document_title: A.C. Milan

question_text: when did ac milan last win serie a

question_tokens: when did ac milan last win serie a

text: A.C. Milan

text: History

text:
"Saremo una squadra di diavoli. I nostri colori saranno il rosso come il fuoco e il nero come la paura che incuteremo agli avversari."
— 1899, Herbert Kilpin[14][15]

"We are a team of devils. Our colours are red as fire and black to invoke fear in our opponents."
— 1899, Herbert Kilpin

text: A.C. Milan was founded as Milan Foot-Ball and Cricket Club in 1899 by English expatriates Alfred Edwards and Herbert Kilpin.[4] Although the club itself claims 16 December of that year as its foundation date, historical evidence show that the club was actually founded on 13 December.[16] In honour of its English origins, the club has retained the English spelling of the city's name, as opposed to the Italian spelling Milano, which it was forced to bear under the fascist regime. Milan won its first Italian championship in 1901 and a further two in succession in 1906 and 1907.[3]

text: In 1908, Milan experienced a split caused by internal disagreements over the signing of foreign players, which led to the forming of another Milan-based team, F.C. Internazionale Milano.[17] Following these events, Milan did not manage to win a single domestic title until 1950–51.[8] The 1950s saw the club return to the top of Italian football, headed by the famous Gre-No-Li Swedish trio Gunnar Gren, Gunnar Nordahl and Nils Liedholm. This was one of the club's most successful periods domestically, with the Scudetto going to Milan in 1951, 1955, 1957, 1959 and 1962.[8] In 1963, Milan won its first continental title by beating Benfica in the final of the European Cup.[18] This success was repeated in 1969, with a 4–1 win over Ajax in the final, which was followed by the Intercontinental Cup title the same year.[8] During this period Milan also won its first Coppa Italia, with victory over Padova in the 1967 final, and two European Cup Winners' Cups: in 1967–68 and 1972–73.[8]

text: Milan won a tenth league title in 1979, but after the retirement of Gianni Rivera in the same year, the team went into a period of decline. The club was involved in the 1980 Totonero scandal and as punishment was relegated to Serie B for the first time in its history.[19] The scandal was centred around a betting syndicate paying players and officials to fix the outcome of matches.[19] Milan achieved promotion back to Serie A at the first attempt, winning the 1980–81 Serie B title,[8] but were again relegated a year later as the team ended its 1981–82 campaign in third-last place. In 1983, Milan won the Serie B title for the second time in three seasons to return to Serie A,[8] where they achieved a sixth-place finish in 1983–84.

text: On 20 February 1986, entrepreneur Silvio Berlusconi acquired the club and saved it from bankruptcy after investing vast amounts of money,[3] appointing rising manager Arrigo Sacchi at the helm of the Rossoneri and signing Dutch internationals Ruud Gullit, Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard.[3] The Dutch trio added an attacking impetus to the team, and complemented the club's Italian internationals Paolo Maldini, Franco Baresi, Alessandro Costacurta and Roberto Donadoni. Under Sacchi, Milan won its first Scudetto in nine years in the 1987–88 season. The following year, the club won its first European Cup in two decades, beating Romanian club Steaua București 4–0 in the final. Milan retained their title with a 1–0 win over Benfica a year later and was the last team to win back-to-back European Cups until Real Madrid's win in 2017.[20] The Milan team of 1989–90, nicknamed the "Immortals" in the Italian media,[21] has been voted the best club side of all time in a global poll of experts conducted by World Soccer magazine.[22]

text: After Sacchi left Milan in 1991, he was replaced by the club's former player Fabio Capello whose team won three consecutive Serie A titles between 1992 and 1994, a spell which included a 58-match unbeaten run in Serie A (which earned the team the label "the Invincibles"),[21][23] and back-to-back UEFA Champions League final appearances in 1993, 1994 and 1995. A year after losing 1–0 to Marseille in the 1993 Champions League final, Capello's team reached its peak in one of Milan's most memorable matches of all time, the famous 4–0 win over Barcelona in the 1994 Champions League final.[23] Capello's side went on to win the 1995–96 league title before he left to coach Real Madrid in 1996.[23] In 1998–99, after a two-year period of decline, Milan lifted its 16th championship in the club's centenary season.

text: Milan's next period of success came under another former player, Carlo Ancelotti. After his appointment in November 2001, Ancelotti took Milan to the 2003 Champions League final, where they defeated Juventus on penalties to win the club's sixth European Cup.[24] The team then won the Scudetto in 2003–04 before reaching the 2005 Champions League final, where they were beaten by Liverpool on penalties despite leading 3–0 at half-time.[24] Two years later, the two teams met again in the 2007 Champions League final, with Milan winning 2–1 to lift the title for a seventh time.[24][25] The team then won its first FIFA Club World Cup in December 2007.[26] In 2009, after becoming Milan's second longest serving coach with 420 matches overseen,[26] Ancelotti left the club to take over as head-coach at Chelsea.

text: During this period, the club was involved in the Calciopoli scandal, where five teams were accused of fixing matches by selecting favourable referees.[27] A police inquiry excluded any involvement of Milan managers,[28] but the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) unilaterally decided that it had sufficient evidence to charge Milan vice-president Adriano Galliani. As a result, Milan was initially punished with a 15-point deduction and was banned from the 2006–07 UEFA Champions League. An appeal saw that penalty reduced to eight points,[29] which allowed the club to retain its Champions League participation.

text: Following the aftermath of Calciopoli, local rivals Internazionale dominated Serie A, winning four Scudetti. However, with the help a strong squad boasting players such as Zlatan Ibrahimović, Robinho and Alexandre Pato joining many of the veterans of the club's mid-decade European successes, Milan recaptured the Scudetto in the 2010–11 Serie A season, their first since the 2003–04 season, and 18th overall.[30][31]

text: However, after the Scudetto the club declined in performance. It saw the club failed to qualify to European competitions since 2014. Fininvest, the holding company of the club also signed a preliminary agreement with Bee Taechaubol to sell 48% stake of the club for €480 million in 2015,[32] after a net loss of €91.3 million in 2014 financial year and subsequent financial contribution from Fininvest.[33] However, the deal collapsed. On 5 August 2016, a new preliminary agreement was signed with a Chinese investment management company Sino-Europe Sports Investment Management Changxing Co., Ltd. (Chinese: 中欧体育投资管理长兴有限公司), which Fininvest sold 99.93% stake of Milan for about €520 million, plus the refurbishment of the club financial debt of €220 million.[34] (A further €90 million credit line from Fininvest was added to the valuation as the new debt was occurred between 1 July 2016 and the closing date).[35] 0.07% stake of the club were retained by other shareholders. On 13 April 2017, the deal was completed and Rossoneri Sport Investment Lux became the new direct parent company of the club.[35]

text: Colours and badge

text:
"I can’t think of many shirts out there that are as recognisable as Milan’s. – Our kits go beyond just the sphere of football."

—In an interview with SoccerBible, Milan player Gianluca Lapadula complimented the iconic design of Rossoneri.[36]

tag: div

text: Red and black are the colours which have represented the club throughout its entire history. They were chosen to represent the players' fiery ardor (red) and the opponents' fear to challenge the team (black). Rossoneri, the team's widely used nickname, literally means "the red & blacks" in Italian, in reference to the colours of the stripes on its jersey.[37]

text: Another nickname derived from the club's colours is the Devil. An image of a red devil was used as Milan's logo at one point with a Golden Star for Sport Excellence located next to it.[38] As is customary in Italian football, the star above the logo was awarded to the club after winning 10 league titles, in 1979. For many years, Milan's badge was simply the Flag of Milan, which was originally the flag of Saint Ambrose.[38] The modern badge used today represents the club colours and the flag of the Comune di Milano, with the acronym ACM at the top and the foundation year (1899) at the bottom.[38]

text: White shorts and black socks are usually worn as part of the home strip. Milan's away strip has always been completely white.[39] It is considered by both the fans and the club to be a lucky strip in Champions League finals, due to the fact that Milan has won six finals out of eight in an all white strip (losing only to Ajax in 1995 and Liverpool in 2005), and only won one out of three in the home strip. The third strip, which is rarely used, changes yearly, being mostly black with red trimmings in recent seasons.

text: Stadium

text:
Stadio Giuseppe Meazza

San Siro

Location
Via Piccolomini 5,
20151 Milan, Italy

Owner
Municipality of Milan

Operator
A.C. Milan and Internazionale

Capacity
80,018 seated

Construction

Broke ground
December 1925

Opened
19 September 1926

Renovated
1939, 1955, 1990, 2015–16

Architect
Ulisse Stacchini (1925),
Giancarlo Ragazzi (1989),
Enrico Hoffer (1989)

Tenants

A.C. Milan (1926–present),
Internazionale (1947–present)

text: The team's stadium is the 80,018 seat San Siro, officially known as Stadio Giuseppe Meazza after the former player who represented both Milan and Internazionale. The more commonly used name, "San Siro", is the name of the district where it is located. San Siro has been the home of Milan since 1926, when it was privately built by funding from Milan's president at the time, Piero Pirelli (it). Construction was performed by 120 workers, and took 13-and-a-half months to complete. The stadium was owned by the club until it was sold to the city council in 1935, and since 1947, it has been shared with Internazionale when the other major Milanese club was accepted as joint tenant.

text: The first game played at the stadium was on 19 September 1926, when Milan lost 6–3 in a friendly match against Internazionale. Milan played its first league game in San Siro on 19 September 1926, losing 1–2 to Sampierdarenese. From an initial capacity of 35,000 spectators, the stadium has undergone several major renovations, most recently in preparation for the 1990 FIFA World Cup when its capacity was set to 85,700, all covered with a polycarbonate roof. In the summer of 2008 its capacity has been reduced to 80,018, to meet the new standards set by UEFA.

