document_title: Lithium

question_text: what kind of bond is formed in pure lithium

question_tokens: what kind of bond is formed in pure lithium

text: Lithium

text: Properties[edit]

text: Atomic and physical[edit]

text: Like the other alkali metals, lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation.[5] Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds).[5]

text: Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. When cut, it possesses a silvery-white color that quickly changes to gray as it oxidizes to lithium oxide.[5] While it has one of the lowest melting points among all metals (180 °C), it has the highest melting and boiling points of the alkali metals.[6]

text: Lithium has a very low density (0.534 g/cm3), comparable with pine wood. It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm3) is more than 60% denser. Furthermore, apart from helium and hydrogen, it is less dense than any liquid element, being only two thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm3).[7] Lithium can float on the lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium.

text: Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron.[8] Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure[9] and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa).[10] At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations. At 4.2 K it has a rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic. At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent.[11] Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures.[12]

text: Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin, the highest of all solids.[13][14] Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications.[13]

text: Chemistry and compounds[edit]

text: Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution.[5] Because of its reactivity with water, lithium is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly. Though the heavier alkali metals can be stored in more dense substances, such as mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to be fully submerged in these liquids.[15] In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H2O), lithium nitride (Li3N) and lithium carbonate (Li2CO3, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO2).[16]

text: When placed over a flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when it burns strongly the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapors.[17] Lithium is flammable, and it is potentially explosive when exposed to air and especially to water, though less so than the other alkali metals. The lithium-water reaction at normal temperatures is brisk but nonviolent because the hydrogen produced does not ignite on its own. As with all alkali metals, lithium fires are difficult to extinguish, requiring dry powder fire extinguishers (Class D type). Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen under normal conditions.[18][19]

text:
Lithium has a diagonal relationship with magnesium, an element of similar atomic and ionic radius. Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N2, the formation of an oxide (Li
2O) and peroxide (Li
2O
2) when burnt in O2, salts with similar solubilities, and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides.[16][20] The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH).[21]

text:
Other known binary compounds include halides (LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI), sulfide (Li
2S), superoxide (LiO
2), and carbide (Li
2C
2). Many other inorganic compounds are known in which lithium combines with anions to form salts: borates, amides, carbonate, nitrate, or borohydride (LiBH
4). Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH
4) is commonly used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis.

text: Multiple organolithium reagents are known in which there is a direct bond between carbon and lithium atoms, effectively creating a carbanion. These are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. In many of these organolithium compounds, the lithium ions tend to aggregate into high-symmetry clusters by themselves, which is relatively common for alkali cations.[22] LiHe, a very weakly interacting van der Waals compound, has been detected at very low temperatures.[23]

text: Isotopes[edit]

text: Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes, 6Li and 7Li, the latter being the more abundant (92.5% natural abundance).[5][15][24] Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table, helium and beryllium); lithium is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission. The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than deuterium and helium-3.[25] As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements.[3] Seven radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable being 8Li with a half-life of 838 ms and 9Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is 4Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10−23 s.[26]

text: 7Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis. A small amount of both 6Li and 7Li are produced in stars, but are thought to be "burned" as fast as produced.[27] Additional small amounts of lithium of both 6Li and 7Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system 7Be and 10Be radioactive decay.[28] While lithium is created in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis, it is further burned. 7Li can also be generated in carbon stars.[29]

text: Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during a wide variety of natural processes,[30] including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism, and ion exchange. Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where 6Li is preferred to 7Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic 11Li is known to exhibit a nuclear halo. The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular 7Li from 6Li.[31]

text: Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are a major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope 6Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the 6Li to 7Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources.[32]

text: Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce the first quantum degenerate Bose-Fermi mixture.[33]

text: Occurrence[edit]

text: Astronomical[edit]

text: Though it was synthesized in the Big Bang, lithium (together with beryllium and boron), is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.[34]

text: According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the 3 elements synthesized in the Big Bang.[35] Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon, for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "cosmological lithium discrepancy" in the Universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.[36] The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed,[37] while lithium is produced in younger stars. Though it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than current computations would predict in later-generation stars.[15]

text: Lithium is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.[15][39][40] Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.[15]

text: Terrestrial[edit]

text:
Lithium mine production (2016), reserves and resources in tonnes according to USGS[41]

Country
Production
Reserves[note 1]
Resources

 Argentina
5,700
2,000,000
9,000,000

 Australia
14,300
1,600,000
2,000,000+

 Austria
-
-
100,000+

 Bolivia
-
-
9,000,000

 Brazil
200
48,000
200,000

 Canada (2010)
480
180,000
2,000,000

 Chile
12,000
7,500,000
7,500,000+

 DR Congo
-
-
1,000,000

 Mexico
-
-
200,000

 People's Republic of China
2,000
3,200,000
7,000,000

 Portugal
200
60,000
N/A

 Russia
-
-
1,000,000

 Serbia
-
-
1,000,000

 United States
W[note 2]
38,000
6,900,000

 Zimbabwe
900
23,000
100,000+

World total
32,500
14,000,000
46,900,000

text: Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.[5] The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm),[42][43] or 25 micromolar;[44] higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents.[43]

text: Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.[16] In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granites. Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources.[16] Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite.[45] A newer source for lithium is hectorite clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.[46] At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust,[47] lithium is the 25th most abundant element.

