document_title: Siege of Yorktown

question_text: who accepted the surrender of cornwallis at yorktown

text: Siege of Yorktown

text: Prelude[edit]

text: Franco-American cooperation[edit]

text: On December 20, 1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the defending militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth.[11] Admiral Destouches, who arrived in Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780 with a fleet transporting 5,500 soldiers, was encouraged by Washington and French Lieutenant General Rochambeau to move his fleet south, and launch a joint land-naval attack on Arnold's troops.[11] The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault.[12] However, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. After they proved ineffective, he took a larger force of 8 ships in March 1781, and fought a tactically inconclusive battle with the British fleet of Marriot Arbuthnot at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot and the British fleet in control of the bay's mouth.[12]

text: On March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces.[12] Phillips resumed raiding, defeating the militia at Blandford, then burning the tobacco warehouses at Petersburg on April 25. Richmond was about to suffer the same fate, but Lafayette arrived. The British, not wanting to engage in a major battle, withdrew to Petersburg on May 10.[12]

text: On May 20, Charles Cornwallis arrived at Petersburg with 1,500 men after suffering heavy casualties at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. He immediately assumed command, as Phillips had recently died of a fever.[12][13] Cornwallis had not received permission to abandon the Carolinas from his superior, Henry Clinton, but he believed that Virginia would be easier to capture, feeling that it would approve of an invading British army.[12]

text: With the arrival of Cornwallis and more reinforcements from New York, the British Army numbered 7,200 men.[3] Cornwallis wanted to push Lafayette, whose force now numbered 3,000 men with the arrival of Virginia militia.[3] On May 24, he set out after Lafayette, who withdrew from Richmond, and linked forces with those under the command of Baron von Steuben and Anthony Wayne.[3] Cornwallis did not pursue Lafayette. Instead, he sent raiders into central Virginia, where they attacked depots and supply convoys, before being recalled on June 20. Cornwallis then headed for Williamsburg, and Lafayette's force of now 4,500 followed him.[14] General Clinton, in a confusing series of orders, ordered Cornwallis first to Portsmouth and then Yorktown, where he was instructed to build fortifications for a deep water port.[15][16]

text: On July 6, the French and American armies met at White Plains, north of New York City.[17] Although Rochambeau had almost 40 years of warfare experience, he never challenged Washington's authority, telling Washington he had come to serve, not to command.[18]

text: Washington and Rochambeau discussed where to launch a joint attack.[19] Washington believed an attack on New York was the best option, since the Americans and French now outnumbered the British defenders 3 to 1. Rochambeau disagreed, arguing the fleet in the West Indies under Admiral de Grasse was going to sail to the American coast, where easier options than attacking New York could be attempted.[19]

text: In early July, Washington suggested an attack be made at the northern part of Manhattan Island, but his officers and Rochambeau all disagreed.[20] Washington continued to probe the New York area until August 14, when he received a letter from de Grasse stating he was headed for Virginia with 29 warships and 3,200 soldiers, but could only remain there until October 14.[20] De Grasse encouraged Washington to move south so they could launch a joint operation. Washington abandoned his plan to take New York, and began to prepare his army for the march south to Virginia.[21]

text: March to Virginia[edit]

text: On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the "celebrated march."[21] 4,000 French and 3,000 American soldiers began the march in Newport, Rhode Island, while the rest remained behind to protect the Hudson Valley. Washington wanted to maintain complete secrecy of their destination.[22] To ensure this, he sent out fake dispatches that reached Clinton revealing that the Franco-American army was going to launch an attack on New York, and that Cornwallis was not in danger.[23]

text: The French and American armies marched through Philadelphia from September 2 to the 4th, where the American soldiers announced they would not leave Maryland until they received one month's pay in coin, rather than in the worthless Continental paper currency. General Rochambeau generously loaned Washington half of his supply of gold Spanish coins. This would be the last time the men would be paid. This significantly strengthened French and American relations.[24] On September 5, Washington learned of the arrival of de Grasse's fleet off the Virginia Capes. De Grasse debarked his French troops to join Lafayette, and then sent his empty transports to pick up the American troops.[21] Washington made a visit to his home, Mount Vernon, on his way to Yorktown.[25]

text: In August, Admiral Sir Thomas Graves led a fleet from New York to attack de Grasse's fleet. Graves did not realize how large the French fleet was, and neither did Cornwallis.[25] The British fleet was defeated by de Grasse's fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, and forced to fall back to New York.[25] On September 14, Washington arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia.[25]

text: The siege[edit]

text: Initial movements[edit]

text: On September 26, transports with artillery, siege tools, and some French infantry and shock troops from Head of Elk, the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, arrived, giving Washington command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals.[2] Early on September 28, Washington led the army out of Williamsburg to surround Yorktown.[26] The French took the positions on the left while the Americans took the position of honor on the right.[2] Cornwallis had a chain of seven redoubts and batteries linked by earthworks along with batteries that covered the narrows of the York River at Gloucester Point.[2] That day, Washington reconnoitered the British defenses and decided that they could be bombarded into submission.[27] The Americans and the French spent the night of the 28th sleeping out in the open, while work parties built bridges over the marsh. Some of the American soldiers hunted down wild hogs to eat.[28]

text: On September 29, Washington moved the army closer to Yorktown and British gunners opened fire on the infantry.[29] Throughout the day, several British cannon fired on the Americans but there were few casualties. Fire was also exchanged between American riflemen and Hessian Jägers.[29]

text: Cornwallis pulled back from all of his outer defenses, except for the Fusilier's redoubt on the west side of the town and redoubts 9 and 10 in the east.[2] Cornwallis had his forces occupy the earthworks immediately surrounding the town because he had received a letter from Clinton that promised relief force of 5,000 men within a week and he wished to tighten his lines.[2][30] The Americans and the French occupied the abandoned defenses and began to establish their own batteries there.[31] With the British outer defenses in their hands, allied engineers began to lay out positions for the artillery. The men improved their works and deepened their trenches.[32] The British also worked on improving their defenses.[32]

text: On September 30, the French attacked the British Fusiliers redoubt.[33] The skirmish lasted two hours, in which the French were repulsed, suffering several casualties. On October 1, the allies learned from British deserters that, to preserve their food, the British had slaughtered hundreds of horses and thrown them on the beach.[33] In the American camp, thousands of trees were cut down to provide wood for earthworks. Preparations for the parallel also began.[34]

text: As the allies began to put their artillery into place, the British kept up a steady fire to disrupt them.[35] British fire increased on the 2nd and the allies suffered moderate casualties. General Washington continued to make visits to the front, despite concern shown by several of his officers over the increasing enemy fire.[36] On the night of October 2, the British opened a storm of fire to cover up the movement of the British cavalry to Gloucester where they were to escort infantrymen on a foraging party.[36] On the 3rd, the foraging party, led by Banastre Tarleton, went out but collided with Lauzun's Legion, and John Mercer's Virginia militia, led by the Marquis de Choisy. The British cavalry quickly retreated back behind their defensive lines, losing 50 men.[37]

text: By October 5, Washington was almost ready to open the first parallel.[38] That night the sappers and miners worked, putting strips of pine on the wet sand to mark the path of the trenches.[38]

text: Bombardment[edit]

text: After nightfall on October 6, troops moved out in stormy weather to dig the first parallel: the heavily overcast sky negated the waning full moon and shielded the massive digging operation from the eyes of British sentries.[d] Washington ceremoniously struck several blows with his pick axe to begin the trench. The trench was to be 2,000 yards (1,800 m) long, running from the head of Yorktown to the York River.[40] Half of the trench was to be commanded by the French, the other half by the Americans. On the northernmost end of the French line, a support trench was dug so that they could bombard the British ships in the river.[40] The French were ordered to distract the British with a false attack, but the British were told of the plan by a French deserter and the British artillery fire turned on the French from the Fusiliers redoubt.[41]

text: On October 7, the British saw the new allied trench just out of musket-range.[41] Over the next two days, the allies completed the gun placements and dragged the artillery into line. The British fire began to weaken when they saw the large number of guns the allies had.[42]

text: By October 9, all of the French and American guns were in place.[42] Among the American guns there were three twenty-four pounders, three eighteen pounders, two eight-inch (203 mm) howitzers and six mortars, totaling fourteen guns. At 3:00 pm, the French guns opened the barrage and drove the British frigate, HMS Guadeloupe across the York River, where she was scuttled to prevent capture. At 5:00 pm, the Americans opened fire.[42] Washington fired the first gun; legend has it that this shot smashed into a table where British officers were eating. The Franco-American guns began to tear apart the British defenses.[43] Washington ordered that the guns fire all night so that the British could not make repairs.[43] All of the British guns on the left were soon silenced. The British soldiers began to pitch their tents in their trenches and soldiers began to desert in large numbers.[44] Some British ships were also damaged by cannonballs that flew across the town into the harbor.[44]