text: Based on the English model for stadiums, San Siro is specifically designed for football matches, as opposed to many multi-purpose stadiums used in Serie A. It is therefore renowned in Italy for its fantastic atmosphere during matches, largely thanks to the closeness of the stands to the pitch. The frequent use of flares by supporters contributes to the atmosphere but the practice has occasionally caused problems.

text: On 19 December 2005, Milan vice-president and executive director Adriano Galliani announced that the club is seriously working towards a relocation. He said that Milan's new stadium will be largely based on the Veltins-Arena – the home of Schalke 04 in Gelsenkirchen – and will follow the standards of football stadiums in the United States, Germany and Spain. As opposed to many other stadiums in Italy, Milan's new stadium will likely be used for football only, having no athletics track.

text: On 11 December 2014, Barbara Berlusconi announced a proposal to build a property stadium of 42,000 seats in Portello, behind the new HQ of the Rossoneri, and the large square "Piazza Gino Valle". The new village with shopping malls and hotel is located near CityLife district and is served by the metro.[40]

text: On 20 September 2015, however, Silvio Berlusconi has called an end to his club's plans to build a new stadium in the city.[41]

text: In 2017, new CEO Marco Fassone stated that the club may look at either staying in the San Siro or moving to a new stadium with the club hierarchy emphasizing the need to increase average attendance for home games. [42]

text: Supporters and rivalries

text: Milan is one of the best supported football clubs in Italy, according to research conducted by Italian newspaper La Repubblica.[43] Historically, Milan was supported by the city's working-class.[44] On the other hand, crosstown rivals Internazionale were mainly supported by the more prosperous middle-class.[44] The oldest ultras groups in all of Italian football, Fossa dei Leoni, originated in Milan.[45] Currently, the main ultras group within the support base is Brigate Rossonere.[45] Politically, Milan ultras have never had any particular preference,[45] but the media traditionally associated them with the left-wing,[46] until recently, when Berlusconi's presidency somewhat altered that view.[47]

text: According to a study from 2010, Milan is the most supported Italian team in Europe and seventh overall, with over 18.4 million fans.[48] It had the ninth highest average attendance of European football clubs during the 2010–11 season, behind Borussia Dortmund, Barcelona, Manchester United, Real Madrid, Bayern Munich, Schalke 04, Arsenal and Hamburger SV.[49][50][51][52][53]

text: Genoa fans consider Milan a hated rival after Genoa fan Vincenzo Spagnolo was stabbed to death by a Milan supporter in January 1995.[54] Milan's main rivalry, however, is with its neighbour club, Internazionale, where both clubs meet in the widely anticipated Derby della Madonnina twice every Serie A season. The name of the derby refers to the Blessed Virgin Mary, whose statue atop the Milan Cathedral is one of the city's main attractions. The match usually creates a lively atmosphere, with numerous (often humorous or offensive) banners unfolded before the start of the game. Flares are commonly present and contribute to the spectacle but they have occasionally led to problems, including the abandonment of the second leg of the 2004–05 Champions League quarter-final match between Milan and Inter on 12 April 2005, after a flare thrown from the crowd by an Inter supporter struck Milan goalkeeper Dida on the shoulder.[55]

text: Players

text: First team squad

text: Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

text:
No.

Position
Player

2

DF
Davide Calabria

4

MF
José Mauri

5

MF
Giacomo Bonaventura

7

FW
Nikola Kalinić (on loan from Fiorentina)[57]

8

FW
Suso

9

FW
André Silva

10

FW
Hakan Çalhanoğlu

11

FW
Fabio Borini (on loan from Sunderland)[58]

12

DF
Andrea Conti

13

DF
Alessio Romagnoli

15

DF
Gustavo Gómez

17

DF
Cristián Zapata

18

MF
Riccardo Montolivo

No.

Position
Player

19

DF
Leonardo Bonucci (captain)[59]

20

DF
Ignazio Abate

21

MF
Lucas Biglia

22

DF
Mateo Musacchio

30

GK
Marco Storari

31

DF
Luca Antonelli

46

DF
Matteo Gabbia

63

FW
Patrick Cutrone

68

DF
Ricardo Rodríguez

73

MF
Manuel Locatelli

79

MF
Franck Kessié (on loan from Atalanta)[60]

90

GK
Antonio Donnarumma

99

GK
Gianluigi Donnarumma

text: For recent transfers see 2017–18 A.C. Milan season.

text: Out on loan

text:
No.

Position
Player

GK
Gabriel (at Empoli until 30 June 2018)[61]

GK
Alessandro Plizzari (at Ternana until 30 June 2018)[62]

DF
Mattia Cornaggia (at Pro Piacenza until 30 June 2018)[63]

DF
Stefan Simić (at Crotone until 30 June 2018)[64]

MF
Andrea Bertolacci (at Genoa until 30 June 2018)[65]

MF
Gian Filippo Felicioli (at Hellas Verona until 30 June 2019)[66]

No.

Position
Player

MF
Niccolò Zanellato (at Crotone until 30 June 2018)[67]

FW
Carlos Bacca (at Villarreal until 30 June 2018)[68]

FW
Antonio Fabozzi (at Cremonese until 30 June 2018)[69]

FW
Gianluca Lapadula (at Genoa until 30 June 2018)[70]

FW
M'Baye Niang (at Torino until 30 June 2018)[71]

FW
Gianmarco Zigoni (at Venezia until 30 June 2018)[72]

text: Youth teams

text: Former players

text: Club captains

text: Player records

text: Retired numbers

text:
No.
Player
Nationality
Position
Milan debut
Last match
Ref

3*
Maldini, PaoloPaolo Maldini
 Italy
Centre back / Left back
000000001985-01-20-000020 January 1985
000000002009-05-31-000031 May 2009
[73]

6
Baresi, FrancoFranco Baresi
 Italy
Sweeper
000000001978-04-23-000023 April 1978
000000001997-06-01-00001 June 1997
[73]

text: * Might be restored for one of his two sons, should either of them play professionally for the club.

text: Coaching staff

text:
Position
Name

Head coach
Gennaro Gattuso

Assistant coach
Luigi Riccio

Fitness coaches
Mario Innaurato

Bruno Dominici

Dino Tenderini

Technical assistants
Massimo Innocenti

Francesco Sarlo

Match analyst
Marco Sangermani

Goalkeeping coaches
Alfredo Magni

Giorgio Bianchi

Club manager
Christian Abbiati

Team manager
Andrea Romeo

text: Chairmen and managers

text: Chairmen history

text: Milan has had numerous chairmen[nb 1] over the course of its history, some of whom have been owners of the club while others have been honorary chairmen. Here is a complete list of them.[75]

text:
Name
Years

Alfred Edwards
1899–1909

Giannino Camperio
1909

Piero Pirelli
1909–1928

Luigi Ravasco
1928–1930

Mario Bernazzoli
1930–1933

Luigi Ravasco
1933–1935

Pietro Annoni
1935

Pietro Annoni
G. Lorenzini
Rino Valdameri
1935–1936

Emilio Colombo
1936–1939

Achille Invernizzi
1939–1940

Name
Years

Umberto Trabattoni
1940–1944

Antonio Busini
1944–1945

Umberto Trabattoni
1945–1954

Andrea Rizzoli
1954–1963

Felice Riva
1963–1965

Federico Sordillo
1965–1966

Franco Carraro
1967–1971

Federico Sordillo
1971–1972

Albino Buticchi
1972–1975

Bruno Pardi
1975–1976

Vittorio Duina
1976–1977

Name
Years

Felice Colombo
1977–1980

Gaetano Morazzoni
1980–1982

Giuseppe Farina
1982–1986

Rosario Lo Verde
1986

Silvio Berlusconi
1986–2004

Chairman Commission
2004–2006

Silvio Berlusconi
2006–2008

Chairman Commission
2008–2012

Silvio Berlusconi
2012–2017

Li Yonghong
2017–

text: Managerial history

text: Below is a list of Milan coaches from 1900 until the present day.[76]

text:
Name
Nationality
Years

Herbert Kilpin

1900–1908

Daniele Angeloni

1906–1907

Technical Commission

1907–1910

Giovanni Camperio

1910–1911

Technical Commission

1911–1914

Guido Moda

1915–1922

Ferdi Oppenheim

1922–1924

Vittorio Pozzo

1924–1926

Guido Moda

1926

Herbert Burgess

1926–1928

Engelbert König

1928–1931

József Bánás

1931–1933

József Viola

1933–1934

Adolfo Baloncieri

1934–1937

William Garbutt

1937

Hermann Felsner
József Bánás

1937–1938

József Viola

1938–1940

Guido Ara
Antonio Busini

1940–1941

Mario Magnozzi

1941–1943

Giuseppe Santagostino

1943–1945

Adolfo Baloncieri

1945–1946

Giuseppe Bigogno

1946–1949

Lajos Czeizler

1949–1952

Gunnar Gren

1952

Mario Sperone

1952–1953

Béla Guttmann

1953–1954

Antonio Busini

1954

Hector Puricelli

1954–1956

Giuseppe Viani

1957–1960

Paolo Todeschini

1960–1961

Nereo Rocco

1961–1963

Luis Carniglia

1963–1964

Nils Liedholm

1963–1966

Giovanni Cattozzo

1966

Arturo Silvestri

1966–1967

Nereo Rocco

1967–1972

Cesare Maldini

1973–1974

Name
Nationality
Years

Giovanni Trapattoni

1974

Gustavo Giagnoni

1974–1975

Nereo Rocco

1975

Paolo Barison

1975–1976

Giovanni Trapattoni

1976

Giuseppe Marchioro

1976–1977

Nereo Rocco

1977

Nils Liedholm

1977–1979

Massimo Giacomini

1979–1981

Italo Galbiati

1981

Luigi Radice

1981–1982

Italo Galbiati

1982

Francesco Zagatti

1982

Ilario Castagner

1982–1984

Italo Galbiati

1984

Nils Liedholm

1984–1987

Fabio Capello

1987

Arrigo Sacchi

1987–1991

Fabio Capello

1991–1996

Óscar Tabárez

1996

Giorgio Morini

1996–1997

Arrigo Sacchi

1997

Fabio Capello

1997–1998

Alberto Zaccheroni

1998–2001

Cesare Maldini
Mauro Tassotti

2001

Fatih Terim
Antonio Di Gennaro

2001

Carlo Ancelotti

2001–2009

Leonardo

2009–2010

Massimiliano Allegri

2010–2014

Mauro Tassotti (caretaker)