text: According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium, "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade."[48]

text: The US Geological Survey estimates that in 2010, Chile had the largest reserves by far (7.5 million tonnes)[49] and the highest annual production (8,800 tonnes). One of the largest reserve bases[note 1] of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China.[41][50] As of 2015 Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near Cínovec (cs) is considered as potentially economic deposit with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.[51]

text: In June 2010, The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there. "Pentagon officials said that their initial analysis at one location in Ghazni Province showed the potential for lithium deposits as large as those of Bolivia, which now has the world's largest known lithium reserves."[52] These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989". Stephen Peters, the head of the USGS's Afghanistan Minerals Project, said that he was unaware of USGS involvement in any new surveying for minerals in Afghanistan in the past two years. 'We are not aware of any discoveries of lithium,' he said."[53]

text: Lithia ("lithium brine") is associated with tin mining areas in Cornwall, England and an evaluation project from 400-metre deep test boreholes is under consideration. If successful the hot brines will also provide geothermal energy to power the lithium extraction and refining process.[54]

text: Biological[edit]

text: Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.[43] Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.[55] Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.[43]

text: History[edit]

text: Petalite (LiAlSi4O10) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden.[56][57][58][59] However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore.[60][61][62][63] This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline.[64] Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithion/lithina", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium".[5][58][63]

text: Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite.[65][58] In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame.[58][66] However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate the pure element from its salts.[58][63][67] It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide, a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium.[15][67][68][69][70] Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia (lithium oxide) contained about 55% metal, estimated the atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol).[71] In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen.[58][72] The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG, which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride.[58][73][74]

text: The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after. This use was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US.

text: The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons. Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for the production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride. The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid 1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even the atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water.[32][75]

text: Lithium was used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide when using the Hall-Héroult process.[76][77] These two uses dominated the market until the middle of the 1990s. After the end of the nuclear arms race, the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of Department of Energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices.[75] In the mid 1990s, several companies started to extract lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only the ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain, North Carolina closed before the beginning of the 21st century.

text: The development of lithium ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007.[78] With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine extraction efforts to meet the rising demand.[79][80]

text: Production[edit]

text: Lithium production has greatly increased since the end of World War II. The metal is separated from other elements in igneous minerals. The metal is produced through electrolysis from a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C.[81]

text: As of 2015, most of the world's lithium production is in South America, where lithium-containing brine is extracted from underground pools and concentrated by solar evaporation. The standard extraction technique is to evaporate water from brine. Each batch takes from 18 to 24 months.[82]

text: In 1998, the price of lithium was about 95 USD/kg (or 43 USD/lb).[83]

text: Reserves[edit]

text: Worldwide identified reserves in 2008 were estimated by the US Geological Survey (USGS) to be 13 million tonnes,[41] though an accurate estimate of world lithium reserves is difficult.[84][85] One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects.[86] The world has been estimated to contain about 15 million tonnes of lithium reserves, while 65 million tonnes of known resources are reasonable. A total of 75% of everything can typically be found in the ten largest deposits of the world.[87] Another study noted that 83% of the geological resources of lithium are located in six brine, two pegmatite, and two sedimentary deposits.[88]

text: Deposits are found in South America throughout the Andes mountain chain. Chile is the leading producer, followed by Argentina. Both countries recover lithium from brine pools. According to USGS, Bolivia's Uyuni Desert has 5.4 million tonnes of lithium.[89][90]

text: In the US, lithium is recovered from brine pools in Nevada.[13] Half the world's known reserves are located in Bolivia along the central eastern slope of the Andes. In 2009, Bolivia negotiated with Japanese, French, and Korean firms to begin extraction.[89] A deposit discovered in 2013 in Wyoming's Rock Springs Uplift is estimated to contain 228,000 tons. Additional deposits in the same formation were estimated to be as much as 18 million tons.[91]

text: Opinions differ about potential growth. A 2008 study concluded that "realistically achievable lithium carbonate production will be sufficient for only a small fraction of future PHEV and EV global market requirements", that "demand from the portable electronics sector will absorb much of the planned production increases in the next decade", and that "mass production of lithium carbonate is not environmentally sound, it will cause irreparable ecological damage to ecosystems that should be protected and that LiIon propulsion is incompatible with the notion of the 'Green Car'".[50]

text: According to a 2011 study by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the University of California, Berkeley, the currently estimated reserve base of lithium should not be a limiting factor for large-scale battery production for electric vehicles because an estimated 1 billion 40 kWh Li-based batteries could be built with current reserves[92] - about 10 kg of lithium per car.[93] Another 2011 study at the University of Michigan and Ford Motor Company found enough resources to support global demand until 2100, including the lithium required for the potential widespread transportation use. The study estimated global reserves at 39 million tons, and total demand for lithium during the 90-year period analyzed at 12–20 million tons, depending on the scenarios regarding economic growth and recycling rates.[94]

text: On June 9, 2014, the Financialist stated that demand for lithium was growing at more than 12% a year. According to Credit Suisse, this rate exceeds projected availability by 25%. The publication compared the 2014 lithium situation with oil, whereby "higher oil prices spurred investment in expensive deepwater and oil sands production techniques"; that is, the price of lithium will continue to rise until more expensive production methods that can boost total output receive the attention of investors.[95]

text: Pricing[edit]

text: After the 2007 financial crisis, major suppliers such as Sociedad Química y Minera (SQM) dropped lithium carbonate pricing by 20%.[96] Prices rose in 2012. A 2012 Business Week article outlined the oligopoly in the lithium space: "SQM, controlled by billionaire Julio Ponce, is the second-largest, followed by Rockwood, which is backed by Henry Kravis’s KKR & Co., and Philadelphia-based FMC". Global consumption may jump to 300,000 metric tons a year by 2020 from about 150,000 tons in 2012, to match the demand for lithium batteries that has been growing at about 25% a year, outpacing the 4% to 5% overall gain in lithium production.[97]

text: Extraction[edit]

text: Lithium salts are extracted from water in mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits.

text: Lithium is present in seawater, but commercially viable methods of extraction have yet to be developed.[82]

text: Another potential source of lithium is the leachates of geothermal wells, which are carried to the surface.[98] Recovery of lithium has been demonstrated in the field; the lithium is separated by simple filtration.[99] The process and environmental costs are primarily those of the already-operating well; net environmental impacts may thus be positive.[100]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Ceramics and glass[edit]

text: Lithium oxide is widely used as a flux for processing silica, reducing the melting point and viscosity of the material and leading to glazes with improved physical properties including low coefficients of thermal expansion. Worldwide, this is one of the largest use for lithium compounds.[101][102] Glazes containing lithium oxides are used for ovenware. Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) is generally used in this application because it converts to the oxide upon heating.[103]

text: Electrical and electronics[edit]

text: Late in the 20th century, lithium became an important component of battery electrolytes and electrodes, because of its high electrode potential. Because of its low atomic mass, it has a high charge- and power-to-weight ratio. A typical lithium-ion battery can generate approximately 3 volts per cell, compared with 2.1 volts for lead-acid or 1.5 volts for zinc-carbon cells. Lithium-ion batteries, which are rechargeable and have a high energy density, should not be confused with lithium batteries, which are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium or its compounds as the anode.[104][105] Other rechargeable batteries that use lithium include the lithium-ion polymer battery, lithium iron phosphate battery, and the nanowire battery.

