document_title: Department of Social Development (South Africa)

question_text: when did social grant started in south africa

text: South African Social Security Agency[edit]

text: The South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) is a national agency of the government created in April 2005 in order to distribute social grants on behalf of the Department of Social Development. The DSD has an oversight role over the Agency but no operational control over it.[4] It was also designed to reallocate the function of social security from South Africa's provinces to the national sphere of government and reports to the Department of Social Development (DSD). Its current chief executive officer is Virginia Peterson.[citation needed] SASSA is a public entity in terms of Schedule 3A of the Public Finance Management Act.[5]

text: The key functions of the parastatal are related to the administration and payment of social grants: the processing of applications, verification and approval of applications, disbursement and payment of grants to eligible beneficiaries, quality assurance, and fraud prevention and detection.[5]

text: South Africa's social welfare recipients have grown from 3.8 million in April 2001 to 11 million in March 2006,[6] and 17 million in 2017.[7]

text: Types of grants[edit]

text: Social assistance is provided in the form of:

text:
a child support grant;
older person's grant (a pension);
disability grant;
war veteran’s grant;
care dependency grant, for caring for a child with severe disability;
foster child grant;
grant-in-aid, for those who need a full-time caregiver; and/or
social relief of distress, a temporary measure for people in dire need, in the form of parcels or vouchers.[8]

text: Previously, all nine (9) provincial governments were responsible for the administration of social grants, but this created serious social delivery challenges especially the delay in the approval and payments of grants, possible fraud and corruption in the system, inhumane pay points facilities and huge administration costs in delivering social grants.[citation needed]

text: In 2015, of the R155.3 billion given in social welfare, R53.5 billion went to pensioners; R47,8 billion to child support grants; R20.2 billion to disability grants; and R8.5 billion for other grants; with the remainder going toward management and administration.[8]

text: Operation[edit]

text: In January 2012, Cash Paymaster Services (CPS), a subsidiary of Net1 UEPS Technologies, was awarded a five-year, R10 billion tender to distribute social grants on behalf of SASSA from February 2012.[8][9] A rival bidder, AllPay, challenged the procurement process in court; in 2014 the Constitutional Court found that irregular processes had been followed, and consequently declared the tender invalid, but suspended the order in order not to interrupt grant payments, and to allow SASSA an opportunity to initiate a new tender process.[10][11]

text: Each month, the National Treasury deposits the total amount to be paid out into a Nedbank trust account. Interest earned during this period goes to the state. All beneficiary accounts are held at Grindrod Bank.[8]

text: A grant recipient can withdraw their grant from any SASSA paypoint across the country, which carries no withdrawal charge, and which Net1 CEO Serge Belamont claims is more secure because of the biometric security checks on fingerprints; or from designated retailers such as Pick n Pay, which work with EasyPay, another company owned by Net1, to allow these withdrawals; or from ATMs.[8]

text: Moneyline, another Net1 company, provides loans to grant recipients. Umoya Manje, also another company owned by Net1, allows grant beneficiaries to buy cellphone airtime on credit.[8]

text: Grants crisis[edit]

text: In December 2014, a ministerial task team concluded that SASSA itself should take over the paying out of grants.[12] In 2015, SASSA issued a new tender but did not award it,[8] opting instead to insource the disbursement of grants by 2017.[7]

text: In the 2015/2016 financial year, SASSA recorded additional, irregular expenditure on the CPS contract for the re-registration of grant beneficiaries because legal requirements had been circumvented.[13]

text: The then Finance Minister, Pravin Gordhan advised the Minister of Social Development Bathabile Dlamini to award a new contract to commercial South African banks and the South African Post Office (SAPO),[7] and forego biometric identification, which contract requirement disadvantaged others bidders against CPS. However, this proposal was rejected on the grounds that the biometric system had eliminated fraudulent claims amounting to R2 billion annually;[14] that further work to remove duplicate entries could save another R2 billion annually; and that SAPO did not have a banking licence, nor enough post offices to properly distribute grants.[10][13] Dlamini expressed a desire to remain with CPS until SASSA was capable to take over, reasoning that this posed the least risk of SASSA defaulting on grant payments.[11] She claimed that the process to distribute grants through SASSA was well underway, insisting that the Department was halfway through a four-phase plan which would culminate in 2019 with the handing over of the responsibility to SASSA.[12]

text: Dlamini claimed in 2017 that she had only become aware in October 2016 that SASSA was likely to be unable to take over grants payments from April 2017.[13]

text: SASSA estimated it would pay CPS about R3.5 billion annually under a renewed contract, between 52% and 59% more than it already did. SASSA later denied that it had done such estimation, and then claimed that it was a simple inflation-related adjustment, which was not true.[15][16]

text: Dlamini had been advised in October 2016 that the DSD was obliged to engage in competitive tendering, and could therefore not sign a contract with CPS; she was informed that the grants crisis was also not a justification to continue using CPS, since the emergency had been self-created; and she also received a legal opinion from senior counsel Wim Trengove that the extant CPS contract could not be legally extended since it had already been ruled invalid by the Constitutional Court.[15]

text: In December 2016, SASSA was also advised to inform the Constitutional Court of its predicament, "that it faced the highly irregular prospect of going into contract for another year with [CPS]". The Agency waited until 28 February 2017 to lodge a plea, which it immediately withdrew the next day, using a letter dated the previous day.[16]

text: In February 2017, SASSA told Parliament's social development portfolio committee it had come up short in attempts to find working solutions to pay social grants, and claimed that the only way to make social grant payments from April was to stick with the service provider whose contract had been declared invalid.[7][17]

text: SASSA's Zodwa Mvulane told Parliament at the start of March 2017 that legal complexities beyond its control had left the Agency with too little time to phase out CPS, stating that they "only had a year, from September 2015, to prepare for being a paymaster". However, SASSA only began to prepare for a post-CPS solution in December, "doing little or nothing until then"; a committee advising it had until then been ignored for years. While SASSA told Parliament it had not had enough time, it had also claimed before the Constitutional Court that it would not need CPS a year after the 2017/2018 financial year—contradicting a letter by Dlamini, sent on 2 February, that stated CPS would no longer be needed at the end of 2019, and another letter sent a week later by SASSA chief executive Thokozani Magwaza, which claimed that the contract with CPS would only last until November 2018—both longer than a year.[16]

