document_title: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

question_text: who played dorothy gale in the 1939 movie

question_tokens: who played dorothy gale in the 1939 movie

root

text: The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The film begins in Kansas, which is depicted in a sepia tone. Dorothy Gale lives with her Cairn Terrier dog Toto on the farm of her Aunt Em and Uncle Henry. Toto gets in trouble with a mean neighbor, Miss Almira Gulch, when he bites her. However, Dorothy's family and their farmhands are all too busy to pay attention to her. Miss Gulch arrives with permission from the sheriff to have Toto euthanized. She takes him away, but he escapes and returns to Dorothy, who then decides to run away from home, fearing that Gulch will return.

tag: p

text: They meet Professor Marvel, a phony but kindly fortune teller, who realizes Dorothy has run away and tricks her via his crystal ball into believing that Aunt Em is ill so that she must return home. She races home just as a powerful tornado strikes. Unable to get into her family's storm cellar, she seeks safety in her bedroom. A wind-blown window sash hits her in the head, knocking her out conscious. The house is picked up and sent spinning in the air by the twister. She awakens and looks outside the window, seeing the twister and various figures flying by in the storm, including an elderly lady rocking in a chair, several farm animals, two men rowing a boat, and Miss Gulch (still pedaling her bicycle), who transforms into a cackling witch flying on a broomstick.

text: The farmhouse crashes in Munchkinland in the Land of Oz, where the film changes to Technicolor. Glinda the Good Witch of the North and the Munchkins welcome her as their heroine, as the house has landed on and killed the Wicked Witch of the East, leaving only her stocking feet exposed. Her sister, the Wicked Witch of the West arrives to claim the ruby slippers, but Glinda transports them onto Dorothy's feet first. The Wicked Witch of the West swears revenge on Dorothy for her sister's death. Glinda tells Dorothy to follow the yellow brick road to the Emerald City, where the Wizard of Oz might be able to help her get back home.

text: On her way, Dorothy meets and befriends the Scarecrow, who wants a brain, the Tin Woodman, who desires a heart, and the Cowardly Lion, who is in need of courage. Dorothy invites each of them to accompany her. After  the Witch attempts to stop them several times, they finally reach the Emerald City. Inside, after being initially rejected, they are permitted to see the Wizard (who appears as a large head surrounded by fire). He agrees to grant their wishes when they bring him the Witch's broomstick.

text: On their way to the Witch's castle, the group passes through the Haunted Forest, while the Witch views their progress through a crystal ball. She sends her winged monkeys to harass the group; they capture Dorothy and Toto. At the castle, the Witch receives a magical shock when she tries to get the slippers off Dorothy and then remembers that Dorothy must be dead before they can be removed. Toto escapes and leads her three friends to the castle. After ambushing three Winkie Guards, they march inside wearing the stolen uniforms and free her, but the Witch discovers them and traps them. However, the Scarecrow uses the Tin Man's axe to cut a rope nearby which sends a gigantic chandelier swinging overhead and down onto The Witch's soldiers, knocking them to the floor and the quartet then attempt to escape. The Witch and her guards chase after them through the castle, across battlements and finally surround them. When the Witch sets fire to the Scarecrow, Dorothy splashes a bucket of water at him to extinguish the flames but inadvertently hits the Witch causing her to melt away. The guards rejoice that she is dead and give Dorothy the charred broomstick in gratitude.

