document_title: Nightwatchman (cricket)

question_text: what is the meaning of nightwatchman in cricket

text: Nightwatchman (cricket)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the sport of cricket, a nightwatchman is a lower-order batsman who comes in to bat higher up the order than usual near the end of the day's play. The nightwatchman's job is to maintain most of the strike until the close of play (remaining in overnight, hence the name) and so protect other, more capable batsmen from being out cheaply in what may be a period of tiredness or in poor light at the end of the day, and then again the following morning when the batsmen have not yet `got their eye in,' or when the early-morning conditions may favour the bowlers. The theory is that losing two top-order batsmen in quick succession would be worse than losing one top-order batsman and a tailender.

text: However the nightwatchman's effort is not considered to be wasted, nor is he expected to play foolishly; otherwise he would not last very long. The role of nightwatchman is generally given to players who emphasise defensive technique over quick run-scoring. However, there have been occasions when nightwatchmen have made a big score, and six have made centuries in test matches. Generally speaking, the nightwatchman plays conservatively on the night, but the next day may be allowed a freer role to score runs.

text: The tactic has its drawbacks; in particular, if the nightwatchman does survive until the end of the day, the beginning of the next day's play will see refreshed bowlers with better light facing a less capable batsman. As a result, not all captains utilise the tactic; Steve Waugh, for example, abandoned the tactic during his captaincy of Australia.[1]

text: The nightwatchman is not to be confused with the pinch hitter, a lower- or middle-order batsman who is promoted up the order in limited-overs games, or in tests where their team is looking for a quick declaration, in the hope of scoring quick runs without too much concern for their wicket.

text: Test centuries by nightwatchmen[edit]

text: There have been six test centuries by nightwatchmen (as of 2016[update]), as recognised by Cricinfo:[2]

text:
Player
Team
Score
Versus
Ground
Year

Nasim-ul-Ghani
Pakistan
101
England
Lord's, London, England
1962

Tony Mann
Australia
105
India
WACA Ground, Perth, Western Australia
1977

Syed Kirmani
India
101*
Australia
Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai, India
1979

Mark Boucher
South Africa
125
Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare, Zimbabwe
1999

Mark Boucher
South Africa
108
England
Sahara Stadium Kingsmead, Durban, South Africa
1999

Jason Gillespie
Australia
201*
Bangladesh
Chittagong Divisional Stadium, Chittagong, Bangladesh
2006

text: There has been debate about whether Nasim-ul-Ghani (who later opened in a Test) and wicketkeeper Boucher were genuine nightwatchmen – however, in the matches in question they both came in at No. 6, at the end of the day, ahead of more recognised batsmen, and Cricinfo considers them to have been nightwatchmen.[citation needed]

text: Alex Tudor (England) was close to making a century as a nightwatchman; he made 99 not out against New Zealand in 1999 at Edgbaston, and was stranded one run short of a maiden test century when the target of 208 runs for victory was achieved.

text: Also close was Harold Larwood. In the final Test of the 1932–33 Ashes, Larwood made 98 as a nightwatchman, the highest innings made in the role up to that time.


document_title: Records of members of parliament of Canada

question_text: who is the longest serving parliamentarian in canada's history

question_tokens: who is the longest serving parliamentarian in canada 's history

root

text: Age[edit]

text: Youngest[edit]

text: The youngest ever MP is currently Pierre-Luc Dusseault, elected in the general election of 2011 at the age of 19 years and 11 months for the riding of Sherbrooke. He succeeded former Liberal Party MP, Claude-André Lachance, who was elected in the federal election of 1974. Lachance was 20 years and 3 months old when elected.

tag: p

text: The youngest ever woman MP used to be Carole Jacques when she was elected at the general election of September 4, 1984 at the age of 24 years and 2 months. During the 2011 Canadian Federal Election, Laurin Liu of the riding Rivière-des-Mille-Îles, was elected at the age of 20 years. In the same election, many women under the age of 24 were elected including Charmaine Borg, in the riding of Terrebonne—Blainville who is a mere 10 days older than Liu. Others under 24 include Ève Péclet, 21, Mylène Freeman, 22, and others.

text: Oldest[edit]

text: The oldest MP was William Anderson Black who retained his seat until his death at the age of 86 years, 10 months and 22 days.

text: Period of service[edit]

text: Longest[edit]

text: Wilfrid Laurier was an MP for 44 years and 11 months between January 22, 1874 and February 17, 1919, although his tenure was not continuous. He did serve continuously for 41 years and 2 months from November 28, 1877 to February 17, 1919, making him also the MP with the longest continuous service.

text: No period of service[edit]

text: John Dahmer died five days after being elected, before he could be officially sworn in as an MP.


document_title: Earth's magnetic field

question_text: what function is performed by earth's magnetic field

question_tokens: what function is performed by earth 's magnetic field

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: Importance[edit]

text: The Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.[4] One stripping mechanism is for gas to be caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds.[5] Calculations of the loss of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere of Mars, resulting from scavenging of ions by the solar wind, indicate that the dissipation of the magnetic field of Mars caused a near total loss of its atmosphere.[6][7]

text: The study of past magnetic field of the Earth is known as paleomagnetism.[8] The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field is recorded in igneous rocks, and reversals of the field are thus detectable as "stripes" centered on mid-ocean ridges where the sea floor is spreading, while the stability of the geomagnetic poles between reversals has allowed paleomagnetists to track the past motion of continents. Reversals also provide the basis for magnetostratigraphy, a way of dating rocks and sediments.[9] The field also magnetizes the crust, and magnetic anomalies can be used to search for deposits of metal ores.[10]

text: Humans have used compasses for direction finding since the 11th century A.D. and for navigation since the 12th century.[11] Although the magnetic declination does shift with time, this wandering is slow enough that a simple compass remains useful for navigation. Using magnetoception various other organisms, ranging from some types of bacteria to pigeons, use the Earth's magnetic field for orientation and navigation.

text: Main characteristics[edit]

text: Description[edit]

text: At any location, the Earth's magnetic field can be represented by a three-dimensional vector. A typical procedure for measuring its direction is to use a compass to determine the direction of magnetic North. Its angle relative to true North is the declination (D) or variation. Facing magnetic North, the angle the field makes with the horizontal is the inclination (I) or magnetic dip. The intensity (F) of the field is proportional to the force it exerts on a magnet. Another common representation is in X (North), Y (East) and Z (Down) coordinates.[12]

text: Intensity[edit]

text: The intensity of the field is often measured in gauss (G), but is generally reported in nanoteslas (nT), with 1 G = 100,000 nT. A nanotesla is also referred to as a gamma (γ).[13] The tesla is the SI unit of the magnetic field, B. The Earth's field ranges between approximately 25,000 and 65,000 nT (0.25–0.65 G). By comparison, a strong refrigerator magnet has a field of about 10,000,000 nanoteslas (100 G).[14]

text: A map of intensity contours is called an isodynamic chart. As the World Magnetic Model shows, the intensity tends to decrease from the poles to the equator. A minimum intensity occurs in the South Atlantic Anomaly over South America while there are maxima over northern Canada, Siberia, and the coast of Antarctica south of Australia.[15]

text: Inclination[edit]

text: The inclination is given by an angle that can assume values between -90° (up) to 90° (down). In the northern hemisphere, the field points downwards. It is straight down at the North Magnetic Pole and rotates upwards as the latitude decreases until it is horizontal (0°) at the magnetic equator. It continues to rotate upwards until it is straight up at the South Magnetic Pole. Inclination can be measured with a dip circle.

text: An isoclinic chart (map of inclination contours) for the Earth's magnetic field is shown below.

text: Declination[edit]

text: Declination is positive for an eastward deviation of the field relative to true north. It can be estimated by comparing the magnetic north/south heading on a compass with the direction of a celestial pole. Maps typically include information on the declination as an angle or a small diagram showing the relationship between magnetic north and true north. Information on declination for a region can be represented by a chart with isogonic lines (contour lines with each line representing a fixed declination).

text: Geographical variation[edit]

text: Components of the Earth's magnetic field at the surface from the World Magnetic Model for 2015.[15]

text:
Intensity

Inclination

Declination

tag: ul

text: Dipolar approximation[edit]

text: Near the surface of the Earth, its magnetic field can be closely approximated by the field of a magnetic dipole positioned at the center of the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to the rotational axis of the Earth.[13] The dipole is roughly equivalent to a powerful bar magnet, with its south pole pointing towards the geomagnetic North Pole.[16] This may seem surprising, but the north pole of a magnet is so defined because, if allowed to rotate freely, it points roughly northward (in the geographic sense). Since the north pole of a magnet attracts the south poles of other magnets and repels the north poles, it must be attracted to the south pole of Earth's magnet. The dipolar field accounts for 80–90% of the field in most locations.[12]

text: Magnetic poles[edit]

text: Historically, the north and south poles of a magnet were first defined by the Earth's magnetic field, not vice versa, since one of the first uses for a magnet was as a compass needle. Its North pole was defined as the pole that would be attracted by the Earth's North Magnetic Pole when the magnet was suspended so it could turn freely. Since opposite poles attract, the North Magnetic Pole of the Earth is really the south pole of its magnetic field (the place where the field is directed downward into the Earth).[17][18][19][20]

text: The positions of the magnetic poles can be defined in at least two ways: locally or globally.[21] The local definition is the point where the magnetic field is vertical.[22] This can be determined by measuring the inclination. The inclination of the Earth's field is 90° (downwards) at the North Magnetic Pole and -90° (upwards) at the South Magnetic Pole. The two poles wander independently of each other and are not directly opposite each other on the globe. They can migrate rapidly: movements of up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) per year have been observed for the North Magnetic Pole. Over the last 180 years, the North Magnetic Pole has been migrating northwestward, from Cape Adelaide in the Boothia Peninsula in 1831 to 600 kilometres (370 mi) from Resolute Bay in 2001.[23] The magnetic equator is the line where the inclination is zero (the magnetic field is horizontal).

text: The global definition of the Earth's field is based on a mathematical model. If a line is drawn through the center of the Earth, parallel to the moment of the best-fitting magnetic dipole, the two positions where it intersects the Earth's surface are called the North and South geomagnetic poles. If the Earth's magnetic field were perfectly dipolar, the geomagnetic poles and magnetic dip poles would coincide and compasses would point towards them. However, the Earth's field has a significant non-dipolar contribution, so the poles do not coincide and compasses do not generally point at either.

