document_title: My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2

question_text: who plays paris in my big fat greek wedding 2

text: My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2

text: Plot[edit]

text: Toula Portokalos-Miller's (Nia Vardalos) life is in shambles. Her travel agency and the family dry cleaners have closed due to the recession. The only business still open is the family restaurant that her father, Gus (Michael Constantine), still runs. Her husband, Ian (John Corbett), is the principal at their teen-aged daughter Paris' (Elena Kampouris) high school. Paris, who is applying to college, feels smothered by her close-knit clan, who constantly interfere in her life. Desperate for independence and privacy, she applies to schools across the country. Ian and Toula's marriage has become strained due to Toula's obsessive need to be involved in Paris' life and to "fix" whatever goes wrong in her family.

text: Meanwhile, Gus has convinced himself that he is directly descended from Alexander the Great and wants to write to an online ancestry site for confirmation. While sorting through his records, he discovers that his and Maria's (Lanie Kazan) marriage certificate was never signed by the priest, technically invalidating their union. His current priest refuses to sign it but agrees to perform a new ceremony. Gus insists that he and Maria must marry again after fifty years together, but Maria wants Gus to propose properly. Gus refuses, infuriating Maria, who refuses to go through with the ceremony. Meanwhile, when Toula and Ian are on a date night to rekindle their romance, their family catches them kissing in their car outside their house. After Gus lands in the hospital and Maria refuses to go, saying she is not his wife, Gus pleas for her to marry him again. This time she accepts.

text: Maria wants the wedding she never had and hires a wedding planner who quits after the rowdy family's choices become too outlandish. The whole family, including Ian's parents, Rodney and Harriet (Bruce Gray and Fiona Reid), and Angelo's business partner, Patrick, pitch in to make the wedding happen. Nick urges Angelo to tell his parents, Voula (Andrea Martin) and Taki (Gerry Mendicino), that Patrick is also Angelo's romantic partner. Gus's estranged brother, Panos (Mark Margolis) arrives from Greece as a surprise.

text: Paris has been accepted to Northwestern University in Chicago and NYU in New York City. She chooses Northwestern to please her mother, but Paris' great-grandmother (Bess Meisler) convinces her she should go to New York. Paris asks Bennett (Alex Wolff), a boy she has a crush on, to the prom. He is also Greek with an equally crazy Greek family. Prom is the same night as the wedding. Toula tells Paris she can go to the prom if she attends the reception later. En route to the church, Gus, Panos, and Taki arrive drunk after many shots of ouzo. Maria storms off to the vestry after seeing Gus acting foolishly, feeling he is not taking the wedding seriously. Panos tells Maria that Gus had confided to him his love for Maria, and the ceremony continues. Watching as Gus and Maria recite their vows, Ian and Toula privately renew theirs. At the prom, Paris and Bennett share their first kiss while slow-dancing.

text: At the wedding reception, Gus reads a letter from the ancestry site verifying that he is a descendant of Alexander the Great. Ian, however, realizes that Toula forged the letter to make her father happy. The movie ends with the entire family dropping Paris off at her college dorm in New York.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Nia Vardalos as Fotoula "Toula" Miller
John Corbett as Ian Miller, Toula's husband. In the first film, he worked as an English teacher. In the second film, he now works as the principal of the same school.
Elena Kampouris as Paris Miller, Toula and Ian's 17-year-old daughter
Lainie Kazan as Maria Portokalos, Toula's mother
Michael Constantine as Kostas "Gus" Portokalos, Toula's heavily stubborn father, who constantly pressures his family into getting married regardless of age.
Andrea Martin as Theia Voula, Toula's aunt and Maria's sister. Voula seems to fill the void left by the travel agency by taking an almost impertinent interest in her family's affairs. She tends to tell people disturbing stories about her medical issues and sex life with her husband Taki, much to Toula's annoyance.
Louis Mandylor as Nick Portokalos, Toula's brother, he worked in the kitchen in his father's restaurant and lived his life as a bachelor in the first film. In the second film, he is now married and has four sons.
Gia Carides as Cousin Nikki, Voula's daughter, Toula's cousin and best friend, and Paris's (and Ian's) godmother. After the dry cleaners' closed, went to beauty school and opened a salon.
Gerry Mendicino as Uncle Taki, Voula's husband and Angelo and Nikki's father.
Joey Fatone as Cousin Angelo, Voula's son and Toula's cousin. He runs a couple of small businesses with his "partner" Patrick, who his family soon learns is more than a business partner.
Bess Meisler as Mana-Yiayia, Toula's grandmother and Kostas' mother. She seems to have mellowed out into a more eccentric, but lovable elderly Greek woman, who no longer mistakes her family for Turks.
Stavroula Logothettis as Athena Portokalos, Toula's sister. In the first film, she was shown to have three sons, who apparently got older in the second film and had two more kids.
Ian Gomez as Mike, Ian's best friend. In the first film, he worked as another teacher in the same school Ian works. In the second film, he now works as a cop for the Chicago Police Department and is married with one of Toula's cousins, whom he met at Toula and Ian's wedding in the first film.
Mark Margolis as Panos Portokalos, Kostas' brother from Greece
John Stamos as George, a fellow Greek who is a news anchor on television.
Rita Wilson as Anna, George's wife.
Alex Wolff as Bennett, Paris's love interest
Bruce Gray as Rodney Miller, Ian's father
Fiona Reid as Harriet Miller, Ian's mother
Jayne Eastwood as Mrs. White, the Portokalos' neighbor, who tends to complain about the Portokalos family's antics.
Kathryn Greenwood as Marge, a neighbor and former classmate of Toula's. Alongside with Mrs. White, she makes fun of the Portokalos family for being loud and weird throughout the film.
Rob Riggle as Northwestern Rep
Ashleigh Rains as Wedding Planner
Jeff White as Patrick, Angelo's romantic and business partner.

text: Production[edit]

text: In a 2009 interview for her film My Life in Ruins, asked about a possible sequel to the 2002 hit romantic comedy My Big Fat Greek Wedding, Nia Vardalos stated that she had an idea for a sequel and had started writing it, hinting that, like Ruins, the film would be set in Greece.[4]

text: Asked about a sequel again in a November 2012 interview, she stated:

text:
“
Well, actually, yes. And it's only now that I've really become open to the idea. Over the years, I've heard from everybody about what the sequel should be. People next to me at Starbucks would say, "Hey, let me tell you my idea," and I'd be like, "Hey, I'm just trying to get a cup of coffee." I never thought much about it. But then when John (Corbett) and I recently sat down to do that interview (for the 10th anniversary edition), we laughed so hard through the whole thing. It made me think that it's time. He said, "Come on, write something, will you?" And I now think I will. We have such an easy chemistry together. And we have chemistry because we never "did it." That's the surefire way to kill chemistry in a scene. You have to make sure your actors don't "do it" off-screen. If they don't "do it," then they'll have chemistry on camera.[5]
”

text: On May 27, 2014, various news and media outlets reported that a sequel was in the works.[6] Vardalos later confirmed this via Twitter, and wrote the script for the film.[7] Universal Pictures acquired the US distribution rights to the film on November 11, 2014, and Kirk Jones was set to direct, based on the script by Vardalos, who also starred.[8]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography began on May 10, 2015 in Toronto, and ended on June 28.[9][10][11]

text: Release[edit]

text: In May 2015, Universal set the film for a March 25, 2016 release.[12]

text: Home media[edit]

text: My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 21, 2016.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 grossed $59.7 million in North America and $29.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $88.9 million, against an $18 million budget, making it a modest box office success.[3]

text: In its opening weekend, the film was projected to gross $15 million from 3,133 theaters.[13] It grossed $7.2 million on its first day and $17.9 million in its opening weekend, finishing third at the box office behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($166 million) and Zootopia ($24 million).[14] In its second weekend, the film grossed $11.2 million (a 37.2% drop), again finishing third behind Batman v Superman ($51.3 million) and Zootopia ($19.3 million).[15]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 28% based on 162 reviews, with an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "My Big Fat Greek Wedding 2 is as sweet and harmless as the original, but its collection of sitcom gags and stereotypes never coalesces into anything resembling a story with a purpose."[16] Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 37 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[17] Polled by CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[14]

text: Possible sequel[edit]

text: In late June 2016, Vardalos hinted at the possibility of a third film, saying that although no writing has been done, she does have an idea.[18]