text: On October 10, the Americans spotted a large house in Yorktown.[45] Believing that Cornwallis might be stationed there, they aimed at it and quickly destroyed it. Cornwallis sank more than a dozen of his ships in the harbor. The French began to fire at the British ships and scored a hit on the British HMS Charon, which caught fire, and in turn set two or three other ships on fire.[46] Cornwallis received word from Clinton that the British fleet was to depart on October 12, however Cornwallis responded by saying that he would not be able to hold out for long.[47]

text: On the night of October 11, Washington ordered that the Americans dig a second parallel.[47] It was 400 yards (370 m) closer to the British lines, but could not be extended to the river because the British number 9 and 10 redoubts were in the way. During the night, the British fire continued to land in the old line; Cornwallis did not suspect that a new parallel was being dug.[47] By morning of the 12th, the allied troops were in position on the new line.[47]

text: Assault on the redoubts[edit]

text: By October 14, the trenches were within 150 yards (140 m) of redoubts No. 9 and No. 10.[48] Washington ordered that all guns within range begin blasting the redoubts to weaken them for an assault that evening.[49] Washington planned to use the cover of a moonless night to gain the element of surprise.[e] To reinforce the darkness, he added silence, ordering that no soldier should load his musket until reaching the fortifications- the advance would be made with only "cold steel." Redoubt 10 was near the river and held only 70 men, while redoubt 9 was a quarter of a mile inland, and was held by 120 British and Germans.[49] Both redoubts were heavily fortified with rows of abatis surrounding them, along with muddy ditches that surrounded the redoubts at about 25 yards (23 m).[48] Washington devised a plan in which the French would launch a diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt, and then a half an hour later, the French would assault redoubt 9 and the Americans redoubt 10.[49][51] Redoubt 9 would be assaulted by 400 French regular soldiers under the command of the German Lieutenant Colonel Wilhelm von Zweibrücken and redoubt 10 would be assaulted by 400 light infantry troops under the command of Alexander Hamilton.[51] There was a brief dispute as to who should lead the attack on Redoubt No. 10. Lafayette named his aide, Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat, who commanded a battalion of Continental light infantry. However, Hamilton protested, saying that he was the senior officer. Washington concurred with Hamilton and gave him command of the attack.[52][f]

text: At 6:30 pm, gunfire announced the diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt.[53] At other places in the line, movements were made as if preparing for an assault on Yorktown itself, which caused the British to panic.[53] With bayonets fixed, the Americans marched towards Redoubt No. 10. Hamilton sent Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens around to the rear of the redoubt to prevent the British from escaping.[54] The Americans reached the redoubt and began chopping through the British wooden defenses with their axes. A British sentry called a challenge, and then fired at the Americans.[54] The Americans responded by charging with their bayonets towards the redoubt. They hacked through the abatis, crossed a ditch and climbed the parapet into the redoubt.[55] The Americans forced their way into the redoubt falling into giant shell holes from the bombardment of the redoubts. The British fire was heavy, but the Americans overwhelmed them.[55] Someone in the front shouted, "Rush on boys! The fort's ours!" The British threw hand grenades at the Americans with little effect.[55] Men in the trench stood on the shoulders of their comrades to climb into the redoubt. The bayonet fight cleared the British out of the redoubt and almost the entire garrison was captured, including the commander of the redoubt, Major Campbell.[56] In the assault, the Americans lost 9 dead and 25 wounded.[56]

text: The French assault began at the same time, but they were halted by the abatis, which was undamaged by the artillery fire.[56] The French began to hack at the abatis and a Hessian sentry came out and asked who was there. When there was no response, the sentry opened fire as did other Hessians on the parapet.[57] The French soldiers fired back, and then charged the redoubt. The Germans charged the Frenchmen climbing over the walls but the French fired a volley, driving them back.[57] The Hessians then took a defensive position behind some barrels but threw down their arms and surrendered when the French prepared a bayonet charge.[57]

text: With the capture of redoubts 9 and 10, Washington was able to have his artillery shell the town from three directions and the allies moved some of their artillery into the redoubts.[58][59] On October 15, Cornwallis turned all of his guns onto the nearest allied position. He then ordered a storming party of 350 British troops under the command of Colonel Robert Abercromby to attack the allied lines and spike the American and French cannon (i.e., plug the touch hole with an iron spike).[60] The allies were sleeping and unprepared. As the British charged Abercromby shouted "Push on my brave boys, and skin the bastards!"[59] The British party spiked several cannon in the parallel and then spiked the guns on an unfinished redoubt.[61] A French party came and drove them out of the allied lines and back to Yorktown. The British had been able to spike six guns, but by the morning they were all repaired.[61] The bombardment resumed with the American and French troops engaged in competition to see who could do the most damage to the enemy defenses.[59]

text: On the morning of October 16, more allied guns were in line and the fire intensified.[61] In desperation, Cornwallis attempted to evacuate his troops across the York River to Gloucester Point.[59] At Gloucester Point the troops might be able to break through the allied lines and escape into Virginia and then march to New York.[62] One wave of boats made it across but a squall hit when they returned to take more soldiers across, making the evacuation impossible.[63]

text: British surrender[edit]

text: The fire on Yorktown from the allies was heavier than ever as new artillery pieces joined the line.[64] Cornwallis talked with his officers that day and they agreed that their situation was hopeless.[65]

text: On the morning of October 17, a drummer appeared, followed by an officer waving a white handkerchief.[66] The bombardment ceased, and the officer was blindfolded and led behind the French and American lines. Negotiations began at the Moore House on October 18 between Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas and Major Alexander Ross (who represented the British) and Lieutenant Colonel Laurens (who represented the Americans) and Marquis de Noailles (who represented the French).[66] To make sure that nothing fell apart between the French and Americans at the last minute, Washington ordered that the French be given an equal share in every step of the surrender process.[66]

text: The articles of capitulation were signed on October 19, 1781.[66] Signatories included Washington, Rochambeau, the Comte de Barras (on behalf of the French Navy), Cornwallis, and Captain Thomas Symonds (the senior Royal Navy officer present).[67] Cornwallis' British men were declared prisoners of war, promised good treatment in American camps, and officers were permitted to return home after taking their parole. At 2:00 pm the allied army entered the British positions, with the French on the left and the Americans on the right.[66]

text: The British had asked for the traditional honors of war, which would allow the army to march out with flags flying, bayonets fixed, and the band playing an American or French tune as a tribute to the victors. However, Washington firmly refused to grant the British the honors that they had denied the defeated American army the year before at the Siege of Charleston.[68] Consequently, the British and Hessian troops marched with flags furled and muskets shouldered, while the band was forced to play "a British or German march."[g] American history books recount the legend that the British band played "The World Turn'd Upside Down", but the story may be apocryphal.[70][71]

text: Cornwallis refused to attend the surrender ceremony, citing illness. Instead, Brigadier General Charles O'Hara led the British army onto the field. O'Hara first attempted to surrender to Rochambeau, who shook his head and pointed to Washington. O'Hara then offered his sword to Washington, who also refused and motioned to Benjamin Lincoln. The surrender finally took place when Washington's second-in-command accepted the sword of Cornwallis' deputy.[72][73][74]

text: The British soldiers marched out and laid down their arms in between the French and American armies, while many civilians watched.[75] At this time, the troops on the other side of the river in Gloucester also surrendered.[76] The British soldiers had been issued new uniforms hours before the surrender and until prevented by General O'Hara some threw down their muskets with the apparent intention of smashing them. Others wept or appeared to be drunk.[77] In all, 8,000 troops, 214 artillery pieces, thousands of muskets, 24 transport ships, wagons and horses were captured.[73]

text: Casualties[edit]

text: The French casualties were 60 killed and 194 wounded and the American casualties were 28 killed and 107 wounded: a grand total of 88 killed and 301 wounded.[4]

text: The British official casualty return for the siege listed 156 killed, 326 wounded and 70 missing. Cornwallis surrendered 7,087 officers and enlisted men in Yorktown when he capitulated and a further 840 sailors from the British fleet in the York River. Another 84 prisoners had been taken during the assault on the redoubts on October 16.[5] Since only 70 men were reported as missing, this would suggest that 14 of the men officially marked down as 'killed' had in fact been captured. This gives a grand total of 142 killed, 326 wounded prisoners and 7,685 other prisoners. Jerome A. Greene mentions a German account that gives much higher figures: 309 killed and 595 wounded.[4]

text: Article 10 controversy[edit]

text: George Washington refused to accept the Tenth Article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which granted immunity to American Loyalists, and Cornwallis failed to make any effort to press the matter. "The outcry against the Tenth Article was vociferous and immediate, as Americans on both sides of the Atlantic proclaimed their sense of betrayal."[78]

text: Effect of disease[edit]

text: Malaria was endemic in the marshlands of eastern Virginia during the time, and Cornwallis's army suffered greatly from the disease; he estimated during the surrender that half of his army was unable to fight as a result. The Continental Army enjoyed an advantage, in that most of their members had grown up with malaria, and hence had acquired resistance to the disease. As malaria has a month-long incubation period, most of the French soldiers had not begun to exhibit symptoms before the surrender.[79][80]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Five days after the battle ended, on October 24, 1781, the British fleet sent by Clinton to rescue the British army arrived. The fleet picked up several Loyalists who had escaped on October 18, and they informed Admiral Thomas Graves that they believed Cornwallis had surrendered.[81] Graves picked up several more Loyalists along the coast, and they confirmed this fact. Graves sighted the French Fleet, but chose to leave because he was outnumbered by nine ships, and thus he sent the fleet back to New York.[82]

