document_title: Oracle Database

question_text: what is the latest version of oracle database

question_tokens: what is the latest version of oracle database

text: Oracle Database

text: History[edit]

text: Larry Ellison and his two friends and former co-workers, Bob Miner and Ed Oates, started a consultancy called Software Development Laboratories (SDL) in 1977. SDL developed the original version of the Oracle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a CIA-funded project Ellison had worked on while formerly employed by Ampex.[5]

text: Releases and versions[edit]

text: Oracle products follow a custom release-numbering and -naming convention. The "c" in the current release, Oracle Database 12c, stands for "Cloud". Previous releases (e.g. Oracle Database 10g and Oracle9i Database) have used suffixes of "g" and "i" which stand for "Grid" and "Internet" respectively. Prior to the release of Oracle8i Database, no suffixes featured in Oracle Database naming conventions. Note that there was no v1 of Oracle Database, as Larry Ellison, "knew no one would want to buy version 1".[6] Oracle's RDBMS release numbering has used the following codes:

text:
Oracle
Database
Version
Initial
Release
Version
Initial
Release
Date
Terminal
Patchset
Version
Terminal
Patchset
Date
Marquee
Features

Oracle v2
2.3
1979

First commercially available SQL-based RDBMS

Oracle v3
3.1.3
1983

Concurrency control, data distribution, and scalability

Oracle v4
4.1.4.0
1984
4.1.4.4

Multiversion read consistency

Oracle v5
5.0.22 (5.1.17)
1985
5.1.22

Support for client/server computing and distributed database systems

Oracle v6
6.0.17
1988
6.0.36 (no OPS code)
6.0.37 (with OPS code)

Row-level locking, scalability, backup and recovery, PL/SQL

Oracle7
7.0.12
June 1992

Objects, Partitioning, PL/SQL stored procedures, triggers

Oracle 7.1
7.1.0

Oracle 7.2
7.2.0
June 1992

Orale 7.3
7.3.0
June 1992
7.3.4
February 1996

Oracle8 Database
8.0.3
June 1997
8.0.6

Object-relational database, supporting many new data types

Oracle8i Database Release 1
8.1.5.0
1998
8.1.5.1
February 1999

Oracle8i Database Release 2
8.1.6.0

8.1.6.3
November 1999

Oracle8i Release 3
8.1.7.0

8.1.7.4
August 2000
Native support for internet protocols and server-side support for Java

Oracle9i Database Release 1
9.0.1.0
2001
9.0.1.5
December 2003
Oracle Real Application Clusters(RAC), Oracle XML DB

Oracle9i Database Release 2
9.2.0.1

9.2.0.8
April 2007

Oracle Database 10g Release 1
10.1.0.2
2003
10.1.0.5
February 2006
Grid infrastructure, Oracle ASM

Oracle Database 10g Release 2
10.2.0.1
July 2005 [7]
10.2.0.5
April 2010

Oracle Database 11g Release 1
11.1.0.6
September 2007
11.1.0.7
September 2008

Oracle Database 11g Release 2
11.2.0.1
September 2009 [8]
11.2.0.4
August 2013
Manageability, diagnosability, and availability

Oracle Database 12c Release 1
12.1.0.1
July 2013 [9]
12.1.0.2
July 2014
Multitenant architecture, In-Memory column store, support for JSON

Oracle Database 12c Release 2
12.2.0.1
March 2017 (cloud)
July 2017 (on-prem)

Sharding

Oracle Database 18c
18.1.0
February 2018

text: The Oracle Database Administrators Guide includes a brief history on some of the key innovations introduced with each major release of Oracle Database.

text: Patch updates and security alerts[edit]

text: Oracle Corporation releases Critical Patch Updates (CPUs) or Security Patch Updates (SPUs)[10] and Security Alerts to close security holes that could be used for data theft. Critical Patch Updates (CPUs) and Security Alerts come out quarterly on the Tuesday closest to 17th day of the month.

text:
Customers may receive release notification by email.
White Paper: Critical Patch Update Implementation Best Practices

text: Oracle Database deployment[edit]

text: Oracle Database may be licensed and deployed on-premises on a choice of platforms including Oracle Engineered Systems, and on-Cloud with a choice of services running on general purpose hardware or Exadata. The various editions and Cloud services provide different levels of database functionality for difference use cases (e.g. dev/test, departmental and non-critical apps, mission-critical workloads) with different levels of performance, availability, etc. service levels.

text:
Oracle Database Cloud Services: for on-Cloud and Cloud at Customer deployments
Oracle Database editions: mainly for on-prem deployments
Engineered systems such as Oracle Exadata specifically built for Oracle Database deployment (on-prem, on-Cloud, Cloud at Customer)

text: Database Cloud Services[11][edit]

text: Oracle Corporation provides a wide-range of database cloud services on its Oracle Cloud platform that are designed for different database use cases; from test/dev deployments to small and medium sized workloads to large mission-critical workloads. Oracle Database Cloud Services are available on a choice of general purpose hardware and Exadata engineered systems, in either virtual machines environments or 'bare metal' infrastructure (now known as Oracle Cloud Infrastructure).

text: Database editions[edit]

text: As of 2017[update], the latest Oracle Database version (12.2.0.1) comes in three editions for on-premises deployments[12]:

text:
Oracle Database Enterprise Edition (EE): offers industry-leading scalability and reliability in both clustered and single system configurations and imposes no limitation on server resources available to the database.
Oracle Database Standard Edition 2 (SE2): intended for small- to medium-sized implementations, SE2 includes Real Application Clusters and may be deployed on servers or clusters with a maximum of 2 sockets total and capped to use a maximum of 16 concurrent user threads. SE2 uses the same code base as EE, and therefore upwardly compatible and simple to upgrade to EE.
Oracle Database Personal Edition (PE): A single-user, single-machine development and deployment license that allows use of all database features. PE is upwardly compatible to SE2 and EE.

text: Oracle Corporation also makes the following edition available:

text: Oracle Database Express Edition (XE), a free-to-use entry-level version of Oracle Database available for Windows and Linux platforms limited to using only one CPU, up to 1 GB of RAM and storing up to 11 GB of user data. It provides a subset of SE2 functionality (lacking features such as Java Virtual Machine, managed backup and recovery and high availability), is community-supported and comes with its own license terms. XE was first introduced in 2005 with Oracle Database 10g Release 2 with a limitation to a maximum of 4 GB of user data. XE for Oracle Database 11g was released on 24 September 2011, and increased user data capacity to 11 GB.

text: Up to (and including) Oracle Database 12c release 12.1.0.1, Oracle also offered the following:

text:
Oracle Database Standard Edition (SE) for single or clustered servers with a maximum capacity of 4 CPU sockets. It was largely the same as the current SE2 edition and included Real Application Clusters for use on server clusters with a maximum of 4 CPU sockets.
Oracle Standard Edition One (SE1), was first introduced with Oracle Database 10g. It offered the same features as SE and was licensed to run on single servers with a maximum of 2 CPU sockets.

text: Oracle Corporation discontinued SE and SE1 with the 12.1.0.2 release, and stopped offering new licenses for these editions on December 1, 2015.

text: Supported platforms[edit]

text: Oracle Database 12c is supported on the following OS and architecture combinations:

text:
Linux on x86-64 (only Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Oracle Linux and SUSE distributions are supported[13])
Microsoft Windows on x86-64
Oracle Solaris on SPARC and x86-64
IBM AIX on POWER Systems
IBM Linux on z Systems
HP-UX on Itanium

text: In 2008, Oracle Corporation announced the availability of Oracle Exadata Database Machine (V1), the first generation of Engineered Systems specifically designed for Oracle Database workloads.

text: In 2011, Oracle Corporation announced the availability of Oracle Database Appliance, a pre-built, pre-tuned, highly available clustered database server built using two SunFire X86 servers and direct attached storage.

text: Some Oracle Enterprise Edition databases running on certain Oracle-supplied hardware can use Hybrid Columnar Compression for more efficient storage.[14]

text: Database options and features[edit]

text: Database options[edit]

text: The Oracle Database offers a wide range of options[15] and features in the areas of Availability, Scalability, Analytics, Performance, Security, Management, Developers and Integration. These aim to enhance and complement existing database functionality to meet customer-specific requirements.[16] All Database Options are only available for Enterprise Edition and offered for an extra cost.[15][17] An exception to these two rules is Oracle Real Application Clusters option, which comes included with Oracle Database 12c Standard Edition 2 at no additional cost.[18]

text: Availability

text: Oracle Active Data Guard extends Oracle Data Guard functionality with advanced features, allowing read-only access to data in a physical standby database to offload primary of such tasks as reporting, ad-hoc queries, data extraction and backup, offloading redo transport and minimizing standby impact on commit response times (using Far Sync feature), providing option for rolling upgrades for non-RAC customers, managing clients workload across replicated database and improving automated service failover (using Global Data Services), etc.

text: Scalability

text:
Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC) is the computer cluster version of Oracle Database.
Oracle RAC One Node is a one-node version of Oracle Real Application Clusters, providing capabilities for database failover and high availability in the form of rolling upgrades, online instance migration, application continuity and automated quality of service management.

text: Analytics

text:
Oracle Advanced Analytics allows access to in-database data mining algorithms and use of Oracle R Enterprise functionality, an integration with open-source R statistical programming language and environment.
Oracle Partitioning allows partitioning of tables and indices, where large objects are stored in database as a collection of individual smaller pieces at the same time appearing on application level as a uniform data object.
Oracle On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) is Oracle implementation of online analytical processing.
Oracle data models: pre-built data models with database analytics and business intelligence capabilities for specific industries including

Retail Data Model
Communications Data Model
Airlines Data Model
Utilities Data Model

text: Performance

text:
Oracle Advanced Compression complements Enterprise Edition basic table compression feature with comprehensive data compression and Information Lifecycle Management capabilities, including those specifically tailored to Oracle's engineered systems, like Oracle Exadata.
Oracle Database In-Memory, an in-memory, column-oriented data store, has been seamlessly integrated[16] into the Oracle Database. This technology aims to improve the performance of analytic workloads without impacting the performance of transactions that continue to use Oracle's traditional row format in memory. The product's performance comes through the in-memory, columnar compressed format and through the use of SIMD vector processing (Single Instruction processing Multiple Data values).

