document_title: Scream (1996 film)

question_text: who played the killer in scary movie 1

question_tokens: who played the killer in scary movie 1

text: Scream (1996 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: High school student Casey Becker receives a flirtatious phone call from an unknown person, asking her, "What's your favorite scary movie?" However, the caller turns sadistic and threatens her life. He reveals that her boyfriend Steve Orth is being held hostage and demands she answer questions about horror films. After Casey gets one wrong, Steve is murdered. When Casey refuses to answer more questions, she is murdered by a masked killer. Her parents come home to find her corpse hanging from a tree.

text: The following day, the news media descend on the town and a police investigation begins. Meanwhile, Sidney Prescott struggles with the impending first anniversary of her mother's murder by Cotton Weary. While waiting at home for her friend, Tatum Riley, Sidney receives a threatening phone call. After she hangs up she is attacked by the killer, but manages to escape. Sidney's boyfriend, Billy Loomis, arrives shortly after, but after he drops his cell phone, Sidney suspects him of making the call and flees. Billy is arrested and Sidney spends the night at Tatum's house.

text: Billy is released the next day. Suspicion has shifted to Sidney's father, Neil Prescott, as the calls have been traced to his phone. School is suspended in the wake of the murders. After the students have left the school, Principal Himbry is stabbed to death in his office. Tatum's boyfriend, Stu Macher throws a party to celebrate the school's closure. The party is attended by Sidney, Tatum, their friend Randy Meeks, and multiple other students. Reporter Gale Weathers attends uninvited to cover the situation, as she expects the killer to strike. Tatum's brother deputy sheriff Dewey Riley also looks out for the murderer at the party. Tatum is killed during the party after having her head crushed by the garage door. Billy arrives to speak to Sidney privately, and the two ultimately consummate their relationship. Dewey and Gale investigate a nearby abandoned car. Many party attendees are drawn away after hearing news of Himbry's death; Sidney, Billy, Randy, Stu, and Gale's cameraman Kenny remain.

text: After having sex, Sidney and Billy are attacked by the killer, who seemingly murders Billy. Sidney narrowly escapes the house and seeks help from Kenny, but the killer slits his throat; Sidney then flees again. Gale and Dewey, having discovered that the car belongs to Neil Prescott, return to the house. They believe Neil is the killer and has come to the party to continue his spree. Gale tries to escape in her van, but drives off the road and crashes to avoid hitting Sidney. Meanwhile, Dewey is stabbed in the back while investigating in the house, and Sidney takes his gun. Stu and Randy appear and accuse each other of being the killer. Sidney retreats into the house, where she finds Billy wounded but still alive. She gives Billy the gun; he lets Randy into the house and shoots him. Billy reveals that he feigned his injuries and is actually the killer; Stu is his accomplice.

text: Billy and Stu discuss their plan to kill Sidney and frame the murder spree on her father, whom they have taken hostage. The pair also reveal that they, not Cotton, murdered her mother, Maureen, as she was having an affair with Billy's father, which drove his mother away. Gale, who survived the crash, intervenes, and Sidney takes advantage of this to turn the tables on her attackers, killing Stu. Randy is revealed to be wounded but alive. Billy attacks Sidney but she shoots him through the head, killing him. As the sun rises and police arrive, a badly injured Dewey is taken away by ambulance and Gale makes an impromptu news report about the night's events.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Neve Campbell as Sidney Prescott
David Arquette as Dewey Riley
Courteney Cox as Gale Weathers
Skeet Ulrich as Billy Loomis
Matthew Lillard as Stu Macher
Rose McGowan as Tatum Riley
Jamie Kennedy as Randy Meeks
Drew Barrymore as Casey Becker
Joseph Whipp as Sheriff Burke
W. Earl Brown as Kenny
Liev Schreiber as Cotton Weary
Henry Winkler as Principal Himbry (uncredited)[6]
Kevin Patrick Walls as Steve Orth
Lawrence Hect as Neil Prescott
Roger L. Jackson as Ghostface (voice)

text: Production[edit]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Scream was originally developed under the title Scary Movie by Kevin Williamson, an aspiring screenwriter.[7] Influenced by a news story he was watching about a series of grisly murders by the Gainesville Ripper, Williamson became concerned about intruders upon finding an open window in the house where he was staying.[7] He was inspired to draft an 18-page script treatment about a young woman, alone in a house, who is taunted over the phone and then attacked by a masked killer.[8] The treatment remained as a short story while Williamson worked on another script, Teaching Mrs. Tingle, a thriller that he would eventually sell but that would languish in development hell for many years.[9] Struggling to pay his bills, Williamson secluded himself in Palm Springs and focused on the development of his Scary Movie treatment, hoping for a quick sale to meet his financial needs.[7] Over the course of three days, Williamson developed a full-length script as well as two separate five-page outlines for potential sequels—Scary Movie 2 and Scary Movie 3. He hoped to entice buyers with the potential for a franchise.[9][10] In an interview, Williamson said that one reason he focused on the Scary Movie script was because it was a film he wanted to watch, born of his childhood love of horror films such as Halloween, but "nobody else [was] making it".[11] His appreciation for previous horror films became evident in the script, which features inspiration from and references to films such as Halloween, Friday the 13th, A Nightmare on Elm Street, When a Stranger Calls, and Prom Night.[12] Williamson listened to the soundtrack for Halloween for inspiration while writing the script. Excerpts from the soundtrack appear in the film.[12]

text: By June 1995[9] Williamson brought the Scary Movie script to his agent, Rob Paris, to put out for sale. Paris warned him that the level of violence and gore in his script would make it "impossible" to sell.[13] Following the script's purchase by Miramax, Williamson was required to remove much of the gorier content, such as graphic depictions of the internal organs of gutted murder victims "rolling" down their legs. However, once Craven was secured as director, he was able to bring much of the excised content back.[12] Williamson was going to remove a scene in the school bathroom featuring Sidney, as he felt it was awkward and out of place in the film. Craven insisted the scene should remain, as he felt it developed the character and her relationship with her deceased mother. Williamson later confirmed that he was glad that Craven proved him wrong about the scene.[13] Dimension Films head Bob Weinstein realized while reviewing the script that there were thirty pages (approximately thirty on-screen minutes) without a murder, so he instructed Williamson to have another character killed.[13]

text: Williamson included the death of the character Principal Himbry (Winkler) based on this input and in doing so inadvertently resolved a problem in the script's finale. Williamson had struggled to find a reason for several extraneous characters to leave a party scene so that the killer could attack, finally determining that the announcement of the discovery of Himbry's corpse would serve to remove the non-essential characters who are so upset that they leave the party before (and enabling) the start of the murders.[13] Concerning the killers' motives, Williamson felt it was essential for the audience to learn why the antagonists had become killers, but he also felt it was potentially scarier if they had no motivation. Opinions at the studio were split between those who believed a motive was needed for resolution and those who felt the action was scarier without one. As there were two killers, Williamson decided to do both: Billy Loomis had the motive of maternal abandonment, while the second killer, Stu Macher, jokingly suggests "peer pressure" as his motive when prompted.[13]

text: Development[edit]

text: The script for what was then known as Scary Movie went on sale on a Friday in June 1995, but received no bids.[7] By the following Monday, the script had become the subject of a significant bidding war among a host of established studios, including Paramount Pictures, Universal Pictures, and Morgan Creek Productions.[14] Producer Cathy Konrad read the script and felt it was exactly what the Weinstein brothers of the fledgling Dimension Films — then a part of Miramax — were looking for. Dimension had previously released several horror films and intended to focus on that genre. Konrad brought the script to Bob Weinstein's assistant, Richard Potter. Believing it had potential, he brought it to Weinstein's attention.[8] Studios began to drop out of the bidding as the price of the script increased, and the final two bidders were Oliver Stone, who was at the time working under Cinergi Pictures, and the Weinsteins of Dimension Films.[9][13] Williamson agreed to a bid of $400,000 from Miramax, plus a contract for two sequels and a possible fourth unrelated film. Williamson said he chose Dimension because he believed they would produce Scary Movie immediately and without significantly censoring the violence in the script.[9][12] Craven read the script before he became involved in the production, and considered convincing a studio to buy it for him to direct. However, by the time Craven read the script, it had already been sold.[7]

text: Bob Weinstein approached Craven early in the planning stages, because he felt Craven's previous work in the genre that combined horror and comedy would make him the perfect person to bring Williamson's script to screen. Craven was already busy developing a remake of The Haunting and was considering distancing himself from the horror genre. He was growing weary of what he felt was an inherent misogyny and violence in it.[8] Weinstein approached other directors, including Robert Rodriguez, Danny Boyle,[15] George A. Romero, and Sam Raimi.[8] Williamson said that they "didn't get it"; he was concerned that having read the script, many of the directors believed the film to be purely a comedy.[15] Craven was approached again but continued to pass in spite of repeated requests. When production of The Haunting collapsed, Craven was freed from that commitment and found himself in need of a project.[12] Meanwhile, Drew Barrymore had signed on to the film at her own request. When he heard an established actress wanted to be involved, Craven reasoned that Scary Movie might be different from other films of the genre he had previously undertaken, and he contacted Weinstein to accept the job.[8]

text: As the film neared completion, the Weinstein brothers changed the film's title from Scary Movie to Scream.[9] They were inspired by the Michael Jackson song of the same name. Bob Weinstein considered Scary Movie to be an unsuitable title as, in addition to the horror and violence, the film contained elements of satire and comedy; Weinstein wished for that to be better conveyed by the title. The change was effected so late into production that congratulatory gifts bore the original name.[8] Williamson and Craven immediately disliked the new title, and considered it "stupid".[13] Both later remarked that the change turned out to be positive, and that Weinstein had been wise to pick the new title.[13] Following a screening of the film in front of a test audience and Miramax executives, Craven was offered a two-picture contract for sequels to Scream.[12]

