document_title: Juliet O'Hara

question_text: in what episode of psych do shawn and juliet get back together

text: Juliet O'Hara

text:
Juliet  O'Hara
Psych character
Maggie Lawson as Juliet O'HaraFirst appearance
"Spellingg Bee"Last appearance
Psych: The MovieCreated by
Steve FranksPortrayed by
Maggie LawsonInformationNickname(s)
Jules (by Shawn), Jewel (by her father), Mrs. Tostig, Maniac, Crazy Cat LadyAliases
Mary Lou Baumgartner (1.15), Maniac (3.07), Helene (7.02)Gender
FemaleOccupation
San Francisco Police Department Head Detective (2014–present)SBPD Junior Detective (2006–14)Miami Police Department Police Officer (?–2006)Family
Frank O'Hara (father) [1]Maryanne O'Hara (mother)[1]Lloyd French (stepfather)[1]Ewan O'Hara (brother)Spouse(s)
Shawn SpencerSignificant other(s)
Scott Seaver (1999–2003)Cameron Luntz (formerly)Declan Rand (2010)Relatives
Unnamed sister-in-lawDrake O'Hara (nephew)Finn O'Hara (nephew)Isaac O'Hara (nephew)

text: Head Detective Juliet Lynn "Jules" O'Hara is a character on the American comedy Psych played by Maggie Lawson. She attended the University of Miami.

text: Fictional biography[edit]

text: Juliet O'Hara first appears undercover in the show's second episode, "Spellingg Bee", as a recently transferred junior detective from Miami Beach where she attended the University of Miami, replacing Lucinda Barry as Head Detective Carlton Lassiter's partner.  Born in 1981,[1] she was raised in a family of brothers and is shown to be close with both her parents and her siblings.[2]  Although she is initially frustrated by her coworkers not taking her seriously enough due to her relatively young age,[3] as the series progresses she is given more responsibility, being left in charge in the absence of Lassiter and then Interim Chief Karen Vick.[4]  She has grown more assertive with her partner, and actors Maggie Lawson and Timothy Omundson (who plays Lassiter) both suggest that a  strange mutual respect has developed between them.[5]

text:
Juliet seems to present a gentle counterpoint to Lassiter's gruff, rigid style.  She reminds her partner repeatedly to "be sensitive" with the media, the victims, and the witnesses of their cases.  Unlike Lassiter, she is friendly with Shawn Spencer and more willing to work with him and Burton Guster.  Lawson says that, although Juliet is bemused by Shawn at first, she has slowly gained respect for him and by the second season, Juliet reveals a "very friendly, comfortable relationship".[5]  The actress says she thinks that, despite some skepticism, Juliet does believe that Shawn is psychic.  By the end of the fifth season, Shawn and Juliet are romantically involved. By the middle of the sixth season, Shawn is ready for marriage.
Her older brother Ewan, played by John Cena, is an army soldier whom she had to arrest when he attempted to murder an actual killer to protect the army. Ewan was supposed to go to prison but his high level bosses made him vanish.  Juliet claims Ewan was the reason she became a cop, that him joining the military gave her enough confidence to join the police force. Her estranged con artist father Frank O'Hara is played by William Shatner.[1]
She seems to be Scots Irish,[6] with her family hailing from Inverness[7].

text: Relationship with Shawn Spencer[edit]

text: Season one

text:
"Spellingg Bee" (1.02) - Shawn and Juliet meet for the first time when Juliet unknowingly steals his seat in a diner. Shawn attempts to flirt with her, but Juliet's reception is cool. Shawn eventually figures out that Juliet is a cop and that she is staking out the diner.
"Speak Now or Forever Hold Your Piece" (1.03) - When Shawn "reads" Juliet's palm, the two have a moment of mutual understanding. They agree to help each other out on the case, thus beginning their camaraderie.
"Weekend Warriors" (1.06) - Shawn called Juliet "Jules" for the first time, when they are both watching a Civil War reenactment.
"Shawn vs. the Red Phantom" (1.08) - At the beginning of the episode, Shawn calls Juliet apparently from somewhere he can see her. She asks Shawn where he is, and he responds by asking if she really wants to know the answer. She says, "I don't ask questions I don't want to know the answer to." Shawn then advises her not to ask "your boyfriend if he thinks your sister's hot." She informs him she does not have a sister, to which he asks, "How about a boyfriend?" Shawn then takes on a missing-person's case as a "favor" to Juliet, informing Gus that he hopes for bigger favors in the future, ones that he cannot share "with nuns and men of the cloth."
"From the Earth to the Starbucks" (1.10) - Shawn and Juliet team up to solve a case for Lassiter. Juliet admits that Shawn does makes her laugh... occasionally.
"He Loves Me, He Loves Me Not, He Loves Me, Oops He's Dead" (1.11) - When Shawn and Juliet go under cover at a speed-dating event, the hostess informs them that their personality questionnaires were a 100% compatibility match, "a speed-dating first." Shawn later claims to have copied hers verbatim. Shawn is also clearly jealous when he runs into Juliet on a date at the bowling alley.

tag: ul

text: Season two

text:
"Meat Is Murder, But Murder Is Also Murder" (2.06) - Shawn goes under cover as a horoscope writer at the newspaper where the victim worked. He directs his horoscopes at specific people, such as Detective Lassiter and his dad. In the one meant for Juliet, he writes, "Your one true love will be wearing sneakers and an Apple Jacks T-shirt." Shawn then wears sneakers and an Apple Jacks T-shirt, and Jules seems to get the message, though she does not say anything. After solving the case, Juliet says to Shawn, "Looks like you're finally able to communicate your visions again." and Shawn says, "Im having another vision right now, you and me celebrating over dinner and drinks." Juliet replies, "Hmm. Sounds like you're still a little off."  Shawn took her rejection pretty well.
"Rob-a-Bye Baby" (2.08) - While investigating a nanny agency, Shawn and Juliet go under cover as a married couple.
"Bounty Hunters!" (2.09) - When Juliet makes a mistake that results in a suspected murderer escaping custody, Shawn saves the day by reapprehending the prisoner. When Juliet thanks Shawn, he assures her that it was a mistake and "that's what friends are for." Shawn leans in to kiss Juliet, but she refuses to kiss him, saying it would be "a mistake." Shawn pulls away, respecting her wishes, but nevertheless walks away smiling. Once alone, Juliet disassembles and reassembles her gun, a stress-relieving exercise she learned in the police academy.
"Gus' Dad May Have Killed an Old Guy" (2.10) - Shawn and Gus are going around the station giving everyone Christmas presents, but after giving Juliet hers, Shawn states that it is just from him. She then makes him think that she is going to give him a hug, and he opens his arms to hug her back, and  is visibly disappointed when she brushes past him.

text: Season three

text:
"Murder? ... Anyone? ... Anyone? ... Bueller?" (3.02) - While talking to his high-school crush Abigail Lytar at their reunion, Shawn spots Juliet across the gymnasium and murmurs, "Pretty much perfect."
"The Greatest Adventure in the History of Basic Cable" (3.04) - When Shawn will not stop cracking jokes in the interrogation room, Juliet leans across the table and demands that he share what he knows, to which Shawn marvels, "My God that was so hot." When Shawn leaves the room with the supposed men of the Spanish government, he hands Jules a paper, telling her the truth about the "Spanish". He also wrote, "You smell nice" on the paper. Later, after Juliet leads the SBPD to Shawn and Gus' rescue, Shawn and Juliet share a meaningful glance.
"Talk Derby to Me" (3.07) - Shawn sets up a romantic dinner for Juliet and himself, complete with music, candles, and flowers. She cannot stay, however, because she has to follow a lead. When that lead turns out to be a red herring, Shawn takes the blame for the mistake. After the case is closed, Shawn and Juliet go on a couples skate-alone at the roller rink and brush hands several times; as the camera zooms out, their hands pressed together, though they are not actually holding hands.
"Gus Walks into a Bank" (3.08) - Shawn and Juliet have a minor squabble about her decision to date Cameron Luntz, the head of SWAT. Shawn eventually tells her it is okay, he just wants her to be happy. When Juliet's date with Luntz for that evening is cancelled, she finds Shawn at the Psych office. The two take a stroll on the boardwalk eating hot dogs.
"Christmas Joy" (3.09) - Shawn, while discussing an old flame with Juliet, says, "Don't worry, it was long before I knew you." Juliet insists that it is irrelevant, meaning that from her point of view, no relationship exists between them. Shawn, however, does not seem convinced.
"Six Feet Under the Sea" (3.10) - Juliet befriends a woman named April, who expresses an interest in Shawn and asks for Juliet's opinion of him. Juliet's reaction implies that she has feelings for Shawn. Later, Shawn asks April out, but she turns him down because she does not want to "get in the way." She wishes Shawn good luck, leaving him confused.
"Lassie Did a Bad, Bad Thing" (3.11) - Officer Drimmer asks Shawn if Juliet and he are an item. He then proceeds to tell Shawn that Juliet talks about him a lot, calling him "witty and urbane."
"Any Given Friday Night at 10PM, 9PM Central" (3.13) - Juliet is checking out one of the football players as he runs out onto the field. When he turns around, Juliet is astonished to discover that he is Shawn! Later, Juliet smiles widely as she watches Shawn leading a football team out onto the field, but quickly hides it when Gus notices.
"Tuesday the 17th" (3.15) - When Shawn is introducing Juliet, he calls her "one of Santa Barbara's finest, both literally and figuratively", and Juliet is flattered rather than annoyed. Also, after Juliet saves Shawn's life by shooting his assailant in the hand, Shawn tells her, "That level of markmanship is easily one of the sexiest things that I've ever-" Juliet cuts him off, but smiles softly nonetheless.
"An Evening with Mr. Yang" (3.16) - Juliet finally asks out Shawn on a date, and owns up to the fact that she has been sending mixed signals. Unfortunately, Shawn tells her the timing is awful, as he is on a date with his old high-school flame, Abigail. When Shawn explains the situation, Juliet understands. She kisses him on the cheek and leaves. Shawn is obviously affected by the kiss, but rejoins Abigail.