text: Magnetosphere[edit]

text: Earth's magnetic field, predominantly dipolar at its surface, is distorted further out by the solar wind. This is a stream of charged particles leaving the Sun's corona and accelerating to a speed of 200 to 1000 kilometres per second. They carry with them a magnetic field, the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF).[24]

text: The solar wind exerts a pressure, and if it could reach Earth's atmosphere it would erode it. However, it is kept away by the pressure of the Earth's magnetic field. The magnetopause, the area where the pressures balance, is the boundary of the magnetosphere. Despite its name, the magnetosphere is asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10 Earth radii out but the other side stretching out in a magnetotail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii.[25] Sunward of the magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly.[24]

text: Inside the magnetosphere is the plasmasphere, a donut-shaped region containing low-energy charged particles, or plasma. This region begins at a height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes the ionosphere. This region rotates with the Earth.[25] There are also two concentric tire-shaped regions, called the Van Allen radiation belts, with high-energy ions (energies from 0.1 to 10 million electron volts (MeV)). The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while the outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii. The plasmasphere and Van Allen belts have partial overlap, with the extent of overlap varying greatly with solar activity.[26]

text: As well as deflecting the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field deflects cosmic rays, high-energy charged particles that are mostly from outside the Solar system. (Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun's magnetosphere, or heliosphere.[27]) By contrast, astronauts on the Moon risk exposure to radiation. Anyone who had been on the Moon's surface during a particularly violent solar eruption in 2005 would have received a lethal dose.[24]

text: Some of the charged particles do get into the magnetosphere. These spiral around field lines, bouncing back and forth between the poles several times per second. In addition, positive ions slowly drift westward and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a ring current. This current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth's surface.[24] Particles that penetrate the ionosphere and collide with the atoms there give rise to the lights of the aurorae and also emit X-rays.[25]

text: The varying conditions in the magnetosphere, known as space weather, are largely driven by solar activity. If the solar wind is weak, the magnetosphere expands; while if it is strong, it compresses the magnetosphere and more of it gets in. Periods of particularly intense activity, called geomagnetic storms, can occur when a coronal mass ejection erupts above the Sun and sends a shock wave through the Solar System. Such a wave can take just two days to reach the Earth. Geomagnetic storms can cause a lot of disruption; the "Halloween" storm of 2003 damaged more than a third of NASA's satellites. The largest documented storm occurred in 1859. It induced currents strong enough to short out telegraph lines, and aurorae were reported as far south as Hawaii.[24][28]

text: Time dependence[edit]

text: Short-term variations[edit]

text: The geomagnetic field changes on time scales from milliseconds to millions of years. Shorter time scales mostly arise from currents in the ionosphere (ionospheric dynamo region) and magnetosphere, and some changes can be traced to geomagnetic storms or daily variations in currents. Changes over time scales of a year or more mostly reflect changes in the Earth's interior, particularly the iron-rich core.[12]

text: Frequently, the Earth's magnetosphere is hit by solar flares causing geomagnetic storms, provoking displays of aurorae. The short-term instability of the magnetic field is measured with the K-index.[29]

text: Data from THEMIS show that the magnetic field, which interacts with the solar wind, is reduced when the magnetic orientation is aligned between Sun and Earth – opposite to the previous hypothesis. During forthcoming solar storms, this could result in blackouts and disruptions in artificial satellites.[30]

text: Secular variation[edit]

text: Changes in Earth's magnetic field on a time scale of a year or more are referred to as secular variation. Over hundreds of years, magnetic declination is observed to vary over tens of degrees.[12] A movie on the right shows how global declinations have changed over the last few centuries.[31]

text: The direction and intensity of the dipole change over time. Over the last two centuries the dipole strength has been decreasing at a rate of about 6.3% per century.[12] At this rate of decrease, the field would be negligible in about 1600 years.[32] However, this strength is about average for the last 7 thousand years, and the current rate of change is not unusual.[33]

text: A prominent feature in the non-dipolar part of the secular variation is a westward drift at a rate of about 0.2 degrees per year.[32] This drift is not the same everywhere and has varied over time. The globally averaged drift has been westward since about 1400 AD but eastward between about 1000 AD and 1400 AD.[34]

text: Changes that predate magnetic observatories are recorded in archaeological and geological materials. Such changes are referred to as paleomagnetic secular variation or paleosecular variation (PSV). The records typically include long periods of small change with occasional large changes reflecting geomagnetic excursions and reversals.[35]

text: Magnetic field reversals[edit]

text: Although generally Earth's field is approximately dipolar, with an axis that is nearly aligned with the rotational axis, occasionally the North and South geomagnetic poles trade places. Evidence for these geomagnetic reversals can be found in basalts, sediment cores taken from the ocean floors, and seafloor magnetic anomalies.[36] Reversals occur nearly randomly in time, with intervals between reversals ranging from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years. The most recent geomagnetic reversal, called the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, occurred about 780,000 years ago.[23][37] A related phenomenon, a geomagnetic excursion, amounts to an incomplete reversal, with no change in polarity.[38][39] The Laschamp event is an example of an excursion, it having occurred during the last ice age (41,000 years ago).

text: The past magnetic field is recorded mostly by strongly magnetic minerals, particularly iron oxides such as magnetite, that can carry a permanent magnetic moment. This remanent magnetization, or remanence, can be acquired in more than one way. In lava flows, the direction of the field is "frozen" in small minerals as they cool, giving rise to a thermoremanent magnetization. In sediments, the orientation of magnetic particles acquires a slight bias towards the magnetic field as they are deposited on an ocean floor or lake bottom. This is called detrital remanent magnetization.[8]

text: Thermoremanent magnetization is the main source of the magnetic anomalies around mid-ocean ridges. As the seafloor spreads, magma wells up from the mantle, cools to form new basaltic crust on both sides of the ridge, and is carried away from it by seafloor spreading. As it cools, it records the direction of the Earth's field. When the Earth's field reverses, new basalt records the reversed direction. The result is a series of stripes that are symmetric about the ridge. A ship towing a magnetometer on the surface of the ocean can detect these stripes and infer the age of the ocean floor below. This provides information on the rate at which seafloor has spread in the past.[8]

text: Radiometric dating of lava flows has been used to establish a geomagnetic polarity time scale, part of which is shown in the image. This forms the basis of magnetostratigraphy, a geophysical correlation technique that can be used to date both sedimentary and volcanic sequences as well as the seafloor magnetic anomalies.[8]

text: Studies of lava flows on Steens Mountain, Oregon, indicate that the magnetic field could have shifted at a rate of up to 6 degrees per day at some time in Earth's history, which significantly challenges the popular understanding of how the Earth's magnetic field works.[40] This finding was later attributed to unusual rock magnetic properties of the lava flow under study, not rapid field change, by one of the original authors of the 1995 study.[41]

text: Temporary dipole tilt variations that take the dipole axis across the equator and then back to the original polarity are known as excursions.[39]

text: Earliest appearance[edit]

text: Paleomagnetic studies of Paleoarchean lava in Australia and conglomerate in South Africa have concluded that the magnetic field has been present since at least about 3,450 million years ago.[42][43][44]

text: Future[edit]

text: At present, the overall geomagnetic field is becoming weaker; the present strong deterioration corresponds to a 10–15% decline over the last 150 years and has accelerated in the past several years; geomagnetic intensity has declined almost continuously from a maximum 35% above the modern value achieved approximately 2,000 years ago. The rate of decrease and the current strength are within the normal range of variation, as shown by the record of past magnetic fields recorded in rocks.

text: The nature of Earth's magnetic field is one of heteroscedastic fluctuation. An instantaneous measurement of it, or several measurements of it across the span of decades or centuries, are not sufficient to extrapolate an overall trend in the field strength. It has gone up and down in the past for unknown reasons. Also, noting the local intensity of the dipole field (or its fluctuation) is insufficient to characterize Earth's magnetic field as a whole, as it is not strictly a dipole field. The dipole component of Earth's field can diminish even while the total magnetic field remains the same or increases.

text: The Earth's magnetic north pole is drifting from northern Canada towards Siberia with a presently accelerating rate—10 kilometres (6.2 mi) per year at the beginning of the 20th century, up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) per year in 2003,[23] and since then has only accelerated.[45]

text: Physical origin[edit]

text: The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be generated by electric currents in the conductive material of its core, created by convection currents due to heat escaping from the core. However the process is complex, and computer models that reproduce some of its features have only been developed in the last few decades.

text: Earth's core and the geodynamo[edit]

text: The Earth and most of the planets in the Solar System, as well as the Sun and other stars, all generate magnetic fields through the motion of electrically conducting fluids.[47] The Earth's field originates in its core. This is a region of iron alloys extending to about 3400 km (the radius of the Earth is 6370 km). It is divided into a solid inner core, with a radius of 1220 km, and a liquid outer core.[48] The motion of the liquid in the outer core is driven by heat flow from the inner core, which is about 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F), to the core-mantle boundary, which is about 3,800 K (3,530 °C; 6,380 °F).[49] The pattern of flow is organized by the rotation of the Earth and the presence of the solid inner core.[50]

text: The mechanism by which the Earth generates a magnetic field is known as a dynamo.[47] The magnetic field is generated by a feedback loop: current loops generate magnetic fields (Ampère's circuital law); a changing magnetic field generates an electric field (Faraday's law); and the electric and magnetic fields exert a force on the charges that are flowing in currents (the Lorentz force).[51] These effects can be combined in a partial differential equation for the magnetic field called the magnetic induction equation,

text: where u is the velocity of the fluid; B is the magnetic B-field; and η=1/σμ is the magnetic diffusivity, which is inversely proportional to the product of the electrical conductivity σ and the permeability μ .[52] The term ∂B/∂t is the time derivative of the field; ∇2 is the Laplace operator and ∇× is the curl operator.