text: Sony Pictures filed a lawsuit against Dimension Films and Miramax, claiming that the title "Scream" infringed on the copyright of Sony's own Screamers (1995), released the previous year. After the case was settled out of court — the details remain confidential — Scream 2 producer Marianne Maddalena considered that the case was a result of other issues between the two companies and did not truly pertain to the film's moniker. Maddalena confirmed that the studio was free to use the Scream brand for future films.[10]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Scream was a turning point in terms of casting for the horror genre, which normally involved relatively unknown actors. The genre was considered unsuitable for bigger names as the films had lower budgets and often attained negative critical response.[10] Drew Barrymore read the script and was interested in being involved. She approached the production team herself to request a role. Barrymore, a member of the Barrymore family of actors and granddaughter of actor John Barrymore, had become a star in her own right following her appearance in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982). The producers were quick to take advantage of her unexpected interest, and signed her to play the lead role of Sidney Prescott.[7][9] Her involvement was believed to be instrumental in attracting other popular actors to the film in spite of its smaller budget, and in causing Craven to reconsider his decision to direct the film.[7] Before filming began, Barrymore was faced with unexpected commitments that meant she would no longer be available to play the demanding lead role. She instead played the smaller role of Casey Becker, which allowed her to remain involved and still gave the production the advantage of her stature.[9] Killing off one of their biggest stars early in the film was considered a calculated risk, but it was believed that it would be so shocking and unexpected that the audience would then believe that any character could die.[13] Actresses including Alicia Witt and Brittany Murphy auditioned for the lead role of Sidney; the producers also approached Reese Witherspoon, though she never auditioned.[8] Craven had seen Neve Campbell in the TV show Party of Five and asked her to audition for the part. He believed she could portray a character who was "innocent", but who could also realistically handle herself while dealing with the physical conflict and emotions required by the role.[7][13] Campbell was initially reluctant to perform in another horror film so soon after her supporting role in The Craft.[7] After a successful audition, Campbell accepted an offer to play the lead character. She accepted because Scream would be her first leading role, and because she adored the character, saying "She's a fantastic character for any kind of movie."[15]

text: For the character of news reporter Gale Weathers, the studio wanted a recognizable actress. They auditioned Brooke Shields and Janeane Garofalo.[8] Courteney Cox, who was starring in the sitcom Friends at the time, approached the production herself to pursue the role. She was interested in playing a "bitch" character to offset her "nice" Friends image. This image was the main reason why the producers initially refused to consider Cox for the part. Cox continued to lobby the studio as she felt she could believably play the character; her efforts ultimately succeeded.[7] Actresses Melinda Clarke and Rebecca Gayheart auditioned for the role of Tatum Riley, before Rose McGowan was cast. The casting director believed she best embodied the "spunky", "cynical" but "innocent" nature of the character.[8] The studio felt the strong female cast of Campbell, Barrymore, Cox, and McGowan would help draw a significant female audience to the film.[13] Gayheart would later land a role in Scream 2.[7]

text: Kevin Patrick Walls and Justin Whalin were among the final candidates for the key role of Sidney's boyfriend Billy Loomis.[13] Whalin took part in auditions with Campbell.[8][16] Skeet Ulrich ultimately secured the role. The producers viewed him as "perfect" for the part and noted his resemblance to a young Johnny Depp as he appeared in A Nightmare on Elm Street, one of the many films Scream references.[8] Ulrich and Campbell had worked together on The Craft shortly before Scream. They believed the experience helped them be more comfortable with each other, which allowed a more natural portrayal of the relationship between their characters.[15] Though he failed to win the Loomis role, Walls remained in the film in the minor role of Steve Orth, boyfriend of Barrymore's Casey Becker. David Arquette was also approached for the role of Billy Loomis but he asked to read for the part of Dewey Riley after reading the script.[13] The role, described as "hunky", was considered ill-fitting for Arquette's lean, slender appearance and approach but Arquette was still allowed to audition for the part. Craven appreciated his softer, funnier approach to the character, and gave him the role.[7] Matthew Lillard was cast as Billy's equally sadistic friend Stu Macher by chance after accompanying his then-girlfriend to an unrelated audition taking place elsewhere in the same building. Casting director Lisa Beach saw Lillard in the hallway and asked him to audition for the part.[8] He got into the role with "incredible ferocity".[12] The role of Randy Meeks was contested between Jamie Kennedy and Breckin Meyer. The producers favored Kennedy, believing him to best embody the role.[8] As he had no major roles prior to Scream, the studio wanted a more prominent actor than Kennedy to play the character. The producers were adamant that he was the best choice and successfully fought to keep him.[9] Roger L. Jackson, voice of the character Ghostface, was picked at the end of several weeks of local casting in Santa Rosa, where parts of Scream were filmed.[17] The producers had originally intended to use his voice only as a placeholder, dubbing over it during post-production. They decided that Jackson's contribution was perfect and kept it.[18] Craven described it as an "intelligent" and "evil" voice that would become irreplaceable to the series.[19] To aid their performance, Jackson was never allowed to meet the other actors, preventing them from associating a face with the menacing voice. Jackson was present on the set and spoke to actors by phone to help aid their performance.[13]

text: The cast was rounded out by W. Earl Brown, who played Gale Weather's cameraman Kenny; Joseph Whipp, who portrayed Sheriff Burke; Lawrence Hecht as Neil Prescott (Sidney's father); and C.W. Morgan as Hank Loomis (Billy's father). Liev Schreiber appeared in a minor role as Cotton Weary, the framed killer of Sidney's mother and Linda Blair made a brief cameo as a TV reporter outside the school. Henry Winkler appeared as Principal Himbry, an aggressive school principal. He remained uncredited so as to not draw attention away from the young main cast.[13]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography for Scream took place over eight weeks between April 15 and June 8, 1996, on a budget of $15 million.[20] The Weinsteins wanted to film in Vancouver as it was estimated that they could save $1 million in costs compared to shooting in the United States.[8] Craven was adamant about filming in the United States, and making a film that looked "truly American". The argument over where to film almost led to Craven being removed from the project, but the Weinsteins eventually agreed to keep the production in America.[8] Location scouts looked at North Carolina as a possibility, but found that sites that seemed appropriate for the film's requirements would have required extensive building, repairs, or modification, which would have inflated costs.[7]

text: Attention was next turned towards California; scouts discovered Sonoma County and the cities of Santa Rosa, Healdsburg, and the nearby Tomales Bay. The house of Barrymore's character is situated southeast of Santa Rosa on Sonoma Mountain Road, directly facing the house used in the horror film Cujo (1983).[13] The home of Sidney Prescott is located near Calistoga, north of Santa Rosa.[17] Tatum's home is situated on McDonald Avenue in Santa Rosa, next to the houses used in Pollyanna (1960) and Shadow of a Doubt (1943).[21] The home of Lillard's character, which is the location for the entire third act, is a house on Tomales Road east of Tomales Bay that had only recently become available after the death of its owners.[13] The Woodsboro town square, including the fountain where many of the cast sit in an early scene, is represented by the Healdsburg town square.[17] For the Woodsboro high school, Craven desired a building that looked "American",[8] and the producers approached Santa Rosa High School. The school board insisted on seeing the script and immediately objected to the violence against teenage children and the cynical, dark dialogue, including that of the fictional school principal.[9][13] Local newspapers criticized the project, and irate parents objected to such a film taking place at their children's school. Comparisons were made between film violence and the kidnap and murder of Polly Klaas three years prior, which had left the area sensitized toward violence.[8] The producers received support from the school's students and some local residents, who recognized that economic benefits would be generated by the film's presence. Others argued for the film's First Amendment rights. The dispute resulted in a three-hour debate scheduled for April 16, one day after filming was to begin. Unwilling to be delayed, Craven began filming as scheduled on the 15th. He started with the opening scene of the film, which features Barrymore;[9] the scene took five days to complete.[14] The result of the Santa Rosa debate was that permission would be denied. The production was forced to find another location for the school, and ended up filming at the Sonoma Community Center, southeast of Santa Rosa.[9]

text: The progress of filming was criticized early on. Bob Weinstein disliked the Ghostface mask, believing it was not "scary". Upon reviewing the dailies footage of the opening scene, the studio was concerned that the film was progressing in an unwanted direction. They considered replacing Craven.[8] To assuage their concerns, Craven and editor Patrick Lussier, developed a rough, workprint version of the opening 13 minutes of the film to demonstrate how the completed film might turn out. After viewing the new footage, the studio was content to let Craven continue as director. Weinstein, having seen the mask in action, was satisfied that it could be scary.[8] The third and final act of the film, over forty minutes long, is set at a house party where Ghostface strikes. It was shot at a vacant property in Tomales over 21 nights.[8] The scene, labelled "Scene 118", was considered the most difficult to shoot as it took place entirely in one location yet featured the individual stories and deaths of multiple characters. Actors spent weeks undertaking intense emotional and physical scenes while coated in fake blood and wounds.[13] As the scene was set during the evening, production had no choice but to halt at dawn.[8]

text: Director of photography Mark Irwin was fired during filming of Scream's finale, a week before principal photography was to be completed. Upon review of the dailies, Craven found the footage was out of focus and unusable.[8] Irwin was initially ordered to fire his camera crew. He retorted that if his crew were to be fired, they would also have to fire him. The producers fired him and replaced him with Peter Deming, who finished the film.[8]

text: Special effects and design[edit]

