren't able to fully enjoy intimate encounters" because of fear that their partner will dislike the sight, smell, or taste of their genitals. She argued that women, unlike men, did not have locker room experiences in school where they compared each other's genitals, which is one reason so many women wonder if their genitals are normal.[127] Scholar Catherine Blackledge stated that having a vagina meant she would typically be treated less well than her vagina-less counterparts and subject to inequalities (such as job inequality), which she categorized as being treated like a second-class citizen.[130]

text: Negative views of the vagina are simultaneously contrasted by views that it is a powerful symbol of female sexuality, spirituality, or life. Author Denise Linn stated that the vagina "is a powerful symbol of womanliness, openness, acceptance, and receptivity. It is the inner valley spirit."[134] Sigmund Freud placed significant value on the vagina,[135] postulating the concept of vaginal orgasm, that it is separate from clitoral orgasm, and that, upon reaching puberty, the proper response of mature women is a change-over to vaginal orgasms (meaning orgasms without any clitoral stimulation). This theory made many women feel inadequate, as the majority of women cannot achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse alone.[136][137][138] Regarding religion, the vagina represents a powerful symbol as the yoni in Hinduism, and this may indicate the value that Hindu society has given female sexuality and the vagina's ability to birth life.[139]

text: While, in ancient times, the vagina was often considered equivalent (homologous) to the penis, with anatomists Galen (129 AD – 200 AD) and Vesalius (1514–1564) regarding the organs as structurally the same except for the vagina being inverted, anatomical studies over latter centuries showed the clitoris to be the penile equivalent.[64][140] Another perception of the vagina was that the release of vaginal fluids would cure or remedy a number of ailments; various methods were used over the centuries to release "female seed" (via vaginal lubrication or female ejaculation) as a treatment for suffocation ex semine retento (suffocation of the womb), green sickness, and possibly for female hysteria. Reported methods for treatment included a midwife rubbing the walls of the vagina or insertion of the penis or penis-shaped objects into the vagina. Symptoms of the female hysteria diagnosis  – a concept that is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder  – included faintness, nervousness, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in abdomen, muscle spasm, shortness of breath, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, and a propensity for causing trouble.[141] It may be that women who were considered suffering from female hysteria condition would sometimes undergo "pelvic massage"  – stimulation of the genitals by the doctor until the woman experienced "hysterical paroxysm" (i.e., orgasm). In this case, paroxysm was regarded as a medical treatment, and not a sexual release.[141]

text: The vagina and vulva have additionally been termed many vulgar names, three of which are cunt, twat, and pussy. Cunt is also used as a derogatory epithet referring to people of either sex. This usage is relatively recent, dating from the late nineteenth century.[142] Reflecting different national usages, cunt is described as "an unpleasant or stupid person" in the Compact Oxford English Dictionary,[143] whereas Merriam-Webster has a usage of the term as "usually disparaging and obscene: woman,"[144] noting that it is used in the U.S. as "an offensive way to refer to a woman."[145] Random House defines it as "a despicable, contemptible or foolish man."[142] Some feminists of the 1970s sought to eliminate disparaging terms such as cunt.[146] Twat is widely used as a derogatory epithet, especially in British English, referring to a person considered obnoxious or stupid.[147][148] Pussy can indicate "cowardice or weakness", and "the human vulva or vagina" or by extension "sexual intercourse with a woman".[149] In contemporary English, use of the word pussy to refer to women is considered derogatory or demeaning, treating people as sexual objects.[150]

text: In contemporary literature and art

text: The vagina loquens, or "talking vagina", is a significant tradition in literature and art, dating back to the ancient folklore motifs of the "talking cunt".[151][152] These tales usually involve vaginas talking due to the effect of magic or charms, and often admitting to their unchastity.[151] Another folk tale regarding the vagina is "vagina dentata" (Latin for "toothed vagina"). In these folk tales, a woman's vagina is said to contain teeth, with the associated implication that sexual intercourse might result in injury, emasculation, or castration for the man involved. These stories were frequently told as cautionary tales warning of the dangers of unknown women and to discourage rape.[153]