text: The first term on the right hand side of the induction equation is a diffusion term. In a stationary fluid, the magnetic field declines and any concentrations of field spread out. If the Earth's dynamo shut off, the dipole part would disappear in a few tens of thousands of years.[52]

text:
In a perfect conductor (

σ
=
∞

{\displaystyle \sigma =\infty \;}

), there would be no diffusion. By Lenz's law, any change in the magnetic field would be immediately opposed by currents, so the flux through a given volume of fluid could not change. As the fluid moved, the magnetic field would go with it. The theorem describing this effect is called the frozen-in-field theorem. Even in a fluid with a finite conductivity, new field is generated by stretching field lines as the fluid moves in ways that deform it. This process could go on generating new field indefinitely, were it not that as the magnetic field increases in strength, it resists fluid motion.[52]

text: The motion of the fluid is sustained by convection, motion driven by buoyancy. The temperature increases towards the center of the Earth, and the higher temperature of the fluid lower down makes it buoyant. This buoyancy is enhanced by chemical separation: As the core cools, some of the molten iron solidifies and is plated to the inner core. In the process, lighter elements are left behind in the fluid, making it lighter. This is called compositional convection. A Coriolis effect, caused by the overall planetary rotation, tends to organize the flow into rolls aligned along the north-south polar axis.[50][52]

text: A dynamo can amplify a magnetic field, but it needs a "seed" field to get it started.[52] For the Earth, this could have been an external magnetic field. Early in its history the Sun went through a T-Tauri phase in which the solar wind would have had a magnetic field orders of magnitude larger than the present solar wind.[53] However, much of the field may have been screened out by the Earth's mantle. An alternative source is currents in the core-mantle boundary driven by chemical reactions or variations in thermal or electric conductivity. Such effects may still provide a small bias that are part of the boundary conditions for the geodynamo.[54]

text: The average magnetic field in the Earth's outer core was calculated to be 25 gausses, 50 times stronger than the field at the surface.[55]

text: Numerical models[edit]

text: Simulating the geodynamo requires numerically solving a set of nonlinear partial differential equations for the magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) of the Earth's interior. Simulation of the MHD equations is performed on a 3D grid of points and the fineness of the grid, which in part determines the realism of the solutions, is limited mainly by computer power. For decades, theorists were confined to creating kinematic dynamo computer models in which the fluid motion is chosen in advance and the effect on the magnetic field calculated. Kinematic dynamo theory was mainly a matter of trying different flow geometries and testing whether such geometries could sustain a dynamo.[56]

text: The first self-consistent dynamo models, ones that determine both the fluid motions and the magnetic field, were developed by two groups in 1995, one in Japan[57] and one in the United States.[1][58] The latter received attention because it successfully reproduced some of the characteristics of the Earth's field, including geomagnetic reversals.[56]

text: Currents in the ionosphere and magnetosphere[edit]

text: Electric currents induced in the ionosphere generate magnetic fields (ionospheric dynamo region). Such a field is always generated near where the atmosphere is closest to the Sun, causing daily alterations that can deflect surface magnetic fields by as much as one degree. Typical daily variations of field strength are about 25 nanoteslas (nT) (one part in 2000), with variations over a few seconds of typically around 1 nT (one part in 50,000).[59]

text: Measurement and analysis[edit]

text: Detection[edit]

text: The Earth's magnetic field strength was measured by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1832[60] and has been repeatedly measured since then, showing a relative decay of about 10% over the last 150 years.[61] The Magsat satellite and later satellites have used 3-axis vector magnetometers to probe the 3-D structure of the Earth's magnetic field. The later Ørsted satellite allowed a comparison indicating a dynamic geodynamo in action that appears to be giving rise to an alternate pole under the Atlantic Ocean west of S. Africa.[62]

text: Governments sometimes operate units that specialize in measurement of the Earth's magnetic field. These are geomagnetic observatories, typically part of a national Geological survey, for example the British Geological Survey's Eskdalemuir Observatory. Such observatories can measure and forecast magnetic conditions such as magnetic storms that sometimes affect communications, electric power, and other human activities.

text: The International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network, with over 100 interlinked geomagnetic observatories around the world has been recording the earths magnetic field since 1991.

text: The military determines local geomagnetic field characteristics, in order to detect anomalies in the natural background that might be caused by a significant metallic object such as a submerged submarine. Typically, these magnetic anomaly detectors are flown in aircraft like the UK's Nimrod or towed as an instrument or an array of instruments from surface ships.

text: Commercially, geophysical prospecting companies also use magnetic detectors to identify naturally occurring anomalies from ore bodies, such as the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly.

text: Crustal magnetic anomalies[edit]

text: Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artifacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens in archaeological geophysics. Using magnetic instruments adapted from airborne magnetic anomaly detectors developed during World War II to detect submarines,[64] the magnetic variations across the ocean floor have been mapped. Basalt — the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor[65] — contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. The distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century.[66] More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these magnetic variations have provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials record the Earth's magnetic field.[66]

text: Statistical models[edit]

text: Each measurement of the magnetic field is at a particular place and time. If an accurate estimate of the field at some other place and time is needed, the measurements must be converted to a model and the model used to make predictions.

text: Spherical harmonics[edit]

text: The most common way of analyzing the global variations in the Earth's magnetic field is to fit the measurements to a set of spherical harmonics. This was first done by Carl Friedrich Gauss.[67] Spherical harmonics are functions that oscillate over the surface of a sphere. They are the product of two functions, one that depends on latitude and one on longitude. The function of longitude is zero along zero or more great circles passing through the North and South Poles; the number of such nodal lines is the absolute value of the order m. The function of latitude is zero along zero or more latitude circles; this plus the order is equal to the degree ℓ. Each harmonic is equivalent to a particular arrangement of magnetic charges at the center of the Earth. A monopole is an isolated magnetic charge, which has never been observed. A dipole is equivalent to two opposing charges brought close together and a quadrupole to two dipoles brought together. A quadrupole field is shown in the lower figure on the right.[12]

text: Spherical harmonics can represent any scalar field (function of position) that satisfies certain properties. A magnetic field is a vector field, but if it is expressed in Cartesian components X, Y, Z, each component is the derivative of the same scalar function called the magnetic potential. Analyses of the Earth's magnetic field use a modified version of the usual spherical harmonics that differ by a multiplicative factor. A least-squares fit to the magnetic field measurements gives the Earth's field as the sum of spherical harmonics, each multiplied by the best-fitting Gauss coefficient gmℓ or hmℓ.[12]

text: The lowest-degree Gauss coefficient, g00, gives the contribution of an isolated magnetic charge, so it is zero. The next three coefficients – g10, g11, and h11 – determine the direction and magnitude of the dipole contribution. The best fitting dipole is tilted at an angle of about 10° with respect to the rotational axis, as described earlier.[12]

text: Radial dependence[edit]

text: Spherical harmonic analysis can be used to distinguish internal from external sources if measurements are available at more than one height (for example, ground observatories and satellites). In that case, each term with coefficient gmℓ or hmℓ can be split into two terms: one that decreases with radius as 1/rℓ+1 and one that increases with radius as rℓ. The increasing terms fit the external sources (currents in the ionosphere and magnetosphere). However, averaged over a few years the external contributions average to zero.[12]

text: The remaining terms predict that the potential of a dipole source (ℓ=1) drops off as 1/r2. The magnetic field, being a derivative of the potential, drops off as 1/r3. Quadrupole terms drop off as 1/r4, and higher order terms drop off increasingly rapidly with the radius. The radius of the outer core is about half of the radius of the Earth. If the field at the core-mantle boundary is fit to spherical harmonics, the dipole part is smaller by a factor of about 8 at the surface, the quadrupole part by a factor of 16, and so on. Thus, only the components with large wavelengths can be noticeable at the surface. From a variety of arguments, it is usually assumed that only terms up to degree 14 or less have their origin in the core. These have wavelengths of about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) or less. Smaller features are attributed to crustal anomalies.[12]

text: Global models[edit]

text: The International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy maintains a standard global field model called the International Geomagnetic Reference Field. It is updated every 5 years. The 11th-generation model, IGRF11, was developed using data from satellites (Ørsted, CHAMP and SAC-C) and a world network of geomagnetic observatories.[68] The spherical harmonic expansion was truncated at degree 10, with 120 coefficients, until 2000. Subsequent models are truncated at degree 13 (195 coefficients).[69]

text: Another global field model, called the World Magnetic Model, is produced jointly by the United States National Centers for Environmental Information (formerly the National Geophysical Data Center) and the British Geological Survey. This model truncates at degree 12 (168 coefficients) with an approximate spatial resolution of 3,000 kilometers. It is the model used by the United States Department of Defense, the Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom), the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and the International Hydrographic Office as well as in many civilian navigation systems.[70]

text: A third model, produced by the Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA and GSFC) and the Danish Space Research Institute, uses a "comprehensive modeling" approach that attempts to reconcile data with greatly varying temporal and spatial resolution from ground and satellite sources.[71]

text: For users with higher accuracy needs, the United States National Centers for Environmental Information developed the Enhanced Magnetic Model (EMM), which extends to degree and order 720 and resolves magnetic anomalies down to a wavelength of 56 kilometers. It was compiled from satellite, marine, aeromagnetic and ground magnetic surveys. The latest version, EMM2015, includes data from The European Space Agency's Swarm satellite mission.[72]

text: Biomagnetism[edit]

text: Animals including birds and turtles can detect the Earth's magnetic field, and use the field to navigate during migration.[73] Some researchers have found that cows and wild deer tend to align their bodies north-south while relaxing, but not when the animals are under high-voltage power lines, suggesting that magnetism is responsible.[74][75] Other researchers reported in 2011 that they could not replicate those findings using different Google Earth images.[76]

text: Researchers found out that very weak electromagnetic fields disrupt the magnetic compass used by European robins and other songbirds to navigate using the Earth's magnetic field. Neither power lines nor cellphone signals are to blame for the electromagnetic field effect on the birds, according to the new study published in the 8 May 2014 edition of the journal Nature. Instead, the culprits consist of frequencies between 2 kHz and 5 MHz, such as AM radio signals and ordinary electronic equipment that might be found in businesses or private homes.[77]


document_title: Independence Day (United States)

question_text: when did the us start celebrating the 4th of july

text: Independence Day (United States)

text: Background

text: During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the Thirteen Colonies from Great Britain in 1776 actually occurred on July 2, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain rule.[5][6] After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:

text: The second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more.[7]

text: Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.[8]

text: Historians have long disputed whether members of Congress signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.[9][10][11][12][13]

text: Coincidentally, both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the only signers of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as Presidents of the United States, died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration. Although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4, 1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4, 1872; so far he is the only U.S. President to have been born on Independence Day.