In-Memory Aggregation improves performance of typical analytic queries using efficient in-memory arrays for joins and aggregation.[19][need quotation to verify]

Oracle Real Application Testing enable testing of system changes in a simulation of production-level workload and use.
Oracle TimesTen Application-Tier Database Cache allows caching subsets of a database in the application tier for improved response time. It is built using Oracle TimesTen In-Memory Database.

text: Security

text:
Oracle Advanced Security provides Transparent Data Encryption and Data Redaction security features, the former allowing encryption of data stored in a database (all or a subset of it), exported using Data Pump, or backed up using Oracle Recovery Manager, and the latter allowing redaction of sensitive database data (e.g., credit card or social security numbers) returned to database applications.
Oracle Database Vault enforces segregation of duties, principle of least privilege and other data access controls, allowing protection of application data from access by privileged database users.
Oracle Label Security is a sophisticated and flexible framework for a fine-grained label based access control (LBAC) implementation.

text: Management

text:
Oracle Multitenant is the capability that allows database consolidation and provides additional abstraction layer. In a Multitenant configuration, one Oracle database instance known as "container database" (CDB) acts as a federated database system for a collection of up to 252 distinct portable collections of database objects, referred to as "pluggable databases" (PDB), each appearing to an outside client as a regular non-CDB Oracle database.
Management Packs: integrated set of Oracle Enterprise Manager tools for maintaining various aspects of Oracle Database including:

Diagnostics Pack
Tuning Pack
Database Lifecycle Management Pack
Data Masking and Subsetting Pack
Cloud Management Pack for Oracle Database

text: Developers

text: Oracle Spatial and Graph[20] complements the Oracle Locator feature (available in all editions of Oracle Database[21]) with advanced spatial capabilities enabling the development of complex geographic information systems and includes network data model and RDF/OWL Semantic graphs

text: Integration

text: Oracle GoldenGate 11g (distributed real-time data acquisition)

text: Apart from the clearly defined database options, Oracle databases may include many semi-autonomous software sub-systems, which Oracle Corporation sometimes refers to as "features" in a sense subtly different from the normal use of the word. For example, Oracle Data Guard counts officially as a feature, but the command-stack within SQL*Plus, though a usability feature, does not appear in the list of "features" in Oracle's list.[original research?] Such "features" may include (for example):

text:
Automatic Storage Management
Clusterware
Data Aggregation and Consolidation
Data Guard for high availability
Generic Connectivity for connecting to non-Oracle systems.
Database Resource Manager (DRM), which controls the use of computing resources.[22]
Expression filtering[23]
Fast-start parallel rollback[24]
Fine-grained auditing (FGA) (in Oracle Enterprise Edition)[25] supplements standard security-auditing features[26]
Flashback for selective data recovery and reconstruction[27]
Heterogeneous Services (HS), providing connectivity to non-Oracle systems and code.[28]
iSQL*Plus, a web-browser-based graphical user interface (GUI) for manipulating data in an Oracle database (compare SQL*Plus)
Oracle Data Access Components (ODAC), tools that consist of:[29]

Oracle Data Provider for .NET (ODP.NET)[30]
Oracle Developer Tools (ODT) for Visual Studio
Oracle Providers for ASP.NET
Oracle Database Extensions for .NET
Oracle Provider for OLE DB
Oracle Services for Microsoft Transaction Server

Oracle-managed files (OMF) – a feature allowing automated naming, creation and deletion of datafiles at the operating-system level.
Recovery Manager (RMAN) for database backup, restoration and recovery
SQL*Plus, a program that allows users to interact with Oracle database(s) via SQL and PL/SQL commands on a command-line. Compare iSQL*Plus.
SQLcl, a command-line interface for queries, developed on the basis of Oracle SQL Developer[31]
Universal Connection Pool (UCP), a connection pool based on Java and supporting JDBC, LDAP, and JCA[32]
Virtual Private Database[33] (VPD), an implementation of fine-grained access control.[34]
Oracle Application Express, a no-cost environment for database-oriented software-development[35]
Oracle Text uses standard SQL to index, search, and analyze text and documents stored in the Oracle database.
Workspace Manager version-enables tables[36] using the WMSYS schema.[37]

text: Multi-model support[edit]

text: Oracle database provides a long list of supported data models that can be used and managed inside Oracle database:

text:
JSON document support[38]Oracle Database supports JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) data natively with relational database features, including transactions, indexing, declarative querying, and views.[39].
Oracle Spatial and Graph Oracle Database provides native support for managing spatial and location data

Oracle Locator – a freely-available subset of Oracle Spatial and Graph

Oracle XML DB,[40] or XDB,[41], a no-cost component in each edition of the database, provides high-performance technology for storing and retrieving native XML.
Oracle Text[42], a no-cost component in each edition of the database. It provides native support for managing free text, in multiple languages inside the database.
Oracle Multimedia (known as "Oracle interMedia" before Oracle 11g) for storing and integrating multimedia data within a database[43]
Object-relational database[44] support, a no-cost component in each edition of the database. It provides native support for objects inside the database.

text: Utilities[edit]

text: Oracle Corporation classifies as "utilities" bundled software supporting data transfer, data maintenance and database administration.[45]

text: Utilities included in Oracle database distributions include:

text:
Data Pump utilities, which aid in importing and exporting data and metadata between databases[46]
SQL*Loader, utility that facilitates high performance data loading.
oradebug – interfaces with Oracle session tracing[47]

text: Tools[edit]

text: As of 2007[update] Oracle Corporation had started a drive toward "wizard"-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.[48]

text: The most popular application development tool that ships with Oracle Database is Oracle Application Express (APEX), a browser-based tool that allows developers to build responsive, database-driven applications, leveraging their SQL and PL/SQL skills.

text: Oracle SQL Developer, a free graphical tool for database development, allows developers to browse database objects, to run SQL statements and SQL scripts, and to edit and debug PL/SQL statements. It incorporates standard and customized reporting.

text: Oracle REST Data Services (ORDS) function as a Java EE-based alternative to Oracle HTTP Server,[49] providing a REST-based interface to relational data.[50]

text: Users can also develop their own applications in Java and in PL/SQL, optionally using tools such as:

text:
Oracle Forms
Oracle JDeveloper
Oracle Reports

text: The Database Upgrade Assistant (DBUA)[51] provides a GUI for the upgrading of an Oracle database.[52]

text: JAccelerator (NCOMP) – a native-compilation Java "accelerator", integrates hardware-optimized Java code into an Oracle 10g database.[53]

text: Oracle's OPatch provides patch management for Oracle databases.[54]

text: The SQLTXPLAIN tool (or SQLT) offers tuning assistance for Oracle SQL queries.[55]

text: Testing[edit]

text: Oracle Live SQL makes available a test environment for Oracle Database users.[56]

text: Programming language APIs[edit]

text: Oracle Database can be accessed from many programming languages and environments. These include:

text:
Java via JDBC, SQLJ
Microsoft .NET via ODP.NET
C and C++ via OCI, OCCI, Oracle's ODBC Driver, ODPI-C, OCILIB, Pro*C/C++
Node.js via node-oracledb
Python via cx_Oracle
PHP via PHP OCI8, PDO_OCI
Go via goracle, ora, go-oci8
R via ROracle
Ruby via ruby-oci8, ruby-odpi
Ruby on Rails via the Oracle "enhanced" ActiveRecord adapter
Perl via DBD::Oracle
Erlang via erloci
Rust via rust-oracle, mimir
COBOL via Pro*COBOL
FORTRAN via Pro*FORTRAN

text: Java based languages like Scala can use JDBC to access Oracle Database.

text: External routines[edit]

text: PL/SQL routines within Oracle databases can access external routines registered in operating-system shared libraries.[57][58] The DBMS_SCHEDULER package can invoke external scripts at the operating-system level from PL/SQL.

