document_title: Elizabeth II

question_text: when did the queen became the queen of the uk

question_tokens: when did the queen became the queen of the uk

root

text: Elizabeth II

text: Early life

text: Elizabeth was born at 02:40 (GMT) on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. Her father, the Duke of York (later King George VI), was the second son of the King. Her mother, the Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth), was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat the Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather's London house: 17 Bruton Street, Mayfair.[1] She was baptised by the Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May,[2][b] and named Elizabeth after her mother, Alexandra after George V's mother, who had died six months earlier, and Mary after her paternal grandmother.[4] Called "Lilibet" by her close family,[5] based on what she called herself at first,[6] she was cherished by her grandfather George V, and during his serious illness in 1929 her regular visits were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.[7]

tag: p

text: Elizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford.[8] Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music.[9] Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family.[10] The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[11] Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[12] Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[13]

text: Heir presumptive

text: During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as the Prince of Wales was still young. Many people believed he would marry and have children of his own.[14] When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis.[15] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, and she became heir presumptive. If her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession.[16]

text: Elizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College,[17] and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses.[18] A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her own age.[19] Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.[18]

text: In 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when her parents had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain, since her father thought her too young to undertake public tours.[20] Elizabeth "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[21] They corresponded regularly,[21] and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[20]

text: Second World War

text: In September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War, which lasted until 1945. During the war, many of London's children were evacuated to avoid the frequent aerial bombing. The suggestion by senior politician Lord Hailsham[22] that the two princesses should be evacuated to Canada was rejected by Elizabeth's mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[23] Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk.[24] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[25] At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments.[26] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[27] She stated: "We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well."[27]

text: In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year.[28] As she approached her 18th birthday, parliament changed the law so she could act as one of five Counsellors of State in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[29] In February 1945, she was appointed as an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the service number of 230873.[30] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander five months later.[31][32]

text: At the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret mingled anonymously with the celebratory crowds in the streets of London. Elizabeth later said in a rare interview, "We asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[33]

text: During the war, plans were drawn up to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for various reasons, which included a fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd, at a time when Britain was at war.[34] Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[35] In 1946, she was inducted into the Welsh Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.[36]

text: Princess Elizabeth went in 1947 on her first overseas tour, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge: "I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong."[37]

text: Marriage

text: Elizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and 1937.[38] They are second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After another meeting at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth – though only 13 years old – said she fell in love with Philip, and they began to exchange letters.[39] She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.[40]

text: The engagement was not without controversy; Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links.[41] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[42] Later biographies reported Elizabeth's mother initially opposed the union, dubbing Philip "The Hun".[43] In later life, however, the Queen Mother told biographer Tim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[44]

text: Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family.[45] Just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness.[46]

text: Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world.[47] Because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war, Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown, which was designed by Norman Hartnell.[48] In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for the Duke of Edinburgh's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[49] The Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII, was not invited either.[50]

text: Elizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, on 14 November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince.[51] A second child, Princess Anne, was born in 1950.[52]

text: Following their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949,[47] when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, the Duke of Edinburgh was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle, Lord Mountbatten. The children remained in Britain.[53]

text: Reign

text: Accession and coronation

text: During 1951, George VI's health declined, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[54] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of the King and consequently Elizabeth's immediate accession to the throne. Philip broke the news to the new Queen.[55] Martin Charteris asked her to choose a regnal name; she chose to remain Elizabeth, "of course".[56] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[57] She and the Duke of Edinburgh moved into Buckingham Palace.[58]

text: With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable the royal house would bear her husband's name, becoming the House of Mountbatten, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother, Queen Mary, favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, and so on 9 April 1952 Elizabeth issued a declaration that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. The Duke complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[59] In 1960, after the death of Queen Mary in 1953 and the resignation of Churchill in 1955, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[60]

text: Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé‚ 16 years Margaret's senior, with two sons from his previous marriage. The Queen asked them to wait for a year; in the words of Martin Charteris, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought – she hoped – given time, the affair would peter out."[61] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[62] Eventually, she decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[63] In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; she did not remarry.[64]

text: Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March, the coronation on 2 June 1953 went ahead as planned, as Mary had asked before she died.[65] The ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[66][c] Elizabeth's coronation gown was embroidered on her instructions with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries:[70] English Tudor rose; Scots thistle; Welsh leek; Irish shamrock; Australian wattle; Canadian maple leaf; New Zealand silver fern; South African protea; lotus flowers for India and Ceylon; and Pakistan's wheat, cotton, and jute.[71]

text: Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth

text: From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[72] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[73] In 1953, the Queen and her husband embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles by land, sea and air.[74] She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[75] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[76] Throughout her reign, the Queen has made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she is the most widely travelled head of state.[77]

text: In 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union.[78] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten claimed the Queen was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[79]

text: The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to the Queen to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Winston Churchill, and the Chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in the Queen appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[80]

text: The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led in 1957 to the first major personal criticism of the Queen. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[81] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[82] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[83] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised the Queen to appoint the Earl of Home as prime minister, advice she followed.[84] The Queen again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister.[84] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving her of involvement.[85]

text:
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Queen Elizabeth II's Address to the United Nations General Assembly

text: In 1957, she made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[86] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[86][87] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[88] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins.[89] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[89] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination.[90][91] No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; the Queen's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[92]

text: Elizabeth's pregnancies with Princes Andrew and Edward, in 1959 and 1963, mark the only times she has not performed the State Opening of the British parliament during her reign.[93] In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, she also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[94]

text: Acceleration of decolonisation

text: The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. Over 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian Prime Minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, declared unilateral independence from Britain while still expressing "loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth. Although the Queen dismissed him in a formal declaration, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[95] As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.[96]

text: In February 1974, the British Prime Minister, Edward Heath, advised the Queen to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[97] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. Heath only resigned when discussions on forming a coalition foundered, after which the Queen asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[98]

text: A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[99] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to the Queen to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general.[100] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.[99]

text: Silver Jubilee

text: In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed the Queen's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband.[101] In 1978, the Queen endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena,[102] though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands".[103] The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[104]

text: According to Paul Martin, Sr., by the end of the 1970s the Queen was worried the Crown "had little meaning for" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian Prime Minister.[105] Tony Benn said the Queen found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[105] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind the Queen's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[105] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found the Queen "better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[105] She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[105] Patriation removed the role of the British parliament from the Canadian constitution, but the monarchy was retained. Trudeau said in his memoirs that the Queen favoured his attempt to reform the constitution and that he was impressed by "the grace she displayed in public" and "the wisdom she showed in private".[106]

text: During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales, and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at the Queen from close range as she rode down The Mall on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[107] The Queen's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[108]

text: Months later, in October, the Queen was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. New Zealand Security Intelligence Service documents declassified in 2018 revealed that 17-year-old Christopher John Lewis fired a shot with a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade, but missed.[109] Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital in order to assassinate Prince Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana, Princess of Wales, and Prince William.[110]

text: From April to September 1982, the Queen was anxious but proud of her son, Prince Andrew, who was serving with British forces during the Falklands War.[111] On 9 July, the Queen awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard.[112] After hosting US President Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, the Queen was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[113]