text: The Black Sash Trust, through representation by the Centre for Applied Legal Studies, launched an application to the Constitutional Court, asking it to compel Dlamini and SASSA to take necessary measures to ensure the social grants system and its beneficiaries were protected when the CPS contract ended on 31 March.[9] On 6 March 2017, the contract with Cash Paymaster Services was renewed, and the Constitutional Court's order of invalidity with regard to that contract again suspended, for another year. The Court held that no party had “any claim to profit from the threatened invasion of people’s rights” but also understood that CPS could not be expected to deliver grants at a loss; it therefore ordered CPS to continue to deliver social grants at the same price it had contracted for in 2012.[18]

text: The Constitutional Court found that "the responsible functionaries of SASSA" had been aware from April 2016 that they could not comply with their undertaking to the Court previously that they would be able to pay social grants from 1 April 2017.[18] The Constitutional Court held Dlamini primarily responsible for the crisis,[19] with Chief Justice Mogoeng Mogoeng saying there was no explanation for the incompetence displayed by her and SASSA.[20] According to constitutional scholar Pierre de Vos, the Constitutional Court had concluded that SASSA and Dlamini could not be trusted to do their constitutionally mandated job to ensure delivery of social grants, and could not be trusted not to lie to the courts in the future.[18]

text: Between 2013 and 2017, the DSD spent R30 million on the costs of legal appeals involving SASSA.[21]

text: Unauthorised deductions[edit]

text: In 2004, the DSD amended the Social Assistance Act in order to disallow anyone other than the beneficiary to deduct money from their account.[9][13]

text: However, 10,262 complaints about deductions were made between April 2015 and March 2016, and the DSD itself claimed "for the past two to three years" to have been fighting illegal deducations from social grants.[22] Many of the unauthorised deductions were claimed by CPS to be repayment of non-existent Moneyline loans,[4][23] and sales of airtime and electricity.[22]

text: In June 2016, SASSA, the Black Sash, and the Association of Community Advice Office (ACAOSA) laid criminal charges against the directors of CPS and Grindrod Bank, claiming that the two companies were not implementing amended regulations under the Social Assistance Act, which amendments compelled companies not to deduct money from social grant beneficiary accounts for financial services.[22] The criminal charges were frozen until October, when Net1 was to receive clarity from a High Court as to regulations.[24] In a founding affidavit lodged with the North Gauteng High Court, Black Sash asked the court to ring-fence social grant accounts in order to protect grant beneficiaries from exploitation or abuse, and to prevent companies from soliciting beneficiaries around SASSA paypoints[25]—practices which Black Sash and the DSD accused Net1 and its subsidiaries of encouraging.[26]

text: Central Drug Authority[edit]

text: The Central Drug Authority (CDA) was established in 1992, under section 2 of the Prevention and Treatment of the Drug Dependency Act. Its key functions are to effect the National Drug Master Plan; advise the Minister of Social Development on matters affecting substance and drug abuse; and promote measures relating to the prevention and reduction of drug abuse.[5]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Since the 1990s, welfare services have been allocated 10% of the Department’s overall budget. According to researcher Lisa Vetten, pay increases for the Department's civil servants have been consistently higher than inflation for the past 10 years; these increases have shrunk the budget for provision of services, and have correspondingly diminished funding to the non-governmental organisation (NGO) sector. She argues underfunding has created a two-tier system of care, in which government services are considerably better resourced than NGO counterparts. Further exacerbating NGOs’ situations is the Department's late payment of their subsidies.[2]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "About the Department". Department of Social Development. 2002-10-13. Archived from the original on 2002-10-13. Retrieved 2017-05-07. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Vetten, Lisa (2018-02-08). "Dear Yonela Diko: The cure for Life Esidimeni crisis is not in Government's wholesale appropriation of NGO services". The Daily Maverick. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
Jump up ^ "Department of Social Development (National): Overview". Western Cape Government. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Maregele, Barbara (2016-03-07). "Sassa shows "contempt" for poor - Social Development". Ground Up. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Public entities and statutory bodies". Department of Social Development. 2008-09-25. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
Jump up ^ "Social development in South Africa". Brand South Africa. 2007-11-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mzekandaba, Simnikiwe (2017-02-17). "Social grants conundrum continues". ITWeb Technology News. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Spotlight on social grants: How the system works". Ground Up. 2015-10-07. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mzekandaba, Simnikiwe (2017-03-01). "SASSA fails to get affairs in order". ITWeb Technology News. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Gallens, Mahlatse (2017-02-16). "Dlamini rejects Gordhan's social grants proposal". News24. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Minister & SASSA on readiness to implement Constitutional Court ruling". Parliamentary Monitoring Group. 2017-02-22.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sassa changes its tune: No deal yet with CPS". The Citizen. 2017-03-05. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d October, Alicestine (2017-03-09). "10 things to note about the Sassa crisis". CityPress. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
Jump up ^ Ndaba, Baldwin (2015-02-15). "Gordhan, Dlamini square off on grants issue". Independent Online. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Wet, Phillip de (2014-03-05). "Minister Dlamini: Sassa crisis? That's a media invention". The M&G Online. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wet, Phillip de (2017-03-03). "A litany of lies: Sassa's greatest hits". The M&G Online. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
Jump up ^ "Sassa wants to extend illegal service provider for another year". eNCA. 2017-02-01. Retrieved 2017-05-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c de Vos, Pierre (2017-03-17). "Sassa grant crisis: In this game of thrones, can Social Development Minister Bathabile Dlamini survive?". The Daily Maverick. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
Jump up ^ Quintal, Genevieve (2017-03-17). "Dlamini responsible for social grants crisis, says Constitutional Court". Business Day Live. Archived from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
Jump up ^ Chabalala, Jeanette; Raborife, Mpho (2017-03-15). "No explanation for Sassa, Dlamini's 'incompetence' - Mogoeng". News24. Retrieved 2017-05-09.
Jump up ^ Dentlinger, Lindsay (2017-04-13). "Social Development Dept spent R30m on legal costs since 2013". Eyewitness News. Retrieved 2017-05-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Damba-Hendrik, Nombulelo (2016-06-21). "I cry every month for my money, says pensioner". Ground Up. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
Jump up ^ Maregele, Barbara (2016-03-15). "Social grants: deductions are getting out of hand, says Black Sash". Ground Up. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
Jump up ^ "SASSA criminal charges against Net1 frozen". Ground Up. 2016-06-29. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
Jump up ^ Dasnois, Alide (2016-08-15). "R4,000 taken from 89-year-old’s pension for a loan he never took out". Ground Up. Retrieved 2017-05-10.
Jump up ^ Gonstana, Mary-Anne (2016-09-09). "Mother of three left with R20 a month after illegal deductions from her social grant". Ground Up. Retrieved 2017-05-10.