text: Observance

text:
In 1777, thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island. Philadelphia celebrated the first anniversary in a manner a modern American would find familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks. Ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting.[14]
In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a double ration of rum for his soldiers and an artillery salute (feu de joie). Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, France.[15]

text:
In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5.[15]
In 1781, the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration.[15]
In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a challenging music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy. This is recognized as the first recorded celebration[clarification needed] and is still celebrated there today.[16]
In 1870, the U.S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees.[17]
In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday.[18]

text: Customs

text: Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (such as the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.

text: Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue; many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, a long weekend to gather with relatives or friends. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often held in the morning, before family get-togethers, while fireworks displays occur in the evening after dark at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.

text: The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall, to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts (on Gallows Hill, the famous site of the execution of 13 women and 6 men for witchcraft in 1692 during the Salem witch trials), where the tradition of celebratory bonfires had persisted, with pyramids composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels. These made the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, and is still practiced in some New England towns.[19]

text: Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner", "God Bless America", "America the Beautiful," "My Country, 'Tis of Thee," "This Land Is Your Land," "Stars and Stripes Forever," and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle" in northeastern states and "Dixie" in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812.

text: Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. In addition, local and regional weather conditions may dictate whether the sale or use of fireworks in an area will be allowed. Some local or regional firework sales are limited or prohibited because of dry weather or other specific concerns. On these occasions the public may be prohibited from purchasing or discharging fireworks, but professional displays (such as those at sports events) may still take place, if certain safety precautions have been taken.

text: A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.[20]

text: In 2009, New York City had the largest fireworks display in the country, with more than 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded.[21] It generally holds displays in the East River. Other major displays are in Chicago on Lake Michigan; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in St. Louis on the Mississippi River; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.

text: During the annual Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the world's largest fireworks displays, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day.

text: The first week of July is typically one of the busiest United States travel periods of the year, as many people use what is often a three-day holiday weekend for extended vacation trips.[22]

text: Celebration gallery

text:
In addition to a fireworks show, Miami, Florida lights one of its tallest buildings with the patriotic red, white and blue color scheme on Independence Day

New York City's fireworks display, shown above over the East Village, is sponsored by Macy's and is the largest[21] in the country

Play media

Patriotic trailer shown in theaters celebrating July 4, 1940

A festively decorated Independence day cake.

Lakes are a popular destination for Fourth of July celebrations in the Midwest.

text: Notable celebrations

text:
Held since 1785, the Bristol Fourth of July Parade in Bristol, Rhode Island is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States.
Since 1868, Seward, Nebraska has held a celebration on the same town square. In 1979 Seward was designated "America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA" by resolution of Congress. Seward has also been proclaimed "Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City" by Governor James Exon in proclamation. Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations.[23]
Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the Rebild Hills of Denmark.[24]
Since 1959, the International Freedom Festival is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan and Windsor, Ontario during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and Canada Day (July 1). It culminates in a large fireworks display over the Detroit River.
The famous Macy's fireworks display usually held over the East River in New York City has been televised nationwide on NBC since 1976. In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the Hudson River for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration of that river.[25]
The Boston Pops Orchestra has hosted a music and fireworks show over the Charles River Esplanade called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1973.[26] The event was broadcast nationally from 1991 until 2002 on A&E, and since 2002 by CBS and its Boston station WBZ-TV. WBZ/1030 and WBZ-TV broadcast the entire event locally, and from 2002 through 2012, CBS broadcast the final hour of the concert nationally in primetime. The national broadcast was put on hiatus beginning in 2013, which Pops executive producer David G. Mugar believed was the result of decreasing viewership caused by NBC's encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks.[27][28] The national broadcast will be revived for 2016, and expanded to two hours.[29]
On the Capitol lawn in Washington, D.C., A Capitol Fourth, a free concert broadcast live by PBS, NPR and the American Forces Network, precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually.

text: Other countries

text: The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence.[30] July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. In Rwanda, July 4 is an official holiday known as Liberation Day, commemorating the end of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which the U.S. government also played a role. Rebild National Park in Denmark is said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.[31]


document_title: 2018 Tour de France

question_text: when will tour de france teams be announced

text: 2018 Tour de France

text: Teams[edit]

text: The 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited to the race. On 6 January 2018, organisers of the Tour, the Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), announced the four second-tier UCI Professional Continental teams that received a wildcard invitation to participate in the event. The four teams were Cofidis, Direct Énergie, Fortuneo–Samsic, from France and Belgium's Wanty–Groupe Gobert, all of which have participated in the race before.[2] This meant that new French team Vital Concept, with their team leader, sprinter Bryan Coquard, missed out on the race. Christian Prudhomme wished the team the best in their inaugural season.[3] The presentation of the teams—where the members of each team's roster are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries—took place on Place Napoleon (fr) in the town of La Roche-sur-Yon on 5 July, two days before the opening stage.[4]

text: New rules by the cycling's governing body, the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) reduced the number of riders per team for Grand Tours from 9 to 8, resulting in a start list total of 176, instead of the usual 198.[5][6] Of these, 35 competed in their first Tour de France.[7] The total number of riders that finished the race was 145.[8] The riders came from 30 countries. Seven countries had more than 10 riders in the race: France (35), Belgium (19), the Netherlands (13), Italy (13), Australia (11), Germany (11) and Spain (11).[6] The average age of riders in the race was 29.37 years,[9] ranging from the 21-year-old Egan Bernal (Team Sky) to the 40-year-old Franco Pellizotti (Bahrain–Merida).[10][11] Groupama–FDJ had the youngest average age while Bahrain–Merida had the oldest.[12]

text: The teams entering the race were:[6]

text: UCI WorldTeams

text:
AG2R La Mondiale
Astana
Bahrain–Merida
BMC Racing Team
Bora–Hansgrohe
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
Team Dimension Data
Groupama–FDJ
Team Katusha–Alpecin
LottoNL–Jumbo
Lotto–Soudal
Movistar Team
Mitchelton–Scott
Quick-Step Floors
Team Sky
Team Sunweb
Trek–Segafredo
UAE Team Emirates

text: UCI Professional Continental teams

text:
Cofidis
Direct Énergie
Fortuneo–Samsic
Wanty–Groupe Gobert

text: Pre-race favourites[edit]

text: Froome[edit]

text: Defending champion Chris Froome (Team Sky) had generally been considered the main favourite for the general classification.[13] He had won four out of the last five editions, and was also the current defending champion at both other Grand Tours, the Vuelta a España and the Giro d'Italia. However, Froome's participation was cast into doubt when he returned a urine sample at the 2017 Vuelta a España, which contained twice the allowed amount of the asthma drug salbutamol. This was considered not as a positive doping result, but as an "Adverse Analytical Finding" (AAF), meaning that he was allowed to continue racing until the case was resolved. He did however face the possibility of losing his Vuelta victory and all subsequent results.[14] The ASO were unhappy with the situation, which was very similar to that of Alberto Contador, who started the 2011 Tour with his case over a positive test for clenbuterol still unresolved.[15] The UCI conducted an investigation into the AAF, which was still unresolved at the time that Froome won the 2018 Giro d'Italia. With an outcome before the start of the Tour unlikely, the ASO attempted to bar Froome from starting the race, citing article 28 of the race's rules, saying that the organiser "expressly reserves the right to refuse participation in—or to exclude from—the event, a team or any of its members whose presence would be such as to damage the image or reputation of ASO or the event".[16] Froome was cleared by the UCI on 2 July 2018, with a press statement reading that the authorities had found sufficient evidence "that Mr Froome’s sample results do not constitute an AAF".[17] He was thereafter cleared to start the Tour by the ASO as well.[18]

text: Others[edit]

text: The closest rivals of Froome were thought to be Richie Porte (BMC Racing Team), Nairo Quintana, Mikel Landa (both of Movistar Team), Tom Dumoulin (Team Sunweb), and Vincenzo Nibali (Bahrain–Merida).[19] The other riders considered contenders for the general classification were Geraint Thomas (Team Sky), Romain Bardet (AG2R La Mondiale), Primož Roglič (LottoNL–Jumbo), Adam Yates (Mitchelton–BikeExchange), Jakob Fuglsang (Astana), Alejandro Valverde (Movistar Team), Rigoberto Urán (EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale), Dan Martin (UAE Team Emirates), Bob Jungels (Quick-Step Floors) and Ilnur Zakarin (Team Katusha–Alpecin).[13][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28]

text: The sprinters considered favourites for the points classification and wins on the flat or hilly bunch sprint finishes were Peter Sagan (Bora–Hansgrohe), Fernando Gaviria (Quick-Step Floors), Dylan Groenewegen (LottoNL–Jumbo), Arnaud Démare (Groupama–FDJ), Marcel Kittel (Team Katusha–Alpecin), Michael Matthews (Team Sunweb), Mark Cavendish (Team Dimension Data), André Greipel (Lotto–Soudal), Alexander Kristoff (UAE Team Emirates), Sonny Colbrelli (Bahrain–Merida) and John Degenkolb (Trek–Segafredo).[29][30][31]

text: Route and stages[edit]

text: On 12 February 2017 at a rugby union match between France and Scotland at the Stade de France, the Tour's race director Christian Prudhomme announced the start of the 2018 Tour (known as the Grand Départ) would be in the Vendée department, in the Pays de la Loire region. The departments in the Pays de la Loire region hosted the Tour de France in its first edition back in 1903. Since then, the cities and towns of the Pays de la Loire region have welcomed the Grand Départ of the Tour de France nine times, five of which have set out from the Vendée. The last time the region hosted the Tour was in 2011.[32] Two weeks after the announcement, the ASO revealed that the Grand Départ would take place over three stages, with the third a team time trial.[33] In June 2017, the UCI’s Professional Cycling Council (PCC) moved the start of the Tour a week later than usual and originally planned due to a clash with the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[1] The full route was announced on 17 October 2017; it was almost completely within France, with short deviations into Spain in the Pyrenees were the only exceptions. It would feature two of the Tour's most historic climbs, Alpe d'Huez and the Col de Tourmalet, which last featured in 2015 and 2016 respectively. For the first time in 60 to 70 years, it included a section of unpaved roads on the Glières Plateau.[34] Of the route, Mark Cavendish labelled it "absolutely brutal".[35]

text: There were 21 stages in the race, covering a total distance of 3,351 km (2,082 mi), the shortest of the 21st century.[36][37] The race also included 21.7 km (13.5 mi) of cobblestones (or pavés) in stage 9, which were last featured in 2015. In the first week of the race, two laps of the short, but steep, Mûr-de-Bretagne were included.[34]

text:
Stage characteristics and winners[36]