text: Use[edit]

text: The Oracle RDBMS has had a reputation among novice users as difficult to install on Linux systems.[citation needed] Oracle Corporation has packaged recent[update] versions for several popular Linux distributions in an attempt to minimize installation challenges beyond the level of technical expertise required to preinstall a database server.[citation needed]

text: Database support options[edit]

text: Users who have Oracle support contracts can use Oracle's "My Oracle Support" or "MOS"[59] web site – known as "MetaLink" until a re-branding exercise completed in October 2010. The support site provides users of Oracle Corporation products with a repository of reported problems, diagnostic scripts and solutions. It also integrates with the provision of support tools, patches and upgrades.

text: The Remote Diagnostic Agent or RDA[60] can operate as a command-line diagnostic tool executing a script. The data captured provides an overview of the Oracle Database environment intended for diagnostic and trouble-shooting. Within RDA, the HCVE (Health Check Validation Engine)[61] can verify and isolate host system environmental issues that may affect the performance of Oracle software.

text: Database-related guidelines[edit]

text: Oracle Corporation also endorses certain practices and conventions as enhancing the use of its database products. These include:

text:
Oracle Maximum Availability Architecture (MAA)[62] guidelines on developing high-availability systems
Optimal Flexible Architecture (OFA), blueprints for mapping Oracle-database objects to file-systems

text: Oracle Certification Program[edit]

text: The Oracle Certification Program, a professional certification program, includes the administration of Oracle Databases as one of its main certification paths. It contains three levels:

text:
Oracle Certified Associate (OCA)
Oracle Certified Professional (OCP)
Oracle Certified Master (OCM)

tag: ol

text: User Groups[edit]

text: A large number of User Groups for Oracle Database administrators, developers and users has been established on geographical/region, industry and product basis, including:

text:
Geographical/regional user groups[63] (e.g. The Independent Oracle Users Group (IOUG))
Industry-centric user groups (e.g. Oracle Health Sciences User Group)
Product-centric user groups (e.g. The OakTable Network)

text: The Oracle User Group communities also host regular events for customers/users to share their experiences and knowledge.

text: Market position[edit]

text: As of 2016 Oracle holds #1 RDBMS market share worldwide based on the revenue share ahead of its four closest competitors – Microsoft, IBM, SAP and Teradata .[64]

text: Competition[edit]

text: In the market for relational databases, Oracle Database competes against commercial products such as IBM's DB2 UDB and Microsoft SQL Server. Oracle and IBM tend to battle for the mid-range database market on UNIX and Linux platforms, while Microsoft dominates the mid-range database market on Microsoft Windows platforms. However, since they share many of the same customers, Oracle and IBM tend to support each other's products in many middleware and application categories (for example: WebSphere, PeopleSoft, and Siebel Systems CRM), and IBM's hardware divisions work closely[citation needed] with Oracle on performance-optimizing server-technologies (for example, Linux on z Systems). Niche commercial competitors include Teradata (in data warehousing and business intelligence), Software AG's ADABAS, Sybase, and IBM's Informix, among many others.

text: Increasingly, the Oracle database products compete against such open-source software relational database systems as PostgreSQL, MongoDB, and Couchbase. Oracle acquired Innobase, supplier of the InnoDB codebase to MySQL, in part to compete better against open source alternatives, and acquired Sun Microsystems, owner of MySQL, in 2010. Database products licensed as open source are, by the legal terms of the Open Source Definition, free to distribute and free of royalty or other licensing fees.

text: Pricing[edit]

text: Oracle Database Cloud Services[65][edit]

text: Oracle Database On-Premise Licensing[66][edit]

text: Physical and logical structures[edit]

text: An Oracle database system—identified by an alphanumeric system identifier or SID[71]—comprises at least one instance of the application, along with data storage. An instance—identified persistently by an instantiation number (or activation id: SYS.V_$DATABASE.ACTIVATION#)—comprises a set of operating-system processes and memory-structures that interact with the storage. Typical processes include PMON (the process monitor) and SMON (the system monitor). Oracle documentation can refer to an active database instance as a "shared memory realm".[72]

text: Users of Oracle databases refer to the server-side memory-structure as the SGA (System Global Area). The SGA typically holds cache information such as data-buffers, SQL commands, and user information. In addition to storage, the database consists of online redo logs (or logs), which hold transactional history. Processes can in turn archive the online redo logs into archive logs (offline redo logs), which provide the basis for data recovery and for the physical-standby forms of data replication using Oracle Data Guard.

text: The Oracle RAC (Real Application Clusters) option uses multiple instances attached to a central storage array. In version 10g, grid computing introduced shared resources where an instance can use CPU resources from another node in the grid. The advantage of Oracle RAC is that the resources on both nodes are used by the database, and each node uses its own memory and CPU. Information is shared between nodes through the interconnect—the virtual private network.

text: The Oracle DBMS can store and execute stored procedures and functions within itself. PL/SQL (Oracle Corporation's proprietary procedural extension to SQL), or the object-oriented language Java can invoke such code objects and/or provide the programming structures for writing them.

text: Storage[edit]

text: The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and physically in the form of data files ("datafiles").[73] Tablespaces can contain various types of memory segments, such as Data Segments, Index Segments, etc. Segments in turn comprise one or more extents. Extents comprise groups of contiguous data blocks. Data blocks form the basic units of data storage.

text: A DBA can impose maximum quotas on storage per user within each tablespace.[74]

text: Partitioning[edit]

text: The partitioning feature was introduced in Oracle 8.[75] This allows the partitioning of tables based on different set of keys. Specific partitions can then be added or dropped to help manage large data sets.

text: Monitoring[edit]

text: Oracle database management tracks its computer data storage with the help of information stored in the SYSTEM tablespace. The SYSTEM tablespace contains the data dictionary, indexes and clusters. A data dictionary consists of a special collection of tables that contains information about all user-objects in the database. Since version 8i, the Oracle RDBMS also supports "locally managed" tablespaces that store space management information in bitmaps in their own headers rather than in the SYSTEM tablespace (as happens with the default "dictionary-managed" tablespaces). Version 10g and later introduced the SYSAUX tablespace, which contains some of the tables formerly stored in the SYSTEM tablespace, along with objects for other tools such as OEM, which previously required its own tablespace.[76]

text: Disk files[edit]

text: Disk files primarily represent one of the following structures:

text:
Data and index files: These files provide the physical storage of data, which can consist of the data-dictionary data (associated with the tablespace SYSTEM), user data, or index data. DBAs can manage these files manually or leave their administration to Oracle itself. Note that a datafile has to belong to exactly one tablespace, whereas a tablespace can consist of multiple datafiles.
Redo log files, recording all changes to the database – used to recover from an instance failure. Often, a database stores these files multiple times for extra security in case of disk failure. Identical redo log files are associated in a "group".
Undo files: These special datafiles, which can only contain undo information, aid in recovery, rollbacks, and read-consistency.
Archive log files: These files, copies of the redo log files, are usually stored at different locations. They are necessary (for example) when applying changes to a standby database, or when performing recovery after a media failure. One can store identical archive logs in multiple locations.
Tempfiles: These special datafiles serve exclusively for temporary storage data (used for example during large sorts or for global temporary tables)
Control files, necessary for database startup. Oracle Corporation defines a control file as "[a] binary file that records the physical structure of a database and contains the names and locations of redo log files, the time stamp of the database creation, the current log sequence number, checkpoint information, and so on".[77]

text: At the physical level, data files comprise one or more data blocks, where the block size can vary between data files.

text: Data files can occupy pre-allocated space in the file system of a computer server, use raw disk directly, or exist within ASM logical volumes.[78]

text: Database schema[edit]

text: Most Oracle database installations come with a default schema called SCOTT. After the installation process sets up sample tables, the user logs into the database with the username scott and the password tiger. The name of the SCOTT schema originated with Bruce Scott, one of the first employees at Oracle (then Software Development Laboratories), who had a cat named Tiger.[79]

text: Oracle Corporation now de-emphasizes the SCOTT schema, as it uses few features of more recent Oracle releases. Most recent[update] examples supplied by Oracle Corporation reference the default HR or OE schemas.

text: Other default schemas[80][81] include:

text:
SYS (essential core database structures and utilities)
SYSTEM (additional core database structures and utilities, and privileged account)
OUTLN (used to store metadata for stored outlines for stable query-optimizer execution plans.[82])
BI, IX, HR, OE, PM, and SH (expanded sample schemas[83] containing more data and structures than the older SCOTT schema).

text: System Global Area[edit]

text: Each Oracle instance uses a System Global Area or SGA—a shared-memory area—to store its data and control-information.[84]

text: Each Oracle instance allocates itself an SGA when it starts and de-allocates it at shut-down time. The information in the SGA consists of the following elements, each of which has a fixed size, established at instance startup:

text: Datafiles

text: Every Oracle database has one or more physical datafiles, which contain all the database data. The data of logical database structures, such as tables and indexes, is physically stored in the datafiles allocated for a database.

text: Datafiles have the following characteristics:

text:
One or more datafiles form a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace.
A datafile can be associated with only one tablespace.
Datafiles can be defined to extend automatically when they are full.

text: Data in a datafile is read, as needed, during normal database operation and stored in the memory cache of Oracle Database. For example, if a user wants to access some data in a table of a database, and if the requested information is not already in the memory cache for the database, then it is read from the appropriate datafiles and stored in memory.

