document_title: The Vampire Diaries (season 2)

question_text: the vampire diaries when does caroline become a vampire

text: The Vampire Diaries (season 2)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Nina Dobrev as Elena Gilbert (22 episodes) / Katherine Pierce (18 episodes)
Paul Wesley as Stefan Salvatore (22 episodes)
Ian Somerhalder as Damon Salvatore (22 episodes)
Steven R. McQueen as Jeremy Gilbert (17 episodes)
Sara Canning as Jenna Sommers (15 episodes)
Kat Graham as Bonnie Bennett (17 episodes)
Candice Accola as Caroline Forbes (20 episodes)
Zach Roerig as Matt Donovan (15 episodes)
Michael Trevino as Tyler Lockwood (15 episodes)
Matt Davis as Alaric Saltzman (17 episodes)

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Susan Walters as Carol Lockwood (13 episodes)
Daniel Gillies as Elijah Mikaelson (alias Smith) (12 episodes)
Marguerite MacIntyre as Sheriff Elizabeth "Liz" Forbes (8 episodes)
Taylor Kinney as Mason Lockwood (8 episodes)
David Anders as John Gilbert (7 episodes)
Bryton James as Luka Martin (7 episodes)
Randy J. Goodwin as Dr. Jonas Martin (6 episodes)
Michaela McManus as Jules (6 episodes)
Lauren Cohan as Rosemary "Rose" (5 episodes)
Dawn Olivieri as Andie Starr (4 episodes)
Joseph Morgan as Klaus Mikaelson (4 episodes)
Gino Anthony Pesi as Maddox (4 episodes)

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Tiya Sircar as Aimee Bradley (3 episodes)
Lisa Tucker as Greta Martin (3 episodes)
Trent Ford as Trevor (3 episodes)
Maiara Walsh as Sarah (2 episodes)
Stephen Amell as Brady (2 episodes)
Mia Kirshner as Isobel Flemming (2 episodes)
Trevor Peterson as Slater (1 episodes)
B.J. Britt as Carter (1 episode)
Courtney Ford as Vanessa Monroe (1 episode)
Simon Miller as George Lockwood (1 episode)
Natashia Williams as Lucy Bennett (1 episode)
Bree Condon as Alice (1 episode)
James Harvey Ward as Cody Webber (1 episode)
Ahna O'Reilly as Jessica Cohen (1 episode)
Arielle Kebbel as Alexia "Lexi" Branson (1 episode)
Bianca Lawson as Emily Bennett (voice only) (1 episode)
Malese Jow as Annabelle "Anna" (1 episode)
Kayla Ewell as Vicki Donovan (uncredited) (1 episode)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

23
1
"The Return"
J. Miller Tobin
Kevin Williamson & Julie Plec
September 9, 2010 (2010-09-09)
2J5251
3.28[5]

Picking up where the first season left off, Elena arrives home to discover the fates of Uncle John and Jeremy. Jeremy has not transitioned into a vampire, because he did not take enough drugs to die and Anna's blood overcame the overdose. Damon, Bonnie, and Elena agree that Caroline needs Damon's blood to survive. Damon realizes that Katherine has returned and is impersonating Elena. Tyler is surprised when his uncle, Mason Lockwood, arrives in town to console him. Katherine and Damon nearly sleep together, but Katherine tells Damon, "it will always be Stefan". Distraught, Damon goes to see Elena, who resists his attempt to kiss her. Angry that Elena also loves Stefan, Damon snaps Jeremy's neck. Jeremy survives because he is wearing a Gilbert ring, which protects the wearer from death from supernatural causes. Katherine goes to the hospital and smothers Caroline with a pillow. Before Caroline dies, Katherine gives her a message for the Salvatore brothers: "Game on."

24
2
"Brave New World"
John Dahl
Brian Young
September 16, 2010 (2010-09-16)
2J5252
3.05[6]

Caroline has become a vampire and awakens in the hospital craving blood. Tyler catches Mason searching for a moonstone, which is a family heirloom. At the carnival, Damon compels a boy named Carter to pick a fight with Tyler to provoke one of Tyler's bursts of anger. Mason breaks up the fight using his supernatural abilities, proving that he is a werewolf. Caroline confronts Damon about his abusive treatment, and he realizes that she is a vampire. He alerts Elena and Stefan, while a ravenous Caroline drains Carter. Stefan promises Caroline he will guide her journey as a vampire. Tyler retrieves the moonstone Mason has been seeking. Matt notices Caroline's erratic behavior but admits that he loves her.

25
3
"Bad Moon Rising"
Patrick Norris
Andrew Chambliss
September 23, 2010 (2010-09-23)
2J5253
3.57[7]

Elena, Damon, and Alaric head to Isobel's old office at Duke University, where it is revealed that vampires and werewolves used to roam freely until a shaman uttered a curse to limit their powers, after which the werewolves were servants of the moon and vampires became the slaves of the sun. Stefan teaches Caroline how to control herself and hunt animals. Bonnie makes Caroline a daylight ring so that she will not be burned by the sun. In werewolf form, Mason encounters Stefan and Caroline. Tyler saves them by shouting at the werewolf; he later finds Mason in the woods and realises what has happened. Unable to control herself, Caroline feeds on Matt. She compels him to forget it, but ends their relationship to keep him safe from her. Damon tells Elena Katherine's real name, Katerina Petrova, to aid Elena with her research. Alaric reaffirms his romantic interest in Jenna, and Caroline finds Katherine in her bedroom.

26
4
"Memory Lane"
Rob Hardy
Caroline Dries
September 30, 2010 (2010-09-30)
2J5254
3.18[8]

Katherine tells Stefan that she will kill Elena unless he ends his relationship with her, and as a result, Elena realizes that Caroline is working for Katherine. Elena and Katherine finally meet, but Katherine ignores Elena's questions. Damon stabs Mason with a silver knife, but Mason says it is only a myth that silver hurts werewolves. They are now enemies. Katherine remembers how in 1864, after Stefan and Damon were shot in an attempt to save her, she had kissed Stefan, declaring her love and saying they would be together again one day. Stefan and Elena stage a fake break-up to prevent Katherine from hurting anybody.

27
5
"Kill or Be Killed"
Jeff Woolnough
Mike Daniels
October 7, 2010 (2010-10-07)
2J5255
3.47[9]

At the Mystic Falls picnic, Mason Lockwood tells Sheriff Liz Forbes that Stefan and Damon are vampires. Liz and her fellow police officers shoot Stefan and Damon. Caroline and Elena reach the Salvatore's before Liz can kill them, but Caroline's identity as a vampire is exposed to her mother. Liz rejects Caroline as her daughter, and Stefan drinks Elena's blood to gain strength. Caroline confesses to Elena that Katherine had threatened to kill Matt if Caroline didn't spy on Elena and Stefan for her; Elena forgives Caroline. Jeremy and Tyler start to bond when Tyler learns that Jeremy knows about the curse. Tyler almost kills a girl, feeling for a second that he wants her to die. He then tells Mason that he wants nothing to do with the curse, and gives him the moonstone. It is revealed that Mason is working for Katherine, who wants the moonstone, and that they are lovers.

28
6
"Plan B"
John Behring
Elizabeth Craft & Sarah Fain
October 21, 2010 (2010-10-21)
2J5256
3.62[10]

Liz accepts Caroline, and Caroline compels her mother to forget that she is a vampire. Bonnie incapacitates Mason by giving him an aneurysm. Damon then questions and tortures Mason who, believing that Katherine loves him, refuses to talk. Telling Mason that Katherine is using him, Damon eventually kills him. Bonnie has a vision of the moonstone's location in a well. Stefan discovers that the well is full of vervain, which burns him. Caroline and Bonnie help Elena rescue Stefan and retrieve the moonstone. Katherine compels Jenna to stab herself. Fearful of what else Katherine might do, Elena breaks up with Stefan for good. Needing another werewolf, Katherine compels Matt to attack Tyler, so that Tyler will kill Matt and become a werewolf.

29
7
"Masquerade"
Charles Beeson
Kevin Williamson & Julie Plec
October 28, 2010 (2010-10-28)
2J5257
3.55[11]

Stefan, Damon, Bonnie, Jeremy, Alaric, and Caroline plan to kill Katherine at the Lockwoods' masquerade ball. Katherine is visited by Lucy, a witch who is to help her retrieve the moonstone. Under Katherine's compulsion, Matt fights Tyler. Caroline breaks up the fight, but Sarah, who is also compelled, stabs Tyler, and he accidentally breaks her neck. Tyler's eyes turn yellow, showing that the curse has been triggered. Stefan and Damon try to kill Katherine, but they stop when Jeremy tells them that every time they stake her, Elena is wounded. Katherine reveals that she had Lucy put a spell on Elena and herself, which linked them. Lucy, who is Bonnie's cousin, lifts the spell and incapacitates Katherine, who collapses. Damon traps Katherine in the underground tomb. As Elena heads home she is intercepted by a masked stranger.

30
8
"Rose"
Liz Friedlander
Brian Young
November 4, 2010 (2010-11-04)
2J5258
3.63[12]

A vampire named Trevor takes Elena to an abandoned house, where she meets Rose, another vampire. When Tyler witnesses Caroline's abilities, she reveals that she is a vampire. Elena overhears Rose and Trevor arguing about a vampire named Elijah. Using a spell, Bonnie locates Elena. Elena tries to extract information from Rose, who tells her that Elijah is one of the "original" vampires. Rose and Trevor are using Elena, the Petrova doppelgänger who is the key to breaking the curse, as a bargaining chip. Elijah arrives, and Rose offers him Elena in exchange for their pardon. Elijah agrees but kills Trevor. Elena tries to stall Elijah by saying that she knows where the moonstone is, but he compels her to tell him its location. Stefan and Damon arrive to fight with Elijah and stake him. Elena's vervain necklace remains at the house. Later that night, Damon is in Elena's bedroom with her vervain necklace in his hand. He tells her that he loves her but doesn't deserve her, and that Stefan does. Then he compels her to forget what he said. In the abandoned house, Elijah pulls the wooden stake out of his chest.