text: Lubricating greases[edit]

text: The third most common use of lithium is in greases. Lithium hydroxide is a strong base and, when heated with a fat, produces a soap made of lithium stearate. Lithium soap has the ability to thicken oils, and it is used to manufacture all-purpose, high-temperature lubricating greases.[13][106][107]

text: Metallurgy[edit]

text: Lithium (e.g. as lithium carbonate) is used as an additive to continuous casting mould flux slags where it increases fluidity,[108][109] a use which accounts for 5% of global lithium use (2011).[41] Lithium compounds are also used as additives (fluxes) to foundry sand for iron casting to reduce veining.[110]

text: Lithium (as lithium fluoride) is used as an additive to aluminium smelters (Hall–Héroult process), reducing melting temperature and increasing electrical resistance,[111] a use which accounts for 3% of production (2011).[41]

text: When used as a flux for welding or soldering, metallic lithium promotes the fusing of metals during the process[112] and eliminates the forming of oxides by absorbing impurities.[113] Alloys of the metal with aluminium, cadmium, copper and manganese are used to make high-performance aircraft parts (see also Lithium-aluminium alloys).[114]

text: Silicon nano-welding[edit]

text: Lithium has been found effective in assisting the perfection of silicon nano-welds in electronic components for electric batteries and other devices.[115]

text: Other chemical and industrial uses[edit]

text: Pyrotechnics[edit]

text: Lithium compounds are used as pyrotechnic colorants and oxidizers in red fireworks and flares.[13][117]

text: Air purification[edit]

text: Lithium chloride and lithium bromide are hygroscopic and are used as desiccants for gas streams.[13] Lithium hydroxide and lithium peroxide are the salts most used in confined areas, such as aboard spacecraft and submarines, for carbon dioxide removal and air purification. Lithium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air by forming lithium carbonate, and is preferred over other alkaline hydroxides for its low weight.

text: Lithium peroxide (Li2O2) in presence of moisture not only reacts with carbon dioxide to form lithium carbonate, but also releases oxygen.[118][119] The reaction is as follows:

text: Some of the aforementioned compounds, as well as lithium perchlorate, are used in oxygen candles that supply submarines with oxygen. These can also include small amounts of boron, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, titanium, manganese, and iron.[120]

text: Optics[edit]

text: Lithium fluoride, artificially grown as crystal, is clear and transparent and often used in specialist optics for IR, UV and VUV (vacuum UV) applications. It has one of the lowest refractive indexes and the furthest transmission range in the deep UV of most common materials.[121] Finely divided lithium fluoride powder has been used for thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry (TLD): when a sample of such is exposed to radiation, it accumulates crystal defects which, when heated, resolve via a release of bluish light whose intensity is proportional to the absorbed dose, thus allowing this to be quantified.[122] Lithium fluoride is sometimes used in focal lenses of telescopes.[13][123]

text: The high non-linearity of lithium niobate also makes it useful in non-linear optics applications. It is used extensively in telecommunication products such as mobile phones and optical modulators, for such components as resonant crystals. Lithium applications are used in more than 60% of mobile phones.[124]

text: Organic and polymer chemistry[edit]

text: Organolithium compounds are widely used in the production of polymer and fine-chemicals. In the polymer industry, which is the dominant consumer of these reagents, alkyl lithium compounds are catalysts/initiators.[125] in anionic polymerization of unfunctionalized olefins.[126][127][128] For the production of fine chemicals, organolithium compounds function as strong bases and as reagents for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. Organolithium compounds are prepared from lithium metal and alkyl halides.[129]

text: Many other lithium compounds are used as reagents to prepare organic compounds. Some popular compounds include lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), lithium triethylborohydride, n-Butyllithium and tert-butyllithium are commonly used as extremely strong bases called superbase.

text: Military applications[edit]

text: Metallic lithium and its complex hydrides, such as Li[AlH4], are used as high-energy additives to rocket propellants.[15] Lithium aluminum hydride can also be used by itself as a solid fuel.[130]

text: The Mark 50 torpedo stored chemical energy propulsion system (SCEPS) uses a small tank of sulfur hexafluoride gas, which is sprayed over a block of solid lithium. The reaction generates heat, creating steam to propel the torpedo in a closed Rankine cycle.[131]

text: Lithium hydride containing lithium-6 is used in thermonuclear weapons, where it serves as fuel for the fusion stage of the bomb.[132]

text: Nuclear[edit]

text: Lithium-6 is valued as a source material for tritium production and as a neutron absorber in nuclear fusion. Natural lithium contains about 7.5% lithium-6 from which large amounts of lithium-6 have been produced by isotope separation for use in nuclear weapons.[133] Lithium-7 gained interest for use in nuclear reactor coolants.[134]

text: Lithium deuteride was the fusion fuel of choice in early versions of the hydrogen bomb. When bombarded by neutrons, both 6Li and 7Li produce tritium — this reaction, which was not fully understood when hydrogen bombs were first tested, was responsible for the runaway yield of the Castle Bravo nuclear test. Tritium fuses with deuterium in a fusion reaction that is relatively easy to achieve. Although details remain secret, lithium-6 deuteride apparently still plays a role in modern nuclear weapons as a fusion material.[135]

text: Lithium fluoride, when highly enriched in the lithium-7 isotope, forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture LiF-BeF2 used in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors. Lithium fluoride is exceptionally chemically stable and LiF-BeF2 mixtures have low melting points. In addition, 7Li, Be, and F are among the few nuclides with low enough thermal neutron capture cross-sections not to poison the fission reactions inside a nuclear fission reactor.[note 3][136]