Stage

Date

Course

Distance

Stage type

Winner

1

7 July

Noirmoutier-en-l'Île to Fontenay-le-Comte

201 km (125 mi)

Flat

 Fernando Gaviria (COL)

2

8 July

Mouilleron-Saint-Germain to La Roche-sur-Yon

182.5 km (113 mi)

Flat

 Peter Sagan (SVK)

3

9 July

Cholet to Cholet

35.5 km (22 mi)

Team time trial

 BMC Racing Team

4

10 July

La Baule to Sarzeau

195 km (121 mi)

Flat

 Fernando Gaviria (COL)

5

11 July

Lorient to Quimper

204.5 km (127 mi)

Medium mountain

 Peter Sagan (SVK)

6

12 July

Brest to Mûr-de-Bretagne

181 km (112 mi)

Medium mountain

 Dan Martin (IRL)

7

13 July

Fougères to Chartres

231 km (144 mi)

Flat

 Dylan Groenewegen (NED)

8

14 July

Dreux to Amiens

181 km (112 mi)

Flat

 Dylan Groenewegen (NED)

9

15 July

Arras to Roubaix

156.5 km (97 mi)

Medium mountain

 John Degenkolb (GER)

16 July

Annecy

Rest day

10

17 July

Annecy to Le Grand-Bornand

158.5 km (98 mi)

High mountain

 Julian Alaphilippe (FRA)

11

18 July

Albertville to La Rosière

108.5 km (67 mi)

High mountain

 Geraint Thomas (GBR)

12

19 July

Bourg-Saint-Maurice to Alpe d'Huez

175.5 km (109 mi)

High mountain

 Geraint Thomas (GBR)

13

20 July

Le Bourg-d'Oisans to Valence

169.5 km (105 mi)

Flat

 Peter Sagan (SVK)

14

21 July

Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux to Mende

188 km (117 mi)

Medium mountain

 Omar Fraile (ESP)

15

22 July

Millau to Carcassonne

181.5 km (113 mi)

Medium mountain

 Magnus Cort Nielsen (DNK)

23 July

Carcassonne

Rest day

16

24 July

Carcassonne to Bagnères-de-Luchon

218 km (135 mi)

High mountain

 Julian Alaphilippe (FRA)

17

25 July

Bagnères-de-Luchon to Saint-Lary-Soulan (Col de Portet)

65 km (40 mi)

High mountain

 Nairo Quintana (COL)

18

26 July

Trie-sur-Baïse to Pau

171 km (106 mi)

Flat

 Arnaud Démare (FRA)

19

27 July

Lourdes to Laruns

200.5 km (125 mi)

High mountain

 Primož Roglič (SLO)

20

28 July

Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle to Espelette

31 km (19 mi)

Individual time trial

 Tom Dumoulin (NED)

21

29 July

Houilles to Paris (Champs-Élysées)

116 km (72 mi)

Flat

 Alexander Kristoff (NOR)

Total

3,351 km (2,082 mi)

tag: table

text: Race overview[edit]

text: Stage one's bunch sprint was won by Tour debutant Fernando Gaviria, with Peter Sagan coming in second and Marcel Kittel in third. Gaviria took the yellow and green jerseys as the leader of the general and points classifications respectively. Kévin Ledanois (Fortuneo–Samsic) took the first polka dot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification.[38] Sagan won stage two from a sprint to take the yellow and green jerseys, with Dion Smith of Wanty–Groupe Gobert claiming the polka.[39] Stage three's team time trial was won by BMC Racing Team whose riders Tejay van Garderen and Greg Van Avermaet became tied for the overall lead,[40] with Van Avermaet moving into yellow for the second time in his career due to him crossing the finish line ahead of Van Garderen in the first two stages being as there was not yet an individual time trial to measure their times down to the 1000th of a second.[41] Stage four was won by Gaviria from a bunch sprint.[42][43] Sagan further extend his lead in the points competition by winning stage five. Also in stage five, Toms Skujiņš of Trek–Segafredo won the mountains points which gave him the polka. Skujins became the first rider from Latvia to ever lead the mountains classification.[44]

text: Stage six was a sprint that Sagan and John Degenkolb raced for, seeing as virtually all of the top sprinters finished close to fifteen minutes behind the general classification contenders. Team Sky, BMC Racing Team, and Movistar Team controlled the peloton, where Geraint Thomas reeled in the final breakaway rider and won the three second time bonus sprint that put him back only three seconds behind Van Avermaet in the general classification. With only about a kilometre to go Dan Martin attacked and was able to stay away and win the stage one second ahead of the bulk of the general classification contenders. Romain Bardet and Tom Dumoulin suffered mechanical issues late in the stage which made them lose time.[45][46] Stage seven was the longest stage. At the start of stage seven, Van Avermaet remained in the yellow jersey with Thomas in second at three seconds behind. The stage was won by Dylan Groenewegen. There were multiple crashes in the first week of the tour and after stage seven, six riders had abandoned the race for various reasons including the promising young Belgian Tiesj Benoot (Lotto–Soudal), Luis León Sánchez (Astana),[47] and the green jersey winner of the 2017 Tour Michael Matthews.[48] This marked the end of the first week of the tour.

text: Groenewegen then won his second sprint stage in a row. Notably, Greipel and Gaviria were penalized for headbutting each other and lost their placing and green jersey points.[49] Martin lost more than a minute after being involved in a crash during the stage. Van Avermaet improved his lead in the general classification after earning a single second in the bonus sprint.[50] Stage nine was the cobblestone stage that was a bad day for numerous sprinters and general classification riders. Richie Porte abandoned after a crash for the second year in a row.[51] Egan Bernal, Jakob Fuglsang, Chris Froome, and Mikel Landa crashed as did many other riders; many riders had flat tires as well, including Bardet who got three of them.[52] Meanwhile, Yves Lampaert (Quick-Step Floors), Degenkolb, and Van Avermaet survived the carnage going on around them to escape the remaining peloton and cross the finish together with Degenkolb winning his first Tour stage, as Van Avermaet gained time as well as another time bonus to extend his lead in the yellow jersey.[53] The following day was the Tour's first rest day.[36]

text: The first stage at high altitude and first in the Alps, the tenth, was won by Quick-Step Floors rider Julian Alaphilippe from a large breakaway that included race leader Van Avermaet. Eventually, Alaphillipe attacked and won his first Tour stage while Van Avermaet retained his yellow jersey and extended his lead to nearly two and a half minutes,[54] when many people thought he would not be retaining it.[55] Alaphillipe also took the mountains classification.[54] Thomas achieved back-to-back summit finish wins both from the group of favourites on stages eleven and twelve by pushing the breakaway riders until the very end. In the steep finish of the eleventh, Thomas attacked in the final kilometre and passed lone breakaway rider Mikel Nieve (Mitchelton–Scott) to take the win.[56] He won stage twelve from a sprint on flat finish atop Alpe d'Huez. Dumoulin and Froome arose as the likely contenders in Paris.[57] Sagan won stage thirteen after coming out of nowhere while Kristoff and Arnaud Démare (Groupama–FDJ) dueled it out.[58] In stage fourteen, Omar Fraile of Astana came out of the breakaway and remarkably opened a twenty-minute gap to the main peloton with the yellow jersey contenders. After the Alps, it was basically down to three riders in contention, Thomas, Froome, and Dumoulin. There were many withdrawals after the Alps after names like Kittel, Mark Cavendish, Rigoberto Uran, Gaviria, Groenewegen, and Andre Griepel withdrew for various reasons. Vincenzo Nibali was forced to withdraw after fracturing a vertebrae in his back after being involved in an accident with a spectator near the summit of Alpe d'huez. Smoke from flares and animosity towards Froome were a factor and better security was called for by many people for the final week.[59]

text: Stage fifteen, the start of the final week, was once again a breakaway victory. Magnus Cort took Astana's second win in two days as there were no major changes overall.[60] The next day was the second rest day of the race.[36] Stage sixteen had a further incident when the police used tear gas against a protest by local farmers who had placed hay bales on the road. As the riders passed that point, there was still gas in the air. The race was neutralized for about fifteen minutes because several riders had problems with their eyes and had to rinse them.[61] After the restart, a large breakaway escaped and Philippe Gilbert (Quick-Step Floors), while in the lead on a descent, lost control of his bike and smashed into and over the wall. Later, Adam Yates, having taken the lead, fell on the final descent and handed the position and win to Alaphilippe, giving him his second stage win of the tour.[62]

text: On the first of the three Pyrenan stages, seventeen, Froome's challenge faded on the approach to the summit of the Col de Portet and he dropped to third position in the general classification, 2:31 behind Thomas. Dumoulin moved into second place, 1:59 off the lead. Nairo Quintana won the stage after attacking at the bottom of the final climb, moving himself up to fifth overall, behind Primož Roglič.[63] The flat stage eighteen was won by Demare from a sprint finish; by now most of the top sprint had now left the race and Sagan was suffering with injury.[64] On the mountainous stage nineteen from Lourdes to Laruns, Roglič attacked on the final climb, the Col d'Aubisque, and soloed to the finish nineteen seconds ahead of the chasing group of overall favourites. Thomas was able to consolidate his position in the yellow jersey by picking up six bonus seconds in the sprint thereby extending his lead over Dumoulin to 2 min 5 s.[65] The penultimate stage was a 31 km (19.3 mi) time trial, Dumoulin won the stage, one second ahead of Froome. Thomas survived a scare when his back wheel locked, but completed the time trial successfully, finishing fourteen seconds behind Dumoulin taking a lead of 1 min 51 s into the final stage.[66] The stage was won by Kristoff in a bunch sprint on the Champs-Élysées in Paris.[67]

text: Classification leadership[edit]

text: Four main individual classifications were contested in the 2018 Tour de France, as well as a team competition. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage.[68] Time bonuses were awarded at the end of every stage apart from the time trial stages. The first three riders would get 10, 6, and 4 seconds, respectively. Time bonuses of three, two and one seconds, would be given to the first three riders to cross a "bonus point" in each of the first nine mass-start stages of the race. It would affect the general classification, but not the points.[69] For crashes within the final 3 km (1.9 mi) of a stage, not including time trials and summit finishes, any rider involved would receive the same time as the group he was in when the crash occurred.[70] The rider with the lowest cumulative time would be the winner of the general classification and the overall winner of the Tour.[68] The rider leading the classification would wear a yellow jersey.[71]

text:
Points classification points for the top 15 positions by type[72]