31
9
"Katerina"
J. Miller Tobin
Andrew Chambliss
November 11, 2010 (2010-11-11)
2J5259
3.50[13]

This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The episode begins in Bulgaria in 1490 and shows Katherine giving birth to a baby girl. Her father says that she has shamed their family and takes the baby away. In the present, Elena goes to the tomb, where she offers Katherine blood in exchange for the truth - that a doppelgänger from the Petrova line can be used to break the curse. As Katherine's descendant, Elena is the current Petrova doppelgänger. Katherine reveals that she was expelled from Bulgaria and fled to England, where Elijah and Trevor found her. They recognized her as the Petrova doppelgänger and Elijah tried to kill her, but Trevor helped her to escape. She became a vampire so that she could not be used to break the curse. Katherine came to Mystic Falls to offer Klaus what he needed to lift the curse: the current doppelgänger, a witch, a werewolf, a vampire, and the moonstone. She hoped that Klaus would spare her life in exchange for this. Bonnie meets a warlock named Luka and his father. Jeremy is jealous of Bonnie's attraction to Luka. Damon and Rose seek information about Klaus from Rose's vampire friend, Slater, but a healed Elijah overhears them. Damon and Rose sleep together, and Elijah compels Slater to stake himself. It is revealed that Luka and his father are working for Elijah.

32
10
"The Sacrifice"
Ralph Hemecker
Caroline Dries
December 2, 2010 (2010-12-02)
2J5260
3.46[14]

Elena and Rose go to ask Slater about Klaus, but they find his staked corpse. Elena uses information from Slater's computer to get Klaus's attention, saying she wants to surrender. Caroline and Tyler discover Mason's journal and the video diary that he used to document his transformations. Bonnie plans to lift the spell from the tomb and incapacitate Katherine so that Stefan can grab the moonstone, but Jeremy goes ahead with the plan alone and is captured by Katherine, who feeds on him. Stefan saves Jeremy but is trapped himself. Three vampires confront Damon, Rose, and Elena. Elijah kills the three vampires and then departs. Back home, a trapped Stefan makes Damon promise to protect Elena. Elijah informs Luka's father that Damon and Stefan will protect Elena, which is Elijah's goal.

33
11
"By the Light of the Moon"
Elizabeth Allen
Mike Daniels
December 9, 2010 (2010-12-09)
2J5261
3.16[15]

As the full moon approaches, Caroline helps Tyler prepare for his transformation. Stefan asks Katherine to prove that there is good in her, and she advises him to ask Isobel for help in finding Klaus. Bonnie seeks Luka's help to destroy the moonstone; they cast a spell, but Luka gives the moonstone to his father. Jules, a friend of Mason, arrives in Mystic Falls looking for him. Damon and Alaric try to trick her into having a drink mixed with wolfsbane. She reveals that she is a werewolf and tells Damon that he has been marked. Elijah makes a deal with Elena: she has to keep herself safe from Klaus (so that Elijah can use her as bait to kill Klaus) and in return, Elijah will protect her friends and family and free Stefan from the tomb. Caroline reunites with Tyler. At the Salvatore mansion, Jules, in wolf form, tries to attack Damon but instead bites Rose's shoulder, which becomes infected.

34
12
"The Descent"
Marcos Siega
Elizabeth Craft & Sarah Fain
January 27, 2011 (2011-01-27)
2J5262
3.55[16]

Stefan tries to contact Isobel and gets in touch with John Gilbert, who comes home. While Damon tries to get Jules to tell him how to cure the werewolf bite, he asks Elena to keep an eye on Rose, who becomes delirious and mistakes her for Katherine. Caroline and Matt confess their love for each other. Tyler's reaction to Caroline's generosity surprises her. Rose escapes from the Salvatore house and goes on a killing spree. Damon finds her and brought her back to the Salvatore's house, he then stakes her, while giving her a peaceful death by giving her a dream about her old home. He confesses to a stranger that he misses being human. He lets her go, but bites her soon after. Jules informs Tyler that she knows that he and Mason are werewolves. She tells him that more werewolves are coming.

35
13
"Daddy Issues"
Joshua Butler
Kevin Williamson & Julie Plec
February 3, 2011 (2011-02-03)
2J5263
3.22[17]

Tyler is furious that Caroline has kept Mason's death secret from him. Jenna becomes upset over the revelation that John is Elena's biological father. Jules meets her wolf-lover Brady and tells him she wants to leave town and take Tyler with them. Caroline asks Stefan to reason with Tyler, while Jules takes Caroline hostage. Jules tells Stefan to bring Tyler to her in exchange for Caroline. Stefan tries to make peace, but he fails, and Damon offers his "bloodier" method. Jules then calls on her wolf friends, and although Damon and Stefan are outnumbered, they kill most of the wolves. Tyler releases Caroline from the cage, but watches as Jules has Caroline at gunpoint. As Stefan and Damon are about to get staked, Jonas, on Elijah's behalf, incapacitates the remaining wolves. Tyler tries to apologize to Caroline, but she tells him they are no longer friends. Tyler tells Jules and Brady that Mason was probably killed because he found the moonstone. John says that he returned to protect Elena, and that the only way to kill an Original is with a dagger dipped in ash from a white oak as old as the Originals. John is shown to be still working with Katherine and trying to get her out of the tomb.

36
14
"Crying Wolf"
David Von Ancken
Brian Young
February 10, 2011 (2011-02-10)
2J5264
2.78[18]

Stefan and Elena spend a weekend at the Gilbert lakehouse, unaware that they've been followed by Tyler and Brady. Jenna worries that Alaric isn't being honest about his past. Jules and Brady explain the sun and moon curse to Tyler and lure him into helping them. Bonnie performs a hypnosis spell on Luka in order to get information. Luka reveals that Elijah plans to kill Klaus by making him vulnerable after he sacrifices Elena. He also reveals that Klaus has his sister, so he and his father are working for Elijah to help him kill Klaus. Jules and her friends torture Damon for information about the moonstone, but Elijah intervenes, kills most of the wolves, and saves Damon. Brady finds Stefan and shoots him with a wooden bullet, leaving Tyler to guard him. When Tyler learns that Elena has to die for the curse to be broken, he lets Stefan go. Stefan kills Brady to save Elena. Meanwhile, Jeremy and Bonnie confess their feelings for each other and kiss. Realising that Elena knew about Elijah's real plan for her, Stefan tells her that she is behaving like a martyr. Tyler tells Matt that he has feelings for Caroline but knows that Caroline loves Matt. The episode ends with Jules and Tyler leaving town.

37
15
"The Dinner Party"
Marcos Siega
Andrew Chambliss
February 17, 2011 (2011-02-17)
2J5265
3.07[19]

Elena reads one of Jonathan Gilbert's journals about a night when Stefan attacked him and killed two of the Fells. Stefan admits that he had been brutal and inhuman until Lexi showed him the path of love and humanity. Damon invites Elijah to the boarding house for a dinner party, intending to kill him. Jonathan Gilbert's journal reveals that if a vampire uses the dagger to kill an Original, both will die. After Stefan sends a warning, Alaric stabs and kills Elijah, but the body later disappears. Elena reads in the journal that if the dagger is removed, the Original will come back to life. John blackmails Alaric into returning his ring. Elijah shows up at the lake house telling Elena that the deal is off, but Elena threatens to kill herself and become a vampire so that she will no longer be useful to him. Elijah calls her out on a bluff, but Elena stabs herself. Elijah begs Elena to let him heal her, and she agrees, but then stabs him with the dagger, killing him again. Damon returns home to find Katherine there. Elijah's compulsion on her has worn off with his death, and she says she intends to help them.

38
16
"The House Guest"
Michael Katleman
Caroline Dries
February 24, 2011 (2011-02-24)
2J5266
2.98[20]

Discovering that Katherine is free, Elena is upset. Stefan and Bonnie try to persuade Jonas and Luka to work with them, but Jonas wants Elijah alive again. He performs a ritual that puts Luka in the boarding house in invisible form. Luka tries to remove the dagger from Elijah's body, but Katherine stops him. Luka then stakes Katherine, but Damon uses a flamethrower to prevent the removal of the dagger. Luka is fatally burned, and Jonas vows to avenge him by killing Elena. Bonnie tells Elena about her relationship with Jeremy and is surprised by Elena's positive response. Jonas appears at the Grill, looking for Elena. Bonnie tries to stop him, but he disables her; Matt intervenes, but Jonas stabs him. Caroline sees Matt dying and forces him to drink her blood to save his life. Jonas attacks Elena, but she proves to be Katherine, and she bites him. Alaric tells Jenna that he loves her. Bonnie reveals that Jonas has restored her powers and told her how to kill Klaus. Caroline tells Matt that she is a vampire, but he takes the news badly. Isobel shows up at Elena's house and tells Jenna that she is Elena's mother.

39
17
"Know Thy Enemy"
Wendey Stanzler
Mike Daniels
April 7, 2011 (2011-04-07)
2J5267
2.73[21]

Elena and Alaric become angry with John when Isobel's arrival devastates Jenna. Alaric is abducted by Maddox, a warlock from Klaus's inner circle. Meanwhile, Bonnie works with Jeremy and Damon to find the spell they need to gather the power of the witches killed in the massacre. Damon takes them to the site where the witches were burned. Matt demands to know what happened to Vicki. After Caroline tells him and then compels him to forget, it is revealed that Matt's involvement was a setup by Sheriff Forbes to find out everything about the vampires. Matt has drunk vervain, so the compulsion does not work. Isobel kidnaps Elena and then receives a phone call from Maddox, who tells her that she has finished what Klaus compelled her to do and is free to let Elena go. Isobel apologizes to Elena for being a disappointment as a mother, removes her necklace, and burns to death in the sun. Stefan and Damon realize that Bonnie is their new secret weapon since she now has tremendous power. Jeremy is upset because, if Bonnie uses too much power, she will die. Katherine, who had been set up by Isobel and taken by Maddox, wakes up to see Klaus take control of Alaric's body.