text: Modified or new data is not necessarily written to a datafile immediately. To reduce the amount of disk access and to increase performance, data is pooled in memory and written to the appropriate datafiles all at once.

text:
the redo log buffer: this stores redo entries—a log of changes made to the database. The instance writes redo log buffers to the redo log as quickly and efficiently as possible. The redo log aids in instance recovery in the event of a system failure.
the shared pool: this area of the SGA stores shared-memory structures such as shared SQL areas in the library cache and internal information in the data dictionary. An insufficient amount of memory allocated to the shared pool can cause performance degradation.
the Large pool Optional area that provides large memory allocations for certain large processes, such as Oracle backup and recovery operations, and I/O server processes
Database buffer cache: Caches blocks of data retrieved from the database
KEEP buffer pool: A specialized type of database buffer cache that is tuned to retain blocks of data in memory for long periods of time
RECYCLE buffer pool: A specialized type of database buffer cache that is tuned to recycle or remove block from memory quickly
nK buffer cache: One of several specialized database buffer caches designed to hold block sizes different from the default database block size
Java pool:Used for all session-specific Java code and data in the Java Virtual Machine (JVM)
Streams pool: Used by Oracle Streams to store information required by capture and apply

text: When you start the instance by using Enterprise Manager or SQL*Plus, the amount of memory allocated for the SGA is displayed.[85]<link>

text: Library cache[edit]

text: The library cache[86] stores shared SQL, caching the parse tree and the execution plan for every unique SQL statement. If multiple applications issue the same SQL statement, each application can access the shared SQL area. This reduces the amount of memory needed and reduces the processing-time used for parsing and execution planning.

text: Data dictionary cache[edit]

text: The data dictionary comprises a set of tables and views that map the structure of the database.

text: Oracle databases store information here about the logical and physical structure of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as:

text:
user information, such as user privileges
integrity constraints defined for tables in the database
names and datatypes of all columns in database tables
information on space allocated and used for schema objects

text: The Oracle instance frequently accesses the data dictionary to parse SQL statements. Oracle operation depends on ready access to the data dictionary—performance bottlenecks in the data dictionary affect all Oracle users. Because of this, database administrators must make sure that the data dictionary cache[87] has sufficient capacity to cache this data. Without enough memory for the data-dictionary cache, users see a severe performance degradation. Allocating sufficient memory to the shared pool where the data dictionary cache resides precludes this particular performance problem.

text: Program Global Area[edit]

text: The Program Global Area[88][89] or PGA memory-area of an Oracle instance contains data and control-information for Oracle's server-processes or background process. Every server or background process has its own PGA, the total of PGA elements is called Instance PGA.

text: The size and content of the PGA depends on the Oracle-server options installed. This area consists of the following components:

text:
stack-space: the memory that holds the session's variables, arrays, and so on
session-information: unless using the multithreaded server, the instance stores its session-information in the PGA. In a multithreaded server, the session-information goes in the SGA.
private SQL-area: an area that holds information such as bind-variables and runtime-buffers
sorting area: an area in the PGA that holds information on sorts, hash-joins, etc.

text: DBAs can monitor PGA usage via the system view.

text: Dynamic performance views[edit]

text: The dynamic performance views (also known as "fixed views") within an Oracle database present information from virtual tables (X$ tables)[90] built on the basis of database memory.[91] Database users can access the V$ views (named after the prefix of their synonyms) to obtain information on database structures and performance.

text: Process architectures[edit]

text: Oracle processes[edit]

text: The Oracle RDBMS typically relies on a group of processes running simultaneously in the background and interacting to monitor and expedite database operations. Typical operating environments might include – temporarily or permanently – some of the following individual processes (shown along with their abbreviated nomenclature):[92]

text:
advanced queueing processes (Qnnn)[93]
archiver processes (ARCn)
checkpoint process (CKPT) *REQUIRED*
coordinator-of-job-queues process (CJQn): dynamically spawns slave processes for job-queues
database writer processes (DBWn) *REQUIRED*
Data Pump master process (DMnn)[94]
Data Pump worker processes (DWnn)[94]
dispatcher processes (Dnnn): multiplex server-processes on behalf of users
main Data Guard Broker monitor process (DMON)[95]
job-queue slave processes (Jnnn)[96]
log-writer process (LGWR) *REQUIRED*
log-write network-server (LNSn):[97] transmits redo logs in Data Guard environments
logical standby coordinator process (LSP0): controls Data Guard log-application
media-recovery process (MRP): detached recovery-server process
memory-manager process (MMAN): used for internal database tasks such as Automatic Shared Memory Management (ASMM)
memory-monitor process (MMON): process for automatic problem-detection, self-tuning and statistics-gathering[98]
memory-monitor light process (MMNL): gathers and stores Automatic Workload Repository (AWR) data
mmon slaves (Mnnnn—M0000, M0001, etc.): background slaves of the MMON process[99]
netslave processes (NSVn): Data Guard Broker inter-database communication processes[100]
parallel query execution servers (Pnnn)[101]
process-monitor process (PMON) *REQUIRED*
process-spawner process (PSP0): spawns Oracle background processes after initial instance startup[102]
queue-monitor coordinator process (QMNC): dynamically spawns queue monitor slaves[103]
queue-monitor processes (QMNn)
recoverer process (RECO)
remote file-server process (RFS): in Oracle Data Guard, a standby recipient of primary redo-logs[104]
monitor for Data Guard management (RSM0): Data Guard Broker Worker process[105]
shared server processes (Snnn): serve client-requests
space-management coordinator process (SMCO): coordinates space management (from release 11g)[106]
system monitor process (SMON) *REQUIRED*

text: User processes, connections and sessions[edit]

text: Oracle Database terminology distinguishes different computer-science terms in describing how end-users interact with the database:

text:
user processes involve the invocation of application software[107]
a connection refers to the pathway linking a user process to an Oracle instance[108]
sessions consist of specific established groups of interactions, with each group involving a client process and an Oracle instance.[109]

text: Each session within an instance has a session identifier – a session ID or "SID"[110][111] (distinct from the Oracle system-identifier SID), and may also have an associated SPID (operating-system process identifier).[112]

text: Concurrency and locking[edit]

text: Oracle databases control simultaneous access to data resources with locks (alternatively documented as "enqueues").[113] The databases also use "latches" – low-level serialization mechanisms to protect shared data structures in the System Global Area.[114]

text: Oracle locks fall into three categories:[115]

text:
DML locks (or data locks) protect data
System locks (including latches, mutexes and internal locks) protect internal database structures like data files.
DDL locks (or data dictionary locks) protect the structure of schema objects.

text: Note: over the course of multiple releases Oracle has reduced the number of instances where an exclusive DDL lock is required when making changes to schema objects.

text: Non-blocking ddl's added as of 11.2

text:
CREATE INDEX online
ALTER INDEX rebuild online
ALTER TABLE add column not null with default value
ALTER TABLE add constraint enable no validate
ALTER TABLE modify constraint validate
ALTER TABLE add column (without any default)
ALTER INDEX visible / invisible
ALTER INDEX parallel / no parallel

text: Non-blocking ddl's added to the list in 12.1

text:
DROP INDEX online (backported to 11.2)
ALTER TABLE set unused column online
ALTER TABLE drop constraint online
ALTER INDEX unusable online
ALTER TABLE modify column visible / invisible
ALTER TABLE move partition / sub-partition online
ALTER TABLE add nullable column with default value

text: Non-blocking ddl's added to the list in 12.2

text:
ALTER TABLE split partition [sub-partition] online
ALTER TABLE move online (move of a non-partitioned table)
ALTER TABLEe modify partition by .. online (to convert a non-partitioned table to partitioned state)

text: Non-blocking ddl's added to the list in 18.1

text:
ALTER TABLE merge partition online
ALTER TABLE modify partition by .. online (to change the partitioning schema of a table)

text: Configuration[edit]

text: Database administrators control many of the tunable variations in an Oracle instance by means of values in a parameter file.[116] This file in its ASCII default form ("pfile") normally has a name of the format init<SID-name>.ora. The default binary equivalent server parameter file ("spfile") (dynamically reconfigurable to some extent)[117] defaults to the format spfile<SID-name>.ora. Within an SQL-based environment, the views V$PARAMETER[118] and V$SPPARAMETER[119] give access to reading parameter values.

text: Implementation

text: The Oracle DBMS kernel code depends on C programming. Database administrators have limited access to Oracle-internal C structures via V$ views and their underlying X$ "tables".[120]

text: Layers or modules in the kernel (depending on different releases) may include the following (given with their inferred meaning):[121][122][123]

text: Administration[edit]

text: The "Scheduler" (DBMS_SCHEDULER package, available from Oracle 10g onwards) and the "Job" subsystems (DBMS_JOB package) permit the automation of predictable processing.[124]

text: Oracle Resource Manager aims to allocate CPU resources between users and groups of users when such resources become scarce.[125] As of Oracle Release 10.2, Database Resource Manager operates in Enterprise Edition.[126]

text: Oracle Corporation has stated in product announcements that manageability for DBAs improved from Oracle9i to 10g. Lungu and Vătuiu (2008) assessed relative manageability by performing common DBA tasks and measuring timings. [127] They performed their tests on a single Pentium CPU (1.7 GHz) with 512 MB RAM, running Windows Server 2000. From Oracle9i to 10g, installation improved 36%, day-to-day administration 63%, backup and recovery 63%, and performance diagnostics and tuning 74%, for a weighted total improvement of 56%. The researchers concluded that "Oracle10g represents a giant step forward from Oracle9i in making the database easier to use and manage".