2014

Clarence Seedorf

2014

Filippo Inzaghi

2014–2015

Siniša Mihajlović

2015–2016

Cristian Brocchi

2016

Vincenzo Montella

2016–2017

Gennaro Gattuso

2017–

text: Honours

text: Milan is one of the most successful clubs in Italy, having won a total of 30 major domestic trophies, and was the most successful club in the world in terms of international trophies with 18 trophies until February 2014, when Al Ahly SC claimed that title (now this title is claimed by Real Madrid with 25 official international trophies).[77][78] It is now the third-most successful club behind Real Madrid (23) and Al Ahly (20). Milan has earned the right to place a star on its jersey in recognition of the fact that it has won at least ten scudetti. In addition, the club is permanently allowed to display a multiple-winner badge on its shirt as it has won more than five European Championship Cups.[79]

text:
A.C. Milan honours

Type
Competition
Titles
Seasons / Years

Domestic
Serie A
18
1901, 1906, 1907, 1950–51, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1958–59, 1961–62, 1967–68, 1978–79, 1987–88, 1991–92, 1992–93, 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99, 2003–04, 2010–11

Serie B
2
1980–81, 1982–83

Coppa Italia
5
1966–67, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1976–77, 2002–03

Supercoppa Italiana
7†
1988, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2004, 2011, 2016

Continent
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
7
1962–63, 1968–69, 1988–89, 1989–90, 1993–94, 2002–03, 2006–07

UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
2
1967–68, 1972–73

UEFA Super Cup
5†
1989, 1990, 1994, 2003, 2007

Worldwide
Intercontinental Cup
3†
1969, 1989, 1990

FIFA Club World Cup
1
2007

text:
bold under "Titles" indicates a record.
† shared record

text: Club statistics and records

text: Paolo Maldini holds the records for both total appearances and Serie A appearances for Milan, with 902 official games played in total and 647 in Serie A (as of 31 May 2009, not including playoff matches),[80] the latter being an all-time Serie A record.[81]

text: Swedish forward Gunnar Nordahl scored 38 goals in the 1950–51 season, 35 of which were in Serie A, setting an Italian football and club record. He went on to become Milan's all-time top goalscorer, scoring 221 goals for the club in 268 games.[82] He is followed in second place by Andriy Shevchenko with 175 goals in 322 games, and Gianni Rivera in third place, who has scored 164 goals in 658 games. Rivera is also Milan's youngest ever goalscorer, scoring in a league match against Juventus at just 17 years.

text: Legendary tactician Nereo Rocco, the first proponent of catenaccio in the country, was Milan's longest-serving head coach, sitting on the bench for over nine years (in two spells) in the 1960s and early 1970s, winning the club's first European Cup triumphs. Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, who purchased the club in 1986, is Milan's longest-serving president (23 years, due to a two-year vacancy between 2004 and 2006).

text: The first official match in which Milan participated was in the Third Federal Football Championship, the predecessor of Serie A, losing 3–0 to Torinese. Milan's largest ever victory was 13–0 against Audax Modena, in a league match at the 1914–15 season. Its heaviest defeat was recorded in the league at the 1922–23 season, beaten 0–8 by Bologna.

text: During the 1991–92 season, the club achieved the feature of being the first team to win the Serie A title without losing a single game. Previously, only Perugia had managed to go unbeaten over an entire Serie A season (1978–79), but finished second in the table. In total, Milan's unbeaten streak lasted 58 games, starting with a 0–0 draw against Parma on 26 May 1991 and coincidentally ending with a 1–0 home loss to Parma on 21 March 1993. This is a Serie A record as well as the third-longest unbeaten run in top flight European football, coming in behind Steaua București's record of 104 unbeaten games and Celtic's 68 game unbeaten run.[83][84]

text: Since 2007, along with Boca Juniors, Milan has won more FIFA recognised international club titles than any other club in the world with 18 titles.[85] They were overtaken by Al Ahly SC from Egypt after their 2014 CAF Confederation Cup win.[86]

text: The sale of Kaká to Real Madrid in 2009 broke the eight-year-old world football transfer record held by Zinedine Zidane, costing the Spanish club €67 million[87] (about £56 million[88]). That record, however, lasted for less than a month, broken by Cristiano Ronaldo's £80 million transfer.[89] This record, however, is in terms of nominal British pound rates, not adjusted to inflation or the real value of the euro. Madrid bought Zidane for €77.5 million in 2001,[90][91] about £46 million at that time.

text: A.C. Milan as a company

text: Milan is a subsidiary of Rossoneri Sport Investment Luxembourg since 13 April 2017, which acquired 99.92973% shares of A.C. Milan S.p.A. from Fininvest. Li Yonghong became the new chairman[nb 1] and Marco Fassone was confirmed as CEO. The other members of the board of directors were Roberto Cappelli, David Han Li, Lu Bo (Chinese: 路博 of Haixia Capital), Marco Patuano, Paolo Scaroni and Xu Renshuo.[92]

text: According to The Football Money League published by consultants Deloitte, in the 2005–06 season, Milan was the fifth-highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €233.7 million.[93] However, it fell to eighth in 2011–12 season,[94] tenth in 2012–13 and twelfth in 2013–14 season. The club is also ranked as the eighth-wealthiest football club in the world by Forbes magazine as of 2014, making it the wealthiest in Italian football, just surpassing ninth-ranked Juventus by a narrow margin.[12]

text: Emirates is the current main sponsor for Milan's shirt starting from the 2010–11 season and through to the 2019–20 season.[95] This follows a four-year relationship with Austrian online betting company bwin.com as sponsor.[96]

text: Previously, German car manufacturer Opel (owned by General Motors) had sponsored Milan for 12 seasons.[97] For most of those 12 years, "Opel" was displayed on the front of the shirt, but in the 2003–04 and the 2005–06 seasons respectively, "Meriva" and "Zafira" (two cars from the company's range) were displayed.

text: The current shirts are supplied by German sportswear manufacturer Adidas, whose deal was scheduled to run until 2023.[98] However, an early termination of the deal was announced in October 2017,[99] effective on 30 June 2018. The deal makes Adidas the official manufacturer of all kits, training equipment and replica outfits. Prior to Adidas, the Italian sports company Lotto produced Milan's sportswear.

text: A.C. Milan Group made an aggregate net loss in recent years, which was one of the largest among the Italian clubs, notably: 2005, net loss of €4.5 million (separate account);[100] 2006, a net income of €11.9 million (contributed by the sales of Andriy Shevchenko);[100] 2007, a net loss of €32 million;[101] 2008, a net loss of €77 million;[102] 2009, a net loss of €19 million (contributed by the sales of Kaká);[87] 2010 a net loss of €65 million;[103] 2011 a net loss of €67.334 million,[104] a net loss of €6.857 million in 2012 (contributed by the sales of Thiago Silva and Zlatan Ibrahimović).[105] and a net loss of €15.7 million in 2013 (contributed by the sales of Kevin-Prince Boateng and Alexandre Pato, as well as a decrease in the club's wage bill).[106]

text:
A.C. Milan Group
consolidated financial statement
(In millions of euros)

Year
Revenue
Profit
Total Assets
Equity
Re-capitalization

2006[107]
00 305.111
000 11.904
00 287.065
 −40.768
 001.464

2007[108]
 275.442
 −31.716
 303.678
 −47.483
 025.000

2008[102][109]
 237.900
 −66.838
 325.625
 −64.482
 050.000

2009[110] (restated)[103]
 307.349
 −09.836
 394.150
 −71.978
 002.340

2010[103][111]
 253.196
 −69.751
 380.868
 −96.693
 045.068

2011[112]
 266.811
 −67.334
 363.756
 −77.091
 087.060

2012[105]
 329.307
 −06.857
 334.284
 −54.948
 029.000

2013[106]
 278.713
 −15.723
 354.595
 −66.921
 003.750

2014[33][113]
 233.574
 −91.285
 291.301
 −94.206[nb 2]
 064.000

2015 (restated)[114]
 213.426
 −89.079
 362.156
 −50.557
 150.000

2016[115]
 236.128
 −74.871
 315.200
 −50.427
 075.000

2017 (first half)[116][117][118]
 102.866
 −32.624
 447.557
 029.969
 059.520 + 53.500

text: Note: Re-capitalization figures were obtained from item versamenti soci in conto capitale e/o copertura perdite, for 2006 to 2017 financial year

text: Kit manufacturers and shirt sponsors

text:
Years
Kit manufacturer
Sponsor

Brand
Company

1981–82
Linea Milan
Pooh Jeans
Italiana Manifatture

1982–83
NR
Hitachi
Hitachi Europe

1983–84
Cuore

1984–85
Rolly Go
Oscar Mondadori
Arnoldo Mondadori Editore

1985–86
Gianni Rivera
Fotorex U-Bix
Olivetti

1986–87
Kappa

1987–90
Mediolanum

1990–92
Adidas

1992–93
Motta

1993–94
Lotto

1994–98
Opel
General Motors

1998–06
Adidas

2006–10
Bwin

2010–18
Emirates
The Emirates Group

2018–
Puma

text: Superleague Formula

text: Milan had a team in the Superleague Formula race car series where teams are sponsored by football clubs. Robert Doornbos, formerly driving for Minardi and Red Bull Racing in the Formula One World Championship, drove for Milan in 2008.[119] Doornbos won his first race for the team at Nürburgring, Germany. Giorgio Pantano is driving for Milan in the 2009 season and he has also won races for the team.[120] The team folded in 2010 along with the series in 2011.