Type

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Flat stage

50
30
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

Medium mountain stage

30
25
22
19
17
15
13
11
9

High mountain stage

20
17
15
13
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Individual time trial

Intermediate sprint

text: The second classification was the points classification. Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage's type.[72] The leader was identified by a green jersey.[71]

text: The third classification was the mountains classification. Points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit of the most difficult climbs first. The climbs were categorized, in order of increasing difficulty, as fourth-, third-, second-, and first-category and hors catégorie (read: "beyond category").[72] Double points were awarded at the top of the last mountains in the three mountain stages in the Pyrenees (16, 17 and 19).[73] The leader wore a white jersey with red polka dots.[71]

text: The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but was restricted to riders born on or after 1 January 1993.[72] The leader wears a white jersey.[71]

text: The final classification was a team classification. This was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time. The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie.[72] The riders in the team that lead this classification are identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets.[74]

text: In addition, there was a combativity award given after each stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "made the greatest effort and who demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship".[69] No combativity awards are given for the time trials and the final stage.[75] The winner wore a red number bib the following stage.[76] At the conclusion of the Tour, a rider would win the overall super-combativity award which was, again, awarded by a jury.[69]

text: A total of €2,287,750 was awarded in cash prizes in the race.[75] The overall winner of the general classification received €500,000, with the second and third placed riders getting €200,000 and €100,000 respectively.[77] All finishers in the top 160 were awarded money.[77] The holders of the classifications would benefit on each stage they led; the final winners of the points and mountains would be given €25,000, while the best young rider and most combative rider would get €20,000.[78] The team classification winners was given €50,000.[79] €11,000 was given to the winners of each stage of the race, with smaller amounts given to places 2–20.[77] There were also two special awards each with a prize of €5000.[75] The Souvenir Henri Desgrange, given to first rider to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour, the Col du Portet on stage seventeen,[80] and the Souvenir Jacques Goddet, given to the first rider to pass Goddet's memorial at the summit of the Col du Tourmalet in stage nineteen.[75] Nairo Quintana won the Henri Desgrange and Julian Alaphilippe won the Jacques Goddet.[81][82]

text:
Classification leadership by stage

Stage

Winner

General classification

Points classification

Mountains classification

Young rider classification

Team classification

Combativity award

1

Fernando Gaviria

Fernando Gaviria

Fernando Gaviria

Kévin Ledanois

Fernando Gaviria

Quick-Step Floors

Yoann Offredo

2

Peter Sagan

Peter Sagan

Peter Sagan

Dion Smith

Sylvain Chavanel

3

BMC Racing Team

Greg Van Avermaet

Søren Kragh Andersen

No award

4

Fernando Gaviria

Jérôme Cousin

5

Peter Sagan

Toms Skujiņš

Toms Skujiņš

6

Daniel Martin

Damien Gaudin

7

Dylan Groenewegen

Laurent Pichon

8

Dylan Groenewegen

Fabien Grellier

9

John Degenkolb

Damien Gaudin

10

Julian Alaphilippe

Julian Alaphilippe

Pierre Latour

Movistar Team

Greg Van Avermaet

11

Geraint Thomas

Geraint Thomas

Alejandro Valverde

12

Geraint Thomas

Steven Kruijswijk

13

Peter Sagan

Michael Schär

14

Omar Fraile

Jasper Stuyven

15

Magnus Cort Nielsen

Rafał Majka

16

Julian Alaphilippe

Bahrain–Merida

Philippe Gilbert

17

Nairo Quintana

Movistar Team

Tanel Kangert

18

Arnaud Démare

Luke Durbridge

19

Primož Roglič

Mikel Landa

20

Tom Dumoulin

No award

21

Alexander Kristoff

Final

Geraint Thomas

Peter Sagan

Julian Alaphilippe

Pierre Latour

Movistar Team

Dan Martin

text:
In stage two, Marcel Kittel, who was third in the points classification, wore the green jersey, because first placed Fernando Gaviria wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification and Peter Sagan, who was second in the points classification, wore the rainbow jersey of the world champion.
In stage two, Dylan Groenewegen, who was second in the best young rider classification, wore the white jersey, because first placed Fernando Gaviria wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification.
In stage three, Alexander Kristoff, who was third in the points classification, wore the green jersey, because first placed Peter Sagan wore the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification, and second placed Fernando Gaviria wore the white jersey as leader of the young rider classification.
In stage seventeen Philippe Gilbert did not start, so no rider wore the red bib as the most combative rider of previous stage.

text: Final standings[edit]

text:
Legend

Denotes the winner of the general classification[71]

Denotes the winner of the mountains classification[71]

Denotes the winner of the points classification[71]

Denotes the winner of the young rider classification[71]

Denotes the winner of the team classification[71]

Denotes the winner of the combativity award[71]

text: General classification[edit]

text:
Final general classification (1–10)[8]

Rank

Rider

Team

Time

1

 Geraint Thomas (GBR)

Team Sky

83h 17' 13"

2

 Tom Dumoulin (NED)

Team Sunweb

+ 1' 51"

3

 Chris Froome (GBR)

Team Sky

+ 2' 24"

4

 Primož Roglič (SVN)

LottoNL–Jumbo

+ 3' 22"

5

 Steven Kruijswijk (NED)

LottoNL–Jumbo

+ 6' 08"

6

 Romain Bardet (FRA)

AG2R La Mondiale

+ 6' 57"

7

 Mikel Landa (ESP)

Movistar Team

+ 7' 37"

8

 Dan Martin (IRL)

UAE Team Emirates

+ 9' 05"

9

 Ilnur Zakarin (RUS)

Team Katusha–Alpecin

+ 12' 37"

10

 Nairo Quintana (COL)

Movistar Team

+ 14' 18"

text:
showFinal general classification (11–145)[8]

Rank

Rider

Team

Time

11
 Bob Jungels (LUX)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 16' 32"

12
 Jakob Fuglsang (DEN)
Astana
+ 19' 46"

13
 Pierre Latour (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 22' 13"

14
 Alejandro Valverde (ESP)
Movistar Team
+ 27' 26"

15
 Egan Bernal (COL)
Team Sky
+ 27' 52"

16
 Tanel Kangert (EST)
Astana
+ 34' 52"

17
 Warren Barguil (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 37' 06"

18
 Domenico Pozzovivo (ITA)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 39' 08"

19
 Rafał Majka (POL)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 39' 57"

20
 Damiano Caruso (ITA)
BMC Racing Team
+ 42' 31"

21
 Guillaume Martin (FRA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 44' 39"

22
 Ion Izagirre (ESP)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 46' 36"

23
 Mikel Nieve (ESP)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 49' 19"

24
 Gorka Izagirre (ESP)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 50' 02"

25
 Simon Geschke (GER)
Team Sunweb
+ 50' 15"

26
 Bauke Mollema (NED)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 1h 06' 33"

27
 Pierre Rolland (FRA)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 1h 09' 09"

28
 Greg Van Avermaet (BEL)
BMC Racing Team
+ 1h 10' 14"

29
 Adam Yates (GBR)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 1h 17' 35"

30
 Lilian Calmejane (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 1h 18' 09"

31
 Robert Gesink (NED)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 1h 21' 13"

32
 Tejay van Garderen (USA)
BMC Racing Team
+ 1h 23' 05"

33
 Julian Alaphilippe (FRA)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 1h 28' 08"

34
 David Gaudu (FRA)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 1h 30' 01"

35
 Julien Bernard (FRA)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 1h 34' 12"

36
 Daniel Felipe Martínez (COL)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 1h 38' 38"

37
 Antwan Tolhoek (NED)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 1h 39' 01"

38
 Rudy Molard (FRA)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 1h 47' 36"

39
 Sylvain Chavanel (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 1h 47' 47"

40
 Kristijan Đurasek (CRO)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 1h 48' 06"

41
 Arthur Vichot (FRA)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 1h 51' 19"

42
 Maxime Bouet (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 1h 58' 08"

43
 Nicolas Edet (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 1h 58' 54"

44
 Michael Valgren (DEN)
Astana
+ 1h 59' 20"

45
 Daniel Navarro (ESP)
Cofidis
+ 2h 00' 32"

46
 Daryl Impey (RSA)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 2h 00' 53"

47
 Jesús Herrada (ESP)
Cofidis
+ 2h 01' 52"

48
 Amaël Moinard (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 2h 03' 20"

49
 Michał Kwiatkowski (POL)
Team Sky
+ 2h 05' 29"

50
 Andrey Amador (CRC)
Movistar Team
+ 2h 05' 38"

51
 Laurens ten Dam (NED)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 06' 22"

52
 Søren Kragh Andersen (DEN)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 06' 23"

53
 Stefan Küng (SUI)
BMC Racing Team
+ 2h 07' 14"

54
 Thomas Degand (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 2h 09' 54"

55
 Mathias Frank (SUI)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2h 10' 29"

56
 Jesper Hansen (DEN)
Astana
+ 2h 10' 33"

57
 Omar Fraile (ESP)
Astana
+ 2h 10' 59"

58
 Wout Poels (NED)
Team Sky
+ 2h 13' 23"

59
 Tom-Jelte Slagter (NED)
Team Dimension Data
+ 2h 13' 58"

60
 Franco Pellizotti (ITA)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 2h 17' 32"

61
 Pavel Kochetkov (RUS)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 2h 17' 52"

62
 Marc Soler (ESP)
Movistar Team
+ 2h 18' 51"

63
 Jasper Stuyven (BEL)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 2h 20' 24"

64
 Marco Minnaard (NED)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 2h 20' 31"

65
 Thomas De Gendt (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 2h 24' 41"

66
 Oliver Naesen (BEL)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2h 29' 36"

67
 Nikias Arndt (GER)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 32' 02"

68
 Magnus Cort (DEN)
Astana
+ 2h 32' 26"

69
 Darwin Atapuma (COL)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 2h 35' 47"

70
 Jonathan Castroviejo (ESP)
Team Sky
+ 2h 36' 06"

71
 Peter Sagan (SVK)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 2h 38' 08"

72
 Chad Haga (USA)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 39' 40"

73
 Romain Sicard (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 2h 42' 53"

74
 Tobias Ludvigsson (SWE)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 2h 45' 40"

75
 Julien Vermote (BEL)
Team Dimension Data
+ 2h 45' 57"

76
 Gregor Mühlberger (AUT)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 2h 46' 13"

77
 Imanol Erviti (ESP)
Movistar Team
+ 2h 47' 46"

78
 Koen de Kort (NED)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 2h 48' 29"

79
 Ian Boswell (USA)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 2h 51' 47"

80
 Yves Lampaert (BEL)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 2h 52' 37"

81
 Paul Martens (GER)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 2h 52' 46"

82
 Toms Skujiņš (LAT)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 2h 53' 41"

83
 Silvan Dillier (SUI)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2h 55' 15"

84
 Edvald Boasson Hagen (NOR)
Team Dimension Data
+ 2h 57' 00"

85
 Anthony Perez (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 2h 58' 56"

86
 Élie Gesbert (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 3h 00' 48"