text: Logging and tracing[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2016)

text: Various file-system structures hold logs and trace files, which record different aspects of database activity. Configurable destinations for such records can include:

text:
background dump (bdump) destination: contains files generated when an Oracle process experiences unexpected problems.[128] Also holds the "alert log".[129]
core dump (cdump) destination
user dump (udump) destination

text: Network access[edit]

text: Oracle Net Services allow client or remote applications to access Oracle databases via network sessions using various protocols.

text: Internationalization[edit]

text: Oracle Database software comes in 63 language-versions (including regional variations such as British English and American English). Variations between versions cover the names of days and months, abbreviations, time-symbols (such as A.M. and A.D.), and sorting.[130]

text: Oracle Corporation has translated Oracle Database error-messages into Arabic, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.[131]

text: Oracle Corporation provides database developers with tools and mechanisms for producing internationalized database applications: referred to internally as "Globalization".[132]


document_title: Chester County, Pennsylvania

question_text: what is the highest point in chester county pa

root

text: Chester County, Pennsylvania

text: History[edit]

text: Philadelphia, Bucks, and Chester were the three Pennsylvania counties initially created by William Penn on August 24, 1682.[5][6] At that time, Chester County's borders were Philadelphia County to the north, the ill-defined western edge of the colony (approximately the Susquehanna River) to the west, the Delaware River to the east, and Delaware and Maryland to the south. Chester County replaced the Pennsylvania portion of New Netherland/New York’s "Upland", which was officially eliminated when Pennsylvania was chartered on March 4, 1681, but did not cease to exist until June of that year.[7][8] Much of the Welsh Tract was in eastern Chester County, and Welsh place names, given by early settlers, continue to predominate there.

tag: p

text: The fourth county in the state, Lancaster County, was formed from Chester County on May 10, 1729. On March 11, 1752, Berks County was formed from the northern section of Chester County, as well as parts of Lancaster and Philadelphia counties.

text: The original Chester County seat was the city of Chester, a center of naval shipbuilding, at the eastern edge of the county. In an effort to accommodate the increased population of the western part of the county, the county seat was moved to a more central location in 1788; in order to mollify the eastern portion of the county, the village, known as Turk's Head, was renamed West Chester. Apparently, this did not work: the eastern portion of the county separated from Chester County on September 26, 1789, becoming Delaware County.[9] West Chester remained the seat of the reduced Chester County, and still is.

text: Much of the history of Chester County arises from its location between Philadelphia and the Susquehanna River. The first road to "the West" (meaning Lancaster County) passed through the central part of Chester County, following the Great Valley westward; with some re-alignments, it became the Lincoln Highway and later U.S. Route 30. This road is still named Lancaster Avenue in most of the Chester county towns it runs through. The first railroad (which became the Pennsylvania Railroad) followed much the same route, and the Reading Railroad progressed up the Schuylkill River to Reading. Industry tended to concentrate along the rail lines. Easy transportation allowed workers to commute to urban jobs, and the rise of the suburbs followed. To this day, the developed areas form "fingers" extending along major lines of transportation.

text: During the American Revolutionary War, the Battle of Brandywine was fought at what is now the southeastern fringe of the county. The Valley Forge encampment was at the northeastern edge.

text: Geography[edit]

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 759 square miles (1,970 km2), of which 751 square miles (1,950 km2) is land and 8.7 square miles (23 km2) (1.1%) is water.[10] The topography consists of rolling hills and valleys and it is part of the region known as the Piedmont.

text: Watersheds that serve Chester County include the Octoraro, the Brandywine, and Chester creeks, and the Schuylkill River. Many of the soils are fertile, rich loam as much as twenty-four inches thick; together with the temperate climate, this was long a major agricultural area.[citation needed] Because of its proximity to Philadelphia, Chester County has seen large waves of development over the past half-century due to suburbanization. Although development in Chester County has increased, agriculture is still a major part of the county's economy, and the number of horse farms is increasing in the county.[citation needed] Mushroom growing is a specialty in the southern portion of the county.

text: Elevations (in feet): High point—1020 Welsh Mt., Honeybrook Twp. Other high points—960 Thomas Hill, Warwick Twp; 960 Barren Hill, West Caln Twp. Low point—66 Schuylkill River, Chester-Montgomery county line. Cities and boroughs: Coatesville 314; Downingtown 255; Kennett Square 300; Oxford 535; Parkesburg 542; Phoenixville 127; Spring City 114; West Chester 459.[11]

text: Chester County has four distinct seasons and has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dfa) except for some far southern lowlands which have a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). The hardiness zones are 6b and 7a.

text: Adjacent counties[edit]

text:
Berks County (north)
Montgomery County (northeast)
Delaware County (east)
New Castle County, Delaware (southeast)
Cecil County, Maryland (south)
Lancaster County (west)

tag: ul

text: National protected area[edit]

text: Valley Forge National Historical Park (part)

text: State protected areas[edit]

text:
French Creek State Park
Marsh Creek State Park
White Clay Creek Preserve

text: Major highways[edit]

text:
I-76 / Penna Turnpike
 US 1
 US 30

 US 30 Bus.
 US 202
 US 322

 US 322 Bus.

 US 322 Truck
 US 422
 PA 3
 PA 10
 PA 23
 PA 29
 PA 41
 PA 52
 PA 82
 PA 100
 PA 113
 PA 162
 PA 252
 PA 272
 PA 282
 PA 340
 PA 345
 PA 352
 PA 372
 PA 401
 PA 472
 PA 724
 PA 796
 PA 841
 PA 842
 PA 896
 PA 926

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1790
27,829

—

1800
32,093

15.3%

1810
39,596

23.4%

1820
44,451

12.3%

1830
50,910

14.5%

1840
57,515

13.0%

1850
66,438

15.5%

1860
74,578

12.3%

1870
77,805

4.3%

1880
83,481

7.3%

1890
89,377

7.1%

1900
95,695

7.1%

1910
109,213

14.1%

1920
115,120

5.4%

1930
126,629

10.0%

1940
135,626

7.1%

1950
159,141

17.3%

1960
210,608

32.3%

1970
278,311

32.1%

1980
316,660

13.8%

1990
376,396

18.9%

2000
433,501

15.2%

2010
498,886

15.1%

Est. 2016
516,312
[12]
3.5%

U.S. Decennial Census[13]
1790-1960[14] 1900-1990[15]
1990-2000[16] 2010-2013[2]

tag: table

text: As of the 2010 census, the county was 82.1% White Non-Hispanic, 6.1% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American or Alaskan Native, 3.9% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian, 1.8% were two or more races, and 2.4% were some other race. 6.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino.

text: As of the census[17] of 2000, there were 433,501 people, 157,905 households, and 113,375 families residing in the county. The population density was 573 people per square mile (221/km²). There were 163,773 housing units at an average density of 217 per square mile (84/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 89.21% White, 6.24% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 1.95% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 1.35% from other races, and 1.06% from two or more races. 3.72% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 18.0% were of Irish, 17.3% German, 13.1% Italian, 10.1% English and 5.6% American ancestry according to their self-reporting on Census 2000. 91.4% spoke English and 3.7% Spanish as their first language.

text: There were 157,905 households out of which 35.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.50% were married couples living together, 8.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.20% were non-families. 22.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.15.

text: In the county, the population was spread out with 26.20% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 30.40% from 25 to 44, 23.80% from 45 to 64, and 11.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 96.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.10 males.

text: The median income for a household in the county was $65,295, and the median income for a family was $76,916 (these figures had risen to $80,818 and $97,894 respectively as of a 2007 estimate).[18] Males had a median income of $51,223 versus $34,854 for females. The per capita income for the county was $31,627. About 3.10% of families and 5.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.10% of those under age 18 and 5.50% of those age 65 or over.

text: The region was originally occupied by the Lenni Lenape people, who greeted European settlers in the seventeenth century with amity and kindness. British settlers were mostly English, Scotch-Irish and Welsh in ethnicity. From the late 19th to early 20th century, the industrial areas of the region, such as Coatesville, attracted immigrants and job seekers from Germany and Ireland, Eastern Europe, Italy, and the American rural South, with both black and white migrants coming north. Later Hispanic immigrants have included Puerto Ricans and, most recently, Mexicans.

text: Long a primarily rural area, Chester County is now the fastest-growing county in the Delaware Valley; it is one of the fastest growing in the entire Northeastern section of the United States.