text: In conceptualized (hypothetical) nuclear fusion power plants, lithium will be used to produce tritium in magnetically confined reactors using deuterium and tritium as the fuel. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare, and must be synthetically produced by surrounding the reacting plasma with a 'blanket' containing lithium where neutrons from the deuterium-tritium reaction in the plasma will fission the lithium to produce more tritium:

text: Lithium is also used as a source for alpha particles, or helium nuclei. When 7Li is bombarded by accelerated protons 8Be is formed, which undergoes fission to form two alpha particles. This feat, called "splitting the atom" at the time, was the first fully man-made nuclear reaction. It was produced by Cockroft and Walton in 1932.[137][138]

text: In 2013, the US Government Accountability Office said a shortage of lithium-7 critical to the operation of 65 out of 100 American nuclear reactors “places their ability to continue to provide electricity at some risk”. The problem stems from the decline of US nuclear infrastructure. The equipment needed to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7 is mostly a cold war leftover. The US shut down most of this machinery in 1963, when it had a huge surplus of separated lithium, mostly consumed during the twentieth century. The report said it would take five years and $10 million to $12 million to reestablish the ability to separate lithium-6 from lithium-7.[139]

text: Reactors that use lithium-7 heat water under high pressure and transfer heat through heat exchangers that are prone to corrosion. The reactors use lithium to counteract the corrosive effects of boric acid, which is added to the water to absorb excess neutrons.[139]

text: Medicine[edit]

text: Lithium is useful in the treatment of bipolar disorder.[140] Lithium salts may also be helpful for related diagnoses, such as schizoaffective disorder and cyclic major depression. The active part of these salts is the lithium ion Li+.[140] They may increase the risk of developing Ebstein's cardiac anomaly in infants born to women who take lithium during the first trimester of pregnancy.[141]

text: Lithium has also been researched as a possible treatment for cluster headaches.[142]

text: Biological role[edit]

text: Primary food sources of lithium are grains and vegetables, and, in some areas, drinking water also contains significant amounts.[143] Human intake varies depending on location and diet.

text: Lithium was first detected in human organs and fetal tissues in the late 19th century. In humans there are no defined lithium deficiency diseases, but low lithium intakes from water supplies were associated with increased rates of suicides, homicides and the arrest rates for drug use and other crimes. The biochemical mechanisms of action of lithium appear to be multifactorial and are intercorrelated with the functions of several enzymes, hormones and vitamins, as well as with growth and transforming factors. Evidence now appears to be sufficient to accept lithium as essential; a provisional RDA of 1,000 µg/day is suggested for a 70 kg adult.[143][144]

text: Precautions[edit]

text:
NFPA 704
fire diamond

3
2
2
W

Fire diamond hazard sign for lithium metal[145]

text: Lithium is corrosive and requires special handling to avoid skin contact. Breathing lithium dust or lithium compounds (which are often alkaline) initially irritate the nose and throat, while higher exposure can cause a buildup of fluid in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema. The metal itself is a handling hazard because contact with moisture produces the caustic lithium hydroxide. Lithium is safely stored in non-reactive compounds such as naphtha.[146]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: Some jurisdictions limit the sale of lithium batteries, which are the most readily available source of lithium for ordinary consumers. Lithium can be used to reduce pseudoephedrine and ephedrine to methamphetamine in the Birch reduction method, which employs solutions of alkali metals dissolved in anhydrous ammonia.[147][148]

text: Carriage and shipment of some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard certain types of transportation (particularly aircraft) because of the ability of most types of lithium batteries to fully discharge very rapidly when short-circuited, leading to overheating and possible explosion in a process called thermal runaway. Most consumer lithium batteries have built-in thermal overload protection to prevent this type of incident, or are otherwise designed to limit short-circuit currents. Internal shorts from manufacturing defect or physical damage can lead to spontaneous thermal runaway.[149][150]


question_text: who is the movie the duchess based on

question_tokens: who is the movie the duchess based on

root

text: Early life and family[edit]

text: The duchess was born Miss Georgiana Spencer, on 7 June 1757, as the first child of John Spencer (later Earl Spencer) and his wife, Georgiana (née Poyntz, later Countess Spencer), at the Spencer family home, Althorp.[3] After her daughter's birth, her mother wrote that "I will own I feel so partial to my Dear little Gee, that I think I never shall love another so well".[4] Two younger siblings followed: Henrietta and George. (The daughter of her sister Henrietta, Lady Caroline Lamb, would become a writer and lover of Lord Byron). Mr John Spencer, great-grandson of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, came from a wealthy English noble family. He built a Spencer family residence at St. James's, London and raised his children there.[5] The parents raised Georgiana and her siblings in a happy marriage which bears no record of there ever having been any extramarital affairs - a rarity in the era.[5] Meanwhile, Georgiana grew to be close to her mother who was said to favour Georgiana over her other children.[4]

tag: p

text: When her father assumed the title of Viscount Spencer in 1761, she became The Honourable Georgiana Spencer. In 1765, her father became Earl Spencer and she Lady Georgiana Spencer.

text: Marriage and children[edit]

text: On her seventeenth birthday, 7 June 1774, Lady Georgiana Spencer was married to society's most eligible bachelor, William Cavendish, the 5th Duke of Devonshire (aged 25). The wedding took place at Wimbledon Parish Church. [6] It was a small ceremony attended only by her parents, her maternal grandmother (Lady Cowper), one of her prospective brothers-in-law, and soon-to-be sister-in-law (the Duchess of Portland).[5] Her parents were emotionally reluctant to let their daughter go, but she was wed to one of the wealthiest and most powerful men in the land. Her father, who had always shown affection to his children, wrote to her, "My Dearest Georgiana, I did not know till lately how much I loved you; I miss you more every day and every hour."[5] Mother and daughter continued to correspond throughout their lives and many of their letters survive.[5]

text: From the beginning of the marriage, the Duke of Devonshire proved to be an emotionally reserved man who was quite unlike the duchess's father and who did not meet the emotional needs of the duchess. The spouses also had little in common.[3] He would seldom be at her side and would spend nights at Brook's playing cards.[5] The duke continued with adulterous behaviour throughout their married life and discord followed pregnancies that ended in miscarriage or failure to produce a male child as heir.

