document_title: Term of office

question_text: how long is the term of a president in the usa

root

text: Term of office

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdom's system of government are replicated in many other countries.

tag: p

text: Monarch[edit]

text: The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication.

text: House of Commons[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, a general election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, though an individual's term may be cut short by death or resignation. An MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election.

text: The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned; this maximum period was reduced to five years by the Parliament Act 1911. Prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Minister's request. Early dissolutions occurred when the make-up of Parliament made forming government impossible (as occurred in 1974), or, more commonly, when the incumbent government reasoned an early general election would improve their re-election chances (e.g. 2001). The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is still possible, but under much more limited circumstances.

text: Because the government and Prime Minister are effectively indirectly elected through the Commons, the terms of Parliaments and MPs do not directly apply to offices of government, though in practice these are affected by changes in Parliament. While, strictly speaking, a Prime Minister whose incumbency spans multiple Parliaments only serves one, unbroken, term of office, some writers may refer to the different Parliaments as separate terms.[1]

text: House of Lords[edit]

text: Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, though members can resign or be expelled. Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric (e.g. George Carey, made Baron Carey of Clifton the day after he ceased being Archbishop of Canterbury).

text: Devolved administrations[edit]

text: The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster.

text: The office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit. This is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, which has not happened yet.

text: Other elected offices[edit]

text: Offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years.

text: United States[edit]

text: Federal[edit]

text: In the United States, the president of the United States is elected indirectly through the United States Electoral College to a four-year term, with a term limit of two terms (totaling eight years) or a maximum of ten years if the president acted as president for two years or less in a term where another was elected as president, imposed by the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1951.

text: The Vice President serves four-year terms. U.S. Representatives serve two-year terms. U.S. Senators serve six-year terms.

text: Federal judges have different terms in office. Article I judges; such as those that sit on the United States bankruptcy courts, United States Tax Court, and United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces, and certain other federal courts and other forms of adjudicative bodies serve limited terms: The Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces for 15 years, bankruptcy courts for 14. However, the majority of the federal judiciary; Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts; serve for life.

text: State and territories[edit]

text: The terms of office for officials in state governments varies according to the provisions of state constitutions and state law.

text: The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire; the Vermont and New Hampshire governors serve for two years.

text: The National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures [1]:

text:
44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature (often termed the state House of Representatives) at two years. Five (Alabama, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and North Dakota) had terms of office at four years. (The Nebraska Legislature is an exception and has a unicameral legislature with members elected for four years.)
37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature (often termed the state Senate) at four years. Twelve (Arizona, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Vermont) had terms of office at two years.

tag: ul

text: Among territories of the United States:

text:
In the American Samoa Fono, members of the House serve two-year terms while members of the Senate serve six-year terms.
Members of both chambers of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico have four-year terms.
Members of both chambers of the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature have two-year terms.
The Legislature of Guam and Legislature of the Virgin Islands are unicameral and Senators have two-year terms.

text: Members of Council of the District of Columbia serve a four-year term.

text: Canada[edit]

text: As a former British territory following the Westminster System, there are many similarities with the United Kingdom, although with some variations based on local customs, the federal system of government and the absentee monarch.

text: Monarch[edit]

text: Being a Commonwealth realm, Canada shares a monarch with the United Kingdom and 14 other countries, who serves as head of state of all 16 realms until their death or abdication.

text: Viceroys[edit]

text: The Governor General is appointed by the monarch as his/her personal representative on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serves for an indefinite term, though the normal convention is 5 years. Similarly, the Lieutenant Governors, who represent the monarch at the provincial level, are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister (usually also with consultation of the relevant provincial premier), and generally also serve 5 year terms by convention. The territories have Commissioners, who are not representatives of the monarch, but are instead appointed by and represent the Governor-in-Council (i.e. the federal cabinet), and conventionally serve for about 5 years.

text: House of Commons[edit]

text: Similar to the United Kingdom, MPs serve for the duration of the Parliament. They may resign before the end of a Parliament or be elected in by-elections during the middle of a Parliament.

text: Under the Constitution Act, 1867, a Parliament may last for a maximum of 5 years from the most recent election before expiring, although all Parliaments to date have been dissolved before they could expire. Bill C-16, introduced in the 39th Parliament, provided for fixed election dates every 4 years on the third Monday in October, beginning in 2009. However, the Prime Minister may still advise the Governor General to dissolve Parliament at any time.

text: As in the United Kingdom, the cabinet and head of government are indirectly elected based on the composition of the House of Commons, they are not technically affected by the terms of legislators or Parliaments. In practice however, the terms of government office holders are affected by changes in the House of Commons, and those who serve for multiple consecutive Parliaments are generally considered to have served a single term. The term of a government generally ends when it is defeated on a confidence matter or the governing party fails to gain enough seats in a general election.

text: Senate[edit]

text: Senators are appointed to the Canadian Senate to represent a province by the Governor General of Canada on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serve until the mandatory retirement age of 75. Senators appointed before the passage of the British North America Act, 1965 served for life. Senators may also resign from office or be expelled from the Senate.

text: Provincial and Territorial Legislatures[edit]

text: Provincial legislatures and the legislature of the Yukon function very similarly to the federal House of Commons. MLAs (called MPPs in Ontario, MNAs in Quebec, and MHAs in Newfoundland and Labrador) serve for the duration of the legislature, though they may resign before the legislature is dissolved or be elected in by-elections between general elections. The legislatures of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut operate using a consensus model, but are similar otherwise. The premiers and their cabinets are selected in the same way as in the House of Commons, and like at the federal level, the term of a provincial government can be ended by defeat in a general election or the loss of the legislature's confidence.

text: All provincial legislatures except that of Nova Scotia have fixed-term election legislation in place, as does the legislature of the Northwest Territories. Premiers may also advise Lieutenant Governors to dissolve legislatures at any time before the prescribed election date.

text: Terms of office by country[edit]

text:
Heads of state

Upper houses

Lower houses and heads of government

Legend

Not applicable
Varies
Until removed

<3
3
4
5
6
7
>7

tag: table

text: Numbers in years unless stated otherwise. Note that some countries where fixed-term elections are uncommon, the legislature is almost always dissolved earlier than its expiry date. "Until removed from office" refers to offices that don't have fixed terms; in these cases, the officeholder(s) may serve indefinitely until death, abdication, resignation, retirement, or forcible removal from office (such as impeachment).