text: Religion[edit]

text: In keeping with its colonial history, Chester County is home to a number of historic Quaker buildings, including Birmingham, Birmingham Orthodox, Bradford, Caln, Old Kennett, Parkersville, Westtown, and Uwchlan meeting houses. Other historic religious buildings include St. Malachi Church, southeastern Pennsylvania's oldest active Catholic mission church, and the Episcopal St. Mary's, St. Paul's, and St. Peter's churches, and Washington Memorial Chapel. Also located in the county are the First Presbyterian Church of West Chester, Coventryville United Methodist Church, which is part of the Coventryville Historic District, and Beth Israel Congregation of Chester County, a Conservative synagogue in Coatesville, a site of Eastern European immigration in the 20th century.

text: Politics[edit]

text: As of December 31, 2016, there are 354,316 registered voters in Chester County.[19]

text:
Republican: 155,439 (43.87%)
Democratic: 136,893 (38.64%)
Other Political parties and no affiliation: 61,984 (17.49%)

text: Chester County has historically been reliably Republican at the county level; traditionally, it was the most conservative county on the Philadelphia side of Pennsylvania. In recent elections, however, it has been trending Democratic, though not as overwhelmingly as the rest of the Philadelphia suburbs. In 2000 Al Gore lost it by almost 10 percent but in 2004 George W. Bush defeated John Kerry by a much smaller margin of only 4.5 percent. Bob Casey, Jr. carried it by 10% when he unseated incumbent Republican US Senator Rick Santorum in 2006. In 2008, Chester County sided with the rest of Pennsylvania and voted for Barack Obama by a much larger margin of 9%, making him the first Democrat to carry it in a Presidential election since 1964. But, in 2009, with a smaller turnout, Republican candidates swept all county-row offices, winning with an average margin of 20%. In 2012 the county voted for Republican candidate Mitt Romney, by a very small margin of about 500 votes.[20]

text: In 2016, despite Pennsylvania voting for a Republican presidential candidate for the first time since 1988, Chester County voted more Democratic than in 2012, with Hillary Clinton leading Donald Trump by over 25,000 votes or 9.4 percentage points; a 4.8 percentage point swing from 2012. The only two statewide winners in 2016 to carry Chester County were U.S. Senator Pat Toomey (R) and Pennsylvania State Treasurer Joe Torsella (D). Republican candidates John Brown and John Rafferty carried Chester County, though both lost their races for Auditor General and Attorney General, respectively (Rafferty, a State Senator whose district includes northern Chester County, carried the county by a slim margin of 50 votes[21])

text: Democrats have made gains in Chester County state legislative seats in recent elections. Democrat Andy Dinniman picked up the 19th Senate District in May 2006 in the special election to replace the late Robert Thompson. Democrat Barbara McIlvaine Smith picked up the open 156th House district in November 2006, winning by 28 votes and tipping the State-House majority to the Democrats. This was the first time that a Democrat had served part of Chester County as State Representative since Jim Gerlach (who represented much of Chester County for 12 years in Congress) unseated Sam Morris in 1990. In 2008, two more open House seats in the county went Democratic—to Tom Houghton in the 13th and Paul Drucker in the 157th. In 2010, however, Chester County swung back to the GOP, with Republicans Dan Truitt (who defeated McIlvaine Smith), Warren Kampf (who defeated Drucker), and John Lawrence (who defeated Houghton) all elected to the State House.[citation needed] On November 8, 2017, Democrats made historic inroads in Chester County by winning their first County Row Office seats since 1799, picking up 4 row office seats.[22]

text:
Presidential Elections Results[23]

Year
Republican
Democratic
Third Parties

2016
42.5% 116,114
51.9% 141,682
5.6% 15,202

2012
49.4% 124,840
49.2% 124,311
1.4% 3,425

2008
44.8% 114,421
54.0% 137,833
1.2% 2,998

2004
52.0% 120,036
47.5% 109,708
0.5% 1,079

2000
53.3% 100,080
43.7% 82,047
3.0% 5,549

1996
48.6% 77,029
40.9% 64,783
10.5% 16,554

1992
43.7% 74,002
35.3% 59,643
21.0% 35,563

1988
67.0% 93,522
32.1% 44,853
0.9% 1,210

1984
70.1% 92,221
29.6% 38,870
0.3% 440

1980
60.9% 73,046
28.6% 34,307
10.5% 12,543

1976
60.4% 67,686
38.1% 42,712
1.5% 1,628

1972
68.4% 72,726
29.3% 31,118
2.3% 2,415

1968
57.2% 56,073
33.3% 32,606
9.6% 9,372

1964
45.5% 40,280
54.1% 47,940
0.4% 390

1960
63.6% 53,059
36.2% 30,167
0.2% 147

1956
70.2% 47,225
29.7% 19,957
0.1% 50

1952
64.9% 39,961
34.9% 21,490
0.3% 164

1948
65.8% 29,258
33.0% 14,670
1.2% 550

1944
58.7% 26,655
40.8% 18,548
0.5% 208

1940
55.5% 28,222
44.2% 22,473
0.4% 183

1936
51.8% 29,340
47.1% 26,676
1.1% 613

1932
69.2% 29,425
28.3% 12,040
2.5% 1,052

1928
82.3% 36,659
17.3% 7,689
0.5% 210

1924
75.8% 22,333
20.2% 5,946
4.1% 1,201

1920
69.6% 18,129
26.9% 7,004
3.6% 927

1916
56.8% 11,845
40.8% 8,514
2.4% 505

1912
28.9% 5,708
34.9% 6,901
36.3% 7,177[24]

1908
64.1% 13,118
32.0% 6,555
3.9% 803

1904
73.9% 14,200
22.6% 4,342
3.5% 673

1900
66.2% 13,809
29.8% 6,214
4.0% 835

1896
67.8% 14,232
28.9% 6,058
3.3% 700

1892
55.6% 10,982
39.7% 7,850
4.7% 932

1888
58.5% 11,578
38.1% 7,541
3.4% 669

text:
Gubernatorial elections results in Chester County

[show]Year
Republican Party
Democratic Party
Libertarian Party
Green Party
Other

2014
48.2% 75,097
51.8% 80,701

2010
56.0% 97,112
44.0% 76,440

2006
34.9% 60,437
65.2% 112,960

2002
41.1% 58,669
57.4% 81,996
0.8% 1,159
0.7% 990

1998
67.6% 68,572
21.0% 21,337

11.3% 11,500

1994
53.1% 61,890
29.7% 34,652

17.2% 20,019

1990
47.5% 44,262
52.5% 48,935

text: Government[edit]

text: Commissioners[edit]

text: Chester County is administered by a three-person Board of Commissioners, who serve four-year terms. Elections occur in the odd-numbered years that precede U.S. Presidential elections, with the next election falling in 2019. The Commissioners have selective policy-making authority to provide certain local services and facilities on a county-wide basis. Accordingly, the commissioners are responsible for the management of the fiscal and administrative functions of the county.

text:
Office
Official
Party
Term ends

County Commissioner
Michelle Kichline
Republican
2019

County Commissioner
Terence Farrell
Republican
2019

County Commissioner
Kathi Cozzone
Democratic
2019

text: County Row Officers[edit]

text: As of the November 2017 election:[22]

text:
Office
Official
Party
Term ends

Clerk of Courts
Yolanda Van de Krol
Democratic
2021

Controller
Margaret Reif
Democratic
2021

Coroner
Christina VandePol, M.D.
Democratic
2021

Treasurer
Patricia Maisano
Democratic
2021

District Attorney
Tom Hogan, Esq.
Republican
2019

Prothonotary
Matt Holliday
Republican
2019

Recorder of Deeds
Rick Loughery
Republican
2019

Register of Wills
Terri Clark
Republican
2019

Sheriff
Carolyn Bunny Welsh
Republican
2019

text: United States House of Representatives[edit]

text:
District
Representative
Party

6
Ryan Costello
Republican

7
Pat Meehan
Republican

16
Lloyd Smucker
Republican

text: United States Senate[edit]

text:
Senator
Party

Bob Casey
Democratic

Pat Toomey
Republican

text: State House of Representatives[edit]

text:
District
Representative
Party

13
John Lawrence
Republican

26
Tim Hennessey
Republican

74
Harry Lewis
Republican

155
Becky Corbin
Republican

156
Carolyn Comitta
Democratic

157
Warren Kampf
Republican

158
Eric Roe
Republican

160
Stephen Barrar
Republican

167
Duane Milne
Republican

text: State Senate[edit]

text:
District
Representative
Party

9
Tom Killion
Republican

19
Andy Dinniman
Democratic

26
Thomas J. McGarrigle
Republican

44
John C. Rafferty, Jr.
Republican

text: Education[edit]

text: Colleges and universities[edit]

text:
Cheyney University of Pennsylvania (partially in Delaware County)
Delaware County Community College (locations in Exton, Downingtown, Phoenixville and West Grove)
Immaculata University
Lincoln University
Penn State Great Valley
University of Valley Forge
West Chester University of Pennsylvania

text: Public school districts[edit]

text:
Avon Grove School District
Coatesville Area School District
Downingtown Area School District
Great Valley School District
Kennett Consolidated School District
Octorara Area School District
Owen J. Roberts School District
Oxford Area School District
Phoenixville Area School District
Spring-Ford Area School District
Tredyffrin-Easttown School District
Twin Valley School District
Unionville-Chadds Ford School District
West Chester Area School District

text: Charter schools[edit]

text:
Achievement House Charter School grades 9-12, Exton
Avon Grove Charter School grades K-12, West Grove
Chester County Family Academy Charter School grades K-2, West Chester
Collegium Charter School grades K-12, Exton
Pennsylvania Leadership Charter School K-12, West Chester
Renaissance Academy Charter School grades K-12, Phoenixville
Sankofa Academy Charter School grades 5-8, West Chester
21st Century Cyber Charter School grades 6-12. Downingtown.