text: In 1966, the French artist Niki de Saint Phalle collaborated with Dadaist artist Jean Tinguely and Per Olof Ultvedt on a large sculpture installation entitled "hon-en katedral" (also spelled "Hon-en-Katedrall", which means "she-a cathedral") for Moderna Museet, in Stockholm, Sweden. The outer form is a giant, reclining sculpture of a woman with her legs spread. Museum patrons can go inside her body by entering a door-sized vaginal opening.[154] Sainte Phalle stated that the sculpture represented a fertility goddess who was able to receive visitors into her body and then "give birth" to them again.[155]

text: From 1974 to 1979, Judy Chicago, a feminist artist, created the vagina-themed installation artwork "The Dinner Party". It consists of 39 elaborate place settings arranged along a triangular table for 39 mythical and historical famous women. Virginia Woolf, Susan B. Anthony, Sojourner Truth, Eleanor of Aquitaine, and Theodora of Byzantium are among those honored. Each plate, except the one corresponding to Sojourner Truth (a Black woman), depicts a brightly-colored, elaborately styled vagina-esque form. After it was produced, despite resistance from the art world, it toured to 16 venues in six countries to a viewing audience of 15 million.[156]

text: The Vagina Monologues, a 1996 episodic play by Eve Ensler, has contributed to making female sexuality a topic of public discourse. It is made up of a varying number of monologues read by a number of women. Initially, Ensler performed every monologue herself, with subsequent performances featuring three actresses; latter versions feature a different actress for every role. Each of the monologues deals with an aspect of the feminine experience, touching on matters such as sexual activity, love, rape, menstruation, female genital mutilation, masturbation, birth, orgasm, the various common names for the vagina, or simply as a physical aspect of the body. A recurring theme throughout the pieces is the vagina as a tool of female empowerment, and the ultimate embodiment of individuality.[157][158]

text: In 2012, an image of an 1866 Gustave Courbet painting of the female genitals, entitled "The Origin of the World", being posted on Facebook led to a legal dispute. After a French teacher posted an image of the painting, Facebook considered the image to be pornographic and suspended his account for violating its terms of use.[159] G. Roger Denson of Huff Post called the painting "a frank image of a vagina."[160] Mark Stern of Slate, who called the painting a stunning, brilliant "....cornerstone of the French Realistic movement", stated that the teacher sued the website for allegedly violating his freedom of speech.[159] In October 2013, artist Peter Reynosa created a "... red and white acrylic painting [that] depicts [pop singer] Madonna painted in the shape of a defiant yonic symbol that looks like a vagina or vulva."[161]

text: Cosmetic or traditional reasons for vaginal modification

text: Cosmetic reasons for modification of the female genitalia may be due to FGM, voluntary cosmetic operations, or surgery for intersex conditions.[162] There are two main categories of women seeking cosmetic genital surgery: those with congenital conditions (such as an intersex condition), and those with no underlying condition who experience physical discomfort or wish to alter the appearance of their genitals because they believe they do not fall within a normal range.[162]

text: Significant controversy surrounds FGM,[124][125] with the World Health Organization (WHO) being one of many health organizations that have campaigned against the procedures on behalf of human rights, stating that it is "a violation of the human rights of girls and women" and "reflects deep-rooted inequality between the sexes".[125] FGM has existed at one point or another in almost all human civilizations,[163] most commonly to exert control over the sexual behavior, including masturbation, of girls and women.[125][163] It is carried out in several countries, especially in Africa, and to a lesser extent in other parts of the Middle East and Southeast Asia, on girls from a few days old to mid-adolescent, often to reduce sexual desire in an effort to preserve vaginal virginity.[124][125][163] Comfort Momoh stated it may be that FGM was "practiced in ancient Egypt as a sign of distinction among the aristocracy"; there are reports that traces of infibulation are on Egyptian mummies.[163]

text: Custom and tradition are the most frequently cited reasons for FGM, with some cultures believing that not performing it has the possibility of disrupting the cohesiveness of their social and political systems, such as FGM also being a part of a girl's initiation into adulthood.[125][163] Often, a girl is not considered an adult in a FGM-practicing society unless she has undergone FGM.[125]