text: Back at the Emerald City, the Wizard delays granting their requests. Then Toto pulls back a curtain and exposes the "Wizard" as a normal middle-aged man who has been projecting the fearsome image; he denies Dorothy's accusation that he is a bad man, but admits to being a humbug. He then gives the Scarecrow a diploma, the Lion a medal, and the Tin Man a ticking heart-shaped watch, granting their wishes and convincing them that they have received what they sought. He then prepares to launch his hot air balloon to take Dorothy home, but Toto chases a cat, Dorothy follows, and the balloon leaves without them, to Dorothy's dismay. Suddenly, Glinda returns and tells Dorothy that she can still return home by using the Ruby Slippers. Following Glinda's instructions, Dorothy taps her heels together three times and repeats, "There's no place like home". Dorothy wakes up in her home in Kansas, surrounded by her family, their farmhands, Professor Marvel and Toto. Though her family and friends dismiss her adventure as a dream, Dorothy insists that it was all real, and that there is no place like home.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale
Frank Morgan as Professor Marvel/The Wizard/Doorman/Cabbie/Guard
Ray Bolger as Hunk/Scarecrow
Jack Haley as Hickory/Tin Man
Bert Lahr as Zeke/Cowardly Lion
Billie Burke as Glinda the Good Witch of the North
Margaret Hamilton as Miss Almira Gulch/The Wicked Witch of the West
Clara Blandick as Auntie Em
Charley Grapewin as Uncle Henry
Pat Walshe as Nikko (the Winged Monkey King)
Terry as Toto (credited as Toto)
Mitchell Lewis as the Winkie Guard Captain (credited only in the IMAX version)
Adriana Caselotti as the voice of Juliet in the Tinman's song "If I only had a heart" (uncredited).[13]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and pre-production[edit]

text: Development began when Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) showed that films adapted from popular children's stories and fairytale folklore could be successful.[14][15] In January 1938, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer bought the rights to L. Frank Baum’s hugely popular novel from Samuel Goldwyn, who had toyed with the idea of making the film as a vehicle for Eddie Cantor, who was under contract to the Goldwyn studios and whom Goldwyn wanted to cast as the Scarecrow.[15]

text: The script went through a number of writers and revisions before the final shooting.[16] Mervyn LeRoy's assistant William H. Cannon had submitted a brief four-page outline.[16] Because recent fantasy films had not fared well, he recommended that the magical elements of the story be toned down or eliminated. In his outline, the Scarecrow was a man so stupid that the only employment open to him was literally scaring crows from cornfields, and the Tin Woodman was a criminal so heartless he was sentenced to be placed in a tin suit for eternity; this torture softened him into someone gentle and kind.[16] His vision was similar to Larry Semon's 1925 film adaptation of the story, in which the magical element is absent.

text: After that, LeRoy hired screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who soon delivered a 17-page draft of the Kansas scenes, and a few weeks later, a further 56 pages. Noel Langley and poet Ogden Nash were also hired to write separate versions of the story. None of these three knew about the others, and this was not an uncommon procedure. Nash delivered a four-page outline, Langley turned in a 43-page treatment and a full film script. He[who?] turned in three more, this time incorporating the songs that had been written by Harold Arlen and Yip Harburg. Florence Ryerson and Edgar Allan Woolf submitted a script and were brought on board to touch up the writing. They would be responsible for making sure the story stayed true to the Baum book. However, producer Arthur Freed was unhappy with their work and reassigned it to Langley.[17] During filming, Victor Fleming and John Lee Mahin revised the script further, adding and cutting some scenes. In addition, Jack Haley and Bert Lahr are known to have written some of their own dialogue for the Kansas sequence.

text: The final draft of the script was completed on October 8, 1938, following numerous rewrites.[18] All in all, it was a mish-mash of many creative minds, but Langley, Ryerson, and Woolf got the film credits. Along with the contributors already mentioned, others who assisted with the adaptation without receiving credit include: Irving Brecher, Herbert Fields, Arthur Freed, Yip Harburg, Samuel Hoffenstein, Jack Mintz, Sid Silvers, Richard Thorpe, Cukor and Vidor.[15]

text: In addition, songwriter Harburg's son (and biographer) Ernie Harburg reported:[19]

text:
“

So anyhow, Yip also wrote all the dialogue in that time and the setup to the songs and he also wrote the part where they give out the heart, the brains, and the nerve, because he was the final script editor. And he – there was eleven screenwriters on that – and he pulled the whole thing together, wrote his own lines and gave the thing a coherence and unity which made it a work of art. But he doesn't get credit for that. He gets lyrics by E. Y. Harburg, you see. But nevertheless, he put his influence on the thing.