text: In cases where the head of government is a different person from the head of state, its term of office is identical to the chamber that elected it (the legislature if it is unicameral, or most usually the lower house if it is bicameral), unless it doesn't survive a vote of no confidence.

text:
Country
Head of state
Members of the upper house*
Members of the lower (or sole) house

 Afghanistan
5
3, 4 and 5
5

 Albania
5
N/A
4

 Algeria
5
N/A
5

 Andorra
Until removed from office (Bishop of Urgel); 5 (President of France)
N/A
4

 Angola
5
N/A
5

 Antigua and Barbuda
Until removed from office
5
5

 Argentina
4
6
4

 Armenia
5
N/A
5

 Australia
Until removed from office
6
3

 Austria
6
4 to 6
5

 Azerbaijan
5
N/A
5

 Bahamas
Until removed from office
5
5

 Bahrain
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Bangladesh
5
N/A
5

 Barbados
Until removed from office
5
5

 Belarus
5
4
4

 Belgium
Until removed from office
5
4

 Benin
5
N/A
5

 Bhutan
Until removed from office
5
5

 Bolivia
5
5
5

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
4
4
4

 Botswana
5
N/A
5

 Brazil
4
8
4

 Bulgaria
5
N/A
4

 Burkina Faso
5
N/A
5

 Burundi
5
5
5

 Brunei
Until removed from office
N/A
Until removed from office

 Cambodia
Until removed from office
6
5

 Cameroon
7
N/A
5

 Canada
Until removed from office
Until removed from office
5

 Cape Verde
5
N/A
5

 Central African Republic
5
N/A
5

 Chad
5
N/A
4

 Chile
4
8
4

 China
5
N/A
5

 Colombia
4
4
4

 Congo
7
6
5

 Comoros
5
N/A
5

 Ivory Coast
5
N/A
5

 Costa Rica
4
N/A
4

 Croatia
5
N/A
4

 Cuba
5
N/A
5

 Cyprus
5
N/A
5

 Czech Republic
5
6
4

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
5
5
4

 Denmark
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Djibouti
6
N/A
5

 Dominica
5
N/A
5

 Dominican Republic
4
4
4

 Ecuador
4
N/A
4

 Egypt
4
N/A
5

 El Salvador
5
N/A
3

 Equatorial Guinea
5
N/A
5

 Estonia
5
N/A
4

 Ethiopia
6
N/A
5

 Fiji
5
5
5

 Finland
6
N/A
4

 France
5
6
5

 Gabon
7
6
5

 Gambia
5
N/A
5

 Georgia
5
N/A
4

 Germany
5
4 to 5
4

 Ghana
4
N/A
4

 Greece
5
N/A
4

 Grenada
Until removed from office
5
5

 Guatemala
4
N/A
4

 Guinea
5
N/A
5

 Guinea-Bissau
5
N/A
5

 Guyana
5
N/A
5

 Haiti
5
6
4

 Honduras
4
N/A
4

 Hungary
5
N/A
4

 Iceland
4
N/A
4

 India
5
6
5

 Indonesia
5
5
5

 Iran
4
N/A
4

 Iraq
4
N/A
4

 Ireland
7
5
5

 Israel
7
N/A
4

 Italy[2]
7
5
5

 Jamaica
Until removed from office
5
5

 Japan
Until removed from office
6
4

 Jordan
Until removed from office
4
4

 Kazakhstan
5
6
5

 Kenya
5
5
5

 Kiribati
4
N/A
4

 Kuwait
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Kyrgyzstan
6
N/A
5

 Laos
5
N/A
5

 Latvia
4
N/A
4

 Lebanon
4
N/A
4

 Lesotho
Until removed from office
5
5

 Liberia
6
9
6

 Liechtenstein
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Lithuania
5
N/A
4

 Luxembourg
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Macedonia
5
N/A
4

 Madagascar
5
4
4

 Malawi
5
N/A
5

 Malaysia
5
3
5

 Maldives
5
N/A
5

 Mali
5
N/A
5

 Malta
5
N/A
5

 Marshall Islands
4
N/A
4

 Mauritania
5
N/A
5

 Mauritius
5
N/A
5

 Mexico
6
6
3

 F.S. Micronesia
4
N/A
2, 4

 Monaco
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Mongolia
4
N/A
4

 Moldova
4
N/A
4

 Montenegro
5
N/A
4

 Morocco
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Mozambique
5
N/A
5

 Myanmar
5
5
5

 Namibia
5
N/A
5

 Nauru
4
N/A
3

   Nepal
5
6
5

 Netherlands
Until removed from office
4
4

 New Zealand
Until removed from office
N/A
3

 Nicaragua
5
N/A
5

 Nigeria
4
4
4

 Niger
4
4
4

 North Korea
5
N/A
5

 Norway
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Oman
Until removed from office
4
4

 Pakistan
5
6
5

 Palau
4
4
4

 Palestine
4
N/A
4

 Panama
5
N/A
5

 Papua New Guinea
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Paraguay
5
5*
5

 Peru
5
N/A
5

 Philippines
6
6
3

 Poland
5
4
4

 Portugal
5
N/A
4

 Qatar
Until removed from office
N/A
N/A

 Romania
5
4
4

 Russia
6
N/A
5

 Rwanda
7
N/A
5

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Saint Lucia
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Samoa
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 San Marino
0.5 (6 months)
N/A
5

 São Tomé and Príncipe
5
N/A
4

 Senegal
5
5
5

 Serbia
5
N/A
4

 Seychelles
5
N/A
5

 Sierra Leone
5
N/A
5

 Singapore
6
N/A
5

 Slovakia
5
N/A
4

 Slovenia
5
5
4

 Solomon Islands
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Somalia
4
N/A
4

 South Africa
5
5
5

 South Korea
5
N/A
4

 South Sudan
5
?
?