text: Other animals

text: The vagina is a feature of animals in which the female is internally fertilized, rather than by traumatic insemination used by some invertebrates. The shape of the vagina varies among different animals. In placental mammals and marsupials, the vagina leads from the uterus to the exterior of the female body. Female marsupials have two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteri, but both open externally through the same orifice.[164] The female spotted hyena does not have an external vagina. Instead, the vagina exits through the clitoris, allowing the females to urinate, copulate and give birth through the clitoris.[165] The female vagina of the coyote contracts during copulation, forming a copulatory tie.[166]

text: In the case of other animals, birds, monotremes, and some reptiles have a part of the oviduct that leads to the cloaca.[167][168] Chickens have a vaginal aperture that opens from the vertical apex of the cloaca. The vagina extends upward from the aperture and becomes the egg gland.[168] In some jawless fish, there is neither oviduct nor vagina and instead the egg travels directly through the body cavity (and is fertilised externally as in most fish and amphibians). In insects and other invertebrates, the vagina can be a part of the oviduct (see insect reproductive system).[169] Females of some waterfowl species have developed vaginal structures called dead end sacs and clockwise coils to protect themselves from sexual coercion.[170]

text: In 2014, the scientific journal Current Biology reported that four species of Brazilian insects in the genus Neotrogla were found to have sex-reversed genitalia. The male insects of those species have vagina-like openings, while the females have penis-like organs.[171][172][173]


document_title: Tracking (education)

question_text: one result of tracking in school is that

text: Tracking (education)

text: Description[edit]

text: Ability grouping is not synonymous with tracking.[3]  Tracking differs from ability grouping by scale and permanence.  Ability groups are small, informal groups formed within a single classroom.  Assignment to an ability group is often short-term (never lasting longer than one school year), and varies by subject.[1]  Assignment to an ability group is made by (and can be changed at any time by) the individual teacher, and is usually not recorded in student records.  For example, a teacher may divide a typical mixed-ability classroom into three groups for a mathematics lesson:  those who need to review basic facts before proceeding, those who are ready to learn new material, and those who need a challenging assignment.  For the next lesson, the teacher may revert to whole-class, mixed-ability instruction, or may assign students to different groups.

text: History in the United states[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: Tracking and its various modifications are among the predominant organizing practices of American public schools, and have been an accepted feature of the country's schools for nearly a century.[4]

text: Coming into use at a time when schools were enrolling growing numbers of immigrant children as the result of compulsory schooling laws, tracking was adopted as a means of sorting those children viewed as having limited preparation or capacity for schooling from native children.  Unfortunately, however, tracking quickly took on the appearance of internal segregation.[5]

text: The types of tracks have changed over the years. Traditionally, there were academic, general, and vocational tracks, identified by the kind of preparation they provide.  By the 1920s, some schools had developed up to eight distinctly labeled tracks that represented particular curricular programs that reflected an assessment of students’ probable social and vocational futures.[5]

text: Many secondary schools now base track levels on course difficulty, with tracks such as basic, honors, or college-prep.[6]  Public schools might track in terms of high, average, or lower ability.  As noted by Oakes and Martin, "school policies determine three structural qualities of the tracking system: extensiveness (the number of subjects tracked and the type of distinct curricula offered); specificity (the number of track levels offered); and flexibility (whether students move from one track to another)".[7]  Although, in theory, track assignment is based on academic ability, other factors often influence placement.

text: Origins of race-based tracking in school desegregation[edit]

text: The Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Supreme Court ruling of 1954 determined that the separate school statute established by Plessy v. Ferguson was unconstitutional, but a plan was not set forth for desegregating schools until the following year with the Brown II case. For schools in most southern regions of the United States, integration did not occur until the early 1970s.[8] Mickelson (2003) stated that tracking was used as a tool to maintain white privilege by placing African-American students in lower academic tracks in Charlotte, North Carolina public schools after the Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg desegregation ruling.[9]

text: Haney (1978) did a historical analysis on the negative effects of desegregation on African-American educators.[10] At the secondary school level, African-American teachers or less qualified white teachers were assigned to teach African American students. Teachers in lower tracks were also found to be less organized in preparing lessons and taught fewer concepts to students (Oakes, 1987).[11]

text: The origins of race-based tracking actually reach as far back as the federal court ruling in Roberts v. The City of Boston in 1850, a case that upheld separate school curriculums for blacks and whites on the belief in inherent racial differences in intelligence (Harvard Law Review, 1989).[12]

text: During the mid- to late-1980s, there were a few federal court cases in the Mississippi and Georgia the involved unfair race-based tracking in school systems. Quarles v. Oxford Municipal Separate School District, NAACP v. Georgia, and Montgomery v. Starkville Municipal Separate School District each ruled in favor of school districts based on the argument that socioeconomic status was a legitimate reason for tracking. Courts also held the belief that racial discrimination in education was a thing of the past by the 1980s (Harvard Law Review, 1989). Unfortunately, in rural areas of Mississippi and Georgia, African-Americans were made of a large proportion of low income students, placing them in lower academic tracks.