document_title: Environmental movement in the United States

question_text: when did environmental pollution began to emerge as a problem in the united states

root

text: Scope of the movement[edit]

text:
The early Conservation movement, which began in the late 19th century, included fisheries and wildlife management, water, soil conservation and sustainable forestry. Today it includes sustainable yield of natural resources, preservation of wilderness areas and biodiversity.
The modern Environmental movement, which began in the 1960s with concern about air and water pollution, became broader in scope to including all landscapes and human activities. See List of environmental issues.
Environmental health movement dating at least to Progressive Era (1890s - 1920s) urban reforms including clean water supply, more efficient removal of raw sewage and reduction in crowded and unsanitary living conditions. Today Environmental health is more related to nutrition, preventive medicine, aging well and other concerns specific to the human body's well-being.
Sustainability movement which started in the 1980s focused on Gaia theory, value of Earth and other interrelations between human sciences and human responsibilities. Its spinoff Deep Ecology was more spiritual but often claimed to be science.
Environmental justice is a movement that began in the U.S. in the 1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism. Often, low-income and minority communities are located close to highways, garbage dumps, and factories, where they are exposed to greater pollution and environmental health risk than the rest of the population. The Environmental Justice movement seeks to link "social" and "ecological" environmental concerns, while at the same time keeping environmentalists conscious of the dynamics in their own movement, i.e. racism, sexism, homophobia, classicism, and other malaises of dominant culture.

tag: ul

text: As public awareness and the environmental sciences have improved in recent years, environmental issues have broadened to include key concepts such as "sustainability" and also new emerging concerns such as ozone depletion, global warming, acid rain, land use and biogenetic pollution.

tag: p

text: Environmental movements often interact or are linked with other social movements, e.g. for peace, human rights, and animal rights; and against nuclear weapons and/or nuclear power, endemic diseases, poverty, hunger, etc.

text: Some US colleges are now going green by signing the "President's Climate Commitment," a document that a college President can sign to enable said colleges to practice environmentalism by switching to solar power, etc.[1]

text:
Membership of selected US environmental organizations (000s)[2]

1971
1981
1992
1997
2004

Sierra Club (1892)
124
246
615
569
736

National Audubon Society (1905)
115
400
600
550
550

National Parks Conservation Association (1919)
49
27
230
375
375

Izaak Walton League (1922)
54
48
51
42
45

Wilderness Society (1935)
62
52
365
237
225

National Wildlife Federation (1936)
540
818
997
650
650

Defenders of Wildlife (1947)
13
50
77
215
463

The Nature Conservancy (1951)
22
80
545
865
972

WWF-US (1961)
n.a.
n.a.
970
1,200
1,200

Environmental Defense Fund (1967)
20
46
175
300
350

Friends of the Earth (US) (1969)
7
25
30
20
35

Natural Resources Defense Council (1970)
5
40
170
260
450

Greenpeace USA (1972)
n.a.
n.a.
2,225
400
250

tag: table

text: History[edit]

text: Early European settlers to the United States brought from Europe the concept of the commons. In the colonial era, access to natural resources was allocated by individual towns, and disputes over fisheries or land use were resolved at the local level. Changing technologies, however, strained traditional ways of resolving disputes of resource use, and local governments had limited control over powerful special interests. For example, the damming of rivers for mills cut off upriver towns from fisheries; logging and clearing of forest in watersheds harmed local fisheries downstream. In New England, many farmers became uneasy as they noticed clearing of forest changed stream flows and a decrease in bird population which helped control insects and other pests. These concerns become widely known with the publication of Man and Nature (1864) by George Perkins Marsh. The environmental impact method of analysis is generally the main mode for determining what issues the environmental movement is involved in. This model is used to determine how to proceed in situations that are detrimental to the environment by choosing the way that is least damaging and has the fewest lasting implications.[3]

text: Conservation movement[edit]

text: Conservation first became a national issue during the progressive era's conservation movement (1890s - 1920s). The early national conservation movement shifted emphasis to scientific management which favored larger enterprises and control began to shift from local governments to the states and the federal government.(Judd) Some writers credit sportsmen, hunters and fishermen with the increasing influence of the conservation movement. In the 1870s sportsman magazines such as American Sportsmen, Forest and Stream, and Field and Stream are seen as leading to the growth of the conservation movement.(Reiger) This conservation movement also urged the establishment of state and national parks and forests, wildlife refuges, and national monuments intended to preserve noteworthy natural features. Conservation groups focus primarily on an issue that's origins are routed in general expansion. As Industrialization became more prominent as well as the increasing trend towards Urbanization the conservative environmental movement began. Contrary to popular belief conservation groups are not against expansion in general, instead they are concerned with efficiency with resources and land development.[3]

text: Progressive era[edit]

text: Theodore Roosevelt and his close ally George Bird Grinnell, were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market hunting. This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt recognized that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government. The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the Boone and Crockett Club in 1887. The Club was made up of the best minds and influential men of the day. The Boone and Crockett Club's contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.[4] As president, Theodore Roosevelt became a prominent conservationist, putting the issue high on the national agenda.[5] He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, Gifford Pinchot. Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural resources, and is considered to be the nation's first conservation President. He encouraged the Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi² or 930,000 km²) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more Federal land for national parks and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.[6]

text: Roosevelt established the United States Forest Service, signed into law the creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act, under which he proclaimed 18 new U.S. National Monuments. He also established the first 51 Bird Reserves, four Game Preserves, and 150 National Forests, including Shoshone National Forest, the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230,000,000 acres (930,000 km2).

text: Gifford Pinchot had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000 km²) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.

text: In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the Conference of Governors held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty."

text: In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir, who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the National Park Service. While Muir wanted nature preserved for the sake of pure beauty, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."[7] Muir and the Sierra Club vehemently opposed the damming of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite in order to provide water to the city of San Francisco. Roosevelt and Pinchot supported the dam, as did President Woodrow Wilson. The Hetch Hetchy dam was finished in 1923 and is still in operation, but the Sierra Club still wants to tear it down.[8]

text: Other influential conservationists of the Progressive Era included George Bird Grinnell (a prominent sportsmen who founded the Boone and Crockett Club), the Izaak Walton League and John Muir, the founder of the Sierra Club in 1892. Conservationists organized the National Parks Conservation Association, the Audubon Society, and other groups that still remain active.

text: New Deal[edit]

text: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1933–45), like his cousin Theodore Roosevelt, was an ardent conservationist. He used numerous programs of the departments of Agriculture and Interior[9] to end wasteful land-use, mitigate the effects of the Dust Bowl, and efficiently develop natural resources in the West.[10] One of the most popular of all New Deal programs was the Civilian Conservation Corps (1933–1943), which sent two million poor young men to work in rural and wilderness areas, primarily on conservation projects.[11]

text: Post 1945[edit]

text: After World War II increasing encroachment on wilderness land evoked the continued resistance of conservationists, who succeeded in blocking a number of projects in the 1950s and 1960s, including the proposed Bridge Canyon Dam that would have backed up the waters of the Colorado River into the Grand Canyon National Park.

text: The Inter-American Conference on the Conservation of Renewable Natural Resources met in 1948 as a collection of nearly 200 scientists from all over the Americans forming the trusteeship principle that:

text: "No generation can exclusively own the renewable resources by which it lives. We hold the commonwealth in trust for prosperity, and to lessen or destroy it is to commit treason against the future"[12]

text: Beginning of the modern movement[edit]

text: During the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, several events occurred which raised the public awareness of harm to the environment caused by man. In 1954, the 23 man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon was exposed to radioactive fallout from a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll, in 1969, an ecologically catastrophic oil spill from an offshore well in California's Santa Barbara Channel, Barry Commoner's protest against nuclear testing, Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring, Paul R. Ehrlich's The Population Bomb all added anxiety about the environment. Pictures of Earth from space emphasized that the earth was small and fragile.[citation needed]

text: As the public became more aware of environmental issues, concern about air pollution, water pollution, solid waste disposal, dwindling energy resources, radiation, pesticide poisoning (particularly as described in Rachel Carson's influential Silent Spring, 1962), noise pollution, and other environmental problems engaged a broadening number of sympathizers. That public support for environmental concerns was widespread became clear in the Earth Day demonstrations of 1970.[citation needed]

text: Unlike the Progressive Era's conservation movement (1890s - 1920s), which was largely elitist consisting of largely of wealthy, politically powerful men, the modern environmental movement was a social movement with more popular support. The environmental movement borrowed tactics from both the successful civil rights movement and the protests against the Vietnam war.[citation needed]

text: Wilderness preservation[edit]

text: In the modern wilderness preservation movement, important philosophical roles are played by the writings of John Muir who had been activist in the late 19th and early 20th century. Along with Muir perhaps most influential in the modern movement is Henry David Thoreau who published Walden in 1854. Also important was forester and ecologist Aldo Leopold, one of the founders of the Wilderness Society in 1935, who wrote a classic of nature observation and ethical philosophy, A Sand County Almanac, published in 1949. Other philosophical foundations were established by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Thomas Jefferson.