text: Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, not all of which were entirely true.[114] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[115] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that the Queen was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[116] Thatcher reputedly said the Queen would vote for the Social Democratic Party – Thatcher's political opponents.[117] Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[118] Belying reports of acrimony between them, Thatcher later conveyed her personal admiration for the Queen,[119] and the Queen gave two honours in her personal gift – membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter – to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major.[120] Former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid.[121][122]

text: In 1987, in Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau.[121] The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of the Governor-General, Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.[123] By the start of 1991, republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of the Queen's private wealth – which were contradicted by the Palace – and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family.[124] The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout was ridiculed,[125] and the Queen was the target of satire.[126]

text: In 1991, in the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, the Queen became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress.[127]

text: In a speech on 24 November 1992, to mark the 40th anniversary of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis, meaning horrible year.[128] In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, and his wife, Sarah, separated; in April, her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips;[129] during a state visit to Germany in October, angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at her;[130] and, in November, a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny.[131] In an unusually personal speech, the Queen said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[132] Two days later, the Prime Minister, John Major, announced reforms to the royal finances planned since the previous year, including the Queen paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list.[133] In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated.[134] The year ended with a lawsuit as the Queen sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity.[135]

text: In the years to follow, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued.[136] Even though support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republicanism was still a minority viewpoint, and the Queen herself had high approval ratings.[137] Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself and the Queen's wider family rather than her own behaviour and actions.[138] In consultation with her husband and the Prime Minister, John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey, and her private secretary, Robert Fellowes, she wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, saying a divorce was desirable.[139]

text: In August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. The Queen was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons by Charles – Princes William and Harry – wanted to attend church and so the Queen and Prince Philip took them that morning.[140] After that single public appearance, for five days the Queen and the Duke shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private,[141] but the royal family's seclusion and the failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace caused public dismay.[122][142] Pressured by the hostile reaction, the Queen agreed to return to London and do a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral.[143] In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a grandmother" for the two princes.[144] As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.[144]

text: In November 1997, the Queen and her husband held a reception at Banqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary.[145] She made a speech and praised Philip for his role as a consort, referring to him as "my strength and stay".[145]

text: In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee. Her sister and mother died in February and March respectively, and the media speculated whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure.[146] She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, which began in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness.[147] As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. A million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[148] and the enthusiasm shown by the public for the Queen was greater than many journalists had expected.[149]

text: Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.[150]

text: In May 2007, The Daily Telegraph, citing unnamed sources, reported the Queen was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of the British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair.[151] She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland.[152] She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007.[153] On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, the Queen attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.[154]

text: The Queen addressed the United Nations for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth.[155] The UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her as "an anchor for our age".[156] During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for British victims of the September 11 attacks.[156] The Queen's visit to Australia in October 2011 – her sixteenth visit since 1954 – was called her "farewell tour" in the press because of her age.[157] By invitation of the Irish President, Mary McAleese, the Queen made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011.[158]

text: Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee in 2012 marked 60 years on the throne, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. In a message released on Accession Day, Elizabeth wrote:

text: In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope we will all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength of family, friendship and good neighbourliness ... I hope also that this Jubilee year will be a time to give thanks for the great advances that have been made since 1952 and to look forward to the future with clear head and warm heart.[159]

text: She and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf.[160][161] On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world.[162] In November, the Queen and her husband celebrated their sapphire wedding anniversary.[163] On 18 December, she became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.[164]

text: The Queen, who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two different countries.[165] For the London Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond.[166] On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet" at the award ceremony.[167]

text: On 3 March 2013, Elizabeth was admitted to King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. She returned to Buckingham Palace the following day.[168] A week later, she signed the new Commonwealth charter.[169] Because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, in 2013 she chose not to attend the biennial meeting of Commonwealth heads of government for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by her son, Prince Charles.[170]

text: The Queen surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-lived British monarch on 21 December 2007, and the longest-reigning British monarch and longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015.[171][172][173] She is also the "longest-reigning sovereign in Canada's modern era".[174] (King Louis XIV of France reigned over Canada (New France) for longer than Elizabeth.[175]) She became the oldest current monarch after King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia died on 23 January 2015.[176][177] She later became the longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state following the death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016,[178][179] and the oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe on 21 November 2017.[180][181] On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee,[182] and on 20 November, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum wedding anniversary.[183] Prince Philip had retired from his official duties as the Queen's consort in August.[184]

text: The Queen does not intend to abdicate,[185] though Prince Charles is expected to take on more of her duties as Elizabeth, who celebrated her 91st birthday in 2017, carries out fewer public engagements.[186] Plans for her death and funeral have been extensively prepared by most British government and media organisations for decades.[187]

text: Public perception and character

text: Since Elizabeth rarely gives interviews, little is known of her personal feelings. As a constitutional monarch, she has not expressed her own political opinions in a public forum. She does have a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and takes her coronation oath seriously.[188] Aside from her official religious role as Supreme Governor of the established Church of England, she is personally a member of that church and also of the national Church of Scotland.[189] She has demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and has met with leaders of other churches and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis.[190] A personal note about her faith often features in her annual Christmas message broadcast to the Commonwealth. In 2000, she spoke about the theological significance of the millennium marking the 2000th anniversary of the birth of Jesus:

text: To many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.[191]

text: She is patron of over 600 organisations and charities.[192] Her main leisure interests include equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis.[193] Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first corgi owned by her family.[194][195] Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life have occasionally been witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepare a meal together and do the washing up afterwards.[196]

text: In the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen".[197] After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a "new Elizabethan age".[198] Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish schoolgirl" was an extremely rare criticism.[199] In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales.[200] In public, she took to wearing mostly solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, which allow her to be seen easily in a crowd.[201]

text: At her Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic,[202] but in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny.[203] Elizabeth's popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public.[204] Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, though Elizabeth's personal popularity and support for the monarchy rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.[205]

text: In November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state.[206] Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for Elizabeth,[207] and in 2012, her Diamond Jubilee year, approval ratings hit 90 percent.[208] Referenda in Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 both rejected proposals to become republics.[209]

text: Elizabeth has been portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including painters Pietro Annigoni, Peter Blake, Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy, Terence Cuneo, Lucian Freud, Rolf Harris, Damien Hirst, Juliet Pannett, and Tai-Shan Schierenberg.[210][211] Notable photographers of Elizabeth have included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Annie Leibovitz, Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, John Swannell, and Dorothy Wilding. The first official portrait of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams in 1926.[212]

text: Finances

text: Elizabeth's personal fortune has been the subject of speculation for many years. In 1971 Jock Colville, who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank, Coutts, estimated her wealth at £2 million (equivalent to about £26 million in 2016[213]).[214][215] In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates of £100 million "grossly overstated".[216] In 2002, she inherited an estate worth an estimated £70 million from her mother.[217] The Sunday Times Rich List 2017 estimated her personal wealth at £360 million, making her the 329th richest person in the UK.[218]

text: The Royal Collection, which includes thousands of historic works of art and the Crown Jewels, is not owned by the Queen personally but is held in trust,[219] as are her official residences, such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle,[220] and the Duchy of Lancaster, a property portfolio valued at £472 million in 2015.[221] Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle are personally owned by the Queen.[220] The British Crown Estate – with holdings of £12 billion in 2016[218] – is held in trust and cannot be sold or owned by Elizabeth in a personal capacity.[222]

text: Titles, styles, honours, and arms

text: Titles and styles

text:
21 April 1926 – 11 December 1936: Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth of York
11 December 1936 – 20 November 1947: Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth
20 November 1947 – 6 February 1952: Her Royal Highness The Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh
Since 6 February 1952: Her Majesty The Queen

tag: ul

text: Elizabeth has held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, is Sovereign of many orders in her own countries, and has received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms she has a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen of Jamaica and her other realms and territories in Jamaica, Queen of Australia and her other realms and territories in Australia, etc. In the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, which are Crown dependencies rather than separate realms, she is known as Duke of Normandy and Lord of Mann, respectively. Additional styles include Defender of the Faith and Duke of Lancaster. When in conversation with the Queen, the practice is to initially address her as Your Majesty and thereafter as Ma'am.[223]

text: Arms

text: From 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of St George.[224] Upon her accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign. The Queen also possesses royal standards and personal flags for use in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, and elsewhere.[225]

text:
Coat of arms of Princess Elizabeth (1944–1947)