87
 Nils Politt (GER)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 3h 00' 54"

88
 Edward Theuns (BEL)
Team Sunweb
+ 3h 02' 15"

89
 Thomas Boudat (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 04' 07"

90
 Michael Schär (SUI)
BMC Racing Team
+ 3h 04' 14"

91
 Yoann Offredo (FRA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 04' 27"

92
 Marcus Burghardt (GER)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 04' 48"

93
 Jérôme Cousin (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 05' 34"

94
 Paweł Poljański (POL)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 07' 14"

95
 Andrea Pasqualon (ITA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 09' 34"

96
 Kévin Ledanois (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 3h 11' 55"

97
 Dion Smith (NZL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 12' 24"

98
 Laurent Pichon (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 3h 12' 46"

99
 Florian Vachon (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 3h 13' 47"

100
 Simon Clarke (AUS)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 3h 15' 40"

101
 Julien Simon (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 15' 55"

102
 Kristijan Koren (SLO)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 16' 54"

103
 Tomasz Marczyński (POL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 3h 19' 10"

104
 Daniele Bennati (ITA)
Movistar Team
+ 3h 19' 22"

105
 Romain Hardy (FRA)
Fortuneo–Samsic
+ 3h 19' 49"

106
 Rory Sutherland (AUS)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 21' 22"

107
 Simon Gerrans (AUS)
BMC Racing Team
+ 3h 21' 37"

108
 Mathew Hayman (AUS)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 3h 21' 55"

109
 Sonny Colbrelli (ITA)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 21' 55"

110
 Reinardt Janse van Rensburg (RSA)
Team Dimension Data
+ 3h 24' 25"

111
 John Degenkolb (GER)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 3h 26' 35"

112
 Daniel Oss (ITA)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 32' 29"

113
 Michael Gogl (AUT)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 3h 32' 54"

114
 Alexander Kristoff (NOR)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 33' 33"

115
 Sep Vanmarcke (BEL)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 3h 34' 17"

116
 Anthony Turgis (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 36' 11"

117
 Michael Hepburn (AUS)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 3h 36' 30"

118
 Luke Durbridge (AUS)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 3h 37' 21"

119
 Niki Terpstra (NED)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 3h 37' 31"

120
 Fabien Grellier (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 37' 56"

121
 Jack Bauer (AUS)
Mitchelton–Scott
+ 3h 39' 02"

122
 Maciej Bodnar (POL)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 39' 20"

123
 Guillaume Van Keirsbulck (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 40' 30"

124
 Christophe Laporte (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 41' 55"

125
 Heinrich Haussler (AUS)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 42' 24"

126
 Marco Marcato (ITA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 42' 54"

127
 Olivier Le Gac (FRA)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 3h 49' 03"

128
 Luke Rowe (GBR)
Team Sky
+ 3h 50' 55"

129
 Tom Scully (NZL)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 3h 50' 59"

130
 Dimitri Claeys (BEL)
Cofidis
+ 3h 51' 15"

131
 Timothy Dupont (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 51' 16"

132
 Lukas Pöstlberger (AUT)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 56' 53"

133
 Oliviero Troia (ITA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 57' 02"

134
 Ramon Sinkeldam (NED)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 3h 58' 01"

135
 Maximiliano Richeze (ARG)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 3h 58' 58"

136
 Taylor Phinney (USA)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 3h 59' 07"

137
 Timo Roosen (NED)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 4h 01' 05"

138
 Roberto Ferrari (ITA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 4h 01' 34"

139
 Amund Grøndahl Jansen (NOR)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 4h 02' 04"

140
 Damien Gaudin (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 4h 02' 07"

141
 Arnaud Démare (FRA)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 4h 08' 18"

142
 Jasper De Buyst (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 4h 08' 54"

143
 Jay Thomson (RSA)
Team Dimension Data
+ 4h 09' 49"

144
 Jacopo Guarnieri (ITA)
Groupama–FDJ
+ 4h 12' 29"

145
 Lawson Craddock (USA)
EF Education First–Drapac p/b Cannondale
+ 4h 34' 19"

text: Points classification[edit]

text:
Final points classification (1–10)[8]

Rank

Rider

Team

Points

1

 Peter Sagan (SVK)

Bora–Hansgrohe

477

2

 Alexander Kristoff (NOR)

UAE Team Emirates

246

3

 Arnaud Démare (FRA)

Groupama–FDJ

203

4

 John Degenkolb (GER)

Trek–Segafredo

178

5

 Julian Alaphilippe (FRA)

Quick-Step Floors

143

6

 Greg Van Avermaet (BEL)

BMC Racing Team

134

7

 Andrea Pasqualon (ITA)

Wanty–Groupe Gobert

115

8

 Geraint Thomas (GBR)

Team Sky

110

9

 Sonny Colbrelli (ITA)

Bahrain–Merida

104

10

 Dan Martin (IRL)

UAE Team Emirates

98

text: Mountains classification[edit]

text:
Final mountains classification (1–10)[8]

Rank

Rider

Team

Points

1

 Julian Alaphilippe (FRA)

Quick-Step Floors

170

2

 Warren Barguil (FRA)

Fortuneo–Samsic

91

3

 Rafał Majka (POL)

Bora–Hansgrohe

76

4

 Geraint Thomas (GBR)

Team Sky

74

5

 Tom Dumoulin (NED)

Team Sunweb

63

6

 Primož Roglič (SVN)

LottoNL–Jumbo

56

7

 Dan Martin (IRL)

UAE Team Emirates

41

8

 Nairo Quintana (COL)

Movistar Team

40

9

 Tanel Kangert (EST)

Astana

39

10

 Steven Kruijswijk (NED)

LottoNL–Jumbo

36

text: Young rider classification[edit]

text:
Final young rider classification (1–10)[8]

Rank

Rider

Team

Time

1

 Pierre Latour (FRA)

AG2R La Mondiale

83h 39' 26"

2

 Egan Bernal (COL)

Team Sky

+ 5' 39"

3

 Guillaume Martin (FRA)

Wanty–Groupe Gobert

+ 22' 05"

4

 David Gaudu (FRA)

Groupama–FDJ

+ 1h 07' 18"

5

 Daniel Martínez (COL)

EF Education First–Drapac

+ 1h 16' 01"

6

 Antwan Tolhoek (NED)

LottoNL–Jumbo

+ 1h 16' 48"

7

 Søren Kragh Andersen (DEN)

Team Sunweb

+ 1h 44' 10"

8

 Stefan Küng (SUI)

BMC Racing Team

+ 1h 45' 01"

9

 Marc Soler (ESP)

Movistar Team

+ 1h 56' 14"

10

 Magnus Cort (DEN)

Astana

+ 2h 10' 13"

text: Team classification[edit]

text:
Final team classification (1–10)[8]

Rank

Team

Time

1

Movistar Team

250h 24' 53"

2

Bahrain–Merida

+ 12' 33"

3

Team Sky

+ 31' 14"

4

LottoNL–Jumbo

+ 47' 24"

5

Astana

+ 1h 15' 32"

6

Team Sunweb

+ 1h 58' 54"

7

AG2R La Mondiale

+ 2h 15' 49"

8

BMC Racing Team

+ 2h 35' 45"

9

Quick-Step Floors

+ 3h 06' 17"

10

Mitchelton–Scott

+ 3h 13' 41"


document_title: Zither

question_text: ancient harp like musical instrument in the zither family

text: Zither

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word 'zither' is derived from Latin cythara, which was used in this form for the title covers on many 16th and 17th century German printed manuscript books originally for the 'cittern' – from the Greek word kithara, an instrument used in Ancient Greece. The German scholar Michael Praetorius described a small English cittern as a Klein Englisch Zitterlein in his treatise Syntagma Musicum, published during the early 17th century, recording the language consonant shift. It is not fully understood how 'zitter' or 'zither' came to be applied to the instruments in this article as well as German varieties of the cittern. Other types of zither also existed in Germany, mostly drone zithers like the scheitholt (which was mentioned by Praetorius) or hummel, but these generally have their own individual regional names and may have been in use before the introduction into the lexicon of 'cythara' and its German derivative cognate.

text: The Hornbostel-Sachs system, an academic instrument classification method, also uses the term zither to classify all stringed instruments in which the strings do not extend beyond the sounding box. This includes such diverse instruments as the hammered dulcimer, psaltery, Appalachian dulcimer, guqin, guzheng, tromba marina, koto, gusli, kanun, kanklės, kantele, kokles, valiha, gayageum, đàn tranh, autoharp, santoor, yangqin, santur, swarmandal, and others. Pedal steel guitars, lap guitars (where the neck serves no separate function other than to extend the string length), and keyboard instruments like the clavichord, harpsichord and piano also fall within this broad categorical use.

text: The word has also been used in conjunction with brand varieties of other string instruments, for example the zither banjo.

text: History and development[edit]

text: The earliest known surviving instrument of the zither family is a Chinese guqin, a fretless instrument, found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng dating from 433 BC.[4] Similar instruments along this design were developed over the following centuries, for example: the Japanese silk strung koto, the siter of Indonesian gamelans; the Qānūn (or Kanun) of the Middle East; the valiha, a tube zither of Madagascar; and many others. Increasing interest in 'world music' has brought wider recognition to these other zither family members, both ancient and modern. Many of these instruments have been sampled electronically, and are available in instrument banks for music synthesizers.