40
18
"The Last Dance"
John Behring
Michael Narducci
April 14, 2011 (2011-04-14)
2J5268
2.81[22]

Klaus (in Alaric's body) compels Katherine to tell him how the others plan to kill him. He then finds out that Bonnie has obtained power that could threaten his life. At the school dance, Jeremy confronts Bonnie about why she wants to kill herself for Elena, and Damon overhears. Jeremy goes to Stefan for help, and Stefan tells Elena about Bonnie's plans. Elena finally guesses who "Alaric" really is. Bonnie fights Klaus with her powers and appears to die. As Elena grieves, Damon tells her that Klaus must believe Bonnie is dead, but her death was faked. Realizing that Bonnie intends to endanger herself to defeat Klaus, Elena pulls the dagger out of Elijah's heart.

41
19
"Klaus"
Joshua Butler
Kevin Williamson & Julie Plec
April 21, 2011 (2011-04-21)
2J5269
2.70[23]

After Elena removed the dagger, Elijah wakes, and Elena makes another deal with him. In a flashback to 1492 England, Katherine meets Elijah and Klaus for the first time. Elijah and Klaus were raised as brothers, but Klaus was the result of their mother's affair with a man from a werewolf bloodline. Elijah's father hunted down the man and had him and his family killed, beginning the schism between werewolves and vampires. As a vampire/werewolf hybrid, Klaus can only be killed by a witch. The sun and moon curse was fake – the real curse is that Klaus's werewolf side had been forced into dormancy by witches. Jenna finally finds out about the vampires from Stefan and Klaus/Alaric. Elsewhere, Katherine is being held captive by Klaus. Damon finds her and gives her a vial of vervain to protect her from further compulsion. At the end of the episode, Maddox and Greta (Luka's sister) perform a ritual to release Klaus's spirit from Alaric's body and put it back into his own.

42
20
"The Last Day"
J. Miller Tobin
Andrew Chambliss & Brian Young
April 28, 2011 (2011-04-28)
2J5270
2.68[24]

Elijah tells Elena that the way to break the curse involves sacrifice a vampire and a werewolf. Maddox injures Carol Lockwood to make Tyler return to town, after which he and Greta kidnap Caroline and Tyler. Damon forces Elana to drink his blood so she will "survive" the sacrifice. Alaric returns as himself and gives the message from Klaus that the ritual will happen that night. Jenna forgives him. Damon realizes that if Klaus doesn't have a werewolf, he will be unable to complete the ritual, and Elena will have another month. He rescues Caroline and Tyler from the tomb and kills Maddox. Klaus takes Elena from the boarding house to begin the ritual. Damon informs Klaus that he has rescued the vampire and werewolf he needs for the ritual, but Klaus says he has backups. At the site of the ritual, Elena realizes that Klaus has turned Jenna and is using her as the vampire. Katherine makes Damon aware of a wolf bite he got from Tyler during his transformation.

43
21
"The Sun Also Rises"
Paul M. Sommers
Caroline Dries & Mike Daniels
May 5, 2011 (2011-05-05)
2J5271
2.84[25]

Matt and Caroline are in the Lockwood cellar while Tyler, in wolf form, attacks them, and they hide. Meanwhile, Greta the witch feeds Jenna her blood, completing Jenna's transformation into a vampire. Elijah is revealed to be seeking revenge on Klaus for killing his family and burying their bodies at sea. Klaus begins the ritual and kills Jules, the werewolf. Stefan offers to switch places with Jenna, but Klaus refuses and kills her. Bonnie performs a spell that can bring someone back to life by joining two people's souls, binding John and Elena. At the ritual grounds, Klaus drains Elena's blood and begins to transform. However, Bonnie uses her powers to weaken him while Damon kills Greta. Before Elijah can rip out his heart, Klaus says he didn't bury the bodies at sea and if he is killed, Elijah will never find them. Elijah listens to him and flees with Klaus. When Elena comes back to life, John dies. At Jenna's and John's funeral, Damon reveals to Stefan that he was bitten by Tyler and asks him to not tell Elena.

44
22
"As I Lay Dying"
John Behring
Turi Meyer & Al Septien & Michael Narducci
May 12, 2011 (2011-05-12)
2J5272
2.86[26]

This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Damon apologizes to Elena for feeding her his blood. At home, he tries to kill himself by taking off his ring and walking into sunlight but is stopped by Stefan and locked in a cell. Klaus has completed the transformation into a wolf and awakens to find Elijah waiting for him. He makes Klaus remember his deal: he must reunite Elijah with their family, and Klaus does so by staking Elijah. Stefan seeks Klaus for a cure for Damon. Klaus then bites Katherine and feeds her his blood, revealing the cure for a werewolf bite. In exchange for a vial of his blood, Klaus wants Stefan to become a ripper again and leave Mystic Falls with him. Stefan drinks human blood to prove himself. Klaus gives Katherine the cure for Damon and allows her to leave. Sheriff Forbes, who wants to kill Damon, accidentally frees him from his cell. She later tracks him down and shoots at him but strikes and kills Jeremy instead. Bonnie begs the witches to bring Jeremy back to life saying that she loves him, and they do, warning of "consequences." Elena finds a delirious Damon, brings him home, and kisses him after he confesses his love. Katherine interrupts with Klaus's cure for the werewolf bite. Klaus tests Stefan, asking him to kill someone. Once Stefan does, Klaus says that they can leave Mystic Falls. At the Gilbert house, Jeremy finds his deceased vampire ex-girlfriends Anna and Vicki.

text: Production[edit]

text: On February 16, 2010, The CW officially renewed The Vampire Diaries for a full 22-episode second season.[1] It premiered on Thursday September 9, 2010, at 8 pm ET.[2] The season finale aired on May 12, 2011.[27]

text: Cast[edit]

text: On July 9, 2010, Entertainment Weekly announced Taylor Kinney would join the cast in a recurring role as Tyler's uncle Mason, a werewolf who comes to town after his brother dies. Katherine sends Mason to Mystic Falls to get the moonstone for her. He succeeds, but Damon and Stefan find out that he works with Katherine, and Damon kills him. Mason has been described as a "cool" uncle, sexy and athletic.[28] Lauren Cohan joined the cast as Rose, a 500-year-old vampire and possible love interest for Damon. She kidnaps Elena to hand her over to Elijah, but Elena is saved by Stefan and Damon. She then becomes their ally and even starts a small romantic relationship with Damon. She dies after being bitten by werewolf Jules.[29]

text: Michaela McManus joined the cast in a guest role as a werewolf who comes to town looking for answers about Mason's death.[30] She helps Tyler deal with the discovery that he is a werewolf, but is later killed during the sacrifice. Bryton James portrays warlock Luka Martin in season two. He befriends Bonnie, but it is later revealed that he and his father work for Elijah. When he tries to save Elijah invisibly, Damon burns him to death. His father Jonas Martin, played by Randy J. Goodwin in season two, is introduced as a friend of Elijah. He is a warlock who, in order to save his daughter Greta, is willing and able to help defeat Klaus.[31] He is later killed by Katherine, who is protecting the Salvatore brothers.[32]

text: Gino Anthony Pesi portrays Maddox at the end of season two, a warlock who works for Klaus. Matt shoots him to death when he tries to overcome Damon. On February 18, 2011, it was announced that British actor Joseph Morgan had signed on to play original vampire Klaus.[33]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: This section's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The second season focuses mainly on the arrival of Elena's doppelgänger Katherine Pierce and on her reasons for returning to Mystic Falls. It also introduces werewolves. Tyler's werewolf uncle, Mason Lockwood, arrives after the death of Tyler's father and tells Tyler about the so-called "Lockwood curse" in their family. To activate the werewolf gene, the person must kill someone. Katherine turns Caroline into a vampire, so as to have a spy against Stefan and Elena. Katherine's main reason for returning to Mystic Falls is to find the moonstone, with the help of Mason, who is killed by Damon. Katherine calls in a favor from a witch named Lucy to get the stone. Lucy casts a spell so that when Katherine is hurt, it also affects Elena.

text: When Lucy finds out that another Bennett is at the party and that Katherine had deceived her, she puts a spell on the moonstone, injuring Katherine. Damon then leaves her in the original tomb where she is trapped until the spell has been removed from the tomb. She tells him that her reason for not killing Elena is that she is in danger. Elena is later kidnapped by a masked individual and held hostage by vampires Rose and Trevor, who have been on the run from the Originals (the first generation of vampires). Rose reveals to Elena that she is the Petrova doppelgänger and needs to be sacrificed to break the sun and moon curse. Katherine was also a Petrova doppelgänger, who used Trevor to help her escape from the Originals and Rose to turn her into a vampire to save herself. Elena is rescued by Stefan and Damon by stabbing Elijah with a sharp wooden pole and they escape.

text: Klaus, one of the original vampires, arrives and is now hunting Elena. His brother Elijah has made a deal with Elena to protect her loved ones, because he wants to use her as bait to lure Klaus and kill him. Jules, a friend of Mason, tells the Lockwoods that Mason never came back to Florida and is missing. Alaric is suspicious of Jules and calls Damon to the Grill (local town hangout). Jules reveals that she is a werewolf. Damon tells Jules she won't find Mason and to leave town. Jules breaks into the Salvatore mansion in wolf form and attacks Damon, but Rose pushes him out of the way, getting bitten on the shoulder instead (werewolf bites are lethal to vampires). As Rose succumbs to the effects of the bite, Damon stakes her in a glorious dream they share, giving her a peaceful death.

text: Uncle John returns to Mystic Falls and comes as an unpleasant surprise to Elena, Damon, Jenna, and Alaric. John reveals to Damon that the only way to kill an Original is with a dagger dipped in white ash wood. A boy named Luka settle in the town with his father (they are both warlocks) and reveals that they are working for Elijah because Klaus has his sister Greta and they want him (Luka) dead as well. Luka becomes friends with Bonnie and tells her that Klaus will be weakened by the sacrificial ritual, meaning that Elena has to die so that Elijah can kill him and free his sister. John gives Damon the special dagger to kill Elijah.