”

text: The original producers thought that a 1939 audience was too sophisticated to accept Oz as a straight-ahead fantasy; therefore, it was reconceived as a lengthy, elaborate dream sequence. Because of a perceived need to attract a youthful audience through appealing to modern fads and styles, the score had featured a song called "The Jitterbug", and the script had featured a scene with a series of musical contests. A spoiled, selfish princess in Oz had outlawed all forms of music except classical and operetta, and went up against Dorothy in a singing contest in which her swing style enchanted listeners and won the grand prize. This part was initially written for Betty Jaynes.[20] The plan was later dropped.

text: Another scene, which was removed before final script approval and never filmed, was a concluding scene back in Kansas after Dorothy's return. Hunk (the Kansan counterpart to the Scarecrow) is leaving for agricultural college and extracts a promise from Dorothy to write to him. The implication of the scene is that romance will eventually develop between the two, which also may have been intended as an explanation for Dorothy's partiality for the Scarecrow over her other two companions. This plot idea was never totally dropped, but is especially noticeable in the final script when Dorothy, just before she is to leave Oz, tells the Scarecrow, "I think I'll miss you most of all."[21]

text: In his book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Baum describes Kansas as being "in shades of gray". Further, Dorothy lived inside a farmhouse which had its paint blistered and washed away by the weather, giving it an air of grayness. The house and property were situated in the middle of a sweeping prairie where the grass was burnt gray by harsh sun. Aunt Em and Uncle Henry were "gray with age". Effectively, the use of monochrome sepia tones for the Kansas sequences was a stylistic choice that evoked the dull and gray countryside.[citation needed] Much attention was given to the use of color in the production, with the MGM production crew favoring some hues over others. Consequently, it took the studio's art department almost a week to settle on the final shade of yellow used for the yellow brick road.[22]

text: Casting[edit]

text: LeRoy had always insisted that he wanted to cast Judy Garland to play Dorothy from the start; however, evidence suggests that negotiations occurred early in pre-production for Shirley Temple to be cast as Dorothy, on loan from 20th Century Fox. A persistent rumor also existed that Fox, in turn, was promised Clark Gable and Jean Harlow as a loan from MGM. The tale is almost certainly untrue, as Harlow died in 1937, before MGM had even purchased the rights to the story. Despite this, the story appears in many film biographies (including Temple's own autobiography). The documentary The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The Making of a Movie Classic states that Mervyn LeRoy was under pressure to cast Temple, then the most popular child star, but at an unofficial audition, MGM musical mainstay Roger Edens listened to her sing and felt that an actress with a different style was needed; a 50th anniversary documentary for the film suggested that Temple, then 10-years-old, was slightly too young for the part. Newsreel footage is included in which Temple wisecracks, "There's no place like home", suggesting that she was being considered for the part at that time.[23] A possibility is that this consideration did indeed take place, but that Gable and Harlow were not part of the proposed deal.

text: Actress Deanna Durbin, who was under contract to Universal Studios, was also considered for the part of Dorothy. Durbin, at the time, far exceeded Garland in film experience and fan base and both had co-starred in a 1936 two-reeler titled Every Sunday. The film was most notable for exhibiting Durbin's operatic style of singing against Garland's jazzier style. Durbin was possibly passed over once it was decided to bring on Jaynes, also an operatic singer, to rival Garland's jazz in the aforementioned discarded subplot of the film.

