document_title: List of time periods

question_text: what is the time period before the middle ages

text: List of time periods

text: Human time periods[edit]

text: These can be divided broadly into prehistorical (before history began to be recorded) and historical periods (when written records began to be kept).

text: In archaeology and anthropology, prehistory is subdivided around the three-age system. This list includes the use of the three-age system as well as a number of various designation used in reference to sub-ages within the traditional three.

text: The dates for each age can vary by region. On the geologic time scale, the Holocene epoch starts at the end of the last glacial period of the current ice age (c.10,000 BC) and continues to the present. The beginning of Mesolithic is usually considered to correspond to the beginning of the Holocene epoch.

text: General periods[edit]

text:
Prehistory – Period between the appearance of Homo ("humans"; first stone tools c. three million years ago) and the invention of writing systems (for the Ancient Near East: c. five thousand years ago).

Stone Age

Paleolithic – is the earliest period of the Stone Age

Lower Paleolithic — time of archaic human species, predates Homo sapiens
Middle Paleolithic — coexistence of archaic and anatomically modern human species
Upper Paleolithic — worldwide expansion of anatomically modern humans, disappearance of archaic humans by extinction or admixture with modern humans; earliest evidence for pictorial art.

Mesolithic (Epipaleolithic) – was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods.
Neolithic – a period of primitive technological and social development, beginning about 10,200 BC in parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world.
Chalcolithic (or "Eneolithic", "Copper Age") – this period was still largely Neolithic in character, where early copper metallurgy appeared alongside the use of stone tools.

Bronze Age – is not part of prehistory for all regions and civilizations who had adopted or developed a writing system.
Iron Age – is not part of prehistory for all civilizations who had introduced written records during the Bronze Age.

Protohistory – Period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing but other cultures have already noted its existence in their own writings; the absolute time scale of "protohistory" varies widely depending on the region, from the late 4th millennium BCE in the Ancient Near East to the present in the case of uncontacted peoples.
Ancient history – Aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly less than five thousand years, beginning with the earliest linguistic records in the third millennium BC in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Classical antiquity – Broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.

Post-classical history – Period of time that immediately followed ancient history. Depending on the continent, the era generally falls between the years CE 200–600 and CE 1200–1500. The major classical civilizations the era follows are Han China (ending in 220), the Western Roman Empire (in 476), the Gupta Empire (in the 550s), and the Sasanian Empire (in 651).

Middle Ages (also called Dark Ages) – Lasted from the 5th to the 14th century. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and is variously demarcated by historians as ending with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, merging into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery.

Early Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages

Modern history – After the post-classical era

Early modern period – The chronological limits of this period are open to debate. It emerges from the Late Middle Ages (c. 1500), demarcated by historians as beginning with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, in forms such as the Italian Renaissance in the West, the Ming Dynasty in the East, and the rise of the Aztec in the New World. The period ends with the beginning of the Age of Revolutions.
Late modern period – Began approximately in the mid-18th century; notable historical milestones included the French Revolution, the American Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and the Great Divergence.

Machine Age (1880–1945)

Age of Oil (1901–present)
World War I (1914–1918)
Interwar period (1918–1939)

Roaring Twenties (1920–1929)
Great Depression (1929–1939)

World War II (1939–1945)

Contemporary history – History within living memory. It shifts forward with the generations, and today is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are immediately relevant to the present time. For example, the Post-Modern movement (Soviet Union and United States, 1973–present)

Socio-cultural periods

The Forties (1940–1949)
The Fifties (1950–1959)
The Sixties (1960–1969)
The Seventies (1970–1979)
The Eighties (1980–1989)
The Nineties (1990–1999)
The Two Thousands (2000–2009)
The Tens (2010–2019)
The Twenties (2020-2029)

Technology periods

Jet Age (1940s)
Atomic Age (1945–present)
The Nuclear Age (1950–present) [2]
Digital Revolution (1950s–present)
Space Age (1957–present)
Information Age (1970–present)

The Multimedia Age (1987–present)
The Social Age (1996–present)
The Big Data age (2001–present)[3]

Contemporary wars

Post-war era (1946–1962)

Cold War (Soviet Union and United States, and their allies, 1945–1991)

Korean War (1950–1953)
Vietnam War (1955–1975)

Bosnian War (1992–1995)
War on Terrorism (2001–present)
War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)
War in Iraq (2003–2011)

text: American periods[edit]

text:
Classic and Postclassic eras, Central America (200–1519)
Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, Late Intermediate, Late Horizon (Peru, 200–1534)

Huari, Chimú, Chincha, Chanka people, Tiwanaku, Inca

Baroque (New World, 1600–1750)
Spanish hegemony (Americas, 16th century – 1820s)
Reconstruction era (United States, 1865–1877)
Gilded Age (United States, 1875–1900)
Progressive Era (United States, 1890s–1920s)
Jazz Age (United States, 1920s–1930s)
Information Age (United States, 1970–present)

Modern age
Postmodern age

text: Southeast Asian periods[edit]

text:
Srivijaya (Indonesia, 3rd – 14th centuries), Tarumanagara (358–723), Sailendra (8th and 9th centuries), Kingdom of Sunda (669–1579), Kingdom of Mataram (752–1045), Kediri (1045–1221), Singhasari (1222–1292), Majapahit (1293–1500)
Chenla (Cambodia, 630 – 802) and Khmer Empire (Cambodia, 802–1432)
Anterior Lý Dynasty and Triệu Việt Vương, Third Chinese domination, Khúc Family, Dương Đình Nghệ, Kiều Công Tiễn, Ngô Dynasty, The 12 Lords Rebellion, Đinh Dynasty, Prior Lê Dynasty, Lý Dynasty, Trần Dynasty, Hồ Dynasty, Fourth Chinese domination (Vietnam, 544–1427)

text: Filipino periods[edit]

text:
Neolithic-Iron Age (c.10,000 BC – AD 900)
Archaic period (AD 900–1521)
Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)
American Colonial Period (1898–1946)
Sovereign Era (1946–present)
Marcos era Martial Law (1972–1982)
People power EDSA revolution (1986)
Post Martial Law (1986–present)

text: Chinese periods[edit]

text:
Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (2852–2070 BCE)
Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BCE)
Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE)
Zhou dynasty (1046–221 BCE)

Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE)
Eastern Zhou (771–221 BCE)

Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE)
Warring States period (476–221 BCE)

Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)

Western Han (206 BCE – 2 CE)
Xin dynasty (9–23 CE)
Eastern Han (25–220 CE)

Six Dynasties (220–580)

Three Kingdoms (220–265)
Jin Dynasty (265–420)
Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–580)

Sui Dynasty (580–618)
Tang Dynasty (623–907)
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960)
Song Dynasty (960–1279)

Northern Song (960–1127), Liao Dynasty (907–1115)
Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227)
Southern Song (1127–1279), Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)
Republic of China (1912–1949)

Xinhai Revolution (1911–1912)
Warlord Era (1918–1927)
Chinese Civil War (1927-1936/1946-1950)
Second Sino-Japanese War (1931–1945)

People's Republic of China (1949–present)

text: Central Asian periods[edit]

text:
Xiongnu (Mongolia, 220 BC – AD 200)
Rouran Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Xianbei, AD 330 – 555)

Sixteen Kingdoms (Xianbei, Turkic peoples, 304 – 439)

Uyghur Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Tibet, 744 – 848)
Liao Dynasty (Khitan people, 907 – 1125)
Mongol Empire (Mongolia, 1206 – 1380)
Qing dynasty (Manchu China, 1692 – 1911)

text: Egyptian periods[edit]

text:
Old Kingdom (3000 BC – 2000 BC)
Middle Kingdom (2000 BC – 1300 BC)
New Kingdom (1550 BC – 1070 BC)
Ptolemaic Kingdom (305 BC – 30 BC)
Aegyptus (30 BC – 390 AD)
Coptic period (300 AD – 900 AD)
Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)
Ayyubid Dynasty (1171–1250)
Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)
Ottoman Eyalet (1517–1867)
Khedivate (1867–1914)

text: European periods[edit]

text:
Bronze Age (c.3000 BC – c.1050 BC)

Early Aegean Civilisation (Crete, Greece and Near East; c.3000 BC – c.1050 BC)[4]

Iron Age (c.1050 BC – c.500 AD)

Greek expansion and colonisation (c.1050 BC – 776 BC)
Archaic Greece (776 BC – 480 BC) – begins with the First Olympiad, traditionally dated 776 BC

Archaic period (776 BC – 612 BC) – establishment of city states in Greece
Pre-classical period (612 BC – 480 BC) – the fall of Nineveh to the second Persian invasion of Greece

Classical antiquity (480 BC – 476 AD)

Classical Greece (480 BC – 399 BC)
Macedonian era (399 BC – 323 BC)
Hellenistic Greece (323 BC – 146 BC)
Late Roman Republic (147 BC – 27 BC)
Principate of the Roman Empire (27 BC – 284 AD)
Late Antiquity (284 AD – 500 AD)

Migration Period (Europe, 300 AD – 700 AD)

Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1453)

Byzantine era (330–1453)
Early Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1066)

Dark Ages (Europe, 476 – 800)
Viking Age (Scandinavia, Europe, 793 – 1066)

High Middle Ages (Europe, 1066 – c.1300)
Late Middle Ages (Europe, c.1300 – 1453)
The Renaissance (Europe, c.1300 – c.1600)

Early modern period (Europe, 1453 – 1789)

Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, c.1400 – 1770)
Polish Golden Age (Poland, 1507 – 1572)
Golden Age of Piracy 1650 – 1730
Elizabethan era (United Kingdom, 1558 – 1603)
Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century)
Classicism (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries)
Industrious Revolution, (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries)
Jacobean era (United Kingdom, 1603 – 1625)
Petrine Era (Russia, 1689 – 1725)
Age of Enlightenment (or Reason) (Europe, 18th century)

Long nineteenth century (1789–1914)

Georgian era (United Kingdom, 1714 – 1830)
Industrial Revolution (Europe, United States, elsewhere 18th and 19th centuries)
Age of European colonialism and imperialism
Romantic era (1770–1850)
Napoleonic era (1799–1815)
Victorian era (United Kingdom, 1837 – 1901); British hegemony (1815-1914) much of world, around the same time period.
Edwardian era (United Kingdom, 1901 – 1914)