 Spain
Until removed from office
4
4

 Sri Lanka
5
N/A
5

 Sudan
5
6
6

 Suriname
5
N/A
5

 Swaziland
Until removed from office
5
5

 Sweden
Until removed from office
N/A
4

  Switzerland
4
4
4

 Syria
7
N/A
4

 Taiwan
4
N/A
4

 Tajikistan
7
5
5

 Tanzania
5
N/A
5

 Thailand
Until removed from office
6
4

 Timor-Leste
5
N/A
5

 Togo
5
N/A
5

 Tonga
Until removed from office
N/A
5

 Trinidad and Tobago
5
5
5

 Tunisia
5
N/A
5

 Turkey
5
N/A
4

 Turkmenistan
5
N/A
5

 Tuvalu
Until removed from office
N/A
4

 Uganda
5
N/A
5

 Ukraine
5
N/A
4

 United Arab Emirates
Until removed from office
Until removed from office
5

 United Kingdom
Until removed from office
Until removed from office
5

 United States
4
6
2

 Uruguay
5
5
5

 Uzbekistan
7
5
5

 Vanuatu
5
N/A
4

  Vatican City
Until removed from office
N/A
Until removed from office

 Venezuela
6
N/A
5

 Vietnam
5
N/A
5

 Yemen
7
N/A
6

 Zambia
5
N/A
5

 Zimbabwe
5
5
5

text: *Excludes senators for life.


document_title: Briggs & Stratton

question_text: what year did briggs and stratton stop using points

text: Briggs & Stratton

text: History[edit]

text: Launched in 1908 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the company is based today in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin.[1] Briggs & Stratton engines are commonly used on lawnmowers, as well as pressure washers, electrical generators, and a wide variety of other applications. Their original cast-iron engines were known for their durability, but the company's success was established following the development of lightweight aluminum engines in 1953. The aluminum engine was the perfect solution for the recently invented rotary lawnmower due to its lighter weight and lower cost.

text: The company started in 1908 as an informal partnership between Stephen Foster Briggs and Harold M. Stratton. S.F. Briggs was born in Watertown, South Dakota, and graduated from South Dakota State College (now South Dakota State University) in Brookings in 1907. The idea for his first product came from an upper-level engineering class project at SDSC. This first product was a six-cylinder, two-cycle engine, which Stephen Foster Briggs developed during his engineering courses at South Dakota State. After his graduation, he was eager to produce his engine and enter the rapidly expanding automobile industry. Bill Juneau, a coach at South Dakota State, knew of Briggs' ambition and the entrepreneurial interests of Harold M. Stratton, a successful grain merchant who had a farm next to Juneau's farm, so he introduced the two. In 1922, their fledgling company set a record in the automotive industry, selling the Briggs & Stratton Flyer (the "Red Bud") at record low prices of US$125-$150.

text: Eventually Briggs and Stratton settled on manufacturing automotive components and small gasoline engines. Briggs purchased an engine patent from A.O. Smith Company and began powering early washing machines and reel mowers as well as many other types of equipment. The company went public on the New York Stock Exchange in 1928.

text: During World War II, Briggs & Stratton produced generators for the war effort. Some pre-war engines were made with aluminum, which helped the company develop its expertise in using this material. This development, along with the post-war growth of 1950s suburbs (and lawns), helped secure Briggs & Stratton's successful growth throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

text: Stephen Briggs went on to purchase Evinrude and Johnson Outboards and start the Outboard Marine Corporation. Frederick P. Stratton, Sr. (the son of Harold Stratton) served as Chairman of Briggs & Stratton until his death in 1962. Frederick P. Stratton, Jr. served as Chairman until his retirement in 2001.

text: In 1995, Briggs & Stratton sold the automotive component business. The resulting company is Strattec Security Corporation.

text: In 2000,[5] the company acquired its consumer generator business from the Beacon Group and formed Briggs & Stratton Power Products. The Beacon Group had previously purchased the Consumer Products Division of Generac Corporation (now Generac Power Systems) in 1998. In 2005, the company added Simplicity Manufacturing Inc, and Snapper, Inc, to the Briggs & Stratton Power Products line. Murray, Inc, one of its largest customers, collapsed owing the company $40 million, and to minimize the loss Briggs & Stratton purchased the name, marketing rights and product designs of that company. In 2008, Briggs & Stratton announced it would be acquiring the Victa Lawn Care business from GUD Holdings Limited Australia for A$23 million.

text: Acquisitions, agreements and joint ventures[edit]

text:
Farymann Diesel GmbH (1979–1984) – Based in Lampertheim (near Mannheim) in Germany, this was the first foreign acquisition Briggs & Stratton had ever made and was a poor fit with the company's acknowledged expertise in high volume, low cost production. They officially completed the acquisition on May 29, 1979.[6] Despite investing in new production methods, Briggs & Stratton never understood the very low volume, highly customized nature of the air-cooled diesel engine market. After considering adding Italy's Lombardini to increase its presence in the diesel market, as well as a failed attempt to develop its own designs, Briggs & Stratton accepted defeat and sold the company to a private investor for a minimal amount to avoid further liabilities. Since the energy crisis had not affected the US market's preference for gasoline engines, enthusiasm waned rapidly at management level for diesel engines.[7]
Daihatsu Briggs & Stratton (DBS) – In an effort to stave off Japanese competition during the 1980s, Briggs & Stratton entered a 50/50 joint venture with the Toyota subsidiary Daihatsu Motor Company in Japan. Located in Shiga Prefecture (50 miles (80 km) from Osaka, Japan), construction on the then-57,000-square-foot (5,300 m2) plant began in December 1986 and was completed in April 1987. This joint venture was notable for the manufacture of vertical and horizontal crankshaft engines from 12.5 to 22 hp (16 kW) under the Vanguard brand. Today the plant employs roughly 100 people on two shifts and manufactures Vanguard V-twin engines ranging from 14 to 36 hp (27 kW).[8]
The Mitsubishi Agreement – The Vanguard line initially consisted of three single-cylinder engines and several V-twin engines. The V-twins, made by DBS, had sold very well but the single-cylinder engine models, originally produced at Briggs & Stratton's Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin plant, didn't fare so well. Briggs & Stratton needed to solve this problem, so, following discussions with several Japanese engine manufacturers, it entered into an agreement with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. of Tokyo, Japan. Briggs & Stratton produced only certain parts for the engines, while Mitsubishi was responsible for overall production and shipping. The completed single-cylinder Vanguard engines were shipped directly to customers worldwide. Briggs & Stratton had exclusive marketing rights only in North America, Europe and Australia/New Zealand. MHI had exclusive marketing rights (under their own brand name) in Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea and Japan. In other countries both companies competed with the same product under their own brand names which led to considerable friction, and together with escalating production costs in Japan, caused this otherwise successful relationship to fail. Briggs & Stratton commenced marketing alternative U.S.-made single-cylinder engines under the Vanguard brand in early 2007.[9]
The Komatsu Zenoah Venture – In May 1987, Briggs & Stratton entered into an agreement with yet another Japanese company, executing a 10-year contract with the Komatsu Zenoah Company of Tachikawa, Japan. Under the terms of the contract, Komatsu would manufacture a 2-cycle, 4 hp (3 kW) engine, in which Briggs & Stratton would purchase and distribute in the United States, Europe, Australia and New Zealand. Said Fred Stratton, "This venture was not successful, because the rising price of the yen made the engine too expensive in the U.S."[10]
The Toro Agreement – In 1999, Briggs & Stratton made a license agreement with The Toro Company of Bloomington, Minnesota USA. to produce the Toro R*Tek piston ported version of their E series 2-stroke engine (AKA Lawn-Boy DuraForce) for use in Toro Snow Throwers. The engine was a 141cc 2 cycle that produced from 4 hp to 6.5 hp at 3700 to 4000 rpm on a 50:1 gas & oil mix. A higher power 7-HP model was made (Engine Model# 84330) for use in heavier duty machines such as the single stage Snow Commander (2001-2008) & 2 stage Power Max 726TE/6000 (2004-2008), the extra horsepower was obtained using Transfer Ports in the piston & cylinder wall and ran at the same operating speed as the 6.5 hp engines (4000rpms). Production stopped in 2011.