Coat of arms of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (1947–1952)

Coat of arms of Elizabeth II in England, Wales and Northern Ireland

Coat of arms of Elizabeth II in Scotland

Coat of arms of Elizabeth II in Canada (one of three versions used in her reign)[d]

text: Issue

text:
Name
Birth
Marriage
Their children
Their grandchildren

Date
Spouse

Charles, Prince of Wales
14 November 1948
29 July 1981
Divorced 28 August 1996
Lady Diana Spencer
Prince William, Duke of Cambridge
Prince George of Cambridge
Princess Charlotte of Cambridge

Prince Henry of Wales
None

9 April 2005
Camilla Parker Bowles
None

Anne, Princess Royal
15 August 1950
14 November 1973
Divorced 28 April 1992
Mark Phillips
Peter Phillips
Savannah Phillips
Isla Phillips

Zara Tindall
Mia Tindall

12 December 1992
Timothy Laurence
None

Prince Andrew, Duke of York
19 February 1960
23 July 1986
Divorced 30 May 1996
Sarah Ferguson
Princess Beatrice of York
None

Princess Eugenie of York
None

Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
10 March 1964
19 June 1999
Sophie Rhys-Jones
Lady Louise Windsor
None

James, Viscount Severn
None

text: Ancestry

text:
[show]Ancestry of Elizabeth II[227]

‹ The template below (Ahnentafel-compact4) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›

8. King Edward VII of the United Kingdom

4. King George V of the United Kingdom

9. Princess Alexandra of Denmark

2. King George VI of the United Kingdom

10. Francis, Duke of Teck

5. Princess Mary of Teck

11. Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge

1. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom

12. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 13th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne

6. Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne

13. Frances Dora Smith

3. Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon

14. Charles Cavendish-Bentinck

7. Nina Cavendish-Bentinck

15. Carolina Burnaby

‹ The template below (Ahnentafel bottom) is being considered for merging. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›


document_title: The White Queen (TV series)

question_text: who played elizabeth woodville in the television series the white queen

text: The White Queen (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: House of York[edit]

text:
Rebecca Ferguson as Elizabeth Woodville, the "White Queen" and consort to Edward IV
Max Irons as Edward IV of England
Faye Marsay as Lady Anne Neville, "the Kingmaker's Daughter" and queen consort to Richard III
Aneurin Barnard as Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later King Richard III; brother of Edward IV
James Frain as Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, "the Kingmaker", a great-grandson of John, Duke of Lancaster
Janet McTeer as Jacquetta, Lady Rivers, Elizabeth Woodville’s mother
David Oakes as George, Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV
Eleanor Tomlinson as Lady Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence, wife of George, Duke of Clarence and elder sister of Lady Anne Neville
Juliet Aubrey as Lady Anne Beauchamp, Countess of Warwick, wife of Warwick and mother to Lady Isabel and Lady Anne; herself a great-granddaughter of Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York
Caroline Goodall as Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, a granddaughter of John, Duke of Lancaster
Sonny Ashbourne Serkis as the Prince of Wales (later King Edward V), eldest son and heir to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville; later one of the Princes in the Tower
Freya Mavor as Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter and child to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville
Elinor Crawley as Cecily of York, daughter to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville

text: House of Lancaster[edit]

text:
Amanda Hale as Lady Margaret Beaufort, "the Red Queen", mother of Henry Tudor, a great-granddaughter of John, Duke of Lancaster
Veerle Baetens as Margaret of Anjou, queen consort to Henry VI of England
Joey Batey as Edward of Lancaster, son of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou, married to Lady Anne Neville
Michael Marcus as Henry Tudor, later Henry VII of England; son and heir of Lady Margaret Beaufort by Sir Edmund Tudor
Oscar Kennedy as young Henry Tudor
Tom McKay as Jasper Tudor, half-brother of Henry VI, brother-in-law to Lady Margaret Beaufort and uncle to Henry Tudor

text: Additional cast[edit]

text:
Frances Tomelty as Lady Beauchamp, mother of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Michael Maloney as Sir Henry Stafford, third husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Ben Lamb as Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers
Hugh Mitchell as Richard Welles, half-brother of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Rupert Young as Sir William Herbert, Lord Pembroke
Robert Pugh as Baron Rivers (later Earl Rivers), father of Elizabeth Woodville
Rupert Graves as Lord Stanley, the fourth husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Andrew Gower, as Lord Strange, son of Lord Stanley
Shaun Dooley, as Sir Robert Brackenbury
Arthur Darvill, as Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham
Emily Berrington, as Jane Shore, Edward IV's mistress
Andreas Perschewski as Louis XI of France

text: The large majority of the cast is British, but since the series is shot in Belgium, several local actors are featured: Veerle Baetens,[13] Jurgen Delnaet, Joren Seldeslachts, Elsa Houben, Ben Forceville and Ben Van den Heuvel all appear in the series.[14] Rebecca Ferguson who portrays Elizabeth Woodville, the White Queen, is from Sweden (her mother is originally from England).[15]

text: Production[edit]

text: The budget was £25 million and took 120 days to shoot, consisting of 250 sets including: dungeons, palaces, castles, 12 state banquets and at least two coronations.[16]

text: Two versions were made, one for the BBC and a more sexually explicit version for the U.S.[17]

text: A companion two-part documentary series, The Real White Queen and Her Rivals, presented by Philippa Gregory, was made to accompany the series. It was broadcast on BBC Two on 17 and 24 July 2013.[18]

text: Credits[edit]

text:
Executive producers: John Griffin, George Faber, Charles Pattinson for Company Pictures, Eurydice Gysel for Czar Television, Polly Hill for the BBC, Philippa Gregory and Colin Callender.
Series lead writer: Emma Frost[8] and produced by Company Pictures. Lisa McGee[19] and Nicole Taylor are also writers.
James Kent directed the first three episodes.[20]
Other episodes were directed by Jamie Payne[21] and Colin Teague.[22]
Cinematographer: Jean Philippe Gossart.[23] and David Luther.[23][24]
Music: John Lunn.[1]

text: Locations[edit]

text: The White Queen was filmed on location in Belgium, where several landmarks in Bruges and Ghent represent locations in London and elsewhere:[25]