text: Before their marriage, the duke had fathered an illegitimate daughter, Charlotte Williams, born from a dalliance with a former milliner, Charlotte Spencer (of no relation to the House of Spencer).[5] This was unknown to the duchess until years after her marriage to the duke. After the death of the child's mother, she was compelled to raise Charlotte herself.[3] The duchess of Devonshire was "very pleased" with Charlotte, although her own mother, now Countess Spencer, expressed disapproval: "I hope you have not talk'd of her to people."[5] The duchess replied, "She is the best humored little thing you ever saw."[5]

text: In 1782, while on a retreat from London with the duke, the duchess met Lady Elizabeth Foster (widely known as "Bess") in the City of Bath. She became close friends with Lady Elizabeth who had become destitute after separating from her husband and three sons.[3] Given the bond that developed between the two women  (and the difficult position her new friend was in), with the Duke's acquiescence, the duchess agreed to having Lady Elizabeth live with them. When the Duke began a sexual relationship with Lady Elizabeth, a ménage à trois (love triangle)[3] was established and it was arranged that Lady Elizabeth live with them permanently. While it was common for male members of the upper class to have mistresses, it was not common or generally acceptable for a mistress to live so openly with a married couple. Furthermore, the duchess had become emotionally dependent on Lady Elizabeth whom she believed to be her best friend. Having no alternative, she became complacent over the matter. The arrangement among the three is more commonly referred to as a ménage à trois, but, while the relationship between the duke and Lady Elizabeth was obviously sexual, there is no concrete evidence of anything beyond emotional dependence, and a particular and open affection, on the part of the duchess, towards Lady Elizabeth. In one of her letters, the Duchess of Devonshire wrote to Lady Elizabeth, "My dear Bess, Do you hear the voice of my heart crying to you? Do you feel what it is for me to be separated from you?" Nevertheless, Lady Elizabeth Foster herself was said to actually envy her and wished for her position. (Evidence Lady Elizabeth shared a love for her either way was proven at her death years later when a locket, containing a strand of the duchess' hair, was found around her neck, as well as a bracelet also containing hair of the duchess on a table beside her deathbed).[5] Lady Elizabeth was reported to have insinuated her way into the marriage by taking advantage of the duchess's friendship and love and having "engineered her way" into a sexual relationship with the duke.[3] Lady Elizabeth engaged in well documented sexual relations with other men while she was in the "love triangle" with the duke and duchess.[5]  Among their contemporaries, the relationship between the Duchess of Devonshire and Lady Elizabeth Foster was the subject of speculation which has continued beyond their time. The love triangle itself was a notorious topic; it was an irregular arrangement in a high-profile marriage. Lady Elizabeth's affair with the Duke resulted in two illegitimate children: a daughter, Caroline Rosalie St Jules, and a son, Augustus Clifford.

text: Despite her unhappiness with her detached and philandering husband and volatile marriage, the duchess, as per the custom of the day, was not socially permitted to take a lover without first having produced an heir. The first successful pregnancy resulted in the birth of Lady Georgiana Dorothy Cavendish on 12 July 1783. Called "Little G", she would become the Countess of Carlisle and have issue of her own. The duchess had developed a strong mothering sentiment since raising Charlotte, and she insisted on nursing her own children (contrary to the aristocratic custom of having a wet nurse).[5] On 29 August 1785, a second successful pregnancy resulted in another daughter: Lady Harriet Elizabeth Cavendish, called "Harryo", who would become Countess Granville and also have children of her own. Finally, on 21 May 1790, the duchess gave birth to a male heir to the dukedom: William George Spencer Cavendish, who took the title of Marquess of Hartington at birth, and was called "Hart". He would never marry and became known as "the bachelor duke". With the birth of the Marquess of Hartington, the duchess was able to take a lover. While there is no evidence of when the duchess began her affair with Charles Grey (later Earl Grey), she did become pregnant by him in 1791. Sent off to France, the duchess believed she would die in childbirth. In this spirit, she wrote a letter to her recently born son stating, "As soon as you are old enough to understand this letter it will be given to you. It contains the only present I can make you--my blessing, written in my blood...Alas, I am gone before you could know me, but I lov'd you, I nurs'd you nine months at my breast. I love you dearly." On 20 February 1792, Eliza Courtney was born without complications to mother and child, and the duchess was forced to give away the illegitimate daughter to Grey's family.[3][5] The duchess would later be given the opportunity to pay visits to her illegitimate daughter, providing her with presents and affection,[5] and Eliza would grow up to marry Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Ellice and bear a daughter named Georgiana as well.

text: While in exile in France in the early 1790s, the Duchess of Devonshire suffered from isolation and felt her separation from her children. To her eldest, she wrote, "Your letter dated the 1st of Nov was delightful to me tho' it made me very melancholy my Dearest Child. This year has been the most painful of my life. . . when I do return to you, never leave you I hope again--it will be too great a happiness for me Dear Dear Georgiana & it will have been purchased by many days of regret - indeed ev'ry hour I pass away from you, I regret you; if I amuse myself or see anything I admire I long to share the happiness with you - if on the contrary I am out of spirits I wish for your presence which alone would do me good."[5] In order to return to England and her children, she conceded to her husband's hypocritical demands and denounced her love for Charles Grey.[5] Records of her exile in France were subsequently erased from the family records.[5] However, the children of the duke and duchess had at one point been informed as to the reason of her absence during that period of their lives.[5]

text: Throughout her marriage, while the Duchess of Devonshire coped with the marital arrangements on the surface, she nevertheless suffered emotional and psychological distress. She sought further personal consolation from a "dissipated existence"[7] in passions (socializing, fashion, politics, writing), addictions (gambling, drinking, and drugs), and affairs (with a number of men, not just Grey, possibly including the bachelor Duke of Dorset).[5]

text: Pursuits and fame[edit]