text: Innovations[edit]

text:
The aluminum engine – This was introduced in 1953 as a means of having a lighter-weight engine for applications such as rotary lawn mowers. It was improved five years later in 1958 with the introduction of the Kool-Bore (all aluminum) and Sleeve-Bore (aluminum, with a cast iron cylinder liner).
Easy-Spin Starting – This compression release, implemented as an extra hump on the intake lobe of the camshaft, was introduced in 1961 to reduce the effort required to start an engine.[11] In 1982, a new U.S. federal safety regulation required lawnmower blades to stop spinning within three seconds of the operator letting go of the handle. The least costly, most common way of complying with the new regulation was to put a flywheel brake on the mower engine, to stop the engine (and therefore the blade) immediately when the handle was released. Briggs & Stratton engineers found engines with the Easy-Spin camshaft were unacceptably difficult to restart after being braked to a quick stop. The Easy-Spin lobe hump was moved to the exhaust valve, but this reduced engine performance. The intake-side Easy-Spin remained in use on Briggs & Stratton's engines larger than those used on mowers subject to the brake requirement, but was discontinued in 1997 due to tightening emission regulations.[12]
The Synchro-Balanced Engine – This 1966 innovation was designed to attenuate vibration caused by the reciprocating mass of a single-cylinder engine. The design was a series of counterweights opposing the crankpin.[13]
The Twin Cylinder Engine – This engine was introduced in 1977 as a means of competing with Briggs & Stratton's rivals, particularly Japanese firms like Honda who were cutting into traditional Briggs & Stratton markets by producing lawn mower engines (and later, complete lawn mowers). These first models were rated 16 hp (11.9 kW) and displaced 40 cubic inches (656 cc), but were joined in 1979 by 42 cubic inch (694 cc) models rated at 18 hp (13.4 kW). The original price for the 16 hp (12 kW) version was $70 lower (at US$228) than their single-cylinder cast-iron version bearing the same power rating.[14]
Industrial/Commercial (I/C) – This series of engines, initially ranging from 3 to 20.5 hp (15.3 kW), was introduced in 1979 as Briggs & Stratton's answer to high quality commercial-duty engines produced by competitors. These engines include heavy-duty features such as Stellite exhaust valves, upgraded bearings, cast iron sleeved cylinder bores and high-capacity air cleaners.[15]
Briggs & Stratton HYBRID – In 1980, at the tail end of the energy crisis, Briggs & Stratton developed the first gasoline-electric hybrid automobile. "The Hybrid" was designed by Brooks Stevens and powered by a twin-cylinder 16 hp (11.9 kW) Briggs & Stratton engine and a large electric battery.
Magnetron Ignition – This solid state ignition system introduced by Briggs & Stratton in 1982[16] eliminated the points and condenser system, the performance of which steadily degraded between required periodic maintenance service. Magnetron was made available for retrofitment to Briggs & Stratton engines made since 1963. Competitor Tecumseh had made a capacitor discharge ignition setup since 1968 for their cast iron engine models, expanding its availability and making it standard equipment on vertical shaft engines powering lawn mowers in late 1976, five years before the advent of the Briggs Magnetron. Defunct competitor Clinton Engines commercialized a piezo "Spark Pump" ignition without breaker points in the early 1960s.[17]

text: Logo history[edit]

text: The Briggs & Stratton logo was always a masthead, but it has been changed several times over the course of the company's 80-plus years.

text:
Pre War logos (1931–1943) – This logo started off with a diamond shape and read Briggs & Stratton and its home city of MILWAUKEE, WIS., U.S.A. below it; in the middle, it had the words 4 CYCLE on the top mast and the words GASOLINE MOTOR and phrase MADE IN U.S.A. on the bottom mast. About 1934 Briggs & Stratton added the more familiar shape of a diamond split across the center with a banner.
Gold Logo (1948–1963) – This logo had the name BRIGGS STRATTON and its home city of MILWAUKEE, WIS., U.S.A. below it; in the middle, it had the words 4 CYCLE on the top mast and the words GASOLINE ENGINE and phrase MADE IN U.S.A. on the bottom mast.
Gold Logo (II) (1963–1976) – Although similar to the last logo, this had differently arranged wording: The name BRIGGS STRATTON was written in a new logotype, however, this design also included the horsepower rating above the gold logo in the white field, its city of location were in the middle as before, only this time the patent numbers were eliminated (if you look at a decal on a production engine) from the bottom portion of the mast. There were some engines produced until 1977 that used the prior logo from 1948.
The Red, White and Black Logo (1976–present) – This is the company's current logo. The logo has the name BRIGGS STRATTON in black letters on the white midsection of the masthead. The words 4 CYCLE ENGINE are on the red top portion of the mast and the city line MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, U.S.A. is written on the black bottom portion of the mast. Although the logo hadn't been changed much since then, the wording on the top and bottom sections of the mast were removed in 1985, although the company continued to use these two sections with the respective wordings ORIGINAL (red section) and SERVICE PARTS (black section) until 1989.