text:
The Gothic Hall in Bruges' Town Hall represents Westminster Hall
Church of Our Lady in Bruges represents St Stephen's Chapel in the old Palace of Westminster
Heilige Geeststraat in Bruges represents a medieval London street
Basilica of the Holy Blood in Bruges represents Tower of London
In Ghent filming took place in the Castle of the Counts (Gravensteen), Saint Peter's Abbey (Sint-Pietersabdij), Saint Bavo's Abbey (Sint-Baafsabdij), Cloth hall (Lakenhalle), Castle of Gerald the Devil (Geeraard de Duivelsteen), Saint Bavo Cathedral (Sint-Baafskathedraal), and Agustijnklooster (Academiestraat).
Additional filming took place at Rumbeke, in Damme, and at Ursel Airfield—23 locations for the first three episodes. The rest of the set was constructed at a nearby Philips factory.[25]

text: Nominations and reception[edit]

text: The series received positive reviews, with an average critic rating of 7.6/10 on Rotten Tomatoes and a score of 70 on Metacritic; the critic consensus that it "sometimes suffers from clunky storytelling", but "delivers sufficient intrigue, thanks to its gorgeous costumes, splendid cast, and sexy, soapy plots".[26][27] The show currently holds a 79% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 20 reviews, and a score of 7.8/10 on IMDb based on 10,230 user ratings.[26][28]

text: The White Queen was nominated for several awards including three Golden Globe Awards, four Primetime Emmy Awards and a People's Choice Award for Favorite TV Movie/Miniseries.

text: 71st Golden Globe Awards (2014)

text:
Best Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television
Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-Series or a Motion Picture Made for Television - (Rebecca Ferguson)
Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television - (Janet McTeer)

text: 66th Primetime Emmy Awards (2014)

text: Outstanding Miniseries

text: 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards (2014)

text:
Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special (Original Dramatic Score) - For episode: " The Final Battle"
Outstanding Costumes for a Miniseries, Movie, or Special - For episode: "The Price of Power"
Outstanding Hairstyling for a Miniseries or Movie

text: 40th People's Choice Awards (2014)

text: Favorite TV Movie/Miniseries

text: 2014 Saturn Awards - Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films

text: SBest Television Release on DVD/Blu-ray

text: 2014 ASC Award - American Society of Cinematographers

text: Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Television Movie/Mini-Series - David Luther for Episode: "War at First Hand" (nomination)[24]

text: OFTA Television Awards 2014 - Online Film & Television Association

text: Best Miniseries

text: Satellite Awards 2013

text: Best Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television

text: Reception in the UK[edit]

text: In the UK the critical reception was described as 'mixed at best'[29] and 'mostly scathing'.[30] Sam Wollaston of The Guardian praised the show's characters, suggesting Janet McTeer (Jacquetta) stole the show. He also praised the show's romantic elements, commenting "Mmmm, steamy".[31] Gerard O'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph praised the casting of the supporting characters and the exciting "lust and vengeance" fueling the drama, but objected to the prettified portrayal of 15th century England.[32] Deborah Ross of The Daily Mail gave the mixed review of both one and five stars, "because it possesses the sort of one-star awfulness that, if properly embraced, can transport you all the way to five-star joy."[33] The Independent's Tom Sutcliffe found it "less historically plausible than Game of Thrones", but concluded that "I’m sure it will give innocent pleasure to many."[34] Barbara Ellen in The Observer, compared the show to "a strange Timotei advert, featuring fornication, shouting, horses, armour", whilst commenting that the sex scenes, toned down in the British version, "were so vanilla, I ended up fancying an ice cream. "[35]

text: Reviewing the final episode for The Daily Telegraph, Bernadette McNulty stated that the series, "fell between two stools—not serious enough for the scholars nor glitzy enough for the Game of Thrones fans."[36] The ratings were however good. The first episode received 6 million viewers, stabilising at around the 4–4.5 million mark from the second episode,[37][38] although occasionally it dipped below this on first broadcast figures.[39]

text: Reception in the U.S.[edit]

text: The White Queen received generally mixed reviews after airing on the Starz network on 10 August 2013. Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post described the series as "Sexy, empowering and violent".[40] Linda Stasi of the New York Post agreed that the series is a hit, exclaiming "The White Queen a royal winner".[41] It was again unfavourably compared to HBO's high budget and fast-paced Game of Thrones. In comparison to Game of Thrones Neil Genzlinger speculates that "even if dragons were allowed, they’d mostly be lounging around and, between bouts of relatively tame dragon sex, talking about eating people rather than actually eating them".[42] The performances of Janet McTeer and James Frain were praised by several American reviewers. Amanda Hale, despite receiving praise for her performance by British reviewers,[43] was unfavourably reviewed by U.S. critic Matthew Gilbert. He said "There were moments when I rolled my eyes—Amanda Hale, as the mother of young Henry Tudor, looks as if she is going to explode with ill intent. Really, her performance could be transposed into a Mel Brooks spoof".[44] Louise Mellor of Den of Geek added "Why does Lady Margaret Beaufort constantly look like she is sucking on a Murray Mint?"[45] TV Guide writer Matt Roush praised Hale's performance as "intense", and favored the series, labeling it as "fun", and on a one to ten scale, ranking it at seven.[46]

text: The White Queen was nominated three times at the 71st Golden Globe Awards, with acting nominations for Ferguson and McTeer and an overall nomination for the series in the Best Miniseries or Television Film category.[47]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Despite initial plans for a second series, on 20 August 2013 the BBC announced they were not commissioning one, possibly due to the lukewarm reception the series received.[48] However, in October 2013,The Telegraph reported that Starz was planning to develop a sequel miniseries called The White Princess, based on Gregory's 2013 novel of the same name.[10] Starz CEO Chris Albrecht announced in January 2014 that the network was working with White Queen screenwriter Emma Frost on the project.[49] Starz would produce the White Princess miniseries without involvement from the BBC.[49] Gregory confirmed that the project was underway in August 2015.[11] On 7 February 2016, Gregory announced on Facebook that the sequel was officially confirmed to be in production, with the scripts being written.[12] Production on the eight episode limited series began in June 2016.[50][51] It aired weekly on Starz from 6 April to 4 June 2017.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: The Starz episode title is shown below the original BBC title if different. Final UK episode ratings from BARB.

text:
No.
Title[52][53][54]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
US air date[53]
UK viewers
(million)[55]
US viewers
(million)

1
"In Love With the King"
James Kent
Emma Frost
16 June 2013 (2013-06-16)
9 August 2013
5.33[56][57]
0.457[58]

It is 1464. Having been widowed and lost access to her Lancastrian husband's property in the War of the Roses, Elizabeth Woodville is encouraged by her mother Jacquetta to put herself in the way of the new Yorkist King, Edward IV, and appeal to him directly. Edward, already with a reputation as a womanizer, is instantly drawn to Elizabeth's beauty, and makes arrangements to see her again. When Elizabeth rejects his sexual advances, he agrees to marry her and make her Queen of England. However, the secret marriage does not go down well with England's court, especially with Edward's mother, Duchess Cecily, and his most trusted adviser, the Earl of Warwick.

2
"The Price of Power"
James Kent
Emma Frost
23 June 2013 (2013-06-23)
17 August 2013
5.70
0.801[59]

An extravagant coronation is planned in an attempt to silence critics of the marriage between Elizabeth and the king. Warwick's discontent with Edward's choice quickly makes itself known, as he refuses to allow his daughters to become her ladies-in-waiting. Margaret Beaufort, whose son Henry Tudor has a claim to the throne, sides with Warwick and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence, in the hope that her child will be returned to her. Meanwhile, Warwick makes use of his elder daughter Isabel in an attempt to unify the Nevilles and the Yorks by marrying her to the Duke of Clarence, heir presumptive to King Edward.