text: Ray Bolger was originally cast as the Tin Man and Buddy Ebsen was to play the Scarecrow.[18] Bolger, however, longed to play the Scarecrow, as his childhood idol Fred Stone had done on stage in 1902; with that very performance, Stone had inspired him to become a vaudevillian in the first place. Now unhappy with his role as the Tin Man (reportedly claiming, "I'm not a tin performer; I'm fluid"), Bolger convinced producer Mervyn LeRoy to recast him in the part he so desired.[24] Ebsen did not object; after going over the basics of the Scarecrow's distinctive gait with Bolger (as a professional dancer, Ebsen had been cast because the studio was confident he would be up to the task of replicating the famous "wobbly-walk" of Stone's Scarecrow), he recorded all of his songs, went through all the rehearsals as the Tin Man and began filming with the rest of the cast.[25]

text: Bert Lahr was signed for the Cowardly Lion on July 25, 1938; the next month, Charles Grapewin was cast as Uncle Henry on August 12.

text: W. C. Fields was originally chosen for the role of the Wizard, a role turned down by Ed Wynn as he thought the part was too small, but the studio ran out of patience after protracted haggling over Fields' fee; instead, another contract player, Frank Morgan, was cast on September 22.

text: An extensive talent search produced over a hundred little people to play Munchkins; this meant that most of the film's Oz sequences would have to already be shot before work on the Munchkinland sequence could begin. According to Munchkin actor Jerry Maren, the little people were each paid over $125 a week (equivalent to $2,200 today). Meinhardt Raabe, who played the coroner, revealed in the 1990 documentary The Making of the Wizard of Oz that the MGM costume and wardrobe department, under the direction of designer Adrian, had to design over 100 costumes for the Munchkin sequences. They then had to photograph and catalog each Munchkin in his or her costume so that they could correctly apply the same costume and makeup each day of production.

text: Gale Sondergaard was originally cast as the Wicked Witch. She became unhappy when the witch's persona shifted from sly and glamorous (thought to emulate the wicked queen in Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) into the familiar "ugly hag". She turned down the role and was replaced on October 10, 1938, just three days before filming started, by MGM contract player Margaret Hamilton. Sondergaard said in an interview for a bonus feature on the DVD that she had no regrets about turning down the part, and would go on to play a glamorous villain in Fox's version of Maurice Maeterlinck's The Blue Bird in 1940; Margaret Hamilton played a role remarkably similar to the Wicked Witch in the Judy Garland film Babes in Arms (1939).

text: According to Aljean Harmetz, the "gone-to-seed" coat worn by Morgan as the wizard was selected from a rack of coats purchased from a second-hand shop. According to legend, Morgan later discovered a label in the coat indicating it had once belonged to Baum, that Baum's widow confirmed this, and that the coat was eventually presented to her. But Baum biographer Michael Patrick Hearn says the Baum family denies ever seeing the coat or knowing of the story; Hamilton considered it a concocted studio rumor.[26]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Richard Thorpe as director[edit]

text: Filming commenced October 13, 1938, on the MGM lot in Culver City, California, under the direction of Richard Thorpe (replacing original director Norman Taurog, who filmed only a few early Technicolor tests and was then reassigned). Thorpe initially shot about two weeks of footage (nine days in total) involving Dorothy's first encounter with the Scarecrow, as well as a number of sequences in the Wicked Witch's castle, such as Dorothy's rescue (which, though unreleased, comprises the only footage of Ebsen's Tin Man).

text: Ebsen replaced by Haley[edit]

text: According to most sources, ten days into the shoot, Ebsen suffered a reaction to the aluminum powder makeup he wore. He was hospitalized in critical condition, and subsequently was forced to leave the project; in a later interview (included on the 2005 DVD release of The Wizard of Oz), he recalled the studio heads appreciated the seriousness of his illness only after seeing him in the hospital. Filming halted while a replacement for him was found. No full footage of him as the Tin Man has ever been released – only photographs taken during filming and makeup test photos. His replacement, Jack Haley, simply assumed he had been fired.[27] Author and screen-writer George MacDonald Fraser offers an alternative story, told to him by Burt Lancaster's producing partner, Jim Hill, that Ebsen had refused to be painted silver and was fired.[28]

text: George Cukor's brief stint[edit]