text: Models[edit]

text: Cast iron models[edit]

text:
5 (cast iron) (1950–1957)
5S (cast iron; suction carburetor) (1949–1957) http://sites.google.com/site/briggsmodel5sengine/
6 (cast iron) (1952–1957)
6S (cast iron; suction carburetor) (1949–1957) http://sites.google.com/site/briggsmodel6sengine/
8 (cast iron) (1949–1957) http://sites.google.com/site/briggsnosmodel8/
9 (cast iron) (1949–1962)
14 (cast iron) (1948–196t3)
19 (cast iron) (1957–1965)
19D (cast iron) (1963–1965)
23 (cast iron) (1949–1957)
23A (cast iron) (1956–1965)l
23C (cast iron) (1961–1963)
23D (cast iron) (1963–1965)
191400 and 193400 (cast iron) (1965–1966)
200400 (cast iron) (1966–1974)
231400 (cast iron) (1965–1966)
233400 (cast iron) (1965–1991)
243400 (cast iron) (1965–1991)
300420 (cast iron) (1966–1971)
301430 (cast iron) (1971–1972)
302430 (cast iron) (1972–1977)
320420 (cast iron) (1969–1971)
325430 (cast iron) (1971–1972)
326430 (cast iron) (1972–1991)

text: Letter series

text: Cast iron block, flathead, with Gravity feed float carb unless otherwise noted

text:
A (1933–1948) http://sites.google.com/site/briggs1936modela/
B (1934-1948)
F (suction carb overhead valve) 1921-1922
FB (suction carb overhead valve) 1922-1925
FC (suction carb overhead valve) 1924-1925
FE (suction carb overhead valve) 1925 only
FG (overhead valve) 1927 only
FH (suction carb; overhead valve)(1925–1933) http://sites.google.com/site/briggsfh/home
FHI (float carb overhead valve) 1929 only
FI (overhead valve) (1927–1933)
FJ-1 (aluminum parts) 1929-1937 used exclusively on military generators
FJ-2 cast iron non-military version of FJ-1
H 1933-1940
I 1938–1949 https://sites.google.com/site/1944briggsandstrattonpe77d/
K 1933-1940
L (suction carb) 1930-1933
M 1930-1933
N (1940–1954)
P later PB (flathead exhaust overhead intake) 1920-1923(P) 1924-1935(PB)
Q 1925-1933 first flathead model
R 1929-1933
S 1930-1933 suction carb
T 1930-1933
U 1940-1945 suction carb
WA 1930-1932
WI (cast iron; suction carb) (1938–1957) http://sites.google.com/site/briggswiengine/home
WM (cast iron; suction carb) (1936–1941) (WM, standing for Washing Machine) http://sites.google.com/site/briggswmengine/
Y (cast iron) (1931–1940) http://sites.google.com/site/antiquebriggsandstratton/
Z and ZZ 1931-1948

text: Many variations and submodels were available on the basic series mentioned above. Some variations include - gear reducers (gears bolted to the back of the engine to slow the speed of the pto shaft) first offered in 1934, on the models A B K and Z later on I U N and WI. Designated by an "R" after the basic model, then a 2, 4, or 6 to designate the reduction ratio. - high speed models (higher intake capacity to run higher rpm) available on the A B K M R and Z series. designated with an "H" after the basic model. - light weight models (some aluminum parts to save weight) available on the A B I K R and Z series. Designated with an "L" after the basic model -inboard marine engines (special base, no governor, thrust bearing on pto side) available on models A B H I K N and Z. Designated with an "M" after the basic model. Some models also had forward neutral and reverse transmissions. These engines have an "T" or "G" after the "M"

text: Aluminum models[edit]

text:
6B (horizontal shaft) (1955–1958)
6BH (vertical shaft) (1953–1958)
6BHS (vertical shaft; suction carburetor) (1953–1958)
6BS (horizontal shaft; suction carburetor) (1955–1958)
8B (horizontal shaft) (1955–1958)
8BH (vertical shaft) (1953–1958)
60100 (horizontal shaft) (1958–1991)
80100 (horizontal shaft) (1958–1977)
80200 (horizontal shaft) (1960–1991) (horizontal shaft) and 190700 (vertical shaft) (1969–1997)
90000
100000
110000
120000
130000
140000 (horizontal shaft) (1958–1966)
170000
252410 (horizontal shaft) and 252700 (vertical shaft) (1977–1991)
280000
310000 OHV
400000 Twin Cylinder
420000 Twin Cylinder
460000 Twin Cylinder

text: Industrial/commercial models[edit]

text:
81300 and 81400 (horizontal shaft) (1979–1985)
82200 (horizontal shaft; Quiet Power) (1982–1994)
82300 and 82400 (horizontal shaft; Quiet Power) (1982–1994)
114900 (vertical shaft; Quiet Power) (1982–1991)
131200 (horizontal shaft) (1979–1985)
132200 (horizontal shaft; Quiet Power) (1982–1994)
131900 (vertical shaft) (1979–1989)
132900 (vertical shaft; Quiet Power) (1982–1995)
192700 and 193700 (vertical shaft) (1983–1994)
195400 (horizontal shaft) (1979–1994)
221400 (horizontal shaft) (1979–1985)
255400 (vertical shaft) (1984–1994)
281000 (vertical shaft) (1981-1991)
Briggs & Stratton/I/C 283H07-0399-E1 (050923AZ) (16-hp) (vertical shaft)-

text: Outboard motors[edit]

text: Briggs & Stratton/I/tC 130g32-0059-h1

text: Karting engines[edit]

text:
World Formula[1] 16 HP OHV
Animal 6.5 HP OHV
Raptor 5 HP flathead

text: 2 cycle engines[edit]

text: 084300 (Horizontal shaft) (1999-2011) Made under license for Toro as the R*TEK 141cc E Series Snow Thrower engine


document_title: History of poliomyelitis

question_text: where was the first documented case of polio

text: History of poliomyelitis

text: Early history[edit]