text: Season four

text:
"Extradition: British Columbia" (4.01) - Shawn does not know how to act around Juliet, now that he is dating Abigail. He tells Juliet, "I refuse to feel uncomfortable around you. It's silly. You mean too much to me, and I am perfectly capable of keeping this [their friendship] platonic, as long as you are." Juliet replies, "I am too! Great!" As she walks away, Shawn questions, "But how?" They also take what feels like a romantic stroll, as pointed out by Juliet, on a suspension bridge overlooking a river.
"High Noon-ish" (4.03) - Shawn tips his cowboy hat at Juliet and winks at her. Juliet smiles, but quickly looks down as if embarrassed.
"Bollywood Homicide" (4.06) - When Shawn asks if Juliet believes in love curses, she says whenever someone is looking for their soulmate, it can feel like outsides forces are conspiring against them. Shawn moves closer to Juliet, and she leans back, probably thinking that Shawn is going to kiss her. She asks, "Shawn, what are you doing?" Shawn does not answer the question, instead pointing out a clue that he had seen while they were moving toward each other. When Raj and Juliet go on their pretend date, Shawn, watching from a car, is clearly jealous when Raj starts to hold Juliet's hand, as noted by Gus and Lassiter. Later, Shawn rescues Juliet from an unstable suspect threatening her with a knife. Abigail tells Shawn that she was very impressed that he would risk his life for a random coworker. Shawn glances over at Juliet and says, "She's not random." So Abigail would not get the wrong impression, Shawn quickly corrects himself, saying he would do that for anyone.
"Shawn Takes a Shot in the Dark" (4.09) - After Shawn's kidnapping, Juliet goes to his apartment with Gus to search for clues.  When she sees Abigail's toothbrush and some items, she becomes very curious if Abigail moved in.  Gus replies that they have reached the "he has a drawer, she has a toothbrush" stage to which Juliet seems affected.  Shawn, who has been shot and kidnapped, tells one of his kidnappers that he has a girlfriend named Abigail and that he wants to call her to say goodbye before they kill him. Shawn then calls Juliet and proceeds to give her clues about his whereabouts. The kidnapper tells Shawn to tell "Abigail" that he loves her. Shawn does. Juliet, believing the profession of love to be real, responds by saying, "Shawn, I think I..." Shawn interrupts her by saying, "Goodbye, Abigail." He hangs up. Juliet is clearly confused, but is able to use his clues to track down his whereabouts, and he is saved. After the ordeal, Shawn discusses with Gus the possibility that Juliet was going to say, "I love you" back. Although Gus states the possibility that she was just doing what she had to do, Shawn does not seem convinced.
"You Can't Handle This Episode" (4.10) - Juliet's brother, Ewan O'Hara, reveals that Juliet has said a lot of good things about Shawn. Later, Ewan says explicitly that Juliet "likes [Shawn] a lot", and he puts his stamp of approval on Shawn, as well. Meanwhile, Abigail leaves for Uganda.
"A Very Juliet Episode" (4.12) - Juliet receives news that her college boyfriend Scott might be dead. After receiving the awful news,  Shawn and she  take a long walk together through the park, during which Shawn gives Juliet a friendly hug. Shawn then searches high and low for Scott, who turns out to be in witness protection. Once the couple is reunited, Shawn is clearly jealous. Shawn bargains with the criminal Scott put in jail to not have Scott harmed if Shawn will prove the criminal's innocence. Shawn holds up his end of the bargain, and though Scott was no longer in danger, Juliet and he parted ways, agreeing to meet again in a year.
"Death Is in the Air" (4.13) - At the beginning of the episode, Shawn and Gus are talking about all the things Shawn can do since he is single and does not need to impress anyone, but then Juliet walks up and he immediately throws away his stinky snack- obviously he wants to impress Juliet. More importantly, Juliet gets exposed to the Thornburg virus and Shawn rushes to find the antidote. Upon returning, Shawn explains to Gus that the threat of Juliet's mortality made him realize he does not have as much time as he thought; he has to tell her how he feels. Gus informs them both that Juliet has not contracted the virus after all, but Shawn tries to go through with his admission, anyway. He ultimately stumbles and fails to tell Juliet how he feels, which is immediately followed by Lassiter's entry into the room, effectively killing the moment.
"Mr. Yin Presents" (4.16) - A serial killer named Mr. Yin kidnaps both Juliet and Abigail, who just returned from Uganda. Yin forces Shawn to choose one of them to save, but only has Juliet read him the clue to save her life. Juliet tries to tell Shawn he can save Abigail, but Yin cuts her off. Shawn gets the clue to save Abigail from Yang's book, and sends Gus with Lassie to save Juliet, saying the only way he would be able to not be there for Jules is if he knows that Gus is. Lassiter and Gus arrive and they are able to save Juliet in time, while Shawn is able to save Abigail. At the end, Juliet breaks down sobbing as Lassiter hugs her. Abigail tells Shawn she cannot handle the danger and breaks up with him.

text: Season five

text:
"Romeo and Juliet and Juliet" (5.01) - Juliet was temporarily reassigned to City Hall sometime shortly after her ordeal with Mr. Yin to deal with the stress from it. Shawn seeks her help on a case from which his father has barred him, involving a kidnapping within two rival Chinese gangs. Juliet gives him information, but does not return to the SBPD. Shawn calls her for back up before confronting kidnapper, Teno Tan. He is easily outmatched, but Teno surrenders when Juliet arrives before Shawn is killed. They thank each other and agree to hug, but Lassiter interrupts. Shawn calls for a rain check.
"Feet Don't Kill Me Now" (5.02) - Henry allows Shawn and Juliet to team up after Lassiter chooses Gus to help on the case. Their partnership does not hold up, as Shawn realizes he works best with Gus, as does Juliet with Lassiter. Shawn and Juliet attend a tap recital together to support their respective partners.
"Shawn 2.0" (5.08) - Shawn plans to invite Juliet to a friend's wedding, but "criminal profiler" Declan Rand beats him to the punch. Juliet offers to reschedule, but Shawn plays it off not wanting her to be forced. Shawn becomes increasingly jealous of Declan, whom Gus dubs "Shawn 2.0" because of their similarities. Like Shawn, Declan is a fraud who acquired his profiling expertise from his father. Both threaten to expose each other if either one of them does not come clean himself. Like he has the entire episode, Declan beats Shawn, making his confession to Juliet first. She forgives Declan and they go for coffee, leaving Shawn unable to say anything.
"One, Maybe Two, Ways Out" (5.09) - Juliet is now in a serious relationship with Declan, of which Shawn is very jealous. Declan is even planning a vacation for Juliet and himself. After Shawn and Gus cause Nadia's capture, Juliet overhears Shawn telling Gus that he cannot be happy without her, though he knows he should be glad that she is happily in a relationship. Juliet is visibly affected by his words. After Nadia is freed and Fong is taken into custody, Shawn and Gus again arrive at Declan's residence. Declan tells them to make their visit quick, as he is bidding 30 million euros on an item over the phone. Gus, intrigued by this, follows Declan upstairs. Shawn is left alone in the foyer, at which point Juliet enters the room, surprised to see him. She questions Shawn about how he solved such an intricate case and why there might be three creme brulé dishes at Declan's computer, but he does not rat out Declan for helping. Shawn wishes her a great four days off, but she corrects that it is two weeks, visibly upsetting him. He makes Juliet promise to enjoy her vacation, and tells her to take many mental photographs. As Shawn starts going off on a tangent, Juliet abruptly kisses him. She then pulls back, and both  Shawn and she are left speechless from the kiss. Declan and Gus return, and Shawn, too stunned to make any witty remarks, simply wishes them a good vacation. Declan goes to pack as Shawn and Gus leave, and Shawn takes one more look at Juliet before he closes the door. Juliet is left standing in the foyer, alone.
"Extradition II: The Actual Extradition Part" (5.10) - Shawn and Gus are invited to visit Despereaux in Canada. Before Shawn leaves, his father advises him to speak with Juliet, as he overheard Shawn talk about her via butt dialing. Shawn asks after her at the station, but Buzz tells him she already has her passport. Juliet and Lassiter arrive to take Despereaux to the United States, to Shawn's visible shock, and he asks Juliet to talk. Later, Juliet comes to his hotel room and tells him that she had broken up with Declan, but Shawn cannot talk with her as Gus and Despereaux are inside, resulting in Jules walking away upset. At the end of the episode, Shawn asks Lassiter where Juliet is, with the answer "Grabbin' a muffin". He finds her at a platform overlooking the ocean, but she is still upset, claiming they missed their moment. Shawn does not give up and explains to Juliet that since they met, he has thought about replacing his motorcycle, a beloved symbol of freedom, with a car. They kiss passionately, but are disrupted by the tourists at the overlook. Then, they move to a gift shop, where they are interrupted by a customer who calls Juliet a "slut". They then go to a car, and are once more interrupted by a cop. Shawn realizes that he has a room before the camera pans to the sky.
"In Plain Fright" (5.11) - At the beginning of the episode,t Shawn and Juliet are revealed to be officially a couple.
"Dual Spires" (5.12) Shawn and Gus are standing near the lake where their murder victim was found, and where the only cell service zone in the town is. When Juliet shows up unexpectedly. Shawn distracts Gus by saying, "Dude, labradoodle!", and Juliet and Shawn share a quick kiss.
"Yang 3 in 2D" (5.16) - Juliet seems uneasy as Shawn (now her boyfriend) sides with a supposed Yin kidnap victim. When Shawn and Gus are trapped inside Yin's house, she is the first to get Yang out of confinement, and when Yang tries to make a deal with the police, Jules agrees.  Yang gets to take an updated picture with Shawn, and Juliet is the only person to accompany her into the house. Juliet does not hesitate to agree to the conditions and the two enter the house. Shawn is saved, and after Yang gets her picture, she says to Shawn, "Catch up with you later, Mr. Spencer." After finishing his statement on the Yin case, Shawn goes looking for Jules, and finds her in the interrogation room. She says she cannot finish her statement because it is like "marking the time 'til the next crazy rolls in." To that, Shawn replies that he is there for her and will "always protect her", and she responds the same and Shawn kisses her hand. He then tells her he will see her that night later on and kisses her on the lips. The camera pans to reveal that Lassiter has seen and heard their entire conversation and now knows about their secret romantic relationship.