First and Second World Wars (1914–1945)
Cold War (1945–1991)
Post-Cold War / Postmodernity (1991 – present)

text: Indian periods[edit]

text:
Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC – 1300 BC)
Vedic period (1500 BC – 500 BC)

Mahajanapada kingdoms

Maurya Empire (321 BC – 185 BC)
Kushan Empire (185 BC – 220 AD), Satavahana Empire (230 BC – 220 AD),
Gupta Empire (320 AD – 535 AD)
Vakatak Empire (300AD −650 AD)
Middle kingdoms of India (1 AD – 1279 AD)

Pala Empire (750–1174)

Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Hoysala Empire (1026 –1343), Kakatiya Empire (1083–1323)

Medieval India (1206–1526)

Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646), Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541), Reddy dynasty (1325–1448)

Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
British Raj (1858–1947)
Independence (1947–present)

text: Japanese periods[edit]

text:
Jōmon period (10,501 BC – 400 BC)
Yayoi period (450 BC – 250 AD)
Kofun period (250–600)
Asuka period (643–710)
Nara period (743–794)
Heian period (795–1185)
Kamakura period (1185–1333)
Muromachi period (1333–1573)[5]
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603)
Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)
Meiji period (1868–1912)
Taishō period (1912–1926)
Shōwa period (1945–1989)

Post-occupation era (1952 – present)

Heisei period (1989–present)

text: Middle Eastern periods[edit]

text:
Ancient Near East (Sumer, 3100 BC – 500 BC)

Jemdet Nasr period (3100 BC – 2900 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (2900 BC – 2270 BC)
Akkadian Empire (2270 BC – 2083 BC)
Gutian Dynasty (2083 BC – 2050 BC)
Sumerian renaissance (2050 BC – 1940 BC)
First Babylonian Dynasty (1830 BC – 1531 BC), Hittites (1800 BC – 1178 BC)
Kassites (1531 BC – 1135 BC), Mitanni (1500 BC – 1300 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Empire (934 BC – 609 BC)
Neo-Babylonian Empire (626 BC – 539 BC), Medes (678 BC – 549 BC)

Persian Empires (550 BC – 651 AD)

Achaemenid Empire (550 BC – 330 BC)
Conquered by Macedonian Empire (330 BC – 312 BC)
Seleucid Empire (312 BC – 63 BC)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD)
Sasanian Empire (224 AD – 651 AD)

Islamicate periods[6] (7th – 21st centuries[citation needed])

High Caliphate (685–945)[7]
Earlier Middle Period (945–1250)[6]
Later Middle Period (1250–1500)[6]
Islamic Golden Age (c. 8th–13th century)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)

Buyid dynasty (934–1055)
Seljuq dynasty (1055–1171)
Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1341)

Ottoman Empire (1300–1923), Safavid Empire (1501–1736)

text: Mythological and astrological time periods[edit]

text:
Astrological ages

Age of Taurus
Age of Aries
Age of Aquarius

Greek mythology (See also: Ages of Man)

Golden Age, self-sufficient
Silver Age, self-indulgent
Bronze Age, warlike
Heroic Age, nobly aspirant
Iron Age, violent

Aztec mythology

Nahui-Ocelotl, Destroyed by Jaguars
Nahui-Ehécatl, Destroyed by Hurricane
Nahuiquiahuitl, Destroyed by rain of Fire
Nahui-Atl, Destroyed by Flood
Nahui-Ollin, the one we are in now, Destroyed by Earthquakes (the end was said to be in 2012, but that did not occur)

text: Marxian stages of history[edit]

text: The Marxian theory of history identifies five major distinct periods of history:[8][9][10][11][12]

text: Primitive communism[edit]

text: The First Stage: is usually called primitive communism. It has the following characteristics.

text:
Shared property: there is no concept of ownership beyond individual possessions. All is shared by the tribe to ensure its survival.[citation needed]
Hunting and gathering: tribal societies have yet to develop large scale agriculture and so their survival is a daily struggle.[citation needed]
Proto-democracy: there is usually no concept of "leadership" yet. So tribes are led by the best warrior if there is war, the best diplomat if they have steady contact with other tribes and so forth.

text: Slave society[edit]

text: The Second Stage: may be called slave society, considered to be the beginning of "class society" where private property appears.

text:
Class: here the idea of class appears. There is always a slave-owning ruling class and the slaves themselves.
Statism: the state develops during this stage as a tool for the slave-owners to use and control the slaves.
Agriculture: people learn to cultivate plants and animals on a large enough scale to support large populations.
Democracy and authoritarianism: these opposites develop at the same stage. Democracy arises first with the development of the republican city-state, followed by the totalitarian empire.
Private property: citizens now own more than personal property. Land ownership is especially important during a time of agricultural development.

text: Feudalism[edit]

text: The Third Stage: may be called feudalism; it appears after slave society collapses. This was most obvious during the European Middle Ages when society went from slavery to feudalism.

text:
Aristocracy: the state is ruled by monarchs who inherit their positions, or at times marry or conquer their ways into leadership.
Theocracy: this is a time of largely religious rule. When there is only one religion in the land and its organizations affect all parts of daily life.
Hereditary classes: castes can sometimes form and one's class is determined at birth with no form of advancement. This was the case with India.
Nation-state: nations are formed from the remnants of the fallen empires. Sometimes, they rebuild themselves into empires once more; this was the case with England's transition from a province to an empire.

text: Capitalism[edit]

text: Capitalism may be considered the Fourth Stage in the sequence. Marx pays special attention to this stage in human development. The bulk of his work is devoted to analysing the mechanisms of capitalism, which in western society classically arose "red in tooth and claw" from feudal society in a revolutionary movement. In capitalism, the profit motive rules and people, freed from serfdom, work for the capitalists for wages. The capitalist class are free to spread their laissez faire practices around the world. In the capitalist-controlled parliament, laws are made to protect wealth.

text: Capitalism appears after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrow the feudal system, and it is categorized by the following:

text:
Market economy: In capitalism, the entire economy is guided by market forces. Supporters of laissez-faire economics argue that there should be little or no intervention from the government under capitalism. Marxists, however, such as Lenin in his Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, argue that the capitalist government is a powerful instrument for the furtherance of capitalism and the capitalist nation-state, particularly in the conquest of markets abroad.
Private property: The means of production are no longer in the hands of the monarchy and its nobles, but rather they are controlled by the capitalists. The capitalists control the means of production through commercial enterprises (such as corporations) which aim to maximise profit.
Parliamentary democracy: The capitalists tend to govern through an elected centralised parliament or congress, rather than under an autocracy. Capitalist (bourgeois) democracy, although it may be extended to the whole population, does not necessarily lead to universal suffrage. Historically it has excluded (by force, segregation, legislation or other means) sections of the population such as women, slaves, ex-slaves, people of colour or those on low income. The government acts on behalf of, and is controlled by, the capitalists through various methods.
Wages: In capitalism, workers are rewarded according to their contract with their employer. Power elites propagate the illusion that market forces mean wages converge to an equilibrium at which workers are paid for precisely the value of their services. In reality workers are paid less than the value of their productivity — the difference forming profit for the employer. In this sense all paid employment is exploitation and the worker is "alienated" from their work. Insofar as the profit-motive drives the market, it is impossible for workers to be paid for the full value of their labour, as all employers will act in the same manner.
Imperialism: Wealthy countries seek to dominate poorer countries in order to gain access to raw materials and to provide captive markets for finished products. This is done directly through war, the threat of war, or the export of capital. The capitalist's control over the state can play an essential part in the development of capitalism, to the extent the state directs warfare and other foreign intervention.
Financial institutions: Banks and capital markets such as stock exchanges direct unused capital to where it is needed. They reduce barriers to entry in all markets, especially to the poor; it is in this way that banks dramatically improve class mobility.
Monopolistic tendencies: The natural, unrestrained market forces will create monopolies from the most successful commercial entities.

text: But according to Marx, capitalism, like slave society and feudalism, also has critical failings — inner contradictions which will lead to its downfall. The working class, to which the capitalist class gave birth in order to produce commodities and profits, is the "grave digger" of capitalism. The worker is not paid the full value of what he or she produces. The rest is surplus value — the capitalist's profit, which Marx calls the "unpaid labour of the working class." The capitalists are forced by competition to attempt to drive down the wages of the working class to increase their profits, and this creates conflict between the classes, and gives rise to the development of class consciousness in the working class. The working class, through trade union and other struggles, becomes conscious of itself as an exploited class. In the view of classical Marxism, the struggles of the working class against the attacks of the capitalist class will eventually lead the working class to establish its own collective control over production

text: Socialism[edit]

text: After the working class gains class consciousness and mounts a revolution against the capitalists, socialism, which may be considered the Fifth Stage, will be attained, if the workers are successful. Marxist socialism may be characterised as follows:

text:
Common property: the means of production are taken from the hands of a few capitalists and put in the hands of the workers. This translates into the democratic communes controlling the means of production.
Council democracy: Marx, basing himself on a thorough study of Paris Commune, believed that the workers would govern themselves through system of communes. He called this the dictatorship of the proletariat, which, overthrowing the dictatorship (governance) of capital, would democratically plan production and the resources of the planet.

text: Marx explained that, since socialism, the first stage of communism, would be "in every respect, economically, morally, and intellectually, still stamped with the birthmarks of the old society from whose womb it emerges", each worker would naturally expect to be awarded according to the amount of labor he contributes, despite the fact that each worker's ability and family circumstances would differ, so that the results would still be unequal at this stage, although fully supported by social provision.

text: Geologic time periods[edit]

text: The geologic time scale covers the extent of the existence of Earth, from about 4600 million years ago to the present day. It is marked by Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Geologic time units are (in order of descending specificity) eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages; and the corresponding chronostratigraphic units, which measure "rock-time", are eonothems, erathems, systems, series, and stages.

text: The second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks. The Cenozoic is sometimes divided into the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, although the latter is no longer used officially.

text: Cosmological time periods[edit]

text: 13.8 billion years ago: The Big Bang Theory (the universe's beginnings)[edit]

text:
Time Period
Duration
Description

Planck epoch
From the start to 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang
Very little concrete information is known about this epoch. Different theories propose different views on this particular time.

Grand unification epoch
Between 10−43 to 10−36 seconds after the Big Bang
The result of the universe expanding and cooling down during the Planck epoch. All fundamental forces except gravity are unified.