text: To produce the many grisly effects for the film, the producers recruited KNB Effects team Howard Berger, Robert Kurtzman, and Gregory Nicotero. One of their first tasks was the production of a mask for the film's killer. In his script, Williamson had only described the antagonist as a "masked killer", which gave Craven no specific information on what type of mask to use or how to conceal the body.[13] While location scouting, Maddalena discovered the Ghostface mask hanging from a post inside the house previously used for the film Shadow of a Doubt.[8] Craven wanted to use it, but the mask design was owned by Fun World, a costume company. He was told to create one that the production could own.[8] KNB developed multiple design sketches varying from deformed faces to monstrous visages riddled with fangs. Craven found nothing like the Ghostface design, so he had KNB develop a mask that was based on it, with enough differences to avoid any claim of copyright. The team developed several molds based on the Ghostface design, but Craven found none were as suitable as the mask he wanted to use.[8] Desperate to use the design, Craven finally convinced the studio to approach Fun World and gained permission to use the mask. While negotiations were in progress, he had KNB make a mask that was very similar to the original mask, but was appropriate for use in filming. The mask they produced, made of a thin foam, was used in two scenes of the film: the opening scene with Barrymore's character and the murder of Principal Himbry. Craven disliked the mask due to its slight differences from the original, and thus used the Fun World design for the rest of filming.[13]

text: KNB Effects created over 50 gallons of fake blood, normally composed of corn syrup and food dye, to create the special effect of severe wounds.[9] For the penetrating effect of knives, the production used collapsible blades to prevent injury. An umbrella with a retractable tip is used as a stabbing weapon in the finale. Ulrich wore a protective vest beneath his shirt to help prevent harm while a stuntwoman attacked him with it. The second thrust missed the vest and stabbed Ulrich on his chest, impacting a wound from an open heart surgery operation. Ulrich's genuine pain was captured on film and used in the release version of Scream.[13]

text: Two of the most complex special effects in the film were the corpses of Barrymore's and Walls' characters, Casey Becker and Steve Orth.[9] Their deaths involved the character being gutted from ribcage to pelvis, essentially hollowing out the torso of internal organs,[22] with the guts "rolling" from the wound.[12] To allow Walls to continue to move and feign death while displaying the wound, KNB designed a chair with no back. The actor would kneel behind it while his upper body, head, and arms were positioned within the chair's seating area.[9] An anatomical model representing the character's torso and legs was positioned in the chair and disguised so that the actor's upper body and the model appeared to be one piece. The fake abdomen was filled with rubber, latex, and gelatin pieces smeared in fake blood—the "internal organs" — which could then fall free.[9] The other effect involved Barrymore's character being gutted and hung by the neck from a tree. The team utilized a similar approach, but replicated Barrymore's entire body, as it would be impossible to conceal her real body and display the special effect of her character having been gutted.[9][13]

text: Post production[edit]

text: After filming was completed in June 1996, Craven spent two months editing the final product. He encountered repeated conflicts with the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system (MPAA) concerning the content of scenes. He was forced to tone down or obscure the more intense scenes and overall violence to avoid an NC-17 rating, which is considered "box office suicide"—cinemas and retail chains often refused to stock NC-17 titles.[13][23] Though Dimension had previously released NC-17-rated films, the rating made those films difficult to market and attract an audience. Dimension was desperate for a less-restrictive R rating, but the producers felt the demanded cuts would remove key elements from the film and reduce its quality.[9] The opening scene featuring Barrymore was one of the most difficult parts to process through the MPAA, who required cuts based on its "intensity". Craven lied to the MPAA, claiming he had only one take of the scene and could not replace it with something less intense; the MPAA allowed the scene.[13]

text:
I'm a director who can do something very well but am not allowed to put it on screen. And they ultimately get you, as they did on this one, on intensity. They say, "it's not a specific shot, it's not blood, it's just too intense".

— Director Wes Craven on his conflict with MPAA censorship during production of Scream[12]

tag: div

text: Craven sent eight different cuts of the film to deal with complaints. Problematic scenes included the gutting death of Steve Orth (Walls), where he was required to remove any movement of the character's internal organs; the throat-cutting of Kenny, where he had to trim the end of the scene, as the MPAA felt the actor's pained expression was too "disturbing"; and they had to shorten the length of time spent viewing the crushed head of Tatum Riley.[12] The MPAA still held issue with a scene from the finale, where the killers (Ulrich and Lillard) stab each other, creating large amounts of visible blood. The MPAA required that the blood could not be seen in motion—falling to the floor from the body. It seemed unlikely that the film would be able to achieve an R rating without further significant cuts.[12] With the film's release date drawing closer, Bob Weinstein intervened and personally contacted the MPAA. He believed they misunderstood the film and to which genre Scream really belonged, and were focusing too much on the horror elements.[8] Weinstein explained that although he agreed with their assessment that the film was "intense", the film also had comedic elements and satire; it was not just a horror film glorifying violence.[8] The MPAA reviewed their decision; shortly thereafter the film was granted an R rating.[9]

text: Music[edit]

text:
Marco Beltrami – Sidney's Lament

The theme for the main character of Sidney Prescott by Marco Beltrami is used throughout the series.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

tag: table

text: The Scream score was provided by fledgling composer Marco Beltrami, his first time scoring a feature film. Craven's assistant Julie Plec had requested input on composers who were "new", "fresh", and "wonderful", and was given Beltrami's name by several people. Beltrami was contacted for samples of his work. Craven, impressed by what he heard, requested Beltrami come to the set to view the opening thirteen minutes of the film containing the introduction and the death of Barrymore's character.[13] Beltrami was tasked with scoring a piece of music for this scene, which would be reviewed by the producers and the Weinstein brothers. Beltrami was hired to score the entire film on the basis of this sample.[24] Beltrami had no prior experience scoring a work of horror. Craven and editor Patrick Lussier advised him on how to deliver music that would raise the tension and how to use stings to punctuate the more intense moments.[24][25] Craven wanted the music to intentionally raise tension during scenes where audience expectations were already raised by their experience of previous horror films. The volume would be raised to indicate that the killer is hiding behind a door, but nothing would be present upon its opening.[13]

text: Beltrami decided to intentionally disregard conventional horror score styles. He approached the film as a western, taking influence from Ennio Morricone, a prolific composer for many westerns.[26] When scoring a theme for the character of Dewey (Arquette), Beltrami approached him as a "quirky" wild west sheriff, using a Morricone-style guitar accompaniment.[27] Sidney Prescott's theme, titled "Sidney's Lament", features a female choral arrangement expressing "sorrow" concerning the character's situation. Beltrami states that the voice "spoke" for the character, "lamenting" the loss of her mother.[25] Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks called the "haunting" vocals of the track the "voice of the franchise". The song was used throughout the film's sequels.[5]

text: Release[edit]

text: Scream held its premiere on December 18, 1996 at the AMC Avco theater in Westwood, Los Angeles, California.[28] Bob Weinstein ordered that the film be released on December 20, 1996, a date others were critical of as it was the Christmas period where seasonal and family films were more prevalent.[8] Weinstein argued this fact was in the film's favor as it meant that horror fans and teenagers had nothing interesting to watch during the December period.[8] When Scream's first weekend takings amounted to only $6 million, it was considered that this release date gamble had failed, but the following week, takings did not drop but increased and continued to increase in the following weeks leading to a total U.S. gross of over $100 million and high critical praise.[8]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened in 1,413 theaters, taking $6,354,586 in its opening weekend, opening in second against Beavis and Butt-head Do America,[29] and almost $87 million in its initial release. It was re-released to theatres on April 11, 1997, and accrued a further $16.2 million,[30] for a total domestic gross of $103,046,663,[29] and a worldwide lifetime gross of $173,046,663.[29] Scream remains the most successful of the Scream film series, receiving a largely positive critical reception. Scream 2 generated a worldwide gross of $172,363,301, less than $1 million below that of the first film and $11 million more than Scream 3. As of 2013, Scream is currently the 577th highest-grossing movie worldwide.[31] In the United States, without adjusting for inflation, the film is the twentieth highest-grossing horror film,[32] and remains the highest-grossing slasher genre film, directly followed by Scream 2 and Scream 3.[33]

text: Despite competition from other box office fare such as Tom Cruise's Jerry Maguire and Tim Burton's Mars Attacks!, its release during the Christmas season, and Variety labeling it "D.O.A." before it was even released,[7] Scream became the fifteenth highest-grossing film of 1996, well placed amongst big-budget blockbusters released that year such as Independence Day and Mission: Impossible. It was shown in cinemas for nearly eight months after its release.[8][34]

text:
Release date
(United States)
Budget
(estimated)
Box office revenue
Box office ranking

United States
Foreign
Worldwide
Release year
All time U.S.
All time worldwide

December 20, 1996
$15,000,000[20]
$103,046,663[29]
$70,000,000[29]
$173,046,663[29]
#15[29]
#481[29]
#576[31]

Note(s)