text: Season six

text:
"Shawn Rescues Darth Vader" (6.01) - Lassiter hooks Juliet to a lie detector and tries to trick her into admitting she is in a relationship with Shawn. She later confesses to Lassiter outright that she is dating Shawn , but he feels their trust has been broken. Lassiter puts Shawn in the same lie detector when the latter seemingly was at the crime scene. Shawn declares this has to do with  Juliet and his romantic involvement, and he blurts out that he loves her, shocking everyone in the room and himself. He also admits while under the lie detector that he is a psychic, which further deepens Juliet's trust in Shawn. Later, Lassiter warns Shawn if he hurts Juliet, he will discharge his weapon...repeatedly.
"Last Night Gus" (6.02) - Due to some drugged drinks, Shawn forgets a conversation he had with Juliet when she tells him they need to talk about it, and saying it was serious causing him to freak out. She reveals that he had asked her to move in and is surprised he does not remember. They agree that it is probably too soon.
"The Amazing Psych-Man and Tap Man, Issue #2" (6.04) - Shawn quickly becomes jealous as Juliet shows admiration for the Mantis, a vigilante who is competing with the SBPD to catch the Camino drug syndicate. When they are on a date, Shawn realizes that Juliet got a text from the SBPD that requires her to leave. Though reluctant, she departs.
"Shawn, Interrupted" (6.06) - Juliet shows concern for Shawn when he goes under cover at a mental institution, admitting that her deepest fear was that Shawn would not be able to come out, after Shawn makes an off-hand comment about enjoying it there, "Spoiler. I'm making you a wallet." Shawn reassures her, but Juliet is still not at ease.
"In for a Penny..." (6.07) - Shawn invites Juliet's estranged con-artist dad, Frank, to her birthday party, then hires him to assist on a case. Juliet is furious with Shawn and has no intention of reconciling with her father. She changes her mind when Frank tells her he attended all her recitals and talent shows. At her birthday party, Juliet has made peace with her dad and forgiven Shawn, since his heart was in the right place.
"Neil Simon's Lover's Retreat" (6.09) - Shawn and Juliet go away on a romantic vacation, but they are robbed by their new 'friends', who call themselves "Barbie and Clive", possibly taken from the 1930s criminals, Bonnie and Clyde. While tracking down the thieves, they come across a murder, effectively spoiling their plans. Shawn apologizes, since Juliet had "definite expectations" for their vacation, including the "M word", causing Juliet to explain that she had not been expecting a marriage proposal, since it is too soon and  she was in no way ready to get married. Shawn agrees seemingly relieved. The clerk returns Shawn's stolen Nintendo DS, which Shawn had been having a fit about throughout the episode when discovering it had been stolen, much to Juliet's annoyance and confusion.  Gus hears a rattle from inside it; he opens the battery case and finds an engagement ring, revealing that Shawn had actually planned to propose to Juliet during their vacation.
"Indiana Shawn and the Temple of the Kinda Crappy, Rusty Old Dagger" (6.10) - The episode opens up to Gus confronting Shawn over the ring he found, and Gus is clearly upset because Shawn was going to propose to Juliet, and never told Gus about it. Shawn apologizes, telling Gus that he "had to be ready for a Shamu moment." Shawn promises that when he pops the question to Juliet, Gus will be there, and offers a fist bump, which Gus ignores, saying, "That's storybook right there."
"Heeeeere's Lassie" (6.11) - Shawn keeps looking for a spot to stash the ring, since he is not ready to give it to Juliet. Gus suggests putting it back in Henry's drawer if he is not going to propose. Juliet's dad Frank arrives from Tanzania, stating he got Shawn's voicemail saying he had something important to discuss. Shawn left the voicemail when he was considering proposing and wanted to ask Frank for his blessing. He asks for permission to marry Juliet in case he needs it in the future. Frank explains to Shawn he wants his daughter to marry someone honest and asks if Shawn has ever lied to Juliet, which Shawn hesitates before answering. Gus answers in the affirmative and Frank leaves without offering or denying his blessing, leaving Shawn confused about whether or not he had Juliet's father's blessing to one day propose to Juliet.
"Shawn and the Real Girl" (6.12) - Juliet proves to be jealous as Shawn infiltrates into a reality show in which several men vie for the heart of a woman. Later, Shawn admits to considering himself lucky to have her in his life.
"Santabarbaratown" (6.16) - At the end, Juliet and Shawn are walking by the station, talking about Shawn moving in with her.

text: Season seven

text:
"Juliet Takes a Luvvah" (7.02) - Juliet and Shawn decide to live together.
"No Country for Two Old Men" (7.04) - After a homewarming party for Juliet and Shawn, her stepfather Lloyd runs into trouble with Mexican gangsters over his gambling debts.
"Deez Nups" (7.07) - During Lassiter's wedding reception, Juliet confronts Shawn about inconsistencies that she found in his latest "vision", leading her to deduce that he is a mentalist, not a psychic, which Shawn confirms. Heartbroken, Juliet splashes her drink in Shawn's face, tearfully exiting the scene.
"Right Turn or Left for Dead" (7.08) - Juliet tells Shawn to move out.
"Juliet Wears the Pantsuit" (7.09) - Shawn moves out, reluctantly. At the end of the episode, he helps Juliet repair a window and they are seen to still have chemistry. However, Juliet is not ready to forgive him for lying.
"Santa Barbarian Candidate" (7.10) - Juliet attends the Founders Gala as Shawn's date. As they dance, Juliet learns that Shawn went back to take dancing lessons that he had previously lied about going to when he learned what it meant to her. Juliet asks where "this Shawn" was when they were dating, to which he says that he's "right here". After dancing with him, she admits to Shawn that she still has feelings for him, but tells him that he has to tell Chief Vick about his lie about being a psychic. He refuses to, as he would not be able to do good or help people's lives like he always has. Juliet tells him that what he does is not good for everyone. At the end of the episode, Shawn decides to confess his lie to Chief Vick for the sake of smoothing things back over with Juliet. He almost tells Chief Vick that he is not a psychic, but Juliet comes in claiming that Shawn led her to Mike’s house to get the photos. She tells Shawn later on that she could not be selfish and have him reveal his lie. She seems to be slowly beginning to trust him again. Shawn makes an attempt to kiss her, but she says that she is not ready to get back together yet. Despite telling him this, the two agree to go out to eat together.
"Office Space" (7.11) - After going out to eat together from the previous episode, Juliet and Shawn are shown asleep next to each other in bed at her place. While sleeping, he wakes up to Gus tapping on the window, and leaves to help him. Later, at the station,  Shawn and she are talking, and he remarks, "[they are] back in the saddle". However, Juliet says that nothing is back yet, what they did was a "one-time thing", and since they were adults, "it happens".
"Nip and Suck It" (7.13) - At the end of the episode, Shawn tells Gus that Juliet and he are officially back together. Shawn remarks that Juliet made him "work" for it, but that they are finally together again.
"No Trout About It" (7.14) - Shawn and Juliet make a romantically goofy phone call as revealed by Shawn when retelling a case to a police consultant, much to Juliet's embarrassment. She later voices her concerns about her position at the department due to intraoffice dating with Shawn, which is usually against police regulations.

text: Season eight

text: "The Break Up" (8.10) - Shawn and Juliet get engaged to be married outside a crime scene in San Francisco, only to have the engagement ring get stolen by a mugger.

text: Psych: The Movie

text: Shawn and Juliet finally marry after the engagement ring is retrieved.


document_title: List of tallest people

question_text: guinness book of world records the tallest man

root

text: List of tallest people

text: Men[edit]

text: Living   Deceased   Height disputed

tag: p

text:
Country
Metric
Imperial
Name
Note
Lifespan
(age at death)

 United States
272 cm
8 ft 11.1 in
Robert Wadlow
Tallest human in recorded history confirmed by Guinness World Records.[1]
1918–1940 (22)

 United States
267 cm
8 ft 9 in
John Rogan
Second tallest male in recorded history. Weighed only 92.5 kg (204 lb). Unable to stand due to ankylosis.
1868–1905 (37)

 United States
263.5 cm
8 ft 7¾in
John F. Carroll
244 cm (8 ft 0 in) standing height, 264 cm (8 ft 7¾ in) assuming normal spinal curvature.
1932–1969 (37)

 Ukraine
257 cm
8 ft 5 in
Leonid Stadnyk
Not officially recognized by Guinness World Records because he refused to be measured according to their standards.[2]
1970–2014 (44)

 Finland
251,4 cm
8 ft 3 in
Väinö Myllyrinne
Recognized as the tallest living person from 1940 to his death in 1963. Measured 251,4 cm tall at his peak.
1909–1963 (54)

 Canada
251 cm
8 ft 3 in
Édouard Beaupré
Tallest strongman as well as tallest wrestler in history. His death certificate described him as being 8 ft 3 in (2.51 m) tall and still growing.
1881–1904 (23)