text: Elena finds out that if a vampire uses the dagger, that vampire will die. Stefan warns Damon and Alaric stabs Elijah, but he pulls the dagger out and tells Elena their deal is off. Elena stabs herself in the stomach, and Elijah begs her to let him heal her. She stabs him with the dagger and leaves it in him. Elijah's death means that Katherine is no longer compelled to stay in the tomb. She helps kill the Martin witches. When Isobel returns to town, Katherine double-crosses the Salvatores by kidnapping Elena and stealing the moonstone for Klaus in exchange for her freedom. But it is revealed that Klaus wanted Katherine and compelled Isobel to get her and the moonstone.

text: Klaus enters Alaric's body and compels Katherine to stay in Alaric's house. Bonnie and Jeremy find the site of the a witch massacre and Bonnie channels all the power. Alaric/Klaus blends with Stefan, Damon, and Elena and finds out that Bonnie has her powers. Damon tells Bonnie to put on a protection spell and make Alaric/Klaus believe that she is dead. Elena does not want Bonnie to die, so she pulls the dagger out of Elijah's heart. After Elijah comes to life, Elena learns the full history of Klaus. The Aztec curse is fake and there is a curse on Klaus, as he is a vampire born in a werewolf bloodline. There is a ritual that involves killing a vampire and a werewolf and a Petrova doppelganger, that will unearth the werewolf side of Klaus making him a hybrid.

text: Elena realizes that the real curse is on Klaus, who therefore wants to kill her. But Elijah says he has an elixir that can save Elena from dying. Elena believes Elijah, but Damon says that there is another way to save her life and feeds her his blood. Stefan tries to stop him, but he stabs in the chest with the wooden dagger. Elena then cries that she will be a vampire against her will. Maddox kidnaps Tyler and Caroline. Damon frees them and is bitten. Then he goes to Klaus to tell him that he does not have a werewolf and witch, as he killed Maddox. Klaus says that he has backups. Klaus takes Elena from Stefan. Elena sees Jenna, who thinks she is dead, but Greta tells her she is transitioning. Damon asks Katherine about the vampire, and she says that Jenna is the backup vampire. He then checks his arm and sees that Tyler has bitten him.

text: In the season's finale, Klaus is working on the ritual out in the woods and is near completion when he is about to kill Elena, but Stefan tries to work a deal with him. Klaus agrees to have Stefan work for him in exchange for Damon's protection. Elena is "killed" in the ritual but is shown to have survived. Regardless, Klaus's werewolf side is unleashed and he becomes the first hybrid, half vampire half werewolf. Bonnie arrives and subdues Klaus with her powers, giving Elijah the opportunity to strike, but Klaus talks him down offering to help find their siblings. Elena's survival is revealed as John had Bonnie cast a spell that had him die in Elena's place. The next morning John succumbs and dies. At his funeral, Elena reads a note from John saying he will always love her and she will always be his daughter, even if she becomes a vampire. Damon also shows where he was bitten and walks away.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "The throbbing red heart of The Vampire Diaries remains the tension between Damon and Paul Wesley's Stefan, and their mutual attraction to whomever Dobrev is embodying at the time."[34] Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald said, "The triangle – quadrangle? – becomes more twisted by episode's end. It leads to shocking violence against outsiders that deepens the tragedy and the mythology at the core of the show. "Game on" just might be the two most chilling words uttered this season."[34] Matt Roush of TV Guide commented, "The Vampire Diaries is the sort of show where 'never say die' is written into the mythology – a good thing for several of the opening hour's apparent victims. I don't know how much longer The Vampire Diaries can keep churning stories at this feverish rate, but if this is your sort of guilty pleasure, you'd be crazy not to bite."[34]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: DVR viewers[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
18–49 rating (Live + SD)
Viewers
(millions) increase
Total 18-49 increase
Total viewers
(millions)
Ref

02
"Brave New World"
September 16, 2010 (2010-09-16)
1.4
0.91
1.9
3.96
[35]

03
"Bad Moon Rising"
September 23, 2010 (2010-09-23)
1.4
0.92
1.9
4.49
[36]

04
"Memory Lane"
September 30, 2010 (2010-09-30)
1.2
0.95
1.8
4.13
[37]

06
"Plan B"
October 21, 2010 (2010-10-21)
1.7
1.04
2.2
4.66
[38]

07
"Masquerade"
October 28, 2010 (2010-10-28)
1.7
0.85
2.2
4.40
[39]

08
"Rose"
November 4, 2010 (2010-11-04)
1.6
1.12
2.1
4.75
[40]

09
"Katerina"
November 11, 2010 (2010-11-11)
1.6
1.01
2.0
4.51
[41]

10
"The Sacrifice"
December 2, 2010 (2010-12-02)
1.6
1.07
2.1
4.53
[42]

11
"By the Light of the Moon"
December 9, 2010 (2010-12-09)
1.3
0.97
1.7
4.13
[43]

12
"The Descent"
January 27, 2011 (2011-01-27)
1.6
1.10
2.1
4.65
[44]

16
"The House Guest"
February 24, 2011 (2011-02-24)
1.3
1.13
1.8
4.11
[45]

17
"Know Thy Enemy"
April 7, 2011 (2011-04-07)
1.2
1.14
1.7
3.87
[46]

18
"The Last Dance"
April 14, 2011 (2011-04-14)
1.3
1.06
1.8
3.87
[47]

19
"Klaus"
April 21, 2011 (2011-04-21)
1.2
1.35
1.8
4.05
[48]

20
"The Last Day"
April 28, 2011 (2011-04-28)
1.2
1.34
1.8
4.02
[49]

21
"The Sun Also Rises"
May 5, 2011 (2011-05-05)
1.3
1.07
1.8
3.91
[50]

22
"As I Lay Dying"
May 12, 2011 (2011-05-12)
1.4
1.02
1.9
3.88
[51]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: For its second season The Vampire Diaries won five Teen Choice Awards, one People's Choice Award, and a nomination in Saturn Awards.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Vampire Diaries Season 2 was made available on DVD and Blu-ray on August 30, 2011.[52] In region B, it was released on August 22, 2011.[53]


question_text: who is the longest serving director of isro

root

text:
Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation

Incumbent
A. S. Kiran Kumar
since January 12, 2015

Inaugural holder
Vikram Sarabhai

Formation
1963

tag: table

text: The Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation is the highest-ranked official of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the space agency of the India. The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was found in 1962 with Vikram Sarabhai as its chairman. The Indian Space Research Organisation in its modern form was created by Vikarm Sarabhai in 1969.[1] Since then there have been seven chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation, with Prof. Satish Dhawan serving the longest term of 12 years as the Chairman.

tag: p

text:
Name
Term start
Term end
Term length
Ref(s)

Sarabhai, VikramVikram Sarabhai
000000001963-01-01-00001963
000000001972-01-01-00001972
9 !Nine years
[2]

Menon, M. G. K.M. G. K. Menon
000000001972-01-01-0000January 1972
000000001972-09-01-0000September 1972
0.75 !Nine months
[3]

Dhawan, SatishSatish Dhawan
000000001972-01-01-00001972
000000001984-01-01-00001984
12 !Twelve years
[4]

Rao, U. R.U. R. Rao
000000001984-01-01-00001984
000000001994-01-01-00001994
10 !Ten years
[5]

Kasturirangan, K.K. Kasturirangan
000000001994-01-01-00001994
000000002003-08-27-000027 August 2003
9 !Nine years
[6]

Nair, G. MadhavanG. Madhavan Nair
000000002003-09-01-0000September 2003
000000002009-10-29-000029 October 2009
6 !Six years
[7]

Radhakrishnan, K.K. Radhakrishnan
000000002009-10-30-000030 October 2009
000000002014-12-31-000031 December 2014
5 !Five years
[8]

Nayak, ShaileshShailesh Nayak
000000002015-01-01-00001 January 2015
000000002015-01-12-000012 January 2015
0.03 !12 days
[9]

Kumar, A. S. KiranA. S. Kiran Kumar
000000002015-01-14-000014 January 2015
Incumbent
[10]


document_title: Norman Bates

question_text: who is the serial killer in bates motel

question_tokens: who is the serial killer in bates motel

text: Norman Bates

text: Character overview[edit]

text: Both the 1959 novel, its 1960 film adaptation and the 1990 film prequel explain that Norman suffered severe emotional abuse as a child at the hands of his mother, Norma, who preached to him that sexual intercourse was sinful and that all women (except herself) were whores. The novel also suggests that their relationship may have been incestuous. After Norman's father, John Bates, died, Norman and his mother lived alone together "as if there was no one else in the world" until Norman reached adolescence, when his mother met Joe Considine (Chet Rudolph in Psycho IV: The Beginning) and planned to marry. Considine convinced Norma to open a motel. Driven over the edge with jealousy, Norman murdered both of them with strychnine. After committing the murders, Norman staged it like murder-suicide, making it look as if Norma had killed her fiancé and then herself. After a brief hospitalization for shock, he developed dissociative identity disorder, assuming his mother's personality to repress his awareness of her death and to escape the feelings of guilt for murdering her.[4] He inherited his mother's house—where he kept her corpse—and the family motel in the (fictional) small town of Fairvale, California.

text: Bloch sums up Norman's multiple personalities in his stylistic form of puns: "Norman", a child dependent on his mother; "Norma", a possessive mother who kills anyone who threatens the illusion of her existence; and "Normal", a functional adult who goes through the motions of day-to-day life. "Norma" dominates and belittles "Norman" much as she had when she was alive, forbidding him to have friends and flying into violent rages whenever he feels attracted to a woman. "Norma" and "Norman" carry on conversations through Norman talking to himself and to her corpse in his mother's voice, and Norman dresses in his mother's clothes whenever "Norma" takes hold completely.[5]

text: Psycho (novel and film)[edit]

text: In Bloch's 1959 novel and the 1960 Hitchcock film, Marion Crane (Janet Leigh), a young woman on the run after stealing money from her employer, checks into the motel one night. Norman is smitten with her, and shyly asks her to have dinner with him in the house. "Norma" flies into a rage and threatens to kill Marion if Norman lets her in the house. Norman defies her and eats dinner with Marion anyway, but lashes out at her when she suggests that he institutionalize his mother. When Marion goes to her room to shower, Norman spies on her through a peephole he drilled in the wall. "Norma" takes control and stabs Marion to death (she beheads her in the novel). When Norman awakes to discover what he believes his mother has done, he sinks Marion's car—with her corpse and the money in the trunk—into a nearby swamp. As "Norma", he also murders Milton Arbogast (Martin Balsam), a private detective hired by Marion's employer, days later.