3
"The Storm"
James Kent
Emma Frost
30 June 2013 (2013-06-30)
24 August 2013
5.32
0.704[60]

After a rebellion by the Earl of Warwick results in the deaths of Elizabeth's father and brother but fails to put George, Duke of Clarence, on the throne in Edward's place, an uneasy peace is concluded between Warwick and Edward. It lasts only a short time before they rebel again and are forced to flee to France. Their supporters in England, including committed Lancastrian Margaret Beaufort, are left to face the consequences. Seeking vengeance for her father and brother's deaths, Elizabeth and her mother Jacquetta turn to the occult, with devastating consequences for Isabel Neville, who loses her baby while en route to France with her husband.

4
"The Bad Queen"
Jamie Payne
Lisa McGee
7 July 2013 (2013-07-07)
7 September 2013
5.00
0.811[61]

Warwick's campaign with George has failed, so the desperate Kingmaker turns to Margaret of Anjou, the Lancastrian Queen, as his only option to stop his family from losing everything. His youngest daughter Anne is married off to the heir to the Lancastrian throne, the cruel and spoilt Edward, Prince of Wales. Back in London, Edward and Elizabeth are troubled by news of this new alliance, and are taken by surprise when Warwick leads an assault on London. Warwick, now in control of the country, has Jacquetta tried for witchcraft, but his plans are thwarted when she appeals to her friend Margaret of Anjou for a testimonial. Seeking sanctuary at Westminster Abbey with her children, Elizabeth is joined by her mother and finally gives birth to a baby boy.

5
"War at First Hand"
Jamie Payne
Malcolm Campbell
14 July 2013 (2013-07-14)
14 September 2013
4.56
0.929[62]

Lancaster is restored to the throne in the form of the demented Henry VI, and Margaret Beaufort brings her son to receive his blessing. Margaret of Anjou sails for England with her new daughter-in-law Anne Neville by her side, to take her place beside her husband. However, news that Edward is returning with an army unsettles the court. As Warwick and the Lancastrians raise an army to confront Edward, in a desperate attempt to protect her husband on the battlefield, Elizabeth again turns to supernatural forces. Margaret Beaufort is horrified when her husband decides to fight for York; he is seriously wounded in the battle. Edward's rule is assured by his victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury (during which Warwick and Prince Edward are killed) and the capture of Margaret of Anjou. Anne, grieving for her father, is nearly assaulted by Yorkist troops, but is rescued and brought to court by Richard. Elizabeth rejoices at her husband's return, but is dismayed when he and his brothers murder Henry VI in order to remove all Lancastrian opposition.

6
"Love and Marriage"
"Love and Death"
Jamie Payne
Nicole Taylor
21 July 2013 (2013-07-21)
21 September 2013
4.59
0.859[63]

Although Warwick, Henry VI and Edward of Lancaster are all dead, the court is unsettled. Elizabeth is concerned by Edward's growing attraction to his new mistress, Jane Shore. She is devastated by the death of a baby son shortly after birth, coinciding with the death of her mother Jacquetta; her distress causes Edward to reaffirm his love for her. Meanwhile, George attempts to control the widowed Anne Neville and obtain sole access to the Neville inheritance by locking her away and threatening her with a convent. Anne's upset is further increased as Isabel sides with George; her only friend is the King's youngest brother, Richard, who eventually snatches Anne from Clarence's grasp and marries her. The fanatical Margaret Beaufort tries to increase her power by re-marrying to one of King Edward's closest advisers, Thomas Stanley.

7
"Poison and Malmsey Wine"
Colin Teague
Emma Frost
28 July 2013 (2013-07-28)
28 September 2013
4.58
0.896[64]

The brief peace is broken when Edward decides to make war on France, but both George and Richard are horrified when he makes peace in return for financial gain. Both Elizabeth and Anne give birth to sons. George's frustrations lead him to make a deal with the French king. When his wife Isabel dies, after giving birth to the son he has longed for, he accuses Elizabeth of causing her death by poisoning and employs a sorcerer to work against her "witchcraft" and plot the king's death. Left with no choice, Edward recognizes his brother as a traitor to the crown, and condemns him to death. Duchess Cecily, who greatly favors George above her other sons, pleads with Edward and blames Elizabeth. George selects drowning in a butt of Malmsey wine as the method of execution. Elizabeth finally has her revenge against her father's and brother's killer, but it brings her no satisfaction.

8
"The King is Dead"
"Long Live the King"
Colin Teague
Malcolm Campbell
4 August 2013 (2013-08-04)
5 October 2013
4.35
0.910[65]

In 1483, Edward IV is taken ill. Foreseeing his death, he asks Elizabeth to send for his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, whom he appoints Lord Protector. Elizabeth, mistrustful of Gloucester, asks her brother Anthony to arrange for her son, now King Edward V, to be brought to London by his half-brother Richard Grey; they are intercepted by Gloucester and the young king is taken to the Tower of London. Anthony pleads with Elizabeth to cooperate with Gloucester, and initially a truce is worked out, but Margaret Beaufort and her husband Thomas Stanley sow seeds of mistrust in both camps, recognizing the potential advantage for Margaret's son. Meanwhile, the Duke of Buckingham, himself a distant claimant to the throne, works for his own ends. Elizabeth takes her children into sanctuary and tells Anthony to ensure that the fleet is ready to rescue them; ordered to send her second son to join his brother in the Tower, she sends a boy of common birth as a substitute. Gloucester, at first protective of his nephews, executes Anthony for treason when he learns of the Woodvilles' intentions. Richard's wife Anne Neville (who fears Elizabeth will eventually work to have Richard, her, and their son executed as traitors) instead persuades him to have his nephews declared illegitimate, on the grounds of a previous promise of marriage made by Edward to another woman. He and Anne are then crowned instead of his nephew.

9
"The Princes in the Tower"
Colin Teague
Emma Frost
11 August 2013 (2013-08-11)
12 October 2013
4.16
0.741[66]

Stanley advises Margaret to ensure that the two young princes do not survive the attempt to free them from the Tower; having unsuccessfully sought a sign from God, she instructs her men to kill the boys, leaving Princess Elizabeth's marriage to her son as the only option. Anne Neville, now queen, simultaneously hints to Brackenbury that she would prefer them dead. The attempted "rescue" is thwarted. Buckingham is persuaded to give his allegiance to Henry Tudor and implies that he will carry out the murder of the princes. It soon becomes clear that the two boys in the tower (the Prince of Wales and the impostor planted by Elizabeth) are dead, and King Richard, horrified, returns to London to look for them; Anne feels remorse, wondering if her hint to Brackenbury caused him to take action. After Richard secretly visits Elizabeth in sanctuary and assures her he played no part in her sons' death, she realizes that Margaret has deceived her and puts a curse on the boys’ murderer. Buckingham, unable to join forces with Jasper Tudor, is captured and executed, and Margaret is placed under house arrest by Stanley (who is still keeping a foot in both camps) for her role in the failed rebellion.