text:
hide

v
t
e

 Departments of the South African Government

The Presidency

Departments

Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Arts and Culture
Basic Education
Communications
Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs
Defence and Military Veterans
Economic Development
Energy
Environmental Affairs
Finance
Health
Higher Education and Training
Home Affairs
Human Settlements
International Relations and Cooperation
Justice and Constitutional Development
Labour
Mineral Resources
Police
Public Enterprises
Public Service and Administration
Public Works
Rural Development and Land Reform
Science and Technology
Small Business Development
Social Development
Sport and Recreation
State Security
Telecommunications and Postal Services
Tourism
Trade and Industry
Transport
Water and Sanitation
Women

Separate agencies

CAA
CSIR
FPB
FIC
FSB
GCIS
GEPF
HSRC
Independent Communications Authority
Independent Police Investigative Directorate
Media Development and Diversity Agency
National Archives and Records Service
National Planning Commission
NPA
NICOC
NRF
PALAMA
PIC
Public Service Commission
RSR
SALRC
SAMSA
SAN Parks
SANRAL
SARS
Stats SA
ZADNA

text: Government departments of South AfricaGovernment agencies of South AfricaSocial security in South Africa

text: CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknownAll articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from May 2017


document_title: Georgetown, South Carolina

question_text: how far is georgetown sc from charleston sc

root

text: Georgetown, South Carolina

text: Geography[edit]

text: Georgetown is located at 33°22′3″N 79°17′38″W / 33.36750°N 79.29389°W / 33.36750; -79.29389 (33.367434, -79.293807).[5]

tag: p

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.5 square miles (19.5 km2), of which 6.9 square miles (17.9 km2) are land and 0.62 square miles (1.6 km2), or 8.06%, is water.[4]

text: Winyah Bay was formed from a submergent or drowned coastline. The original rivers had a lower baseline, but either the ocean rose or the land sank, flooding the river valleys and making a good location for a harbor.

text: U.S. Routes 17, 17A, 521, and 701 meet in the center of Georgetown. US 17 leads southwest 60 miles (97 km) to Charleston and northeast 34 miles (55 km) to Myrtle Beach, US 701 leads north 36 miles (58 km) to Conway, US 521 leads northwest 82 miles (132 km) to Sumter, and US 17A leads west 32 miles (51 km) to Jamestown.

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1850
1,628

—

1860
1,720

5.7%

1870
2,080

20.9%

1880
2,557

22.9%

1890
2,895

13.2%

1900
4,138

42.9%

1910
5,530

33.6%

1920
4,579

−17.2%

1930
5,082

11.0%

1940
5,559

9.4%

1950
6,004

8.0%

1960
12,261

104.2%

1970
10,449

−14.8%

1980
10,144

−2.9%

1990
9,517

−6.2%

2000
8,950

−6.0%

2010
9,163

2.4%

Est. 2016
9,024
[6]
−1.5%

U.S. Decennial Census[7]

tag: table

text: As of the census[1] of 2010, there were 9,163 people in Georgetown, an increase of 2.4 percent over the 2000 population of 8,950. In 2000, there were 3,411 households, and 2,305 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,368.1 people per square mile (528.4/km²). There were 3,856 housing units at an average density of 589.4 per square mile (227.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 57.03% African American (56.7 percent in 2010), 40.99% White (37.8 percent in 2010), 0.12% Native American, 0.31% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.84% from other races, and 0.66% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.88% of the population.

text: There were 3,411 households out of which 32.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.0% were married couples living together, 25.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.14.

text: In the city, the population was spread out with 28.6% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 25.2% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 81.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.1 males.

text: The median income for a household in the city was $29,424, and the median income for a family was $34,747. Males had a median income of $27,545 versus $19,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,568. About 19.9% of families and 24.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.9% of those under age 18 and 16.9% of those age 65 or over.

text: History[edit]

text: Pre-Revolution[edit]

text: Georgetown occupies a unique place in American history. Some historians[who?]claim that American history began in the town in 1526 with the earliest settlement in North America by Europeans with African slaves. It is believed that in that year the Spanish, under Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, founded a colony on Waccamaw Neck called San Miguel de Guadalupe. The colony failed for multiple reasons, including a fever epidemic and a revolt of the African slaves, who fled to join the Cofitachiqui Indians in the area. Having failed as farmers, the surviving Spanish built a ship from local cypress and oak trees and sailed to the Spice Islands in Maritime Southeast Asia.

text: After settling Charles Town in 1670, the English established trade with the Indians. Trading posts in the outlying areas quickly became settlements.

text: By 1721 the colonial government granted the English residents' petition to found a new parish, Prince George, Winyah, on the Black River. In 1734, Prince George, Winyah was divided; and the newly created Prince Frederick Parish congregation occupied the church at Black River. Prince George Parish, Winyah then encompassed the new town of Georgetown on the Sampit River.

text: In 1729, Elisha Screven laid the plan for Georgetown and developed the city in a four-by-eight block grid. The original grid city is listed as a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. It bears the original street names, lot numbers, and many of the original homes.

text: The Indian trade declined soon after Georgetown was established; and planters cultivated indigo as the cash commodity crop with rice as a secondary crop, both dependent on slave labor, primarily imported workers from Africa.[8][citation needed] Agricultural profits were so great between 1735 and 1775 that in 1757 the Winyah Indigo Society, whose members paid dues in indigo, opened and maintained the first public school for white children between Charles Town and Wilmington.

text: In the American Revolution, the father and son Georgetown planters, Thomas Lynch Sr. and Thomas Lynch Jr., signed the Declaration of Independence. During the final years of the conflict, Georgetown was the important port for supplying General Nathanael Greene's army. Francis Marion (the "Swamp Fox") led many guerrilla actions in the vicinity.

text: Antebellum period[edit]

text: Following the American Revolution, rice surpassed indigo as the staple crop. It was cultivated in the swampy lowlands along the rivers, where enslaved labor built large earthworks: the dams, gates and canals to irrigate and drain the rice fields during cultivation. Large rice plantations were established around Georgetown on its five rivers.