document_title: Chico's (clothing retailer)

question_text: chico's fas what does fas stand for

question_tokens: chico 's fas what does fas stand for

root

text: Chico's (clothing retailer)

text: History[edit]

text: Founders Marvin and Helene Gralnick met in 1972 while living in Guadalajara, Mexico. In 1983, they opened a tiny Mexican folk art gift shop in Periwinkle Place on Sanibel Island, Florida.[4] Helene named the shop Folk Art Specialties and then changed the name to Chico's Folk Art Specialties after a friend’s pet parrot, Chico.[4] The store sold mostly art, but the sweaters in the store outsold everything else, so Chico's Folk Art Specialties transformed into a clothing boutique.[2][4]

tag: p

text: In 1985, Chico's Folk Art Specialties opened a second boutique on Captiva Island, Florida. All early boutiques were infused with Mexican folk art combined with antiques and fixtures manufactured in Marvin’s in-house woodshop.[2][4]

text: In the beginning, Marvin and Helene would not close the store until they reached a certain amount of sales each day. They also could not afford to have bags printed, so the name was handwritten on each bag.[2]

text: The first franchise store opened in Edina, Minnesota in 1987. In 1989, the company shortened its name to Chico's FAS (an abbreviation for Folk Art Specialties) and launched the Passport Loyalty Rewards program.[2]

text: In 1991, Chico's FAS expanded into cities ranging from Santa Fe, New Mexico to Newport, Rhode Island. By 1992, the company operated 60 boutiques and began designing its own prints and patterns.[2]

text: Chico's FAS went public in 1993 and began trading on NASDAQ under the title CHCS. It premiered its Most Amazing Personal Service (MAPS) customer service initiative in 1998. Between 1998 and 2000, Chico's sales increased an average of 50 percent per year.[2][4]

text: In 1999, Chico's FAS began online sales at Chicos.com in 1999. It also began advertising in national magazines, including Martha Stewart Living and Marie Claire.[2]

text: In 2001, the Chico's FAS Founders building opened in Fort Myers, Florida, and Chico's FAS debuted on the New York Stock Exchange.[2][4]

text: Chico's FAS aired its first commercial in six major markets on The Today Show, Good Morning America, and The Oprah Winfrey Show, and on Martha Stewart Living.[2]

text: Average new store sales reached $1.45 million per year in 2003. The next year, Chico's FAS acquired White House Black Market, a women’s clothing company that focuses on white, black, and other variants of the two colors. Chico's FAS also launched Soma, an intimate apparel boutique.[2]

text: In 2006, Chico's FAS added 24 acres to the Fort Myers campus to support growth and stock reached a high of $49.40.[2]

text: In 2011, Chico's FAS acquired Boston Proper, which is a brand available online or by catalog.[5] Two years later, Boston Proper opened its first boutique at Coconut Point in Estero, Florida.[2]

text: In 2013, Chico's FAS expanded internationally by opening White House Black Market stores in Canada.[6] On May 13, 2014, Chico's FAS announced expansion of the Chico's brand into Canada.[7] Three boutiques have since opened in Canada.[1] Further international expansion has occurred with its namesake Chico's into Mexico in 2014. Through an exclusive franchise with El Puerto de Liverpool ("Liverpool"), Chico's opened a stand-alone boutique at Perisur Mall, Mexico City. Plans for further Chico's expansion into Mexico include more openings of stand-alone boutiques as well as branded shop-in-shops in Liverpool department stores.[7]

text: Chico's FAS brands[edit]

text: Chico's[edit]

text: Chico's primarily sells private branded clothing for women, with a focus on jackets, statement jewelry and clothing with bold prints and patterns.[8] The brand has its own unique sizing that runs from 000-4.5.[9]

text: White House Black Market[edit]

text: The White House Black Market brand began in 1985 in Baltimore, Maryland and was acquired by Chico's FAS in 2003.[10] It primarily offers exclusively designed, private label women’s clothing and accessory items with a "boutique feel".[clarification needed] Accessory items range from shoes to scarves to jewelry and belts.[11] The focus of each seasonal assortment ranges from everyday basics, to wear-to-work, to fashion in monochromatic black, white, and related shades with "seasonal color splashes".[12]

text: Soma[edit]

text: Soma was launched by Chico's FAS in 2004.[2] The brand primarily sells lingerie, sleepwear and beauty products. The brand also offers dresses and loungewear. Lines with "slimming solutions" include loungewear, swimwear and corsetry.[13]

text: Stores[edit]

text: As of November 1, 2014, Chico's FAS had 1,557 store locations. Stores are located in 48 states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico and Canada.  As of November 1, 2014, the store breakdown per brand was as follows:[1]

text:
Chico's: 624 boutiques (three in Canada); 118 outlets
White House Black Market: 451 boutiques (five in Canada); 67 outlets
Soma: 263 boutiques; 17 outlets

tag: ul

text: Recognition[edit]

text: In 1989, Chico's FAS was listed in Inc. magazine’s 500 fastest-growing, privately held companies in America. In 1993, Chico's FAS placed 13th on the BusinessWeek’s list of the 100 Best Small Corporations.[2]

text: In 2001, Chico's FAS earned a place on Fortune’s 100 Fastest-Growing Companies, BusinessWeek’s 100 Best Small Companies, and the number one spot on Forbes’ 200 Best Small Companies.[14] The following year, Oprah named Chico's Silver Ox Cuff Watch one of her “Favorite Things.” [15]

text: On April 20, 2005, the Bellwether Report identified the company and analysts began to track Chico's FAS because of its significant corporate development during that time.[16]

text: Management[edit]

text: Leadership[edit]

text:
The current leadership is:[17]
[18]

text:
President and Chief Executive Officer, Director: Shelley Broader
Brand President - Chico's: Diane Ellis
Brand President – White House Black Market: David Pastrana
Brand President – Soma: Laurie Van Brunt

text: Philanthropy[edit]

text: Chico's FAS and its brands participate in organizations helping women's and children's health, well-being, and education. Chico's FAS has done work with Living Beyond Breast Cancer (LBBC) and Children’s Miracle Network Hospitals (CMN Hospitals).[19]


document_title: Dogue de Bordeaux

question_text: what type of dog was in turner and hooch

text: Dogue de Bordeaux

text: History[edit]

text: The Dogue de Bordeaux was known in France as early as the fourteenth century, particularly in southern France in the region around Bordeaux. Hence, the city lent its name to this large dog. A uniform breed type of the Bordeaux Dog did not exist before about 1920.[1]

text: The French placed emphasis on keeping the old breeding line pure. Black masks were considered an indication of the crossing in of the English Mastiff. As an important indication of purity of the breed, attention was paid to the self colored (pink) nose, lighter eye color (dark amber), and red mask. They were originally bred with huge heads; a pioneer for the breed in Germany, Werner Preugschat once wrote:

text: What am I supposed to do with a dog that has a monstrous skull and is at most able to carry it from the food dish to its bed?

text: The Dogue de Bordeaux was at one time known to come in two varieties, Dogues and Doguins, the Dogue being considerably larger than the Doguin. The smaller Doguin has withered away to nothing more than a mention in breed history books, as it is no longer in existence.

text: The history of the breed is believed to predate the Bullmastiff and the Bulldog. It is said that the Dogue can be found in the background of the Bullmastiff, and others claim that the Dogue and Mastiff breeds were both being accomplished at the same time. Another theory is the Dogue de Bordeaux originates from the Tibetan Mastiff and it is also said that the Dogue is related to the Greco Roman molossoids used for war.[citation needed]

text: As there was a breed similar to the Dogue de Bordeaux in Rome at the time of Julius Caesar's reign, possibly a cousin of the Neapolitan Mastiff. Others suggest that the Dogue de Bordeaux is a descendent of a breed which existed in ancient France, the Dogues de Bordeaux of Aquitaine. Whichever theory is true, it is obvious that the Dogue de Bordeaux shares the same common links as all modern molossers.

text: The Dogue de Bordeaux was once classified into three varieties, the Parisian, the Toulouse and the Bordeaux, types which were bred depending on the region of France and the jobs it was required to do. The ancestral Dogue de Bordeaux had various coat colors, such as brindle and a majority of white markings that carried fully up the legs. It had scissor bites in some regions, undershot in others; a big head or a small head, a large body or a small body; very inconsistent in type. Another controversial aspect was the mask, red (brown), none or black. The Dogue de Bordeaux of Bordeaux of the time also sported cropped ears. Regardless, it had a general type similar to today's Dogue de Bordeaux.