Box office ranking accurate as of October 2012.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 79% based on 66 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Horror icon Wes Craven's subversive deconstruction of the genre is sly, witty, and surprisingly effective as a slasher film itself, even if it's a little too cheeky for some."[35] On review aggregate site Metacritic, the film holds a score of 65 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[36]

text: Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle appreciated the shift from the teen slasher films of the 1980s and their "endless series of laborious, half-baked sequels."[37] Kevin Thomas of The Los Angeles Times called Scream "a bravura, provocative sendup of horror pictures" and complimented the film for being "scary and gruesome" while avoiding a sense of "morbidity".[34] Empire's Adam Smith called it "Clever, quick and bloody funny."[38] Williamson's script was praised as containing a "fiendishly clever, complicated plot" which "deftly mixes irony, self-reference and wry social commentary with chills and blood spills."[39] Time Out London lauded the film's intelligence and scares, while praising the casting, saying "at last, a horror movie to shout about!"[40] Film4 cited Craven's own Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994) and its cast of self-aware characters as inspiration for Scream, but declared that while New Nightmare was a "noble failure – pretty smart, but crucially not very scary" that Scream was "not merely clever...it is, from its breathtaking opening sequence (with Barrymore as the woman in peril) onwards, simply terrifying."[41]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a positive review of 3 out of 4 stars, appreciating "the in-jokes and the self-aware characters", but was confused over whether the level of violence was "defused by the ironic way the film uses it and comments on it."[42] The New York Times' Janet Maslin was not as appreciative, saying "not much of 'Scream' is that gruesome". She wrote that Craven "wants things both ways, capitalizing on lurid material while undermining it with mocking humor. Not even horror fans who can answer all this film's knowing trivia questions may be fully comfortable with such an exploitative mix."[43] Despite being critical of the film itself, calling it "one experiment that needed more lab time", Variety complimented the "strong" ensemble cast, singling out the performances of Campbell and Ulrich as "charismatic".[44] The BBC claimed that the film had promise, saying "It appeared to be clever, dangerous, witty, and fresh" but went on to label it as derivative of the films it satirized: "Scream runs out of humour, and in turn robs itself of the chance to get the audience to take the thrills and gut-spills it offers seriously."[45]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Scream received several awards and award nominations following its release, including the Saturn Award for Best Actress for Campbell, Best Writing for Kevin Williamson, and Best Horror Film; it received Saturn nominations for Best Director for Wes Craven and Best Supporting Actor for Ulrich and Barrymore.[46] Craven was awarded the Grand Prize at the Gérardmer Film Festival.[47][48] The film was awarded the 1997 Best Movie by the MTV Movie Awards, while Campbell received a nomination for Best Female Performance.[49]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Work
Result
Ref.

1996
International Horror Guild
Best Film
Scream
Won
[50]

Saturn Award
Best Actress
Neve Campbell
Won
[46]

Best Direction
Wes Craven
Nominated
[51]

Best Horror Film
Scream
Won
[46]

Best Supporting Actor
Skeet Ulrich
Nominated
[51]

Best Supporting Actress
Drew Barrymore
Nominated
[51]

Best Writing
Kevin Williamson
Won
[46]

1997
MTV Movie Award
Best Female Performance
Neve Campbell
Nominated
[52]

Best Movie
Scream
Won
[52]

Gérardmer Film Festival
Grand Prize
Wes Craven
Won
[47][48]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Scream was released in the United States on AC3 LaserDisc (uncut) on July 2, 1997,[53] VHS on December 2, 1997,[54] and on DVD on December 3, 1997.[55] A DTS Laserdisc (uncut) was released on August 26, 1998[56] followed by a Collector's Edition DVD of the film on December 8, 1998,[57] containing the film, the theatrical trailer, cast interviews, a director's commentary, and behind the scenes information.[58] These releases were all undertaken by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. Following the release of Scream 3, Scream and its first two sequels were collected in "The Ultimate Scream Collection" by Dimension Films on September 26, 2000, a boxset containing the three films[59] and a bonus disc containing "Behind the Scream", a 30-minute documentary about the production of the three films, and additional material, including screentests and outtakes.

text: Scream was also released on LaserDisc in France, Hong Kong, Japan, and the United Kingdom in 1997; Germany and a Japanese Special Edition in 1998.[60]

text: Scream remained unreleased on DVD in some foreign territories, including Europe, until 2001.[citation needed] The Japanese DVD released in 1998[61] contained both the R-rated version of the film, plus the original "Director's Cut", which restored the gore/violence removed by the MPAA.[62] Scream was released in Europe with Scream 2 and Scream 3 on February 26 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. Each package contained additional content found in the Collector's Edition version of the US release, including deleted scenes, outtakes, theatrical trailers, music videos, and crew commentary.[63][64][65] The three films were also sold as a collection called the "Scream Trilogy", released on February 26, 2001.[66]

text: On March 29, 2011, two weeks prior to the release of Scream 4, Scream was released in US territories on Blu-ray by Lionsgate Home Entertainment. The Blu-ray present the films in 1080p high definition. The releases contain all the additional materials found on the Collector's Edition DVD, including outtakes and deleted scenes.[67]

text: Albums[edit]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Scream: Music from the Dimension Motion Picture

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
December 17, 1996

Genre
Alternative rock

Length
46:30

Label
TVT

Producer
Marco Beltrami, Tony Cohen, Kelley Deal, Ed Gerrard, Tim Harper, Timothy London, Tim Patalan, Jefferey Rabhan, Chris Randall[68]

Various artists chronology

Scream: Music from the Dimension Motion Picture
(1996)
Scream 2: Music from the Dimension Motion Picture
(1997)Scream 2: Music from the Dimension Motion Picture1997

text: The Scream original soundtrack was released on December 17, 1996, by TVT Records. The soundtrack features 11 songs—most of which appeared in various scenes in the film—plus a piece from the film's score, "Trouble In Woodsboro"/"Sidney's Lament", by Beltrami. The Alice Cooper version of "School's Out" appeared in the film following the closure of Woodsboro high school, but it was replaced with a cover version of the song by The Last Hard Men on the album. An acoustic cover of Blue Öyster Cult's "Don't Fear the Reaper", performed by Gus Black, plays softly in the background while Sidney and Billy discuss their relationship. Analyst Jeff Smith describes the musical choice as:

text: An ironic comment on the brutality we have just seen in the opening sequence. More importantly, however, the allusion to the Blue Öyster Cult classic recasts the song's title by literalizing its meaning. While the title itself invokes the Reaper as a popular symbol for death, the film presents us with an actual person, who not only dresses as the Grim Reaper but also unleashes homicidal vengeance on the other characters of the film. The irony here, of course, is that Billy himself proves to be one of the film's dual slashers and is, in fact, the "Reaper" to be feared.[69]

text: The song "Red Right Hand" by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, heard in the first film, is also used in Scream 2 and Scream 3. Nick Cave performs a version of the track written specifically for Scream 3 in that film. An alternate version of the music video "Drop Dead Gorgeous" by Republica, featuring clips from the film, was shown on music networks such as MTV. Although the song can be heard in the film, it is not included on the soundtrack album. The song was also used in one of the film's television commercials. The soundtrack album was not considered a success, failing to chart on the Billboard 200.[70] AllMusic awarded the album 3 stars out of 5.[71]

text:
[show]Scream: Music from the Dimension Motion Picture

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Artist
Length

1.
"Youth of America"
Joey Ammo
Birdbrain
3:03

2.
"Whisper"
Mark Rew, Keith Brown, Kerry Brown
Catherine
3:12

3.
"Red Right Hand"
Mick Harvey, Nick Cave and Thomas Wydler
Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds
6:11

4.
"(Don't Fear) The Reaper"
Donald Roeser
Gus Black
4:47

5.
"Artificial World [Interdimensional Mix]"
Julee Cruise, Louis Tucci, Supa D.J. Dmittry, D.J. Silver
Julee Cruise with the Flow
5:08

6.
"Better Than Me"
Chris Randall
Sister Machine Gun
4:01

7.
"Whisper to a Scream (Birds Fly)"
Ian McNabb
Soho
5:26

8.
"First Cool Hive"
Richard Hall
Moby
5:16

9.
"Bitter Pill"
Peele Wimberley
The Connells
3:41

10.
"School's Out"
Alice Cooper, Michael Bruce, Glen Buxton, Dennis Dunaway, Neal Smith
The Last Hard Men
2:17

11.
"Trouble In Woodsboro"/"Sidney's Lament"
Marco Beltrami
Marco Beltrami
3:28

Total length:
46:30

text: Score[edit]

text: The Scream score by Marco Beltrami was released by Varèse Sarabande on July 14, 1998, on a CD titled "Scream/Scream 2", which also contained tracks from the score of Scream 2.[4] The release consisted of only six tracks—"Sidney's Lament", "Altered Ego", "A Cruel World", "Trouble in Woodsboro", "Chasing Sidney", and "NC-17"[5]—with a runtime of only 12 minutes, compared to over an hour of music made for the film and the more common 30–45 minutes of music found in other original scores.[4] Some reviewers felt the restricted runtime was a result of the high cost of releasing a composer's music commercially, combined with Varèse Sarabande's unwillingness to pay.[72]

text: The score to Scream received generally positive reviews, with Mikael Carlsson labeling it as "some of the most intriguing horror scores composed in years".[4] Filmtracks.com claimed the scores had "cult status", awarding it 3 stars out of 5.[5] AllMusic said that the score "perfectly captured the post-modern, hip scare-ride of the Scream movies", also giving it 3 stars out of 5.[73]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: Williamson had attached five-page proposals for potential sequels to Scream when he originally sold the script, hoping to entice prospective buyers into buying a film and a franchise. When Dimension Films bought the script, they secured Williamson for two future Scream films, should the original prove successful.[9][12] After a highly positive test screening of Scream at which executives from Dimension Films and Miramax were present, Craven was signed to direct the two future sequels.[12] After the film's box office and critical success, the first sequel was greenlit and sent into production while Scream was still in theaters. The second picture was given an increased budget. The surviving cast—Campbell, Cox, Arquette, Kennedy, and Schreiber—all returned, as well as much of the original crew, including editor Patrick Lussier and composer Marco Beltrami.[10] A third film followed shortly after, again with the crew and surviving cast returning to create what was, at the time, the concluding film in the Scream trilogy. The three original films, released in a five-year period, followed the story of Sidney Prescott's encounters with a succession of killers adopting the Ghostface disguise. The films also analyze her relationship with her deceased mother, who inadvertently initiates the events depicted in the films.[22][74][75] Scream 2 fared as well financially and critically as its predecessor,[29][76] while Scream 3 fared significantly worse on both counts, with critics deriding the film as having become what the original had so deftly satirized.[77]

text: Fifteen years after the release of Scream and eleven years after the release of the last film in the series, The Weinstein Company released a new sequel, Scream 4, on April 15, 2011.[78] Campbell, Cox and Arquette all return to their roles, and Craven, Williamson, and Beltrami return to the production side. The Weinstein Company stated that the success of Scream 4 could lead to potential sequels and a new Scream trilogy,[79] with Campbell,[80] Arquette,[81] Craven,[79] and Williamson[82] all having been contracted or expressed interest in appearing in future installments.