text: After the British surrender, Washington sent Tench Tilghman to report the victory to Congress.[83] After a difficult journey, he arrived in Philadelphia, which celebrated for several days.  The British Prime Minister, Lord North, is reported to have exclaimed "Oh God, it's all over" when told of the defeat.[84] Washington moved his army to New Windsor, New York[85] where they remained stationed until the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the war.[86]

text: Legacy[edit]

text:
On October 19, 1881, an elaborate ceremony took place to honor the battle's centennial. U.S. naval vessels floated on Chesapeake Bay, and
special markers highlighted where Washington and Lafayette's siege guns were placed. President Chester Arthur, sworn in only thirty days before, following James Garfield's death, made his first public speech as president. Also present were descendants of Lafayette, Rochambeau, de Grasse, and Steuben. To close the ceremony, Arthur gave an order to salute the British flag.[87]

text: There is a belief that General Cornwallis's sword, surrendered by Charles O'Hara after the battle, is to this day on display at the White House. However, U.S. National Park Service historian Jerome Green, in his 2005 history of the siege, The Guns of Independence, concurs with the 1881 centennial account by Johnston, noting simply that when Brigadier General O'Hara presented the sword to Major General Lincoln, he held it for a moment and immediately returned it to O'Hara.[88]

text: The siege of Yorktown is also known in some German historiographies as "die deutsche Schlacht" ("the German battle"), because Germans played significant roles in all three armies, accounting for roughly one third of all forces involved.  According to one estimate more than 2,500 German soldiers served at Yorktown with each of the British and French armies, and more than 3,000 German-Americans were in Washington's army.[89]

text: Four Army National Guard units (113th Inf,[90] 116th Inf,[91] 175th Inf[92] and 198th Sig Bn[93]) and one active Regular Army Field Artillery battalion (1–5th FA[94]) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Yorktown. There are thirty current U.S. Army units with lineages that go back the colonial era.

text: Yorktown Victory Monument[edit]

text: Five days after the British surrendered, Congress passed a resolution agreeing to erect a structure dedicated to commemorating those who participated in the battle.[95] Construction of the monument was delayed, however, as the Confederation government had several other financial obligations that were considered to be of a more urgent nature.[95] The battle's centennial sparked renewed enthusiasm in the resolution and prompted the government to begin building the monument in 1881 amid national support.[95] The structure was formally erected in 1884 and currently resides within Colonial National Historical Park.[95]

text: Yorktown Sesquicentennial Celebration[edit]

text: A four-day celebration to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Siege took place in Yorktown from the 16th to the 19th October 1931. It was presided over by the Governor of Virginia John Garland Pollard and attended by then President, Herbert Hoover along with French representatives. The event included the official dedication of the Colonial National Historical Park.[96][97]


document_title: Closed-circuit television

question_text: when was the first cctv camera used in the uk

question_tokens: when was the first cctv camera used in the uk

root

text: Closed-circuit television

text: History[edit]

text: The first CCTV system was installed by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde, Nazi Germany in 1942, for observing the launch of V-2 rockets.[9] The noted German engineer Walter Bruch was responsible for the technological design and installation of the system.[12][not in citation given]

tag: p

text: In the U.S. the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949, called Vericon. Very little is known about Vericon except it was advertised as not requiring a government permit.[13]

text: Technology[edit]

text: The earliest video surveillance systems involved constant monitoring because there was no way to record and store information. The development of reel-to-reel media enabled the recording of surveillance footage. These systems required magnetic tapes to be changed manually, which was a time consuming, expensive and unreliable process, with the operator having to manually thread the tape from the tape reel through the recorder onto an empty take-up reel. Due to these shortcomings, video surveillance was not widespread. VCR technology became available in the 1970s, making it easier to record and erase information, and use of video surveillance became more common.[14]

text: During the 1990s, digital multiplexing was developed, allowing several cameras to record at once, as well as time lapse and motion-only recording. This increased savings of time and money which then led to an increase in the use of CCTV.[15]

text: Recently CCTV technology has been enhanced with a shift toward Internet-based products and systems, and other technological developments.[16]

text: Application[edit]

text: Closed-circuit television was used for professional boxing, as a form of pay-per-view theatre television. Boxing telecasts were broadcast live to a select number of venues, mostly theaters, where viewers paid for tickets to watch the fight live.[17][18] The first fight with a closed-circuit telecast was Joe Louis vs. Joe Walcott in 1948.[19] Closed-circuit telecasts peaked in popularity with Muhammad Ali in the 1960s and 1970s,[17][18] with "The Rumble in the Jungle" fight drawing 50 million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1974,[20] and the "Thrilla in Manila" drawing 100 million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1975.[21] Closed-circuit television was gradually replaced by pay-per-view home cable television in the 1980s and 1990s.[18]

text: In September 1968, Olean, New York was the first city in the United States to install video cameras along its main business street in an effort to fight crime.[22] Another early appearance was in 1973 in Times Square in New York City.[23] The NYPD installed it in order to deter crime that was occurring in the area; however, crime rates did not appear to drop much due to the cameras.[23] Nevertheless, during the 1980s video surveillance began to spread across the country specifically targeting public areas.[15] It was seen as a cheaper way to deter crime compared to increasing the size of the police departments.[23] Some businesses as well, especially those that were prone to theft, began to use video surveillance.[23] From the mid-1990s on, police departments across the country installed an increasing number of cameras in various public spaces including housing projects, schools and public parks departments.[23] CCTV later became common in banks and stores to discourage theft, by recording evidence of criminal activity. In 1998, 3,000 CCTV systems were in use in New York City.[24] A study by Nieto in 2008 found many businesses in the United States had invested heavily in video surveillance technology to protect products and promote safe workplace and consumer environments. A nationwide survey of a wide variety of companies found that 75 percent utilize CCTV surveillance. In private sector CCTV surveillance technology is operated in a wide variety of establishments such as in industry/manufacturing, retailing, financial/insurance/banking, transportation and distribution, utilities/communications, health care, and hotels/motels, parking areas, jewelry shops.

text: Experiments in the UK during the 1970s and 1980s, including outdoor CCTV in Bournemouth in 1985, led to several larger trial programs later that decade. The first use by local government was in King's Lynn, Norfolk, in 1987.[25] These were deemed successful in the government report "CCTV: Looking Out For You", issued by the Home Office in 1994, and paved the way for an increase in the number of CCTV systems installed. Today, systems cover most town and city centres, and many stations, car-parks and estates.

text: Uses[edit]

text: Crime prevention[edit]

text: A 2009 systematic review by researchers from Northeastern University and University of Cambridge used meta-analytic techniques to pool the average effect of CCTV on crime across 41 different studies.[26] The results indicated that

text:
CCTV caused a significant reduction of crime by on average 16%.
The largest effects of CCTV were found in car parks, where cameras reduced crime by on average 51%.
CCTV schemes in other public settings had small and non-statistically significant effects on crime: 7% reduction in city and town centers and 23% reduction in public transport settings.
When sorted by country, systems in the United Kingdom accounted for the majority of the decrease; the drop in other areas was insignificant.

tag: ol

text: The studies included in the meta-analysis used quasi-experimental evaluation designs that involve before-and-after measures of crime in experimental and control areas.[26] However, several researchers have pointed to methodological problems associated with this research literature. First, researchers have argued that the British car park studies included in the meta-analysis cannot accurately control for the fact that CCTV was introduced simultaneously with a range of other security-related measures.[27] Second, some have noted that, in many of the studies, there may be issues with selection bias since the introduction of CCTV was potentially endogenous to previous crime trends.[28] In particular, the estimated effects may be biased if CCTV is introduced in response to crime trends.[29]

text: It has been argued that problems of selection bias and endogeneity can be addressed by stronger research designs such as randomized controlled trials and natural experiments. A 2017 review published in Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention compiles seven studies that use such research designs. The studies included in the review found that CCTV reduced crime by 24-28% in public streets and urban subway stations. It also found that CCTV could decrease unruly behaviour in football stadiums and theft in supermarkets/mass merchant stores. However, there was no evidence of CCTV having desirable effects in parking facilities or suburban subway stations. Furthermore, the review indicates that CCTV is more effective in preventing property crimes than in violent crimes.[30]

text: Another question in the effectiveness of CCTV for policing is around uptime of the system; in 2013 City of Philadelphia Auditor found that the $15M system was operational only 32% of the time.[31] There is still much research to be done to determine the effectiveness of CCTV cameras on crime prevention before any conclusions can be drawn.