text: Breeding[edit]

text: In 1863, the first canine exhibition was held at the "Jardin d'Acclimatation" in Paris, France. The winner of the Dogue de Bordeaux was a female named Magentas. The Dogue de Bordeaux was then given the name of the capital of its region of origin, today's Dogue de Bordeaux.

text: During the 1960s, a group of breeders of the Dogue de Bordeaux in France, headed by Raymond Triquet, worked on the rebuilding of the foundation of the breed. In 1970, a new standard was written for the breed, with the most recent update in 1995. This standard is the basis of the standard written for the AKC in 2005.

text: Although the Dogue de Bordeaux first arrived in the USA in the 1890s for the show ring, the first documented Dogues de Bordeaux of modern times appeared in 1959[clarification needed], Fidelle de Fenelon; and in 1968, Rugby de la Maison des Arbres. Between 1969 and 1980, imported Dogues de Bordeaux in the USA were scarce, limited to a few breeders who worked closely with the French Dogue de Bordeaux Club, the SADB. The breed was first "officially" introduced to American purebred enthusiasts in an article written in 1982 and by the American anthropologist, Dr. Carl Semencic for "Dog World" magazine. That article, entitled "Introducing the Dogue de Bordeaux", was followed by chapters dedicated to the Dogue in Semencic's books on dogs, published by T.F.H. Publications of Neptune, New Jersey. When Semencic's first article on the breed was published, there were no Bordeaux Dogues in the United States. There were 600 examples left in the world, mostly in France, the Netherlands and East Berlin, and the breed's numbers were on the decline. Much later, in 1989, the typical American family saw the Dogue de Bordeaux for the first time on the big screen in Touchstone's movie Turner & Hooch about a policeman and his canine partner, although many people[who?] did not know that the massive slobbering animal was a Dogue de Bordeaux.

text: Since then, the Dogue de Bordeaux has taken hold in the United States and can be found in greatly increasing numbers across the country. The Dogue de Bordeaux has been supported by multiple breed clubs throughout the years, and has finally found its way to full AKC recognition through the assistance of the Dogue de Bordeaux Society of America. Since 1997, the DDBSA has helped bring the breed to the point in which full AKC recognition could be achieved.

text: The Dogue de Bordeaux has begun to flourish is recent years, with its introduction into more movies and even television, as well as its full recognition status by the American Kennel Club, also known as the AKC (full AKC recognition began July 2008). Its numbers are climbing, but careful attention must be paid to health in the breed if its increase in popularity is to show a positive forward motion.

text: The breed was first exhibited in France in 1863 after which time it gained in popularity not only in their home country but in other parts of the world. The first record of Dogue de Bordeaux in the UK can be seen in the Kennel Club Gazette in 1897.[2] The breed was officially recognised by the Kennel Club (UK) in 1997[3] but it was not until 2001[4] that the Kennel Club (UK) accepted an interim breed standard.

text: Appearance[edit]

text: The Dogue de Bordeaux is a well balanced, muscular and massive dog with a powerful build. The Dogue's size should come mostly from width and muscles, rather than height.[citation needed] The breed is set somewhat low to the ground and is not tall like the English Mastiff. The body of the Dogue de Bordeaux is thick-set, with a top-line that has a slight dip (topline is never completely straight) and a gentle rounded croup. The front legs should be straight and heavy-boned, well up on pasterns, down to tight cat-like feet. The straight tail, beginning thickly at the base and then tapering to a point at the end, should not reach lower than the hocks, and is set and carried low. The breed is to be presented in a completely natural condition with intact ears, tail, and natural dewclaws. It should be evaluated equally for correctness in conformation, temperament, movement, and overall structural soundness.[citation needed]

text: Weight[edit]

text: The breed standards by European FCI and the American Kennel Club specify a minimum weight of 99 pounds (45 kg) for a female and 110 pounds (50 kg) for a male.[5] There is no formally stated maximum weight, but dogs must be balanced with regard to their overall type and the conformation standards of the breed.[citation needed]

text: Height[edit]

text: The standard states that the desirable height, at maturity, should range between 24 to 27 inches (61 to 69 cm) for male dogs and from 23 to 26 inches (58 to 66 cm) for females.[5] Deviation from these margins is considered a fault.[citation needed]

text: Head[edit]

text: The massive head is a crucial breed characteristic. The Dogue de Bordeaux is claimed to have the largest head in the canine world, in proportion to the rest of the body. For males, the circumference of the head, measured at the widest point of the skull, is roughly equal to the dog's height at the withers (shoulders). For females, the circumference may be slightly less. When viewed from the front or from above, the head of the Dogue forms a trapezoid shape with the longer top-line of the skull, and the shorter line of the underjaw, forming the parallel sides of the trapezoid. The jaw is undershot and powerful. The Dogue should always have a black or red mask that can be distinguished from the rest of the coat around and under the nose, including the lips and eye rims. The nose colour in red-masked dogs should be brown, in black-masked dogs, it must be black. The muzzle should be at most a third of the total length of the head and no shorter than a quarter of the length of the head, the ideal being between the two extremes. The upper lip hangs thickly down over the lower jaw. The upper lips of the Dogue de Bordeaux hangs over the lower lips. The skin on the neck is loose, forming a noticeable dewlap, but should not resemble that of a Neapolitan Mastiff. Small pendant ears top the head, but should not be long and hound like.[citation needed]

text: Coat[edit]

text: The standard specifies the coat to be 'short, fine, and soft to the touch'. Color varies from shades of fawn (light, coppery red) to mahogany (dark, brownish red) with a black, brown, or red mask, although the red mask is true to the breed. White markings are permitted on the tips of the toes and on the chest, but white on any other part of the body is considered a fault, and a disqualifying one if the pigmentation goes beyond the neck.[citation needed]

text: Health[edit]

text: While larger breeds of canines tend to have shorter life expectancy, the life expectancy of the Dogue is still shorter than even breeds of comparable or larger size.[6] According to data collected by the Dogue De Bordeaux Society of America, the average lifespan of the breed is 5 to 6 years.[7] A veterinary database in the UK showed similar figures.[8] In the American survey, the oldest dog in the record was 12 years old.[7] The Society is actively recording dogs that are 7 years old or older to celebrate the longer-lived dogs.[9]

text: Because of its brachycephalic head, the Dogue can be affected by breathing problems. Some may be heat- and exercise-intolerant as a result.[10] The FCI standard considers excessive shortness of breath and raspy breathing in the Dogue a severe fault.[11] The brachycephalic head shape can also encourage ectropion—an outward rolling of the lower eyelid— which can lead to conjunctivitis (eye inflammation) and bacterial infections.[12] Under the UK Kennel Club's Breed Watch system, the Dogue is classed as a Category 3 breed (formerly High Profile Breed), meaning it is a breed "where some dogs have visible conditions or exaggerations that can cause pain or discomfort."[13]

text: Aortic stenosis is a disease of the heart valve in which the opening of the aortic valve is narrowed. Symptoms include exercise intolerance, exertional syncope (fainting from physical exertion) and sudden death. One study suggests a high predisposition in the breed. No severe cases were found in adult dogs, and most moderate to severely affected dogs died before one year of age, leading the authors to speculate that the disease is more severe in the Dogue than in other breeds.[14]

text: Another heart problem in the breed is dilated cardiomyopathy, a condition in which the heart becomes weakened and enlarged and cannot pump blood efficiently. Some affected dogs may die suddenly without showing any signs of problems. Others may die from congestive heart failure after several weeks or months. Affected dogs are often euthanized at an early stage to avoid suffering.[15]

text: An estimated 5% of dogs may be affected by footpad hyperkeratosis, a thickening of the footpad and sometimes nose.[16][17] X-rays submitted voluntarily to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals shows that more than 50% of Dogues in the database are affected by hip dysplasia.[18]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Data from the Norwegian Kennel Club indicates a mean litter size of 8.1 puppies (ranging from 2-17) for the breed.[19] The breed has a high stillborn and early neonatal mortality rate, with a stillborn rate of 14.2% and early neonatal mortality (death within 1 week from birth) of 10.4%. The average across all breeds in the study was 4.3% stillbirth and 3.7% early neonatal mortality. Excluding stillborn and early deaths, the mean litter size is 6.1.[20] UK Kennel Club data shows that 27.8% (5 of 18) of Dogue litters were delivered by caesarean section.[21]