text: Ancient Egyptian paintings and carvings depict otherwise healthy people with withered limbs, and children walking with canes at a young age.[4] It is theorized that the Roman Emperor Claudius was stricken as a child, and this caused him to walk with a limp for the rest of his life.[5] Perhaps the earliest recorded case of poliomyelitis is that of Sir Walter Scott. In 1773 Scott was said to have developed "a severe teething fever which deprived him of the power of his right leg".[6] At the time, polio was not known to medicine. A retrospective diagnosis of polio is considered to be strong due to the detailed account Scott later made,[7] and the resultant lameness of his left leg had an important effect on his life and writing.[8]

text: The symptoms of poliomyelitis have been described by many names. In the early nineteenth century the disease was known variously as: Dental Paralysis, Infantile Spinal Paralysis, Essential Paralysis of Children, Regressive Paralysis, Myelitis of the Anterior Horns, Tephromyelitis (from the Greek tephros, meaning "ash-gray") and Paralysis of the Morning.[9] In 1789 the first clinical description of poliomyelitis was provided by the British physician Michael Underwood—he refers to polio as "a debility of the lower extremities".[10] The first medical report on poliomyelitis was by Jakob Heine, in 1840; he called the disease Lähmungszustände der unteren Extremitäten ("Paralysis of the lower Extremities").[11] Karl Oskar Medin was the first to empirically study a poliomyelitis epidemic in 1890.[12] This work, and the prior classification by Heine, led to the disease being known as Heine-Medin disease.

text: Epidemics[edit]

text: Major polio epidemics were unknown before the 20th century; localized paralytic polio epidemics began to appear in Europe and the United States around 1900.[1] The first report of multiple polio cases was published in 1843 and described an 1841 outbreak in Louisiana. A fifty-year gap occurs before the next U.S. report—a cluster of 26 cases in Boston in 1893.[1] The first recognized U.S. polio epidemic occurred the following year in Vermont with 132 total cases (18 deaths), including several cases in adults.[12] Numerous epidemics of varying magnitude began to appear throughout the country; by 1907 approximately 2,500 cases of poliomyelitis were reported in New York City.[13]

text:
Polio was a plague. One day you had a headache and an hour later you were paralyzed. How far the virus crept up your spine determined whether you could walk afterward or even breathe. Parents waited fearfully every summer to see if it would strike. One case turned up and then another. The count began to climb. The city closed the swimming pools and we all stayed home, cooped indoors, shunning other children. Summer seemed like winter then.[14]

Richard Rhodes, A Hole in the World

tag: div

text: On Saturday, June 17, 1916, an official announcement of the existence of an epidemic polio infection was made in Brooklyn, New York. That year, there were over 27,000 cases and more than 6,000 deaths due to polio in the United States, with over 2,000 deaths in New York City alone.[15] The names and addresses of individuals with confirmed polio cases were published daily in the press, their houses were identified with placards, and their families were quarantined.[16] Dr. Hiram M. Hiller, Jr. was one of the physicians in several cities who realized what they were dealing with, but the nature of the disease remained largely a mystery. The 1916 epidemic caused widespread panic and thousands fled the city to nearby mountain resorts; movie theaters were closed, meetings were canceled, public gatherings were almost nonexistent, and children were warned not to drink from water fountains, and told to avoid amusement parks, swimming pools, and beaches.[15] From 1916 onward, a polio epidemic appeared each summer in at least one part of the country, with the most serious occurring in the 1940s and 1950s.[1] In the epidemic of 1949, 2,720 deaths from the disease occurred in the United States and 42,173 cases were reported and Canada and the United Kingdom were also affected.[17][18]

text: Prior to the 20th century polio infections were rarely seen in infants before 6 months of age and most cases occurred in children 6 months to 4 years of age.[19] Young children who contract polio generally suffer only mild symptoms, but as a result they become permanently immune to the disease.[20] In developed countries during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, improvements were being made in community sanitation, including improved sewage disposal and clean water supplies. Better hygiene meant that infants and young children had fewer opportunities to encounter and develop immunity to polio. Exposure to poliovirus was therefore delayed until late childhood or adult life, when it was more likely to take the paralytic form.[19]

text: In children, paralysis due to polio occurs in one in 1000 cases, while in adults, paralysis occurs in one in 75 cases.[21] By 1950, the peak age incidence of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States had shifted from infants to children aged 5 to 9 years; about one-third of the cases were reported in persons over 15 years of age.[22] Accordingly, the rate of paralysis and death due to polio infection also increased during this time.[1] In the United States, the 1952 polio epidemic would be the worst outbreak in the nation's history, and is credited with heightening parents’ fears of the disease and focusing public awareness on the need for a vaccine.[23] Of the 57,628 cases reported that year 3,145 died and 21,269 were left with mild to disabling paralysis.[23][24]

text: Historical treatments[edit]

text: In the early 20th century—in the absence of proven treatments—a number of odd and potentially dangerous polio treatments were suggested. In John Haven Emerson's A Monograph on the Epidemic of Poliomyelitis (Infantile Paralysis) in New York City in 1916[25] one suggested remedy reads:

text:
“
Give oxygen through the lower extremities, by positive electricity. Frequent baths using almond meal, or oxidising the water. Applications of poultices of Roman chamomile, slippery elm, arnica, mustard, cantharis, amygdalae dulcis oil, and of special merit, spikenard oil and Xanthoxolinum. Internally use caffeine, Fl. Kola, dry muriate of quinine, elixir of cinchone, radium water, chloride of gold, liquor calcis and wine of pepsin.[26]
”

text: Following the 1916 epidemics and having experienced little success in treating polio patients, researchers set out to find new and better treatments for the disease. Between 1917 and the early 1950s several therapies were explored in an effort to prevent deformities including hydrotherapy and electrotherapy.[citation needed]

text: In 1935 Claus Jungeblut reported that vitamin C treatment inactivates the polio virus in vitro, making it non-infectious when injected into monkeys.[27] In 1937, Jungeblut injected polio into the brains of monkeys, and found that many more monkeys that also received vitamin C escaped paralysis than controls - the results seemed to indicate that low doses were more effective than high doses.[28] A subsequent study by Jungeblut demonstrated that polio infected monkeys had lower vitamin C levels than others, and that the monkeys that escaped paralysis had the highest vitamin C levels.[29] Jungeblut subsequently confirmed his findings in a larger study, finding that natural vitamin C was more effective than synthetic vitamin C, and as the disease progressed, larger and larger amounts of vitamin C were needed for therapeutic effect.[30]