text: As late as 2009, Childers (in press) found that in a successful Ohio high school that was majority African-American, students of color were still placed in lower academic tracks at a rate that did not reflect the student population.[13] The argument for the proliferation of African-Americans in lower tracks was student choice rather than racially based practices of administrators (Childers, in press).

text: Track assignment[edit]

text: The ways by which students are assigned to tracks and the amount of fluidity within the tracking system varies by school and occurs in a variety of manners within individual schools. While some schools assign students to a particular track and do not allow for mobility between tracks, other schools allow students to be placed into an advanced class for one subject and a lower-ranking class for another.[14] Non-academic factors such as schedule conflicts often affect students' track assignments as well.

text: Within some schools, tracking occurs in a variety of manners.  Secondary schools, in general, tend to assign students to high tracks based on objective criteria, while low-track students are often placed using more-arbitrary measures.[citation needed]  In some cases, placement is based entirely on student decision.[6]  In secondary schools in particular, test scores from primary schools may be used to determine a student's secondary track.  Counselors may also work with students to choose a particular class that in turn puts them on a given track.  In both primary and secondary schools, parents and peers may influence academic choices even more than guidance counselors, by encouraging students with similar backgrounds, whether academic, vocational, ethnic, religious, racial, etc., to stay together.  Additionally, grouping may be done by teacher and counselor recommendation without the students' knowledge of any difference in course sections available.[4]  Though this is sometimes the case, students are often aware of ability grouping that occurs in this manner.[15]

text: While most schools practice similar tracking methods, the way in which they organize their tracks may create profound differences in the types of students in each track.[16] Difference in availability of multiple tracks is oftentimes determined by the individual school's faculty number.  When a school has a larger faculty presence, it may be able to offer a larger variety of tracks for its students.  As the number of tracks increases, the opportunity for homogeneity amongst tracks also increases.[17]  Additionally, the type of school (i.e. private, public) may differ in processes of assigning students to tracks, as well as the percentage of students that are rigidly tracked.[16]

text: Debate[edit]

text: Advantages[edit]

text: Proponents of tracking say that tracking has several important strengths.

text: Lessons in adequation with the ability level of the students[edit]

text: A major advantage of tracking is that it allows teachers to better direct lessons toward the specific ability level of the students in each class.[18]  While tracking for regular instruction makes no real difference in scholastic achievement for low and average ability students, it does produce substantial gains for gifted students in tracks specially designed for the gifted and talented.[19]

text: Tracking meets the need for highly gifted students to be with their intellectual peers in order to be appropriately challenged and to view their own abilities more realistically.[20] Tracking can allow students to receive lessons targeted at their ability for each subject separately, attending lessons set at different levels at the same school. For example, a student at a higher level in math may attend a class with advanced math students, but if at a lower level in English they may be grouped with peers at their level in English.

text: Another positive aspect of tracking is that since it separates students by ability, students' work is only compared to that of similar-ability peers, preventing a possible lowering of their self-esteem that could result from comparisons with the work of higher ability students, or inflating the egos of the high-ability students when compared to low-ability, same-age students.  Being with students of similar ability could allow students to realistically compete against one another for the highest marks with a reasonable chance of reaching the top of a class.