Electroweak epoch
Between 10−36 seconds to 10−12 seconds after the Big Bang
The universe cools down to 1028 kelvin. The fundamental forces are split into the strong force and the electroweak force.

Inflationary epoch
Between 10−36 seconds to 10−32 seconds after the Big Bang
The shape of the universe flattens due to cosmic inflation.

Quark epoch
Between 10−12 seconds to 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang
Cosmic inflation has ended. Quarks are present in the universe at this point. The electroweak force is divided again into the weak force and electromagnetic force.

Hadron epoch
Between 10−6 seconds to 1 second after the Big Bang
The universe has cooled enough for quarks to form hadrons, protons, neutrons.

Lepton epoch
Between 1 second to 10 seconds after the Big Bang
Most hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilate each other, leaving behind leptons and anti-leptons.

Photon epoch
Between 10 seconds to 370,000 years after the Big Bang
Most leptons and anti-leptons annihilate each other. The universe is dominated by photons.

Nucleosynthesis
Between 3 minutes to 20 minutes after the Big Bang
The temperature of the universe has cooled down enough to allow atomic nuclei to form via nuclear fusion.

Recombination
About 377,000 years after the Big Bang
Hydrogen and helium atoms form.

Reionization
Between 150 million and 1 billion years after the Big Bang
The first stars and quasars form due to gravitational collapse.

tag: table


document_title: Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

question_text: parc v commonwealth of pennsylvania 1972 granted a free and appropriate public education to

root

text: The Argument[edit]

text: The argument of the case was that all children, whether having an intellectual disability or not, could benefit from any type of free training or education. It was also argued that not having free educational resources will negatively effect the way a child develops. Although children with intellectual disability would benefit differently than other children, they would be able to develop levels of self-care. Furthermore, the more education they received, the more they could continue to benefit. Pennsylvania's education laws at that time allowed the students' rights of due process to be denied along with a free public education. This was argued by the plaintiffs to be both unlawful and unjust.[2]

tag: p

text: The Plaintiffs[edit]

text: The plaintiffs in the case are the Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens and the families of children with intellectual disabilities who were denied an education.

text: The Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) is a non-profit organization created in 1949 with goals of advancing the interests of citizens with intellectual and developmental disabilities (I/DD) in Pennsylvania, along with ensuring that people with I/DD get their share and equal resources that is given to all citizens of the state. During the time of the case, PARC had member chapters in 53 out of the 67 counties in Pennsylvania. The PARC chapters ran education programs for children with intellectual disabilities and had been doing so for up to 20 years before the case.[4]

text: The families that sued along with the PARC all had children that were of school age (6-21), were identified as having an intellectual disability, and were denied free public education from the state of Pennsylvania due to an intellectual disability. All of the families claimed that their child would benefit from the free education they had so wrongfully been denied. Each family had also elected their child to be entered into public schools. Thirteen families sued all together.[5]

text: The Defendants[edit]

text: 1) The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania - overall responsible for the education of Pennsylvania's children[4]

text: 2) David H. Kurtzman - Pennsylvania's Secretary of Education

text: 3) The State Board of Education

text: 4) Joseph Adlestine - Acting Secretary of Public Welfare of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

text: 5) the following school districts of Pennsylvania:

text:
Philadelphia School District
Allegheny County School District
West Homestead School District
Berks County School District
Governor Mifflin School District
Shaler Township School District
Wilson School District
Marple - Newtown School District
Pittsburgh School District
Reading School District
Susquehanna County School District
Mountain - View School District

tag: ul

text: Ruling[edit]

text: Early in 1972 the two sides settled after the evidence that was provided had been evaluated. A consent decree was given by the U.S. District Court Judge Masterson that ruled the existing law restricting kids ages six to twenty-one years of age was unconstitutional. It was also stated that Pennsylvania was responsible for providing free public education to all children; that meant that no child, regardles of their disability, could be turned down by the Commonwealth to the access of free public trainings and educational programs. The quality of the education and training given to the children with disabilities had to match that of the education and training given to general students.[1]

text: After the case[edit]

text: Pennsylvania was not the only state at the time with legislation that restricted education to students with disabilities. Other states enforced similar laws. However, Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Citizens (PARC) v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, was the first time education restricting legislation was contested and defeated. Although the case only stayed at the district level, other cases involving children with disabilities and their fight for educational equality rose. Mills vs. Board of Education of District of Columbia was another such case that took place later in 1972, and this case received enough attention to go to the Supreme Court.[1]


document_title: Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again

question_text: who played the grandma in mamma mia here we go again

text: Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again

text: Plot[edit]

text: Sophie Sheridan is preparing for the grand reopening of her mother Donna's hotel, following Donna's death a year earlier. She is upset because two of her fathers, Harry and Bill, are unable to make it to the reopening and she is having trouble in her relationship with Sky, who is in New York, over her memorializing her mother’s life.

text: In 1979, a young Donna has just graduated from university with Rosie and Tanya, and is getting ready to travel the world. While in Paris, she meets and parties with Harry. They spend the night together, but Donna leaves soon after. She later misses her boat to Kalokairi but is offered a ride by Bill, and along the way, they are able to help a stranded fisherman, Alexio, make it in time to stop the love of his life from marrying another. Unbeknownst to Donna, Harry has followed her to Greece; but he arrived too late, and sadly watches the boat sailing off in the distance.

text: In the present, Tanya and Rosie arrive to support Sophie with the reopening and it’s revealed that Rosie and Bill have split up. Sophie then visits Sam, who is still grieving over the death of Donna. Back in the past, Donna arrives on the island and while exploring the farmhouse, a sudden storm causes her to discover a spooked horse in the basement. She goes in search of help only to find a young Sam riding his motorcycle and he helps her to save the horse. Back in the present, a storm has caused serious disruption to Sophie’s plans for the grand reopening and prevented media coverage of the event.

text: Back in the past, Donna and Sam are enjoying a whirlwind romance, that ends when Donna discovers a picture of Sam’s fiancée in his drawer. A devastated Donna demands that Sam leave the island. In the present, Sam tells Sophie about her value to her mother. Meanwhile, Harry leaves his business deal in Tokyo to support Sophie, and separately Bill gets the same idea. Bill and Harry meet at the docks but are told there are no boats. However, Bill meets the fisherman Alexio and thereby secures boat passage for himself, Harry as well as the newly arrived Sky.

text: In the past, a depressed Donna is heartbroken over Sam but is able to channel her anger into singing with Tanya and Rosie. She meets Bill again and they go out on his boat; while they are gone, Sam returns, having recently ended his engagement for Donna, but is saddened to hear that she is with another man and leaves the island again. Donna discovers she is pregnant but has no idea which one of her three recent lovers is the father. Sofia, the mother of the owner of the bar where Donna and the Dynamos performed, overhears Donna’s wish to stay on the island and offers to let Donna live at her farmhouse and Donna happily accepts. It is there that she eventually gives birth to Sophie.

text: Back in the present, the guests have arrived at the party and Sophie is reunited with her other two fathers and Sky. Sophie reveals to Sky she is pregnant and has never felt closer to her mother, having now understood what her mother went through. Bill and Rosie reunite over their grief for Donna. Sophie’s estranged grandmother and Donna’s mother, Ruby, arrives despite Sophie deciding not to invite her. She reveals that Sky tracked her down in New York and she wants to build a real relationship with Sophie. Sophie then performs a song with Tanya and Rosie in honor of her mother, with her grandmother tearfully telling her afterward how proud she is of her. It is then revealed that the manager of the hotel, Fernando, is Ruby’s ex-lover from 1959 in Mexico, and the two are joyously reunited.

text: Nine months later, Sophie has given birth to a baby boy and everyone has gathered for his christening where Tanya flirts with Fernando’s brother. The ceremony takes place with Donna’s spirit watching over her daughter with pride. At the end, all the characters, including Donna and the younger cast, sing "Super Trouper" at a huge party at Hotel Bella Donna.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Amanda Seyfried as Sophie Sheridan, Donna’s 25-year-old daughter and Ruby's granddaughter.
Dominic Cooper as Sky, Sophie’s husband.
Meryl Streep as Donna Sheridan-Carmichael, Sophie’s late mother, Ruby's daughter, and wife to Sam.
Lily James as Young Donna, founder of Donna and the Dynamos.
Christine Baranski as Tanya Chesham-Leigh, one of Donna’s best friends and former bandmates in Donna and the Dynamos; a rich three-time divorcee.
Jessica Keenan Wynn as Young Tanya
Julie Walters as Rosie Mulligan, one of Donna’s best friends and former bandmates in Donna and the Dynamos; an unmarried fun-loving author.
Alexa Davies as Young Rosie
Pierce Brosnan as Sam Carmichael, an Irish-American architect, Sophie's stepfather,  and widower of Donna.
Jeremy Irvine as Young Sam
Colin Firth as Harry Bright, a British businessman.
Hugh Skinner as Young Harry
Stellan Skarsgård as Bill Anderson, a Swedish sailor and travel writer, Sofia's great-nephew and as Kurt Anderson, Bill's obese brother.
Josh Dylan as Young Bill
Andy García as Fernando Cienfuegos, the Mexican manager of the Hotel Bella Donna and an old lover of Ruby’s from 1959.
Cher as Ruby Sheridan, Donna’s mother, and Sophie’s grandmother.
Omid Djalili as a Greek customs officer
Celia Imrie as Vice-Chancellor
Maria Vacratsis as Sofia, a local who owns the shack that Donna stays in: which eventually becomes Donna's home, and Bill's great aunt.
Panos Mouzourakis as Lazaros, Sofia's son who owns the bar which his band as well as Donna perform at.
Gerard Monaco as Alexio
Anna Antoniades as Apollonia

text: Cameo appearances

text:
Björn Ulvaeus as an Oxford professor
Benny Andersson as "Waterloo" piano player
Jonathan Goldsmith as Rafael Cienfuegos, Fernando's brother

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text: A soundtrack album was released on July 13, 2018 by Capitol and Polydor Records in the United States and internationally, respectively.[8][9] The album was produced by Benny Andersson, who also served as the album's executive producer alongside Björn Ulvaeus and Judy Craymer. Each song is featured within the film, with the exception of "I Wonder (Departure)" and "The Day Before You Came".