text: There is also a growing movement of campers and other people who enjoy outdoor recreation activities to help preserve the environment while spending time in the wilderness.[13]

text: Anti-nuclear movement[edit]

text: The anti-nuclear movement in the United States consists of more than 80 anti-nuclear groups which have acted to oppose nuclear power or nuclear weapons, or both, in the United States. These groups include the Abalone Alliance, Clamshell Alliance, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Nuclear Information and Resource Service, and Physicians for Social Responsibility. The anti-nuclear movement has delayed construction or halted commitments to build some new nuclear plants,[14] and has pressured the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to enforce and strengthen the safety regulations for nuclear power plants.[15]

text: Anti-nuclear protests reached a peak in the 1970s and 1980s and grew out of the environmental movement.[16] Campaigns which captured national public attention involved the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, Diablo Canyon Power Plant, Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant, and Three Mile Island.[14] On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history.[17][18] International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on June 20, 1983 at 50 sites across the United States.[19][20] There were many Nevada Desert Experience protests and peace camps at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s.[21][22]

text: More recent campaigning by anti-nuclear groups has related to several nuclear power plants including the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant,[23][24] Indian Point Energy Center, Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station,[25] Pilgrim Nuclear Generating Station,[26] Salem Nuclear Power Plant,[27] and Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant.[28] There have also been campaigns relating to the Y-12 Nuclear Weapons Plant,[29] the Idaho National Laboratory,[30] proposed Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository,[31] the Hanford Site, the Nevada Test Site,[32] Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,[33] and transportation of nuclear waste from the Los Alamos National Laboratory.[34]

text: Some scientists and engineers have expressed reservations about nuclear power, including: Barry Commoner, S. David Freeman, John Gofman, Arnold Gundersen, Mark Z. Jacobson, Amory Lovins, Arjun Makhijani, Gregory Minor, Joseph Romm and Benjamin K. Sovacool. Scientists who have opposed nuclear weapons include Linus Pauling and Eugene Rabinowitch.

text: Antitoxics groups[edit]

text: Antitoxics groups are a subgroup that is affiliated with the Environmental Movement in the United States, that is primarily concerned with the effects that cities and their by products have on humans. This aspect of the movement is a self-proclaimed "movement of housewives".[3] Concern around the issues of ground water contamination and air pollution rose in the early 1980s and individuals involved in antitoxics groups claim that they are concerned for the health of their families.[3] A prominent case can be seen in the Love Canal Homeowner's association (LCHA); in this case a housing development was built on a site that had been used for toxic dumping by the Hooker Chemical Company. As a result of this dumping the residents had symptoms of skin irritation, Lois Gibbs, a resident of the development, started a grassroots campaign for reparations. Eventual success led to the government having to purchase homes that were sold in the development.[3]

text: Federal legislation in the 1970s[edit]

text: Prior to the 1970s the protection of basic air and water supplies was a matter mainly left to each state. During the 1970s, primary responsibility for clean air and water shifted to the federal government. Growing concerns, both environmental and economic, from cities and towns as well as sportsman and other local groups, and senators such as Maine's Edmund S. Muskie, led to passage of extensive legislation, notably the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Other legislation included National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), signed into law in 1970, which established a United States Environmental Protection Agency and a Council on Environmental Quality; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977, which became known as the Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the Superfund Act (1980). These laws regulated public drinking water systems, toxic substances, pesticides, and ocean dumping; and protected wildlife, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers. Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, contaminated site cleanup, monitoring, and enforcement.[citation needed]

text: The creation of these laws led to a major shift in the environmental movement. Groups such as the Sierra Club shifted focus from local issues to becoming a lobby in Washington and new groups, for example, the Natural Resources Defense Council and Environmental Defense, arose to influence politics as well. (Larson)[citation needed]

text: Renewed focus on local action[edit]

text: In the 1980s President Ronald Reagan sought to curtail scope of environmental protection taking steps such as appointing James G. Watt who was called one of the most "blatantly anti-environmental political appointees". The major environmental groups responded with mass mailings which led to increased membership and donations. The large environmental organization increasingly relied on ties within Washington, D.C. to advance their environmental agenda. At the same time membership in environmental groups became more suburban and urban. Groups such as animal rights, and the gun control lobby became linked with environmentalism while sportsmen, farmers and ranchers were no longer influential in the movement.[citation needed]

text: When industry groups lobbied to weaken regulation and a backlash against environmental regulations, the so-called wise use movement gained importance and influence. The wise use movement and anti-environmental groups were able to portray environmentalist as out of touch with mainstream values. (Larson)[citation needed]

text: "Post-environmentalism"[edit]

text: In 2004, with the environmental movement seemingly stalled, some environmentalists started questioning whether "environmentalism" was even a useful political framework. According to a controversial essay titled "The Death of Environmentalism " (Michael Shellenberger and Ted Nordhaus, 2004) American environmentalism has been remarkably successful in protecting the air, water, and large stretches of wilderness in North America and Europe, but these environmentalists have stagnated as a vital force for cultural and political change.

text: Shellenberger and Nordhaus wrote, "Today environmentalism is just another special interest. Evidence for this can be found in its concepts, its proposals, and its reasoning. What stands out is how arbitrary environmental leaders are about what gets counted and what doesn't as 'environmental.' Most of the movement's leading thinkers, funders, and advocates do not question their most basic assumptions about who we are, what we stand for, and what it is that we should be doing." Their essay was followed by a speech in San Francisco called "Is Environmentalism Dead?" by former Sierra Club President, Adam Werbach, who argued for the evolution of environmentalism into a more expansive, relevant and powerful progressive politics. Werbach endorsed building an environmental movement that is more relevant to average Americans, and controversially chose to lead Wal-Mart's effort to take sustainability mainstream.

text: These "post-environmental movement" thinkers argue that the ecological crises the human species faces in the 21st century are qualitatively different from the problems the environmental movement was created to address in the 1960s and 1970s. They argue that climate change and habitat destruction are global and more complex, therefore demanding far deeper transformations of the economy, the culture and political life. The consequence of environmentalism's outdated and arbitrary definition, they argue, is political irrelevancy.

text: These "politically neutral" groups tend to avoid global conflicts and view the settlement of inter-human conflict as separate from regard for nature - in direct contradiction to the ecology movement and peace movement which have increasingly close links: while Green Parties, Greenpeace, and groups like the ACTivist Magazine regard ecology, biodiversity, and an end to non-human extinction as an absolute basis for peace, the local groups may not, and see a high degree of global competition and conflict as justifiable if it lets them preserve their own local uniqueness. However, such groups tend not to "burn out" and to sustain for long periods, even generations, protecting the same local treasures.

text: Local groups increasingly find that they benefit from collaboration, e.g. on consensus decision making methods, or making simultaneous policy, or relying on common legal resources, or even sometimes a common glossary. However, the differences between the various groups that make up the modern environmental movement tend to outweigh such similarities, and they rarely co-operate directly except on a few major global questions. In a notable exception, over 1,000 local groups from around the country united for a single day of action as part of the Step It Up 2007 campaign for real solutions to global warming.

text: Groups such as The Bioregional Revolution are calling on the need to bridge these differences, as the converging problems of the 21st century they claim compel the people to unite and to take decisive action. They promote bioregionalism, permaculture, and local economies as solutions to these problems, overpopulation, global warming, global epidemics, and water scarcity, but most notably to "peak oil"—the prediction that the country is likely to reach a maximum in global oil production which could spell drastic changes in many aspects of the residents' everyday lives.

text: Environmental rights[edit]

text: Many environmental lawsuits turn on the question of who has standing; are the legal issues limited to property owners, or does the general public have a right to intervene? Christopher D. Stone's 1972 essay, "Should trees have standing?" seriously addressed the question of whether natural objects themselves should have legal rights, including the right to participate in lawsuits. Stone suggested that there was nothing absurd in this view, and noted that many entities now regarded as having legal rights were, in the past, regarded as "things" that were regarded as legally rightless; for example, aliens, children and women. His essay is sometimes regarded as an example of the fallacy of hypostatization.

text: One of the earliest lawsuits to establish that citizens may sue for environmental and aesthetic harms was Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, decided in 1965 by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals. The case helped halt the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain in New York State. See also United States environmental law and David Sive, an attorney who was involved in the case.

text: Role of science[edit]

text: Conservation biology is an important and rapidly developing field.

text: One way to avoid the stigma of an "ism" was to evolve early anti-nuclear groups into the more scientific Green Parties, sprout new NGOs such as Greenpeace and Earth Action, and devoted groups to protecting global biodiversity and preventing global warming and climate change. But in the process, much of the emotional appeal, and many of the original aesthetic goals were lost. Nonetheless, these groups have well-defined ethical and political views, backed by science.