text: Higher achievement of high-ability students[edit]

text: Supporters of tracking also note that it allows for higher achievement of high-ability students.[21]  Kulik and Kulik (1992) found that high-ability students in tracked classes achieved more highly than similar-ability students in non-tracked classes. Similarly, Rogers (1991) recommends that gifted and talented students spend the majority of their school day with ability peers.[22]

text:
In 1982 and 1990, the Kuliks also found a moderate improvement in attitude toward subject material for all ability levels.[23] Another factor of ability grouping that has been advocated is the Joplin Plan that refers directly to ability grouping for reading. These groups are generally more interchangeable and less defined.[21]
In another study, Argys, Rees, and Brewer (1996) found that high-track students’ achievement dropped when lower-ability students were integrated into the same class.[24]

text: Both of these studies suggest that tracking is beneficial to high-track students.  Tracking can also encourage low-ability students to participate in class since tracking separates them from intimidation of the high-ability students.[14]

text: Some supporters of tracking also view tracking as an effective means of allocation since it helps direct students into specific areas of the labor market.[18]

text: Rogers classifies tracking as one of ten types of grouping.[25]  High ability groups are often assigned special work that is more advanced than that of the other students in the class. For gifted children, such advanced work contributes to their social and emotional well-being.[26]

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: Heterogeneity inside tracks[edit]

text:
Despite the positive aspects of tracking, some scholars have noted limitations of the system.  Tracking often does not work as effectively as it should because of the composition of the tracks.  In practice, tracks are generally not as homogeneous as they could be
(although they are more homogenous than a non-tracking system, which randomly assigns students to classrooms), so some of the potential benefits can't be fully exploited.[6]

text: Even when tracks initially are nearly homogeneous in students' academic abilities, heterogeneity can develop over time, since students learn at different rates.  Some systems reassess all students periodically to keep students of comparable ability together as they progress.

text: Racial and social discrimination[edit]

text: Low-track classes tend to be primarily composed of low-income students, usually minorities, while upper-track classes are usually dominated by students from socioeconomically successful groups.[27]

text: In 1987, Jeannie Oakes theorized that the disproportionate placement of poor and minority students into low tracks does not reflect their actual learning abilities. Rather, she argues that the ethnocentric claims of social Darwinists and the Anglo-Saxon-driven Americanization movement at the turn of the century combined to produce a strong push for "industrial" schooling, ultimately relegating the poorer minority students to vocational programs and a differentiated curriculum which she considered a lingering pattern in 20th century schools.[28]

text: Teachers appointment to classes[edit]

text: There is evidence to support the assertion that the appointment of teachers to classes is disproportionate.  The most-experienced, highest-status teachers are often assigned to teach high-track classes, whereas less-experienced teachers are usually assigned to low-track classes.[29]  Teachers of the high-track courses were found to be more enthusiastic in teaching, better at providing explanations, and more organized than teachers of low-track courses.[28]

text: Curricula[edit]

text: Scholars have also found that curricula often vary widely among tracks, as might be expected.[18]  While the enrichment and/or acceleration of curricula is considered to be a major benefit to gifted and talented students.,[30] lessons taught in low-track classes often lack the engagement and comprehensiveness of the high-track lessons, reflecting their more remedial nature.

text: This can put low-track students at a disadvantage for college acceptance because they often do not gain the knowledge and skills of the upper-track students, presuming they could and would if not taught under a tracked system.  Oakes (1985) found that in high-track classes, teachers often used course materials and taught concepts which required extensive critical-thinking skills, whereas teachers in low-track classes tended to draw heavily from workbooks and rarely assign work that required critical thinking.[15]  "But tracking described by Oakes in 1985 had little to do with educating gifted and talented children."[31]

text: In general, curricula of high-track courses are much more intensive and in-depth than those of low-track courses, as would be expected.[32] Teachers reported spending less time addressing disciplinary issues in high-track classrooms than in low-track classes.[33] The connection between low-track students and perceived behavioral concerns has been reported frequently.[34]  Teachers in these instances often suggest that more time is required to promote proper student behavior over the development of critical thinking and independent learning.

text: Social effects and stigmatization[edit]

text: Some studies suggest that tracking can influence students' peer groups and attitudes regarding other students.  Gamoran's study (1992) shows that students are more likely to form friendships with other students in the same tracks than students outside of their tracks.[35]  Since low-class and minority students are overrepresented in low tracks with Whites and Asians generally dominating high tracks, interaction among these groups can be discouraged by tracking.[36] However, there is no research showing an academic benefit to low track students from such interaction.