text:
"Thank You for the Music" (Acapella) – Sophie
"When I Kissed the Teacher" – Young Donna and the Dynamos, Vice-Chancellor
"I Wonder (Departure)" – Young Donna and the Dynamos†
"One of Us" – Sophie, Sky
"Waterloo" – Young Harry, Young Donna
"SOS" (Acapella) – Sam
"Why Did It Have to Be Me?" – Young Bill, Young Donna, Young Harry
"I Have a Dream" – Young Donna
"Kisses of Fire" – Lazaros
"Andante, Andante" – Young Donna
"The Name of the Game" – Young Donna
"Knowing Me, Knowing You" – Young Donna, Young Sam
"Mamma Mia" – Young Donna and the Dynamos
"Angel Eyes" – Rosie, Tanya, Sophie
"Dancing Queen" – Sophie, Rosie, Tanya, Sam, Bill, Harry
"I've Been Waiting for You" – Sophie, Rosie, Tanya
"Fernando" – Ruby, Fernando
"My Love, My Life" – Young Donna, Donna, Sophie
"Super Trouper" – Ruby, Donna, Rosie, Tanya, Sophie, Sky, Sam, Bill, Harry, Fernando, Young Donna, Young Rosie, Young Tanya, Young Bill, Young Sam, Young Harry
"The Day Before You Came" – Donna†

tag: ol

text: † Songs featured on the soundtrack album but omitted from the film.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Due to Mamma Mia!'s financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, co-chairman of Universal Pictures, told the Daily Mail that it would take a while, but there could be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there are still many ABBA songs to make use of.[10]

text: Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a release date of July 20, 2018.[11] It was written and directed by Ol Parker.[12] On September 27, 2017, Benny Andersson confirmed 3 ABBA songs that would be featured in the film: "When I Kissed the Teacher," "I Wonder (Departure)," and "Angeleyes."[13] “I Wonder (Departure)” was cut from the film, but is included on the soundtrack album.

text: Casting[edit]

text: On June 1, 2017, it was announced that Seyfried would return as Sophie.[14] Later that month, Dominic Cooper confirmed that he would return for the sequel, along with Streep, Firth and Brosnan as Sky, Donna, Harry, and Sam, respectively.[15] In July 2017, Baranski was also confirmed to return as Tanya.[16] On July 12, 2017, Lily James was cast to play the role of young Donna.[17] On August 3, 2017, Jeremy Irvine and Alexa Davies were also cast in the film, with Irvine playing Brosnan's character Sam in a past era, and Hugh Skinner to play Young Harry, Davies as a young Rosie, played by Julie Walters.[18] On August 16, 2017, it was announced that Jessica Keenan Wynn had been cast as a young Tanya, who is played by Baranski.[19] Julie Walters and Stellan Skarsgård also reprised their roles as Rosie and Bill, respectively.[20] On October 16, 2017, it was announced that singer and actress Cher had joined the cast, in her first on-screen film role since 2010,[21] and her first film with Streep since Silkwood. The part was written specifically for Cher, and she got to choose Andy Garcia as her romantic partner.[22]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film began on August 12, 2017 in Croatia, including the island of Vis.[23][24][25][26][23] In October 2017, the cast gathered at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, to film song and dance numbers with Cher.[21] Filming wrapped on December 2, 2017.[27]

text: Release[edit]

text: Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was released on July 20, 2018 by Universal Pictures, in the UK, US and other selected countries in both standard and IMAX formats.[28][5] The film premiered on July 16, 2018 at the Hammersmith Apollo in London.[29]

text: Marketing[edit]

text:
The first trailer for the film was released on December 21, 2017, in front of Pitch Perfect 3, another Universal Pictures film. Cher performed "Fernando" at the Las Vegas CinemaCon on April 25, 2018, after footage of the film was shown.[citation needed]
Universal sponsored YouTube stars the Merrell Twins to perform a cover version of the song "Mamma Mia" to promote the film.[30]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of  August 27, 2018[update], Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again has grossed $115.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $230.3 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $345.9 million, against a production budget of $75 million.[4]

text: In June 2018, three weeks prior to its release, official industry tracking had the film debuting to $27–33 million,[31] which increased to as much as $36 million by the week of its release.[32] It made $14.3 million on its first day, including $3.4 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $35 million, finishing second, behind fellow newcomer The Equalizer 2 ($36 million), and besting the opening of the first film ($27.8 million) by over 24%.[30][33] It fell 57% to $15.1 million in its second weekend, finishing second behind newcomer Mission: Impossible – Fallout.[34][35] In its third weekend the film grossed $9 million, dropping to fourth place, and $5.8 million in its fourth weekend, finishing seventh.[36][37]

text: In the United Kingdom, the film grossed $12.7 million in its opening weekend, topping the box office and achieving the fourth biggest opening for a film in 2018.[38] In its second weekend of international release, the film made $26.6 million (for a running total of $98.6 million). Its largest new markets were France ($1.7 million), Poland ($1.3 million), Switzerland ($223,000) and Croatia ($151,000), while its best holdovers were Australia ($9.5 million), the UK ($8.6 million) and Germany ($8.2 million).[39]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 207 reviews, and a weighted average of 6.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again doubles down on just about everything fans loved about the original—and my my, how can fans resist it?"[41] On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100 based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[42] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, the same score as its predecessor, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 83% overall positive score.[30]

text: Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian termed the sequel as "weirdly irresistible" and gave it three out of five stars. He described his reaction to the first film as "a combination of hives and bubonic plague," but concedes that this time, the relentlessness and greater self-aware comedy made him smile. He concludes: "More enjoyable than I thought. But please. Enough now."[43] Mark Kermode of The Observer gave the film five stars and commented, "This slick sequel delivers sharp one-liners, joyously contrived plot twists and an emotional punch that left our critic reeling."[44] Joy Watson from Exclaim! thoroughly enjoyed the movie, saying, "With multitalented writer and director Ol Parker at the helm, and perhaps more importantly, Richard Curtis (king of the British rom-com) behind the scenes to balance out the cheesiness, Here We Go Again builds giddy energy and tension throughout until Cher arrives in a helicopter to blow the whole thing sky high with an ode to "Fernando." Pure bliss."[45]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone awarded the film two and a half stars out of five, noting the absence of Streep for the majority of the film hindered his enjoyment, and saying, "her absence is deeply felt since the three-time Oscar winner sang and danced her heart out as Donna Sheridan".[46] Lindsay Bahr of Associated Press awarded the film three out of four stars, calling it "wholly ridiculous", but complimenting its self-awareness. She also praised James' performance and singing talent.[47] Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the sequel a mixed review, awarding it two stars out of four, criticizing the reprises of "Dancing Queen" and "Super Trouper" as uninspired, and feeling that some of the musical numbers dragged the pacing. He considered the younger counterparts to the main characters "energetic" and "likeable."[48] Stephanie Zacharek of Time gave the film a mixed review, writing "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again is atrocious. And wonderful. It's all the reasons you should never go to the movies. And all the reasons you should race to get a ticket."[49]


document_title: Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...

question_text: real name of krish in kabhi khushi kabhi gham

text: Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...

text: Plot[edit]

text: Yashvardhan "Yash" Raichand (Amitabh Bachchan) is a rich business tycoon, living in Delhi with his wife Nandini (Jaya Bachchan) and two sons Rahul and Rohan. Rahul is the elder son and was adopted by Yash and Nandini at birth. This is known to everyone in the Raichand household, except Rohan. The Raichand household is highly patriarchal and follows traditions. While grown up, Rahul (Shahrukh Khan) comes across the vivacious Anjali Sharma (Kajol), and they eventually fall in love, but their love is forbidden, because Anjali is from a low-income background. Yash and Nandini soon send Rohan to a boarding school, which all the males in their family have attended. Yash announces his desire for Rahul to marry Naina (Rani Mukherji), as he believes that parents have the right to choose their offspring's spouse, but Naina learns that Rahul is in love with Anjali, and encourages him to pursue her. When Yash comes to know of this, he is enraged, and Rahul promises not to marry Anjali, as he wants to please his father. En route to tell her of his promise, he discovers that her father (Alok Nath) has died, and decides to marry her despite his father's hostility. Yash learns of the marriage and disowns Rahul, whereupon Nandini and Rahul share a tearful goodbye. Nandini sends Sayeeda (Farida Jalal) (Rahul and Rohan's nanny) to watch over him, so that he does not feel separated from a mother's love. Rahul visits Rohan in the Boarding School and begs of Rohan never to ask where he went or why he left, and asks that he take care of Nandini.

text: Ten years later, Rohan (Hrithik Roshan) returns home from boarding school and accidentally overhears a conversation from his grandmothers (Achala Sachdev and Sushma Seth) concerned Rahul's adoption and the reason why Rahul left home, whereupon Rohan vows to reunite the family. He learns that Rahul, Anjali, and her younger sister Pooja (with whom he shared a playful relationship during his childhood) moved to London, and tells his parents that he wishes to pursue further studies in London. Yash is skeptical at first, but once Rohan emphasizes that he is following the family traditions, his parents agree to let him go. In London, Rahul and Anjali now have their own son, Krish. Pooja (Kareena Kapoor), now a popular fashion-obsessed diva, is a student at King's College London, where Rohan enrolls. He and Pooja meet again and he tells her that he has come to London to bring his brother and sister-in-law back home. Pooja tells Rahul that Rohan is her friend's brother who currently has nowhere to stay. After some persuasion, Rahul agrees to let Rohan stay as Rohan uses the name 'Yash' to hide his real identity. Right before the family attends Krish's school functin, Sayeeda and Anjali find out his real identity, though they promise to keep quiet. At Krish's school function, Krish leads his class in singing Jana Gana Mana (Indian national anthem), and later recites advice which Rohan had given him. Rahul, having given Rohan this advice ten years ago, now realizes that Rohan is his brother.