10
"The Final Battle"
Colin Teague
Emma Frost
18 August 2013 (2013-08-18)
19 October 2013
4.41
1.155[67]

Despite the threat from Henry Tudor, King Richard III remains confident that his reign is unthreatened. Richard begins to take an interest in his niece Elizabeth of York. Queen Anne Neville is jealous, but Richard reveals that he is doing so only to prevent Elizabeth's marriage alliance with Henry Tudor. The former Queen Elizabeth warns her daughter of the curse they cast on Prince Edward's killer (that his children and grandchildren would be struck down prematurely); this could include the young Elizabeth's children should she marry Richard. Following the death of their only son and heir, an embittered and grief-stricken Anne dies. Remorseful, Richard immediately dismisses Elizabeth, realizing that his strategy has driven away Neville supporters. Lady Margaret Beaufort is still under house arrest, and there is friction between her and the young Elizabeth of York, who has been sent to stay with her; Elizabeth believes she will become Queen regardless of who wins the battle. As Henry Tudor prepares to cross the Channel with his army of French convicts and mercenaries, a solar eclipse takes place; Margaret sees this as a message from God that Henry will be king. She defies her house arrest to ride to Bosworth field where she pleads with Stanley to fight against the king, but he refuses to commit himself because Richard (suspicious of Stanley's allegiance) has taken his son as a hostage. Margaret sees Jasper and is able to talk to Henry before battle commences at Bosworth. Things are not going well for Tudor (Richard has twice his numbers) until Stanley's men charge the king's forces. Richard is killed in the ensuing meelee. As Stanley kneels to offer Henry the crown, Margaret declares herself "Margaret Regina", ordering her husband to remain kneeling before the mother of the king. Elizabeth is reunited with her son Richard and warns him not to seek revenge. She tells her daughter that she will marry Tudor and become queen, just as she herself once was.

tag: table

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: A number of anachronisms and historical inaccuracies within the series received attention, especially in the costumes and locations used.[68] Pat Stacey of the Irish Evening Herald newspaper, said that "the historical howlers are piling up like bodies on a battlefield, week after week", comparing it to the "flaws" spotted by "nitpickers" in Downton Abbey and Foyle's War.[69] Deborah Ross, of the Daily Mail newspaper, criticised the cleanliness and "amazing teeth" of the actors involved, whilst also pointing out glimpses of a modern drainpipe and stair-rail.[33] Bernadette McNulty, of The Daily Telegraph newspaper, commented that in the final episode of the series, the Battle of Bosworth Field appears to take place in a forest rather than a field.[36] Mary McNamara, of the LA Times newspaper, states that in order to fit thirty years of history into ten episodes, "Years collapse into minutes, intricate policy is condensed into cardboard personalities, and the characters are swiftly categorized as good or evil."[70] Others questioned the depiction of the major characters. Amy Licence, Cecily's biographer, states that Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, is portrayed in the first episode as "a Cecily straight from the pages of a novel rather than the actual proud aristocrat who asserted her own right to rule".[71] Historian Michael Hicks commented, "They've fiddled with the chronology" but added, "I can see why they decided to restrict the cast of characters, and play up the rivalry between Elizabeth and the Earl of Warwick," and also said "As with Philippa Gregory's source novels, they've done their research".[72]

text: In response to criticisms of the series being "ahistorical", Gregory stated that "What [BBC One and Starz] wanted was not a historical series based on the documents from the War of the Roses. They wanted my take on it, so that's what they got."[73] Aneurin Barnard (who played Richard) stated, with regard to inaccuracies, "...the truth can be pretty boring. You have to up the stakes and make something up or twist it to make it a little bit more exciting."[74][75]

text: DVD and Blu-ray releases[edit]

text:
DVD title
Discs
Year
Episodes
DVD release
Notes

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

The complete series
4
2013
10
4 February 2014
19 August 2013
n/a
BBC version in region 2

Blu-ray title
Discs
Year
Episodes
Blu-ray Disc release
Notes

Region A
Region B
Region C

The complete series
3
2013
10
4 February 2014
19 August 2013
n/a
BBC version in region B


document_title: History of social work

question_text: when did social work start in the uk

question_tokens: when did social work start in the uk

text: History of social work

text: Pre-modern antecedents[edit]

text: Even before the rise of modern European states, the church was providing social services. When Constantine I legalized the Christian Church in the 4th century, the newly legitimised church set up burial societies, poorhouses, homes for the aged, shelter for the homeless, hospitals, and orphanages.[2][3][4] These were often funded, at least in part, from grants from the Empire.[5]

text: By 580 AD the church had a system for circulating consumables to the poor: associated with each parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon. Monasteries also often served as comprehensive social service agencies, acting as hospitals, homes for the aged, orphanages,  travelers' aid stations.

text: During the Middle Ages, the Christian church had vast influence on European society and charity was considered to be a responsibility and a sign of one’s piety. This charity was in the form of direct relief (for example, giving money, food, or other material goods to alleviate a particular need), as opposed to trying to change the root causes of poverty. As there was no effective bureaucracy below city government that was capable of large scale charitable activities, the clergy carried out this role until the Early Modern Period.

text: Modern development[edit]

text: It was not until the emergence of industrialization and urbanization that the informal helping systems of the church and family began to be replaced by social welfare services.

text:
The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin,[6] and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organisation Society in the mid-19th century. The
second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century, but was first systematized through the efforts of the Charity Organisation Society. The third consisted of social action - rather than engaging in the resolution of immediate individual requirements, the emphasis was placed on political action working through the community and the group to improve their social conditions and thereby alleviate poverty. This approach was developed originally by the settlement house movement.[7]

text: This was accompanied by a less easily defined movement; the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the nineteenth century, and laid the foundational basis for modern social work, both in theory and in practice.[8]

text: Professional social work originated in 19th century England, and had its roots in the social and economic upheaval wrought by the Industrial Revolution, in particular the societal struggle to deal with the resultant mass urban-based poverty and its related problems. Because poverty was the main focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work.[8] (Today, it is common for social workers to find themselves dealing with consequences arising from other social problems such as racism, sexism, homophobia, and discrimination based on age or on physical or mental disability.)

text: Poverty relief[edit]

text: With the decline of feudalism in 16th century England, the indigent poor came to be seen as a more direct threat to the social order.[10] As they were often not associated to a particular feudal manor, the government moved towards the formation of an organized poverty relief system to care for them.

text: The origins of the English Poor Law system can be traced as far back as late medieval statutes dealing with beggars and vagrancy but it was only during the Tudor period that the Poor Law system became codified. Monasteries, the primary source of poor relief, were dissolved by the Tudors Reformation causing poor relief to move from a largely voluntary basis to a compulsory tax that was collected at a parish level.[11] Early legislation was concerned with vagrants and making the able-bodied work, especially while labour was in short supply following the Black Death.

text: The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and some provision for the "deserving poor" was eventually made in the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601.[12] It created a system administered at parish level,[13] paid for by levying local rates on rate payers.[14] Relief for those too ill or old to work, the so-called 'impotent poor', was in the form of a payment or items of food ('the parish loaf') or clothing also known as outdoor relief. Some aged people might be accommodated in parish alms houses, though these were usually private charitable institutions. Meanwhile, able-bodied beggars who had refused work were often placed in Houses of Correction or even subjected to beatings to mend their attitudes.[15]

text: As populations grew in Colonial America, almhouses were built to house vulnerable people with no other support, including people with a long term illness or older people without families.  The first recorded Almshouse was built in 1713 near Philadelphia by William Penn, and was only open to Quakers. A second one was built nearby in 1728, this time with public money. In 1736 New York opened the Poor House of the City of New York (later renamed Bellevue Hospital) and in 1737 New Orleans opened the Saint John's Hospital to serve the poor of the city.[16]

text: The Poor Law Amendment Act completely overhauled the existing system in Britain[17]  and established a Poor Law Commission to oversee the national operation of the system.[18]  This included the forming together of small parishes into Poor Law Unions[19] and the building of workhouses in each union for the giving of poor relief. Although the aim of the legislation was to reduce costs to rate payers, one area not reformed was the method of financing of the Poor Law system which continued to be paid for by levying a "poor rate"[20] on the property owning middle classes.