text: In 1939, Albert Sabin reported that an experiment, employing the technique of "forcefully expelling the total amount [of Polio] in the direction of the olfactory mucosa, immediately drawing it back into the pipette, and repeating the process 2 to 3 times",[31] was unable to confirm the results of Jungeblut, but found that "monkeys on a scorbutic diet died of spontaneous acute infections, chiefly pneumonia and enterocolitis, while their mates receiving an adequate diet remained well."[32] Following this, Jungeblut found that "with an infection of maximum severity, induced by flooding the nasal portal of entry with large amounts of virus, vitamin C administration fails to exert any demonstrable influence on the course of the disease, but with a less forceful method of droplet instillation, the picture of the disease in control animals becomes so variable that the results cannot be easily interpreted; but the available data suggest that vitamin C treatment may be a factor in converting abortive attacks into an altogether non-paralytic infection."[33] In 1979, R.J. Salo and D.O. Cliver inactivated Poliovirus type 1 by sodium bisulfite and ascorbic acid in an experiment.[34]

text: In 1949-1953 Fred R. Klenner published his own clinical experience with vitamin C in the treatment of polio,[35][36][37][38] however his work was not well received[citation needed] and no large clinical trials were ever performed.

text: Surgical treatments such as nerve grafting, tendon lengthening, tendon transfers, and limb lengthening and shortening were used extensively during this time.[39][40] Patients with residual paralysis were treated with braces and taught to compensate for lost function with the help of calipers, crutches and wheelchairs. The use of devices such as rigid braces and body casts, which tended to cause muscle atrophy due to the limited movement of the user, were also touted as effective treatments.[41] Massage and passive motion exercises were also used to treat polio victims.[40] Most of these treatments proved to be of little therapeutic value, however several effective supportive measures for the treatment of polio did emerge during these decades including the iron lung, an anti-polio antibody serum, and a treatment regimen developed by Sister Elizabeth Kenny.[42]

text: Iron lung[edit]

text: The first iron lung used in the treatment of polio victims was invented by Philip Drinker, Louis Agassiz Shaw, and James Wilson at Harvard, and tested October 12, 1928, at Children's Hospital, Boston.[43] The original Drinker iron lung was powered by an electric motor attached to two vacuum cleaners, and worked by changing the pressure inside the machine. When the pressure is lowered, the chest cavity expands, trying to fill this partial vacuum. When the pressure is raised the chest cavity contracts. This expansion and contraction mimics the physiology of normal breathing. The design of the iron lung was subsequently improved by using a bellows attached directly to the machine, and John Haven Emerson modified the design to make production less expensive.[43] The Emerson Iron Lung was produced until 1970.[44] Other respiratory aids were used such as the Bragg-Paul Pulsator, and the "rocking bed" for patients with less critical breathing difficulties.[45]

text: During the polio epidemics, the iron lung saved many thousands of lives, but the machine was large, cumbersome and very expensive:[46] in the 1930s, an iron lung cost about $1,500—about the same price as the average home.[47] The cost of running the machine was also prohibitive, as patients were encased in the metal chambers for months, years and sometimes for life:[44] even with an iron lung the fatality rate for patients with bulbar polio exceeded 90%.[48]

text: These drawbacks led to the development of more modern positive-pressure ventilators and the use of positive-pressure ventilation by tracheostomy. Positive pressure ventilators reduced mortality in bulbar patients from 90% to 20%.[49] In the Copenhagen epidemic of 1952, large numbers of patients were ventilated by hand ("bagged") by medical students and anyone else on hand, because of the large number of bulbar polio patients and the small number of ventilators available.[50]

text: Passive immunotherapy[edit]

text: In 1950 William Hammon at the University of Pittsburgh isolated serum, containing antibodies against poliovirus, from the blood of polio survivors.[42] The serum, Hammon believed, would prevent the spread of polio and to reduce the severity of disease in polio patients.[51] Between September 1951 and July 1952 nearly 55,000 children were involved in a clinical trial of the anti-polio serum.[52] The results of the trial were promising; the serum was shown to be about 80% effective in preventing the development of paralytic poliomyelitis, and protection was shown to last for 5 weeks if given under tightly controlled circumstances.[53] The serum was also shown to reduce the severity of the disease in patients who developed polio.[42]

text: The large-scale use of antibody serum to prevent and treat polio had a number of drawbacks, however, including the observation that the immunity provided by the serum did not last long, and the protection offered by the antibody was incomplete, that re-injection was required during each epidemic outbreak, and that the optimal time frame for administration was unknown.[51] The antibody serum was widely administered, but obtaining the serum was an expensive and time-consuming process, and the focus of the medical community soon shifted to the development of a polio vaccine.[54]

text: Kenny regimen[edit]

text: Early management practices for paralyzed muscles emphasized the need to rest the affected muscles and suggested that the application of splints would prevent tightening of muscle, tendons, ligaments, or skin that would prevent normal movement. Many paralyzed polio patients lay in plaster body casts for months at a time. This prolonged casting often resulted in atrophy of both affected and unaffected muscles.[4]

text: In 1940, Sister Elizabeth Kenny, an Australian bush nurse from Queensland, arrived in North America and challenged this approach to treatment. In treating polio cases in rural Australia between 1928 and 1940, Kenny had developed a form of physical therapy that—instead of immobilizing afflicted limbs—aimed to relieve pain and spasms in polio patients through the use of hot, moist packs to relieve muscle spasm and early activity and exercise to maximize the strength of unaffected muscle fibers and promote the neuroplastic recruitment of remaining nerve cells that had not been killed by the virus.[41] Sister Kenny later settled in Minnesota where she established the Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute, beginning a world-wide crusade to advocate her system of treatment. Slowly, Kenny's ideas won acceptance, and by the mid-20th century had become the hallmark for the treatment of paralytic polio.[39] In combination with antispasmodic medications to reduce muscular contractions, Kenny's therapy is still used in the treatment of paralytic poliomyelitis.