text: Norman is finally caught when Marion's sister Lila (Vera Miles) and boyfriend, Sam Loomis (John Gavin), arrive at the motel looking for her. When Norman figures out what they want, he knocks Sam out and goes running after Lila, who has reached the house and found Norma's corpse. He attacks her as "Norma", but Sam, after awakening from having been knocked out, overpowers him, and Norman is finally arrested. Norman is declared insane and sent to an institution, where "Norma" takes complete, and permanent, control of his mind: he becomes his mother.[5]

text: Novel sequels[edit]

text: Psycho II[edit]

text: In Bloch's 1982 sequel to his first novel, Psycho II, Norman escapes from the psychiatric hospital by killing a nun and donning her habit. Picked up as a hitchhiker, Norman tries to attack the driver with a tire iron, but the driver overpowers him. This in turn causes a fiery accident where the driver escapes, but Norman dies. Norman's psychiatrist, Dr. Adam Claiborne, discovers Norman's corpse and assumes his personality.[6]

text: Psycho House[edit]

text: In Bloch's 1990 sequel to his second novel, Psycho House, Norman appears only as a novelty animatronic on display in the Bates Motel, which has been converted into a tourist attraction.

text: Psycho: Sanitarium[edit]

text: In Bloch's 2016 prequel to his second novel, Psycho: Sanitarium, Dr. Felix Reed tries to bring Norman out of a catatonic state. Sanitarium introduces Robert Newman, Norman's twin brother who was taken away at birth after the attending doctor pronounced him brain damaged. As Robert and Norman grow to know each other, Norman senses a darkness in Robert, even deeper than that which has lurked in Norman himself.

text: Film sequels[edit]

text: Psycho II[edit]

text: In 1983's Psycho II, the first sequel to the original film, Norman is released from the institution twenty-two years after his arrest, seemingly cured. He meets Mary Loomis (Meg Tilly)—Marion Crane's niece—and falls in love with her. However, a series of mysterious murders occurs, as well as strange appearances and messages from "Norma", and Norman slowly loses his grip on sanity. The mysterious appearances and messages turn out to be a plot by Mary's mother, Lila Loomis, to drive him insane again in order to get him recommitted. The actual murders turn out to be the work of Norman's coworker, Emma Spool (Claudia Bryar). Before Norman discovers this, however, Mary Loomis is shot dead by the police during a confrontation with Norman, and Spool murders Lila. When Spool tells Norman that she is his real mother, he kills her and embalms her corpse while assuming the "Mother" personality once again.[7]

text: Psycho III[edit]

text: In 1986's Psycho III, one month later, Norman continues to struggle, unsuccessfully, against "Norma"'s dominion. He also finds another love interest named Maureen Coyle (Diana Scarwid), who eventually dies at "Norma"'s hand. In the film, Mrs. Spool's corpse is first discovered by sleazy musician Duane Duke (Jeff Fahey), whom Norman kills when Duke tries to use the discovery to blackmail Norman. Tracy Venable (Roberta Maxwell), a reporter interested in Norman's case, finds out the truth about Spool. "Norma" orders Norman to kill Tracy, but in the end he destroys "Norma"'s corpse violently, attempting to break free of her control. He is then arrested and put back in the institution.

text: During the last few minutes of the movie, Tracy tells Norman that Emma Spool was his aunt, not his mother, and had killed his father in a jealous rage when he chose Norma over her. After Norma gave birth to Norman, Emma kidnapped the child, believing he was her son. She was arrested and institutionalized, leaving Norman to be raised by Norma.[8]

text: Psycho IV: The Beginning[edit]

text: 1990's Psycho IV: The Beginning, the final film in the series, retcons the revelations of the second and third film, supplying that Norman's father was stung to death by bees and removing all references to Emma Spool. In this film, Norman has been released from an institution, and is married to one of the hospital's psychologists, a woman named Connie (Donna Mitchell). When his wife becomes pregnant, he lures her to his mother's house and tries to kill her, wanting to prevent another of his "cursed" line from being born into the world; the film implies that Norma (Olivia Hussey) suffered from schizophrenia and borderline personality disorder and passed the illnesses on to her son. However, he relents at the last minute, when Connie professes her love for him. He then burns the house down in an attempt to free himself of his past. During the attempt, he is tormented by hallucinations of "Norma" and several of his victims. He almost dies in the flames before willing himself to get out, apparently defeating his illness at long last; he is finally free of his mother's voice, which demands to be let out. This was Anthony Perkins' final performance as Norman Bates; Henry Thomas portrayed Norman as a teenager.[9]

text: Television[edit]

text: Bates Motel (film)[edit]

text: In the 1987 television spin-off movie and series pilot Bates Motel, Norman is never released from the institution after his first incarceration. He befriends Alex West (Bud Cort), a fellow inmate who had murdered his stepfather, and wills ownership of the titular motel to him before dying of old age.[10]

text: Bates Motel (TV series)[edit]

text: The TV series Bates Motel, a contemporary prequel to the 1960 film Psycho, set in the present day, depicts the young Norman Bates' life with his mother, Norma (Vera Farmiga). However the final season of the series loosely adapts the plot of Psycho. In this continuity, Norman suffers from hallucinations and blackouts, and begins manifesting his "Mother" personality while Norma is alive. He kills his abusive father, Sam (David Cubitt), while in a dissociative state, and Norma moves them from Arizona, where he was born and raised, to White Pine Bay, Oregon, to protect him.[11] The series also introduces his maternal half-brother, Dylan Massett (Max Thieriot) and gives him a love interest in Emma Decody (Olivia Cooke), a classmate with cystic fibrosis.

text: As "Norma", Norman murders Blaire Watson (Keegan Connor Tracy), one of his teachers who seduces him;[12] Bradley Martin (Nicola Peltz), a girl he has feelings for;[13] and Audrey Ellis Decody (Karina Logue), Emma's estranged mother.[14] Fearing for his sanity, Norma briefly has him committed to a mental institution.[15] While there, Norman recovers a memory of witnessing his father rape Norma; it is implied that this trauma fractured his psyche.[16]

text: When Norman's sanity begins to deteriorate, Norma marries the town sheriff, Alex Romero (Nestor Carbonell), so she can use his insurance coverage to pay for Norman to be treated in a mental institution. While the marriage is at first merely a financial arrangement, they eventually fall in love. After Norman is released from the institution and finds out that Norma is married, he grows insanely jealous and tries to kill both Norma and himself by flooding the house with carbon monoxide while his mother sleeps. Romero arrives at the house in time to revive Norman, but finds that Norma is already dead.[17] Romero figures out what happened and swears revenge, but is arrested for perjury before he can do anything. Meanwhile, Norman cannot bear losing his mother, so he digs up her corpse and assumes her personality to preserve the illusion of her being alive.[18]

text: Two years later, Norman is running the motel and living alone in the house with Norma's corpse, which he keeps frozen and preserved in the cellar. He and his "Mother" personality live together as if there is no one else in the world, and she takes care of his problems - such as killing and disposing of a hitman sent by Romero[19] and helping him get rid of his uncle, Norma's brother Caleb (Kenny Johnson), after he discovers the truth.[20] When Norman falls for Madeline Loomis (Isabelle McNally), a lonely housewife whose husband Sam (Austin Nichols) is cheating on her, "Norma" becomes jealous and starts behaving erratically, at one point taking possession of Norman's mind and making him have sex with a man at a gay bar while dressed in Norma's clothes.[21] Norman finally begins to suspect that "Norma" is not real, and she confirms that he created her in his mind to deal with things that he could not, such as his abusive father.[22]

text: When Sam's mistress Marion Crane (Rihanna) checks into the motel, Norman has dinner with her and tells her that Sam is married. Marion comes back to the motel after confirming Sam's infidelity, and seeks comfort from Norman. He fears that "Norma" will kill her, however, and tells her to leave and never come back. When Sam comes to the motel to look for Marion, Norman stabs him to death in the shower.[22]

text: Dylan comes to see Norman after learning of Norma's death, and they get into a fight that ends with Norman assaulting his half-brother at "Norma"'s instigation. Terrified of what he might do, Norman calls 9-11 and confesses to murdering Sam.[23] While he is in jail, Sheriff Jane Greene (Brooke Smith) finds the bodies of Norman's other victims, and charges him with their murders, as well.[24] While Norman is awaiting trial, Romero - who had earlier escaped from prison - breaks into his cell and takes him hostage.[25] They drive to the woods where Norman hid Norma's corpse after the police began searching his house. There, Norman gets the better of Romero and shoots him dead, but not before his former stepfather tells him he will never escape from murdering his own mother. When Norman finally admits to himself that he killed Norma, "Norma" appears to him and tells him she is leaving, as there is no longer anything she can protect him from.[26]

text: Now completely alone, Norman loses all contact with reality. He calls Dylan and invites him over for a "family dinner", complete with Norma's corpse seated at the head of the table. When Dylan tells him that Norma is dead, Norman flies into a rage and attacks him with a knife, forcing Dylan to shoot him. As he dies, Norman sees a vision of his mother embracing him.[26]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: The character Norman Bates in Psycho was loosely based on two people. First was the real-life murderer Ed Gein, about whom Bloch later wrote a fictionalized account,[27] "The Shambles of Ed Gein", in 1962. (The story can be found in Crimes and Punishments: The Lost Bloch, Volume 3). Second, it has been indicated by several people, including Noel Carter (wife of Lin Carter) and Chris Steinbrunner, as well as allegedly by Bloch himself, that Norman Bates was partly based on Calvin Beck, publisher of Castle of Frankenstein.[28]

text: The characterization of Norman Bates in the novel and the movie differ in some key areas. In the novel, Norman is in his mid-to-late 40s, short, overweight and homely. In the movie, he is in his mid-20s, tall, slender, and handsome. Reportedly, when working on the film, Hitchcock decided that he wanted audiences to be able to sympathize with Norman and genuinely like the character, so he made him more of a "boy next door".[29] In the novel, Norman becomes "Norma" after getting drunk and passing out; in the movie, he remains sober before switching personalities.