text: By 1840, the Georgetown District (later County) produced nearly one-half of the total rice crop of the United States, and became the largest rice-exporting port in the world. Wealth from the rice created an elite European-American planter class; they built stately plantation manor houses, bought elegant furniture, and extended generous hospitality to others of their class. Their relatively leisured lifestyle for a select few, built on the labor of thousands of slaves, lasted until 1860.[9] The profits from Georgetown's rice trade reached nearby Charleston, where a thriving mercantile economy developed. Rice also supported Charleston artisans: fine furniture makers, jewelers and silversmiths, to satisfy the tastes of the planters for refined goods. Joshua John Ward, who owned the most slaves in the US – eventually more than 1,000 slaves on several plantations, lived in Georgetown. Many of the old plantations are still standing today, including Mansfield Plantation on the banks of the Black River. Joshua Ward's main Brookgreen Plantation is now the center and namesake of the Brookgreen Gardens park.

text: The town's thriving economy long attracted settlers from elsewhere, including numerous planters and shipowners who migrated to Georgetown from Virginia. These included the Shackelford family, whose migrant ancestor John Shackelford moved to Georgetown in the eighteenth century after serving in the Virginia forces of the Continental Army. His descendants became prominent planters, lawyers, judges and Georgetown and Charleston businessmen.[10]

text: During the Civil War, a Confederate fort and two camps were located near Georgetown, by Murrells Inlet. Fort Ward[11] was in service beginning in 1861 but was abandoned and disarmed in March 1862; its exact location is unknown due to shifting sandbars and erosion. Confederate Camp Lookout and Camp Waccamaw were also located near Georgetown. Camp Waccamaw[12] was in use from 1862 until 1864; Company E, 4th SC Cavalry were located at the camp, and at least one soldier died there, probably from disease, in 1862.[13]

text: Reconstruction and post-reconstruction period[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2012)

text: Georgetown and Georgetown County suffered terribly during the Reconstruction Era, as agriculture was low nationally.[clarification needed] In addition, the rice crops of 1866–88 were failures due to lack of capital preventing adequate preparation for new crops, inclement weather, and the planters' struggle to negotiate dealing with free labor and a shortage of labor. Not only were freedmen traveling to reconstitute families, but women and children were no longer field laborers. Many freedmen families wanted to work for themselves as subsistence farmers, rather than labor for major planters. Rice continued to be grown commercially until about 1910, but never on the scale or with the profits attained before 1860.

text: By the time the Reconstruction period ended, the area's economy was shifting to harvesting and processing wood products; by 1900 there were several lumber mills in operation on the Sampit River. The largest was the Atlantic Coast Lumber Company; its mill in Georgetown was the largest lumber mill on the East Coast at the time.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: In 2012, historian Mac McAlister said that around 1905, "Georgetown reached its peak as a lumber port."[14]

text: As the twentieth century dawned, Georgetown under the leadership of Mayor William Doyle Morgan began to modernize. The city added electricity, telephone service, sewer facilities, rail connections, some paved streets and sidewalks, new banks, a thriving port, and a new public school. The US government built a handsome combination post office and customs house.

text: Like most cities, Georgetown suffered economic deprivation during the Great Depression. The Atlantic Coast Lumber Company went bankrupt early in the depression, putting almost everyone out of work. In 1936 help arrived. In that year the Southern Kraft Division of International Paper opened a mill; by 1944 it was the largest in the world.

text: A major disaster struck the area in September 1989: Hurricane Hugo struck south of Georgetown, but with extremely hard winds and an intense storm surge that damaged Georgetown along with nearby areas. As Georgetown was under Hugo's northern eyewall, it suffered winds more severe and damaging than in Charleston, which was in the hurricane's weak corridor.

text: Recent years[edit]

text: In recent years, the economy has become more diversified. A steel mill was located in the town by the Korf company of Germany in 1973. The steel mill was financed in 1993 by Bain Capital and was called Georgetown Steel, which became GST Steel Company with its sister Kansas City Bolt and Nut Company plant in Kansas City, Missouri. The company declared bankruptcy in 2001, closing the Kansas City plant, and then closing the South Carolina plant in 2003. The Georgetown plant has subsequently reopened under ownership of ArcelorMittal. Due to the influx of cheap foreign steel, the plant closed its doors again in August 2015.[15][16][17][18] On May 19, 2017, Mayor Jack Scoville announced that ArcelorMittal had agreed to sell the mill to Liberty Steel.[19] Heritage tourism has become a booming business. In addition, many retirees have chosen to settle in this area of beaches, plantations redeveloped as residential communities, and pleasant climate. On January 18, 2018, long-time Democratic City Councilman Brendon Moses Barber, Sr. was inaugurated as Mayor of Georgetown, becoming the first African American mayor of the city, but continuing Democratic leadership of the city. The City of Georgetown has never had a Republican mayor.

text: Culture[edit]

text: Religion[edit]

text: Georgetown has a number of historic churches, including Prince George Winyah Episcopal Church, the oldest religious body in Georgetown. The Hebrew Cemetery of Georgetown dates to the 1760s. The first Jewish settlers were Sephardim who had been living in London after their ancestors were expelled from Spain and Portugal. The town has one synagogue, Temple Beth Elohim.

text: Historical visits[edit]

text: Georgetown has been the destination of many prominent people throughout the nearly 277 years of the city's life. George Washington visited Clifton Plantation and addressed the townspeople in 1791. President James Monroe was entertained in 1821 at Prospect Hill (now Arcadia) on Waccamaw with a real red carpet rolled out to the river. Theodosia Burr, daughter of Aaron Burr, made her home at the Oaks Plantation (now part of Brookgreen Gardens) after her marriage to Joseph Alston in 1801; she departed from Georgetown on her ill-fated voyage in 1812. Brookgreen was also the boyhood home of one of America's most famous painters, Washington Allston. Joel Roberts Poinsett lived at White House Plantation on the Black River. After retiring from government service, Poinsett entertained President Martin Van Buren at his home. President Grover Cleveland, as guest of the Annandale Gun Club, came for duck hunting in 1894 and 1896. Bernard Baruch, America's elder statesman, entertained many notables at Hobcaw Barony, his home for many years. Among those were President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, General Mark Clark and General Omar Bradley.