text: Controversies[edit]

text: In the years following the release of Scream, the film has been accused of inspiring copycat crimes and inducing violent acts.

text: In January 1998, 16-year-old Mario Padilla and his 14-year-old cousin, Samuel Ramirez stabbed Mario's mother, Gina Castillo, 45 times, killing her. The case became known as the "Scream murder" and fell under intense media scrutiny after the boys claimed they were inspired by Scream and Scream 2. The pair confessed to needing the money acquired from Gina's murder to fund a killing spree, which would include purchasing two Ghostface costumes, as well as a voice-changer used by the character in the film. During their trial, psychologist Madeline Levine who studied the effect of violence on children, stated, "There were a whole bunch of reasons why they acted out that way. But did the movie provide a blueprint? Absolutely."[83] The case was expected to highlight the effect of violent films on teenagers. However, presiding judge John Cheroske ordered that evidence pertaining to Scream be barred and that the case not be referred to as the "Scream murder", refusing media access to the courtroom, intending that the case was tried as murder and nothing else.[9][83]

text: On January 17, 1999, 13-year-old Ashley Murray was stabbed multiple times in the head and back before being left for dead by his then-friends Daniel Gill, 14, and Robert Fuller, 15. He was later found and saved by an elderly man walking his dog. The pair were dubbed the "Scream attackers" after it emerged that they had watched Scream shortly before the attack and drawings of the Ghostface mask were found among their possessions. Their actions were additionally blamed on physical abuse, drugs and exposure to black magic in their home life.[84] Murray, who later testified against the pair, stated that he believed the film may have influenced the pair to attack him.[85]

text: On May 4, 1999, following the Columbine High School massacre and increasing news media reports on the effects on violent films, games, and other media on society, the United States Senate Commerce committee held a hearing about Hollywood's marketing of films to youths. The committee focused specifically on horror films. The opening scene of Scream featuring the murder of Barrymore's character was shown to the committee as an example of negative media which may be viewed by children.[9][86]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Prior to Scream's release the popularity of the horror genre had been considered to be in decline with many films released straight to video while those released in cinemas were sequels to popular and established franchises, such as Halloween, Friday the 13th, A Nightmare on Elm Street, and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, capable of drawing audiences despite decreasing budgets and diminishing critical reception. The glut of sequels contributed to audience familiarity with the icons of the late 1970s and early 1980s such as Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees that they were considered to have lost their ability to instill scares or interest in their audience.[87] Scream, utilizing a popular and attractive cast and an innovative script that mocked and embraced the conventions of horror which had become considered clichéd, was credited with changing the status of the genre, becoming both a financial and critical success, and launching the careers of many of its actors.[88] Such was the film's impact that some commentators considered its legacy as the creation of a distinct era of "post-Scream" horror films. Following its release many studios, including Scream's own Dimension Films, rushed to capitalize on its unexpected success with the release of films such as I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997) and Urban Legend (1998) as well as sequels to popular, but diminishing, franchises such as Halloween H20 and Bride of Chucky.[88]

text: In June 2001, as part of the American Film Institute''s (AFI) AFI 100 Years... series, Scream became one of the 400 nominees in the 100 Years... 100 Thrills category.[89] In 2003, the character Ghostface was nominated in the category 100 Heroes and Villains.[90] In 2005, "Do you like scary movies", as spoken by Roger Jackson, was nominated for AFI's 100 Years…100 Movie Quotes, a list of the greatest cinematic quotes.[91]

text: Scream ranks #32 on Entertainment Weekly's list of the "50 Best High School Movies",[92] and the opening scene featuring the death of Barrymore's character ranked #13 on Bravo's 100 Scariest Movie Moments.[93] In 2008, Entertainment Weekly dubbed the film a "New Classic" by ranking it #60 in their list of the "100 Best Films of the Last 13 years".[94] In 2008 Empire ranked the film #482 on their list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time".[95] In 2016, Empire ranked the film #3 on their list of the greatest horror films of all time.[96]

text:
Year
Award
Recipient
Ranking
Ref.

2001
AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills
Scream
N/A
[89]

2003
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains
Ghostface
N/A
[90]

2004
Bravo's "100 Scariest Movie Moments"
Opening scene
#13
[93]

2005
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes
"Do you like scary movies?"
N/A
[91]

2008
Empire's "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time"
Scream
#482
[95]

Entertainment Weekly's "50 Best High School Movies"
Scream
#32
[92]

Entertainment Weekly's 100 Best Films of the Last 13 Years
Scream
#60
[94]


document_title: Wheelbarrow

question_text: when did the han dynasty invent the wheelbarrow

root

text: Wheelbarrow

text: History[edit]

text: China[edit]

text: The earliest wheelbarrows with archaeological evidence in the form of a one-wheel cart come from second century Han Dynasty Emperor Hui's tomb murals and brick tomb reliefs.[1] The painted tomb mural of a man pushing a wheelbarrow was found in a tomb at Chengdu, Sichuan province, dated precisely to 118 AD.[2] The stone carved relief of a man pushing a wheelbarrow was found in the tomb of Shen Fujun in Sichuan province, dated circa 150 AD.[3] And then there is the story of the pious Dong Yuan pushing his father around in a single-wheel lu che barrow, depicted in a mural of the Wu Liang tomb-shrine of Shandong (dated to 147 AD).[4] However, there are even earlier accounts than this that date back to the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. The 5th century Book of Later Han stated that the wife of the once poor and youthful imperial censor Bao Xuan helped him push a lu che back to his village during their feeble wedding ceremony, around 30 BC.[2] Later, during the Red Eyebrows Rebellion (c. 20 AD) against Xin dynasty's Wang Mang (45 BC–23 AD), the official Zhao Xi saved his wife from danger by disguising himself and pushing her along in his lu che barrow, past a group of brigand rebels who questioned him, and allowed him to pass after he convinced them that his wife was terribly ill.[2] The first recorded description of a wheelbarrow appears in Liu Xiang's work Lives of Famous Immortals. Liu describes the invention of the wheelbarrow by the legendary Chinese mythological figure Ko Yu, who builds a "Wooden ox".[5]

tag: p

text: Nevertheless, the Chinese historical text of the Sanguozhi (Records of the Three Kingdoms), compiled by the ancient historian Chen Shou (233–297 AD), credits the invention of the wheelbarrow to Prime Minister Zhuge Liang (181–234 AD) of Shu Han from 197–234.[6] It was written that in 231 AD, Zhuge Liang developed the vehicle of the wooden ox and used it as a transport for military supplies in a campaign against Cao Wei.[7] Further annotations of the text by Pei Songzhi (430 AD) described the design in detail as a large single central wheel and axle around which a wooden frame was constructed in representation of an ox.[7] Writing later in the 11th century, the Song Dynasty (960–1279) scholar Gao Cheng wrote that the small wheelbarrow of his day, with shafts pointing forward (so that it was pulled), was the direct descendent of Zhuge Liang's wooden ox.[8] Furthermore, he pointed out that the third century 'gliding horse' wheelbarrow featured the simple difference of the shaft pointing backwards (so that it was pushed instead).[8]

text: Wheelbarrows in China came in two types. The more common type after the third century has a large, centrally mounted wheel. Prior types were universally front-wheeled wheelbarrows.[9] The central-wheeled wheelbarrow could generally transport six human passengers at once, and instead of a laborious amount of energy exacted upon the animal or human driver pulling the wheelbarrow, the weight of the burden was distributed equally between the wheel and the puller.[10] European visitors to China from the 17th century onwards had an appreciation for this, and it was given a considerable amount of attention by a member of the Dutch East India Company, Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest, in his writings of 1797 (who accurately described its design and ability to hold large amounts of heavy baggage).[11] However, the lower carrying surface made the European wheelbarrow clearly more useful for short-haul work.[12] As of the 1960s, traditional wheelbarrows in China were still in wide use.[13]

text: Chinese sailing carriage[edit]

text: Although there are records of Chinese sailing carriages from the 6th century[14] these land sailing vehicles were not wheelbarrows, and the date of which the sail assisted wheelbarrow was invented is uncertain.[15] Engravings are found in van Braam Houckgeest's 1797 book.[16]

text: European interest in the Chinese sailing carriage is also seen in the writings of Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest in 1797, who wrote:

text: Near the southern border of Shandong one finds a kind of wheelbarrow much larger than that which I have been describing, and drawn by a horse or a mule. But judge by my surprise when today I saw a whole fleet of wheelbarrows of the same size. I say, with deliberation, a fleet, for each of them had a sail, mounted on a small mast exactly fixed in a socket arranged at the forward end of the barrow. The sail, made of matting, or more often of cloth, is five or six feet high, and three or four feet broad, with stays, sheets, and halyards, just as on a Chinese ship. The sheets join the shafts of the wheelbarrow and can thus be manipulated by the man in charge.[17]

text: These sailing wheelbarrows continued in use into the twentieth century.