 Turkey
251 cm
8 ft 2.8 in[3]
Sultan Kösen
The tallest living person since September 17, 2009, as determined by Guinness World Records.[4] He has 36.5-cm-long (1 ft 2 in) feet—the second-largest feet on a living person and 27.5 cm (11.2 in) hand—the longest on a living person.[5]
1982–

 India
249 cm
8 ft 2 in
Vikas Uppal
Was not officially measured by Guinness.
1986–2007 (21)

 United States
249 cm
8 ft 2 in
Don Koehler
Tallest in world for most of the 1970s.
1925–1981 (56)

 United States
249 cm
8 ft 2 in
Bernard Coyne
Coyne's World War I draft registration card, dated 29 August his height as 8 feet, although he had reached a height of 8 feet 2 inches (249 cm) by the time of his death. Possibly reached up to 8 ft 4 in (254 cm).
1897–1921 (24)

 Ireland
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Patrick Cotter O'Brien
Tallest person recorded at the time and the first in medical history to stand at a verified height of eight feet (244 cm). Remains examined in 1972 and height verified.
1760–1806 (46)

 Morocco
246 cm
8 ft 1 in[6]
Brahim Takioullah
Possesses the world's largest feet at 1 ft 3 in (38 cm).[7]
1982–

 Iran
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Morteza Mehrzad
Tallest man in Iran.[8] Gold medalist of Iran sitting volleyball national team in Summer Paralympic games Rio 2016
1987–

 Germany
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Julius Koch
Probably never the world's tallest person due to his life coinciding with that of John Rogan. Skeleton preserved in the Museum of Natural History in Mons, Belgium.
1872–1902 (30)

 Mozambique
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Gabriel Estêvão Monjane
Guinness World Records listed him as tallest man from 1988 to 1990.
1944–1990 (46)

 India
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Dharmendra Pratap Singh
Tallest living Indian.[9]
1983–

 Libya
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Suleiman Ali Nashnush
Libyan who was the tallest basketball player in the world.[citation needed]
1943–1991 (47)

 France
245 cm
8 ft ½ in
Jean-Joseph Brice
Le Géant des Vosges Ramonchamp - France—Height controversy[10]
1835–?

 Germany
244 cm
8 ft 0 in
Anton de Franckenpoint (Langer Anton)
Lived during Thirty Years' War; skeleton later measured at 8 ft 0 in (244 cm).[11][12]
Unknown

 China
242 cm
7 ft 11¼ in
Zhang Juncai
Tallest living Chinese person.
1966–

 Indonesia
242 cm
7 ft 11¼ in
Suparwono
Tallest Indonesian claimed to be 8 ft 10.5 in. Officially measured (lying down and in the standing position) by the Indonesian Record Museum (MURI) in December 2009.[13]
1985–2012 (26)

 Netherlands
242 cm
7 ft 11¼ in
Albert Johan Kramer
Probably the tallest man in The Netherlands ever; His brother-in-law was suffering from dwarfism and did not exceed 69 cm (27.16 in). Together they formed a variety act, with performances around the world.[14]
1897–1976 (79)

 Puerto Rico
241 cm
7 ft 11 in
Felipe Birriel
Tallest Puerto Rican recorded.
1916–1994 (78)

 India
241 cm
7 ft 11 in
Asadulla Khan
Tallest man in India.[15]
1988–

 Soviet Union
240 cm
7 ft 10 in
Alexander Sizonenko
Soviet Union basketball player.[16]
1959–2012 (53)

 Egypt
240 cm
7 ft 10 in
Sa'id Muhammad Ghazi
He was billed as 10 ft in his life.[17]
1909–1941 (32)

 Belarus
239 cm
7 ft 10 in
Feodor Machnow
Billed as 9 ft 3 in his life.
1878–1912 (34)

 Austria-Hungary
238 cm
7 ft 10 in
Grgo Kusić
Tallest Croat recorded. Tallest citizen of Austria-Hungary of his time.[18]
1892–1918 (26)

 Pakistan
238 cm
7 ft 10 in
Naseer Soomro
Tallest confirmed man living in Pakistan.[19][20]
1975–

 Netherlands
238 cm
7 ft 10 in
Rigardus Rijnhout
Second tallest man in The Netherlands ever; he was known as the giant of Rotterdam. Early June 2011, a life-size statue of Rijnhout was unveiled in the Oude Westen district in Rotterdam.[21]
1922–1959 (36)

 Japan
237 cm
7 ft 9.3 in
Yoshimitsu Matsuzaka
Tallest man in Japan; no color images of him exist even though he died in the 1960s.[22]
1930–1962 (32)

 Mongolia
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Öndör Gongor
Very tall man in early-20th-century Mongolia. Some other sources even give 245 cm (8 feet)
1880/85 – 1925/30

 United States
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Louis Moilanen
Tallest person in Michigan history and one of the tallest men in the world during his lifetime. He may have been 8 ft 1 in tall.[23]
1885–1913 (28)

 United Kingdom
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Angus MacAskill
Tallest "true" giant (not due to a pathological condition). Tallest Scottish or British man recorded.
1825–1863 (38)

 United Kingdom
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Frederick Kempster
Tall Englishman, height disputed between 7 ft 8.5in and 8 ft 4.5in[24]
1889–1918 (29)

 United States
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Martin Van Buren Bates
Known as the Kentucky Giant or The Giant of the Hills.[25] He and Anna Haining Bates were the tallest married couple ever.[26]
1837–1919

 China
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Bao Xishun
Considered the tallest living person by Guinness World Records until September 2009 when he was replaced by Sultan Kösen.[27]
1951–

 China
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Sun Mingming
Chinese basketball player. Formerly second-tallest living person.
1983–

 Tunisia
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Radhouane Charbib
Listed by Guinness World Records as tallest man until January 15, 2005, before Bao Xishun and Sun Mingming.[28]
1968–

 Germany
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Walter Straub
Tallest man in Germany while he was alive.[29]
1925–1986 (61)

 Algeria
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Rachid Bara
Tallest man in Algeria while he was alive.[30]
1974–2009 (35)

 Brazil
235 cm
7 ft 8½ in
Rafael França do Nascimento
Tallest man in Brazil.[31]
1987–

 Russia
235 cm
7 ft 8½ in
Nikolai Pankratov
Tallest man in Russia.[32]
1990–

 North Korea
235 cm
7 ft 8½ in
Ri Myung Hun
Former basketball player with the North Korean national team.
1967–

 United States
 Ukraine
235 cm
7 ft 8⅓ in
Igor Vovkovinskiy
Currently the tallest person living in the United States. Originally from Ukraine, moved to Rochester, Minnesota to be treated at the Mayo Clinic. Most recently has been acting in commercials and movies.[33] Became well known by wearing a T-shirt that read "Obama's Biggest Supporter". Took part in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö, Sweden, as one of the performers on the stage representing Ukraine.
1982–

 United States
235 cm
7 ft 8 in
Broc Brown
Former tallest teenager in the United States.[34]
1998-

 United States
235 cm
7 ft 8 in
Cecil Boling
Was 7'8" but shrank to 7'0" since his legs were replaced with artificial legs 8.5" shorter.[35]
1920–2000 (79)

 United States
235 cm
7 ft 8 in
Brenden Adams
Former tallest teenager in the world.
1995–

 India
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Polipaka Gattaiah
Tallest Indian.[36]
1975–2015

 Ivory Coast
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Abdramane Dembele
Tallest man in Ivory Coast.[37]
1985–

 United States
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
George Bell
Former Tallest living American.[38]
1957–

 Fiji
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Kaliova Seleiwau
Tallest living Fijian.[39]
1981–

 Austria
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Adam Rainer
Only person known to have been both a dwarf and giant. He was 118 cm (3 ft 10 in) tall at age 21 and peaked at 234 cm (7 ft 8 in) when he died, having doubled his height as an adult.
1899–1950 (51)

 Pakistan
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Alam Channa
Pakistani, considered to be the tallest living man when he died in 1998.[40]
1953–1998 (46)

 Iceland
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Jóhann K. Pétursson
Was the tallest person in Iceland.
1913–1984 (71)

 Japan
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Yasutaka Okayama
Tallest living Japanese. Tallest basketball player drafted in NBA history.[41][42][43][44]
1954–

 United States
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Bob Wegner
Tallest basketball player plays for the Lake Michigan Admirals.[45]
1993–

 Austria-Hungary
233.7 cm
7 ft 8 in
Franz Winkelmeier
One of the tallest people in his time.[46]
1860–1887

 Spain
233.5 cm
7 ft 8 in
Miguel Joaquín de Eleicegui
Tallest man recorded in Spain.[47]
1818–1861 (43)

 Spain
233 cm
7 ft 7.7 in
Jaime Clemente Izquierdo
Spain's tallest man in his lifetime.[48]
1961–2005 (44)

 Spain
233 cm
7 ft 7½ in
Agustín Luengo Capilla
Circus performer. Tallest man in Spain at the time of his death.[49]
1849–1875 (26)

 United States
232 cm
7 ft 7½ in
Jack Earle
Jacob Rheuben Ehrlich. American silent film actor and sideshow performer.
1906–1952 (46)

 Somalia
233 cm
7 ft 7.4 in
Hussain Bisad
Somalia, considered to be one of the tallest living men.
1975–

 United Kingdom
233 cm
7 ft 7.4 in
Neil Fingleton
Tallest division 1 basketball player. Known for his role Mag the Mighty in the HBO TV series Game of Thrones [50][51]
1980–2017 (36)

 China
233 cm
7 ft 7 in
Wang Feng-Jun
Asia's tallest man in 2004.[52]
1976–2015 (39)

 Argentina
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Jorge González
Tallest wrestler in WWE history.
1966–2010 (44)