text: Today, the Georgetown Historic District contains more than fifty homes, public buildings and sites which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Other sites on the National Register include Annandale Plantation, Arcadia Plantation, Battery White, Belle Isle Rice Mill Chimney, Beneventum Plantation House, Black River Plantation House, Brookgreen Gardens, Chicora Wood Plantation, Fairfield Rice Mill Chimney, Friendfield Plantation, Georgetown Light, Hobcaw Barony, Hopsewee, Keithfield Plantation, Mansfield Plantation, Milldam Rice Mill and Rice Barn, Minim Island Shell Midden (38GE46), Nightingale Hall Rice Mill Chimney, Old Market Building, Pee Dee River Rice Planters Historic District, Prince George Winyah Episcopal Church, Joseph H. Rainey House, Rural Hall Plantation House, Weehaw Rice Mill Chimney, Wicklow Hall Plantation, and Winyah Indigo School.[20]


document_title: Petroleum

question_text: what are the various hydrocarbons present in crude oil

question_tokens: what are the various hydrocarbons present in crude oil

text: Petroleum

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word petroleum comes from Greek: πέτρα (petra) for rocks and Greek: ἔλαιον (elaion) for oil. The term was found (in the spelling "petraoleum") in 10th-century Old English sources.[12] It was used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola.[13] In the 19th century, the term petroleum was often used to refer to mineral oils produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as cannel coal (and later oil shale), and refined oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the Petroleum Act 1863 onwards.

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the internal combustion engine, the rise in commercial aviation, and the importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of plastics, fertilizers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.

text: More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus.[14] Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.

text: The use of petroleum dates back to ancient China more than 2000 years ago. In I Ching, one of the earliest Chinese writings cites the use of oil in its raw state without refining was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BCE. In addition, the Chinese were the first to use petroleum as fuel as the early as the fourth century BCE.[15][16][17][18]

text: By 347 AD, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China.[19][20] Early British explorers to Myanmar documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in Yenangyaung that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production.[21] The mythological origins of the oil fields at Yenangyaung, and its hereditary monopoly control by 24 families, indicate very ancient origins.

text: Pechelbronn (Pitch fountain) is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, e.g. for medical purposes. Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century.[22]

text: In Wietze in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century. [23] Both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies.[24]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: Scottish chemist James Young noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the Riddings colliery at Alfreton, Derbyshire from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a thicker oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848 Young set up a small business refining the crude oil.

text: Young eventually succeeded, by distilling cannel coal at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.[25]

text: The production of these oils and solid paraffin wax from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at Bathgate in West Lothian and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture naphtha and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold until 1856.[26]

text: The world's first oil refinery was built in 1856 by Ignacy Łukasiewicz.[27] His achievements also included the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp (1853), the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe (1853), and the construction of the world's first modern oil well (1854).[28]

text: The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.[29] Edwin Drake's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well. Already 1858 Georg Christian Konrad Hunäus had found a significant amount of petroleum while drilling for lignite 1858 in Wietze, Germany. Wietze later provided about 80% of the German consumption in the Wilhelminian Era.[30] The production stopped in 1963, but Wietze has hosted a Petroleum Museum since 1970.[31]

text: Drake's well is probably singled out because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a major boom.[32] However, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region in 1848.[33] There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well.[34] An early commercial well was hand dug in Poland in 1853, and another in nearby Romania in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at Jasło in Poland, with a larger one opened at Ploiești in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.[35][36]

text: The first commercial oil well in Canada became operational in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario (then Canada West).[37] Businessman James Miller Williams dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground.[38] Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil.[37] Williams's well became commercially viable a year before Drake's Pennsylvania operation and could be argued to be the first commercial oil well in North America.[37] The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Advances in drilling continued into 1862 when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 metres using the spring-pole drilling method.[39] On January 16, 1862, after an explosion of natural gas Canada's first oil gusher came into production, shooting into the air at a recorded rate of 3,000 barrels per day.[40] By the end of the 19th century the Russian Empire, particularly the Branobel company in Azerbaijan, had taken the lead in production.[41]

text: Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including World War II, during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were extensively bombed.[42] The German invasion of the Soviet Union included the goal to capture the Baku oilfields, as it would provide much needed oil-supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades.[43] Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century later led to the US becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the US peaked during the 1960s, however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.

text: Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation.[44] Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities. Viability of the oil commodity is controlled by several key parameters, number of vehicles in the world competing for fuel, quantity of oil exported to the world market (Export Land Model), Net Energy Gain (economically useful energy provided minus energy consumed), political stability of oil exporting nations and ability to defend oil supply lines.

text: The top three oil producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the United States.[45] About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in Canada and extra heavy oil in Venezuela. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.

text: Composition[edit]

text: In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous and solid hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.[46]

text: An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form "natural gas condensate", often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile light crude oils.

text: The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the heavier oils and bitumens.

text: The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons, while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria.[47] The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:[48]

text:
Composition by weight

Element
Percent range

Carbon
83 to 85%

Hydrogen
10 to 14%

Nitrogen
0.1 to 2%

Oxygen
0.05 to 1.5%

Sulfur
0.05 to 6.0%

Metals
< 0.1%

text: Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.[46]

text:
Composition by weight

Hydrocarbon
Average
Range

Alkanes (paraffins)
30%
15 to 60%

Naphthenes
49%
30 to 60%

Aromatics
15%
3 to 30%

Asphaltics
6%
remainder

text: Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow.[50] Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are called unconventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated 3.6 trillion barrels (570×10^9 m3) of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.[51]

text: Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline, both important "primary energy" sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas.[52] The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.

text: Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands). Known oil reserves are typically estimated at around 190 km3 (1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands,[53] or 595 km3 (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands.[54] Consumption is currently around 84 million barrels (13.4×10^6 m3) per day, or 4.9 km3 per year, yielding a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remains static.