document_title: Sami Brady

question_text: when does sammy leave days of our lives

question_tokens: when does sammy leave days of our lives

text: Sami Brady

text: Casting[edit]

text: The character was portrayed by seven child actresses. They were: Ronit Arnoff (October 19, 1984), Lauren Ann Bundy (October 22, 1984 to April 10, 1985), Jessica Davis (December 6, 1985 to May 20, 1986), Tiffany Nicole Palma (August 7 to September 9, 1986), Ashleigh Blair Sterling (December 24, 1986 to June 5, 1990) and Christina Wagoner (August 10, 1990 to June 22, 1992). In January 1993, Alison Sweeney took over the role of Sami as a teenager.[8] This was not her first role on the show; she had previously portrayed Adrienne Johnson as a child in 1987.[9] Sweeney has cited Deidre Hall (Marlena), Drake Hogestyn (John) and Wayne Northrop (Roman) as influences on her career playing the role, stating: "I learned so many lessons from them".[9] Sweeney has said "I remember my first day at work. I was so excited to be a part of a show that I'd been a fan of". The actress also recalled her audition, and said "My first two weeks on the show I was sneaking around Salem, so there weren't a lot of lines to memorize. My first scene was with Wayne Northrop (then-Roman Brady), who pulled a gun on me and said something like 'Freeze or I'll shoot!'"[10]

text: Sweeney's 20-year anniversary in the role arrived in early 2013.[11] Fans speculated that she might depart from the series, but Sweeney managed to ink a new deal with the show. She said, "I am super-excited to stay, and I am so honored that they asked me to stay. The job continues to surprise and challenge me. I have already shot my 20th anniversary episode, which airs on January 6, so I had this huge milestone and it's been such an amazing journey. I love my job, I love the people I work with and I love Sami."[11] In January 2014, Sweeney announced she will quit the series after 21 years. She revealed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, "I've been on Days of Our Lives for 21 years. I'm celebrating my 21st year and I decided that it's going to be my last year with the show," Sweeney announced. "I've been on Days of Our Lives since I was 16-years-old, and I have never had more than a two-week vacation in that whole time. It's awesome. I love Sami, I love Salem, I love my job, I love daytime, I love the fans—I love everything about it."[12][13] Sweeney's final episode aired October 30, 2014.[12][13][14][15][16][17] On April 26, 2015, Sweeney announced that she will be returning to Days of Our Lives to be part of the soap's 50th anniversary celebration, starting on October 12, 2015 and ending on November 17, 2015.[18][19][20]

text: In April 2017, it was revealed that Sweeney would return to the serial, for an "extended visit"; Sweeney confirmed she would film during May and June 2017.[21] Sweeney began making appearances on October 13, 2017.[22] Sweeney wrapped her stint on December 14, 2017.[23]

text: Character development[edit]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Since Sweeney has stepped into the role, Sami has been showcased as the series' primary troublemaker and "the girl you loved to hate"[7] through her lying and scheming. In recent years, Sweeney has established herself as a leading heroine, with the show centering on the popular and controversial relationships between Sami and her love interests Austin Reed (Patrick Muldoon & Austin Peck), Franco Kelly (Victor Alfieri), Brandon Walker (Matt Cedeno), Lucas Roberts (Bryan Dattilo), EJ DiMera (James Scott), and Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering). Originally characterized as the iron-willed daughter of Dr. Marlena Evans, Sami was transformed by writer James E. Reilly in the summer of 1994, converting the character from a stubborn moody teenager to a "conniving bitch", having her kidnap her baby sister, Belle and break up supercouple Carrie Brady and Austin Reed, including blackmail Nicole Walker and Lexie Carver on numerous incidents. However, as ratings declined in the mid-2000s, Sami's storylines proved to be "worn out" and in 2006, new Days head writers Hogan Sheffer and Meg Kelly converted to the character to a heroine by pairing her with EJ DiMera and later Rafe Hernandez. Recently, in 2013 head writers Christopher Whitesell and Gary Tomlin turned Sami back into a scheming vixen. With her son Will being tormented by Nick Fallon and her fiancé, EJ DiMera sleeping with Abigail Deveraux, Sami returned to her evil ways and culminated in her committing crimes such as planning a vengeful revenge towards Abby and EJ for their affair and convincing Adrienne that her husband, Justin the father in law of her son, Will, was having an affair. The character has been described as "vindictive"; a writer from the American newspaper Asbury Park Press wrote that: "she's so bad, she's good".[24] According to Austin American-Statesman in 1996, Sweeney had talked about "longing to play a conniving troublemaker" and she got her wish and more. Sweeney stated: "It's kind of funny that I said that  [sic] I had no idea that (the writers) would take me literally". Sweeney has said to have given a new word to "manipulative" during her portrayal of Sami.[25] In 2005, Sami manipulatively created a male alter ego, Stan. During this period of time, from February to August, Dan Wells took over the role. Sami is known for her rivalry with Nicole Walker (Arianne Zucker)[26] and Sweeney has said that Sami has never had "female friends".[27]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Sami is known for her relationships, and many "failed trips to the altar".[28] Janet Di Lauro of About.com said "No matter, Sami's always been a character who's fun to watch and root for as she's searched for her soul mate, time and time again."[29] As a teenager, she developed a crush on Austin Reed (Austin Peck), but was "devastated" when he began dating her sister Carrie Brady (Christie Clark).[30] She worked with Austin's brother Lucas to break up the couple. She ended up having a one night stand with Lucas in early 1995.[31] Di Lauro said Sami's most "diabolical plot" was drugging Austin to have sex with her, which was "the start of an elaborate scheme" where she ended up pregnant and named Austin as the father, although Lucas was the actual father.[30][32] The truth was eventually revealed and Austin, after nearly marrying Sami without loving her, reunited with Carrie.[30]

text: A bitter custody battle ensued between Lucas and Sami, who had a "love/hate" relationship over the years. Of the pairing, Sweeney said "their past is such a deep relationship and ultimately a friendship and a trust that they have with each other."[33] They ended up marrying,[34] but it was "permanently ended" when EJ DiMera (James Scott) entered the picture.[30] EJ, the son of longtime crime boss Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo), developed an obsession with Sami, and ended up controversially "raping" her.[35][36] Sami became pregnant and gave birth to twins; her daughter's father is Lucas, and son's paternity belonged to EJ.[30] EJ had asked Sami for sex to save Lucas' life, while he was trapped and nearly died.[30] This led to a sham wedding between EJ and Sami, in exchange for the DiMeras ending the fifty-year family feud between the Brady family. Although she initially hated him, the couple ended up in a "night of passion" resulting in another pregnancy.[30] Of whether EJ or Lucas was Sami's "true love," Sweeney said "I personally think Sami and Lucas truly love each other, but obviously a lot has gone on between them that has pushed them apart. Right now, they are writing Sami more focusing on EJ."[27] She also said that she enjoyed working with Scott, and called him "enchanting."[27] Of working with Dattilo, Sweeney said "I am definitely a long-standing Lumi fan and I miss working with Bryan every day. He is so fun! I was in a scene the other day and looking around, like he and I have such a history together, for some inside joke and he wasn’t on the set. It’s just strange when I don’t get to work with him all the time."[33]

text:
"16 years later, I think Sami had been through a lot of crazy stuff, to say the least. I would love to see her in new and different scenes."[27]