text: In the novel, Norman is well-read in occult and esoteric authors such as P.D. Ouspensky and Aleister Crowley. He is aware that "Norma" disapproves of these authors as being against religion.

text: Portrayals[edit]

text: Norman Bates was portrayed by Anthony Perkins in Hitchcock's seminal 1960 film adaptation of Bloch's novel and its three sequels.[30] Perkins hosted an episode of Saturday Night Live in 1976 in which he performed numerous sketches portraying Norman, including the instructional video "The Norman Bates School of Motel Management". He also portrayed Norman, albeit more lightheartedly, in a 1990 commercial for Oatmeal Crisp cereal. Vince Vaughn portrayed Norman in Gus Van Sant's 1998 version of Psycho, while Kurt Paul, Perkins' "Mother" stunt double in Psycho II and Psycho III, took on the role in the made-for-TV film spin-off Bates Motel. Oz Perkins, Anthony's son, portrayed a younger version of Norman in Psycho II. Henry Thomas played a younger version of the character in Psycho IV: The Beginning. Freddie Highmore portrayed Norman in the TV series Bates Motel. For his performance, Highmore was nominated twice for a Critic's Choice Award, a Saturn Award, and won a People's Choice Award in 2017.[31]

text: Comic books[edit]

text: Norman appears in the 1992 three-issue comic book adaptation of the 1960 film Psycho released by Innovation Publishing. Despite being a colorized adaptation of the Hitchcock film, the version of Norman present in the comics resembles the one from Bloch's original novel: a middle-aged, overweight, balding man. Comic artist Felipe Echevarria has explained that this was due to Perkins' refusal to allow his likeness to be replicated for the books, wanting to disassociate himself with Norman Bates.[32]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Norman Bates is ranked as the second greatest villain on the American Film Institute's list of the top 100 film heroes and villains,[33] behind Hannibal Lecter and before Darth Vader. His line "A boy's best friend is his mother" also ranks as number 56 on the institute's list of the 100 greatest movie quotes.[34] In 2008, Norman Bates was selected by Empire Magazine as one of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters.[35] Bates also ranked number 4 on Premiere magazine's list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time.[36]

text: Appearances[edit]

text: Novels[edit]

text:
Psycho (1959)
Psycho II (1982)
Psycho House (1990, as an animatronic)
Psycho: Sanitarium (2016)

tag: ul

text: Films[edit]

text:
Psycho (1960)
Psycho II (1983)
Psycho III (1986)
Bates Motel (1987)
Psycho IV: The Beginning (1990)
Psycho (1998)

text: Television[edit]

text: Bates Motel (2013–2017)

text: Comics[edit]

text: Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1992)


document_title: Seven churches of Asia

question_text: what do the seven churches in revelation represent

text: Seven churches of Asia

text: Description[edit]

text: According to Revelation 1:11, on the Greek island of Patmos, Jesus Christ instructs John of Patmos to: "Write on a scroll what you see and send it to the seven churches: to Ephesus, and to Smyrna, and to Pergamum, and to Thyatira, and to Sardis, and to Philadelphia, and to Laodicea."[1]

text: The "churches" in this context refers to the community or local congregations of Christians living in each city, and not merely to the building or buildings in which they gathered for worship.[2][3]

text: The Churches[edit]

text: The seven Churches are named for their locations. The Book of Revelation provides descriptions of each Church.

text:
Ephesus (Revelation 2:1-7) -- The church known for having labored hard and not fainted, and separating themselves from the wicked; admonished for having forsaken its first love (2:4)
Smyrna (Revelation 2:8-11) -- The church admired for its tribulation and poverty; forecast to suffer persecution (2:10)
Pergamum (Revelation 2:12-17) -- The church where 'Satan's seat' or 'throne' is; needed to repent of allowing false teachers (2:16)
Thyatira (Revelation 2:18-29) -- The church known for its charity, whose "latter works are greater than the former;" held the teachings of a false prophetess (2:20)
Sardis (Revelation 3:1-6) -- The church that has a good name; cautioned to fortify itself and return to God through repentance (3:2-3)
Philadelphia (Revelation 3:7-13) -- The church steadfast in faith, that had kept God's word and endured patiently (3:10)
Laodicea, near Denizli (see Laodicean Church) (Revelation 3:14-22) -- The church that was lukewarm and insipid (to God) (3:16)

text: Seven messages[edit]

text: The letters follow a common pattern. For example: the Lord first addresses each church and identifies himself,[4] then defines things that he knows about the church in question.[5] After this, a challenge or reproach is given,[6] followed by a promise.[7] In all seven cases the admonition is included, "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches",[8] although sometimes this comes before the promise and sometimes after.

text: Although the letters differ in length in accord with the needs of each community, all conclude with an appeal to hold fast and to listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches. Each church is promised that everyone who conquers will be rewarded by Christ.

text: Some historicists typically interpret the seven churches as representing seven different periods in the history of the Western Church from the time of Paul until the return of Jesus Christ.[9] Scofield states that "these messages by their very terms go beyond the local assemblies mentioned."[10] He is of the opinion that the letters have a prophetic purpose disclosing the seven phases of the spiritual history of the Church. Other writers, such as Clarence Larkin,[11] Henry Hampton Halley,[12] Merrill Unger,[13] and William M. Branham[14] also have posited the view that the seven churches preview the history of the global Church.

text: Historicism has been criticized by the Eastern Orthodox Fr. Dimitri Cozby, who writes that historicists take a greatly oversimplified view of church history: "Since dispensationalism is Protestant in origin its 'Church history' is strictly Western. The dispensations take into account almost nothing of Orthodox history after the period of the early councils which we share with the West."[15]

text: Angels of the churches[edit]

text: Chapters 2-3 of the Revelation have specific messages for each of the seven churches. The message of each of the seven letters is directed to the angel of the particular church that is mentioned.

text: Origen[16] explains that these "angels" are the guardian angels of the churches, a view upheld by Henry Alford. But Epiphanius[17] explicitly rejects this view, and, in accordance with the imagery of the passage, explains it as the bishops.

text: John sees a vision of the Son of man, who walks among seven lampstands and has seven stars in his right hand. Revelation 1:20 states that "The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches." The comparison of a teacher to a star is scriptural.[18]

text: Augustine of Hippo's reason for interpreting angels of the churches as the prelates of the church is that St. John speaks of them as falling from their first charity, which is not true of the angels.[19][20] Others would say that the falling away relates to the churches, not to the messengers, as each of the seven letters conclude with the words "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches."

text: the Amplified Bible states that Revelation 2:2 through to 3:18, “your” and “you” are in the singular, referring to the angel of each church. Much of what is said is rebuke and admonishment, so if the angels are heavenly beings, they may serve in some way as representatives of the sinful people in their churches. Jewish tradition maintained that every nation and individual has a guardian angel, and that when God is about to punish a nation, He first punishes its angel. There is even a story of Michael, the guardian angel of Israel, being rebuked by God for the sins committed in the time of Ezekiel. So the original readers of Revelation might have assumed that the angels here are the guardian angels of the individual churches, sharing responsibility for the actions of the members.

text: In the New Testament, the Greek word for angels (άγγελος) is not only used for heavenly angels, but also used for human messengers, such as John the Baptist (Matthew 11:10,Mark 1:2,Luke 7:27) and God's prophets (Revelation 22:8-9)[21] C.I. Scofield has noted that "The natural explanation of the 'messengers' is that they were men sent by the seven churches to ascertain the state of the aged apostle ... but they figure any who bear God's messages to a church."[22]


document_title: Dropped ceiling

question_text: which type of cable might be required for installation in a drop ceiling

text: Dropped ceiling

text: History[edit]

text: Dropped ceilings and ceiling tiles were being used in Japan for aesthetic reasons as early as the Muromachi Period (1337 to 1573).[1] Blackfriars Theater in London, England, built in 1596, had dropped ceilings to aid acoustics.[2]

text: U. S. Patent No. 1,470,728 for modern dropped ceilings was applied for by E. E. Hall on May 28, 1919 and granted on October 16, 1923.[3] Initially modern dropped ceilings were built using interlocking tiles and the only way to provide access for repair or inspection of the area above the tiles was by starting at the edge of the ceiling, or at a designated "key tile", and then removing contiguous tiles one at a time until the desired place of access was reached. Once the repair or inspection was completed, the tiles had to be reinstalled. This process could be very time-consuming and expensive. On September 8, 1958 Donald A. Brown of Westlake, Ohio filed for a patent for Accessible Suspended Ceiling Construction. This invention provided suspended ceiling construction in which access may readily be obtained at any desired location. Patent Number US 2,984,946 A was granted on May 23, 1961.[4] Brown has sometimes been credited as being the inventor of the dropped ceiling [5] even though other patents preceded his as shown in the table below.

text:
U. S. Dropped Ceiling Patents to September 8, 1958

Date Filed
Patent No.
Applicant
Title
Comments

05/28/1919
1,470,728
Hall
Suspended Ceiling

09/03/1931
1,931,574
Danielson
Suspended Ceiling Hanger

10/24/1950
2,710,679
Bibb, Remmen, Bibb
Suspended Ceiling Construction
First fully developed grid system concept

12/13/1955
2,816,623
Wong
Modular Ceiling
First integration of tiles and grid. Wong founded Cepco Manufacturing, a company now absorbed into Ceilume, a division of Empire West, Inc.