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (paraffins), cycloalkanes (naphthenes), aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.

text: The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.

text: The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline, the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel, kerosene and jet fuel. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as liquefied petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C4H10), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

text: The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

text: The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CnH2n-6. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.

text: These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically:[55]

text: The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined by laboratory analysis. The molecules are typically extracted in a solvent, then separated in a gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrometer.[56] Due to the large number of co-eluted hydrocarbons within oil, many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography and typically appear as a hump in the chromatogram. This unresolved complex mixture (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil. Some of the component of oil will mix with water: the water associated fraction of the oil.

text: Incomplete combustion of petroleum or gasoline results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen results in carbon monoxide. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from gasoline combustion in car engines usually include nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of photochemical smog.

text: Empirical equations for thermal properties[edit]

text: Heat of combustion[edit]

text: At a constant volume, the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:

text:
where

Q

v

{\displaystyle Q_{v}}

 is measured in calories per gram and

d

{\displaystyle d}

 is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

text: Thermal conductivity[edit]

text: The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:[57]

text:
where

K

{\displaystyle K}

 is measured in BTU · °F−1hr−1ft−1 ,

t

{\displaystyle t}

 is measured in °F and

A
P
I

{\displaystyle API}

 is degrees API gravity.

text: Specific heat[edit]

text: The specific heat of petroleum oils can be modeled as follows:[58]

text:
where

c

{\displaystyle c}

 is measured in BTU/(lb °F),

t

{\displaystyle t}

 is the temperature in Fahrenheit and

d

{\displaystyle d}

 is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

text: In units of kcal/(kg·°C), the formula is:

text:
where the temperature

t

{\displaystyle t}

 is in Celsius and

d

{\displaystyle d}

 is the specific gravity at 15 °C.

text: Latent heat of vaporization[edit]

text: The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as follows:

text:
where

L

{\displaystyle L}

 is measured in BTU/lb,

t

{\displaystyle t}

 is measured in °F and

d

{\displaystyle d}

 is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

text: In units of kcal/kg, the formula is:

text:
where the temperature

t

{\displaystyle t}

 is in Celsius and

d

{\displaystyle d}

 is the specific gravity at 15 °C.[59]

text: Formation[edit]

text: Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae.[62] Vast quantities of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and being buried under anoxic conditions (no oxygen). As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a variety of mainly endothermic reactions at high temperature or pressure, or both.[63]

text: There were certain warm nutrient-rich environments such as the Gulf of Mexico and the ancient Tethys Sea where the large amounts of organic material falling to the ocean floor exceeded the rate at which it could decompose. This resulted in large masses of organic material being buried under subsequent deposits such as shale formed from mud. This massive organic deposit later became heated and transformed under pressure into oil.[64]

text: Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window"[65]—below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of thermal cracking. Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at a much shallower level. The Athabasca Oil Sands are one example of this.

text: An alternative mechanism was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the hypothesis of abiogenic petroleum origin, but this is contradicted by geological and geochemical evidence.[66]

text: Abiogenic (formed by inorganic means) sources of oil have been found, but never in commercially profitable amounts. "The controversy isn't over whether abiogenic oil reserves exist," said Larry Nation of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. "The controversy is over how much they contribute to Earth's overall reserves and how much time and effort geologists should devote to seeking them out."[67]

text: Reservoirs[edit]

text: Crude oil reservoirs[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil, a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in, and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface. Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are less dense than rock or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

text: The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil refineries.

text: Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. "Natural lift" production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be extracted using "artificial lift" means. Over time, these "primary" methods become less effective and "secondary" production methods may be used. A common secondary method is "waterflood" or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the drilled shaft or "wellbore." Eventually "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or "bitumen") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using "in-situ" methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping out the oil-saturated liquid.

text: Unconventional oil reservoirs[edit]

text: Oil-eating bacteria biodegrade oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.

text: On the other hand, oil shales are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not always shales and do not contain oil, but are fined-grain sedimentary rocks containing an insoluble organic solid called kerogen. The kerogen in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tar, and oil out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries, the United States has the world's largest deposits.[68]

text: Classification[edit]

text: The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g. West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density or heavy if it has high density; and it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.

text: The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are revealed by the use of Crude oil assay analysis in petroleum laboratories.

text: Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:

text:
West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma for North American oil
Brent Blend, consisting of 15 oils from fields in the Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea. The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in Shetland. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a benchmark
Dubai-Oman, used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region
Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil)
Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)
The OPEC Reference Basket, a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries
Midway Sunset Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced[69]
Western Canadian Select the benchmark crude oil for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes.[70]

tag: ul

text: There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil—Western Canadian Select— delivered at Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a discounted Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk.[71]

text: Petroleum industry[edit]

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2016)

text: The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often with oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

text: Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrialized civilization itself, and thus is a critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32 percent for Europe and Asia, up to a high of 53 percent for the Middle East, South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world at large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8 km³) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largely consist of developed nations. In fact, 24 percent of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United States alone,[73] though by 2007 this had dropped to 21 percent of world oil consumed.[74]

text: In the US, in the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, the Western States Petroleum Association (WSPA) represents companies responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This non-profit trade association was founded in 1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade association in the United States.[75]

text: Shipping[edit]

text: In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the Persian Gulf to USA,[76] but due to the development of supertankers in the 1970s, the cost of shipping dropped to only 5 percent of the price of Persian oil in USA.[76] Due to the increase of the value of the crude oil during the last 30 years, the share of the shipping cost on the final cost of the delivered commodity was less than 3% in 2010. For example, in 2010 the shipping cost from the Persian Gulf to the USA was in the range of 20 $/t and the cost of the delivered crude oil around 800 $/t.[citation needed]

text: Price[edit]

text: After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short-lived experiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism.[77] First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-linked pricing was widely accepted, and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade.[77] The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman.[77]

text: Uses[edit]

text: The chemical structure of petroleum is heterogeneous, composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. Because of this, petroleum may be taken to oil refineries and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by distillation and treated by other chemical processes, to be used for a variety of purposes. The total cost of a plant is about 9 billion dollars per plant.

text: Fuels[edit]

text: The most common distillation fractions of petroleum are fuels. Fuels include (by increasing boiling temperature range):[78]

text:
Common fractions of petroleum as fuels

Fraction
Boiling range oC

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
−40

Butane
−12 to −1

Gasoline
−1 to 110

Jet fuel
150 to 205

Kerosene
205 to 260

Fuel oil
205 to 290

Diesel fuel
260 to 315

text: Petroleum classification according to chemical composition.[79]

text:
Class of petroleum
Composition of 250–300 °C fraction,
wt. %

Par.
Napth
Arom.
Wax
Asph.