—Sweeney on Sami's storylines (2008)

tag: div

text: TV Guide's Nelson Branco named Lucas and Sami one of soap's greatest supercouples, and said "For years all this couple could think of was breaking up Austin and Carrie, until one magical day, partners-in-crime and cohorts Sami and Lucas realized they were in love with each other! Now as Days’ reigning super couple, they face the evil wrath of EJ and his family, The DiMeras. Will Sami marry EJ, the man who raped her to end this family feud forever — and will Lucas be able to forgive her?"[37] Despite this, the couple divorced and despite minor reunions since, haven't been a couple.[30] James Scott said "They’re not really re-visiting it. They have never done it. I think it’s about time, frankly. There is a good opportunity for story there. Alison Sweeney (Sami) and I work very well together. It’s sort of a fairy tale. They don’t play it so much now, but the Bradys and the DiMeras have a history."[38] Scott also noted that EJ and Sami "love each other" but not necessarily in a romantic way.[38] On-Air On-Soaps said "legions of fans are waiting for their beloved EJami duo to finally start a full-blown romance ... something that has been teased, and teased, and teased for years."[39] He romances with Lucas and EJ have been popular with viewers, who call the pairings 'Lumi' and 'Ejami.'[38]

text: Upon Lucas' return to Days of our Lives in 2012, a poll ran by Soap Opera Digest revealed that majority of fans wanted Lucas and Sami back together.[40] While in the Witness Protection Program while pregnant with her second child with EJ, Sami fell in love with her body guard Rafe.[30] When asked who out of Lucas, EJ or Rafe should be with Sami, Sweeney said "You can't ask that," because "that is one topic I am now scared to talk about because you say one thing and the fans get all kinds of crazy on you."[26] She said that it's so interesting to see how Sami has "grown and changed" and feels that the "relationship with Rafe is definitely a different one from the way she’s been in the past."[26] Fans refer to Sami and Rafe as 'Safe'.[41] Sweeney said that it's been fun getting "to know Galen" and said "We have fun working together, and it’s nice. It’s a new, different storyline for Sami."[33]

text: Children[edit]

text: Sami is mother to four children: Will Horton, Johnny DiMera, Allie Horton, Sydney DiMera, and believed that Grace Brady was her daughter as well. Grace had been switched at birth with Sydney. Grace has since died and Sydney returned to Sami to raise. Janet Di Lauro of About.com said, "While Sami wouldn’t exactly be called lucky at love, let’s face it, most of her couplings have been wildly dysfunctional, her romances have produced four beautiful children: Will, Allie, Johnny and Sydney."[30]

text: By 2009, Will was 16 years old; Sweeney said, "It’s sort of overwhelming to me sometimes to realize my character has a sixteen-year-old," considering she started working on Days of our Lives at 16, but she enjoys the dynamics between Will and Sami.[33] In 2012, Sami and Lucas' son Will came out as gay.[42] While Lucas was accepting, Sami was initially "responsible for the other point of view," according to Dattilo. Sweeney said that viewers can expect Sami to "have a traditional Sami reaction," because it's "such a vulnerable moment."[42] Sweeney explained that Sami thinks it's because of her, and "She has to sort through all of those feelings and talk to lots of people in Salem about it." She added, "Sami loves her son so much, but she just always seems to say the wrong thing. She always puts her foot in her mouth."[42]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Samantha Gene Brady is born on October 16, 1984, changed to October 16, 1977, with her twin brother Eric Brady to Marlena Evans and Roman Brady. Sami is named after her deceased aunt, Samantha Evans and Marlena's best friend, Eugene Bradford. A feud between the Brady family and the powerful DiMera family puts the infants in danger. Roman sends them to live in Colorado after their mother's disappearance. In 1993, Sami reappears in Salem as a teenager. She develops a crush on her sister's boyfriend, Austin Reed (Patrick Muldoon). She is traumatized after seeing her mother having sex with John Black (Drake Hogestyn) which leads to an affair that results in the birth of Sami's sister, Belle. At the time, Marlena was "married" to Roman. Sami's mental health spirals downward, and she becomes a bulimic in an attempt to lose weight. Sami later tells Marlena that she witnessed her having sex with John. Knowing that she is John's child, Sami, who volunteers at the Salem Hospital, switches Belle's blood test. She then kidnaps Belle and places her on the black market. John rescues Belle on Christmas Eve. On Belle's christening, Stefano DiMera (Joseph Mascolo) shows Roman Sami's diary which reveals the affair and Belle's paternity. Roman leaves Marlena, devastating Sami.

text: Sami befriends Lucas Roberts (Bryan Dattilo) and dates his friend Alan Harris (Paul Kersey), whom her family strongly opposes. Sami's best friend Jamie overhears Alan talk about being in love with Carrie, but keeps this from Sami. Frustrated by his unrequited love for Carrie, Alan rapes Sami. Sami confides in Lucas, but without corroborating proof, the press vilifies Sami as a liar once the news gets out. Alan tries to rape her again, and she stops him by shooting him in the groin. Distraught, Lucas manages to comfort Sami; and they have sex. She still, however, has a crush on Austin and drugs him into bed so he would believe she was Carrie. After her divorce from Roman, Marlena becomes vulnerable and is possessed by the devil. While possessed, Marlena tells Sami to seduce Austin. She tries, but Austin rejects her. Sami leaves town in February 1995.

text: Sami returns in July of that year and crashes Austin's wedding to Carrie claiming that she is carrying his child. After a rough teen pregnancy, Sami gives birth to William Robert Reed on November 16, 1995. Sami hides the fact that Will is actually Lucas' son, and passes him off as Austin's. Austin and Sami are engaged and plan to wed. However, he leaves her at the altar after Carrie uncovers the truth about Will's paternity. Sami renames her son William Reed Roberts and leaves town. She returns and befriends Franco Kelly (Victor Alfieri). They become engaged; Franco is using her to get a greencard and stay in the country. He is murdered on their wedding day. Sami sees the body and faints near it. Lucas's mother Kate Roberts (Lauren Koslow) frames Sami for the murder so that she will go to jail and Lucas can have full custody of Will. Sami is convicted and sentenced to death for the murder. In the middle of her execution via injection, Lucas confesses to the murder in an attempt to save her life. Unbeknownst to Lucas, Roberto signed a false confession on his death bed which leads to a stay of execution from the governor. Sami is freed and falls in love with Brandon Walker (Matt Cedeno), who helps her regain full custody of Will. Brandon and Sami are married briefly. However, her lies and schemes end the marriage. Sami has an accident at the DiMera mansion and falls through the window. Lucas helps her recover and they fall in love. The become engaged, much to Kate's chagrin. Kate drugs Sami and places her in Brandon's bed the night before her marriage to Lucas in a bid to end the engagement. Lucas leaves Sami.

text: Sami's sorely compromised psychological state deteriorates to such a degree that Sami begins to work for Tony DiMera (Thaao Penghlis), becomes a transvestite under an assumed name, "Stan", and sells illicit drugs to a pain-wracked John Black, all out of a base-born, suppositious need for revenge. Attempting to redeem herself, Sami convinces Lucas that Kate had set her up; that she was never unfaithful. The two reunite and agree to marry once again.

text: Lucas believes that Sami has changed for the better, but Kate reveals Sami's misdeeds as "Stan," and Lucas calls off the wedding. Austin Reed returns to Salem and befriends Sami. Carrie Brady also returns after ending her relationship with Mike Horton. Lucas and Austin, now business rivals, attempt to buy out Carrie's company. Lucas backs out, finding out that Carrie runs the entire company, and that once again, Sami manipulated him. Austin and Carrie fall back in love and plan their future together when Carrie learns that Austin's company has taken over Highstyle. Carrie dates Lucas on the rebound. Austin does the same with Sami, and both couples become engaged.

text: Sami's relationship to Austin is tested however, when E.J. Wells (James Scott), an English race car driver, moves into the apartment next to theirs. When Sami and Austin's wedding ends in disaster, EJ and Sami kiss for the first time. Carrie ends her relationship with Lucas and remarries Austin. They leave to start a life together in Switzerland.

text: Sami turns to E.J., and the two begin dating. Sami then discovers that not only is c sleeping with Kate but that he is also Stefano's son. Sami and Lucas rekindle their love in spite of Kate, and the two decide to take a road trip. Their car breaks down in a snow storm, and they seek shelter in an abandoned cabin where they make love. Weighed down by snow, the crumbling ceiling caves in. Lucas is trapped, Sami runs to get help, meets up with E.J. in a snow drift, and asks him to help her. Revealing himself as a true DiMera, E.J. agrees to help Sami only if she has sex with him. In subsequent weeks, E.J. continues to taunt Sami with reminders of the deal they made that night. Sami tells Lucas about her pregnancy and they get married; the night of their wedding, he learns about E.J. raping her. Her pregnancy was full of speculation about who the father of her unborn twins were. She later gives birth to: John "Johnny" Roman Roberts (later legally changed to John Roman DiMera) and Alice "Allie" Caroline Horton. It was revealed after a paternity test that E.J. was Johnny's father and Allie was Lucas' daughter. Sami makes the painful decision to end her marriage to Lucas and marry E.J. to end the Brady-DiMera feud. At her wedding to E.J., Lucas, Marlena and Kate attempt to shoot E.J. Lucas is arrested and sent to prison, and Will leaves for Switzerland. It is later revealed that Will was the actual shooter and Lucas went to prison to protect his son.