text: With her renowned beauty and character, alongside her marriage to the affluent and powerful Duke of Devonshire, the duchess enjoyed preeminence in society and was a high emblem of the era.[5] Her keen sense made her the extravagant female leader in fashion and style in England. (The fashionable styling of her hair alone reached literally extraordinary heights above her exuberant costume).[5] Using her influence as a leading socialite and fashion/style icon, she contributed to politics, science, and literature. As part of her illustrious social engagements, she would gather around her a large salon of literary and political figures. Among her major acquaintances were the most influential figures of her time including the Prince of Wales (later King George IV); Marie Antoinette of France and her favourite in court, the Duchess of Polignac; Charles Grey (later Earl Grey and British Prime Minister); and Lady Melbourne (lover of the Prince of Wales).[8] Newspapers chronicled her every appearance and activity.[5]

text: She was called a "phenomenon"[7] by Horace Walpole who proclaimed, "[she] effaces all without being a beauty; but her youthful figure, flowing good nature, sense and lively modesty, and modest familiarity make her a phenomenon".[9] Madame d'Arblay, who had a preference for acquaintances of talent, found that her appeal was not generally for her beauty but for far more which included fine, "manner, politeness, and gentle quiet."[9] Sir Nathaniel William Wraxall stated that her success as an individual lay, "in the amenity and graces of her deportment, in her irresistible manners, and the seduction of her society."[9]

text: Famously, when the Duchess was stepping out of her carriage one day, an Irish dustman exclaimed: "Love and bless you, my lady, let me light my pipe in your eyes!" Thereafter, whenever others would compliment her, the duchess would retort, "After the dustman's compliment, all others are insipid."[10][11]

text: Politics[edit]

text: The Spencer family, from which she derived, was an ardent supporter of the Whig party as was she and the House of Cavendish. However, because the duke's high position in the peerage disallowed him to participate so commonly in politics, the duchess took it as a positive outlet for herself.[3] In an age when the realization of women's rights and suffrage were still more than a century away, the duchess became a political activist as the first woman to make active and influential frontline appearances on the political scene.[3] Having begun her involvement in politics in 1778[7] (when she inspired a mass of women to promote the Whig party), she relished Enlightenment[12] and Whig party ideals and took it upon herself to campaign—particularly for a distant cousin, Charles James Fox, who was chief party leader alongside Richard Sheridan— for Whig policies which were anti-crown and advocated for liberty against tyranny.[5] At the time of her involvement, King George III (who detested the Whigs)[5] and his ministers had a direct influence over the House of Commons, principally through their power of patronage. The Prince of Wales, who always relished going against the grain with his father, joined the Whig party at the time his friend, the duchess, became involved.[5] She was renowned for hosting dinners that became political meetings and she took joy in cultivating the company of brilliant radicals.[5]

text: During the general election of 1784, the duchess became a major subject of scrutiny. Fanciful rumours and political cartoons circulated during the campaign, ridiculing her for securing votes in exchange for sexual - and monetary - rewards.[5][7][9] Thomas Rowlandson even satirized her with a rumour of her trading kisses in his print "THE DEVONSHIRE, or Most Approved Method of Securing Votes". Her mother pleaded her to step down, but the duchess was not daunted and was adamant in her activism.[3][9] On election day, the Duchess of Devonshire walked the streets of London, even gaining blisters on her feet, meeting face-to-face with commoners as equals.[5] She was instrumental in the success of Fox and Lord Hood, but after the extensive campaigning and negative media against her, she retired, after the win, from the political arena for a while.[5][7] In 1788, she returned to political activism though behind the scenes.[7]

text: Even in the last years of her life, she pushed ahead in the field and attempted to help rebuild the Whig party which had become fragmented; her efforts were to no avail and the political party would eventually come to dissolve decades after her death.[7]

text: Literature[edit]

text: In her life, the duchess was an avid writer and composed a number of works, of both prose and poetry, of which some were published.

text: She composed poetry as a young girl to her father and some of it later circulated in manuscript and was read by Walpole (who said it was "easy and prettily expressed, though it does not express much") and Reverend William Mason (who was more favorable with higher opinions).[9]

text: The first of her published literary works was Emma; Or, The Unfortunate Attachment: A Sentimental Novel in 1773.

text: In 1778, the epistolary novel The Sylph was released. Published anonymously, it had autobiographical elements, centering on a fictional aristocratic bride who had been corrupted, and as "a novel-cum-exposé of [the duchess's] aristocratic cohorts, depicted as libertines, blackmailers, and alcoholics."[7] It has been speculated that The Sylph may have instead been written by Sophia Briscoe, and a receipt at the British Library suggests that Briscoe was paid for the published work. However, it is thought more likely that Briscoe may have served as an intermediary between the Duchess of Devonshire and her publisher, so that the duchess could keep her anonymity.[13] The duchess is said to have at least privately admitted to her authorship.[5] The Sylph was a success and underwent four reprintings.[5]

text: Memorandums of the Face of the Country in Switzerland (1799) is often wrongly attributed to her. It was in fact written by Rowley Lascelles, based on a Swiss tour in 1794.[14]

text: One more piece was published in the last years of her life, The Passage of the Mountain of Saint Gothard, first in an unauthorized version in the 'Morning Chronicle' and 'Morning Post' of 20 and 21 December 1799, then in a privately printed edition in 1800. A poem dedicated to her children, The Passage of the Mountain of Saint Gothard was based on her passage of the Saint Gotthard Pass, with Bess, between 10 and 15 August 1793 on her return to England. The thirty-stanza poem, together with 28 extented notes, were furthermore translated into some of the main languages of Western Europe including into French, by the Abbé de Lille, in 1802; Italian, by Signor Polidori, in 1803; and German in 1805. The Passage of the Mountain of Saint Gothard was then reprinted in 1816, after the duchess's death.[9] Samuel Taylor Coleridge published a glowing response to the poem, 'Ode to Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire' in the 'Morning Post' on 24 December 1799.

text: The 5th Duchess of Devonshire was connected to some of the greatest men of letters of her time, and Samuel Johnson, a famed writer of the era, had even paid visit to the duke and duchess, in 1784, at their Chatsworth home.[9]

text: Science[edit]

text: The duchess played a key role in formulating, with Thomas Beddoes, the idea of establishing the Pneumatic Institution in Bristol.[15] Her interest arose in part as she was related through marriage to the pneumatic chemist Henry Cavendish.