text: There are 11 public cyber charter schools and 144 bricks and mortar charter schools in Pennsylvania that are available for free statewide, to children K-12. See: Education in Pennsylvania.[25]

text: Independent schools[edit]

text:
Bishop Shanahan High School (Archdiocese of Philadelphia)
Center for Arts and Technology (Administered by Chester County Intermediate Unit)[26]
Church Farm School (now called CFS the School at Church Farm)
Delaware Valley Friends School[27]
Devon Preparatory School
Goshen Friends School[28] (West Chester, Pennsylvania)
Kimberton Waldorf School[29] (Kimberton, Pennsylvania)
London Grove Friends Kindergarten (Kennett Square, Pennsylvania)
Malvern Preparatory School
The Concept School - 6th through 12th Grade[30]
Upattinas School and Resource Center (Glenmoore, Pennsylvania)
Upland Country Day School (UCDS) - Pre-K through 9th Grade[31]
Villa Maria Academy (Malvern, Pennsylvania)
West Chester Friends School[32]
West Fallowfield Christian School
Westtown School
Windsor Christian Academy - K through 6th Grade[33]
Windsor Christian Preschool[34]
Regina Luminis Academy[35]

text: Libraries[edit]

text: The Chester County Library System in southeastern Pennsylvania was organized in 1965. It is a federated system composed of a District Center Library in Exton and sixteen member libraries. The system provides materials and information for life, work and pleasure.

text: Communities[edit]

text: Under Pennsylvania law, there are four types of incorporated municipalities: cities, boroughs, townships, and, in at most two cases, towns. The post office uses community names and boundaries that usually do not correspond to the townships, and usually only have the same names as the municipalities for the cities and boroughs. The names used by the post office are generally used by residents to describe where they live. The following cities, boroughs and townships are located in Chester County:

text: City[edit]

text: Coatesville

text: Boroughs[edit]

text:
Atglen
Avondale
Downingtown
Elverson
Honey Brook
Kennett Square
Malvern
Modena
Oxford
Parkesburg
Phoenixville
South Coatesville
Spring City
West Chester (county seat)
West Grove

text: Townships[edit]

text:
Birmingham
Caln
Charlestown
East Bradford
East Brandywine
East Caln
East Coventry
East Fallowfield
East Goshen
East Marlborough
East Nantmeal
East Nottingham
East Pikeland
East Vincent
East Whiteland
Easttown
Elk
Franklin
Highland
Honey Brook
Kennett
London Britain
London Grove
Londonderry
Lower Oxford
New Garden
New London
Newlin
North Coventry
Penn
Pennsbury
Pocopson
Sadsbury
Schuylkill
South Coventry
Thornbury
Tredyffrin
Upper Oxford
Upper Uwchlan
Uwchlan
Valley
Wallace
Warwick
West Bradford
West Brandywine
West Caln
West Fallowfield
West Goshen
West Marlborough
West Nantmeal
West Nottingham
West Pikeland
West Sadsbury
West Vincent
West Whiteland
Westtown
Willistown

text: Unincorporated communities[edit]

text:
Strafford
Glenmoore
Landenberg
Kimberton
Chester Springs
Sadsburyville
Marshallton
Embreeville
Romansville
Unionville
Coventryville
Birchrunville
Humphreyville
Newlinville
Daylesford
Ironsides
Doe Run
Fisherville
Dowlin Forge
Ludwigs Corner
Devault
Frazer
Lenape
Pocopson
Longwood
Nantmeal Village
Suplee
Marchwood
Mortonville
Hephzibah
Knauertown
Compass
Pine Swamp
Bucktown
Pughtown
Lyndell
Warwick
Brandamore
Cedar Knoll

text: Census-designated places[edit]

text: Census-designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data. They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania law.

text:
Berwyn
Caln
Chesterbrook
Cheyney University
Cochranville
Devon
Eagleview
Exton
Kenilworth
Lincoln University
Lionville
Paoli
Pomeroy
South Pottstown
Thorndale
Toughkenamon
Westwood

text: Historic community[edit]

text: Barnestown

text: Population ranking[edit]

text: The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Chester County.[36]

text: † county seat

text:
Rank
City/Town/etc.
Municipal type
Population (2010 Census)

1
† West Chester
Borough
18,461

2
Phoenixville
Borough
16,440

3
Coatesville
City
13,100

4
Downingtown
Borough
7,891

5
Lionville
CDP
6,189

6
Kennett Square
Borough
6,072

7
Paoli
CDP
5,575

8
Oxford
Borough
5,077

9
Exton
CDP
4,842

10
Chesterbrook
CDP
4,589

11
Berwyn
CDP
3,631

12
Parkesburg
Borough
3,593

13
Thorndale
CDP
3,407

14
Spring City
Borough
3,323

15
Malvern
Borough
2,998

16
West Grove
Borough
2,854

17
South Pottstown
CDP
2,081

18
Kenilworth
CDP
1,907

19
Lincoln University
CDP
1,726

20
Honey Brook
Borough
1,713

21
Eagleview
CDP
1,644

22
Caln
CDP
1,519

23
Devon
CDP
1,515

24
Toughkenamon
CDP
1,492

25
Atglen
Borough
1,406

26
South Coatesville
Borough
1,303

27
Avondale
Borough
1,265

28
Elverson
Borough
1,225

29
Cheyney University (partially in Delaware County)
CDP
988

30
Westwood
CDP
950

31
Cochranville
CDP
668

32
Modena
Borough
535

33
Pomeroy
CDP
401

text: Notable people[edit]

text:
Jesse B. Aikin (1808-1900), first to produce a song book with a seven-shape note system
Mifflin E. Bell (1847-1904), architect who served from 1883 to 1886 as Supervising Architect of the US Treasury Department
Scott Brunner (born 1957), NFL quarterback during the 1980s
Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872), American poet and portrait painter
Robert Grace (1709–1766) was the first manufacturer of the Franklin stove.
Isaac Israel Hayes (1832-1881), Arctic explorer and physician
Mifflin Kenedy (1818-1895), South Texas rancher and steamboat operator; partner in King Ranch, born in Chester County
Rebecca Webb Lukens (1794-1854) first female owner and manager of the company that became the Lukens Steel Mill
Franklin MacVeagh (1837-1934), banker and Secretary of the US Treasury
Bam Margera (born 1979), professional skateboarder, television and radio personality, and daredevil
Ryan Dunn (1977-2011), actor, television personality, and daredevil. Died in a car crash in West Goshen, Pennsylvania.
Jon Matlack (born 1950), baseball pitcher for the New York Mets and Texas Rangers (1971–83), All Star and N.L. Champion
Charles Follen McKim (1847-1909), one of the most prominent American Beaux-Arts architects of the late nineteenth century
Herb Pennock (1894–1948), Hall of Fame baseball pitcher also known as the Squire of Kennett Square.
Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872), poet and portrait painter
Bayard Rustin (1912-1987), American civil rights leader posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
John Wallace Scott (1832-1903), Medal of Honor recipient during the American Civil War
M. Night Shyamalan (born 1970), film director
William Thomas Smedley (1858-1920), artist; member of the National Academy of Design
James Smith (1719-1806), signer to the United States Declaration of Independence
Richard Troxell, international opera star, aka America's Tenor. Resides in Chester County.
George Alexis Weymouth (born 1936), artist (painter); "whip" stager; founder of The Brandywine Conservancy and The Brandywine River Museum
Thomas Wharton Jr. (1735-1778), served as the first President of Pennsylvania (an office akin to Governor) following the Declaration of Independence from Great Britain
William (Amos) Wilson (1762-1821), famous folklore figure known as "The Pennsylvania Hermit"
Andrew Wyeth (1917–2009), artist, son of N.C. Wyeth
Jamie Wyeth (born 1946), artist, son of Andrew Wyeth
N.C. Wyeth (1882-1945), artist
Matt Ryan (born 1985), American Football quarterback for the Atlanta Falcons, born in Exton.
Kyle Gallner (Born 1986) Actor
Kerr Smith (Born 1972) Actor
Smedley Butler (1881-1940) Twice recipient of the Medal of Honor, thwarted the Business Plot, advocate for veterans, author.


document_title: Androgen receptor

question_text: where are androgen receptors located in the body

text: Androgen receptor

text: Function[edit]

text: Effect on development[edit]

text: In some cell types, testosterone interacts directly with androgen receptors, whereas, in others, testosterone is converted by 5-alpha-reductase to dihydrotestosterone, an even more potent agonist for androgen receptor activation.[14] Testosterone appears to be the primary androgen receptor-activating hormone in the Wolffian duct, whereas dihydrotestosterone is the main androgenic hormone in the urogenital sinus, urogenital tubercle, and hair follicles.[15] Hence, testosterone is responsible primarily for the development of male primary sexual characteristics, whereas dihydrotestosterone is responsible for secondary male characteristics.