text: In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Kenny regimen for polio treatment was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as an iconic "innovation and invention".[55]

text: Vaccine development[edit]

text: In 1935 Maurice Brodie, a research assistant at New York University, attempted to produce a polio vaccine, procured from virus in ground up monkey spinal cords, and killed by formaldehyde. Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants. He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children. Many developed allergic reactions, but none of the children developed an immunity to polio.[56] During the late 1940s and early 1950s, a research group, headed by John Enders at the Boston Children's Hospital, successfully cultivated the poliovirus in human tissue. This significant breakthrough ultimately allowed for the development of the polio vaccines. Enders and his colleagues, Thomas H. Weller and Frederick C. Robbins, were recognized for their labors with the Nobel Prize in 1954.[57]

text: Two vaccines are used throughout the world to combat polio. The first was developed by Jonas Salk, first tested in 1952, and announced to the world by Salk on April 12, 1955.[54] The Salk vaccine, or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), consists of an injected dose of killed poliovirus. In 1954, the vaccine was tested for its ability to prevent polio; the field trials involving the Salk vaccine would grow to be the largest medical experiment in history. Immediately following licensing, vaccination campaigns were launched, by 1957, following mass immunizations promoted by the March of Dimes the annual number of polio cases in the United States would be dramatically reduced, from a peak of nearly 58,000 cases, to just 5,600 cases.[12]

text: Eight years after Salk's success, Albert Sabin developed an oral polio vaccine (OPV) using live but weakened (attenuated) virus.[58] Human trials of Sabin's vaccine began in 1957 and it was licensed in 1962. Following the development of oral polio vaccine, a second wave of mass immunizations would lead to a further decline in the number of cases: by 1961, only 161 cases were recorded in the United States.[59] The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of poliovirus in the United States were in 1979, when an outbreak occurred among the Amish in several Midwestern states.[60]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Early in the 20th century polio would become the world's most feared disease. The disease hit without warning, tended to strike white, affluent individuals, required long quarantine periods during which parents were separated from children: it was impossible to tell who would get the disease and who would be spared.[12] The consequences of the disease left polio victims marked for life, leaving behind vivid images of wheelchairs, crutches, leg braces, breathing devices, and deformed limbs. However, polio changed not only the lives of those who survived it, but also affected profound cultural changes: the emergence of grassroots fund-raising campaigns that would revolutionize medical philanthropy, the rise of rehabilitation therapy and, through campaigns for the social and civil rights of the disabled, polio survivors helped to spur the modern disability rights movement.

text: In addition, the occurrence of polio epidemics led to a number of public health innovations. One of the most widespread was the proliferation of "no spitting" ordinances in the United States and elsewhere.[61]

text: Philanthropy[edit]

text: In 1921 Franklin D. Roosevelt became totally and permanently paralyzed from the waist down. Although the paralysis (whether from poliomyelitis, as diagnosed at the time, or from Guillain–Barré syndrome) had no cure at the time, Roosevelt, who had planned a life in politics, refused to accept the limitations of his disease. He tried a wide range of therapies, including hydrotherapy in Warm Springs, Georgia (see below). In 1938 Roosevelt helped to found the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (now known as the March of Dimes), that raised money for the rehabilitation of victims of paralytic polio, and was instrumental in funding the development of polio vaccines. The March of Dimes changed the way it approached fund-raising. Rather than soliciting large contributions from a few wealthy individuals, the March of Dimes sought small donations from millions of individuals. Its hugely successful fund-raising campaigns collected hundreds of millions of dollars—more than all of the U.S. charities at the time combined (with the exception of the Red Cross).[62] By 1955 the March of Dimes had invested $25.5 million in research;[63] funding both Jonas Salk's and Albert Sabin's vaccine development; the 1954–55 field trial of vaccine, and supplies of free vaccine for thousands of children.[47]

text: In 1952, during the worst recorded epidemic, 3,145 people, including 1,873 children, in the United States died from polio.[64] That same year over 200,000 people (including 4,000 children) died of cancer and 20,000 (including 1,500 children) died of tuberculosis.[64] According to David Oshinsky's book Polio: An American Story: "There is evidence that the March of Dimes over-hyped polio, and promoted an image of immediately curable polio victims, which was not true. The March of Dimes refused to partner with other charity organizations like the United Way."[62]

text: Rehabilitation therapy[edit]

text: Prior to the polio scares of the 20th century, most rehabilitation therapy was focused on treating injured soldiers returning from war. The crippling effects of polio led to heightened awareness and public support of physical rehabilitation, and in response a number of rehabilitation centers specifically aimed at treating polio patients were opened, with the task of restoring and building the remaining strength of polio victims and teaching new, compensatory skills to large numbers of newly paralyzed individuals.[46]

text: In 1926, Franklin Roosevelt, convinced of the benefits of hydrotherapy, bought a resort at Warm Springs, Georgia, where he founded the first modern rehabilitation center for treatment of polio patients which still operates as the Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation.[65]

text: The cost of polio rehabilitation was often more than the average family could afford, and more than 80% of the nation's polio patients would receive funding through the March of Dimes.[62] Some families also received support through philanthropic organizations such as the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine fraternity, which established a network of pediatric hospitals in 1919, the Shriners Hospitals for Children, to provide care free of charge for children with polio.[66]

text: Disability rights movement[edit]

text: As thousands of polio survivors with varying degrees of paralysis left the rehabilitation hospitals and went home, to school and to work, many were frustrated by a lack of accessibility and discrimination they experienced in their communities. In the early 20th century the use of a wheelchair at home or out in public was a daunting prospect as no public transportation system accommodated wheelchairs and most public buildings including schools, were inaccessible to those with disabilities. Many children left disabled by polio were forced to attend separate institutions for "crippled children" or had to be carried up and down stairs.[65]

text: As people who had been paralyzed by polio matured, they began to demand the right to participate in the mainstream of society. Polio survivors were often in the forefront of the disability rights movement that emerged in the United States during the 1970s, and pushed legislation such as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 which protected qualified individuals from discrimination based on their disability, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.[65][67] Other political movements led by polio survivors include the Independent Living and Universal design movements of the 1960s and 1970s.[68]

text: Polio survivors are one of the largest disabled groups in the world. The World Health Organization estimates that there are 10 to 20 million polio survivors worldwide.[69] In 1977, the National Health Interview Survey reported that there were 254,000 persons living in the United States who had been paralyzed by polio.[70] According to local polio support groups and doctors, some 40,000 polio survivors with varying degrees of paralysis live in Germany, 30,000 in Japan, 24,000 in France, 16,000 in Australia, 12,000 in Canada and 12,000 in the United Kingdom.[69]