text: E.J. tries to take custody of Johnny. But immigration wants to deport E.J., and Sami helps him by moving into the DiMera mansion with Johnny to show to immigration that they are a happily married couple. They have sex, and Lucas, released on house arrest, sees them at it. Although Sami ends her marriage to E.J., Lucas doesn't forgive her. E.J. moves on to Nicole Walker (Arianne Zucker), and Sami finds out she is pregnant again. She doesn't tell E.J., and after witnessing a murder, she goes into witness protection. She befriends her guard, Rafe Hernandez (Galen Gering), and gives birth to a daughter. Nicole miscarries E.J.'s child but pretends to still be pregnant and secretly illegally adopts a baby girl to pass off to E.J. as their own. Nicole then finds out that Sami's baby daughter is actually E.J.'s and she secretly switches the two baby girls, so that E.J. will be raising a child that is really his. Nicole's switch works and she begins raising Sami's child, Sydney DiMera, as her own. Sami is in love with Rafe, and together they raise the adopted baby, called Grace, thinking she is Sami's. But Grace contracts meningitis and dies, and Sami confesses to E.J. that Grace was "his", and E.J. is furious. Eventually, the baby switch is revealed and Sami is reunited with Sydney. But for revenge against Sami, E.J. kidnaps Sydney and makes everyone think she is dead. But he falls back in love with Sami and returns Sydney to her, pretending to be the hero. E.J. and Sami reconnect, and after her relationship with Rafe ends, she becomes engaged to E.J. However, at the wedding, Rafe presents evidence to Sami that E.J. was behind Sydney's kidnapping. She leaves E.J. for Rafe, and discovers that he had a plan to kidnap both his children and take them away forever. To stop him, she shoots him in the head. Rafe proposes to her while E.J. narrowly escapes death. He later wins full custody of the children and Sami marries Rafe. Johnny is diagnosed with eye cancer and she regains joint custody. After allowing Johnny and Sydney back into their mother's life, Stefano and E.J. switch Rafe with an impostor whose face they surgically alter so he can pose as Rafe's double.

text: The DiMeras' schemes are eventually revealed, and after some months, the real Rafe is reunited with Sami. During a family get-together for John Black, Johnny goes missing and Sami rushes to the DiMera mansion insisting that E.J. has him. They see in a news report that Johnny has "died" and in their grief, have sex, and Will sees them at it! However, the news report turns out to be false and Johnny is found alive and well. Will is angry with his mom for being unfaithful to Rafe, and when Rafe finds out about it Sami's marriage to Rafe ends.[43] Lucas returns to town and Sami and Lucas reconnect. They are taken aback when Will reveals to them that he is gay. Sami initially runs out on Will, but she soon comes round to support him. Stefano is apparently murdered, and E.J. is held responsible, and Sami decides to help prove his innocence, much to Lucas's dismay. Sami's reunion with Lucas ends. Stefano is revealed to be alive, and E.J. is cleared for murder.

text: Sami starts to feel torn between E.J. and Rafe. Rafe & Sami agree to give their relationship a second chance. Sami plans Gabi Hernandez (Camila Banus) & Nick Fallon's (Blake Berris) wedding, wanting to tell E.J. her decision after the wedding. However, during the wedding, it is revealed that Nick isn't the father of Gabi's unborn baby – Will is. Sami is furious with Gabi, and Rafe defends his sister, insulting Will in the process.Sami is furious and breaks up with Rafe. Sami eventually tells E.J. about Rafe and her plan to leave him. E.J. forgives her, and they reunite. Nick demands Will sign away his paternal rights to the baby. When Sami, Lucas, and E.J. try to stop him, Nick reveals that he knows Will was responsible for shooting E.J. in 2007. Will signs away his rights to avoid being prosecuted, and Sami is devastated. She and E.J. team up to stop Nick's blackmail of Will. When Stefano returns, Sami and E.J. decide to get his help to destroy evidence the police has against Will. Sami and E.J. stay together through the situation, and become engaged in April 2013.

text: Soon after, Rafe is attacked, and ends up in a coma. Initially, the police suspect E.J., as does Sami, but she eventually realizes his innocence. The real attacker, Jensen, is revealed to be targeting Nick. He kidnaps Nick & Gabi, and ends up shooting Will when he tries to rescue Nick. Sami comes to the hospital and finds out Gabi's baby was born; she meets her granddaughter, Arianna Grace, for the first time. Sami visits Rafe while in the hospital, and while there, sees a man come in with a knife about to kill Rafe. Sami shoots him to protect Rafe. E.J. tries to calm her down, while Roman and the police search for the missing knife. Sami and E.J. realize the man she shot was a police officer who was working for Stefano; the officer dies after surgery, and the knife is never recovered. Sami is arrested for murder by Roman. Once exonerated, Sami and E.J. marry, only for E.J. to be arrested for tax fraud; Sami confronts both E.J. and Abigail Deveraux (Kate Mansi) for the affair the pair had behind her back, and uses her power to take DiMera Enterprises away from the DiMera family with Kate. Sami begins to forgive and re-trust EJ and they re-unite, but E.J. is shot in the Salem park, and Sami finds him just before he dies. It is October 2014, and Sami, overcome with grief, accepts a movie deal with Hollywood executives to build a story about her life, with Will penning the screenplay, and she and the children relocate to Los Angeles. When Will is fired from the movie, he goes back to Salem where, in October 2015, he is apparently murdered by Abigail's new fiancé, Ben Weston. Sami comes back to Salem to mourn Will. Whilst in Salem she discovers that Ben's father Clyde was the one who had gotten EJ shot, and she also finds a letter from EJ which leads her to believe EJ might be alive. The letter contains instructions which lead Sami to a safe deposit box containing the passwords to Stefano's bank account, but she is kidnapped by Stefano's son Andre DiMera who wants the passwords from her. Sami escapes and she steals Stefano's fortune. She takes the kids around Europe as she pursues clues that EJ may still be alive. In October 2017 she learns that Ben Weston has escaped from custody, and is claiming that Will is alive, and Sami once again returns to Salem to find out the truth.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Sweeney’s portrayal of "Salem’s resident bad girl"[7] has earned her various fan awards during her run, including five Soap Opera Digest Awards[44] and a Special Fan Award for "America's Favorite Villain" at the 2002 Daytime Emmy Award ceremony.[7] In 2005, the role was briefly recast with Dan Wells as the character of Sami's male alter ego "Stan" while Sweeney was on maternity leave.[7] For her work in the role, Sweeney has won Soap Opera Digest Awards for "Best Performance in a Daytime Drama — Young Actress" (1997), "Best Youth Actress in a Soap Opera" (1994) and "America's Favorite Villain" (2002). Sweeney has also won seven Soap Opera Digest Awards, including three wins for "Outstanding Villainess" in 1996, 1998 and 1999.[45] In 2015, Sweeney earned a nomination for the 42nd Daytime Emmy Awards in the category of Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her portrayal of Sami.[46]


document_title: Operant conditioning

question_text: who is credited for the identification of operant conditioning

text: Operant conditioning

text: Historical note[edit]

text: Thorndike's law of effect[edit]

text: Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949), who observed the behavior of cats trying to escape from home-made puzzle boxes.[2] A cat could escape from the box by a simple response such as pulling a cord or pushing a pole, but when first constrained, the cats took a long time to get out. With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly.[2] Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure.[3]

text: Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years.[4]

text: Skinner[edit]

text: B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) is often referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His book "The Behavior of Organisms",[5] published in 1938, initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences.[6]

text: Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior. Operant conditioning, in his opinion, better described human behavior since it examined causes and effects of intentional behavior.

text: To implement his empirical approach, Skinner invented the operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner Box", in which subjects such as pigeons and rats were isolated and could be exposed to carefully controlled stimuli. Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner's primary behavioral measure.[7] Another invention, the cumulative recorder, produced a graphical record from which these response rates could be estimated. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules.[8] A reinforcement schedule may be defined as "any procedure that delivers reinforcement to an organism according to some well-defined rule".[9] The effects of schedules became, in turn, the basic findings from which Skinner developed his account of operant conditioning. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior.[10]

text: Many of Skinner's writings are devoted to the application of operant conditioning to human behavior.[11] In 1948 he published Walden Two, a fictional account of a peaceful, happy, productive community organized around his conditioning principles.[12] In 1957, Skinner published Verbal Behavior,[13] which extended the principles of operant conditioning to language, a form of human behavior that had previously been analyzed quite differently by linguists and others. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as "mands" and "tacts" to capture some essentials of language, but he introduced no new principles, treating verbal behavior like any other behavior controlled by its consequences, which included the reactions of the speaker's audience.