text: Rohan begs Rahul to come home, but Rahul refuses. Pooja convinces Rohan to invite his parents to London; Rahul and Nandini are overjoyed to see one another, but Rahul still refuses to talk to his father. When Yash goes to a store, Anjali stumbles by and Rohan reveals that they have been living in London the whole time. Yash soon learns that his mother had died and that her last wish was for Yash, Rahul, and Rohan to light her funeral pyre together. Therefore, the entire family attends the funeral, and Nandini tells Yash that she thought he was wrong for disowning Rahul. Rohan and Pooja convince Rahul to talk to Yash, who apologizes and allows Rahul and Anjali into the house. Rohan and Pooja are married, and the family hold a belated celebration of Rahul and Anjali's wedding.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Amitabh Bachchan as Yashvardhan "Yash" Raichand, a Delhi based business tycoon. Fiercely dominating, he insists on controlling the life of his wife and sons. Amitabh Bachchan was Karan's first choice for the portrayal of Yash Raichand. Karan added, "As I wrote the film, I realised that Yashvardhan Raichand is the backbone of the film and I could only see one actor playing the role — Amitabh Bachchan." Bachchan, on his part, agreed to do the film without a script narration.[4] Karan mentioned that he was initially scared to direct a star of the stature of Bachchan, but the latter "soon became an actor instead of a superstar".[5]
Jaya Bachchan as Nandini Raichand, Yash's wife. She shares a close bond with her sons but remains in the shadow of her husband. According to Karan Johar, Jaya Bachchan was the "obvious" choice for the character of Nandini, and added that her "acting prowess and stature" were the other reasons for him preferring to cast her.[4] The film also marked the return of Amitabh and Jaya Bachchan together on screen after a gap of 18 years.[6] Of her character, she said that Nandini was an extension of her own self. She elaborated, "My personal feelings towards Shah Rukh are similar to what I was supposed to portray in the film. There's something about him that makes me want to mother him." She added that she modelled her character on Karan's mother, Hiroo Johar, who "is a very emotional and sentimental person."[7]
Shah Rukh Khan as Rahul Raichand, Yash and Nandini's adopted son. Rahul feels indebted to his parents and tries to fulfill all their wishes. However, he falls in love with Anjali and invites the wrath of Yash. When Karan offered the role to Shah Rukh, he immediately agreed to do it and accommodated his dates, despite having several other commitments.[4] Khan described the character of Rahul by saying, "I love the vulnerability and the honesty in his eyes. He has the appeal of a boy next door. Besides, his intensity and ability to convey emotions without words is amazing."[8]
Kajol as Anjali Sharma, Rahul's love-interest and later, wife. She is a fun-loving woman living in the Chandni Chowk area of Delhi. Belonging to a lower socio-economic group than the Raichand family, she is not accepted by Yash as his daughter-in-law. Karan was initially hesitant to cast Kajol in the film, as he felt that she would refuse the offer due to her recent marriage. Kajol, however, was moved to tears during the script narration and agreed to do the film.[4] In an interview to Filmfare, Kajol said, "One tiny fact that Karan forgot to mention during his narration was just how much Punjabi my character spoke in the film. I nearly died when I saw the lines of dialogue on the first day of shooting." However, she learnt the right pronunciation and diction with the help of Yash Johar and the crew members.[9]
Hrithik Roshan as Rohan Raichand, Yash and Nandini's biological son. He wants his elder brother Rahul to return home. Karan signed Roshan to play the character of Rohan after watching a rough cut of the latter's debut film, Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai (2000).[4] Roshan described his character as a "buffer" in a film that primarily focused on Amitabh Bachchan and Shah Rukh Khan.[10]
Kareena Kapoor as Pooja "Poo" Sharma, Anjali's younger sister. She is a sophisticated girl, who helps Rohan in his plan to reunite Rahul with his parents. After spotting Kapoor at a party organised by Bombay Times, Karan decided to cast her immediately for the role of the glamorous diva, Poo.[4] Kapoor stated that in her opinion, Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... was primarily Kajol's film, and that her own character was a supporting one. In order to prepare for her role, she worked hard on her dancing skills, as she did not want audiences to know that she could not dance well.[11]
Rani Mukerji as Naina Kapoor, a socialite girl who loves Rahul and wants to marry him, and Yashvardhan approves of her. Following the success of Karan's previous film, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998), which starred Khan, Kajol and Mukerji, he wanted her presence in this film too. He thus cast Mukerji in a guest appearance.[4] Initially, Karan wanted her presence in the film to be a surprise, but an accidental slip by Sony Music during the promotional activities led to her discovery.[5]
Farida Jalal as Sayeeda / Daijan (DJ), Rahul and Rohan's nanny
Simone Singh as Rukhsaar, Sayeeda's daughter and Anjali's best friend
Alok Nath as Bauji Sharma, Anjali and Pooja's father
Kavish Majumdar as the younger Rohan Raichand
Malvika Raj as the younger Pooja Sharma
Jugal Hansraj as Rohan's friend (special appearance)

text: Achala Sachdev and Sushma Seth were cast as Yash and Nandini's mothers, respectively. The film also featured Johnny Lever as Haldiram (a shopkeeper in Chandni Chowk), Himani Shivpuri as Haldiram's wife, Jibraan Khan as Krish Raichand (Rahul and Anjali's son), Amar Talwar as Mr. Kapoor (Yash's friend and Naina's father). Ramona Sunavala, Jeroo Writer and Vikas Sethi feature as Poo's friends Sonya, Tanya and Robbie, respectively. Additionally, Ashutosh Singh features as Ashfaque, Rukshaar's husband. Shilpa Mehta, Shashikala and Parzan Dastur were cast as Ashfaque's mother, grandmother and nephew, respectively. Shashikala played the in-law to Rukhsaar. Punit Malhotra and Johnny Lever's real-life son Jesse Lever had small parts.[12]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text:
“
At a certain age, boys are very demonstrative about their love towards their fathers. They hug and kiss them. But after that, they withdraw, become less demonstrative. My film is about relationships, about sons going up to their fathers and saying they love them.
”

— Karan Johar[13]

text: After the success of Karan's debut film, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998), he began work on a story dealing with the concept of "generations". The idea initially revolved around two daughters-in-law. However, on the advice of filmmaker Aditya Chopra, who thought that the male characters would be too weak, Karan decided to tweak the story-line to make it the story of two brothers.[14]

text: The inspiration behind Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... came from Yash Chopra's Kabhi Kabhie (1976). On being inspired by the classic, Karan quoted, "What appealed to me was the fact that the love story stretched out across generations. It began with youth and went on as the people grew older. You could say that Kabhi Kabhie is the starting point for my new film, that I am inspired by it. But the film, I am sure, will be very different. It will look different, feel different."[15] Similarly, Karan added an extra "e" to the second Kabhi in the title of his film, due to numerological reasons.[16] In an interview with The Times of India, Karan dispelled comparisons with Kuch Kuch Hota Hai and said that while his debut film was "frothy and bubble-gummish", this one was "more classy and sophisticated". He added that there would be "plenty of drama" in this film too, but handled more maturely.[17]

text: Before principal photography could begin, Karan and the contracted costume designers (Manish Malhotra, Shabina Khan and Rocky S) shopped in several locations of USA, London, Milan, and New Delhi to get the right look for each of the cast members.[18] Additionally, Karan had only one expectation from the contracted actors; to "look good and do their job". He did not organise any rehearsals for them, except for a scene involving a climatic encounter between Amitabh Bachchan and Roshan.[14] Additional production people hired included choreographer Farah Khan, production designer Sharmishta Roy and cinematographer Kiran Deohans.[19]

text: Filming[edit]

text: The first schedule of the film began in Mumbai on 16 October 2000, with the picturisation of the song "Bole Chudiyan" involving Roshan, Kapoor, Khan and Kajol. Amitabh and Jaya Bachchan joined the schedule on 20 October. Due to the immense stress caused by the presence of these actors, Karan fainted on the sets.[20] However, he continued directing the rest of the song while lying in bed.[21]

text: For the first half of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham..., the production design team led by Sharmishtha Roy, recreated Chandni Chowk in a studio at Film City of Mumbai.[22] In order to lend authenticity, the team took several pictures of the original area and also shopped in the various alleys of Chandni Chowk. Roy later won Filmfare Award for Best Art Direction her work.[23] The inside of a palatial mansion was developed from scratch in the same studio to double as the home of the Raichand family.[24] In order to lend authenticity to the house of the multi-multimillionaires, several expensive paintings were hung from the walls.[25] A total of 18–19 elaborate sets were constructed by Roy, as Karan wanted the look of the film to be "larger-than-life".[26]

text: The second half of the film was shot in the city of London. Karan chose to set the film there due to his fondness for the city. He added, "I could have based my plot in New York City or anywhere else. But London is kind of close to my heart. I like to weave my films around London." Shooting locations include the Wales Millennium Centre, Bluewater in Kent,[27] Blenheim Palace, St Paul's Cathedral and the banks of River Thames.[28] The outdoor scenes of the Raichand family mansion were shot at Waddesdon Manor.[29] The crew faced enormous difficulties while filming an emotional scene between Jaya Bachchan and Khan at the Bluewater Complex, as a massive crowd had gathered there to watch them at work. The situation, eventually, got worse and the complex officials asked them to wrap up the shoot within two hours.[30]

text: British journalist, Fuad Omar, wrote extensively about the filming of the film in the UK, covering much of the shoot in a series of online articles and for regional press. Many of these were reprinted in an unedited format in his book, Bollywood: An Insider's Guide.[citation needed]

text: Another song sequence ("Suraj Hua Maddham") involving Khan and Kajol was shot with the backdrop of the Pyramids of Giza in the city of Cairo in Egypt.[31] Due to the lighting conditions, the crew could shoot only between 7 and 9 am in the morning. As a result, the song took several days to film.[32] In addition, Kajol suffered from a minor injury while filming for the song, as she had experienced a bad fall.[33]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...