text: There is strong anecdotal evidence that CCTV aids in detection and conviction of offenders; indeed UK police forces routinely seek CCTV recordings after crimes.[32] Moreover, CCTV has played a crucial role in tracing the movements of suspects or victims and is widely regarded by antiterrorist officers as a fundamental tool in tracking terrorist suspects. Large-scale CCTV installations have played a key part of the defences against terrorism since the 1970s. Cameras have also been installed on public transport in the hope of deterring crime,[33][34] and in mobile police surveillance vehicles, often with automatic number plate recognition, and a network of APNI-linked cameras is used to manage London's congestion charging zone. Even so, there is political hostility to surveillance and several commentators downplay the evidence of CCTV's effectiveness, especially in the US.[35] However, most of these assertions are based on poor methodology or imperfect comparisons.[36]

text: A more open question is whether most CCTV is cost-effective. While low-quality domestic kits are cheap the professional installation and maintenance of high definition CCTV is expensive.[37] Gill and Spriggs did a Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) of CCTV in crime prevention that showed little monetary saving with the installation of CCTV as most of the crimes prevented resulted in little monetary loss.[38] Critics however noted that benefits of non-monetary value cannot be captured in a traditional Cost Effectiveness Analysis and were omitted from their study.[38]  A 2008 Report by UK Police Chiefs concluded that only 3% of crimes were solved by CCTV.[39] In London, a Metropolitan Police report showed that in 2008 only one crime was solved per 1000 cameras.[40] In some cases CCTV cameras have become a target of attacks themselves.[41]

text: Cities such as Manchester in the UK are using DVR-based technology to improve accessibility for crime prevention.[42]

text: In October 2009, an "Internet Eyes" website was announced which would pay members of the public to view CCTV camera images from their homes and report any crimes they witnessed. The site aimed to add "more eyes" to cameras which might be insufficiently monitored. Civil liberties campaigners criticized the idea as "a distasteful and a worrying development".[43]

text: In 2013 Oaxaca hired deaf police officers to lip read conversations to uncover criminal conspiracies.[44]

text: In Singapore, since 2012, thousands of CCTV cameras have helped deter loan sharks, nab litterbugs and stop illegal parking, according to government figures.[45]

text: Body worn[edit]

text: In recent years, the use of body worn video cameras has been introduced for a number of uses. For example, as a new form of surveillance in law enforcement, with cameras located on a police officer's chest or head.[46][5]

text: Industrial processes[edit]

text: Industrial processes that take place under conditions dangerous for humans are today often supervised by CCTV. These are mainly processes in the chemical industry, the interior of reactors or facilities for manufacture of nuclear fuel. Special cameras for some of these purposes include line-scan cameras and thermographic cameras which allow operators to measure the temperature of the processes. The usage of CCTV in such processes is sometimes required by law.[specify]

text: Traffic monitoring[edit]

text: Many cities and motorway networks have extensive traffic-monitoring systems, using closed-circuit television to detect congestion and notice accidents.[47] Many of these cameras however, are owned by private companies and transmit data to drivers' GPS systems.

text: The UK Highways Agency has a publicly owned CCTV network of over 3000 Pan-Tilt-Zoom cameras covering the British motorway and trunk road network. These cameras are primarily used to monitor traffic conditions and are not used as speed cameras. With the addition of fixed cameras for the active traffic management system, the number of cameras on the Highways Agency's CCTV network is likely to increase significantly over the next few years.[citation needed]

text: The London congestion charge is enforced by cameras positioned at the boundaries of and inside the congestion charge zone, which automatically read the licence plates of cars. If the driver does not pay the charge then a fine will be imposed. Similar systems are being developed as a means of locating cars reported stolen.[citation needed]

text: Other surveillance cameras serve as traffic enforcement cameras.[citation needed]

text: Transport safety[edit]

text: A CCTV system may be installed where any example, on a Driver-only operated train CCTV cameras may allow the driver to confirm that people are clear of doors before closing them and starting the train.[48]

text: Sporting events[edit]

text: Many sporting events in the United States use CCTV inside the venue for fans to see the action while they are away from their seats. The cameras send the feed to a central control center where a producer selects feeds to send to the television monitors that fans can view. CCTV monitors for viewing the event by attendees are often placed in lounges, hallways, and restrooms. This use of CCTV is not used for surveillance purposes.

text: Monitor employees[edit]

text: Organizations use CCTV to monitor the actions of workers. Every action is recorded as an information block with subtitles that explain the performed operation. This helps to track the actions of workers, especially when they are making critical financial transactions, such as correcting or cancelling of a sale, withdrawing money or altering personal information.

text: Actions which an employer may wish to monitor could include:

text:
Scanning of goods, selection of goods, introduction of price and quantity;
Input and output of operators in the system when entering passwords;
Deleting operations and modifying existing documents;
Implementation of certain operations, such as financial statements or operations with cash;
Moving goods, revaluation scrapping and counting;
Control in the kitchen of fast food restaurants;
Change of settings, reports and other official functions.

tag: ul

text: Each of these operations is transmitted with a description, allowing detailed monitoring of all actions of the operator. Some systems allow the user to search for a specific event by time of occurrence and text description, and perform statistical evaluation of operator behaviour. This allows the software to predict deviations from the standard workflow and record only anomalous behaviour.[49]

text: Use in schools[edit]

text: In the United States, Britain,[50] Australia[51] and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools due to its success in preventing bullying, vandalism, monitoring visitors and maintaining a record of evidence in the event of a crime. There are some restrictions on installation, with cameras not being installed in an area where there is a "reasonable expectation of privacy", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas and private offices (unless consent by the office occupant is given). Сameras are generally acceptable in hallways, parking lots, front offices where students, employees, and parents come and go, gymnasiums, cafeterias, supply rooms and classrooms. The installation of cameras in classrooms may be objected to by some teachers.[52]

text: Criminal use[edit]

text: Criminals may use surveillance cameras to monitor the public. For example, a hidden camera at an ATM can capture people's PINs as they are entered, without their knowledge. The devices are small enough not to be noticed, and are placed where they can monitor the keypad of the machine as people enter their PINs. Images may be transmitted wirelessly to the criminal. Even lawful surveillance cameras sometimes have their data go into the hands of people who have no legal right to receive it.[53]

text: Security[edit]

text: CCTV systems are often used for security monitoring purposes in organizations and homes.[54][55][56]

text: Prevalence[edit]

text: Worldwide[edit]

text: There are an estimated 350 million surveillance cameras worldwide as of 2016 compared with about 160 million in 2012. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years.[8][note 1]

text: Asia[edit]

text: About 65% of CCTV cameras in the world are installed in Asia.[8] In Asia, different human activities attracted the use of surveillance camera systems and services, including but not limited to business and related industries,[citation needed] transportation,[59] sports,[60] and care for the environment.[61]

text: In 2018, China was reported to have a huge surveillance network of over 170 million CCTV cameras with 400 million new cameras expected be installed in the next three years, many of which use facial recognition technology.[62]

text: United States[edit]

text: There were an estimated 30 million surveillance cameras in the United States in 2011.[63] Video surveillance has been common in the United States since the 1990s; for example, one manufacturer reported net earnings of $120 million in 1995.[64] With lower cost and easier installation, sales of home security cameras increased in the early 21st century. Following the September 11 attacks, the use of video surveillance in public places became more common to deter future terrorist attacks.[23] Under the Homeland Security Grant Program, government grants are available for cities to install surveillance camera networks.[65][66][67] In 2009, there were an estimated 15,000 CCTV systems in Chicago, many linked to an integrated camera network.[68][69][70]  New York City's Domain Awareness System has 6,000 video surveillance cameras linked together,[71] there are over 4,000 cameras on the subway system (although nearly half of them do not work),[72] and two-thirds of large apartment and commercial buildings use video surveillance cameras.[73][74] In the Washington D.C.-area, there are more than 30,000 surveillance cameras in schools,[75] and the Metro has nearly 6,000 cameras in use across the system.[76]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, the vast majority of CCTV cameras are not operated by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to 2011 Freedom of Information Act requests, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK.[77]

text: Although specific legalities of running a home CCTV system in the UK are rather vague there are published [78] rules and regulations that although are mostly common sense, do include some laws that most people may not be aware of, including registering with ICO as a data controller if any CCTV camera catch images of any of the public on, or outside of your property.

text: An article published in CCTV Image magazine estimated the number of private and local government operated cameras in the United Kingdom was 1.85 million in 2011. The estimate was based on extrapolating from a comprehensive survey of public and private cameras within the Cheshire Constabulary jurisdiction. This works out as an average of one camera for every 32 people in the UK, although the density of cameras varies greatly from place to place. The Cheshire report also claims that the average person on a typical day would be seen by 70 CCTV cameras.[79]

text: The Cheshire figure is regarded as more dependable than a previous study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of UrbanEye published in 2002.[79][80] Based on a small sample in Putney High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolated the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be around 500,000 and the total number of cameras in the UK to be around 4,200,000. According to their estimate the UK has one camera for every 14 people. Although it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed,[81] it has been widely quoted. Furthermore, the figure of 500,000 for Greater London is often confused with the figure for the police and local government operated cameras in the City of London, which was about 650 in 2011.[77]

text: The CCTV User Group estimated that there were around 1.5 million private and local government CCTV cameras in city centres, stations, airports, and major retail areas in the UK.[82] This figure does not include the smaller surveillance systems such as those that may be found in local corner shops and is therefore broadly in line with the Cheshire report.