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Some people are skeptical of the environmental movement and feel that it is more deeply rooted in politics than science. Although there have been serious debates about climate change and effects of some pesticides and herbicides that mimic animal sex steroids, science has shown that some of the claims of environmentalists have credence.

text: Claims made by environmentalists may be perceived as veiled attacks on industry and globalization rather than legitimate environmental concerns. Detractors note that a significant number of environmental theories and predictions have been inaccurate[citation needed] and suggest that the regulations recommended by environmentalists will more likely harm society rather than help nature.

text: DDT[edit]

text: Specific examples include when Rachel Carson, in her book Silent Spring, suggested that the pesticide DDT caused cancer and drastically harmed ecosystems. DDT is highly toxic to aquatic life, including crawfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish. However, DDT is also used to control malaria.

text: Prominent novelist and Harvard Medical School graduate Michael Crichton appeared before the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works to address such concerns and recommended the employment of double-blind experimentation in environmental research. Crichton suggested that because environmental issues are so political in nature, policy makers need neutral, conclusive data to base their decisions on, rather than conjecture and rhetoric, and double-blind experiments are the most efficient way to achieve that aim.

text: A consistent theme acknowledged by both supporters and critics (though more commonly vocalized by critics) of the environmental movement is that we know very little about the Earth we live in. Most fields of environmental studies are relatively new, and therefore what research we have is limited and does not date far enough back for us to completely understand long-term environmental trends. This has led a number of environmentalists to support the use of the precautionary principle in policy making, which ultimately asserts that we don't know how certain actions may affect the environment, and because there is reason to believe they may cause more harm than good we should refrain from such actions.

text: Elitist[edit]

text: In the December 1994 Wild Forest Review, Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair wrote "The mainstream environmental movement was elitist, highly paid, detached from the people, indifferent to the working class, and a firm ally of big government.…The environmental movement is now accurately perceived as just another well-financed and cynical special interest group, its rancid infrastructure supported by Democratic Party operatives and millions in grants from corporate foundations."

text: Wilderness myth[edit]

text: Historian and President of the American Historical Association William Cronon has criticized the modern environmental movement for having a romantic idealizations of wilderness. Cronon writes "wilderness serves as the unexamined foundation on which so many of the quasi-religious values of modern environmentalism rest." Cronon claims that "to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness, to just that extent we give ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead."

text: Similarly Michael Pollan has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book Second Nature, Pollan writes that "once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable."

text: Debates within the movement[edit]

text: Within the environmental movement an ideological debate has taken place between those with an ecocentric view point and an anthropocentric view point. The anthropocentric view has been seen as the conservationist approach to the environment with nature viewed, at least in part, as resource to be used by man. In contrast to the conservationist approach the ecocentric view, associated with John Muir, Henry David Thoreau and William Wordsworth referred to as the preservationist movement. This approach sees nature in a more spiritual way. Many environmental historians consider the split between John Muir and Gifford Pinchot. During the preservation / conservation debate the term preservationist become to be seen as a pejorative term.

text: While the ecocentric view focused on biodiversity and wilderness protection the anthropocentric view focus on urban pollution and social justice. Some environmental writers, for example William Cronon have criticized the ecocentric view as have a dualist view as man being separate from nature. Critics of the anthropocentric view point contend that the environmental movement has been taken over by so-called leftist with an agenda beyond environmental protection.

text: Several books after the middle of the 20th century contributed to the rise of American environmentalism (as distinct from the longer-established conservation movement), especially among college and university students and the more literate public. One was the publication of the first textbook on ecology, Fundamentals of Ecology, by Eugene Odum and Howard Odum, in 1953. Another was the appearance of the best-seller Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, in 1962. Her book brought about a whole new interpretation on pesticides by exposing their harmful effects in nature. From this book many began referring to Carson as the "mother of the environmental movement". Another influential development was a 1965 lawsuit, Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, opposing the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain, which is said to have given birth to modern United States environmental law. The wide popularity of The Whole Earth Catalogs, starting in 1968, was quite influential among the younger, hands-on, activist generation of the 1960s and 1970s. Recently, in addition to opposing environmental degradation and protecting wilderness, an increased focus on coexisting with natural biodiversity has appeared, a strain that is apparent in the movement for sustainable agriculture and in the concept of Reconciliation Ecology.

text: Environmentalism and politics[edit]

text: Environmentalists became much more influential in American politics after the creation or strengthening of numerous U.S. environmental laws, including the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act and the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA in 1970. These successes were followed by the enactment of a whole series of laws regulating waste (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), toxic substances (Toxic Substances Control Act), pesticides (FIFRA: Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act), clean-up of polluted sites (Superfund), protection of endangered species (Endangered Species Act), and more.

text: Fewer environmental laws have been passed in the last decade as corporations and other conservative interests have increased their influence over American politics.[citation needed] Corporate cooperation against environmental lobbyists has been organized by the Wise Use group.[citation needed] At the same time, many environmentalists have been turning toward other means of persuasion, such as working with business, community, and other partners to promote sustainable development.

text: Much environmental activism is directed towards conservation,[citation needed] as well as the prevention or elimination of pollution. However, conservation movements, ecology movements, peace movements, green parties, green- and eco-anarchists often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves "environmentalists". To outsiders, these groups or factions can appear to be indistinguishable.

text: As human population and industrial activity continue to increase, environmentalists often find themselves in serious conflict with those who believe that human and industrial activities should not be overly regulated or restricted, such as some libertarians.

text: Environmentalists often clash with others, particularly "corporate interests," over issues of the management of natural resources, like in the case of the atmosphere as a "carbon dump", the focus of climate change, and global warming controversy. They usually seek to protect commonly owned or unowned resources for future generations.

text: Those who take issue with new untested technologies are more precisely known, especially in Europe, as political ecologists. They usually seek, in contrast, to preserve the integrity of existing ecologies and ecoregions, and in general are more pessimistic about human "management".[citation needed]

text: Radical environmentalism[edit]

text: While most environmentalists are mainstream and peaceful, a small minority are more radical in their approach. Adherents of radical environmentalism and ecological anarchism are involved in direct action campaigns to protect the environment. Some campaigns have employed controversial tactics including sabotage, blockades, and arson, while most use peaceful protests such as marches, tree-sitting, and the like. There is substantial debate within the environmental movement as to the acceptability of these tactics, but almost all environmentalists condemn violent actions that can harm humans.


document_title: Climb Ev'ry Mountain

question_text: who sings climb every mountain in the sound of music crossword

text: Climb Ev'ry Mountain

text:
"Climb Ev'ry Mountain"

Song

Released
1959

Genre
Showtune

Composer(s)
Richard Rodgers

Lyricist(s)
Oscar Hammerstein II

text: "Climb Ev'ry Mountain" is a show tune from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The Sound of Music. It is sung at the close of the first act by the Mother Abbess. It is themed as an inspirational piece, to encourage people to take every step towards attaining their dreams.

text: Background[edit]

text: This song shares inspirational overtones with the song "You'll Never Walk Alone" from Carousel. They are both sung by the female mentor characters in the shows, and are used to give strength to the protagonists in the story, and both are given powerful reprises at the end of their respective shows. As Oscar Hammerstein II was writing the lyrics, it developed its own inspirational overtones along the lines of an earlier Hammerstein song, "There's a Hill Beyond a Hill". He felt that the metaphors of climbing mountains and fording streams better fitted Maria's quest for her spiritual compass.[1] The muse behind the song was Sister Gregory, the head of Drama at Rosary College in Illinois. The letters that she sent to Hammerstein and to Mary Martin, the first Maria von Trapp on Broadway, described the parallels between a nun's choice for a religious life and the choices that humans must make to find their purpose and direction in life. When she read the manuscript of the lyrics, she confessed that it "drove [her] to the Chapel" because the lyrics conveyed a "yearning that … ordinary souls feel but cannot communicate."[2]

text: Although this song has parallels with "You'll Never Walk Alone," the song shares musical similarities with the song "Something Wonderful" from The King and I. Both songs are played at a similar broad tempo, and both songs have accompaniments punctuated by heavy chords in the orchestral score.

text: The song has often been sung by operatically trained voices in professional stage productions. In the original Broadway production it was sung by Patricia Neway, in the original London production it was sung by Constance Shacklock, and in the original Australian production it was sung by Rosina Raisbeck.

text: In the original stage play, the Mother Abbess sings the song at the end of the first act. When Ernest Lehman wrote the screenplay for the film adaptation, he shifted the scene so that this song would be the first major song of the second act. When Robert Wise and his film crew were filming this scene, Peggy Wood had some reservations about the words, which she felt were too "pretentious."[3] So they filmed Peggy Wood in silhouette, against the wall of the set for the Mother Abbess' office. Peggy Wood's singing voice is dubbed by Margery MacKay, the wife of the rehearsal pianist Harper MacKay, as Wood was not able to sing the high notes of the song. The last note that the Mother Abbess sings is a F-natural (F5).

text: Other versions[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
"Climb Ev'ry Mountain"

Single by Shirley Bassey

from the album Shirley Bassey

B-side
"Reach for the Stars"

Released
July 1960

Format
7-inch single

Recorded
1959

Length
3:10

Label
Columbia

Songwriter(s)
Rodgers and Hammerstein

Shirley Bassey singles chronology

"You'll Never Know"
(1961)
"Climb Ev'ry Mountain"
(1960)
"I'll Get By"
(1961)

"You'll Never Know"
(1961)
"Climb Ev'ry Mountain"
(1960)
"I'll Get By"
(1961)

text:
1959: Tony Bennett had a minor hit single (#74) of the song
1960: Andy Williams on his album The Village of St. Bernadette
1990: The Fleetwoods on their album, The Best of The Fleetwoods
1961: Welsh singer Shirley Bassey, as part of a double A-sided single with "Reach for the Stars", which reached #1 in the UK and remained on the charts for 18 weeks[4]
1971: Judith Durham recorded and released a version as the first single from her album, Climb Ev'ry Mountain
1989: Sissel Kyrkjebø sang a Norwegian version, "Se Over Fjellet" on the album Soria Moria[5]
1992: Alex Burrall's version in the movie The Jacksons: An American Dream, portraying Michael Jackson (6–8 years of age) at a school pageant show
2000: Christina Aguilera on her concert DVD My Reflection
2003: Guy Sebastian's interpretation on Australian Idol season 1 when he performed it on the 1960s theme night (recorded it for the B-side of his #1 single "All I Need Is You")
2013: Australian operatic mezzo-soprano Jacqui Dark for ABC Classics as part of a compilation album, I Dreamed a Dream: The Hit Songs of Broadway[6]
2015: Jordan Smith on the season nine finale of The Voice
2016: Barbra Streisand recorded the song as a duet with Jamie Foxx for her 2016 album Encore: Movie Partners Sing Broadway.