Soundtrack album by Jatin Lalit
Sandesh Shandilya
Aadesh Shrivastava

Released
2001

Genre
Film Soundtrack

Language
Hindi

Label
Sony Music India

Producer
Yash Johar

text: The music of the film was composed by Jatin Lalit, Sandesh Shandilya and Aadesh Shrivastava. The lyrics were provided by Sameer, except for "Suraj Hua Maddham" which was penned by Anil Pandey. A total of 11 tracks are present in the album, which was released by Sony Music on 16 October 2001.[34][35] Explaining the album, Karan Johar said, "I wanted music that had all kinds of tunes — pop, romantic, bhangra – but one sound. It had to be larger than life." He added that Jatin-Lalit came up with three "haunting melodies", while Shandilya and Shrivastava came up with the pop and bhangra songs, respectively.[36] A legal suit was filed against Johar for using the song "It's Raining Men" in the film without obtaining prior permission.[37]

text: Upon release, the soundtrack of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... emerged as a major success by selling 2.5 million units within 30 days.[38] Additionally, it became the largest selling album of the year in India.[39] Writing for Rediff, Sukanya Varma praised most of the compositions, while being critical of the song "Say Shava Shava" due to the "overdose of Punjabi emotions". She summed up by saying, "The music of K3G has a presence. Hate it or love it, you certainly won't ignore it."[40] Planet Bollywood gave it 8 of 10 stars, calling "Suraj Hua Maddham" by Sonu Nigam the best song, and the best reason to buy the album. [41]

text: Karan Johar said, "The music composers did an excellent job but appreciating the songs without appreciating Sonu Nigam is hollow. I fought with the producers to give Sonu a chance and today he's made the songs immortal."[citation needed]

text: In 2002, Sony released another album titled Klub K3G, featuring remixes by Indian electronic music producers Akshai Sarin, Harshdeep Sidhu, Prempal Hans and others.[42]

text:
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... Album: Track listing

No.
Title
Lyrics
Music
Singer(s)
Length

1.
"Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham"
Sameer
Jatin Lalit
Lata Mangeshkar
7:55

2.
"Bole Chudiyan"
Sameer
Jatin Lalit
Kavita K. Subramaniam, Alka Yagnik, Sonu Nigam, Udit Narayan, Amit Kumar
6:50

3.
"You Are My Soniya"
Sameer
Sandesh Shandilya
Alka Yagnik, Sonu Nigam
5:45

4.
"Suraj Hua Maddham"
Anil Pandey
Sandesh Shandilya
Alka Yagnik, Sonu Nigam
7:08

5.
"Say Shava Shava"
Sameer
Aadesh Shrivastava
Alka Yagnik, Sunidhi Chauhan, Udit Narayan, Sudesh Bhonsle, Aadesh Shrivastava, Amitabh Bachchan
6:50

6.
"Yeh Ladka Hai Allah"
Sameer
Jatin Lalit
Alka Yagnik, Udit Narayan
5:28

7.
"Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham — Sad (Part 1)"
Sameer
Jatin Lalit
Sonu Nigam
1:53

8.
"Deewana Hai Dekho"
Sameer
Sandesh Shandilya
Alka Yagnik, Sonu Nigam, Kareena Kapoor
5:46

9.
"Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham — Sad (Part 2)"
Sameer
Jatin Lalit
Lata Mangeshkar
1:53

10.
"Soul of K3G"

Sandesh Shandilya
Instrumental
2:18

11.
"Vande Mataram"
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Sandesh Shandilya
Kavita K. Subramaniam, Usha Uthup
4:15

Total length:
56:01

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Initially scheduled for a theatrical release during the Diwali celebrations of 2001, Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... released a month later on 14 December.[43] Due to the long duration of the film, theatres screened three shows daily, instead of four. Additionally, due to a massive rush in advance bookings, several theatres increased their ticket prices.[44]

text: The use of "Jana Gana Mana" by Rabindranath Tagore during the film was met with criticism from a certain section of the audiences, and politicians of the Bharatiya Janata Party, for being "out-of-context" and "insulting the national pride".[45] Subsequently, a writ was issued against Dharma Productions in the Allahabad High Court by a petitioner based in Uttar Pradesh.[46] However, the court did not entertain the complainant's petition.[47]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: India[edit]

text: In India, Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... met with polarised reactions from film critics. While certain critics praised the visual richness and the performances of the cast, certain others were negative about the lengthy run time and criticised the script strength and inconsistencies. Khalid Mohamed of The Times of India applauded the film and reviewed, "K3G is the complete commercial banquet delivered with fabulous finesse by Karan Johar. So, go indulge yourself. Cry your heart out and surprisingly, you'll feel life's finally alive and kicking in Mumbai's dream world."[49] Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4.5 out of 5 stars. He praised the emotional sequences, as well as the choreography, production design, costumes, and cinematography. He added that Karan Johar was the real star, for creating many memorable sequences.[19] Rakesh Budhu of Planet Bollywood gave the film 8 out of 10 stars, saying "Dharma Productions has kept its promise in giving us a lovable film to remember in coming times." He pointed out several flaws in the script, but added that the positive aspects of the film managed to outweigh the negative ones. He quoted, "K3G is one heck of an entertainer and was worth the wait".[50] In the film review section of his book Bollywood: An Insider's Guide, Fuad Omar showered overwhelming praise on the film and called it a "masterpiece from the first frame to the last". In summary he said, "Overall Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... is without a doubt the most enthralling, entertaining, emotional and complete vision and definition of Hindi cinema I have ever seen. It is simply the perfect Hindi film."[51]

text: Contrary to the positive reviews, Anjum N., writing for Rediff, said that despite an extraordinary cast and a big budget, "Karan Johar disappoints." He praised Amitabh and Jaya Bachchan's performance and noted Hrithik Roshan for holding his own against the veteran actors. However, in summary he called the film "a bad remix of Mohabbatein and Kuch Kuch Hota Hai".[52] Writing for The Hindu, Ziya Salam praised Kajol's performance and Karan's ability to "keep the viewer occupied". She commented, "Watch Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... not because of the hype which preceded its release but because in these meagre times not many have come up with better fare. The film at least partially redeems the hope surrounding it. Again, just like its name. Some joy, some disappointment."[48] Namarata Joshi of Outlook gave a mixed review and said that while the film "makes you laugh and cry alternately", the shenanigans were nevertheless "fake and affected" and "monochromatic despite the profusion of colours".[53]

text: Overseas[edit]

text: Overseas too, the reviews were mostly mixed, with several critics praising the technical production details of the film, while being somewhat less enthusiastic about the story line. Shamaila Khan of BBC gave the film 9 out of 10 stars and praised the performances of Khan, Kajol and Kapoor. She summed up by saying, "(K3G is) a well made film, with some magical moments (hilarious and weepy) and possibly the world's best looking family!"[54] Derek Elley of Variety said that it "is a highly enjoyable, often dazzlingly staged vehicle dragged down by a sluggish final half-hour". He also praised the cinematography, and the picturisation of the song, "Say Shava Shava".[55] Corey K. Creekmur, of the University of Iowa, said that there were many ignored or illogical plot points and inconsistencies between the moral messages meant to be portrayed and the manner in which they came off on screen. Overall, he called the film a letdown.[56]

text: Box Office[edit]

text: Upon release, Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... broke all opening records. The film opened to around ₹70 million (US$1.1 million) nett collections in its first weekend in India, with the first week total at around ₹140 million (US$2.2 million).[3] The domestic opening week collections were 70% higher than the previous record and never before had opening records been eclipsed by such large margins. It also set new records for the second and third weeks, by collecting ₹105 million (US$1.6 million) and ₹80 million (US$1.2 million) respectively.[57] The film went on to become the second highest grosser of 2001 domestically, netting ₹550 million (US$8.6 million) in India, and earning "Blockbuster" status.[3][58]

text: The film was released in around 125 prints in the overseas markets, grossing a total of $8.9 million at the end of its theatrical run.[3][59] It performed very well in the United Kingdom, with a gross of $689,000 in its opening weekend. It thus debuted at the third position at the British box-office.[60] The total earnings of the film reached over $3.2 million in the UK.[59] The film also had the biggest opening ever for a Bollywood film in North America, with a gross of $1.1 million in 73 screens.[2] However, according to a report by Rediff, the numbers were so high that the official reporting agency did not believe it, and asked for evidence that could not be furnished until after the reporting deadline had passed. If reported on time, the film would have opened at the number 10 spot in the North American box-office.[60] However, according to figures from Box Office Mojo, the film debuted at the 32nd place at the American box office during the week of 4 January 2002.[61] It eventually gathered a total of $2.9 million there.[59] Additionally, in 2003, the film became the first from India to be given a theatrical release in Germany.[62]

text: Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... earned a worldwide gross of ₹1.35 billion (US$21 million).[3] It was the highest-grossing film of the year in the overseas market, surpassing Gadar: Ek Prem Katha, which was the top grosser of the year. Its record of being the highest grosser in the overseas was broken only by Johar's next directorial, Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006). When adjusted for inflation, the film is still among the highest grossers worldwide.[63]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... received fifteen nominations at the Filmfare Awards, ultimately winning five awards.[64][65] In an interview with Filmfare, Karan Johar said that he was not dejected to have not won many awards at the ceremony, as he felt that Lagaan was "a classic" and deserved to win.[30]

text: The film won several awards at the International Indian Film Academy Awards (IIFA),[66][67] and some at the Zee Cine Awards[68] and Screen Awards[69] ceremonies, among others. Among the cast members, Kajol and Jaya Bachchan won several awards in the Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress category, respectively. At the 13th annual Valenciennes International Film Festival, the film won five major awards, including three Best Film awards and Best Actress for Kajol.[70]

text: Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... received the highest number of acting nominations ever received (6) by a film at Filmfare Awards.[citation needed]

text:
Award
Category
Nominee
Result

Filmfare Awards
Best Actress
Kajol
Won

Best Supporting Actress
Jaya Bachchan

Best Dialogue
Karan Johar

Best Art Direction
Sharmishta Roy

Best Scene of the Year[30]
Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...