text: Research conducted by the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research and based on a survey of all Scottish local authorities, identified that there are over 2,200 public space CCTV cameras in Scotland.[83]

text: Defra made it legal in 2017 to have all Abbatoirs in the UK now covered by CCTV to prevent cruelty to animals during the slaughter process.[84]

text: Canada[edit]

text: Project SCRAM is a policing effort by the Halton Regional Police Service to register and help consumers understand the complex issues of privacy and safety that confront households when dealing with installations of home security systems. "The SCRAM program enables community members to voluntarily identify and register their residential video surveillance equipment through a simple, secure, confidential, online form.".[85]  It has not been extended to commercial businesses. A wide-ranging effort to provide registration and monitoring of home security and systems.  "Security camera registration and monitoring is a community-based crime prevention opportunity and investigative tool that enlists the help of residents and can help prevent crime on three levels. Residential video surveillance cameras can deter criminals from entering the area, can prevent crimes from occurring and help solve crimes by providing valuable evidence to the police."[85]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa due to the high crime rate CCTV surveillance is widely prevalent but the country has been slow to implement the latest technology e.g. the first IP camera was released in 1996 by Axis Communications but IP cameras didn't arrive in South Africa till 2008.[86] In order to regulate the number of suppliers in 2001 the Private Security Industry Regulation Act was passed requiring all security companies to be registered with the Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority (PSIRA).[87]

text: Latin America[edit]

text: In Latin America, the CCTV market is growing rapidly with the increase of property crime.[88]

text: Video surveillance and terrorism[edit]

text: Material collected by surveillance cameras has been used as a tool in post-event forensics to identify tactics, techniques and perpetrators of terrorist attacks. Furthermore, there are various projects − such as INDECT − that aim to detect suspicious behaviours of individuals and crowds.[89] It has been argued that terrorists won't be deterred by cameras, that terror attacks aren't really the subject of the current use of video surveillance and that terrorists might even see it as an extra channel for propaganda and publication of their acts.[90][91] In Germany calls for extended video surveillance by the country's main political parties, SPD, CDU and CSU have been dismissed as "little more than a placebo for a subjective feeling of security".[92]

text: Privacy[edit]

text: Many civil liberties campaign groups, academics and consultants have published research papers into CCTV systems. Opponents of CCTV point out the loss of privacy of people under surveillance, and the negative impact of surveillance on civil liberties. Furthermore, they argue that CCTV displaces crime, rather than reducing it. Critics often dub CCTV as "Big Brother surveillance", a reference to George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, which featured a two-way telescreen in every home through which The Party would monitor the populace.

text: Proponents of CCTV cameras argue that cameras are effective at deterring and solving crime, and that appropriate regulation and legal restrictions on surveillance of public spaces can provide sufficient protections so that an individual's right to privacy can reasonably be weighed against the benefits of surveillance.[93][94][95] However, anti-surveillance activists have held that there is a right to privacy in public areas. Furthermore, while it is true that there may be scenarios wherein a person's right to public privacy can be both reasonably and justifiably compromised, some scholars have argued that such situations are so rare as to not sufficiently warrant the frequent compromising of public privacy rights that occurs in regions with widespread CCTV surveillance. For example, in her book Setting the Watch: Privacy and the Ethics of CCTV Surveillance, Beatrice von Silva-Tarouca Larsen argues that CCTV surveillance is ethically permissible only in "certain restrictively defined situations", such as when a specific location has a "comprehensively documented and significant criminal threat".[96] Her central reasoning is that widespread CCTV surveillance violates citizens' rights to privacy and anonymity within the public sphere by jeopardizing both their liberty and dignity. She concludes that CCTV surveillance should therefore be reserved for specific circumstances in which there are clear and reasonably demonstrated benefits to its implementation and few ethical compromises.

text: In the United States, the Constitution does not explicitly include the right to privacy although the Supreme Court has said several of the amendments to the Constitution implicitly grant this right.[97] Access to video surveillance recordings may require a judge's writ, which is readily available.[98] However, there is little legislation and regulation specific to video surveillance.[99][100]

text: All countries in the European Union are signatories to the European Convention on Human Rights which protects individual rights including the right to privacy. The EU's Data Protection Directive regulates access to personal data including CCTV recordings.[101] This directive is translated into the national law of each country within the European Union.

text: In the United Kingdom the Data Protection Act 1998 imposes legal restrictions on the uses of CCTV recordings and mandates the registration of CCTV systems with the Data Protection Agency. In 2004, the successor to the Data Protection Agency, the Information Commissioner's Office clarified that this required registration of all CCTV systems with the Commissioner, and prompt deletion of archived recordings. However, subsequent case law (Durant vs. FSA) limited the scope of the protection provided by this law, and not all CCTV systems are currently regulated.[102] Nonetheless, private sector personnel in the UK who operate or monitor CCTV devices or systems are considered security guards and have been made subject to state licensing.

text: A 2007 report by the UK Information Commissioner's Office, highlighted the need for the public to be made more aware of the growing use of surveillance and the potential impact on civil liberties.[103][104] In the same year, a campaign group claimed the majority of CCTV cameras in the UK are operated illegally or are in breach of privacy guidelines.[105] In response, the Information Commissioner's Office rebutted the claim and added that any reported abuses of the Data Protection Act are swiftly investigated.[105] Even if there are some concerns arising from the use of CCTV such as involving privacy,[106] more commercial establishments are still installing CCTV systems in the UK.

text: In 2012, the UK government enacted the Protection of Freedoms Act which includes several provisions related to controlling and restricting the collection, storage, retention, and use of information about individuals. Under this Act, the Home Office published a code of practice in 2013 for the use of surveillance cameras by government and local authorities. The aim of the code is to help ensure their use is "characterised as surveillance by consent, and such consent on the part of the community must be informed consent and not assumed by a system operator. Surveillance by consent should be regarded as analogous to policing by consent."[107]

text: In Canada, the use of video surveillance has grown very rapidly. In Ontario, both the municipal and provincial versions of the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act outline very specific guidelines that control how images and information can be gathered by this method and or released.[108]

text: In Sweden, the use of CCTV in public spaces is nationally regulated; requiring permits for any operator (incl. Swedish Police Authority) to install CCTV in public spaces. In an opinion poll commissioned by Lund University in August 2017, the general public of Sweden were asked to choose one measure that would ensure their need for privacy when subject to CCTV-operation in public spaces. 43% favored regulation in the form of clear routines for managing, storing and distributing image material generated from surveillance cameras, 39% favored regulation in the form of clear signage informing that camera surveillance in public spaces is present, 2% favored regulation in the form of having permits restricting the use of surveillance cameras during certain times of day/week, 10% favored regulation in the form of having restrictive policies for issuing permits for surveillance cameras in public spaces. 6% were unsure or did not know.[109]

text: Technological developments[edit]

text: Computer-controlled analytics and identification[edit]

text: Computer-controlled cameras can identify, track, and categorize objects in their field of view.[citation needed]

text: Video content analysis (VCA) is the capability of automatically analyzing video to detect and determine temporal events not based on a single image. As such, it can be seen as the automated equivalent of the biological visual cortex.

text: A system using VCA can recognize changes in the environment and even identify and compare objects in the database using size, speed, and sometimes colour. The camera's actions can be programmed based on what it is "seeing". For example; an alarm can be issued if an object has moved in a certain area, or if a painting is missing from a wall, or if a smoke or fire is detected, or if running people are detected, or if fallen people are detected and if someone has spray painted the lens, as well as video loss, lens cover, defocus and other so called camera tampering events.[citation needed]

text: VCA analytics can also be used to detect unusual patterns in an environment. The system can be set to detect anomalies in a crowd, for instance a person moving in the opposite direction in airports where passengers are supposed to walk only in one direction out of a plane or in a subway where people are not supposed to exit through the entrances.[110]

text: VCA can track people on a map by calculating their position from the images. It is then possible to link many cameras and track a person through an entire building or area. This can allow a person to be followed without having to analyze many hours of film. Currently the cameras have difficulty identifying individuals from video alone, but if connected to a key-card system, identities can be established and displayed as a tag over their heads on the video.[citation needed]

text: There is also a significant difference in where the VCA technology is placed, either the data is being processed within the cameras (on the edge) or by a centralized server. Both technologies have their pros and cons.[111]

text: A facial recognition system is a computer application for automatically identifying or verifying a person from a digital image or a video frame from a video source. One of the ways to do this is by comparing selected facial features from the image and a facial database.[citation needed]

text: The combination of CCTV and facial recognition has been tried as a form of mass surveillance, but has been ineffective because of the low discriminating power of facial recognition technology and the very high number of false positives generated. This type of system has been proposed to compare faces at airports and seaports with those of suspected terrorists or other undesirable entrants.[citation needed]

text: Computerized monitoring of CCTV images is under development, so that a human CCTV operator does not have to endlessly look at all the screens, allowing an operator to observe many more CCTV cameras.[citation needed] These systems do not observe people directly. Insta Types of body-movement behavior, or particular types of clothing or baggage.