document_title: Bifocals

question_text: who created the first seamless bifocal a precursor to all progressive lenses

text: Bifocals

text: History[edit]

text: Benjamin Franklin is generally credited with the invention of bifocals. Historians have produced some evidence to suggest that others may have come before him in the invention; however, a correspondence between George Whatley and John Fenno, editor of The Gazette of the United States, suggested that Franklin had indeed invented bifocals, and perhaps 50 years earlier than had been originally thought. However the College of Optometrists concluded:

text: Since many inventions are developed independently by more than one person, it is possible that the invention of bifocals may have been such a case.

text: John Isaac Hawkins, the inventor of trifocal lenses, coined the term bifocals in 1824 and credited Dr. Franklin.

text: In 1955, Irving Rips of Younger Optics created the first seamless or "invisible" bifocal, a precursor to all progressive lenses.[2]

text: Construction

text: Original bifocals were designed with the most convex lenses (for close viewing) in the lower half of the frame and the least convex lenses on the upper. Up until the beginning of the 20th century two separate lenses were cut in half and combined together in the rim of the frame. The mounting of two half lenses into a single frame led to a number of early complications and rendered such spectacles quite fragile. A method for fusing the sections of the lenses together was developed by Louis de Wecker at the end of the 19th century and patented by Dr. John L. Borsch, Jr. in 1908. Today most bifocals are created by molding a reading segment into a primary lens and are available with the reading segments in a variety of shapes and sizes.The most popular is the D-segment, 28 mm wide[citation needed]. While the D-segment bifocal offers superior optics, an increasing number of people opt for progressive bifocal lenses.

text: Problems[edit]

text: Bifocals can cause headaches and even dizziness in some users. Acclimation to the small field of view offered by the reading segment of bifocals can take some time, as the user learns to move either the head or the reading material rather than the eyes. Computer monitors are generally placed directly in front of users and can lead to muscle fatigue due to the unusual straight and constant movement of the head. This trouble is mitigated by the use of trifocal lenses or by the use of monofocal lenses for computer users.

text: In an interesting legal case reported in the UK in 1969, the plaintiff's ability to use bifocals was impaired by accident.[3]

text: Future[edit]

text: Research continues in an attempt to eliminate the limited field of vision in current bifocals. New materials and technologies may provide a method which can selectively adjust the optical power of a lens. Researchers have constructed such a lens using a liquid crystal layer sandwiched between two glass substrates.

text: Bifocals in the animal world[edit]

text: The aquatic larval stage of the diving beetle Thermonectus marmoratus has, in its principal eyes, two retinas and two distinct focal planes that are substantially separated (in the manner of bifocals) to switch their vision from up-close to distance, for easy and efficient capture of their prey, mostly mosquito larvae. This is the first ever recorded use of bifocal technology in the animal world.[4]


document_title: Star of David

question_text: where did the star of david come from

question_tokens: where did the star of david come from

text: Star of David

text: History of Jewish usage

text: Early use as an ornament

text: The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of a 3rd–4th century synagogue in the Galilee.[10] Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum. In the synagogues, perhaps, it was associated with the mezuzah.

text: The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain. A Siddur dated 1512 from Prague displays a large hexagram on the cover with the phrase, "He will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David."[11][page needed][full citation needed]

text: Kabbalistic use

text:
A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia
in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE.[12][13] The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.[14]

text: Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David".

text: In the Renaissance Period, in the 16th-century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha-Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.[15][16][17]

text: However, these seder-plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.[18]

text: According to G.S. Oegema (1996)

text: Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven.[19][page needed]

text:
Similarly, M. Costa[year needed][page needed] wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram.
Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.[20]

text: The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts[unreliable source?] associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva).[21] Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men," representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel.

text: Official usage in Central European communities

text: In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV prescribed for the Jews of Prague a red flag with both David's shield and Solomon's seal, while the red flag with which the Jews met King Matthias of Hungary in the 15th century showed two pentagrams with two golden stars.[22]

text: In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers…and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition in their contribution to the city's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a star placed in the center of the hexagram.[23]

text: As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community

text: The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.[24][9]

text: A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat:

text: We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working-day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.[25]

text: David Wolffsohn (1856–1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote:

text: At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag—and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being.

text:
In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports.
Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship.[26] Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.[27][28][29][30]

text:
In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard" Leonard (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s.
World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933; Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.

text: The Holocaust

text: A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941 and signed by Reinhard Heydrich)[31] and was gradually introduced in other Nazi-occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.

text: Contemporary use

text: The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country's establishment. The origins of the flag's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion".

text: Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.

text: Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David" or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David") is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service.

text: It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was [...] argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality."[32] Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.[33]

text: Use in sports

text: Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel, and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes.

text: In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong-willed" and "strong-minded", major leaguer Mike "SuperJew" Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.[34][35][36][37][38][39]

text: NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish,[40] had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010.[41][42] NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders.[43][44][45] Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue-and-white magen david symbol on her golf apparel.[46][47]

text: In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber" Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks, and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.[48][49][50][51]

text: Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young" Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson.[48][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka" Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David".[59][60]

text: Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.[61]

text: Origin of the name

text: The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th-century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid" (without specifying its shape).[62]

text: The name 'Shield of David' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a Divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the Divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu/Gladden us" blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.[63]

text: The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David" is Eshkol Ha-Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:

text: Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc. …Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David", is placed beside the name of each angel.[64]

text: This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way.

text: Miscellaneous

text:
In Unicode, the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (✡).
The world's largest Star of David (2,400 metres (7,900 ft) diameter) is at Harold Holt Naval Communications Station, Exmouth, Australia at 21°48′57″S 114°09′57″E / 21.815927°S 114.165888°E / -21.815927; 114.165888.[65] (Google Earth view)
At London Heathrow Airport in the early 1950s were built six runways in ✡ layout, each a bit over a mile long.
Some criminal gangs, including the Gangster Disciples and those affiliated with the Folk Nation, use the Star of David as their symbol. In the case of the Gangster Disciples this is a reference to the group's founder, David Barksdale, also known as "King David".
The insignia of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service has included a hexagram since the end of the 19th century.[66]

text: Gallery

text:
Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul

Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed

The Magen David Adom emblem

A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David

A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.

Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948–present

Stained glass Star of David

USVA headstone emblem 3

USVA headstone emblem 44

Morocco horse cover embroidery


document_title: Fernie Alpine Resort

question_text: where did they film hot tub time machine

text: Fernie Alpine Resort

text: History[edit]

text: Fernie Alpine Resort was originally called "Fernie Snow Valley"[2] before being sold in 1997 to RCR (Resort of the Canadian Rockies). RCR saw some financial trouble under owner Charlie Locke, and after a period in bankruptcy protection, was bailed out by Alberta billionaire N. Murray Edwards.

text: During spring 2009, Fernie Alpine Resort was transformed into the fictional Kodiak Valley ski resort, circa 1986, for exterior location shots of the Hollywood film Hot Tub Time Machine. The film was released in March 2010.[3]

text: Bowls[edit]

text: Fernie Alpine Resort has five Legendary Bowls along the Lizard Range. Siberia Bowl, Cedar Bowl, Timber Bowl, Currie Bowl, and the Lizard bowl.


document_title: Super-G

question_text: what is the distance of the super g course

text: Super-G

text: History[edit]

text: Super-G was run as a World Cup test event during the 1982 season, with two men's races and a women's race that did not count in the season standings.[1] Approved by the International Ski Federation (FIS) that summer, it was first officially run at the World Cup level in December 1982 at Val-d'Isère, France; the winner was Peter Müller of Switzerland. The first official women's super-G was run a month later in early January 1983, with consecutive events at Verbier, Switzerland. The first winner was Irene Epple of West Germany, and Cindy Nelson of the United States won the next day on a different course.[2] These were the only two races for women in super-G during the 1983 season; the men had three. The event was not universally embraced during its early years,[3] which included a boycott by two-time defending overall champion Phil Mahre in December 1982.[4][5]

text: For the first three seasons, super-G results were added into the giant slalom discipline for the season standings; it gained separate status for a crystal globe for the 1986 season with five events for both men and women; the first champions were Markus Wasmeier and Marina Kiehl, both of West Germany.

text: It was added to the World Championships in 1987, held at Crans-Montana, Switzerland. Swiss skiers Pirmin Zurbriggen and Maria Walliser won gold medals to become the first world champions in the event. Super-G made its Olympic debut in 1988 in Calgary, where Franck Piccard of France and Sigrid Wolf of Austria took gold at Nakiska.

text: Top racers[edit]

text: Hermann Maier of Austria (nicknamed 'The Hermannator') is widely regarded as the greatest male super-G racer, with 24 World Cup victories and five World Cup titles (1998–2001, 2004). He won the world championship in 1999 and an Olympic gold medal in 1998, three days after a crash in the downhill. Maier's proficiency in super-G was attributed to his thorough course inspection and his aggressive course tactics; he opted for the most direct and dangerous line down the hill. A serious motorcycle accident in August 2001 nearly resulted in an amputation of his lower right leg and sidelined him for the 2002 season, including the 2002 Olympics. After his return to the World Cup circuit in January 2003, Maier won eight more World Cup super-G events and his fifth season title in 2004.