text: LeRoy, after reviewing the footage and feeling Thorpe was rushing the production, adversely affecting the actors' performances, had Thorpe replaced. During reorganization on the production, George Cukor temporarily took over, under LeRoy's guidance. Initially, the studio had made Garland wear a blond wig and heavy "baby-doll" makeup, and she played Dorothy in an exaggerated fashion; now, Cukor changed Garland's and Hamilton's makeup and costumes, and told Garland to "be herself". This meant that all the scenes Garland and Hamilton had already completed had to be discarded and reshot. Cukor also suggested that the studio cast Jack Haley, on loan from Fox, as the Tin Man. To keep down on production costs, Haley only rerecorded "If I Only Had a Heart" and solo lines during "The Jitterbug" and "If I Only Had the Nerve"; as such, Ebsen's voice can still be heard in the remaining songs featuring the Tin Man in group vocals. The makeup used for Haley was quietly changed to an aluminum paste, with a layer of clown white greasepaint underneath to protect his skin; although it did not have the same dire effect on Haley, he did at one point suffer an eye infection from it.[citation needed]

text: In addition, Bolger's original recording of "If I Only Had a Brain" had been far more sedate compared to the version heard in the film; during this time, Cukor and LeRoy decided that a more energetic rendition would better suit Dorothy's initial meeting with the Scarecrow (initially, it was to contrast with his lively manner in Thorpe's footage), and was rerecorded as such. At first thought to be lost for over seven decades, a recording of this original version was rediscovered in 2009.[29]

text: Victor Fleming, the main director[edit]

text: Cukor did not actually shoot any scenes for the film, merely acting as something of a "creative advisor" to the troubled production, and, because of his prior commitment to direct Gone with the Wind, he left on November 3, 1938, when Victor Fleming assumed directorial responsibility. As director, Fleming chose not to shift the film from Cukor's creative realignment, as producer LeRoy had already pronounced his satisfaction with the new course the film was taking.

text: Production on the bulk of the Technicolor sequences was a long and exhausting process that ran for over six months, from October 1938 to March 1939. Most of the cast worked six days a week and had to arrive as early as 4:00 a.m. to be fitted with makeup and costumes, and often did not leave until 7 pm or later. Cumbersome makeup and costumes were made even more uncomfortable by the daylight-bright lighting the early Technicolor process required, which could heat the set to over 100 °F (38 °C). Bolger later said that the frightening nature of the costumes prevented most of the Oz principals from eating in the studio commissary;[30] the toxicity of Hamilton's copper-based makeup forced her to eat a liquid diet on shoot days.[31] It took as many as twelve takes to have Toto run alongside the actors as they skipped down the yellow brick road.

text: All of the Oz sequences were filmed in three-strip Technicolor.[15][16] The opening and closing credits, as well as the Kansas sequences, were filmed in black and white and colored in a sepia-tone process.[15] Sepia-toned film was also used in the scene where Aunt Em appears in the Wicked Witch's crystal ball.

text: In Hamilton's exit from Munchkinland, a concealed elevator was arranged to lower her below stage as fire and smoke erupted to dramatize and conceal her exit. The first take ran well but in the second take the flames did not go out in time. The flames set fire to her green, copper-based face paint, causing third-degree burns on her hands and face. She spent three months healing before returning to work.[32]

text: King Vidor's finishing work as director[edit]

text: On February 12, 1939, Fleming hastily replaced Cukor in directing Gone with the Wind; the next day, King Vidor was assigned as director by the studio to finish the filming of The Wizard of Oz (mainly the sepia-toned Kansas sequences, including Garland's singing of "Over the Rainbow" and the tornado). In later years, when the film became firmly established as a classic, Vidor chose not to take public credit for his contribution until after the death of his friend Fleming in 1949.