text: Although the Poor Law Amendment Act did not ban all forms of outdoor relief,[21] it stated that no able-bodied person was to receive money or other help from the Poor Law authorities except in a workhouse. Conditions in workhouses were to be made harsh to discourage people from claiming. Workhouses were to be built in every parish and, if parishes were too small, parishes could group together to form Workhouse Unions. The Poor Law Commissioners were to be responsible for overseeing the implementation of the Act.

text: Private philanthropy[edit]

text: The 19th century saw a great leap forward in technological and scientific achievement. There was also a great migration to urban areas throughout the Western world, which led to many social problems. This galvanised the socially active, prosperous middle and upper classes to search for ways to ameliorate the physical and spiritual conditions of the poor underclasses.[22] This was coupled with a religious revival, and many Protestant mission efforts (urban missions), attempted to resolve the problems inherent in large cities like poverty, prostitution, disease, and other afflictions. A new philosophy of "scientific charity" emerged, which stated charity should be "secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, and dogmatic.[23]"

text: During this time, rescue societies were initiated to find more appropriate means of self-support for women involved in prostitution.[citation needed] State-built Mental asylums were built from the 1840s to assist in taking care of the mentally ill.

text: Most historians identify the Charity Organization Society, founded by Helen Bosanquet and Octavia Hill in London in 1869,[24] as the pioneering organization of the social theory that led to the emergence of social work as a professional occupation.[7] COS had its main focus on individual casework. It supported the concept of self-help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty. The organisation claimed to use "scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed".[25]

text: Alsager Hay Hill was prominent from its foundation, acting as honorary secretary of the council until July 1870, and as an active member of the council until 1880.[26] Hill also worked as an almoner to the Society for the Relief of Distress in the East of London. He campaigned about the many flaws in the poor laws and urged for a more scientific classification of paupers. His 1867 pamphlet, on Our Unemployed, was one of the earliest attempts to highlight the problem of systemic unemployment;  he suggested a national system of labour registration. In 1871, Hill pioneered a system of labour exchanges in England, establishing 'The Employment Inquiry Office and Labour Registry,'. There, Hill advised applicants for assistance, and founded and edited Labour News to improve communication between masters and men seeking work.[27]

text: Octavia Hill is regarded by many as the founder of modern social work. She was a moving force behind the development of social housing, and her early friendship with John Ruskin enabled her to put her theories into practice with the aid of his initial investment. She believed in self-reliance, and made it a key part of her housing system that she and her assistants knew their tenants personally and encouraged them to better themselves. She was opposed to municipal provision of housing, believing it to be bureaucratic and impersonal. Under her guidance, the Charity Organisation Society organised charitable grants and pioneered a home-visiting service that formed the basis for modern social work.

text: She also provided housing for the poor; after being improved her properties were let to those on intermittent and low incomes. At the heart of the Octavia Hill system was the weekly visit to collect rent. From the outset, Hill conceived this as a job for women only. She and her assistants, including Emma Cons combined the weekly rent collection with checking every detail of the premises and getting to know the tenants personally, acting as early social workers.[28] At first Hill believed, "Voluntary workers are a necessity. They are better than paid workers, and can be had in sufficient numbers."[29] Later, she found it expedient to maintain a paid workforce.[28]

text: Hill's principles were summed up in an article of 1869: "Where a man persistently refuses to exert himself, external help is worse than useless." She was an outspoken critic of the principles of "outdoor relief" or the Speenhamland system of poor relief as operated by various Poor Law Boards. Because these systems did not encourage recipients to work, she regarded them as "a profligate use of public funds."[30] Under her methods, personal responsibility was encouraged. She insisted on dealing with arrears promptly; she appointed reliable caretakers; she took up of references on prospective tenants, and visited them in their homes; she paid careful attention to allocations and the placing of tenants, with regard to size of families and the size and location of the accommodation to be offered; and she made no rules that could not be properly enforced.[30]

text: Social action[edit]

text: A stress on social action that developed in the 1880s, was pioneered by the Settlement house movement.[31] This Movement (creating integrated mixed communities of rich and poor) grew directly out of Octavia Hill's work. Her colleagues Samuel and Henrietta Barnett, founded Toynbee Hall, Oxford House[32] in 1884 in Bethnal Green as the first university-sponsored settlement. Another early organization was Mansfield House Settlement, also in east London.

text: The settlement was named after Arnold Toynbee, an economic historian who's intellectual work laid the foundations of the movement. Toynbee was actively involved in improving the living conditions of the labourer. He read for workers in large industrial centres and encouraged the creation of trade unions and co-operatives. A focal point of his commitment was the slum of Whitechapel, in east London, where he helped to establish public libraries for the working class population. Toynbee also encouraged his students to offer free courses for working class audiences in their own neighbourhoods.

text: In America, the settlement movement was established by Jane Addams, a young medical student, and Ellen Gates Starr after Addams visited Toynbee Hall and was impressed by the system. She founded Chicago's Hull House in 1889, which focused on providing education and recreational facilities for European immigrant women and children.[32] By 1913, there were 413 settlements in 32 states.[33] The house was both a community service centre and a social research program.  Precursors to modern social work arose at Hull House as health professionals began to work with social determinants of poor health.[16]

text: The concept of the Settlement house movement was to bring upper and middle class students into lower-class neighbourhoods, not only to provide education and social aid, but to actually live and work together with their inhabitants. This soon inspired a worldwide movement of university settlements. The idea was to help members of the future elite understand the problems of wider society; this was especially important at a time when class divisions were much stronger, social mobility was minimal, and the living conditions of the poor were completely unknown to many members of the upper class.[34]

text: The settlement movement focused on the causes of poverty through the "three Rs" - Research, Reform, and Residence. They provided a variety of services including educational, legal, and health services. These programs also advocated changes in social policy. Workers in the settlement movement immersed themselves in the culture of those they were helping. There were basic commonalities in the movement. These institutions were more concerned with societal causes for poverty, especially the changes that came with industrialization, rather than personal causes which their predecessors believed were the main reason for poverty. The settlement movement believed that social reform was best pursued and pushed for by private charities.[31]

text: The movement gave rise to many social policy initiatives and innovative ways of working to improve the conditions of the most excluded members of society. Participating universities settled students in slums to live and work alongside the poor local people. Settlement houses focused on education, savings, sports, and arts. The Poor Man's Lawyer service came about because a barrister volunteered his time and encouraged his friends to do the same. In general, the settlement movement, and settlement houses in particular, were "...a foundation for social work practice in this country".[35]

text: One important participant in the scheme was the philanthropist Charles Booth who published his study Life and Labour of the People in London in 1889 while working at Toynbee Hall. The study was the first systematic attempt at gathering comprehensive statistics and mapping poverty and influenced both social research and the fight against poverty for decades afterwards.