 United Kingdom
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Paul Sturgess
Tied for the tallest player ever to play college basketball in the U.S.[53]
1987–

 United States
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Kenny George
Second-tallest Division I basketball player (Neil Fingleton).[54]
1987–

 United States
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Lock Martin
He played the robot in the movie The Day the Earth Stood Still.[55]
1916–1959

 Ireland
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Charles Byrne
Skeleton now resides in the Hunterian Museum.
1761–1783 (22)

 United States
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Max Palmer
Actor and pro wrestler. Listed by Guinness World Records at 7 ft 7 in, claimed 8 ft 1 in. Film Bio - Killer Apes, Invaders From Mars.[56]
1927–1984 (57)

 Romania
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Gheorghe Mureșan
Tied for tallest in NBA history.
1971–

 Sudan
231 cm
7 ft 7 in
Manute Bol
Tied for tallest in NBA history.
1962–2010 (48)

 Belgium
230 cm
7 ft 6.75 in
Alain Delaunois
Tallest living Belgian.[57]
1971–

 Azerbaijan
230 cm
7 ft 7 in
Aleksandar Rindin
Tallest man in Azerbaijan.[58]
1985–

 Armenia
230 cm
7 ft 7 in
Arshavir Grigoryan
Tallest man in Armenia.[59]
1990–

 Brazil
230 cm
7 ft 6.6 in
Joélisson Fernandes da Silva
Tallest living Brazilian.[60]
1991–

 Montenegro
230 cm
7 ft 6.5 in
Slavko Vraneš
Tallest Montenegrin basketball player in the national basketball team, former player in the NBA
1983–

 Romania
230 cm
7 ft 6.55 in
Robert Bobroczky
Romanian basketball player that was 2.30 m (7 ft 7 in) in late 2014, aged 14.[61]
2000–

 Vietnam
229 cm
7 ft 6.25 in
Trần Thành Phố
Was the tallest man in Southeast Asia when he died in 2010[62]
1947–2010 (63)

 Senegal
229 cm
7 ft 6.25 in
Malik Sidibe
Tallest basketball player in Senegal.[63]
1985–

 United Kingdom
229 cm
7 ft 6¼ in
Christopher Greener
Formerly Britain's tallest man
1943–2015 (71)

 Algeria
229 cm
7 ft 6⅕ in
Saad Kaiche
Former basketball player of Club Baloncesto Breogán of Lugo.[64][65]
1985–

 United States
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Ralph Madsen
Billed as 7 ft 6 in.[66]
1897–1948

 China
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Yao Ming
Was the tallest player in the NBA during his playing years until his retirement in 2011.
1980–

 United States
 Germany
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Shawn Bradley
Former player in the NBA, 1993–2005, tallest living German (holding dual citizenship).
1972–

 Senegal
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Moussa Seck
Tallest basketball player in Senegal.[67]
1986–

 United States
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Matthew McGrory
Was the world's tallest actor when he died in 2005.[68]
1973–2005

 Senegal
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Mamadou N'Diaye
Was the tallest in high school and college basketball while playing in the US.[69]
1993–

 United States
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Conrad Furrows
He was listed in the Bernard L. Kobel Catalogue of Human Oddities of Circus Sideshows.[70]
1922–1967

 Senegal
229 cm
7 ft 6 in
Tacko Fall
Is the tallest high school basketball player in the US as of 2014.[71]
1995–

 Russia
229 cm
7 ft 5.8 in
Sergey Ilin
Tallest basketball player in Russia.[72]
1988–

 Spain
229 cm
7 ft 5.8 in(?)
Fermín Arrudi Urieta
Tallest man in Spain at the time of his death.
1870–1913 (42)

 DR Congo
228 cm
7 ft 5⅔ in
Bienvenu Letuni
Tallest basketball player in DRC[73]
1994–

 Poland
228 cm
7 ft 5⅔ in
Eugeniusz Taraciński
Tallest man in Poland while he was alive.[74]
1928–1978 (50)

 Colombia
228 cm
7 ft 5⅔ in
Asdrúbal Herrera Mora
Tallest living Colombian. Tied for tallest South American man with Margarito Machacuay[75]
1986–

 Slovakia
228 cm
7 ft 5⅔ in
Martin Miklosik
Tallest basketball player in the Slovak Republic.[76]
1986–

 Peru
228 cm
7 ft 5⅔ in
Margarito Machacuay
Tied for the tallest South American person with Asdrúbal Herrera and is the fifth-tallest in the Americas.[77]
1965–

tag: table

text: Women[edit]

text:
Country
Metric
Imperial
Name
Note
Lifespan
(age at death)

 China
248 cm
8 ft 1 ¾ in
Zeng Jinlian
Confirmed by Guinness World Records as tallest female ever. Suffered from spine curvature and could not stand at full height. Tallest recorded Chinese person and world's tallest person shortly before her death. She is the only woman verified to have reached 8ft tall.
1964–1982 (17)

 Canada
243 cm
7 ft 11 in
Anna Haining Bates
Second tallest woman and tallest woman in her lifetime. She and Martin Van Buren Bates were the tallest married couple ever.[26]
1846–1888 (41)

 United Kingdom
241 cm
7 ft 11 in
Jane Bunford
Tallest recorded English person and possibly the world's tallest person at the time of her death. Given height is adjusted for spinal curvature; peak standing height was 7 ft 10 in (239 cm).[78]
1895–1922 (27)

 China
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Yao Defen
Listed as tallest living female by Guinness World Records, until her death on November 13, 2012.
1972–2012 (40)

 United States
231.78 cm
7 ft 7 ¼ in
Sandy Allen
Listed as tallest living female by Guinness World Records, and the tallest American woman ever, until her death on August 13, 2008.[79]
1955–2008 (53)

 Greece
229.87 cm
7 ft 6.5 in
Wassiliki Calliandji
Tallest woman in Greece.[80]
1882–1904 (22)

 China
221 cm
7 ft 3 in
Sun Fang
Tallest living woman.[81]
1987-

 Turkey
213,6 cm
7 ft 0.09 in
Rumeysa Gelgi
Tallest living woman in Turkey, and she was the highest female teenager in the world.[82][83]
1997-

text: Disputed and unverified claims[edit]

text:
Country
Metric
Imperial
Name
Note
Lifespan
(age at death)

France
350 cm
11 ft 6 in
Giant of Castelnau
Height estimate based on bone fragments found at the Neolithic cemetery of Castelnau-le-Lez, excavated in 1890 by Georges Vacher de Lapouge and published in the journal La Nature, Vol. 18, 1890.[84]
Unknown -
Neolithic France

Russia/Belarus
283 cm
9 ft 3 in
Feodor Machnow
Height not confirmed.
1878–1912 (34)

England
282 cm
9 ft 3 in
John Middleton
The Childe of Hale
Written on his grave is Here lyeth the bodie of John Middleton, the Childe of Hale, nine feet three. Height not officially confirmed.
1578–1623 (45)

United States
274 cm
8 ft 11.5 in
John Aasen
American silent film actor, height is not officially confirmed. His skeleton was measured at 7 ft 2.4 in
1890–1938 (48)

Thailand
269 cm
8 ft 10 in
Pornchai Sawsri
Claimed to measure 269 cm (8'10) at age 26 in September 2015.[85] He was measured at 257 cm (8'5") by Thai authorities for his ID card renewal in October 2013.[86]
1990?–2015[87]

Egypt
269 cm
8 ft 10 in
Sa’id Muhammad Ghazi
Claimed 8'10", but was later measured at 7'11" (242 cm).[88]
1909–1941 (32)

Ireland
269 cm
8 ft 10 in
Patrick Murphy
Claimed 8'10", but was later measured at 7'3.4" (222 cm). Height is not officially confirmed.
1834–1862 (28)

Italy
259 cm
8 ft 6 in
Maximinus Thrax
Emperor of Rome, first ever recorded person with gigantism.
173–238

Iran
259 cm
8 ft 5.9 in
Siah Khan Ibn Kashmir Khan
When he was admitted to hospital in 1933 he turned out to be 'only' 7'2.6" (220 cm) tall .[89]
1912–1938

Ukraine
257 cm
8 ft 5.5 in
Leonid Stadnyk
Refused to undergo independent testing under Guinness World Records rules, so his claim is not recognized by Guinness World Records.
1970–2014 (44)

Pakistan
254 cm
8 ft 4 in
Ajaz Ahmed
Claims actually to be 8 feet 4 inches, but this is unverified by Guinness World Records. He claims that he is still growing.
1976–

Netherlands
254 cm
8 ft 4 in
Trijntje Keever
Tallest recorded woman. Not confirmed by Guinness World Records.[90][91]
1616–1633 (17)

United States
254 cm
8 ft 4 in
Ella Ewing
Claims 8 feet 4 inches, however measured at 7 feet 4.5 inches. Her mother describes her full height at 8 feet 4 inches.
1872–1913 (41)

Bangladesh
251 cm
8 ft 3 in
Parimal Barman
Claims of being 8 feet 3 inches, not confirmed.
1962–1991 (29)

United States
248 cm
8 ft 2 in
Henry Hite
Claims of being 8 feet 2 inches, not confirmed.
1915–1978 (63)

India
248 cm
8 ft 2 in
Jitendra Singh
Claims of being 8 feet 2 inches, but was later measured at 7'7" (231 cm)[92]
1971–

Finland
247 cm
8 ft 1.4 in
Daniel Cajanus
Height not officially confirmed.[93] He was only 7 ft 8 in (234 cm) according to the London Annual Register.[94]
1703–1749 (46)

People's Republic of China
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Zhao Liang
Height not officially confirmed. A circus performer.
1982–

Finland
246 cm
8 ft 1 in
Louis Moilanen
Big Louie
Height not officially confirmed.[95]
1886–1913 (27)

China
244 cm
8 ft 0 in
Zhan Shichai
Height not officially confirmed.[96]
1841–1893 (52)

Turkey
244.4 cm
8 ft 0 in
Barth's Giant
Skeleton of reputed Giant "Hayduk", Turkish soldier displayed at Vienna's Anatomical museum in 1904. Height estimated from Femur and Tibia at 235.2 to 244.4 cm tall.[97]
c. 1683

Algeria
244 cm
8 ft 0 in
Mounir Fourar
Height not officially confirmed.[98]
1972–2012 (40)

Indonesia
242 cm
7 ft 11 in
Musutaman
Height not officially confirmed.[99]
1962–?