text: To many, the development of CCTV in public areas, linked to computer databases of people's pictures and identity, presents a serious breach of civil liberties. Conservative critics fear the possibility that one would no longer have anonymity in public places.[112] Demonstrations or assemblies in public places could be affected as the state would be able to collate lists of those leading them, taking part, or even just talking with protesters in the street.

text: Comparatively harmless are people counter systems. They use CCTV equipment as front end eyes of devices which perform shape recognition technology in order to identify objects as human beings and count people passing pre-defined areas.

text: Retention, storage and preservation[edit]

text: Most CCTV systems may record and store digital video and images to a digital video recorder (DVR) or, in the case of IP cameras, directly to a server, either on-site or offsite.[citation needed][113]

text: There is a cost in the retention of the images produced by CCTV systems. The amount and quality of data stored on storage media is subject to compression ratios, images stored per second, image size and is effected by the retention period of the videos or images.[114] DVRs store images in a variety of proprietary file formats. Recordings may be retained for a preset amount of time and then automatically archived, overwritten or deleted, the period being determined by the organisation that generated them.

text: Closed-circuit digital photography (CCDP)[115][edit]

text: Closed-circuit digital photography (CCDP) is more suited for capturing and saving recorded high-resolution photographs, whereas closed-circuit television (CCTV) is more suitable for live-monitoring purposes.[citation needed]

text: However, an important feature of some CCTV systems is the ability to take high resolution images of the camera scene, e.g. on a time lapse or motion-detection basis. Images taken with a digital still camera often have higher resolution than those taken with some video cameras. Increasingly, low-cost high-resolution digital still cameras can also be used for CCTV purposes.[citation needed]

text: Images may be monitored remotely when the computer is connected to a network.[citation needed]

text: IP cameras[edit]

text: A growing branch in CCTV is internet protocol cameras (IP cameras). It is estimated that 2014 was the first year that IP cameras outsold analog cameras.[116] IP cameras use the Internet Protocol (IP) used by most Local Area Networks (LANs) to transmit video across data networks in digital form. IP can optionally be transmitted across the public internet, allowing users to view their cameras through any internet connection available through a computer or a phone, this is considered remote access. For professional or public infrastructure security applications, IP video is restricted to within a private network or VPN,[117] or can be recorded onto a remote server.

text: Networking CCTV cameras[edit]

text: The city of Chicago operates a networked video surveillance system which combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations, housing projects etc.[118] Even homeowners are able to contribute footage. It is estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras.[119]

text: The system is used by Chicago's Office of Emergency Management in case of an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for later usage in order to provide possible evidence in criminal cases.[120]

text: New York City has a similar network called the Domain Awareness System.

text: London also has a network of CCTV systems that allows multiple authorities to view and control CCTV cameras in real time. The system allows authorities including the Metropolitan Police Service, Transport for London and a number of London boroughs to share CCTV images between them. It uses a network protocol called Television Network Protocol to allow access to many more cameras than each individual system owner could afford to run and maintain.[citation needed]

text: The Glynn County Police Department uses a wireless mesh-networked system of portable battery-powered tripods for live megapixel video surveillance and central monitoring of tactical police situations. The systems can be used either on a stand-alone basis with secure communications to nearby police laptops, or within a larger mesh system with multiple tripods feeding video back to the command vehicle via wireless, and to police headquarters via 3G.[citation needed]

text: Integrated systems[edit]

text: Integrated systems allow different security systems, like CCTV, access control, intruder alarms and intercoms to operate together.  For example, when an intruder alarm is activated, CCTV cameras covering the intrusion area are recorded at a higher frame rate and transmitted to an Alarm Receiving Centre.

text: Wireless security cameras[edit]

text: Many consumers are turning to wireless security cameras for home surveillance. Wireless cameras do not require a video cable for video/audio transmission, simply a cable for power. Wireless cameras are also easy and inexpensive to install, but lack the reliability of hard-wired cameras.[121] Previous generations of wireless security cameras relied on analog technology; modern wireless cameras use digital technology which delivers crisper audio, sharper video, and a secure and interference-free signal.[122]

text: Talking CCTV[edit]

text: In Wiltshire, UK, 2003, a pilot scheme for what is now known as "Talking CCTV" was put into action; allowing operators of CCTV cameras to order offenders to stop what they were doing, ranging from ordering subjects to pick up their rubbish and put it in a bin to ordering groups of vandals to disperse. In 2005 Ray Mallon, the mayor and former senior police officer of Middlesbrough implemented "Talking CCTV" in his area.[123]

text: Other towns have had such cameras installed.  In 2007 several of the devices were installed in Bridlington town centre, East Riding of Yorkshire.[124]

text: Countermeasures[edit]

text: Due to the widespread implementation of surveillance cameras, glasses are being built which can defeat CCTV cameras. In December 2016 a form of anti-CCTV and facial recognition sunglasses called 'reflectacles' were invented by a custom-spectacle-craftsmen based in Chicago named Scott Urban.[125] They reflect infrared and, optionally, visible light which makes the users face a white blur to cameras. The project easily surpassed its funding goal of $28,000 and reflectacles will be commercially available by June 2017.[126]

text: CCTV camera vandalism[edit]

text: Unless physically protected, CCTV cameras have been found to be vulnerable against a variety of (mostly illegal) tactics:[citation needed]

text:
Some people will deliberately destroy cameras. Some cameras can come with dust-tight, pressurized, explosion proof, and bullet-resistant housings.
Spraying substances over the lens can make the image too blurry to view.
Lasers can blind or damage them. However, since most lasers are monochromatic, color filters can reduce the effect of laser pointers. But filters also impair image quality and overall light sensitivity of cameras (see laser safety article for details on issues with filters). Also, complete protection from lasers of any wavelength would require use of completely black filters, rendering the camera useless.

text: Cost[edit]

text: The security camera installation cost in Los Angeles, United States ranges from US$300 to US$3,500. On average, however, the cost can be anywhere from US$893 – US$2,267. The price will go up depending on specific requirements or the extent of the security that will be required.

text: Factors affecting security camera installation cost[edit]

text: Among other factors, the specific type of camera being used has the most significant impact on its cost. The average cost of two digital cameras packaged with an LCD monitor is around US$450. Different brands can also have different prices. The type of technology used also has an impact of security camera installation cost. Wireless camera systems are generally more expensive than their wired counterparts.

text: The specific type of software that is being used also has a role to play on its price. On average, professional level software is offered at US$75, with some of them requiring annual fees for membership. Network attached storage or DVR, used for storing recorded video, will also be part of the cost. On average, that can cost about US$499. This will depend on the storage capacity and other features of the device chosen by the user.


document_title: Keylor Navas

question_text: who is the starting goalie for real madrid

text: Keylor Navas

text: Club career

text: Saprissa

text: Born in San Isidro de El General, Navas made his professional debut with Deportivo Saprissa on 6 November 2005, in a league match against Asociación Deportiva Carmelita.[3] He was the first-choice keeper in his two final seasons with the club, winning six national championships and the CONCACAF Champions' Cup in 2005.[4]

text: Albacete

text: In July 2010, Navas signed with Albacete Balompié of the Segunda División in Spain exactly 20 years after countryman Luis Conejo, who occupied the same position.[5] He played in 36 games out of 42 during his first season, but his team suffered relegation after finishing in last position.

text: Levante

text: In the 2011–12 campaign, Navas reached La Liga, being loaned to Levante UD for a year.[6] He made his debut in the competition on 13 May 2012 in the last round, playing in a 3–0 home win against Athletic Bilbao that confirmed the club's first ever qualification for the UEFA Europa League,[7] and joined the Valencian club on a three-year contract  in July of that year.[8] Despite initially being back-up to Gustavo Munúa,[9] Navas was the first-choice goalkeeper for Levante in the 2013–14 season, and was nominated as the league's best goalkeeper alongside Thibaut Courtois of Atlético Madrid and Willy Caballero of Málaga CF,[10] going on to win the prize.[11] In March 2014, he was La Liga Player of the Month, the first goalkeeper to win the accolade.[12] He finished the season as the goalkeeper with the most saves (267) in La Liga,[13] finishing fourth in the Zamora Trophy conceding 39 goals in 36 games despite playing for a 'lower ranked' team.[14]

text: Real Madrid

text: On 3 August 2014, Real Madrid triggered Navas' €10 million buyout clause,[15] and he signed a six-year contract with the club.[16] His first competitive call-up was on 12 August, sitting on the bench as Iker Casillas played in the 2014 UEFA Super Cup, which Real Madrid won 2–0 against Sevilla at the Cardiff City Stadium.[17] Navas was given his debut for the club on 23 September, in a 5–1 victory over Elche at the Santiago Bernabéu.[18] On 20 December, he was on the bench as his team won the Club World Cup, defeating Club Atletico San Lorenzo in the final in Morocco.[19] His performances for Levante in the previous La Liga season and Costa Rica in the 2014 World Cup led him win Player of the Year at the 2014 CONCACAF Awards,[20] becoming the first Costa Rican and first goalkeeper to do so.