text: She took interest in scientific experiments[5] and began a collection of crystals at Chatsworth, the main seat of the dukedom of Devonshire.

text: Gambling[edit]

text: As was common among the aristocracy of her time, the duchess routinely gambled for leisure and amusement. Her gaming spiraled into a ruinous addiction, however, made worse by her emotional instability.

text: In the first years of her marriage, she accumulated debts that surpassed the 4,000 pounds that the duke provided her annually as pin money.[5] Her own mother was disapproving and admonished her, unsuccessfully, to break her habit.[5] After she had incurred over 300,000 pounds in debt, the duchess implored her parents to give her a loan as she absolutely would not inform her husband of her debts.[5] Her parents acquiesced and told her to inform the duke, who nevertheless found out beforehand and repaid them.[5]

text: For the rest of her life the duchess continued to amass an immense, ever escalating debt that she always tried to keep hidden from her husband (even though he was among the richest men in the land), and while she would admit to some amount, it was always less than the total, which even she could not keep up with.[5] In confidence, she would ask for loans from the Prince of Wales and at one point, to try to settle some of her debts, she did not shrink from pressing her friend the affluent banker Thomas Coutts for funds.[5]

text: Later life and death[edit]

text: Her absence from English society and exile in France had isolated the duchess and was a low point for her in every respect; she returned to England a "changed woman".[5] The duke began suffering from gout, and she spent her time at his side nursing him.[5] With also a new miscarriage, this circumstance with her husband brought about a softening and closeness between the spouses.[5] She took a positive interest in science; took up writing again (producing two more works); and she even continued her activism into politics while trying to rebuild the Whig party (to no avail before its end).[5][7] The duchess also came to meet and become friends with the wife of her former lover, Charles Grey.[5] In 1796, the Duchess of Devonshire succumbed to illness in one eye; the treatment of the doctors resulted in a scarring of her face.[3] However, "Those scars released her from her fears. All the inhibitions about whether she was beautiful enough or whether she was up to the job left her."[3] In her late 30s, the duchess was able to regain preeminence and enjoyment in open society[3] though her personal life would continue to be marred by degrees of unhappiness, debt, and decline in health.[7]

text: During her early 40s, the Duchess of Devonshire devoted her time to the coming out of her eldest daughter, Lady Georgiana Dorothy Cavendish. The debutante was presented in 1800, and the duchess saw her daughter wed the heir apparent of Earl Carlisle, Lord Morph, in 1801; it was the first and only time the Duchess of Devonshire saw one of her issue marry.[5]

text: Her health continued to decline well into her 40s[5] and her addiction to gambling continued. She once reached out to her mother, begging for a sum of a hundred pounds and also complained to her of jaundice.[5] While her mother at first believed her daughter was just ill from her gambling, Countess Spencer, as well as those around the duchess, soon came to realize she was truly sick.[5] She was thought to be suffering from an abscess on her liver.[5]

text: Georgiana Cavendish, 5th Duchess of Devonshire died on 30 March 1806, at 3:30, at the age of 48.[5] She was surrounded by her husband, the 5th Duke of Devonshire; her mother, Countess Spencer; her sister, Countess of Bessborough; her eldest daughter, Lady Morph (who was eight months pregnant); and Lady Elizabeth Foster.[5] They were all said to have been inconsolable over her death.[5] For the first time, the duke showed moving emotion towards his late wife, as a contemporary wrote, "The Duke has been most deeply affected and has shown more feeling than anyone thought possible--indeed every individual in the family are in a dreadful state of affliction." The late duchess's eldest daughter furthermore poured out her feelings, "Oh my beloved, my adored departed mother, are you indeed forever parted from me--Shall I see no more that angelic countenance or that blessed voice--You whom I loved with such tenderness, you who were the . . . best of mothers, Adieu--I wanted to strew violets over her dying bed as she strewed sweets over my life but they would not let me." Her distant cousin, Charles James Fox, for whom she had triumphantly campaigned, was noted to have cried.[5] The Prince of Wales himself lamented, "The best natured and the best bred woman in England is gone." Thousands of the people of London congregated at Piccadily, where the Cavendish home in the city was located, to mourn her.[5] She was buried at the family vault[9] at All Saints Parish Church (now Derby Cathedral) in Derby.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The legacy of the life of Georgiana Cavendish, 5th Duchess of Devonshire, has remained a topic of study and intrigue in cultural and historical spheres centuries after her death.

text: Immediately after her death, the Duke of Devonshire discovered the extent of her debts - the duchess died owing an estimated 2008 equivalent of £3,720,000 - and remarked, "Is that all?...."[16] He soon enough married Lady Elizabeth Foster who, as his second wife, became Duchess of Devonshire. The children of the 5th Duchess of Devonshire were discontented with the marriage as they never liked Lady Elizabeth at all (something which caused dismay with their mother when she was alive).[5] When William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, died on 29 July 1811, the Marquess of Hartington became 6th Duke of Devonshire. He sought to liquidate his late mother's entire debts.[5] Meanwhile, Lady Elizabeth fought to keep Cavendish properties to which she wasn't entitled; furthermore the 6th Duke denied her demand that her illegitimate son with the 5th Duke of Devonshire, Clifford, bear the Cavendish crest. Infuriated, Lady Elizabeth brought back up her affair with the 5th Duke of Devonshire by publicly announcing he had sired her illegitimate children.[5] The 6th Duke of Devonshire finally oversaw an end to it all - the mistake of his late mother of bringing in Lady Elizabeth into her life and all consequences which resulted - with the final dismissal of Lady Elizabeth by paying her off.[5] Nevertheless, the children of Georgiana Cavendish, 5th Duchess of Devonshire, lived the remainder of their lives with mutually positive relations with the children of Lady Elizabeth Foster, having grown up together.[5]

text: In 1786, Susanna Rowson, who went on to become a bestselling author, dedicated her first published work, Victoria, to the Duchess of Devonshire.