text: Tracking can also result in a stigmatization of low-track students.[6]  In some cases, this stigmatization is thought to have a negative impact on students' academic performance and to influence students' attitudes.[6][35]  In one study, it was found that, among low-achieving students, students in tracked classes were more likely than students in non-tracked classes to believe that "their fate was out of their hands".[37]  According to Carol Dweck, this could be because their teachers impose upon them a 'fixed mindset,' but it is not an inherent attribute of tracking itself.[38]

text: Dweck implies that teachers who promote a growth mindset could stimulate students to greater academic achievement regardless of tracking. So whether a fixed mindset is predictive of, or resulting from, a low track assignment is unknown.

text: The effects of social stigmatization can be some of the worst outcomes for students in lower academic tracks.[39] Schafer and Olexa (1971) interviewed high school students in lower academic tracks to examine the effects of tracking on self-esteem and perceived academic competence.[40] They found that students lost confidence in their abilities by their placements in low-ability classes in which teacher expectations for them were low.

text: These dilemmas were very common as students made transitions to new schools (e.g., elementary to middle school, middle to high school). The tracking of African-American students in elementary schools reflected remnants of early desegregation in which African-American secondary school teachers were demoted to teaching in lower grades (Haney, 1978). In these elementary schools, class-based tracking disproportionately placed African-American students in lower tracks with African-American teachers, regardless of ability. In transitions to middle and high school, tracking by ability created a division among these students and stripped students in lower tracks of their perceived academic efficacies.

text: Goodlad (1983) and Oakes (1985) found that students in lower tracks were more likely to drop out of school or participate in criminal activities.[41][42]

text: Proponents of tracking would have said that students dropped out due to lack of ability, but Mickelson (2003) stated that students differed widely even within lower tracks. Even when students demonstrated high academic ability, it was virtually impossible to change their academic tracks without delaying high school graduation (Mickelson, 2003).

text: International perspective[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: Across countries there are wide differences in the use of formal tracking systems.  Even though some countries track students into differing-ability schools by age 10, others such as the United States keep their entire secondary-school system  comprehensive. Eric Hanushek and Ludger Woessmann  identify the impact of tracking by comparing differences in student outcome between primary and secondary school across tracked and non-tracked systems.[43] The results suggest that early tracking increases educational inequality. While less clear, there is also a tendency for early tracking to reduce mean performance.

text: Tracking by country[edit]

text: Tracking was once popular in English-speaking countries, but is less used now; tracking systems formed the basis of the Tripartite System in England and Wales until the 1970s, and in Northern Ireland until 2009.

text: In the UK the term "Tracking" refers to recording data as to individual pupils progress, the term "Streaming" commonly translates to the meaning of Tracking in the sense of this article.

text: Weak tracking systems have been used in American schools.  In this approach, local schools assign students to classrooms according to their overall achievement, so that a given classroom is primarily composed of students with either high, average, or low academic achievement.

text: Germany uses a tracked system.  In Germany, students' achievements in their last of generally four years of primary school determine the type of secondary school they will be permitted to attend, and therefore the type of education they will receive.

text: A tracking system has been in place since the advent of modern education in the Netherlands. After it was relaxed in the 70s and 80s, the tracking system has been gaining substantial strength again since the late 1990s.

text: A Small Act and similarities to class-based tracking abroad[edit]

text: The 2010 HBO documentary, A Small Act, documented the difficulty of Kenyan students being able to afford attending secondary schools.[44] These elite schools were viewed as pathway to law school, medical school, and other forms of advanced education. Students who were kicked out of school for insufficient funds were fated to lives of poverty. In Kenya, having only a primary school education prepared one for menial labor, while secondary school equated to future social mobility for poor Kenyan children.

text: The Kenyan system of education closely mirrored tracking in American high schools where students in college-preparatory tracks were able to attend four-year universities immediately after graduation and vocationally tracked students could only enter community colleges and technical schools. Middle-class Kenyans were more likely to complete secondary schools and attend college, similar to college-preparatory students in the United States. Despite displaying promising academic ability, both low track students in the United States and poor children in Kenya can be at disadvantages in their educational advancement. For those in the United States, they acquire vocational skills at the sacrifice of reaching their full academic potential and the job security of a college education. The prospects for poor children in Kenya are even worse, having acquired few job skills in their primary school education.