Sweden
242 cm
7 ft 11 in
Gustaf Edman
Height not officially confirmed.[100]
1882–1912 (30)

Mongolia
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Öndör Gongor
Tall Gongor
Was measured by Roy Chapman Andrews, but some other sources even give 245 cm (8 feet)
1879–1931 (52)

United Kingdom
236 cm
7 ft 9 in
Frederick Kempster
Claimed to be 8 ft 4.5 in. Height not officially confirmed.[101]
1889–1918 (29)

Ireland
234 cm
7 ft 8 in
Cornelius McGrath
Measurement according to the London Annual Register.[94]
1737–1759 (22)

Spain
222–234 cm
7 ft 3 in - 7 ft 7 in
Sancho VII of Navarre
Height estimated by Luis del Campo in 1952, from a measurement of his femur recorded in 1622.[102]
1170-1234 (64)

text: Tallest in varied fields or endeavors[edit]

text: Tallest in various sports[edit]

text:
Country
Height
Name
Note
Lifespan
Photo

Libya
246 cm (8 ft 1 in)
Suleiman Ali Nashnush
Tallest basketball player.
1943–1991

Iran
246 cm (8 ft 1 in)[103]
Morteza Mehrzad
Tallest Paralympian and tallest volleyball player.[104]
1987–

Romania
242 cm (7 ft 11 in)
Gogea Mitu
Tallest professional boxer.
1914–1936

People's Republic of China
236 cm (7 ft 9 in)
Sun Mingming
Tallest active professional basketball player.
1983–

Canada
233 cm (7 ft 8 in)
Édouard Beaupré
Tallest strongman and tallest wrestler.
1881–1904

Romania
231 cm (7 ft 7 in)
Gheorghe Mureșan
Retired professional basketball player. Tied as tallest player in National Basketball Association (NBA) history.
1971–

Sudan
231 cm (7 ft 7 in)
Manute Bol
Retired professional basketball player. Tied as tallest player in National Basketball Association (NBA) history.
1962–2010

Argentina
231 cm (7 ft 7 in)
Jorge González
Tallest wrestler in WWE history
1966–2010

Latvia
221 cm (7 ft 3 in)
Kristaps Porziņģis
Tied for tallest active NBA player.
1995–

Serbia
221 cm (7 ft 3 in)
Boban Marjanović
Tied for tallest active NBA player.
1988–

Brazil
218 cm (7 ft 2 in)
Giant Silva
Tallest kickboxer and mixed martial artist.
1963–

Poland
218 cm (7 ft 2 in)
Małgorzata "Margo" Dydek
Tallest female player in WNBA history.
1974–2011

Russia
218 cm (7 ft 2 in)[105]
Dmitriy Muserskiy
Tallest volleyball player. Member of Russia national team
1988–

Brazil
217 cm (7 ft 1 in)
Renan Zanatta Buiatti
Tallest volleyball player.
1990–

India
216 cm (7 ft 1 in)
Dalip Singh Rana
Tallest active wrestler.
1972–

Pakistan
216 cm (7 ft 1 in)
Mohammad Irfan
Tallest international cricketer[106]
1982–

Philippines
216 cm (7 ft 1 in)
E.J. Feihl
Tallest basketball player in PBA history. (tied with Greg Slaughter)
1970–

Philippines
216 cm (7 ft 1 in)
Greg Slaughter
Tallest basketball player in PBA history. (tied with E.J. Feihl)
1988–

Netherlands
215 cm (7 ft 1 in)
Kay van Dijk
Tallest Volleyball player. Member of Netherlands national team
1984–

Netherlands
215 cm (7 ft 1 in)
Loek van Mil
Tallest baseball player.
1984–

Brazil
214 cm (7 ft 0 in)
Leandro Vissotto
Tallest Volleyball player. Member of Brazil national team
1983–

United Kingdom
213 cm (7 ft 0 in)
Richard Metcalfe
Tallest rugby union player.
1973–

Netherlands
213 cm (7 ft 0 in)
Ted van der Parre
Tallest World's Strongest Man.
1955–

United States
213 cm (7 ft 0 in)
Richard Sligh
Tallest American football player in NFL history.
1944–2008

Russia
213 cm (7 ft 0 in)
Nikolai Valuev
Tallest boxing world champion.
1973–

Netherlands
212 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Semmy Schilt
Tallest kickboxing world champion.
1973–

Netherlands
212 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Stefan Struve
Tallest fighter in the UFC.
1988–

Australia
212 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Thomas Edgar
Tallest volleyball player. Member of Australia national team
1989–

United States
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Jon Rauch
Tallest baseball player in Major League Baseball history.
1978–

Australia
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Aaron Sandilands
Tied as tallest player in Australian Football League history.
1982–

Australia
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Peter Street
Tied as tallest player in Australian Football League history.
1980–

America
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Mason Cox
Tied as tallest player in Australian Football League history.
1991–

United States
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Reilly Opelka
Tied as tallest tennis player on the ATP Tour.
1997–

Croatia
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Ivo Karlović
Tied as tallest tennis player on the ATP Tour.
1979–

United Kingdom
211 cm (6 ft 11 in)
Will Carrick-Smith
Tallest active professional rugby union player.
1992–

Lithuania
209 cm (6 ft 10 in)
Rolandas Gimbutis
Tallest Olympic swimmer.
1981–

Belgium
208 cm (6 ft 10 in)
Kristof Van Hout
Tallest association football player.
1987–

United States
208 cm (6 ft 10 in)
Matt Anderson
Tallest volleyball player. Member of United States national team
1987–

Slovakia
206 cm (6 ft 9 in)
Zdeno Chára
Tallest player in National Hockey League history.
1977–

United States
206 cm (6 ft 9 in)
Jared Gaither
Tallest active American football player in the NFL
1986–

Russia
204 cm (6 ft 8 in)
Nelly Alisheva
Tallest female volleyball player.
1983–

Bulgaria
203 cm (6 ft 8 in)
Kotooshu Katsunori
sumo wrestler.
1983–

Germany
201 cm (6 ft 7 in)
Ingo Schultz
Tallest sprinter.
1975–

Bulgaria
201 cm (6 ft 7 in)
Velichko Cholakov
Tallest Olympic weightlifter.
1982–2017

United States
201 cm (6 ft 7 in)
Phil Blackmar
Tallest golfer on the PGA Tour.
1957–

Switzerland
200 cm (6 ft 7 in)
Ramon Zenhäusern
Tallest World Cup competitor in alpine skiing.
1992–

text: Tallest actors[edit]

text:
Country
Height
Name
Note
Lifespan

United Kingdom
7 ft 7½ in (233 cm)
Neil Fingleton
Tallest actor at 233 cm (7 ft 7½ in).[107]
1980–2017

United States
7 ft 6 in (229 cm)
Matthew McGrory
World's tallest actor at time of death.
1973–2005

France
7 ft 4 in (224 cm)
Andre The Giant
Tallest French actor and professional wrestler. Tallest wrestler during the 1980s.
1946-1993

United States
7 ft 4 in (224 cm)
George McArthur
Actor and variety artist.
1969-

Canada
6 ft 9 in (206 cm)
John De Santis
Tallest Canadian actor at 206 cm (6 ft 9 in).[108]
1977–

United States
6 ft 8 1/2 in (204 cm)
Brad Garrett
Tallest Emmy Award winning actor at 204 cm (6 ft 8 1/2 in).[109]
1960–

United States
6 ft 8.25 in (203.84 cm)
Lindsay Kay Hayward
Tallest actress in a leading role[110]
1987–[111]

United Kingdom
6 ft 7 in (201 cm)
Stephen Merchant
Tallest British Academy Film Awards winner
1974 -

United States
6 ft 7 in (201 cm)
James Cromwell
Tallest Academy Award nominated actor at 201 cm (6 ft 7 in).
1940–

United States
6 ft 5 in (195 cm)
Tim Robbins
Tallest Academy Award-winning actor at 195 cm (6 ft 5 in).
1958–

text: Tallest people presently living in varied nations[edit]

text:
Pakistan
8 ft 4 in (254 cm)
Ajaz Ahmed
Tallest living in Pakistan at 254 cm (8 ft 4 in). Height unverified. He claims that he is still growing.
1975–

Turkey
8 ft 3 in (251 cm)
Sultan Kösen
Tallest Turkish at 251 cm (8 ft 3 in).[4]
1982–

Morocco
8 ft 1 in (247 cm)
Brahim Takioullah
Tallest Moroccan at 246 cm and second tallest person(8 ft 1 in)[7]
1982–

Iran
8 ft 1 in (246 cm)
Morteza Mehrzad
Tallest live in Iran at 246 cm (8 ft 1 in).[89]
1987–

People's Republic of China
7 ft 11 in (242 cm)
Zhang Juncai
Tallest living Chinese at 242 cm (7 ft 11 in).
1983–

Tunisia
7 ft 8.5 in (235 cm)
Radhouane Charbib
Tallest Tunisian and the tallest living person in Africa[28]
1968–

Somalia
7 ft 8½ in (236 cm)
Hussain Bisad
Tallest Somali at 236 cm (7 ft 8.5 in).
1975–