Best Film
Yash Johar
Nominated

Best Director
Karan Johar

Best Actor
Shahrukh Khan

Best Supporting Actor
Amitabh Bachchan

Best Supporting Actor
Hrithik Roshan

Best Supporting Actress
Kareena Kapoor

Best Music Direction
Jatin Lalit

Best Lyricist
Anil Pandey ("Suraj Hua Maddham")

Best Lyricist
Sameer ("Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham")

Best Male Playback
Sonu Nigam ("Suraj Hua Maddham")

Screen Awards
Best Actress
Kajol
Won

Jodi No. 1
Shahrukh Khan & Kajol

Valenciennes International Film Festival
Best Film (Special Jury Award)
Yash Johar

Best Film (Audience Jury Award)
Yash Johar

Best Film (Student Jury Award)
Yash Johar

Best Actress
Kajol

Bleu Nord Award
Jatin Lalit, Sandesh Shandilya, Aadesh Shrivastava

IIFA Awards
Best Supporting Actress
Jaya Bachchan

Best Male Playback
Sonu Nigam ("Suraj Hua Maddham")

Best Dialogue
Karan Johar

Best Art Direction
Sharmishta Roy

Best Background Score
Babloo Chakravarty

Best Sound Recording
Anil Mathur and Nakul Kante

Best Costume Design
Manish Malhotra

Best Makeup
Mikey Contractor

Zee Cine Awards
Best Playback Singer – Male
Sonu Nigam ("Suraj Hua Maddham")

Zee Cine Special Award for Outstanding Performance – Female
Kajol

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Film critics and academics have analysed Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... in several ways. In the book, Encyclopedia of Religion and Film, Eric Mazur described several "mythological subtexts" in the film. While mentioning the opening scene of the film, which features the Raichand family worshiping "Hindu deities during the annual Diwali holiday", he explained that the scene allowed the Hindu audiences to participate in the darshan along with the characters.[71]

text: Author Rajani Mazumdar compared Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... to Hum Aapke Hain Koun..! (1994) and added that the film dealt with themes of family and moral values through a "spectacular stage that moves across global locations".[72] She further stated that the buildup to the story was juxtaposed with the backdrop of two contrasting places – the Raichand home and the interiors of Chandni Chowk. While the Raichand house is described as "expensive, almost like a museum", Chandni Chowk is shown as a world of crowds, chaos and festivities. She also made a note of the use of frontal camera angles in order to ensure that the "spectators eye travels throughout the interior expanse".[73]

text: Writer Sangita Gopal analysed the "intensification of the aesthetic effects of Hindi cinema" in the narrative scheme of the film. During the confrontation scene between Yash and Rahul Raichand, a "thundering background score" coupled with "360° panning shots" were used to build up melodrama. She added that while such scenes simply began by reprising previous face-offs in several melodramatic Hindi films (such as Mohabbatein of 2000), they gradually shifted "to a more realist register as the framework moves from a sociology to a psychology of the family".[74] Mazur mentioned the use of "dream sequences" in the film as a means of escapism. He referred to the song "Suraj Hua Maddham" as an extradiegetic sequence that allowed Rahul and Anjali to be physically intimate "in ways that they could not in the real world of the film." He added that the characters conveyed a plethora of emotions not through extensive dialogue but through the exchange of glances, which were demonstrated by extreme close-ups on their eyes.[75]

text: Writing for the book Movie Blockbusters, Andrew Willis commented that the film was specifically written to appeal to the Indian diaspora. He explained that the film was aimed at invoking nostalgia among the large section of NRI's in Canada, United Kingdom and North America.[76] In the second half of the film, Rahul and Anjali move to London, where they enjoy an affluent lifestyle, among several non-Indian neighbours and friends. However, there is a perpetual dissatisfaction among them, especially Anjali, in living away from home.[77] Additionally, she dresses up in a traditional sari and performs the duties of a loyal housemaker. She also frets about her son and younger sister being "too influenced" by Western culture. The film, thus tries to form an emotional connection with the expatriate Indian audiences.[78][79]

text: According to Eckstein, several sequences convey a "culturally conservative" and "idealistic image" of India, while maintaining that the diaspora living in Britain lead a life of "involuntary exile". Western ideology is equated with economic success, with emphasis on Western consumerism such as Starbucks and Burger King.[80] Creekmur believes that Rohan was the only character in the film who could navigate multiple cultural spaces with ease. He seems totally at ease both at his ancestral home in India and in London. Though the tagline for the film was "It's all about loving your parents", Creekmur was skeptical and suggested "the film seems to actually admonish stern fathers to trust and love their children — mothers, aunties, and grandmothers, of course, love their children unconditionally even while respecting the idiotic wishes of vain patriarchs."[56]

text: Other media[edit]

text: During the production and filming process, a book entitled The Making of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham was written by Niranjan Iyengar. It features materials and interviews concerning the producer, director, cinematographer, art director, cast and crew that Iyengar gathered over an 18-month period during the production of the film. The book was released a few days prior to the theatrical release of the film.[81][82][83][84]

text: Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... has been released on VHS and DVD (one and two disc version) formats, beginning in 2002, and in the Blu-ray format beginning in 2010.[85] The two disc DVD version of the film contains a 45-minute documentary entitled The Making of Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham along with deleted scenes, a theatrical trailer, and several television promos.[86]


document_title: Courtesy titles in the United Kingdom

question_text: what is the title of the wife of an earl

text: Courtesy titles in the United Kingdom

text: Children of peers[edit]

text: Courtesy titles[edit]

text: If a peer of one of the top three ranks (a duke, marquess or earl) has more than one title, his eldest son - himself not a peer - may use one of his father's lesser titles "by courtesy".  However, the father continues to be the substantive holder of the peerage title and the son using the title by courtesy legally subordinate unless issued a writ of acceleration.[citation needed] If the eldest son of a duke or marquess has an eldest son, he may use a still lower title, if one exists.

text: For example, the Duke of Norfolk is also Earl of Arundel and Baron Maltravers.  His eldest son is therefore styled "Earl of Arundel" (without the definite article "The" which indicates a substantive title). Lord Arundel's eldest son (should he have one during his father's lifetime) would be styled "Lord Maltravers".  However, only The Duke of Norfolk is actually a peer; his son Lord Arundel and his hypothetical grandson Lord Maltravers are not.

text: Courtesy titles are only used by the peer's eldest living son, and the eldest son's eldest living son, and so forth. Other descendants are not permitted to use the peer's subsidiary titles. Only the heir apparent (and heir apparent to the heir apparent, and so on) may use them. An heir presumptive (e.g., a brother, nephew, or cousin) does not use a courtesy title. However, Scottish practice allows the style Master/Mistress of X to an heir presumptive as well as to an heir apparent; for example, the brother of the present Marquess of Tweeddale has the title Master of Tweeddale.

text: Wives are entitled to use the feminine form of their husbands' courtesy titles. Thus, the wife of an Earl of Arundel would be styled "Countess of Arundel" (again, without the article).

text: Holders of courtesy titles do not, at the Court of St James's, have their title preceded by the definite article "The" (which is always written with the capital letter "T"): e.g., 'Earl of Arundel' rather than 'The Earl of Arundel'.

text: Choosing a courtesy peer's title[edit]

text: The actual courtesy title which is used is a matter of family tradition. For instance, the eldest son of The Duke of Buccleuch and Queensberry is styled "Earl of Dalkeith", even though the duke is also the Marquess of Dumfriesshire, a title which outranks the earldom.  Similarly, the eldest son of The Marquess of Londonderry is styled "Viscount Castlereagh", even though the marquess is also the Earl Vane.

text: Titles with the same name as a peer's main title are also not used as courtesy titles. For instance, The Duke of Westminster is also The Marquess of Westminster and The Earl Grosvenor (amongst other titles). The duke's eldest son is not styled "Marquess of Westminster" (which would cause confusion between the son and the father), and so is styled "Earl Grosvenor" instead. The title used does not have to be exactly equivalent to the actual peerage: the eldest son of the current Duke of Wellington is styled Marquess of Douro, although the actual peerage possessed by his father is Marquess Douro (not of Douro).[citation needed]

text: If a peer of the rank of earl or above does not have any subsidiary titles of a name different from his main title, his eldest son usually uses an invented courtesy title of "Lord [Surname]". For instance, the eldest son of The Earl of Devon is styled "Lord Courtenay", even though the Earl has no barony of that name, and similarly the eldest son of The Earl of Guilford is styled "Lord North". The eldest son of The Earl of Huntingdon, who has no subsidiary titles, is styled "Viscount Hastings" to avoid confusion with the substantive peer The Lord Hastings. The Earl Castle Stewart's heir uses the style Viscount Stewart in order to avoid confusion with Lord Stewart, the eldest son of Viscount Castlereagh (the eldest son of The Marquess of Londonderry).

text: Courtesy prefix of "Lord"[edit]

text: Another form of courtesy title is the honorific prefix of "Lord" before the name. This non-peerage title is accorded to younger sons of dukes and marquesses. The courtesy title is added before the person's given name and surname, as in the example of Lord Randolph Churchill, although conversational usage drops the surname on secondary reference. The title persists after the death of the holder's father, but is not inherited by any of his children. The wife of the holder is entitled to the feminine form of her husband's title, which takes the form of "Lady", followed by her husband's given name and surname, as in the example of Lady Randolph Churchill. The holder is addressed as "Lord Randolph" and his wife as "Lady Randolph".

text: Courtesy prefix of "Lady"[edit]

text: The honorific prefix of "Lady" is used for the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls. The courtesy title is added before the person's given name, as in the example Lady Diana Spencer. Because it is merely a courtesy with no legal implications, the honorific persists after the death of the holder's father but it is not inherited by her children.

text: The spouse of a woman with an honorific title does not hold any courtesy title in right of their spouse. Neither does the husband of a man with any title (including the husband of a peer).

text: Courtesy prefix of "The Honourable"[edit]

text: The younger sons of earls, along with all sons and daughters of viscounts, barons and lords of parliament are accorded the courtesy style of "The Honourable" before their name. This is usually abbreviated to "The Hon."  The title persists after the death of the holder's father, but it may not be inherited by the holder's children. It is used only in third person reference, not in speaking to the person.

text: Married daughters[edit]

text: The daughter of a duke, marquess, or earl who marries an untitled man becomes "The Lady [Given name] [Husband's surname]".  The daughter of a viscount or baron who marries a commoner is styled "The Honourable [Given name] [Husband's surname]" (the given name is dropped and Mrs is substituted if the husband's right to the style derives from office or appointment rather than from ancestral peerage).

text: Any woman who marries a peer uses the feminine version of his peerage title, even if her own precedence is higher than his, as in the case of a duke's daughter marrying a baron, because a peerage is a substantive title, the usage of which is preferred to any courtesy style - unless she marries into the Royal Family. If a woman marries the younger son of a duke or marquess, she becomes "The Lady [Husband's given name] [Husband's surname]." If she marries the younger son of an earl, viscount or baron, she becomes "The Hon. Mrs [Husband's given name] [Husband's surname]."

text: In case of a divorce, she may keep the same style as during marriage or she may choose to assume the style "Mrs [Given name] [Husband's surname]." Regardless of what she chooses, she loses all precedence acquired from marriage and because of the former option, there can be multiple Lady John Smiths.