text: With the departure of Casillas from Real Madrid, Navas inherited his number 1 shirt for the 2015–16 La Liga season.[21] Madrid agreed to transfer Navas to Manchester United in part-exchange for David de Gea on 31 August 2015, but the deal collapsed because the documents were not submitted to FIFA before the Spanish transfer deadline.[22]

text: Madrid thrashed Real Betis in their home opener by a score of 5–0 with a fine performance from Navas making several saves as well as stopping a penalty.[23] He was a regular starter when the team won the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League. He set a new record for Real Madrid in the UEFA Champions League by not conceding a single goal in his first 8 appearances; 6 of these were in the 2015–16 season. He also usurped Edwin van der Sar to reach the second spot in clean sheets behind Jens Lehmann in the all-time list. He was the most consistent keeper in the 2015–16 season conceding only 3 goals in 11 appearances, keeping 9 clean sheets.[24]

text: He was the starting goalkeeper when Madrid won the 2016–17 La Liga[25][26] and the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League.[27] On 29 January 2017 after the 3-0 win at home to Real Sociedad in La Liga, Navas became the first player from Costa Rica to reach 100 La Liga appearances.[28] His performances during the double trophy winning season led him to win the Player of the Year for the second time at the 2017 CONCACAF Awards.[29]

text: Navas made his 100th appearance for Madrid during the 2-0 second leg home win over Barcelona.[30] During the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League, he started eleven games, when Madrid won their third consecutive and 13th overall Champions League title beating Liverpool 3-1 in the final.[31] The win against Liverpool saw Navas claim his 100th victory for Madrid in only 141 appearances.[32]

text: International career

text: Navas was part of the Costa Rican squad that played in the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship held in Finland. He was called up for the full national team for the first time in August 2006, to play a friendly tournament in Europe against Austria and Switzerland. Navas gained his first cap on 11 October 2008,  a 4–1 away victory over Suriname in the third round of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which qualified the team into the next stage.[33] Four days later at the Estadio Ricardo Saprissa, he kept his first international clean sheet in a 2–0 victory over Haiti.[34] The team eventually reached the intercontinental play-offs for the tournament, losing narrowly to Uruguay.[35]

text: Navas appeared with Los Ticos in two CONCACAF Gold Cup competitions, being named the best goalkeeper in the 2009 edition as he helped his country reach the semi-finals.[36] He returned to help them to the quarter-finals two years later, but missed the 2013 tournament through injury, suffering the same fate again in 2015.[37]

text: 2014 World Cup

text: Navas made his debut in the FIFA World Cup on 14 June 2014, appearing in a 3–1 group stage win against Uruguay in Fortaleza,[38] and started the other two group games only conceding a single goal as Costa Rica qualified for the knockout stages as group winners[39] for the very first time.

text: On 29 June, in the round of 16 match against Greece, Navas was named man of the match after several outstanding[according to whom?] saves in normal time and a save from Theofanis Gekas' kick during the penalty shootout, which led to Costa Rica reaching the quarter-finals for the first time ever.[40] He ended the tournament with three clean sheets from five matches, as the country was knocked out by the Netherlands after a penalty shootout,[41] where he was named man of the match for the third time.[2] He was also one of three nominees for the Golden Glove Award, losing out to Manuel Neuer of Germany.[42]

text: 2018 World Cup

text: In May 2018, Navas was named in the final squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[43] He started all three group games making 10 saves and conceding 5 goals[44], unable to guide Costa Rica to a repeat of their exploits at the 2014 World Cup.

text: Career statistics

text: Club

text:
Club

Season

League

Cup1

Continental

Total

Division
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals

Deportivo Saprissa

2008–09

Primera División

20
0
5
0
0
0
25
0

2009–10

Primera División

23
0
4
0
0
0
27
0

Total

43
0
9
0
0
0
52
0

Albacete

2010–11

Segunda División

36
0
0
0
0
0
36
0

Levante

2011–12

La Liga

1
0
5
0
0
0
6
0

2012–13

La Liga

9
0
4
0
12
0
25
0

2013–14

La Liga

37
0
2
0
0
0
39
0

Total

47
0
11
0
12
0
70
0

Real Madrid

2014–15

La Liga

6
0
3
0
2
0
11
0

2015–16

La Liga

34
0
0
0
11
0
45
0

2016–17

La Liga

27
0
2
0
12
0
41
0

2017–18

La Liga

27
0
6
0
11
0
44
0

Total

94
0
11
0
36
0
141
0

Career total

220
0
31
0
48
0
299
0

tag: table

text: 1 Includes Supercopa de España, UEFA Super Cup and FIFA Club World Cup matches.

text: International

text:
Costa Rica

Year
Apps
Goals

2008
2
0

2009
13
0

2010
5
0

2011
11
0

2012
10
0

2013
8
0

2014
10
0

2015
4
0

2016
5
0

2017
7
0

2018
8
0

Total
83
0

text: Honours

text: Real Madrid

text:
La Liga: 2016–17
Supercopa de España: 2017
UEFA Champions League: 2015–16[24], 2016–17[27], 2017–18[31]
UEFA Super Cup: 2014[17], 2017
FIFA Club World Cup: 2014,[19] 2016[48], 2017[49]

text: Individual

text:
CONCACAF Gold Cup Best Goalkeeper: 2009[36]
CONCACAF Gold Cup All-Tournament Team: 2009[36]
La Liga Player of the Month: March 2014[12]
LFP Awards Best Goalkeeper: 2013–14[11]
CONCACAF Player of the Year: 2014, 2017
FIFPro World XI 4th team: 2015, 2016, 2017[50][51][52]
Trofeo EFE: 2016[53]
CONCACAF Goalkeeper of the Year: 2016, 2017[54]
Facebook FA La Liga Best Goalkeeper: 2016[55]
UEFA Champions League Squad of the Season: 2017–18[56]

text: Personal life

text: Navas is a Christian. He spoke about his faith saying, "God for me comes first. Before every game I kneel, I open my arms and pray ... My favourite passage of the Bible is Galatians 1:10 which says: "If I were still trying to please man, I would not be a servant of Christ."[57][58] On 3 December 2014,  Navas announced that he had obtained Spanish citizenship.[59][60]

text: A documentary film, “Hombre de Fe” (Man of Faith), based on the life of Navas was released on 28 December 2017.[61]

text: Notes

text: Jump up ^ In isolation, Navas and Gamboa are pronounced [ˈnaβas] and [ɡamˈbo.a] respectively.


document_title: Set It Off (film)

question_text: where did stoney go at the end of set it off

text: Set It Off (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Francesca "Frankie" Sutton is a Los Angeles bank teller who witnesses a robbery. Although she had no prior knowledge of the robbery, the bank fires Frankie after the police uncover a connection between her and one of the three robbers. Frankie goes to work at Luther's Janitorial Services with her three best friends, Lida "Stoney" Newsome, Cleopatra "Cleo" Sims, and Tisean "T.T." Williams. Luther treats them with disrespect and pays them paltry wages. Cleo states they should rob a bank themselves. Frankie agrees, but Stoney and T.T. are reluctant. However, when Stoney's younger brother is gunned down by the police in a case of mistaken identity and T.T.'s son is taken away from her by Child Protective Services because she cannot afford to take care of him, they too now have the motivation to join the robbery.

text: The four women embark on a series of bank robberies, which are investigated by LAPD detective Strode. He suspects that Cleo (because of her prior convictions), Frankie (because of her inadvertent connection to the earlier robbery) and Stoney (because of her brother's death) are involved. But his superior refuses to allow him to bring them in for questioning because he doesn't feel the evidence is sufficient. The four women stash the money in an air vent at one of their work sites. However, Cleo, Frankie, and T.T. show up for work one day and realize that their boss, Luther has discovered the money and fled. While Stoney attends a banking event with her lover Keith, the three women track Luther to a motel where he is sleeping with a prostitute. When Luther pulls a gun on Cleo, T.T. kills him. The next day Detective Strode takes Cleo to the police station to participate in a lineup. A glare from Cleo intimidates the prostitute into silence. Frankie and Cleo persuade T.T. and Stoney that they need to rob another bank and leave town the next day.

text: The women rob the bank where Keith, Stoney's lover, works. Strode and his partner try to prevent the robbery, but a bank security guard shoots T.T. A shootout ensues as Stoney shoots the guard, and an enraged Cleo opens fire on the detectives. T.T. dies in Stoney's arms en route to the hospital. The three remaining women decide to split up and meet up later.

text: The police find Cleo who proceeds to lead them on a high speed chase. After her car is shot up by police, Cleo leaps from her car in one final battle for her dignity, firing her gun, and is shot down by the police. Frankie is found a short time later. Strode tries to get her to surrender, but when she runs away, she is shot in the back and killed. Stoney tearfully watches this from a passing bus. Strode sees her from a distance but lets her go, realizing he was the reason she and her friends did what they did.