North Korea
7 ft 8.5 in (235 cm)
Ri Myung Hun
Tallest North Korean at 235 cm (7 ft 8.5 in).
1967–

United Kingdom
7 ft 8⅓ in (235 cm)
Paul Sturgess
Tallest British at 235 cm (7 ft 8⅓ in).
1987–

United States
7 ft 8⅓ in (235 cm)
Igor Vovkovinskiy
Tallest American at 235 cm (7 ft 8⅓ in).
1982–

Myanmar
7 ft 7.5 in (233 cm)
Win Zaw Oo
Also known as 'Big Zaw', who is currently seeking medical treatment from 2013 in Singapore. Tallest man in Burma
1977-

Romania
7 ft 7 in (231 cm)
Gheorghe Mureșan
Tallest Romanian at 231 cm (7 ft 7 in).
1971–

Brazil
7 ft 6.6 in (230 cm)
Joelisson Fernandes da Silva
Tallest Brazilian at 230 cm (7 ft 6.6 in)[60]
1991–

Montenegro
7 ft 6 in (230 cm)
Slavko Vranes
Tallest basketball player in Montenegro
1983–

Malta
7 ft 6 in (230 cm)
Samuel Deguara
Tallest basketball player in Malta
1991–

Japan
7 ft 6 in (228 cm)
Yasutaka Okayama
Tallest Japanese to be drafted into the NBA at 228 cm (7 ft 6 in).
1954–

Canada
7 ft 6 in (228 cm)
Jerry Sokoloski
Tallest Canadian at 228 cm (7 ft 6 in).
1983–

New Zealand
7 ft 4.5 in (225 cm)
Jonty Butterfield
Tallest New Zealander at 229 cm (7 ft 6.15 in).[112]
1994–

Ireland
7 ft 4.5 in (225 cm)
Shaun Aisbitt
Tallest Man in Ireland [113]
1962–

Puerto Rico
7 ft 3.5 in (222 cm)
Peter John Ramos
Tallest Puerto Rican at 222 cm (7 ft 3.5 in).
1985–

Hungary
7 ft 3.5 in (222 cm)
Laszlo Dobos
Tallest basketball player in Hungary at 222 cm (7 ft 3.5 in).[114]
1993–

Australia
7 ft 3 in (221 cm)
Sam Harris
Tallest Australian at 221 cm (7 ft 3 in).
1984–

Philippines
7 ft 3 in (221 cm)
Raul Dillo
Said to be the tallest Filipino at 221 cm (7 ft 4 in) when he was measured at age 17.[115][116]
1991–

Spain
7 ft 3 in (221 cm)
Roberto Dueñas Hernández
Tallest Spanish basketball player ever (now retired). Currently the tallest man alive in Spain.
1975–


document_title: Cabinet of Nigeria

question_text: who is the current minister of petroleum in nigeria

text: Cabinet of Nigeria

text: Relationship to Civil Service[edit]

text: The ministries and parastatals are staffed by career civil servants. Each is headed by a Permanent Secretary, a senior civil servant appointed by the Head of the Civil Service. The Permanent Secretary is accountable to a Minister, who sits in the Cabinet and reports to the President. The Minister is appointed by the President subject to approval by the Senate and is responsible for policy, while the Permanent Secretary is responsible for implementation of policy.[2]

text: Ministers and Ministers of State[edit]

text: By convention, there must be one Cabinet member from each of the 36 states in Nigeria, although there are only 19 ministries and at times a Federal minister is responsible for more than one ministry (e.g. Environment and Housing), or the President takes direct control of a key ministry such as Petroleum Resources. To ensure representation from each state, a Minister is often assisted by one or more Ministers of State.[3]

text: Current cabinet[edit]

text:
Cabinet of Nigeria: 11 November 2015 – Present[4]

Portrait
Portfolio
Incumbent
Term

President
Commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces
Minister of Petroleum

Muhammadu Buhari
2015–

Vice President

Yemi Osinbajo
2015–

Minister of Justice
Attorney General[5]

Abubakar Malami
2015–

Minister of Foreign Affairs

Geoffrey Onyeama
2015–

Minister of Finance

Folake Adeosun
2015–

Minister of Defence

Mansur Dan Ali
2015–

Minister of Education

Adamu Adamu
2015–

Minister of Industry, Trade and Investment[6]

Okechukwu Enelamah
2015–

Minister of Labour and Employment

Chris Ngige
2015–

Minister of Federal Capital Territory

Mohammed Musa Bello
2015–

Minister of Science and Technology

Ogbonnaya Onu
2015–

Minister of Solid Minerals

John Kayode Fayemi
2015–

Minister of Interior

Abdulrahman Bello Dambazau
2015–

Minister of Budget and National Planning

Udoma Udo Udoma
2015–

Minister of Power, Works and Housing

Babatunde Fashola
2015–

Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development

Audu Ogbeh
2015–

Minister of Transportation

Rotimi Amaechi
2015–

Minister of Health

Isaac Adewole
2015–

Minister of Women Affairs

Aisha Alhassan
2015–

Minister of Niger Delta

Usani Uguru Usani
2015–

Minister of Information

Lai Mohammed
2015–

Minister of Environment

Amina J. Mohammed
2015–2016

Minister of Water Resources

Suleiman Adamu Kazaure
2015–

Minister of Youth and Sports

Solomon Dalong
2015–

Minister of State for Aviation

Sirika Hadi
2015–

Minister of State for Environment

Ibrahim Jibrin
2015–

Minister of State for Foreign Affairs

Khadija Bukar Abba Ibrahim
2015–

Minister of State for Solid Minerals

Bawa Bwari Abubakar
2015–

Minister of State for Health

Osagie Ehanire
2015–

Minister of State for Niger Delta

Omole Daramola
2015–

Minister of State for Power, Works and Housing

Mustapha Baba Shauri
2015–

Minister of State for Power, Works and Housing

Suleiman Hassan
2017–

Minister of State for Education

Anthony Onwuka
2015–

Minister of State for Agriculture and Rural Development

Heineken Lokpobiri
2015–

Minister of State for Labour and Employment

Stephen Ocheni
2017– **

Minister of State for Budget and National Planning

Zainab Ahmed
2015–

Minister for Communication

Adebayo Shittu
2015–

Minister of State for Industry, Trade and Investment

Aisha Abubakar
2015–

Minister of State for Petroleum

Emmanuel Ibe Kachikwu
2015–

text: Predecessor, James Ocholi Died in Office


document_title: Black Death

question_text: where did the black death first start in europe

text: Black Death

text: Chronology

text: Origins of the disease

text: The plague disease, caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, Northern India and Uganda.[10] Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease.[11] Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague and are thought by many epidemiologists to mark the outbreak of the epidemic, from which it could easily have spread to China and India.[12] In October 2010, medical geneticists suggested that all three of the great waves of the plague originated in China.[13] In China, the 13th-century Mongol conquest caused a decline in farming and trading. However, economic recovery had been observed at the beginning of the 14th century. In the 1330s, a large number of natural disasters and plagues led to widespread famine, starting in 1331, with a deadly plague arriving soon after.[14] Epidemics that may have included plague killed an estimated 25 million Chinese and other Asians during the 15 years before it reached Constantinople in 1347.[15][16]

text: The disease may have travelled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders or it could have come via ship.[17] By the end of 1346, reports of plague had reached the seaports of Europe: "India was depopulated, Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies".[18]

text: Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders at the port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering from the disease, the army catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, taking the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread north.[19] Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several existing conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death.

text: European outbreak

text:
The seventh year after it began, it came to England and first began in the towns and ports joining on the seacoasts, in Dorsetshire, where, as in other counties, it made the country quite void of inhabitants so that there were almost none left alive.
... But at length it came to Gloucester, yea even to Oxford and to London, and finally it spread over all England and so wasted the people that scarce the tenth person of any sort was left alive.

Geoffrey the Baker, Chronicon Angliae

tag: div

text: There appear to have been several introductions into Europe. The plague reached Sicily in October 1347, carried by twelve Genoese galleys,[20] and rapidly spread all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseille.[21]

text: From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal and England by June 1348, then turned and spread east through Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland.[22] Finally it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351. The plague was somewhat less common in parts of Europe that had smaller trade relations with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated alpine villages throughout the continent.[23][24]

text: Modern researchers do not think that the plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species such as gerbils.[25][26]

text: Middle Eastern outbreak

text: The plague struck various regions in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. As it spread from China with the Mongols to a Chinese trading post in Crimea, called Kaffa, used by the Republic of Genoa. From there the disease, infected rodents infecting new rodents, entered the region from southern Russia also. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in Egypt, through the port's trade with Constantinople, and ports on the Black Sea. During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, including Ashkelon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo. In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, However most of them ended up dying during the journey.[27]

text: Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease.

text: Signs and symptoms

text: Contemporary accounts of the plague are often varied or imprecise. The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened.[28] Boccaccio's description is graphic:

text: In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg...From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves.[29]

text: The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio's description is that the gavocciolo was an 'infallible token of approaching death', as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible.[30]

text: This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood. Most victims died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle-like spots and rashes,[31] which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of the plague.

text: Some accounts, like that of Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of the plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems[28] and is identified with pneumonic plague.

text: It is said that the plague takes three forms. In the first people suffer an infection of the lungs, which leads to breathing difficulties. Whoever has this corruption or contamination to any extent cannot escape but will die within two days. Another form...in which boils erupt under the armpits,...a third form in which people of both sexes are attacked in the groin.[32]

text: Causes

text: Medical knowledge had stagnated during the Middle Ages. The most authoritative account at the time came from the medical faculty in Paris in a report to the king of France that blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air".[34] This report became the first and most widely circulated of a series of plague tracts that sought to give advice to sufferers. That the plague was caused by bad air became the most widely accepted theory. Today, this is known as the miasma theory. The word plague had no special significance at this time, and only the recurrence of outbreaks during the Middle Ages gave it the name that has become the medical term.