text: Androgens cause slow epiphysis, or maturation of the bones, but more of the potent epiphysis effect comes from the estrogen produced by aromatization of androgens. Steroid users of teen age may find that their growth had been stunted by androgen and/or estrogen excess. People with too little sex hormones can be short during puberty but end up taller as adults as in androgen insensitivity syndrome or estrogen insensitivity syndrome.[16]

text: Also, AR knockout-mice studies have shown that AR is essential for normal female fertility, being required for development and full functionality of the ovarian follicles and ovulation, working through both intra-ovarian and neuroendocrine mechanisms.[17]

text: Maintenance of male skeletal integrity[edit]

text: Via the Androgen receptor, androgens play a key role in the maintenance of male skeletal integrity. The regulation of this integrity by androgen receptor (AR) signaling can be attributed to both osteoblasts and osteocytes.[18]

text: Mechanism of action[edit]

text: Genomic[edit]

text: The primary mechanism of action for androgen receptors is direct regulation of gene transcription. The binding of an androgen to the androgen receptor results in a conformational change in the receptor that, in turn, causes dissociation of heat shock proteins, transport from the cytosol into the cell nucleus, and dimerization. The androgen receptor dimer binds to a specific sequence of DNA known as a hormone response element. Androgen receptors interact with other proteins in the nucleus, resulting in up- or down-regulation of specific gene transcription.[19] Up-regulation or activation of transcription results in increased synthesis of messenger RNA, which, in turn, is translated by ribosomes to produce specific proteins. One of the known target genes of androgen receptor activation is the insulin-like growth factor I receptor (IGF-1R).[20] Thus, changes in levels of specific proteins in cells is one way that androgen receptors control cell behavior.

text: One function of androgen receptor that is independent of direct binding to its target DNA sequence, is facilitated by recruitment via other DNA-binding proteins. One example is serum response factor, a protein that activates several genes that cause muscle growth.[21]

text: Androgen receptor is modified by post translational modification through acetylation,[22] which directly promotes AR mediated transactivation, apoptosis[23] and contact independent growth of prostate cancer cells.[24] AR acetylation is induced by androgens [25] and determines recruitment into chromatin.[26] The AR acetylation site is a key target of NAD-dependent and TSA-dependent histone deacetylases [27] and long non coding RNA.[28]

text: Non-genomic[edit]

text: More recently, androgen receptors have been shown to have a second mode of action. As has been also found for other steroid hormone receptors such as estrogen receptors, androgen receptors can have actions that are independent of their interactions with DNA.[13][29] Androgen receptors interact with certain signal transduction proteins in the cytoplasm. Androgen binding to cytoplasmic androgen receptors can cause rapid changes in cell function independent of changes in gene transcription, such as changes in ion transport. Regulation of signal transduction pathways by cytoplasmic androgen receptors can indirectly lead to changes in gene transcription, for example, by leading to phosphorylation of other transcription factors.

text: Genetics[edit]

text: Gene[edit]

text: In humans, the androgen receptor is encoded by the AR gene located on the X chromosome at Xq11-12.[30][31]

text: AR deficiencies[edit]

text: The androgen insensitivity syndrome, formerly known as testicular feminization, is caused by a mutation of the androgen receptor gene located on the X chromosome (locus:Xq11-Xq12).[32] The androgen receptor seems to affect neuron physiology and is defective in Kennedy's disease.[33][34] In addition, point mutations and trinucleotide repeat polymorphisms has been linked to a number of additional disorders.[35]

text: CAG repeats[edit]

text: The AR gene contains CAG repeats which affect receptor function, where fewer repeats leads to increased receptor sensitivity to circulating androgens and more repeats leads to decreased receptor sensitivity. Studies have shown that racial variation in CAG repeats exists, with African-Americans having fewer repeats, Caucasians having an intermediate number of repeats, and Asians having the longest.[36] The racial trends in CAG repeats parallels the incidence and mortality of prostate cancer in these groups.

text: Structure[edit]

text: Isoforms[edit]

text: Two isoforms of the androgen receptor (A and B) have been identified:[37]

text:
AR-A - 87 kDa - N-terminus truncated (lacks the first 187 amino acids), which results from in vitro proteolysis.[38]
AR-B - 110 kDa - full length

text: Domains[edit]

text: Like other nuclear receptors, the androgen receptor is modular in structure and is composed of the following functional domains labeled A through F:[39]

text:
A/B) - N-terminal regulatory domain contains:[40]

activation function 1 (AF-1) between residues 101 and 370 required for full ligand activated transcriptional activity
activation function 5 (AF-5) between residues 360-485 is responsible for the constitutive activity (activity without bound ligand)
dimerization surface involving residues 1-36 (containing the FXXLF motif where F = phenylalanine, L = leucine, and X = any amino acid residue) and 370-494, both of which interact with the LBD in an intramolecular[41][42][43] head-to-tail interaction[44][45][46]

C) - DNA binding domain (DBD)
D) - Hinge region - flexible region that connects the DBD with the LBD; along with the DBD, contains a ligand dependent nuclear localization signal[47]
E) - Ligand binding domain (LBD) containing

activation function 2 (AF-2), responsible for agonist induced activity (activity in the presence of bound agonist)
AF-2 binds either the N-terminal FXXFL motif intramolecularly or coactivator proteins (containing the LXXLL or preferably FXXFL motifs)[46]
A ligand dependent nuclear export signal[48]

F) - C-terminal domain

text: Splice variants[edit]

text: AR-V7 is an androgen receptor splice variant that can be detected in circulating tumor cells of metastatic prostate cancer patients.[49][50] and is predictive of resistance to some drugs.[51]

text: Ligands[edit]

text: Agonists[edit]

text:
Endogenous androgens (e.g., testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, androstenedione, androstenediol, dehydroepiandrosterone, androsterone)
Synthetic androgens (e.g., methyltestosterone, metandienone, nandrolone, trenbolone, oxandrolone, stanozolol)

text: Mixed[edit]

text: Selective androgen receptor modulators (e.g., andarine, enobosarm)

text: Antagonists[edit]

text:
Steroidal antiandrogens (e.g., cyproterone acetate, chlormadinone acetate, spironolactone, oxendolone)
Nonsteroidal antiandrogens (e.g., flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, enzalutamide, apalutamide)
N-Terminal domain antiandrogens (e.g., bisphenol A, EPI-001, ralaniten)

text: As a drug target[edit]

text: The AR is important for therapeutic target in prostate cancer, thus many different inhibitors have been developed, primarily targeting the ligand binding domain of the protein, while inhibitors that target the N-terminal domain of the protein are still under development.[52] AR ligands can either be classified based on their structure (steroidal or nonsteroidal) or based on their ability to activate or inhibit transcription (agonists or antagonists).[53] Sulforaphane, a phytochemical derived from broccoli or the HSP90 inhibitor ganetespib or the NRF2 activator bardoxolone methyl has been shown to degrade both AR and AR-V7 and thus enhance the efficacy of antagonists like enzalutamide[54][55].

text: Interactions[edit]

text: Androgen receptor has been shown to interact with:

text:
AKT1,[56]
BAG1,[57][58][59]
Beta-catenin,[60][61][62][63][64][65]
BRCA1,[66][67]
C-jun,[68]
Calmodulin 1,[69]
Caveolin 1,[70]
CDK9,[71]
COX5B,[72]
CREB-binding protein,[73][74][75][76]
Cyclin D1,[77][78][79][80]
Cyclin-dependent kinase 7,[81]
DACH1,[82]
Death associated protein 6,[83]
L-DOPA,[84]
EFCAB6,[85]
Epidermal growth factor receptor,[86][87]
FOXO1,[88]
GAPDH,[89]
Gelsolin,[90]
GNB2L1,[91]
GSK3B,[92]
HDAC1,[93]
HSP90AA1,[94][95]
HTATIP,[93]
MAGEA11,[96][97]
MED1,[98]
MYST2,[99]
NCOA1,[61][100][101]
NCOA2,[60][75][96][102][103]
NCOA3,[102][104][105]
NCOA4,[56][103][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]
NCOA6,[113]
NCOR2,[60][114][115]
NONO,[75]
p300,[116]
PA2G4,[117]
PAK6,[118][119]
PATZ1,[120]
PIAS2,[121][122]
PRPF6,[123]
PTEN,[124]
RAD9A,[125]
RANBP9,[126]
RCHY1,[127]
Retinoblastoma protein,[128][129]
RNF14,[103][106][130][131]
RNF4,[120][132][133]
SART3,[134]
SIRT1,[135]
SMAD3,[136][137][138]
Small heterodimer partner,[139]
Src,[124][140][141]
SRY,[142]
STAT3,[143][144]
SVIL,[145]
Testicular receptor 2,[146]
Testicular receptor 4,[147]
TGFB1I1,[106][148]
TMF1,[149]
TRIM68,[150]
UBE2I,[60][61][151][152][153][154]
UXT,[155] and
ZMIZ1.[156]