05/11/1956
2,896,752
Wilde
Suspended Ceiling Grid Construction

07/31/1956
2,894,291
Sorenson
Suspended Ceiling System

10/25/1956
2,895,180
Byssing
Suspended Ceiling

02/07/1958
2,963,251
Fuss
Supporting Electric Lighting Fixture from Suspended Ceiling Framework

09/08/1958
2,984,946
Brown
Accessible Suspended Ceiling

text: Design objectives[edit]

text: Effective building design requires balancing multiple objectives: aesthetics, acoustics, environmental factors, and integration with the building's infrastructure—not to mention cost of construction as well as long-term operation costs.[6]

text: Aesthetics[edit]

text: Modern dropped ceilings were initially created to hide the building infrastructure, including piping, wiring, and/or ductwork,[3] by creating a plenum space above the dropped ceiling, while allowing access for repairs and inspections. Drop ceilings may also be used to hide problems, such as structural damage. Further, drop out ceilings can also conceal the sprinkler systems while still providing full fire suppression functionality.

text: For many years, dropped ceilings were made of basic white tiles, but modern innovations now offer a plethora of options in sizes, colors, materials (including retro designs and faux leather, wood, or metal), visual effects and shapes, patterns, and textures as well as support systems and ways to access the plenum.[7] Custom runs of specialty ceiling tiles can be done at relatively low cost compared with the past.

text: Acoustics[edit]

text: Acoustic balance and control was another early objective of dropped ceilings.[8] A noisy room can overstimulate occupants, while a too quiet interior may seem dull and uninviting.

text: The acoustic performance of suspended ceilings has improved dramatically over the years, with enhanced sound absorption and attenuation. This is sometimes achieved by adding insulation known as Sound Attenuation Batts (SABs), more commonly referred to as "sound batts", above the panels to help deaden sounds and keep adjacent rooms quieter.[9]

text: Environmental factors[edit]

text: Indoor environmental quality[edit]

text: Indoor environmental quality includes ventilation, VOC emissions, lighting and thermal system control, thermal comfort, use of daylight for natural illumination, acoustics, and optimization of outdoor view availability.

text: Sustainability[edit]

text: Many manufacturers of modern dropped ceilings include sustainability as an objective. Sustainable features may include:

text:
Energy efficiency, including daylight efficacy and thermal insulating qualities. This uses the ceiling plane to reflect daylight as well as electrical illumination to maximize lumen efficacy, which also improves the comfort and usability of interior spaces. A common measure of the light reflectance of a ceiling material is ASTM E 1477 for Light Reflectance (LR-1). A level of about 75% is considered good, although higher levels are possible.[7]
Reduced resources needed for construction of the tiles
Recyclable/reused/renewable materials

text: Integration with infrastructure[edit]

text: Integration with mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) is important with dropped ceilings, since most of these systems are by definition above the ceiling. Fortunately, most ceiling system products are now designed with this integration in mind. Decisions here can also affect aesthetics as well as access and maintenance.[6]

text: Cost[edit]

text: Dropped ceilings may have an improved return on investment (ROI) over open ceilings[10]

text: Suspension grids[edit]

text: A typical dropped ceiling consists of a grid-work of metal channels in the shape of an upside-down "T", suspended on wires from the overhead structure. These channels snap together in a regularly spaced pattern of cells. Each cell is then filled with lightweight ceiling tiles or "panels" which simply drop into the grid. The primary grid types are "Standard 1" (15/16 face), Slimline (9/16" grid), and concealed grid.

text: In the United States the cell size in the suspension grids is typically either 2 ft × 2 ft or 2 ft × 4 ft and the ceiling tiles are the same size. In Europe the cell size in the suspension grids is 600×600 mm, while the ceiling tiles are slightly smaller at 595mm x 595mm or 595mm x 1195mm.

text: Concealed grid[edit]

text: An older, less common type of dropped ceiling is the concealed grid system. This type of dropped ceiling employs a method of interlocking panels into each other and the grid with the use of small strips of metal called 'splines', thus making it difficult to remove panels to gain access above the ceiling without damaging the installation or the panels. Normally, these type of ceilings will have a "key panel" (usually in the corner) which can be removed, allowing for the other panels to be slid out of the grid (a series of metal channels called 'z bars') one by one, until eventually removing the desired panel. This type of ceiling is more commonly found in older installations or installations where access to above the ceiling is generally considered unnecessary.

text: This system has some major disadvantages compared to the more common "drop panel" system, most notably the difficulty in removing and reattaching panels from the grid, which in some cases can cause irreparable damage to the panels removed. Finding replacement panels for this type of dropped ceiling is becoming increasingly more difficult as demand for them is slowing, as is production of the parts. Small clips are still available which allow tiles to be inserted into gaps in the ceiling where a tile is missing, they work by being placed on the edge of a concealed tile, then being slid along as the tile is placed to 'lock' it in place.

text: Stretch Ceiling[edit]

text: With similar advantages to a dropped ceiling, a stretch ceiling is often used to conceal pipework, wires or the existing ceiling. On top of this there is usually a broad choice of colour or texture and the membrane can be manipulated into a variety of shapes.[11]

text: A stretch ceiling is a suspended ceiling system and it is made of three main components

text:
Perimeter Track - Aluminium or Plastic PVC.
Membrane - Typically a PVC or Nylon material, lightweight sheets are made to size/shape from roll material. Can be printed or painted to achieve the desired effect.
Harpoon or Catch - This is ultrasonically welded to the edge of the membrane or sheet in the factory, the edging slots into the perimeter track to keep the ceiling in place.

text: When installing a stretch ceiling, semi-concealed plastic/aluminum track, the preferred choice for most architects and designers, is cut to size and fixed to the perimeter of the ceiling area. The membrane is stretched and the harpoon or catch edge is clipped into the track.[12] Stretching is aided by heating up the membrane or sheet prior to fitting.

text: Drop out ceilings[edit]

text: Approved Drop out (or drop-out) ceilings allow the installation of a dropped ceiling beneath existing fire sprinklers because the tiles, sometimes called melt-out ceiling tiles, are heat sensitive and designed to fall from the dropped ceiling suspension grid in the event of a fire, allowing the sprinklers to do their job.[13]

text: Drop out ceiling tiles can add to the aesthetic appeal of a ceiling since the fire sprinklers are hidden by the tiles. Commonly made from vinyl or expanded polystyrene, drop out ceiling tiles are available in multiple sizes and finishes from a variety of manufacturers.

text: Installation is subject to the local Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) and, in the U. S., must meet the standards listed in the section below at a minimum.

text: Drop out ceiling standards (U.S.)[edit]

text: The standards listed below are in addition to those for ceiling tiles in general. No clips, fasteners, or impediments of any kind can be used to limit the ceiling tile's ability to drop from the suspension system without restraint in the event of a fire unless these have been used in the testing process. Painting can void an approval. Note that additional local requirements may exist.

text:
FM Global - Approval Standards for Plastic Suspended Ceilings[14]
UL - Ceiling Panels for Use Beneath Sprinklers[15]
ICC-ES - AC-12 Section 4.4 - Foam Plastic Drop-Out Ceiling Panels and Tiles[16]
NFPA 13 - Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems[17]

text: Safety issues[edit]

text: In older buildings the space above the dropped ceiling was often used as a plenum space for ventilation systems, requiring only enclosed ducts that deliver fresh air into the room below, with return air entering the ceiling space through open grilles across the ceiling. This practice is now used less frequently in new construction.

text: In the event that the dropped ceiling is used as a plenum, low-voltage cables and wiring not installed inside conduit need to use a special low-smoke and low-toxicity wire insulation which will tend to char and stop burning on its own. This helps to protect building occupants so that they are not poisoned with toxic chemicals sucked through the ventilation system in the event of a fire, and helps to prevent fires from spreading inside the hidden plenum space. This special low-smoke cable is typically referred to as plenum cable or Low Smoke Zero Halogen (LSZH or LS0H) cable. While twisted pair cable for networking and telephone service is the most common form of plenum cable, coaxial cable also needs to be plenum-rated for safety.

text: High-voltage electrical equipment (generally regarded as being over 50 volts) is not permitted to be exposed in the plenum space above a drop ceiling. High voltage wiring must be enclosed in conduit or raceways, and must be physically isolated from low-voltage wiring. High voltage electrical devices similarly must be enclosed in a plenum space, inside a metallic container. Similarly, electrical outlets for domestic powered devices are not permitted inside the plenum space, though outlets can be installed on ceiling tiles inside electrical boxes, with the sockets exposed on the exterior bottom face of the drop ceiling. The purpose of these restrictions is to limit flame spread inside the unseen plenum space, in the event of high voltage equipment or wiring failure. Low voltage cabling is permitted because current flow is typically negligible so the risk of overheating and fire is limited.

text: In earthquake prone areas (e.g., California) diagonal wire stays are often required by building codes in order to ensure the ceiling grid won't sway laterally during an earthquake, which can lead to partial or total collapse of the ceiling grid on the occupants below during a severe tremor. Compression posts may also be added to keep the ceiling from bouncing vertically during an earthquake.

text: Lighting fixtures and other devices installed in a dropped ceiling are required to be firmly secured to the dropped ceiling framework. In the event of a fire above a dropped ceiling it is often necessary for firemen to have to pull down the ceiling in a hurry to quickly gain access to the conflagration. Loose fixtures merely resting in the framework by force of gravity can become unseated and swing down on their armorflex power cables to hit the firemen below. Binding the fixtures to the framework assures that if the framework must be pulled down the fixture will come down with it and not become a pendulous swinging hazard to the firemen.

text: Advantages[edit]

text: Fire safety[edit]

text: To address fire safety, ceiling tiles made from mineral fibres, plastic, tin, composite, or fire-rated wood panels can be used within the construction to meet acceptable standards/ratings. Some tiles, in specific situations, can provide the needed additional resistance to meet the "time rating" required for various fire code, city ordinance, commercial, or other similar building construction regulations. Fire ratings for ceiling panels vary based on the materials used, the preparation of each panel, and the safety testing and third party evaluation done to determine where and how they can be safely installed. In the UK it can be required for the tiles from certain manufacturers to be clipped into the grid with special ceiling clips in order to provide a fire rating; there are special tiles designed for the underside of mezzanine floors however that can give a fire rating without being clipped.