text: The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century; until then it was common that the streets were filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding. A transmissible disease will spread easily in such conditions. One development as a result of the Black Death was the establishment of the idea of quarantine in Dubrovnik in 1377 after continuing outbreaks.[35]

text: The dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to Yersinia pestis, also responsible for an epidemic that began in southern China in 1865, eventually spreading to India. The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Yersinia pestis.[36] The mechanism by which Y. pestis was usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage results in starvation and aggressive feeding behaviour by the fleas, which repeatedly attempt to clear their blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lack resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic.[36]

text: The historian Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893[37] and suggested that "it would appear to be some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague". He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the Justinian plague that was prevalent in the Eastern Roman Empire from 541 to 700 CE.[36]

text: An estimate of the mortality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions.[38] Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 per cent die within eight days.[39] Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 per cent. Symptoms include fever, cough, and blood-tinged sputum. As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red. Septicemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation). In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.[40]

text: A number of alternative theories – implicating other diseases in the Black Death pandemic – have also been proposed by some modern scientists (see below – "Alternative Explanations").

text: DNA evidence

text: In October 2010, the open-access scientific journal PLoS Pathogens published a paper by a multinational team who undertook a new investigation into the role of Yersinia pestis in the Black Death following the disputed identification by Drancourt and Raoult in 1998. They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany,[41] "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages".[42]

text: The study also found that there were two previously unknown but related clades (genetic branches) of the Y. pestis genome associated with medieval mass graves. These clades (which are thought to be extinct) were found to be ancestral to modern isolates of the modern Y. pestis strains Y. p. orientalis and Y. p. medievalis, suggesting the plague may have entered Europe in two waves. Surveys of plague pit remains in France and England indicate the first variant entered Europe through the port of Marseille around November 1347 and spread through France over the next two years, eventually reaching England in the spring of 1349, where it spread through the country in three epidemics. Surveys of plague pit remains from the Dutch town of Bergen op Zoom showed the Y. pestis genotype responsible for the pandemic that spread through the Low Countries from 1350 differed from that found in Britain and France, implying Bergen op Zoom (and possibly other parts of the southern Netherlands) was not directly infected from England or France in 1349 and suggesting a second wave of plague, different from those in Britain and France, may have been carried to the Low Countries from Norway, the Hanseatic cities or another site.[42]

text: The results of the Haensch study have since been confirmed and amended. Based on genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England, Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist."[43] A study published in Nature in October 2011 sequenced the genome of Y. pestis from plague victims and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of the disease.[44]

text: DNA taken from 25 skeletons from the 14th century found in London have shown the plague is a strain of Y. pestis that is almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013.[45][46]

text: Alternative explanations

text: The plague theory was first significantly challenged by the work of British bacteriologist J. F. D. Shrewsbury in 1970, who noted that the reported rates of mortality in rural areas during the 14th-century pandemic were inconsistent with the modern bubonic plague, leading him to conclude that contemporary accounts were exaggerations.[36] In 1984 zoologist Graham Twigg produced the first major work to challenge the bubonic plague theory directly, and his doubts about the identity of the Black Death have been taken up by a number of authors, including Samuel K. Cohn, Jr. (2002 and 2013), David Herlihy (1997), and Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan (2001).[36]

text: It is recognised that an epidemiological account of the plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the plague in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken between the time of publication of the Domesday Book and the year 1377.[47] Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures from the clergy.

text: In addition to arguing that the rat population was insufficient to account for a bubonic plague pandemic, sceptics of the bubonic plague theory point out that the symptoms of the Black Death are not unique (and arguably in some accounts may differ from bubonic plague); that transference via fleas in goods was likely to be of marginal significance; and that the DNA results may be flawed and might not have been repeated elsewhere, despite extensive samples from other mass graves.[36] Other arguments include the lack of accounts of the death of rats before outbreaks of plague between the 14th and 17th centuries; temperatures that are too cold in northern Europe for the survival of fleas; that, despite primitive transport systems, the spread of the Black Death was much faster than that of modern bubonic plague; that mortality rates of the Black Death appear to be very high; that, while modern bubonic plague is largely endemic as a rural disease, the Black Death indiscriminately struck urban and rural areas; and that the pattern of the Black Death, with major outbreaks in the same areas separated by 5 to 15 years, differs from modern bubonic plague—which often becomes endemic for decades with annual flare-ups.[36]

text: McCormick has suggested that earlier archaeologists were simply not interested in the "laborious" processes needed to discover rat remains.[48] Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities.[49] Similarly, Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.[50]

text: A variety of alternatives to the Y. pestis have been put forward. Twigg suggested that the cause was a form of anthrax, and Norman Cantor thought it may have been a combination of anthrax and other pandemics. Scott and Duncan have argued that the pandemic was a form of infectious disease that they characterise as hemorrhagic plague similar to Ebola. Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of a large number of rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the plague spread too quickly to support the thesis that the Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person.[51][52] This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and human fleas during the Second Pandemic.[53]

text: However, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance.[36] Many scholars arguing for the Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of the plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms.[28] In 2014, scientists with Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed from the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.[45]

text: Consequences

text: Death toll

text: There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality.[54] It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia.[1][2][3] According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007:

text: The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45–50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75–80% of the population. In Germany and England ... it was probably closer to 20%.[55]

text: A death rate as high as 60% in Europe has been suggested by Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow:

text: Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60 per cent of Europe's population. It is generally assumed that the size of Europe's population at the time was around 80 million. This implies that around 50 million people died in the Black Death.[56]

text: The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death rate of about a third.[57] The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population.[58] Half of Paris's population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from 110,000–120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished,[59] and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well.[45] In London approximately 62,000 people died between the years between 1346 and 1353.[11] While contemporary reports account of mass burial pits being created in response to the large numbers of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well-preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time.[60] Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450.[61] In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die.[36] The disease bypassed some areas, and the most isolated areas were less vulnerable to contagion. Monks and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for victims of the Black Death.[62]

text: Persecutions

text: Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims",[63] lepers,[63][64] and Romani, thinking that they were to blame for the crisis. Lepers, and other individuals with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe.

text: Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague's emergence.[65] The governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. The mechanism of infection and transmission of diseases was little understood in the 14th century; many people believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins. This belief led to the idea that the cure to the disease was to win God's forgiveness[66]

text: There were many attacks against Jewish communities.[67] In February 1349, the citizens of Strasbourg murdered 2,000 Jews.[67] In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed.[68]

text: Recurrence

text: The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.[69] According to Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671.[70] The Second Pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–1363; 1374; 1400; 1438–1439; 1456–1457; 1464–1466; 1481–1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667. Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century).[71] According to Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31."[72]

text: In England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of preincident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300,[73] and a postincident population figure as low as 2 million.[74] By the end of 1350, the Black Death subsided, but it never really died out in England. Over the next few hundred years, further outbreaks occurred in 1361–1362, 1369, 1379–1383, 1389–1393, and throughout the first half of the 15th century.[75] An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10–15% of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479–1480 could have been as high as 20%.[76] The most general outbreaks in Tudor and Stuart England seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625, and 1636, and ended with the Great Plague of London in 1665.[77]

text: In 1466, perhaps 40,000 people died of the plague in Paris.[78] During the 16th and 17th centuries, the plague was present in Paris around 30 per cent of the time.[79] The Black Death ravaged Europe for three years before it continued on into Russia, where the disease was present somewhere in the country 25 times between 1350 and 1490.[80] Plague epidemics ravaged London in 1563, 1593, 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665,[81] reducing its population by 10 to 30% during those years.[82] Over 10% of Amsterdam's population died in 1623–1625, and again in 1635–1636, 1655, and 1664.[83] Plague occurred in Venice 22 times between 1361 and 1528.[84] The plague of 1576–1577 killed 50,000 in Venice, almost a third of the population.[85] Late outbreaks in central Europe included the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, which is associated with troop movements during the Thirty Years' War, and the Great Plague of Vienna in 1679. Over 60% of Norway's population died in 1348–1350.[86] The last plague outbreak ravaged Oslo in 1654.[87]

text: In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy, or about 14% of the population.[88] In 1656, the plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants.[89] More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain.[90] The plague of 1649 probably reduced the population of Seville by half.[91] In 1709–1713, a plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies)[92] killed about 100,000 in Sweden,[93] and 300,000 in Prussia.[91] The plague killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki,[94] and claimed a third of Stockholm's population.[95] Europe's last major epidemic occurred in 1720 in Marseille.[86]

text: The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.[96] Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850.[97] Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742.[98] Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800.[99] Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.[100]

text: Third plague pandemic

text: The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[101] Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.[102]

text: The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109] From 1944 through 1993, 362 cases of human plague were reported in the United States; approximately 90% occurred in four western states: Arizona, California, Colorado, and New Mexico.[110]

text: Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine. The plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995.[111] A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014.[112] In October 2017 the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.[113]

text: Names

text: The 12th-century French physician Gilles de Corbeil's On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (Latin: De signis et sinthomatibus egritudinum) uses the phrase "black death" (atra mors) to refer to a pestilential fever (febris pestilentialis).[114]

text: Writers contemporary with the plague referred to the event as the "Great Mortality"[115] or the "Great Plague".[65]

text: The phrase "black death" (mors nigra) was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino or Couvin, a Belgian astronomer, who wrote the poem "On the Judgment of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn.[116] In 1908, Gasquet claimed that use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocatibant).[117] The name spread through Scandinavia and then Germany, gradually becoming attached to the mid 14th-century epidemic as a proper name.[118] In England, it was not until 1823, that the medieval epidemic was first called the Black Death.[119]