text: Further Development[edit]

text: By the beginning of the 20th century, these different organizations with their diverse intellectual underpinnings were beginning to coalesce into modern social work. Foundations were established to examine the root causes of social problems such as poverty, and social workers became more professional and scientific in their methodology. The Quaker philanthropist and chocolate manufacturer Joseph Rowntree believed that social evils could be tackled by systematic research, and to that end founded the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in 1904.[36] Rowntree wanted to tackle the root causes of social problems, rather than treating their symptoms. His Memorandum of 1904 stated: "I feel that much of the current philanthropic effort is directed to remedying the more superficial manifestations of weakness or evil, while little thought or effort is directed to search out their underlying causes ... [seek] to search out the under-lying causes of weakness or evil in the community, rather than ... remedying their more superficial manifestations."[37]

text: Rowntree's son, Seebohm Rowntree, carried out a series of seminal surveys into poverty in the city of York that greatly influenced public and governmental attitudes towards poverty and deprivation. His first York study of 1899 (this was followed up in 1935 and 1951) was a comprehensive survey into the living conditions of the poor in York during which investigators visited every working class home. This amounted to the detailed study of 11,560 families or 46,754 individuals.[38] The results of this study were published in 1901 in his book Poverty, A Study of Town Life and claimed that 27.84 percent of the total population of York lived below the poverty line.[39]

text: Rowntree defined the poverty line in terms of a minimum weekly sum of money "necessary to enable families... to secure the necessaries of a healthy life", including fuel and light, rent, food, clothing, and household and personal items. This was quantified using scientific methods that hadn't been applied to the study of poverty before. For example, he consulted leading nutritionists of the period to discover the minimum calorific intake and nutritional balance necessary before people got ill or lost weight. He then surveyed the prices of food in York to discover what the cheapest prices in the area for the food needed for this minimum diet were and used this information to set his poverty line.

text: In analysing the results of the investigation he found that people at certain stages of life, for example in old age and early childhood, were more likely to be in abject poverty, living below the poverty line, than at other stages of life. From this he formulated the idea of the poverty cycle[40] in which some people moved in and out of absolute poverty during their lives. Rowntree's argument that poverty was the result of low wages went against the traditionally held view that the poor were responsible for their own plight.[41]

text: The differing approaches to social work often led to heated debates. In the early 20th century, Mary Richmond of the Charity Organization Society (COS) and Jane Addams of the Settlement House Movement engaged in a public dispute over the optimal approach; whether the problem should be tackled with COS' traditional, scientific method that focused on efficiency and prevention, or whether the Settlement House Movement's immersion into the problem, blurring the lines of practitioner and client, was superior.[42]

text: Even as schools of social work opened and formalized processes for social work began to be developed, the question "is social work a profession?" lingered. In 1915, at the American National Conference of Charities and Corrections, Dr. Abraham Flexner spoke on the topic "Is Social Work a Profession?" He contended that it was not because it lacked specialized knowledge and specific application of theoretical and intellectual knowledge to solve human and social problems.[43] This led to the professionalization of social work, concentrating on case work and the scientific method..

text: Medical Social Work[edit]

text: The first professional medical social workers in England were called hospital almoners, and were based in medical institutions. The Royal Free Hospital, London hired Mary Stewart as the first almoner in 1895. Her role was to assess people requesting treatment at the hospital to ensure that they were considered "deserving enough" of the free treatment. The role soon developed to cover the provision of other social programs, and by 1905 other hospitals had created similar roles.  By this time, the Hospital Almoners Council had been formed to oversee the new profession.[16]

text: The first professional medical social workers to be hired in the United States were Garnet Pelton (6 months) and Ida Cannon (40 years), in 1905 at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Dr. Richard Clarke Cabot was a key advocate in the creation of the role, as he believed there to be a link between tuberculosis and sanitary conditions. Both Pelton and Cannon had trained as nurses before taking up the role. After graduating from Simmons College in 1907, Cabot was in charge of the outpatient ward of the hospital, and together with the newly created social workers, they redefined the way in which health and wellbeing was managed. The economic, social, family and psychological conditions that underpinned many of the conditions that patients presented with were recognised for the first time. Social workers would work in a complementary relationship with doctors, the former concentrating on physiological health, and the latter on social health. In addition to this, he saw that social work could improve medicine by providing a critical perspective on it while working alongside it in an organisational setting.

text: This approach soon spread through other American hospitals, and in 1911, there were 44 social work departments in 14 different cities. Two years later, the number of social work departments had grown to 200. After 1905, most social workers were trained as nurses. The American Association of Hospital Social Workers was set up in 1918 to increase the links between formal education and hospital practice.  In 1929 there were ten university courses in medical social work.  Around this time, psychiatry and psychology began to compete with social work as the complementary discourse to medicine in hospitals. Social work practice adapted to this by aligning itself more closely with psychoanalytic ideas, and became less concerned with living conditions and social health. While this detracted from the social concerns, it added a more scientific basis to dealing with patients, and challenging behaviours were more likely to be seen as a mental dysfunction than poor moral character.[16]  The increase of social spending after World War Two saw another rise in the number of social workers.

text: State Welfare[edit]

text: As the problem of poverty moved up the public agenda, it became increasingly clear that laissez-faire economic policies were not working and that governments had to take proactive measures to reduce poverty, rather than leave the task to privately run organizations. The principles of classical liberalism were being increasingly challenged by downturns in economic growth, a growing perception of the evils of poverty, unemployment and relative deprivation present within modern industrial cities, and the agitation of organized labour. New liberals began to adapt the old language of liberalism to confront these difficult circumstances, which they believed could only be resolved through a broader and more interventionist conception of the state.[44] A liberal convert to greater government intervention was Thomas Hill Green, who believed that the state should foster and protect the social, political and economic environments in which individuals will have the best chance of acting according to their consciences. The state should intervene only where there is a clear, proven and strong tendency of a liberty to enslave the individual.[45]

text: This strand began to coalesce into the social liberalism movement at the turn of the twentieth century in Britain.[46] In their view, the poverty, squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. In the early 1900s, the Liberals under H.H. Asquith introduced various reforms, including health insurance, unemployment insurance, and pensions for elderly workers, thereby laying the groundwork for the future British welfare state.[47]

text: William Beveridge, often called the 'architect of the welfare state', was pivotal in framing the debate about social work in the context of state welfare provision. His 1942 report on Social Insurance and Allied Services,[48] known commonly as the Beveridge Report, identified five "Giant Evils" in society: squalor, ignorance, want, idleness, and disease, and went on to propose widespread reform to the system of social welfare to mitigate these problems.[49] The report proved very popular with a war-weary public, and went on to form the basis to the post-war expansion of the Welfare State and the creation of the National Health Service, a free at the point of delivery healthcare provider.

text: Today[edit]

text: Currently, social work is known for its critical and holistic approach to understanding and intervening in social problems. This has led, for example, to the recognition of poverty as having a social and economic basis rooted in social policies rather than representing a personal moral defect. This trend also points to another historical development in the evolution of social work: once a profession engages  in social control, it is directed at social and personal empowerment.

text: This is not to say that modern social workers do not engage in social control (consider, for example, child protection workers), and many, if not most, social workers likely would agree that there is an ongoing tension between these forces within the profession. For example, see the debate between structural social work and humanistic social work.[50]

text: Links[edit]

text: History of social work timeline