text: Drop out ceilings have a further advantage in that they can be mounted underneath fire sprinklers, thus hiding the sprinklers for a more attractive appearance. When installed underneath fire sprinklers, certain requirements for materials, applications, installation, and maintenance of drop out ceilings must be met in order to comply with fire safety regulations.[18] (The white paper Drop-out Ceiling Panels–A Discussion on Their Use With Fire Sprinklers, referenced by the article, is available here)

text: Ease of modification[edit]

text: Another advantage of a dropped ceiling is that the easily removed ceiling panels offer instant access to the plenum, greatly simplifying repairs or alterations.

text: Wiring and piping installed behind traditional plaster or wallboard ceilings is extremely difficult to modify once the finished ceiling is in place. Wires must either be fished through hollow spaces in the walls behind the finished ceiling, or the ceiling must be demolished in order for wiring or piping changes to be made.

text: In contrast, the tiles and other parts of a dropped or stretch ceiling are easily removed to allow access to the area above the grid to do any necessary wiring or plumbing modifications. In the event of remodelling, nearly all components of the grid can be dismantled and reassembled somewhere else.

text: In office buildings, the drop ceiling is often used in conjunction with hollow steel studs to construct small office spaces out of a much larger cavernous space. Wiring and other services are run through the open ceiling, down through the hollow stud walls, and to outlets in the work areas. If business needs change, the office spaces are easily dismantled and the overall cavernous space reconfigured with a different floor plan.

text: In older buildings that have seen multiple renovations over time, it is not uncommon for a dropped ceiling to have been installed in one renovation and then subsequently removed in another, its installation having been an inexpensive fix to prolong the time between major renovations.

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: One disadvantage with this ceiling system is reduced headroom. Clearance is required between the grid and any pipes or ductwork above to install the ceiling tiles and light fixtures. In general, a minimum clearance of 100 to 200 millimetres (4 to 8 in) is often needed between the lowest obstruction and the level of the ceiling grid. A direct-mount grid may work for those who want the convenience of a dropped ceiling, but have limited headroom. Stretch ceiling supports require less than one inch of vertical space, and no space is required for tiles to be lifted out with a stretch ceiling, but a greater clearance space may be chosen to allow room for MEC or for aesthetic reasons.

text: Dropped ceilings generally conceal many of the functional and structural elements of a building, creating an aesthetic paradigm that discourages the use of functional building systems as aesthetic design elements. Concealing these elements makes the complexity of today's advanced building technologies more difficult to appreciate. It is also more difficult to perform maintenance on or diagnose problems with the concealed systems.

text: As a renovation tool, dropped ceilings are a quick and inexpensive way to repair a ceiling or reduce HVAC costs. Some materials may show their age quickly— for example, mineral fiber sags, is damaged easily when handled, and stains easily, but stretch ceiling, tin and vinyl do not have these characteristics.


document_title: Bantu Education Act, 1953

question_text: when was the law of bantu education passed

text: Bantu Education Act, 1953

text:
Bantu Education Act, 1953

Act to provide for the transfer of the administration and control of native education from the several provincial administrations to the Government of the Union, and for matters incidental thereto.

Citation
Act No. 47 of 1953

Enacted by
Parliament of South Africa

Date of Royal Assent
5 October 1986

Date commenced
1 January 1954

Date repealed
1 January 1980

Administered by
Minister of Native Affairs

Repealing legislation

Education and Training Act, 1979

Status: Repealed

text: The Bantu Education Act, 1953 (Act No. 47 of 1953; later renamed the Black Education Act, 1953) was a South African segregation law which legalised several aspects of the apartheid system. Its major provision was enforcing racially separated educational facilities.[1] Even universities were made "tribal", and all but three missionary schools chose to close down when the government no longer would help support their schools. Very few authorities continued using their own finances to support education for native Africans.[2] In 1959, this type of education was extended to "non white" universities and colleges with the Extension of University Education Act, and the internationally prestigious University College of Fort Hare was taken over by the government and degraded to being part of the Bantu education system.[3] It is often argued that the policy of Bantu (African) education was aimed to direct black or non-white youth to the unskilled labour market,[4] although Hendrik Verwoerd, at the time Minister of Native Affairs, claimed that the aim was to solve South Africa's "ethnic problems" by creating complementary economic and political units for different ethnic groups.

text: The national authorities of the time is often said to have viewed education as having a rather pivotal position in their goal of eventually separating South Africa from the Bantustans entirely. The Minister of Native Affairs at the time, the "Architect of Apartheid" Hendrik Verwoerd, stated that:[2]

text: "There is no place for [the Bantu] in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour ... What is the use of teaching the Bantu child mathematics when it cannot use it in practice?"

text: The introduction of Bantu Education led to a substantial increase of government funding to the learning institutions of black Africans, but it did not keep up with population increase.[5] The law forced institutions under the direct control of the state. The National Party now had the power to employ and train teachers as they saw fit. Black teachers' salaries in 1953 were extremely low and resulted in a dramatic drop of trainee teachers. Only one third of the black teachers were qualified.[2]

text: The schools reserved for the country's white children were of Western standards. 30% of the black schools did not have electricity, 25% no running water and less than half had plumbing. The education for Blacks, Indians and Coloureds was subtantially cheaper but not free.[2] In the 70s, the per capita governmental spending on black education was one-tenth of the spending on white.[4]

text: In 1976, the Afrikaans Medium Decree of 1974, which forced all black schools to use both Afrikaans and English as languages of instruction beginning with the last year of primary school, led to the Soweto Uprising in which more than 575 people died, at least 134 of them under the age of eighteen.[4][6]

text: The act was repealed in 1979 by the Education and Training Act, 1979, which continued the system of racially segregated education, while also eliminating both discrimination in tuition fees and the segregated Department of Bantu Education and allowing the both use of native tongue education up to the fourth grade and limited attendance at private schools as well.[7] Segregation became unconstitutional after the introduction of the Interim Constitution in 1994, and most sections of the Education and Training Act were repealed by the South African Schools Act, 1996.


document_title: Law of definite proportions

question_text: when was the law of definite proportions developed

text: Law of definite proportions

text: History[edit]

text: This observation was first made by the English theologian and chemist Joseph Priestley, and Antoine Lavoisier, a French nobleman and chemist centered on the process of combustion.

text: I shall conclude by deducing from these experiments the principle I have established at the commencement of this memoir, viz. that iron like many other metals is subject to the law of nature which presides at every true combination, that is to say, that it unites with two constant proportions of oxygen. In this respect it does not differ from tin, mercury, and lead, and, in a word, almost every known combustible.

text: The law of definite proportions might seem obvious to the modern chemist, inherent in the very definition of a chemical compound. At the end of the 18th century, however, when the concept of a chemical compound had not yet been fully developed, the law was novel. In fact, when first proposed, it was a controversial statement and was opposed by other chemists, most notably Proust's fellow Frenchman Claude Louis Berthollet, who argued that the elements could combine in any proportion.[2] The existence of this debate demonstrates that, at the time, the distinction between pure chemical compounds and mixtures had not yet been fully developed.[3]

text: The law of definite proportions contributed to, and was placed on a firm theoretical basis by, the atomic theory that John Dalton promoted beginning in 1803, which explained matter as consisting of discrete atoms, that there was one type of atom for each element, and that the compounds were made of combinations of different types of atoms in fixed proportions.[4]

text: A related early idea was Prout's hypothesis, formulated by English chemist William Prout, who proposed that the hydrogen atom was the fundamental atomic unit. From this hypothesis was derived the whole number rule, which was the rule of thumb that atomic masses were whole number multiples of the mass of hydrogen. This was later rejected in the 1820s and 30s following more refined measurements of atomic mass, notably by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, which revealed in particular that the atomic mass of chlorine was 35.45, which was incompatible with the hypothesis. Since the 1920s this discrepancy has been explained by the presence of isotopes; the atomic mass of any isotope is very close to satisfying the whole number rule,[5] with the mass defect caused by differing binding energies being significantly smaller.

text: Non-stoichiometric compounds[edit]

text: Although very useful in the foundation of modern chemistry, the law of definite proportions is not universally true. There exist non-stoichiometric compounds whose elemental composition can vary from sample to sample. Such compounds follow the law of multiple proportion. An example is the iron oxide wüstite, which can contain between 0.83 and 0.95 iron atoms for every oxygen atom, and thus contain anywhere between 23% and 25% oxygen by mass. The ideal formula is FeO, but due to crystallographic vacancies it is reduced to about Fe0.95O. In general, Proust's measurements were not accurate enough to detect such variations.

text: In addition, the isotopic composition of an element can vary depending on its source, hence its contribution to the mass of even a pure stoichiometric compound may vary. This variation is used in geochemical dating since astronomical, atmospheric, oceanic, crustal and deep Earth processes may concentrate lighter or heavier isotopes preferentially. With the exception of hydrogen and its isotopes, the effect is usually small, but is measurable with modern instrumentation.

text: An additional note: many natural polymers vary in composition (for instance DNA, proteins, carbohydrates) even when "pure". Polymers are generally not considered "pure chemical compounds" except when their molecular weight is uniform (monodisperse) and their stoichiometry is constant. In this unusual case, they still may violate the law due to isotopic variations.


document_title: Patience is a virtue

question_text: where did the saying patience is a virtue come from

text: Patience is a virtue

text:
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Patience is a virtue.
If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

text: Wikiquote has quotations related to: Patience

text:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Summa Theologiae by Thomas Aquinas — Question 136: Of Patience

text: Patience is a virtue is a proverbial phrase referring to one of the seven heavenly virtues typically said to date back to "Psychomachia," an epic poem written in the fifth century.

text: In popular culture, "Patience is a Virtue" can refer to:

text:
a 1991 single by Lois Reeves, part of the Motorcity Records singles discography
a bonus track on some versions of the 2007 album Release the Stars by Rufus Wainwright
a 2010 mixtape from Romeo Miller's discography
Rachel Weisz's character Evelyn "Evie" Carnahan O'Connell said the phrase in The Mummy

text: Disambiguation pagesProverbs

text: All article disambiguation pagesAll disambiguation pages