text: Ancient Greece and Rome[edit]

text: M. J. T. Lewis surmised the wheelbarrow may have existed in ancient Greece in the form of a one-wheel cart.[18] Two building material inventories for 408/407 and 407/406 BC from the temple of Eleusis list, among other machines and tools, "1 body for a one-wheeler (hyperteria monokyklou)",[19] although there is no archaeological evidence to prove this hypothesis.[20](ὑπερτηρία μονοκύκλου in Greek):

text: Since dikyklos (δίκυκλος) and tetrakyklos (τετράκυκλος) mean nothing but "two-wheeler" and "four-wheeler," and since the monokyklos (μονόκυκλος) body is sandwiched in the Eleusis inventory between a four-wheeler body and its four wheels, to take it as anything but a one-wheeler strains credulity far beyond breaking point. It can only be a wheelbarrow, necessarily guided and balanced by a man...what does now emerge as certainty is that the wheelbarrow did not, as is universally claimed, make its European debut in the Middle Ages. It was there some sixteen centuries before.

text: M. J. T. Lewis admits that the current consensus among technology historians, including Bertrand Gille, Andrea Matthies, and Joseph Needham, is that the wheelbarrow was invented in China around 100 AD.[21] However, Lewis proposes that the wheelbarrow could have also existed in ancient Greece.[9][22] Based on the Eleusis list, Lewis states that it is possible that wheelbarrows were used on Greek construction sites, but admits that archaeological evidence for the wheelbarrow in ancient farming and mining is absent.[9] He surmised that wheelbarrows were not uncommon on Greek construction sites for carrying moderately light loads. He speculates the possibility of wheelbarrows in the Roman Empire and the later Eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire, although Lewis concludes that the evidence is scarce, and that "most of this scenario, perforce, is pure speculation."[23] The 4th century Historia Augusta reports emperor Elagabalus to have used a wheelbarrow (Latin: pabillus from pabo, one-wheeled vehicle[24][25]) to transport women in his frivolous games at court.[26] While the present evidence does not indicate any use of wheelbarrows into medieval times, the question of continuity in the Byzantine Empire is still open, due to a lack of research yet.[9] Currently, there is no archaeological evidence for the wheelbarrow in ancient Greece and Rome.[20]

text: Medieval Europe[edit]

text: The first wheelbarrow in Europe appeared sometime between 1170 and 1250. Medieval wheelbarrows universally featured a wheel at or near the front (in contrast to their Chinese counterparts, which typically had a wheel in the center of the barrow),[27] the arrangement now universally found on wheelbarrows.

text: Research on the early history of the wheelbarrow is made difficult by the marked absence of a common terminology. The English historian of science M.J.T. Lewis has identified in English and French sources, four mentions of wheelbarrows between 1172 and 1222, three of them designated with a different term.[28] According to the medieval art historian Andrea Matthies, the first archival reference to a wheelbarrow in medieval Europe is dated 1222, specifying the purchase of several wheelbarrows for the English king's works at Dover.[29] The first depiction appears in an English manuscript, Matthew Paris's Vitae duorum Offarum, completed in 1250.[30]

text: By the 13th century, the wheelbarrow proved useful in building construction, mining operations, and agriculture. However, going by surviving documents and illustrations the wheelbarrow remained a relative rarity until the 15th century.[31] It also seemed to be limited to England, France, and the Low Countries.[32] Eastward diffusion of the technology was uneven and not especially fast: the wheelbarrow was still unknown in Russia and its neighbors as late as the reign of Peter the Great. The conscript laborers who dug millions of cubic yards of earth to create the city of St. Petersburg--with its extensive system of canals and the levees and embankments required to keep the city dry--carried dirt either in handbaskets or the fronts of their long, tunic-like shirts. On the occasion of Peter's first visit to England, the young tsar and his traveling companions found a wheelbarrow in the garden of the house where they lodged; not knowing its purpose, they used it for drunken wheelbarrow races.[33]

text: Modern variations[edit]

text: In the 1970s, British inventor James Dyson introduced the Ballbarrow, an injection molded plastic wheelbarrow with a spherical ball on the front end instead of a wheel. Compared to a conventional design, the larger surface area of the ball made the wheelbarrow easier to use in soft soil, and more laterally stable with heavy loads on uneven ground.

text: The Honda HPE60, an electric power-assisted wheelbarrow, was produced in 1998.[34][35]

text: Power assisted wheelbarrows are now widely available from a number of different manufacturers. Powered wheelbarrows are used in a range of applications; the technology has improved to enable them to take much heavier loads, beyond weights that a human could transport alone without assistance. Motorized wheelbarrows are generally either diesel powered or electric battery powered. Often used in small scale construction applications where access for larger plant machinery might be restricted.[36]


document_title: Intramolecular force

question_text: force that holds atoms together in a compound

text: Intramolecular force

text: An intramolecular force is any force that holds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound.[1] They contain all types of chemical bonds. They are usually stronger than intermolecular forces, which are present between atoms or molecules that are not bonded. Hydrogen bonds are an important case of forces that can be either intramolecular or intermolecular.

text: Types of intramolecular force[edit]

text: There are several types of intramolecular forces, distinguished by the types of constituent atoms and the behavior of electrons. These are the main ones.

text:
Ionic, which generally form between a metal and nonmetal, such as sodium and chlorine in NaCl. Electrons in an ionic bond tend to mostly be found around one of the two constituent atoms due to the large electronegativity difference between the two atoms; this is often described as one atom giving electrons to the other. In the case of NaCl, sodium would give an electron to chlorine.
Covalent, which generally forms between two nonmetals. Examples include nitrogen dioxide. Electrons in a covalent bond are essentially shared between the constituent atoms. There are several types of covalent bonds: in polar covalent bonds, electrons are more likely to be found around one of the two atoms, whereas in nonpolar covalent bonds, electrons are evenly shared. Homonuclear diatomic molecules are pure covalent. The polarity of a covalent bond is determined by the electronegativities of each atom, and a polar covalent bond usually creates a dipole moment.
Metallic, which generally forms within a pure metal or metal alloy. Metallic electrons are generally delocalized; the result is a large number of free electrons around positive nuclei, sometimes called an electron sea.

tag: ul

text: They differ in the magnitude of their bond enthalpies, a measure of bond strength, and thus affect the physical and chemical properties of compounds in different ways.


document_title: Legal status of tattooing in the United States

question_text: how old do you have to.be to get a tattoo

text: In the United States, there is no federal law regulating the practice of tattooing. However, all 50 states and the District of Columbia have statutory laws requiring a person receiving a tattoo be 18 years or older. This is partially based on the legal principle that a minor cannot enter into a legal contract or otherwise render informed consent for a procedure. Most states permit a person under the age of 18 to receive a tattoo with permission of a parent or guardian, but some states outright prohibit tattooing under a certain age regardless of permission, with the exception of medical necessity (such as markings placed for radiation therapy).

text: In all jurisdictions, individual tattooists may also choose to place additional restrictions based on their own moral feelings, such as refusing any clients under a specific age even with parental consent despite it being legal, or limiting the type and/or location of where they are willing to tattoo (such as refusing any work around intimate parts of the body). They may additionally refuse to perform specific artwork, including if they merely find it inappropriate or offensive, or refuse to work on a client that they suspect may be intoxicated. Artists sometimes claim their personal business restrictions are a matter of law even when it is not true, so as to avoid arguments with clients.

text:
Legal Restrictions on Tattooing & Body Modification by State

State
Minimum Age (with parent/guardian consent)
Form of Parent/Guardian Consent
Notes & Exceptions
Intoxicated/Impaired Individuals
Area of Law/Type of Penalty
Licensing & Regulation
Relevant Statute(s) and Rules

Alabama
none specified[1]
informed written consent, signed in presence of the artist/service provider or their agent[1][2]
Ear piercing exempt from Alabama body art laws & rules.[2][3]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or pierced[1][2]
Violations of Alabama Tattoo & Body Piercing laws are a class c misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of up to $100 and/or up to 90 days imprisonment for each violation.[4]
Alabama's Department of Public Health licenses Tattoo, body piercing, & body art facilities, and sets standards for their operation.[5]
Individual tattoo artists, piercers, etc. require a permit.[2]

Ala. Code § 22-1-17A[3][6]
State Board of Health rules on Body Art Practices and Facilities.[2]

Alaska
18 (piercing excepted)[7]
parent/guardian must both give written consent and be present during the procedure[7]
Minors may be pierced with parental consent [7]
no restriction[8]

Alaska Stat. § 08.13.217[7]

Arizona
none specified[9]
parent/guardian must be physically present[9]
Minors can have their ears pierced with the written or verbal consent of a parent/guardian, can have procedures prescribed by a health care provider.[9]
no restriction[9]
Violations are a class 6 felony.[9]
There are no health regulations for tattoo shops in Arizona. [10]
Tattoos. Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 13-3721[9]

Arkansas
16[11]
parent/guardian must both give written consent and be physically present[12]
none specified[12]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or pierced.[12]

Ark. Stat. Ann. §§ 20-27-1501 et seq.[12]

California
18 (piercing excepted)[13][14]
parent/guardian must be present during procedure
Minors may have their ears pierced with parental consent.[15] They may be pierced elsewhere with parental consent, but not on their genitals or nipples. Permanent cosmetics are permitted on nipples, when done by a cosmetic technician and with parental consent.[14]
no restriction

Body Art. Cal. Health & Safety Code § 119300 to 119328[6][15]
Cal. Penal Code 653[13]

Colorado
18 Express written consent of parent or guardian[16]
parent/guardian must be present during procedure
Persons who are "noticeably impaired" cannot have body art procedures[16]

Body Artists. Colo. Rev. Stat. § 25-4-2101 to 2103[6]