text: Adoption[edit]

text: Until 2004, children who had been adopted by peers had no right to any courtesy title. Pursuant to a Royal Warrant dated 30 April 2004,[1] these children are now automatically entitled to the same styles and courtesy titles as their siblings.  However, unlike biological children, they cannot inherit peerages from their parent[2] (and thus, since they cannot be heirs, if a peer adopts a son and he is the oldest son, he would use the styles of younger sons). For example, actress Nimmy March, the daughter of The Duke and Duchess of Richmond, was immediately elevated to Lady Naomi Gordon-Lennox on 30 April 2004.

text: Note that Scottish peerages' rules for courtesy titles and styles differ.

text: Summary[edit]

text:
Peer
Wife
Eldest Son
Younger Son
Unmarried Daughter

Duke

Duchess

Father's Subsidiary Title

The Lord [First name] [Last name]

The Lady [First name] [Last name]

Marquess

Marchioness

Father's Subsidiary Title

The Lord [First name] [Last name]

The Lady [First name] [Last name]

Earl

Countess

Father's Subsidiary Title

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

The Lady [First name] [Last name]

Viscount

Viscountess

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

Baron

Baroness

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

The Honourable [First name] [Last name]

text: Indirect inheritance[edit]

text: Occasionally a peer succeeds to a peerage upon the death of a relative who is not one of his or her parents. When this happens, the relatives of the new peer may be allowed to use the courtesy titles or styles which would have been accorded them if the new peer had succeeded a parent or grandparent in the title.

text: For instance, Rupert Ponsonby, 7th Baron de Mauley, succeeded his uncle in 2002. His brother Ashley had no title, as their father was only the younger son of a peer and was never actually Baron de Mauley. However, in 2003, Ashley was granted, by Warrant of Precedence from Queen Elizabeth II, the style and precedence that would have been his had his father survived to inherit the barony, becoming The Honourable Ashley Ponsonby. Precedence in such circumstances is usually granted but is not automatic.

text: Spouses of peers[edit]

text: The wife of a substantive peer is legally entitled to the privileges of peerage: she is said to have a "life estate" in her husband's dignity. Thus a duke's wife is titled a "duchess", a marquess's wife a "marchioness", an earl's wife a "countess", a viscount's wife a "viscountess" and a baron's wife a "baroness". Despite being referred to as a "peeress", she is not a peer in her own right: this is a 'style' and not a substantive title. However, this is considered a legal title, unlike the social titles of a peer's children.

text: The wives of eldest sons of peers hold their titles on the same basis as their husbands, i.e. by courtesy. Thus the wife of the Marquess of Douro is known as the "Marchioness of Douro".

text: Husbands[edit]

text: In the case of a woman who is a substantive peer in her own right, by succession or by first creation (i.e. ennoblement, most commonly in recent times under the Life Peerages Act 1958), her husband acquires no distinction in right of his wife. Thus, the husband of The Baroness Bottomley of Nettlestone has no courtesy title; he was simply called "Mr Peter Bottomley" until he was knighted and became "Sir Peter Bottomley".

text: In 2013, there was a private member's bill in the House of Lords to allow the spouse of a woman who holds an honour, if he or she enters civil partnership or marriage, to assume the title The Honourable. This bill stalled, and was not passed by the end of the Parliament.[3][4]

text: Divorced wives[edit]

text: A peeress retains her legal right to the peerage style following divorce and even upon her remarriage to a non-peer.[5] A convention has developed whereby her Christian name is added in front of her title to distinguish her from any subsequent wife of her former husband. Hence, "Her Grace The Duchess of London" becomes "Mary, Duchess of London".  In written forms, she is not entitled to the use of the address "Her Grace..." but may be addressed as "Duchess". "The Rt Hon. The Lady London" becomes "Mary, Lady London" and may be addressed as "Lady London,"  or "My Lady".

text: On 21 August 1996 letters patent changed titles of divorced wives of British princes, depriving their former wives of the style of Royal Highness. For this reason Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales after divorce became Diana, Princess of Wales. The same happened to Her Royal Highness The Duchess of York who became  Sarah, Duchess of York.

text: Widows[edit]

text: If a prince or peer dies, his wife's style does not change unless the new peer is a married man (or a woman, if the succession permits); traditionally the widowed peeress puts "Dowager" in her style, i.e. "The Most Hon. The Marchioness of London" becomes "The Most Hon. The Dowager Marchioness of London."

text: If a widowed peeress's son predeceases her, her daughter-in-law does not use the title of Dowager, but is styled, e.g. "The Most Hon. Mary, Marchioness of London", until her mother-in-law dies, at which point she may use the title of "Dowager Marchioness". In more recent times, some widows choose to be styled with their Christian names, instead of as Dowager,  e.g. "Olave, Lady Baden-Powell" ("The Lady Olave Baden-Powell" would incorrectly imply she was the daughter of a duke, marquess or earl).

text: Divorced wives and widows who remarry[edit]

text: It used to be customary for women with higher titles from one marriage to retain them even on subsequent remarriage.  As Lord Macnaughten put it in the case of Earl Cowley v Countess Cowley [1901] AC 450:  "...everybody knows that it is a very common practice for peeresses (not being peeresses in their own right) after marrying commoners to retain the title lost by such marriage. It is not a matter of right. It is merely a matter of courtesy, and allowed by the usages of society." The divorce court, in the above case, granted the earl an injunction preventing his former wife from using his title; however this was overturned by the Court of Appeal, whose decision was confirmed by the House of Lords, on the grounds that ordinary courts of law lacked any jurisdiction in matters of honour.[5]

text: The same practice was followed by widows who remarried.  A prominent example was Catherine Parr, the last wife of Henry VIII, who continued to be known as Queen Catherine even after her marriage to The Lord Seymour of Sudeley (and, indeed, she disputed precedence with the wife of her brother-in-law the Duke of Somerset on this basis). This usage died out later in the twentieth century, and women who remarry now ordinarily take a new married name and do not retain their former title.[citation needed]

text: Civil partners[edit]

text: If a peer or knight enters into a civil partnership, his or her partner is not entitled to a courtesy title.[6]

text: Scottish courtesy titles[edit]

text: Laird is a courtesy title  which applies to the owner of  certain long-established Scottish estates; the title being attached to the estate. Traditionally, a laird is formally styled in the manner evident on the 1730 tombstone in a Scottish churchyard. It reads:  "The Much Honoured [Forename (John)] [Surname (Grant)] Laird of [Lairdship (Glenmoriston)]". The section titled Scottish Feudal Baronies in Debrett's  states that the use of the prefix "The Much Hon." is "correct", but that "most lairds prefer the unadorned name and territorial designation".  The wife of a Laird is traditionally accorded the courtesy title of Lady.[7][8][9][10]

text: Courtesy suffix of "Younger"[edit]

text: A form of courtesy title granted is the suffix of "Younger" at the end of the name. This title is granted to the Heir Apparent of a Laird (Lord) and is placed at the end of his or her name (example - Mr John Smith of Edinburgh, Younger). The wife of a Younger may herself place the title at the end of her name. The holder is addressed as the younger (example - The Younger of Edinburgh).

text: Courtesy prefix of "Maid"[edit]

text: The courtesy prefix of "Maid" is granted to the eldest daughter of a Laird (Lord). If the eldest daughter is also the heir presumptive she may either hold the title "Younger" or the title "Maid". The title is customary and not automatically given. The title is placed at the end of the name (example - Miss Ali Joy, Maid of Newcastle). The holder is addressed as "The Maid of Lairdship".

text: Precedence status of courtesy titles[edit]

text: The courtesy titles and styles of children of peers are social, not legal. For this reason, in official documents, The Lord John Smith is often referred to as John Smith, Esq., commonly called Lord John Smith; The Hon. Mrs. Smith would be called Mary Jane, Mrs. Smith, commonly called The Hon. Mary Jane Smith. Only peers in attendance at Parliament enjoy statutory precedence. There is, however, official precedence accorded at the Court of St. James's that results from being the wife or child of a peer, and to which social styles are attached. The wives of peers, however, are peeresses and legally enjoy their titles in exactly the same manner as peeresses in their own right.

text: Children of peers can outrank certain actual peers. For instance, the daughter of a duke outranks a countess. However, if the daughter of a duke marries an earl, she drops to the rank of countess, because her courtesy title is subsumed in his substantive title. But, if that same daughter marries a commoner, she retains her rank. If that daughter marries the eldest son of an earl, though he may be a courtesy peer, she may keep her rank until the son inherits the earldom, when she must drop to the rank of countess.

text: Judicial courtesy titles[edit]

text: Following the creation of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the first Justices of that Court held life peerages, and continued to hold them. However, the Government has announced that future appointees will not be created peers, and the first non-peer appointed to the Court was Sir John Dyson. In order to avoid any distinction between the Scottish Justices of the Court (who receive a judicial title), by Royal Warrant dated 10 December 2010 all Justices of the Supreme Court not holding a peerage are entitled to a judicial title, and retain the style (a courtesy title) for life.[11]  Thus, Sir John Dyson is now styled as Lord Dyson (instead of The Lord Dyson).[12] Wives of male justices not holding a peerage are styled as if they were wives of peers.

text: In Scotland, Senators of the College of Justice (judges who sit in the Court of Session) use the title Lord or Lady along with a surname or a territorial name. All Senators of the College have the honorific, The Honourable, before their titles, while those who are also Privy Counsellors or peers have the honorific, The Right Honourable. Senators are made Privy Counsellors upon promotion to the Inner House. For example, Alexander Wylie is known as The Honourable Lord Kinclaven, whilst Ronald Mackay is known as The Right Honourable Lord Eassie.  Some Senators also hold peerage titles, such as The Rt Hon. The Lady Clark of Calton, and these would be used in place of judicial titles.

text: Professional courtesy titles[edit]

text: The title of "Doctor" (or the abbreviation "Dr") is used as a courtesy title in a number of fields by professionals who do not hold doctoral degrees. It is commonly used in this manner by qualified medical practitioners (except surgeons) and by qualified dentists.[13]  The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons also allows the use of "Doctor" as a courtesy title by its members.[14]

text: The title of Captain is used as a courtesy title by shipmasters in the merchant navy who do not hold the military rank of captain.[15] It is also used in oral address for naval officers below the rank of captain who are in command of a ship.[16]