text: Concepts and procedures[edit]

text: Origins of operant behavior: operant variability[edit]

text: Operant behavior is said to be "emitted"; that is, initially it is not elicited by any particular stimulus. Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a "new" bodily structure, namely, variation and selection. Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables.[14]

text: Modifying operant behavior: reinforcement and shaping[edit]

text: Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools through which operant behavior is modified. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative, as described below.

text: Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while positive punishment and negative punishment reduce the probability of behaviour that they follow.

text: There is an additional procedure called "extinction"

text: Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement. During extinction the behavior becomes less probable.

text: Thus there are a total of five basic consequences –

text:
Positive reinforcement (reinforcement): This occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior.[15] For example, if a rat in a Skinner box gets food when it presses a lever, its rate of pressing will go up. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement (escape): This occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, the aversive stimulus might be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the box; negative reinforcement would happen when the rat presses a lever, turning off the noise.
Positive punishment (also referred to as "punishment by contingent stimulation"): This occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as pain from a spanking, which results in a decrease in that behavior. Positive punishment is a rather confusing term, and usually the procedure is simply called "punishment."
Negative punishment (penalty) (also called "punishment by contingent withdrawal"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Extinction : This occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. For example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses. Then, in "extinction", no food is given. Typically the rat continues to press more and more slowly and eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be "extinguished."

tag: ol

text: It is important to note that actors (e.g. rat) are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions (e.g. lever press) that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Also, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered by people.

text: Schedules of reinforcement[edit]

text: Schedules of reinforcement are rules that control the delivery of reinforcement. The rules specify either the time that reinforcement is to be made available, or the number of responses to be made, or both. Many rules are possible, but the following are the most basic and commonly used[16][8]

text:
Fixed interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a fixed time has elapsed after the previous reinforcement. This schedule yields a "break-run" pattern of response; that is, after training on this schedule, the organism typically pauses after reinforcement, and then begins to respond rapidly as the time for the next reinforcement approaches.
Variable interval schedule: Reinforcement occurs following the first response after a variable time has elapsed from the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a relatively steady rate of response that varies with the average time between reinforcements.
Fixed ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. An organism trained on this schedule typically pauses for a while after a reinforcement and then responds at a high rate. If the response requirement is low there may be no pause; if the response requirement is high the organism may quit responding altogether.
Variable ratio schedule: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses have been emitted since the previous reinforcement. This schedule typically yields a very high, persistent rate of response.
Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after each response. Organisms typically respond as rapidly as they can, given the time taken to obtain and consume reinforcement, until they are satiated.

text: Factors that alter the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment[edit]

text: The effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment can be changed in various ways.

text:
Satiation/Deprivation: The effectiveness of a positive or "appetitive" stimulus will be reduced if the individual has received enough of that stimulus to satisfy its appetite. The opposite effect will occur if the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus: the effectiveness of a consequence will then increase. If someone is not hungry, food will not be an effective reinforcer for behavior.[17]
Immediacy: An immediate consequence is more effective than a delayed consequence. If one gives a dog a treat for "sitting" right away, the dog will learn faster than if the treat is given later.[18]
Contingency: To be most effective, reinforcement should occur consistently after responses and not at other times. Learning may be slower if reinforcement is intermittent, that is, following only some instances of the same response, but responses reinforced intermittently are usually much slower to extinguish than are responses that have always been reinforced.[17]
Size: The size, or amount, of a stimulus often affects its potency as a reinforcer. Humans and animals engage in a sort of "cost-benefit" analysis. A tiny amount of food may not "be worth" an effortful lever press for a rat. A pile of quarters from a slot machine may keep a gambler pulling the lever longer than a single quarter.

text: Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is a highly effective reinforcer. However, when the organism's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective, perhaps even aversive.

text: Shaping[edit]

text: Shaping is a conditioning method much used in animal training and in teaching non-verbal humans. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or "target") behavior. Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement.

text: Noncontingent reinforcement[edit]

text: Noncontingent reinforcement is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response.[19] As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".[20]

text: Stimulus control of operant behavior[edit]

text: Though initially operant behavior is emitted without an identified reference to a particular stimulus, during operant conditioning operants come under the control of stimuli that are present when behavior is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli." A so-called "three-term contingency" is the result. That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Thus, a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of its food bag; a child reaches for candy when she sees it on a table.

text: Discrimination, generalization & context[edit]

text: Most behavior is under stimulus control. Several aspects of this may be distinguished:

text:
"Discrimination" typically occurs when a response is reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus. For example, a pigeon might be fed for pecking at a red light and not at a green light; in consequence, it pecks at red and stops pecking at green. Many complex combinations of stimuli and other conditions have been studied; for example an organism might be reinforced on an interval schedule in the presence of one stimulus and on a ratio schedule in the presence of another.
"Generalization" is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a previously trained discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at "red" a pigeon might also peck at "pink", though usually less strongly.
"Context" refers to stimuli that are continuously present in a situation, like the walls, tables, chairs, etc. in a room, or the interior of an operant conditioning chamber. Context stimuli may come to control behavior as do discriminative stimuli, though usually more weakly. Behaviors learned in one context may be absent, or altered, in another. This may cause difficulties for behavioral therapy, because behaviors learned in the therapeutic setting may fail to occur elsewhere.

text: Behavioral sequences: conditioned reinforcement and chaining[edit]

text: Most behavior cannot easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three-term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a "conditioned reinforcer". For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce "turning around" in the presence of a noise. This results in the sequence "noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food". Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses.

text: Escape and avoidance[edit]

text: In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance," as, for example, putting on sun glasses before going outdoors. Avoidance behavior raises the so-called "avoidance paradox", for, it may be asked, how can the non-occurrence of a stimulus serve as a reinforcer? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below).

text: Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free-operant avoidance learning.

text: Discriminated avoidance learning[edit]

text: A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape" trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called "avoidance trials." This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning, because a neutral CS is paired with an aversive US; this idea underlies the two-factor theory of avoidance learning described below.

text: Free-operant avoidance learning[edit]

text: In free-operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock-shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R-S (response-shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Note that each time the subject performs the operant response, the R-S interval without shock begins anew.

text: Two-process theory of avoidance[edit]

text: This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS (conditioned stimulus) with an aversive US (unconditioned stimulus). The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) – "fear." b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Note that the theory does not say that the organism "avoids" the US in the sense of anticipating it, but rather that the organism "escapes" an aversive internal state that is caused by the CS. Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two-factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS-US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior.[21]

text: Operant or "one-factor" theory[edit]

text: Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences" is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock" is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer. Cognitive theories of avoidance take this idea a step farther. For example, a rat comes to "expect" shock if it fails to press a lever and to "expect no shock" if it presses it, and avoidance behavior is strengthened if these expectancies are confirmed.[21]

text: Operant hoarding[edit]

text: Operant hoarding refers to the observation that rats reinforced in a certain way may allow food pellets to accumulate in a food tray instead of retrieving those pellets. In this procedure, retrieval of the pellets always instituted a one-minute period of extinction during which no additional food pellets were available but those that had been accumulated earlier could be consumed. This finding appears to contradict the usual finding that rats behave impulsively in situations in which there is a choice between a smaller food object right away and a larger food object after some delay. See schedules of reinforcement.[22]

text: Neurobiological correlates[edit]

text: The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong[23][24] and by R.T. Richardson.[24] They showed that nucleus basalis neurons, which release acetylcholine broadly throughout the cerebral cortex, are activated shortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. These neurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been shown to be related to neuroplasticity in many cortical regions.[25] Evidence also exists that dopamine is activated at similar times. There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.[26] Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement.[27] It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high.

text: A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated. This network of pathways "releases a short pulse of dopamine onto many dendrites, thus broadcasting a rather global reinforcement signal to postsynaptic neurons."[28] This allows recently activated synapses to increase their sensitivity to efferent (conducting outward) signals, thus increasing the probability of occurrence for the recent responses that preceded the reinforcement. These responses are, statistically, the most likely to have been the behavior responsible for successfully achieving reinforcement. But when the application of reinforcement is either less immediate or less contingent (less consistent), the ability of dopamine to act upon the appropriate synapses is reduced.