text: Poor children in Kenya did have the opportunity to gain admission to secondary schools through merit scholarships, which required that students attained satisfactory scores on entrance examinations. There were indeed opportunities for bright poor children, but merit scholarships were limited in the number of students who could be awarded. In the United States, bright students in vocational tracks can enroll in two-year universities, but they lack the scholarships and post-secondary funding of their college-preparatory counterparts. Vocational students negotiate with the burden of scant financial support for college, and poor Kenyan children have the stress of passing entrance examinations even if they have academic ability similar to that of middle-class  children or those in college-preparatory tracks.

text: Detracking[edit]

text: Detracking occurs when students are deliberately positioned into classes of mixed ability.[4] As opposed to tracking, students are no longer placed in groups based upon academic achievement or ability.[45] Tracking can be associated with giving students in low-track classes less resources, fewer experienced teachers, low expectations, and unchallenging curricula.[46] Proponents for detracking believe that low-track students will greatly benefit in school achievement if they are mixed in with high-track students.[24]

text: Benefits of detracking[edit]

text: Critics of tracking such as Kevin Welner say that detracking will help close the class-based and race-based achievement gap.[47]  Often students in low-track classes are disadvantaged racial and ethnic minority students.[47] Those in favor of detracking say that detracking challenges social views about race and intelligence.[48]

text: Tracking has been shown to produce less academic achievement for low-ability students, and higher academic achievement for high-ability students; de-tracking would increase the achievement of the worst students and harm the achievement of the best students.[46]  Critics say that not challenging all students with the most advanced curriculum results in overall low student educational achievement,[47] and that students in low tracks do not learn as much as their peers in higher tracks, e.g., advanced mathematics.[48]

text: Teachers typically have higher expectations for students in high-track classes and low expectations for students in low-tracked classes, which affects the self-image of students.[45]

text: Concerns of detracking[edit]

text: Detracking has been proven to reduce the achievement of students who would otherwise be placed  in high-track classes.[46][47] Parents of high-ability students and other proponents of tracking say that academically gifted students should have access to classes that maximize their potential.[48] Detracking holds back high-ability students because teachers must reduce the amount and complexity of material so that all students in the class, including low-ability students, can understand it.[46] Putting all students together in a heterogeneous group makes the teacher's job more difficult by increasing the range of performance of the students in a class.[46]

text: The teachers' perception of a students' academic abilities determines how detracking is carried out in the classroom.[4] For example, in a school with many disadvantaged students, teachers assumed most students had low ability, and therefore the classroom curriculum was easier than what the students were capable of achieving.[4] On the other side, in a wealthy school, teachers typically assumed students were college-bound and intelligent, and followed a creative and challenging curriculum.[4]

text: Proposed reforms[edit]

text: Maureen Hallinan offers many suggestions for reforming the tracking system and counterbalancing its perceived negative consequences.[6] Although tracking can segregate students by race and socioeconomic status, she says that, by ensuring that students are engaged in integrated settings[such as clarification needed] during the school day, some of the negative effects of the segregation[such as clarification needed] could be avoided. Some studies suggest that low-track students often have slower academic growth than high-track students, but Hallinan says that providing more-engaging lessons in class, altering assumptions about students, and raising requirements for students' performance could help.  Research is needed in this area to test her hypotheses. In order to prevent stigmatization of low-track students, Hallinan suggests that schools challenge low-track students to achieve highly and should offer public rewards for gains in academic achievement.[6] Such rewards would be necessary in all tracks to avoid the perception of unfairness.

text: Heterogeneous class assignment with part-time homogeneous groupings is one possible compromise.

text: Allen Graubard suggests that creating "small schools" within larger school systems would be a progressive proposal for reformation. The school experience could be reformatted by having students select programs themselves that cover both traditional learning as well as vocational real-world experiences.[49]

text: Reform would also benefit from improving the instruction that is provided to students within the classroom. In order to have all students benefit from eliminating tracking, teachers must have the tools to teach all students, as well as the tools to decrease stigma that may arise from students who feel that they are at different learning levels from their peers. There is evidence that as it stands, many teachers are not given proper training to teach/guide differentiated classrooms. In order to successfully accomplish a reformation of the educational experience, teachers and faculty must be provided the proper time and support to complete training.[50]