Paraffinic
46—61
22–32
12–25
1.5–10
0–6

Paraffinic-naphtenic
42–45
38–39
16–20
1–6
0–6

Naphthenic
15–26
61–76
8–13
Trace
0–6

Paraffinic-naphtenic-aromatic
27–35
36–47
26–33
0.5–1
0–10

Aromatic
0–8
57–78
20–25
0–0.5
0–20

text: Other derivatives[edit]

text: Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:

text:
Alkenes (olefins), which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds
Lubricants (produces light machine oils, motor oils, and greases, adding viscosity stabilizers as required)
Wax, used in the packaging of frozen foods, among others
Sulfur or sulfuric acid. These are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor oleum, a byproduct of sulfur removal from fuels.
Bulk tar
Asphalt
Petroleum coke, used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel
Paraffin wax
Aromatic petrochemicals to be used as precursors in other chemical production

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides.

text: Petroleum by country[edit]

text: Consumption statistics[edit]

text:
Global fossil carbon emissions, an indicator of consumption, for 1800–2007.
  Total
  Oil

Rate of world energy usage per day, from 1970 to 2010. 1000 TWh = 1 PWh.[80]

Daily oil consumption from 1980 to 2006

Oil consumption by percentage of total per region from 1980 to 2006:
  USA
  Europe
  Asia and Oceania

Oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region

text: Consumption[edit]

text: According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate for 2011, the world consumes 87.421 million barrels of oil each day.

text:
> 0.07
  0.07 - 0.05
  0.05 - 0.035
  0.035 - 0.025
  0.025 - 0.02
  0.02 - 0.015
  0.015 - 0.01
  0.01 - 0.005
  0.005 - 0.0015
   < 0.0015

text: This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand barrels (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (1000 m3) per day:[81][82][83]

text:
Consuming nation 2011
(1000 bbl/
day)
(1000 m3/
day)
Population
in millions
bbl/year
per capita
m3/year
per capita
National production/
consumption

United States 1
18,835.5
2,994.6
314
21.8
3.47
0.51

China
9,790.0
1,556.5
1345
2.7
0.43
0.41

Japan 2
4,464.1
709.7
127
12.8
2.04
0.03

India 2
3,292.2
523.4
1198
1
0.16
0.26

Russia 1
3,145.1
500.0
140
8.1
1.29
3.35

Saudi Arabia (OPEC)
2,817.5
447.9
27
40
6.4
3.64

Brazil
2,594.2
412.4
193
4.9
0.78
0.99

Germany 2
2,400.1
381.6
82
10.7
1.70
0.06

Canada
2,259.1
359.2
33
24.6
3.91
1.54

South Korea 2
2,230.2
354.6
48
16.8
2.67
0.02

Mexico 1
2,132.7
339.1
109
7.1
1.13
1.39

France 2
1,791.5
284.8
62
10.5
1.67
0.03

Iran (OPEC)
1,694.4
269.4
74
8.3
1.32
2.54

United Kingdom 1
1,607.9
255.6
61
9.5
1.51
0.93

Italy 2
1,453.6
231.1
60
8.9
1.41
0.10

text: Source: US Energy Information Administration

text: Population Data:[84]

text: 1 peak production of oil already passed in this state

text: 2 This country is not a major oil producer

text: Production[edit]

text: In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.

text:
Country
Oil Production
(bbl/day, 2016)[85]

1
 Russia
10,551,497

2
 Saudi Arabia (OPEC)
10,460,710

3
 United States
8,875,817

4
 Iraq (OPEC)
4,451,516

5
 Iran (OPEC)
3,990,956

6
 China, People's Republic of
3,980,650

7
 Canada
3,662,694

8
 United Arab Emirates (OPEC)
3,106,077

9
 Kuwait (OPEC)
2,923,825

10
 Brazil
2,515,459

11
 Venezuela (OPEC)
2,276,967

12
 Mexico
2,186,877

13
 Nigeria (OPEC)
1,999,885

14
 Angola (OPEC)
1,769,615

15
 Norway
1,647,975

16
 Kazakhstan
1,595,199

17
 Qatar (OPEC)
1,522,902

18
 Algeria (OPEC)
1,348,361

19
 Oman
1,006,841

20
 United Kingdom
939,760

text: Export[edit]

text: In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand m³/d:

text:
#
Exporting nation
103bbl/d (2011)
103m3/d (2011)
103bbl/d (2009)
103m3/d (2009)
103bbl/d (2006)
103m3/d (2006)

1
Saudi Arabia (OPEC)
8,336
1,325
7,322
1,164
8,651
1,376

2
Russia 1
7,083
1,126
7,194
1,144
6,565
1,044

3
Iran (OPEC)
2,540
403
2,486
395
2,519
401

4
United Arab Emirates (OPEC)
2,524
401
2,303
366
2,515
400

5
Kuwait (OPEC)
2,343
373
2,124
338
2,150
342

6
Nigeria (OPEC)
2,257
359
1,939
308
2,146
341

7
Iraq (OPEC)
1,915
304
1,764
280
1,438
229

8
Angola (OPEC)
1,760
280
1,878
299
1,363
217

9
Norway 1
1,752
279
2,132
339
2,542
404

10
Venezuela (OPEC) 1
1,715
273
1,748
278
2,203
350

11
Algeria (OPEC) 1
1,568
249
1,767
281
1,847
297

12
Qatar (OPEC)
1,468
233
1,066
169
–
–

13
Canada 2
1,405
223
1,168
187
1,071
170

14
Kazakhstan
1,396
222
1,299
207
1,114
177

15
Azerbaijan 1
836
133
912
145
532
85

16
Trinidad and Tobago 1
177
112
167
160
155
199

text: 1 peak production already passed in this state

text: 2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2,500,000 bbl/d (400,000 m3/d) in August 2007.[86]

text: Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately 84 million barrels per day (13,400,000 m3/d).

text: Import[edit]

text: In order of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand m³/d:

text:
#
Importing nation
103bbl/day (2011)
103m3/day (2011)
103bbl/day (2009)
103m3/day (2009)
103bbl/day (2006)
103m3/day (2006)

1
United States 1
8,728
1,388
9,631
1,531
12,220
1,943

2
China 2
5,487
872
4,328
688
3,438
547

3
Japan
4,329
688
4,235
673
5,097
810

4
India
2,349
373
2,233
355
1,687
268

5
Germany
2,235
355
2,323
369
2,483
395

6
South Korea
2,170
345
2,139
340
2,150
342

7
France
1,697
270
1,749
278
1,893
301

8
Spain
1,346
214
1,439
229
1,555
247

9
Italy
1,292
205
1,381
220
1,558
248

10
Singapore
1,172
186
916
146
787
125

11
Republic of China (Taiwan)
1,009
160
944
150
942
150

12
Netherlands
948
151
973
155
936
149

13
Turkey
650
103
650
103
576
92

14
Belgium
634
101
597
95
546
87

15
Thailand
592
94
538
86
606
96

text: 1 peak production of oil expected in 2020[87]

text: 2 Major oil producer whose production is still increasing[citation needed]

text: Oil Imports to the USA by country 2010[edit]

text: Non-producing consumers[edit]

text: Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.