text: Aksel Lund Svindal of Norway is second on the list with 15 wins in World Cup super-G races, Pirmin Zurbriggen third with his 10 wins. Svindal won Olympic gold in 2010 and his fifth season title in 2014, while Zurbriggen won four consecutive season titles (1987–90) and the first world championship in 1987. Another notable specialist was Kjetil André Aamodt of Norway, a triple gold medalist in Olympic super-G races, winning in 1992, 2002 and 2006. Aamodt won five World Cup races and two world championship medals (silver and bronze) in the discipline. Marc Girardelli of Luxembourg, a five-time overall World Cup champion, won nine World Cup super-G events. He won season titles in every discipline except super-G, where he was a runner-up three times. Girardelli was the silver medalist in the super-G at the 1987 World Championships and the 1992 Olympics.

text: On the women's side, Lindsey Vonn of the U.S. leads with 27 World Cup victories in super-G and has won five season titles (2009–2012, 2015). Katja Seizinger of Germany won five season titles in the 1990s, with 16 World Cup wins in the discipline. While neither won gold in the super-G in the Olympics (both won a bronze), they both won a world title, Vonn in 2009 and Seizinger in 1993. Renate Götschl of Austria won 17 World Cup events in super-G, three season titles (four as runner-up), and two medals (silver and bronze) in the world championships.

text: Course[edit]

text: The vertical drop for a Super-G course must be between 350–650 m (1,150–2,130 ft) for men, 350–600 m (1,150–1,970 ft) for women, and 250–450 m (820–1,480 ft) for children. In the Olympic Winter Games, FIS World Ski Championships, and FIS World Cups, minimums are raised to 400 m (1,300 ft) for both men and women. Courses are normally at least 30 m (98 ft) in width, but sections with lower widths are permissible if the line and terrain before and after allow it. Higher widths can also be required if deemed necessary. Gates must be between 6 m (20 ft) and 8 m (26 ft) in width for open gates, and between 8 m (26 ft) and 12 m (39 ft) in width for vertical gates. The distance between turning poles of successive gates must be at least 25 m (82 ft). The number of direction changes must be at least 7% of the course drop in meters (6% for Olympic Winter Games, FIS World Ski Championships and FIS World Cups).[6]

text: Equipment[edit]

text: In an attempt to increase safety, the 2004 season saw the FIS impose minimum ski lengths for the super-G for the first time; to 205 cm (80.7 in) for men, 200 cm (78.7 in) for women. The minimum turning radius was increased to 45 m (148 ft) for the 2014 season.

text: Men's World Cup podiums[edit]

text: The following table contains the men's Super-G (from 2007 Super combined) World Cup podiums since the first edition in 1986.

text:
Season
1st
2nd
3rd

1986
 Markus Wasmeier
 Pirmin Zurbriggen
 Marc Girardelli

1987
 Pirmin Zurbriggen
 Marc Girardelli
 Markus Wasmeier

1988
 Pirmin Zurbriggen
 Markus Wasmeier
 Franck Piccard

1989
 Pirmin Zurbriggen
 Lars-Börje Eriksson
 Franck Piccard

1990
 Pirmin Zurbriggen
 Günther Mader
 Lars-Börje Eriksson

1991
 Franz Heinzer
 Stephan Eberharter
 Atle Skaardal

1992
 Paul Accola
 Marc Girardelli
 Günther Mader

1993
 Kjetil-Andre Aamodt
 Günther Mader
 Franz Heinzer

1994
 Jan Einar Thorsen
 Marc Girardelli
 Tommy Moe

1995
 Peter Runggaldier
 Günther Mader
 Werner Perathoner

1996
 Atle Skaardal
 Hans Knauß
 Lasse Kjus

1997
 Luc Alphand
 Josef Strobl
 Andreas Schifferer

1998
 Hermann Maier
 Hans Knauß
 Stephan Eberharter

1999
 Hermann Maier
 Stephan Eberharter
 Andreas Schifferer

2000
 Hermann Maier
 Werner Franz
 Fritz Strobl

2001
 Hermann Maier
 Christoph Gruber
 Josef Strobl

2002
 Stephan Eberharter
 Didier Cuche
 Fritz Strobl

2003
 Stephan Eberharter
 Marco Büchel
 Didier Cuche

2004
 Hermann Maier
 Daron Rahlves
 Stephan Eberharter

2005
 Bode Miller
 Hermann Maier
 Daron Rahlves

2006
 Aksel Lund Svindal
 Hermann Maier
 Daron Rahlves

2007
 Bode Miller
 Didier Cuche
 John Kucera

2008
 Hannes Reichelt
 Didier Cuche
 Benjamin Raich

2009
 Aksel Lund Svindal
 Werner Heel
 Didier Defago

2010
 Erik Guay
 Michael Walchhofer
 Aksel Lund Svindal

2011
 Didier Cuche
 Georg Streitberger
 Ivica Kostelic

2012
 Aksel Lund Svindal
 Didier Cuche
 Beat Feuz

2013
 Aksel Lund Svindal
 Matteo Marsaglia
 Matthias Mayer

2014
 Aksel Lund Svindal
 Kjetil Jansrud
 Patrick Küng

2015
 Kjetil Jansrud
 Dominik Paris
 Matthias Mayer

2016
 Aleksander Aamodt Kilde
 Kjetil Jansrud
 Aksel Lund Svindal

2017
 Kjetil Jansrud
 Hannes Reichelt
 Aleksander Aamodt Kilde

text: Super G at the major competitions[edit]

text: Men

text:
Competition
Course setter
1st
2nd
3rd

1987 WCH

1988 WOG

 Franck Piccard
 Helmut Mayer
 Lars-Borje Eriksson

1989 WCH

1991 WCH

1992 WOG

 Kjetil-Andre Aamodt
 Marc Girardelli
 Jan Einar Thorsen

1993 WCH

1994 WOG

 Markus Wasmeier
 Tommy Moe
 Kjetil-Andre Aamodt

1996 WCH

1997 WCH

1998 WOG

 Hermann Maier
 Didier Cuche
 Hans Knauß

1999 WCH

2001 WCH

 Daron Rahlves
 Stephan Eberharter
 Hermann Maier

2002 WOG
 F. Zueger
 Kjetil-Andre Aamodt
 Stephan Eberharter
 Andreas Schifferer

2003 WCH
 M. Arnesen
 Stephan Eberharter
 Bode Miller
 Hermann Maier

2005 WCH
 M. Arnesen
 Bode Miller
 Michael Walchhofer
 Benjamin Raich

2006 WOG
 A. Evers
 Kjetil-Andre Aamodt
 Hermann Maier
 Ambrosi Hoffmann

2007 WCH
 H. Flatscher
 Patrick Staudacher
 Fritz Strobl
 Bruno Kernen

2009 WCH
 G. L. Rulfi
 Didier Cuche
 Peter Fill
 Aksel Lund Svindal

2010 WOG
 G. L. Rulfi
 Aksel Lund Svindal
 Bode Miller
 Andrew Weibrecht

2011 WCH
 H. Flatscher
 Christof Innerhofer
 Hannes Reichelt
 Ivica Kostelic

2013 WCH
 T. Moger
 Ted Ligety
 Gauthier de Tessières
 Aksel Lund Svindal

2014 WOG
 P. Morisod
 Kjetil Jansrud
 Andrew Weibrecht
 Bode Miller

2015 WCH
 F. Winkler
 Hannes Reichelt
 Dustin Cook
 Adrien Theaux

2017 WCH
 A. Ghidoni
 Erik Guay
 Kjetil Jansrud
 Manuel Osborne-Paradis

2018 WOG
 A. Ghidoni
 Matthias Mayer
 Beat Feuz
 Kjetil Jansrud

text: Women

text:
Competition
Course setter
1st
2nd
3rd

1987 WCH

1988 WOG

 Sigrid Wolf
 Michela Figini
 Karen Percy

1989 WCH

1991 WCH

1992 WOG

 Deborah Compagnoni
 Carole Merle
 Katja Seizinger

1993 WCH

1994 WOG

 Diann Roffe Steinrotter
 Svetlana Gladysheva
 Isolde Kostner

1996 WCH

1997 WCH

1998 WOG

 Picabo Street
 Michaela Dorfmeister
 Alexandra Meissnitzer

1999 WCH

2001 WCH

 Regine Cavagnoud
 Isolde Kostner
 Hilde Gerg

2002 WOG
 P. Endrass
 Daniela Ceccarelli
 Janica Kostelić
 Karen Putzer

2003 WCH
 B. Zobel
 Michaela Dorfmeister
 Kristen Clark
 Jonna Mendes

2005 WCH
 X. Fournier
 Anja Pärson
 Lucia Recchia
 Julia Mancuso

2006 WOG
 J. Graller
 Michaela Dorfmeister
 Janica Kostelić
 Alexandra Meissnitzer

2007 WCH
 J. Graller
 Anja Pärson
 Lindsey Vonn
 Renate Götschl

2009 WCH
 U. Emilsson
 Lindsey Vonn
 Marie Marchand-Arvier
 Andrea Fischbacher

2010 WOG
 J. Kriechbaum
 Andrea Fischbacher
 Tina Maze
 Lindsey Vonn

2011 WCH
 J. Kriechbaum
 Elisabeth Görgl
 Julia Mancuso
 Maria Riesch

2013 WCH
 D. Petrini
 Tina Maze
   Lara Gut
 Julia Mancuso

2014 WOG
 F. Winkler
 Anna Fenninger
 Maria Hoefl-Riesch
 Nicole Hosp

2015 WCH
 R. Assinger
 Anna Fenninger
 Tina Maze
 Lindsey Vonn

2017 WCH
 A. Ghezze
 Nicole Schmidhofer
 Tina Weirather
   Lara Gut

2018 WOG
 M. Tatschl
 Ester Ledecká
 Anna Veith
 Tina Weirather

text: WOG - Winter Olympic Games, WCH - FIS World Ski Championships