text: In Mexico, Stoney calls Keith to assure him that she is all right and thanks him. Keith hangs up the phone and smiles. Stoney is seen driving through the mountains with the stolen money from the robberies on tow.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jada Pinkett as Lida "Stoney" Newsome
Queen Latifah as Cleopatra "Cleo" Sims
Vivica A. Fox as Francesca "Frankie" Sutton
Kimberly Elise as Tisean "T.T." Williams
John C. McGinley as Detective Strode
Blair Underwood as Keith Weston
Ella Joyce as Detective Waller
Charlie Robinson as Nate Andrews
Dr. Dre as Black Sam
WC as Darnell (Bank robber)
Charles Walker as Captain Fredricks
Mark Thompson as TV Anchor
F. Gary Gray as Guy driving low-rider
Geoff Callan as Nigel
Natalie Desselle as Tanika
Chaz Lamar Shepard as Stevie Newsome
Thomas Jefferson Byrd as Luther
Samuel Monroe Jr. as Lorenz

text: Production[edit]

text: Takashi Bufford said that he wrote the script for Pinkett Smith and Queen Latifah in mind even though he had not yet met them. The script was offered to New Line three times before finally being accepted, and the studio filled in more about why the female leads turn to bank robbery in a way that wasn't in the original script.[3]

text: Critical reception and box office[edit]

text: Set It Off received generally positive reviews from critics and audiences.[2] On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an overall 63% approval rating based on 24 reviews, with a rating average of 6.1 out of 10. The site's consensus reads: "It may not boast an original plot, but Set It Off is a satisfying, socially conscious heist film thanks largely to fine performances from its leads."[4] Roger Ebert stated that Set It Off is "a lot more" than a thriller about four black women who rob banks. Comparing it to Waiting to Exhale, but "with a strong jolt of reality," he said, "It creates a portrait of the lives of these women that's so observant and informed." He gave the film three and a half stars, and added, "The movie surprised and moved me: I expected a routine action picture and was amazed how much I started to care about the characters."[5]

text: Stephen Holden of The New York Times compared Set It Off to Thelma & Louise, stating, "In formulaic Hollywood terms, Set It Off might be described as Thelma and Louise Ride Shotgun in the Hood While Waiting to Exhale. A pop psychologist might translate the story into a fable called Women Who Rob Banks and the Society That Hates Them." He added that among "the long list of Hollywood heist movies that make you root for its criminals to steal a million dollars and live happily ever after, F. Gary Gray's film Set It Off is one of the most poignantly impassioned," and that "[i]f this messy roller coaster of a film often seems to be going in several directions at once, it never for a second loses empathy" for the female robbers.[6]

text: James Berardinelli said that if Set It Off owes any debt to films, those films are Thelma & Louise and Dead Presidents, rather than Waiting to Exhale. He stated that "[t]here's a freshness and energy in the way director F. Gary Gray attacks this familiar material that keeps Set It Off entertaining, even during its weakest moments" and that "[t]he concept of four black action heroines makes for a welcome change in a genre that is dominated by: (a) rugged white males with a perpetual five o'clock shadow, (b) rugged white males who speak English with an accent, and (c) rugged white males with the acting ability of a fence post." Berardinelli added that although "[t]he film doesn't get off to a promising start" and "[t]he first half-hour, which details the various characters' motives for becoming involved in a bank robbery, is unevenly scripted," and that some aspects of the plot are contrived, "[o]nce the setup is complete, however, things shift into high gear. The remainder of the film, which includes several high-adrenaline action sequences and some slower, more dramatic moments, is smoothly-crafted. There are occasional missteps, such as an out-of-place Godfather parody, but, in general, Set It Off manages to rise above these."[7]

text: On a budget of $9 million and R-rated, Set It Off grossed $36,461,139 in the U.S. and Canada, $5,129,747 internationally, and $41,590,886 worldwide.[1] Tribute magazine stated that it is New Line Cinema's highest-grossing film of 1996, and that it won Gray a Black Film Award for Best Director, and the Special Jury Prize at the Cognac Film Festival.[2]

text: Music[edit]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Set It Off: Music From the New Line Cinema Motion Picture

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
September 24, 1996

Recorded
1995–1996

Genre
Hip hop
R&B

Length
61:23

Label
East West Records

Producer
Various artists

Various artists chronology

Friday (soundtrack)
(1995)Friday (soundtrack)1995
Set It Off (soundtrack)
(1996)
Next Friday (soundtrack)
(1999)Next Friday (soundtrack)1999

Singles from Set It Off: Music From the New Line Cinema Motion Picture

"Missing You"
Released: August 6, 1996
"Don't Let Go (Love)"
Released: October 22, 1996
"Days of Our Livez"
Released: September 24, 1996
"Let It Go"
Released: January 7, 1997

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

Allmusic
 link

text: The soundtrack was released on September 24, 1996 by East West Records and featured production from several of hip hop and R&B's top producers such as Organized Noize, DJ U-Neek and DJ Rectangle. The soundtrack was a huge success making it to number four on the Billboard 200 and number three on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and featured seven charting singles "Set It Off", "Don't Let Go (Love)", "Days of Our Livez", "Angel", "Come On", "Let It Go" and "Missing You". All of the singles had music videos made for them. The track "The Heist" by Da 5 Footaz also had a music video made, even though it was not released as a single. On November 12, 1996 the album was certified platinum by the RIAA.

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Artist/Performer
Length

1.
"Set It Off"
Ivan Martias / Andrea Martin / Organized Noize /Dana Owens / Steve Standard
Organized Noize featuring Queen Latifah
5:02

2.
"Missing You"
Gordon Chambers / Barry J. Eastmond
Brandy, Tamia, Gladys Knight & Chaka Khan
4:23

3.
"Don't Let Go (Love)"
Ivan Martias / Andrea Martin / Organized Noize
En Vogue
4:51

4.
"Days of Our Livez"
Bone Thugs-N-Harmony
Bone Thugs-n-Harmony
5:49

5.
"Sex Is on My Mind"
S. Brown
Blulight
4:40

6.
"Live to Regret"
Trevor Smith / George Spivey
Busta Rhymes
4:18

7.
"Angel"
Carolyn Franklin / Sonny Saunders
Simply Red
3:39

8.
"Name Callin' (Foxy Brown Diss)"
Dana Owens / Nichelle Strong
Queen Latifah
3:50

9.
"Angelic Wars"
Robert Barnett / Fred Bell / Willie Knighton / Organized Noize / Jamahr Williams
Goodie Mob
3:21

10.
"Come On"
Darrell "Delite" Allamby / Billy Lawrence
Billy Lawrence featuring MC Lyte
4:09

11.
"Let It Go"
Keith Crouch / Glenn McKinney / Roy Dog Pennon
Ray J
4:53

12.
"Hey Joe" (Live)
Billy Roberts
Seal
4:20

13.
"The Heist"
Jamali Cathorn / Ericka Martin / Kim Savage
Da 5 Footaz
4:04

14.
"From Yo Blind Side"

X-Man featuring H Squad
4:04

Total length:
61:23

text: "Up Against the Wind" (runtime – 4:28), sung by Lori Perri and produced by Christopher Young, is not included in the soundtrack.[8]

text:
Year
Album
Peak chart positions
Certifications

U.S.
U.S. R&B

1996
Set It Off

Released: September 24, 1996
Label: East West Records

4
3

US: Platinum

text: Score[edit]

text:
Set It Off (Original Motion Picture Score)

Film score by Christopher Young

Released
November 19, 1996

Genre
Film score

Length
10:25

Label
Varese Sarabande

Producer
Christopher Young

Christopher Young film scores chronology

Unforgettable
(1996)Unforgettable1996
Set It Off
(1996)
Head Above Water
(1996)Head Above Water1996

text: Varese Sarabande issued an album of Christopher Young's score for the film, including Lori Perri's "Up Against The Wind" on November 19, 1996.

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Artist/Performer
Length

1.
"Up Against The Wind"
Lori Perri
3:29

2.
"Set It Off"

4:08

3.
"Hell Blowin Hard"

2:19

4.
"Buttercrunch"

2:20

5.
"Rota Rooter"

4:03

6.
"Four-One"

1:57

7.
"Squeezebox"

1:38

8.
"Balboa Blood"

2:32

9.
"Toupee Souffle"

2:23

10.
"Q. For A Day"

2:58

11.
"Flame On Fire"

2:10

12.
"Up Against The Wind (Reprise)"
Lori Perri
4:28

Total length:
10:25

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: 1997 Acapulco Black Film Festival

text: Best Director: F. Gary Gray (won)

text: 1996 Independent Spirit Awards

text: Best Supporting Female: Queen Latifah (nominated)

text: 1997 NAACP Image Awards

text:
Outstanding Lead Actress in a Motion Picture: Queen Latifah and Jada Pinkett Smith (nominated)
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture: Blair Underwood (nominated)