text:
#
Consuming nation
(bbl/day)
(m³/day)

1
Japan
5,578,000
886,831

2
Germany
2,677,000
425,609

3
South Korea
2,061,000
327,673

4
France
2,060,000
327,514

5
Italy
1,874,000
297,942

6
Spain
1,537,000
244,363

7
Netherlands
946,700
150,513

8
Turkey
575,011
91,663

text: Source: CIA World Factbook[not in citation given]

text: Environmental effects[edit]

text: Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities (seismic exploration, drilling, extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as seeps[88] and tar pits are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's involvement. Regardless of source, petroleum's effects when released into the environment are similar.

text: Ocean acidification[edit]

text: Ocean acidification is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. This increase in acidity inhibits all marine life – having a greater impact on smaller organisms as well as shelled organisms (see scallops).[89]

text: Global warming[edit]

text: When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion may be the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2.[citation needed] Atmospheric CO2 has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 390 ppmv, from the 180 – 300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years[90][91][92] This rise in temperature may have reduced the Arctic ice cap to 1,100,000 sq mi (2,800,000 km2)[citation needed], smaller than ever recorded.[93] Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been revealed. It is estimated by the International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world's undiscovered oil resides in the Arctic.[94]

text: Extraction[edit]

text: Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as a water-in-oil emulsion, and specialty chemicals called demulsifiers are used to separate the oil from water. Oil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the surrounding marine environment.[95]

text: Oil spills[edit]

text: Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France and many other places.

text: The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon oil spill, SS Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the SS Torrey Canyon wreck produced poor results;[96] modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill.[97]

text: Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocylic compounds, such as pyridine, picoline, and quinoline are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy wood treatment sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as Micrococcus, Arthrobacter, and Rhodococcus have been shown to degrade these contaminants.[98]

text: Tarballs[edit]

text: A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with tar, which is a man-made product derived from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic pollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California[99][100] or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas.[101] Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of oil spills. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin,[102][103] and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents.[100] They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including Chromobacterium violaceum, Cladosporium resinae, Bacillus submarinus, Micrococcus varians, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida marina and Saccharomyces estuari.[99]

text: Whales[edit]

text: James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.[104]

text: Alternatives to petroleum[edit]

text: In the United States in 2007 about 70 percent of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. gasoline, diesel, jet fuel), 24 percent by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5 percent for residential and commercial uses, and 2 percent for electricity production.[105] Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.[106]

text: Alternatives to petroleum-based vehicle fuels[edit]

text: Alternative fuel vehicles refers to both:

text:
Vehicles that use alternative fuels used in standard or modified internal combustion engines such as natural gas vehicles, neat ethanol vehicles, flexible-fuel vehicles, biodiesel-powered vehicles, propane autogas, and hydrogen vehicles.
Vehicles with advanced propulsion systems that reduce or substitute petroleum use such as battery electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.

text: Alternatives to using oil in industry[edit]

text: Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as Bioplastic production.[107]

text: Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricity[edit]

text: In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produce electricity. Renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind power, micro hydro, biomass and biofuels are used, but the primary alternatives remain large-scale hydroelectricity, nuclear and coal-fired generation.

text: Future of petroleum production[edit]

text: Consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth; the 1985–2003 oil glut even fueled the sales of low economy vehicles in OECD countries. The 2008 economic crisis seems to have had some impact on the sales of such vehicles; still, the 2008 oil consumption shows a small increase. In 2016 however Goldman Sachs predicts lower demand due to emerging economies concerns, especially China.[108] The BRICS (Brasil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries might also kick in, as China briefly was the first automobile market in December 2009.[109] The immediate outlook still hints upwards. In the long term, uncertainties linger; the OPEC believes that the OECD countries will push low consumption policies at some point in the future; when that happens, it will definitely curb oil sales, and both OPEC and EIA kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past 5 years.[110] Oil products are more and more in competition with alternative sources, mainly coal and natural gas, both cheaper sources. Production will also face an increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as Tupi, Guara and Tiber demand high investments and ever-increasing technological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the twentieth century, mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) techniques (example: DaQing, China[111] ) will continue to play a major role in increasing the world's recoverable oil. The reach of available petroleum resources has always been around 35 years or even less since the start of the modern exploration. The oil constant, a insider pun in the German industry refers to that effect.[112]

text: Peak oil[edit]

text: Peak oil is the projection that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.[113] However, this does not mean that potential oil production has surpassed oil demand.

text: Hubbert applied his theory to accurately predict the peak of U.S. conventional oil production at a date between 1966 and 1970. This prediction was based on data available at the time of his publication in 1956. In the same paper, Hubbert predicts world peak oil in "half a century" after his publication, which would be 2006.[114]

text: It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves.[115] Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995–2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.[116] The peak is also a moving target as it is now measured as "liquids", which includes synthetic fuels, instead of just conventional oil.[117]

text: The International Energy Agency (IEA) said in 2010 that production of conventional crude oil had peaked in 2006 at 70 MBBL/d, then flattened at 68 or 69 thereafter.[118][119] Since virtually all economic sectors rely heavily on petroleum, peak oil, if it were to occur, could lead to a "partial or complete failure of markets".[120] In the mid-2000s, widespread fears of an imminent peak led to the "peak oil movement," in which over one hundred thousand Americans prepared, individually and collectively, for the "post-carbon" future.[121]

text: Unconventional production[edit]

text: The calculus for peak oil has changed with the introduction of unconventional production methods. In particular, the combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has resulted in a significant increase in production from previously uneconomic plays.[122] Analysts expect that $150 billion will be spent on further developing North American tight oil fields in 2015. The large increase in tight oil production is one of the reasons behind the price drop in late 2014.[123] Certain rock strata contain hydrocarbons but have low permeability and are not thick from a vertical perspective. Conventional vertical wells would be unable to economically retrieve these hydrocarbons. Horizontal drilling, extending horizontally through the strata, permits the well to access a much greater volume of the strata. Hydraulic fracturing creates greater permeability and increases hydrocarbon flow to the wellbore.