text: Questions about the law of effect[edit]

text: A number of observations seem to show that operant behavior can be established without reinforcement in the sense defined above. Most cited is the phenomenon of autoshaping (sometimes called "sign tracking"), in which a stimulus is repeatedly followed by reinforcement, and in consequence the animal begins to respond to the stimulus. For example, a response key is lighted and then food is presented. When this is repeated a few times a pigeon subject begins to peck the key even though food comes whether the bird pecks or not. Similarly, rats begin to handle small objects, such as a lever, when food is presented nearby.[29][30] Strikingly, pigeons and rats persist in this behavior even when pecking the key or pressing the lever leads to less food (omission training).[31][32]

text: These observations and others appear to contradict the law of effect, and they have prompted some researchers to propose new conceptualizations of operant reinforcement (e.g.[33][34][35]) A more general view is that autoshaping is an instance of classical conditioning; the autoshaping procedure has, in fact, become one of the most common ways to measure classical conditioning. In this view, many behaviors can be influenced by both classical contingencies (stimulus-response) and operant contingencies (response-reinforcement), and the experimenter’s task is to work out how these interact.[36]

text: The example of someone having a positive experience with a drug is easy to see how drug dependence and the law of effect works. The tolerance for a drug goes down as one continues to use it after having a positive experience with a certain amount the first time.[37] It will take more and more to get that same feeling. This is when the controlled substance in an experiment would have to be modified and the experiment would really begin. The law of work for psychologist B. F. Skinner almost half a century later on the principles of operant conditioning, "a learning process by which the effect, or consequence, of a response influences the future rate of production of that response.[38]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.

text: Applied behavior analysis[edit]

text: Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by B. F. Skinner that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (SC), discriminative stimulus (Sd), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (Srein or Sr for reinforcers, sometimes Save for aversive stimuli).[21] A conditioned stimulus controls behaviors developed through respondent (classical) conditioning, such as emotional reactions. The other three terms combine to form Skinner's "three-term contingency": a discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responses that lead to reinforcement. Researchers have found the following protocol to be effective when they use the tools of operant conditioning to modify human behavior:[citation needed]

text:
State goal Clarify exactly what changes are to be brought about. For example, "reduce weight by 30 pounds."
Monitor behavior Keep track of behavior so that one can see whether the desired effects are occurring. For example, keep a chart of daily weights.
Reinforce desired behavior For example, congratulate the individual on weight losses. With humans, a record of behavior may serve as a reinforcement. For example, when a participant sees a pattern of weight loss, this may reinforce continuance in a behavioral weight-loss program. However, individuals may perceive reinforcement which is intended to be positive as negative and vice versa. For example, a record of weight loss may act as negative reinforcement if it reminds the individual how heavy they actually are. The token economy, is an exchange system in which tokens are given as rewards for desired behaviors. Tokens may later be exchanged for a desired prize or rewards such as power, prestige, goods or services.
Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior For example, remove candy and fatty snacks from kitchen shelves.

text: Practitioners of applied behavior analysis (ABA) bring these procedures, and many variations and developments of them, to bear on a variety of socially significant behaviors and issues. In many cases, practitioners use operant techniques to develop constructive, socially acceptable behaviors to replace aberrant behaviors. The techniques of ABA have been effectively applied in to such things as early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD)[39] research on the principles influencing criminal behavior, HIV prevention,[40] conservation of natural resources,[41] education,[42] gerontology,[43] health and exercise,[44] industrial safety,[45] language acquisition,[46] littering,[47] medical procedures,[48] parenting,[49] psychotherapy,[citation needed] seatbelt use,[50] severe mental disorders,[51] sports,[52] substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals.[53] Some of these applications are among those described below.

text: Addiction and dependence[edit]

text: Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"),[54][55][56] so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug.[54][55][56] These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use.[54][55][56] Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.

text: In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.[54]

text: Animal training[edit]

text: Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are the following: (a) availability of primary reinforcement (e.g. a bag of dog yummies); (b) the use of secondary reinforcement, (e.g. sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response, then giving yummy); (c) contingency, assuring that reinforcement (e.g. the clicker) follows the desired behavior and not something else; (d) shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; (e) intermittent reinforcement, as in gradually reducing the frequency of reinforcement to induce persistent behavior without satiation; (f) chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually constructed from smaller units.[57]

text: Example of animal training from Seaworld related on Operant conditioning [58]

text: Animal training has effects on positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcements may play a big role on the animal training case.

text: Child behaviour – parent management training[edit]

text: Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child).[59] In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations").[59][60]

text: Economics[edit]

text: Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.[61]

text: Gambling – variable ratio scheduling[edit]

text: As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. The variable ratio payoff from slot machines and other forms of gambling has often been cited as a factor underlying gambling addiction.[62]

text: Nudge theory[edit]

text: Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.

text: Praise[edit]

text: The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior.[63] Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance,[64][65] but also in the study of work performance.[66] Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement.[67] Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.[68]

text: Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols.[69][70] The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management[69] and parenting training interventions,[65] though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.

text: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Operant-Behavioral Therapy Several studies have been done on the effect Cognitive-Behavioral therapy and Operant-Behavioral therapy have on different medical conditions. When patients developed cognitive and behavioral techniques that changed their behaviors, attitudes, and emotions; their pain severity decreased. The results of these studies showed an influence of cognitions on pain perception and impact presented explained the general efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral therapy (CBT) and Operant-Behavioral therapy (OBT).

text: Psychological manipulation[edit]

text: Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:[71]

text:
Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition.
Negative reinforcement: may involve removing one from a negative situation
Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for example in most forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again but still lose money overall.
Punishment: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim.
Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive anger, or other intimidating behavior to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident of such behavior can condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or contradicting the manipulator.

text: Traumatic bonding[edit]

text: Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.[72][73]

text: The other source indicated that [74] 'The necessary conditions for traumatic bonding are that one person must dominate the other and that the level of abuse chronically spikes and then subsides. The relationship is characterized by periods of permissive, compassionate, and even affectionate behavior from the dominant person, punctuated by intermittent episodes of intense abuse. To maintain the upper hand, the victimizer manipulates the behavior of the victim and limits the victim’s options so as to perpetuate the power imbalance. Any threat to the balance of dominance and submission may be met with an escalating cycle of punishment ranging from seething intimidation to intensely violent outbursts. The victimizer also isolates the victim from other sources of support, which reduces the likelihood of detection and intervention, impairs the victim’s ability to receive countervailing self-referent feedback, and strengthens the sense of unilateral dependency...The traumatic effects of these abusive relationships may include the impairment of the victim’s capacity for accurate self-appraisal, leading to a sense of personal inadequacy and a subordinate sense of dependence upon the dominating person. Victims also may encounter a variety of unpleasant social and legal consequences of their emotional and behavioral affiliation with someone who perpetrated aggressive acts, even if they themselves were the recipients of the aggression. '.

text: Video games[edit]

text: Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.[75]

text: As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010s, some games offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.[76]

text: Workplace culture of fear[edit]

text: Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace.[77] Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.[71] When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.[78]

text: Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.


document_title: Introduction (writing)

question_text: where does the introduction go in a book

text: Introduction (writing)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: In an essay, article, or book, an introduction (also known as a prolegomenon) is a beginning section which states the purpose and goals of the following writing. This is generally followed by the body and conclusion.

text: The introduction typically describes the scope of the document and gives the brief explanation or summary of the document. It may also explain certain elements that are important to the essay if explanations are not part of the main text. The readers can have an idea about the following text before they actually start reading it.

text: ln technical writing, the introduction typically includes one or more standard subsections: abstract or summary, preface, acknowledgments, and foreword. Alternatively, the section labeled introduction itself may be a brief section found side-by-side with abstract, foreword, etc. (rather than containing them). In this case the set of sections that come before the body of the book are known as the front matter. When the book is divided into numbered chapters, by convention the introduction and any other front-matter sections are unnumbered and precede chapter 1.

text: Keeping the concept of the introduction the same, different documents have different styles to introduce the written text. For example, the introduction of a Functional Specification consists of information that the whole document is yet to explain. If a Userguide is written, the introduction is about the product. In a report, the introduction gives a summary about the report contents.