Connecticut
none specified
permission of parent or guardian[17][18]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent[17]
Tattooing may only be performed by physicians, or by registered nurses & technicians working under the supervision of a physician.[18]

no restrictions

Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-92a,[6][18]
Conn. Gen. Stat. §19a-92g[6][17]

District of Columbia
18 (ear piercing excepted)[19]
written consent (for ear piercing)[19]
minors may have their ears pierced with written parental consent[19]
no restrictions[19]

Body Artists. DC Code § 47-2853.76d[6][19]

Delaware
18[20]
notarized written consent to the specific procedure[20]
none specified[20]
cannot be tattooed, branded, or body pierced[20]

Del. Code Ann. Title 11, Ch 5 §1114(a)[6][20]
Del. Code Ann. Title 16, Ch 2 §122(3)(w)[6]

Florida
16[21]
Must be accompanied by parent or guardian who can show proof of guardianship, both parent and minor must present photo ID, and a consent form must be notarized.[21]
for medical or dental purposes by a licensed physician or dentist[21]
no restriction

Fla. Stat. § 381.00787[6]
Fla. Stat. §381.0775 et seq.[6] Fla. Stat. §381.075[6]

Georgia
18 (body piercing excepted)[22]
For body piercing: prior written consent of parent/guardian[23]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent[23]
Minors may be body pierced with written parental consent[23]
Physicians and Osteopaths or technicians working under their direct supervision can give minors tattoos or produce scars for "medical or cosmetic purposes."[22]
No one can be tattooed within an inch of their eye socket.[24]

no restrictions

Ga. Code § 31-40-1 to 31-40-10[6]
Ga. Code § 16-12-5[6]
Ga. Code § 16-5-71.1[6]

Hawaii
none specified[25]
written consent of parent/guardian[25]

Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321-13[6]
Hawaii Rev. Stat. § 321-379[6]

Idaho
18[26]
Written informed consent of parent/guardian, executed in the presence of the person performing the procedure, or their agent/employee.[26]
Minors can have their ears pierced without parental consent.[6]
Piercing for medical procedures exempt.[6]

no restrictions

Idaho Code § 18-1523 (2004)[6]

Illinois
18 (body piercings excepted)[27]
Written consent of parent/guardian (for body piercings)[27]
Minors cannot be present in places where tattooing or body piercing is done except in the presence of a parent/guardian.[27]
Minors can have their ears pierced without parent/guardian consent.[27]

no restrictions

Ill. Stat. 720 §5/12-10.1[6]
Ill. Stat. 410 §54/1 t0 54/999[6]

Indiana
none specified[28]
Parent/guardian must both be present during the procedure and provide written permission.[28]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent.[28]
no restrictions

Ind. Code Ann. §35-42-2-7[6][28]
Ind. Code Ann. §16-19-3-4.1[6][29]

Iowa
18[30]
n/a - minors cannot be tattooed[30]
Body piercing is not regulated by state law in Iowa, however county or city laws may regulate it.[31]
no restrictions

Iowa Code §135.37[6]
Iowa Code §135.37[6]

Kansas
16[32]
Parent/guardian must give written consent, written consent must be notarized, and the parent/guardian must be present during the procedure.[32]
Minors may have their ears pierced[33]
no restrictions

Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-1953[6]
Kan. Stat. Ann. §65-1940 to 65-1954[6]

Kentucky
16
Parent/guardian must give written, notarized consent.[34]
none (ear piercing also requires written, notarized consent).[35]

Ky. Rev. Stat. §211.760[6]
Ky. Rev. Stat. §194A.050; 211.760[6]

Louisiana
16
Parent or guardian must consent, and their presence during the procedure is required for tattoos, but not for body piercings.[36]

no restrictions

La. Rev. Stat. Ann. §14:93.2[6]
La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 40:2831 et seq.[6]

Maine
18 (piercings excepted)[37]
For body piercings: prior legal consent of parent/guardian.[38]
Maine law does not require parent/guardian consent for ear piercing[39]
no restrictions

Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. Title 32 § 4201-4329[6]

Maryland
none specified[40]
written consent, which must be retained for 3 years.
Piercing of the ear lobe is exempt[41]
no restriction
Health Department Regulations
A license is not required, but any person performing tattooing or piercing must comply with all the relevant health code regulations[40]
COMAR 10.06.01.02 and 10.06.01.06

Massachusetts
18 (except body piercing other than genitalia)[42]
Minors cannot receive tattoo, branding, or scarification at all. For piercing of areas other than the genitalia, a parent may provide identification and sign the consent document.[42]
Physicians performing for treatment reasons and ear piercing are exempt from regulation.[42]
no restriction
County Health Department regulates body art, but all follow a model regulation set by the state.
Artists must have a permit, and establishments are subject to following specific health department regulations[42]
Model Regulations for Body Art Establishments[42]

Michigan
none specified[43]
Written, informed consent of parent/guardian. Must be executed (signed) in the presences of the person performing the procedure, or their employee.[43]

cannot be tattooed, branded, or body pierced.[43]

Mich. Comp. Laws § 333.13101 to 333.13112[44]

Minnesota
18 (piercings excepted)[45]
For piercings: presence of parent/guardian and a consent form are both required.[45]
Minors cannot be tattooed. They can be body pierced, but not in the nipples or genitals. Branding, scarification, suspension, subdermal implantation, microdermal, and tongue bifurcation are also prohibited for minors.[45]
cannot have any body art procedures.[45]

Minnesota Statutes 146B.07[45]

Mississippi
18
n/a - minors cannot be tattooed
piercing also prohibited except for the outer perimeter or lobe of the ear.
no restriction

Miss.Code Ann. §73-61

Missouri
none specified[46]
For both piercings and tattoos, parent/guardian must sign written consent in the presence of the person performing the procedure, or their employee.[46]

cannot be tattooed, branded or body pierced.[46]
violations are a misdemeanor, punishable with a fine of up to $500 (more for repeat offenses)[46]
The state director of the division of professional registration licenses all body artists, and sets rules & regulations for the operation of body art establishments.[47]
Mo. Rev. Stat. §324.520[46]

Montana
none specified[48]
Parent or guardian must give "explicit, in-person" consent.[48] Montana administrative rules also require that the parent/guardian be present throughout the procedure.[49]

cannot be tattooed or body pierced.[49]
A person who tattoos or body pierces a minor without parent/guardian consent is guilty of Unlawful transactions with children, punishable by a fine of up to $500 or six months in county jail, or both.[48]
Other violations of Montana body art laws are a misdemeanor, with punishments ranging from a fine of $50–100 for a first offense to $300 and/or 90 days in county jail for third and subsequent offense.[50]

Montana's Department of Health and Safety licenses and regulates body art establishments.[51] Local health boards may establish their own licensing and regulatory schemes in lieu of the state department's.[52]
Mont. Code Ann. §45-5-623[48]
Mont. Code Ann. §50-48-101 to 110[53]
Mont. Code Ann. §50-48-201 to 209[54]

Nebraska
none specified[55]
written consent, must be present during procedure
Piercing does not include the external parts of the ear[56]
No restrictions

Nebraska Revised Statute 38-1008, 38-1009, 38-1010, 38-1011, 38-1060, 38-10,165

Nevada
n/a[6]
n/a[6]
Nevada state law does not regulate tattoos, piercings, or other body art. Regional health districts may regulate the practice. The southern Nevada Health District, for example, does not allow minors below the age of 14 to be tattooed, and requires a parent or guardian to provide written consent and be present during the procedure for 14- to 18-year-olds. The southern Nevada district also bans tattoos on those who are under the influence of drugs or alcohol.[57]
n/a[6]

n/a[6]

New Hampshire
18 (piercings excepted)[58]
For piercings: parent/guardian must both sign written consent and be present during the procedure.
Minors cannot be tattooed or branded. They may be pierced with parent/guardian consent.[58] Minors may have their ears pierced without parent/guardian consent.[59]
no restrictions

N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 314[6]

New Jersey
none specified[60]
written permission of parent/guardian is required for tattooing and body piercing.[60]
Parent/guardian must be present and sign written consent for ear piercings as well as for body piercing. Minors cannot have genital piercings even with parent/guardian consent.[61]
no restrictions
no restrictions
no restrictions
N.J. Stat. Ann. §2C:40-21
N.J.A.C. 8:27-1 et seq.
N.J. Stat. Ann. §26-1A-7[6]

New Mexico
none specified[62]
Written consent and presence during the procedure.
Medical procedures by physicians and ear piercing are exempt[63]
no restrictions
Administrative Regulations set by the Board of Barbers and Cosmetologists
All body artists are required to be licensed through the state, and are subject to regulations from the Board
Body Art Safe Practices Act. N.M. Stat. Ann. § 61-17B et seq.,[63] N.M. Administrative Code 16.36 et seq.[62]

New York
18 (piercings excepted) [64]
Minors cannot be tattooed with parent/guardian consent. For piercings: parent/guardian must give written consent, signed in presence of the body artist or body art establishment owner.[65]
Written parental consent is not required for ear piercings.[66]
no restrictions

New York Public Health Law, Article 4-A[6][65]
N.Y. Public Health Law §460-466[6]
N.Y. Penal Law § 260.21[6]

North Carolina
18 (piercings excepted)[67]
Minors cannot be tattooed, even with parent/guardian consent. "Prior consent" of parent/guardian is required for body piercings.[67]
Minors may have their ears pierced without parental consent.[67]
no restrictions

N.C. Gen. Stat. § 130A-283[68]
N.C. Gen. Stat. § 14-400[69]

North Dakota
none specified[70]
Parent/guardian must be present during the procedure and give written consent.[70]

cannot get tattoos or other body art[71]