text: With the topic of liberation at the heart of policies she supported in life, the bold involvement of the Duchess of Devonshire in political activism pioneered women's public frontstage and influential participation in the field in a time before the validation of women's rights and subsequent feminist ideals.

text: Artwork representing the Duchess of Devonshire by reputable painters of the Georgian era remain; this includes a 1787 work by the famed Thomas Gainsborough which was once thought lost. Over a thousand of personal letters written by the Duchess of Devonshire remain in existence. Chatsworth, the seat of the duke of Devonshire, houses a majority of her letters in historical archives.[5]

text: In modern times, the circumstances of her life are seen as an example of female oppression by historical cultural and legal constructs favoring male interests, while denying rights to the female party, in a relationship, and they have become the subject of scholarly and dramatized works.[3][12]

text: Film portrayals[edit]

text:
The Divine Lady (1929), portrayed by Evelyn Hall.
Berkeley Square (1933), portrayed by Juliette Compton
The House in the Square (also titled "I'll Never Forget You" (US) and "Man of Two Worlds") (1951), portrayed by Kathleen Byron
The Duchess (2008),  portrayed by Keira Knightley. The film, directed by Saul Dibb, is based on the biography Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire by Amanda Foreman.

tag: ul

text: Works by Georgiana Cavendish[edit]

text:
Emma; Or, The Unfortunate Attachment: A Sentimental Novel (1773)
The Sylph (1778)
The Passage of the Mountain of Saint Gothard (1799)

text: Titles and styles[edit]

text:
7 June 1757 – 3 April 1761 : Miss Georgiana Spencer
3 April 1761 – 1 November 1765 : The Honourable Georgiana Spencer
1 November 1765 – 7 June 1774 : Lady Georgiana Spencer
7 June 1774 – 30 March 1806 : Her Grace The Duchess of Devonshire

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
The Duchess of Devonshire by Lady Diana Beauclerk, c. 1779

The Duchess of Devonshire by John Downman, c. 1780

The Duchess of Devonshire by Joshua Reynolds, c. 1780–81

The Duchess of Devonshire by Joshua Reynolds, 1786

Elizabeth "Bess" Hervey Foster by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Georgiana's husband, William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire

text: Ancestry[edit]

text: [show]Ancestors of Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire         16. Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland      8. Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland         17. Lady Anne Digby      4. The Hon. John Spencer           18. John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough      9. Lady Anne Churchill         19. Sarah Jennings      2. John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer             20. George Carteret, 1st Baron Carteret      10. John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville         21. Lady Grace Granville, 1st Countess Granville      5. Lady Georgiana Carolina Carteret           22. Sir Robert Worsley, 4th Baronet, of Appuldurcombe      11. Frances Worsley         23. Frances Thynne      1. Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire              24. Newdigate Poyntz      12. William Poyntz         25. Mary Parkyns      6. Stephen Poyntz           26. Stephen Monteage      13. Jane Monteage         27. Jane Deane      3. Margaret Georgiana Poyntz             28. John Mordaunt, 1st Viscount Mordaunt      14. The Hon. Lewis Mordaunt         29. Elizabeth Carey      7. Anna Maria Mordaunt           30. Thomas Collyer      15. Mary Collyer         31. Mary Lunsford

tag: table


document_title: Anita Barone

question_text: who plays carol in the first season of friends

text: Anita Barone

text: Life and career[edit]

text: Barone was born in St. Louis, Missouri. She earned her BFA from the University of Detroit Mercy,[1] followed by an MFA from Wayne State University where she was taught by director/professor Robert T. Hazzard.[2]

text: Barone appeared in the fourth-season Seinfeld episode "The Shoes" as Gail Cunningham, a chef who wanted Elaine Benes' shoes. In the early 1990s, she was a regular cast member of Carol & Company with actress Carol Burnett. Barone also played Carol Willick, Ross Geller's ex-wife, in the character's first appearance in Friends. She left the show as she wanted to pursue a more full-time role; she was replaced by Jane Sibbett. She starred on The Jeff Foxworthy Show for the first season (1995–1996) and in The War at Home[3] from 2005 to 2007. In 2000, Barone also co-starred in the sitcom Daddio.[4]

text: Barone's other television credits include Curb Your Enthusiasm, Quantum Leap, Empty Nest, Chicago Hope, Castle, Do Not Disturb, Ally McBeal, Caroline in the City, Party of Five and The Larry Sanders Show.[4]

text: In 2004, she was the recipient of the 2005 Methodfest Best Supporting Actress Award for her work in feature film, One Last Ride.[5]

text: In 2010, three years after The War at Home ended its run, Barone began her recurring role in the Disney Channel sitcom Shake It Up as Officer Georgia Jones, the mother of Bella Thorne's character CeCe Jones. Barone's husband, actor Matthew Glave, guest starred in two episodes of Shake It Up as J.J. Jones, the ex-husband of Barone's character.

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Barone is married to actor Matthew Glave, with whom she has two daughters, Madeline and Roxanne. She currently lives in Los Angeles with her family.

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text:
The Rosary Murders (1987)
Ricochet (1991)
The Takeover (1995)
Just Friends (1996)
Running Time (1997)
Just Write (1997)
Dream with the Fishes (1997)
Santa's Little Helper (1999)
The Sex Monster (1999)
Buttleman (2002)
One Last Ride (2003)

text: Television[edit]

text:
Seinfeld – Gail Cunningham (one episode, 1993)
Friends – Carol Willick, Ross's ex-wife (six episode, 1994)
The Jeff Foxworthy Show – Karen Foxworthy (1995–1996)
Party of Five – Frannie (1997)
Daddio – Linda Woods (2000)
The War at Home – Vicky Gold (2005–2007)
Castle – Janice Freeman (2009)
Desperate Housewives - Doreen Vance (one episode, "Come On Over for Dinner", 2011)
Shake It Up – Georgia Jones (2010–2013) (recurring role)
The Exes - Julia (one episode, 2013)
K.C. Undercover - Lucy Miller (one episode, K.C. Times Three, 2018)