text: In Europe and other more northern and western regions, early zithers were more similar to the modern mountain dulcimer, having long, usually rectangular, sound boxes, with one or more melody strings and several unfretted drone strings. Some of these employed movable bridges similar to the Japanese koto, used for retuning the drone strings. The Alpine Scheitholt furnishes an example of this older type of European zither. By the late 18th century, two principal varieties of European concert zither had developed, known as the Salzburg zither (with a rounded side away from the player), and the Mittenwald zither (with both sides rounded). Both styles are still found in concert zithers today, although the Salzburg style has become by far the most common.[5]

text: The zither became a popular folk music instrument in Bavaria and Austria and, at the beginning of the 19th century, was known as a Volkszither.

text:
Viennese zitherist Johann Petzmayer (1803–1884) became one of the outstanding virtuosi on these early instruments, and is credited with making the zither a household instrument.[6]
In 1838, Nikolaus Weigel of Munich conceived the idea of adopting fixed bridges, adding additional strings, tuning them in the cycle of fifths, and chromatically fretting the fingerboard – effectively converting a rather crude folk instrument into the concert zither. His ideas were not, however, widely accepted until 1862, when luthier Max Amberger of Munich fabricated a new zither based on Weigel's design.[6] At this point the zither had reached something very close to its modern concert form. Within a relatively short time the new design had largely replaced the old Volkszither (though still called by the same name among folk musicians) throughout central Europe, particularly in the Alpine countries. As the 'concert zither' it also began to attract the attention of serious composers, a number of whom, themselves, became concert zither virtuosi. These composers, called the "Altmeister", flourished between 1870 and 1910. And no less a composer than Johann Strauss II gave the instrument a prominent solo in one of his most famous waltzes, "Tales from the Vienna Woods".[7]

text: The zither went through two periods of great popularity in the United States. The first of these was in the late 19th through early 20th century, when it was greatly in vogue as a parlour instrument in many homes. During that period, a number of U.S.-based instrument manufacturers, many of them founded by, or staffed with, European (and especially German and Austrian) luthiers, were producing concert zithers. Chord zithers were often marketed under confusing brand names like 'guitar zither' or 'mandoline zither'. The recently rediscovered recordings of the gospel singer Washington Phillips, who used two instruments simultaneously, have revealed the virtuosic capability of the chord zither to modern musicians seeking to revive it. By the 1920s, this popularity had begun to wane, as other string instruments (notably guitars) increased in popularity along with the new fashion for jazz music.

text: In the 1950s, interest in zithers resurfaced due in great measure to the success of the 1949 British film noir The Third Man. The soundtrack music for the film, which featured only a concert zither (no other instruments) – was performed by the Viennese musician Anton Karas. His "The Third Man Theme" was released as a single in 1949–50 and became a best-seller in the UK.[8] Following its release in the U.S. in 1950, it spent eleven weeks at number one on Billboard's U.S. Best Sellers in Stores Chart from 29 April to 8 July.[9] The exposure made Karas an international star.[10] A Time magazine film preview stated that "the famous musical score by Anton Karas" would have the audience "in a dither with his zither".[11]

text: This new popularity for the zither lasted until well into the 1960s with many successful albums during the period from performers such as Karas, Ruth Welcome, and Shirley Abicair. German-born American Ruth Welcome released a number of very popular theme-based zither albums between 1958 and 1965 (e.g., Romantic Zither; Zither South of the Border; Zither Goes to Hollywood). Australian-born singer Shirley Abicair popularised the chord zither when she used it for accompaniment in her TV shows, live performances and recordings in Britain in the 1950s and '60s.[12][13] Zither music also featured in a Twilight Zone episode – Mr Bevis in 1960.[14]

text: Concert and Alpine zithers[edit]

text: A concert zither may have from 29 to 38 strings, with 34 or 35 being most typical. These are arranged as follows: four or five fretted melody strings, placed above a guitar-like fretboard; 12 unfretted "accompaniment" strings; followed by 12 unfretted "bass" strings; followed by a varying number of "contrabass" strings, with five or six being the most common number.

text: On some older zithers, one may find "half-frets" above the 12th fret, which extend only under the first two or three strings. This results in the lower fretted strings having no pitches (or no chromatic pitches) available above the 12th fret, while the higher fretted strings still have higher chromatic pitches available at these half-frets. Nearly all instruments made after 1960, however, have full-length frets all the way up the fretboard.

text: Anton Karas and Ruth Welcome used instruments of similar design to the one illustrated. After World War II, Karas (according to zither scholar Günter Wittenstein, who was acquainted with him) performed on an instrument of larger dimensions than normal – with a 43 cm standard scale length for the fingerboard strings. He used Viennese tuning (see below), but with an altered chromatic sequence for the fingerboard and open strings. The accompaniment strings G and F♯ were tuned an octave higher, while contrabass strings tuned E♭, F, D, E, C♯ replaced the regular cycle of fifths bass strings. This brought the contrabasses closer to the fingerboard where the player could reach them more easily.

text: For The Third Man, Karas tuned the zither a semi-tone lower, giving a particularly distinctive tone to the contrabass strings. The resulting lower string tension also enabled Karas to perform an expressive vibrato on the fingerboard melody strings. Film director Carol Reed, (on whose oak kitchen table the music was performed), described the sound as "gritty and dirty", perfectly reflecting the atmospheric mood of the film.

text: The Alpine zither has 42 strings, and differs from the concert zither primarily in requiring the addition of an extension to the body of the instrument to support both the longer additional contrabass strings and their tuners.

text: Alpine zithers are tuned in a similar manner to the concert zither, with the accompaniment and bass strings each providing a full set of 12 chromatic pitches also arranged in a cycle of fifths. Contrabass strings are arranged in a descending chromatic scale. Late 19th and early 20th century versions of the instrument were often called 'harp zithers' – so-named because the pillar extension seemed a miniature version of the harp's pillar. The extra contrabass strings ran parallel to the other strings on these earlier instruments, the diagonal arrangement illustrated developed later to assist the right hand in reaching the strings.

text: There are two popular tunings for the modern zither: Munich and Viennese. The "zither tuning chart" below, gives tuning details, including pitches and octaves. Munich tuning is on top, and Vienna tuning below. Some players have used Vienna tuning only for the fretted strings, and Munich tuning for the unfretted strings. Full Viennese tuning is normally used only on instruments with 38 or fewer strings.

text: Tuning[edit]

text: Tuning chart for concert and Alpine zithers:

text:
hideZither tuning chart

Fretted

Unfretted

String

Melody

Accompaniment

Basses

Contrabasses

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

Pitch

Munich

A4

A4

D4

G3

C3

E♭4

B♭3

F4

C4

G3

D4

A3

E4

B3

F♯3

C♯4

G♯3

E♭3

B♭2

F3

C3

G2

D3

A2

E3

B2

F♯2

C♯3

G♯2

F2

E2

E♭2

D2

C♯2

C2

B1

B♭1

A1

G♯1

G1

F♯1

F1

Viennese

A4

D4

G4

G3

C3

A♭4

E♭4

B♭3

F4

C4

G4

D4

A3

E4

B3

F♯4

C♯4

G♯3

E♭2

B♭2

F2

C3

G2

D2

A2

E2

B2

F♯2

C♯2

G♯2

C2

B1

B♭1

A1

G♯

G1

F♯1

F1

Notes:

Basic

Concert

Alpine

text: Playing techniques[edit]

text: The zither is played by plucking the strings while it lies flat on a table (which acts as a resonator to amplify the sound), or it can be held on the lap.

text: On concert and Alpine zithers the melody strings are pressed to the fingerboard ("fretted") with the fingers of the left hand, and plucked with a plectrum on the right thumb. First and second fingers of the right hand pluck the accompaniment and bass strings, and the third finger of the right hand plucks the contrabass strings (there are variants on this technique).

text: The concept of the chord zither is different from that of the concert and alpine zithers. These instruments may have from 12 to 50 (or more) strings, depending on design. All the strings are played open, in the manner of a harp. The strings on the left are arranged in groups of three or four, which form various chords to be played by the left hand. The strings to the right are single (or pairs of) strings intended for the right hand to pick out the melody. Tuning can vary widely from manufacturer to manufacturer and even from model to model, but is usually indicated on the instrument itself, in the form of a painted or paper chart glued under the strings.

text: Contemporary use[edit]

text: Since the zither required advanced technique to play anything more than simple tunes, the vast majority of the concert zithers sold never attained more than amateur or (mostly) ornamental use; the playing of Washington Phillips was a rare exception.

text: As a result, manufacturers attempted to simplify the instrument with various keyboard devices attached to the melody strings (Marxophone, dolceola, celestaphone, tremoloa, etc.).  The invention of the autoharp, which uses bars with felt pads attached underneath placed across and above the strings, is probably the most successful adaptation. However, the absence of a fretboard makes the autoharp a closer relative of the chord zither than the concert zither. Presence of the concert zither in classical music remains sparse.

text: Concert and Alpine zithers remain in use by a relatively small number of contemporary musicians from various global regions and musical genres, either out of interest in traditional musical styles for the instrument, or from a desire to seek new sounds for their music. New variations on the concert zither have also been employed, including the electric zither—and recent instruments that share zither characteristics, such as the Chapman stick.

text: While use of the concert zither itself has declined, zither music and technique continued to influence contemporary musicians. For example: Canadian musician Jeff Healey, featured in the film thriller Road House in 1989, used a zither technique to play electric guitar. Blind from the age of one, Healey began playing when he was three with the instrument flat on his lap, left hand above the fingerboard in the same manner as a zitherist. Although he used a Fender Stratocaster guitar throughout his career, the instrument was in effect being used as an electric zither.

text: Notable players[edit]

text:
Shirley Abicair
Basia Bulat
Dorothy Carter
Mark Duplass
Heinz Gamper
Anton Karas
Rudi Knabl
Félix Lajkó
Lotte Landl
Laraaji
Etienne de Lavaulx
Linda McCartney
Michel de Montaigne
Guido Aloysius Pederzani
Johann Petzmayer
Washington Phillips
Jocelyn Pook
Wilfried Scharf
Manfred Schuler
John Sebastian
Nikolaus Weigel
Ruth Welcome