N.D. Code §23-01-35[72]
N.D. Code §12.1-31-13[6][70]

Ohio
none specified[73]
Parent/guardian must both sign a consent form and "appear in person at the business at the time the procedure is performed."[73]
none - parent/guardian consent and presence is also required for ear piercings.[73]
no restrictions

Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §3730.01 to 3730.99[6][73]

Oklahoma
18 (piercings excepted)[74]
Minors cannot be tattooed, even with parent/guardian consent. For piercings: parent/guardian must both give written consent and be present during the procedure.[74]
Ear piercing is not governed/restricted by Oklahoma law.[74]
Scleral tattooing is illegal.[74]

cannot be tattooed.[74]

Okla. Stat. Title 21 §842.1, 842.2, 842.3[6]

Oregon
18 (piercings excepted)[75]
For piercings: parent/guardian must give written consent and present proof of identity.[76][77]
Minors can only be tattooed with the authorization of a physician.[75]
Scarification and dermal implants are prohibited[78]
Persons with sunburns or skin diseases or disorders cannot be tattooed or pierced.[75][77]
Minors cannot be pierced on the genitals or nipples, even with parent/guardian consent.[76]
Piercing on testes, deep shaft (corpus cavernosa), uvula, eyelids and sub-clavicle are all prohibited.[77]

cannot be tattooed or pierced.[75][77]
Violations of Oregon body art laws are a misdemeanor.[79]
Violations of Health Licensing Office rules are fined (various amounts).[80]

Both body artists and body art establishments are licensed by the Oregon Health Licensing Office.[81] With the assistance of a Board of Body Art practitioners, the Health Licensing Office also sets detailed rules and regulations for body art.[82]
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.350 et seq
Or. Rev. Stat. § 690.401 to 410
Or. Rev. Stat. § 679.500[6]
Health Licensing Office Rules, especially Divisions 900, 905, 915 & 920[82]

Pennsylvania
none specified[83]
parent/guardian must both give consent and be present during the procedure.[83]

no restrictions

Pa. Cons. Stat. Title 18 § 6311[6][83]

Rhode Island
18 (piercings excepted)[84][85]
Minors cannot be tattooed.[84] For piercings: parent/guardian must both give consent and be present for the procedure.[85]

no restrictions
Tattooing a minor is a criminal offense (misdemeanor), maximum fine $300[84]
Tattooing and body art are regulated by the department of health, artists must be registered.[85]
RI Gen L § 23-1-39[85]
RI Gen L § 11-9-15[84]

South Carolina
18 (piercings excepted)[86][87]
Minors cannot be tattooed.[86] For piercings: parent/guardian must either give written, notarized consent or be present during the procedure.[87]
Head, face, and neck tattoos are illegal.[86]
cannot be tattooed or body pierced[86][88]
Under the Health Code, persons violating restrictions on tattooing and body piercing are guilty of a misdemeanor. Upon conviction, they may be fined up to $2500 or imprisoned for a year, or both.[86][87]
Tattoo and body piercing facilities are regulated by the Department of Health and Environmental Control. Tattoo facilities are licensed, body piercing facilities require a permit, and artists must be registered[89][90]
S.C. Code § 44-32-10 to 44-32-120[88]
S.C. Code § 44-34-10 to 44-34-110[91]

South Dakota
none specified[92]
Parent/guardian must sign a consent form.[92]

cannot be tattooed or pierced[93][94]
Tattooing a minor is a class 2 misdemeanor.[95]
Tattooing and Body Piercing are governed by Department of Health rules.[96] Municipalities may set stricter regulations, and have the authority to license body artists.[95]
S.D. Codified Laws Ann. §26-10-19[92]
S.D. Laws § 9-34-17[95]

Tennessee
18 (piercings excepted)[97][98]
For tattoos that cover an existing tattoo (see Notes & Exceptions): Parent/Guardian must be present during the procedure.[97]
For piercings: Parent/Guardian must give written consent, be present during the procedure.[98]

Minors over the age of sixteen may be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo, with parent/guardian consent.[97]

Minors who lie about their age to be tattooed are guilty of a "delinquent act," are required to pay a fine of $50–$250 and serve at least 20 hours of community service.[97]
Tattooing a minor is a class a misdemeanor,[97] breach of body piercing law is a class b misdemeanor.[99]

Tattoo artists and body piercers are licensed by the state department of health, tattoo shops require a certificate from the local health department.[100][101]
Tenn. Code §§ 62-38-201-310[102]

Texas
18 (piercings excepted)[103][104]
For body piercings and for covering existing tattoos (see Notes & Exceptions): Parent/guardian must be present during procedure, sign an affidavit[103][104]
Ear piercing is exempt from body piercing statutes[105]
Minors may, with parent/guardian consent, be tattooed to cover up an existing tattoo that has offensive, gang-related, or drug-related content, or "other words, symbols, or markings that the person's parent or guardian considers would be in the best interest of the person to cover"[103]
Tongue splitting prohibited.[106]

Cannot be tattooed or pierced.[103][107]
Misrepresenting one's age to get a tattoo, or to get a piercing without parental consent, is a class B misdemeanor[103][104]
Violations of Texas tattooing & body piercing statute are a Class A misdemeanor, with each day of violation counting as a separate offense.[108]
Health Commissioner can impose a fine of up to $5000 on artists & shops for each violation[109]

Tattoo artists and body piercers must be registered with the Texas Department of Health[110] Tattoo and body piercing shops must be licensed[111]
Texas Health and Safety Code Ann. §146[112]

Utah
none specified[113]
Parent/guardian must be present during the procedure, give written permission, and provide proof of identity.[113]
Parental consent not required by law for ear piercing[113]

Tattooing or body piercing a minor is a class b misdemeanor, shops can be fined up to $1000 for each violation.[113]

Utah Code Ann. §76-10-2201[6]

Vermont
none specified[114]

Tattooists and body piercers must be registered.[114]
Vt. Stat. Ann. Title 26 §4101 to 4109[6][115]

Virginia
none specified[116]
Parent/Guardian must be present during the procedure.[116]
Virginia law does not limit minors' ability to have their ears pierced.[116]

Tattooing or body piercing a minor is a class 1 misdemeanor[116]
Tattoo artists and body piercers, as well as the operators of tattoo and body piercing establishments, are licensed by the state.[117][118]
Civic/local governments are empowered to regulate tattoo and body piercing establishments.[119]

Va. Code §54.1-700 et seq.
Va. Code §15.2-912
Va. Code § 18.2-371.3.[6]

Washington
18 (piercings excepted)[120]

cannot have tattoos, body piercings, or other body art.[121]

Wash. Code §26.28.085[120]
Wash. Code § 18.300[122]
Wash. Code § 246-145-001 to 060[123]
Wash. Code §70.54[124]

West Virginia
none specified[125]
parent/guardian must give written consent[125]

All persons receiving a tattoo must attest they are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol.[125]

Tattoo shop owners and body piercing studios must register with local board of health, and must be registered as a business with the state[126][127][128]
W. Va. Code §16-37
W. Va. Code §16-38[129]

Wisconsin
18[130]
n/a (tattooing not permitted under 18)
Physicians in the course of professional practice are exempt
no restriction
Tattooing a minor or even offering to do so is subject to a fine of up to $200
Artists must be satisfy training requirements and obtain a license from the health department. Establishments are subject to inspection and licensing[131]
Wisconsin Statutes & Annotations 948.70 and 252.235

Wyoming
none specified[132]
Verbal consent, presence during procedure.[132]
Procedures performed under the supervision of a licensed physician, and piercing of the ear, do not count as body art for this law.
no restriction[132]
Misdemeanor criminal offense, punishable by fine and prison time[132]

Wyoming Statute §14-3-107[132]


document_title: Capital expenditure

question_text: where does capex go on the balance sheet

text: Capital expenditure

text: Usage[edit]

text: Capital expenditures are the funds used to acquire or upgrade a company's fixed assets, such as expenditures towards property, plant, or equipment (PP&E).[3] In the case when a capital expenditure constitutes a major financial decision for a company, the expenditure must be formalized at an annual shareholders meeting or a special meeting of the Board of Directors. In accounting, a capital expenditure is added to an asset account, thus increasing the asset's basis (the cost or value of an asset adjusted for tax purposes). capex is commonly found on the cash flow statement under "Investment in Plant, Property, and Equipment" or something similar in the Investing subsection.

text: Accounting rules[edit]

text: For tax purposes, capex is a cost that cannot be deducted in the year in which it is paid or incurred and must be capitalized. The general rule is that if the acquired property's useful life is longer than the taxable year, then the cost must be capitalized. The capital expenditure costs are then amortized or depreciated over the life of the asset in question. Further to the above, capex creates or adds basis to the asset or property, which once adjusted, will determine tax liability in the event of sale or transfer. In the US, Internal Revenue Code §§263 and 263A deal extensively with capitalization requirements and exceptions.[4]

text: Included in capital expenditures are amounts spent on:

text:
acquiring fixed, and in some cases, intangible assets
repairing an existing asset so as to improve its useful life
upgrading an existing asset if it results in a superior fixture
preparing an asset to be used in business
restoring property or adapting it to a new or different use
starting or acquiring a new business

tag: ol

text: An ongoing question for the accounting of any company is whether certain costs incurred should be capitalized or expensed. Costs which are expensed in a particular month simply appear on the financial statement as a cost incurred that month. Costs that are capitalized, however, are amortized or depreciated over multiple years. Capitalized expenditures show up on the balance sheet. Most ordinary business costs are either expensable or capitalizable, but some costs could be treated either way, according to the preference of the company. Capitalized interest if applicable is also spread out over the life of the asset.

text: The counterpart of capital expenditure is operating expense or operational cost (opex).