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Principal photography concluded with the Kansas sequences on March 16, 1939; nonetheless, reshoots and pick-up shots were filmed throughout April and May and into June, under the direction of producer LeRoy. After the deletion of the "Over the Rainbow" reprise during subsequent test screenings in early June, Garland had to be brought back one more time to reshoot the "Auntie Em, I'm frightened!" scene without the song; the footage of Blandick's Aunt Em, as shot by Vidor, had already been set aside for rear-projection work, and was simply reused.

text: After Hamilton's torturous experience with the Munchkinland elevator, she refused to do the pick-ups for the scene in which she flies on a broomstick that billows smoke, so LeRoy chose to have stand-in Betty Danko perform the scene, instead; as a result, Danko was severely injured doing the scene due to a malfunction in the smoke mechanism.[33]

text: At this point, the film began a long arduous post-production. Herbert Stothart had to compose the film's background score, while A. Arnold Gillespie had to perfect the various special effects that the film required, including many of the rear projection shots. The MGM art department also had to create the various matte paintings for the background of many of the scenes.

text: One significant innovation planned for the film was the use of stencil printing for the transition to Technicolor. Each frame was to be hand-tinted to maintain the sepia tone; however, because this was too expensive and labor-intensive, it was abandoned and MGM used a simpler and less expensive variation of the process. During the reshoots in May, the inside of the farm house was painted sepia, and when Dorothy opens the door, it is not Garland, but her stand-in, Bobbie Koshay, wearing a sepia gingham dress, who then backs out of frame; once the camera moves through the door, Garland steps back into frame in her bright blue gingham dress (as noted in DVD extras), and the sepia-painted door briefly tints her with the same color before she emerges from the house's shadow, into the bright glare of the Technicolor lighting. This also meant that the reshoots provided the first proper shot of Munchkinland; if one looks carefully, the brief cut to Dorothy looking around outside the house bisects a single long shot, from the inside of the doorway to the pan-around that finally ends in a reverse-angle as the ruins of the house are seen behind Dorothy as she comes to a stop at the foot of the small bridge.

text: Test screenings of the film began on June 5, 1939.[34] Oz initially ran nearly two hours long. LeRoy and Fleming knew that at least 15 minutes needed to be deleted to get the film down to a manageable running time; the average film in 1939 ran for just about 90 minutes. Three sneak previews in Santa Barbara, Pomona and San Luis Obispo, California, helped guide LeRoy and Fleming in the cutting. Among the many cuts were "The Jitterbug" number, the Scarecrow's elaborate dance sequence following "If I Only Had a Brain", reprises of "Over the Rainbow" and "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead", and a number of smaller dialogue sequences. This left the final, mostly serious portion of the film with no songs, only the dramatic underscoring.

text: One song that was almost deleted was "Over the Rainbow". MGM had felt that it made the Kansas sequence too long, as well as being far over the heads of the target audience of children. The studio also thought that it was degrading for Garland to sing in a barnyard. LeRoy, uncredited associate producer Arthur Freed and director Fleming fought to keep it in, and they all eventually won. The song went on to win the Academy Award for Best Song of the Year, and came to be identified so strongly with Garland herself that she made it her theme song.

text: After the preview in San Luis Obispo in early July, the film was officially released in August 1939 at its current 101-minute running time.

text: Music[edit]

text: The film is widely noted for its musical selections and soundtrack. The music was composed by Harold Arlen, and the lyrics were written by Yip Harburg, both of whom won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Over the Rainbow". The song was ranked first in two lists: the AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs and the Recording Industry Association of America's "365 Songs of the Century".

text: MGM composer Herbert Stothart, a well-known Hollywood composer and songwriter, won the Academy Award for Best Original Score in recognition of his original score.

text: Georgie Stoll was associate conductor and screen credit was given to George Bassman, Murray Cutter, Ken Darby and Paul Marquardt for orchestral and vocal arrangements (as usual, Roger Edens was also heavily involved as an unbilled musical associate to Freed.)

text: The songs were recorded in the studio's scoring stage before filming. Several of the recordings were completed while Ebsen was still with the cast. Therefore, while he had to be dropped from the cast due to illness from the aluminum powder makeup, his singing voice remained in the soundtrack (as noted in the notes for the CD Deluxe Edition). In the group vocals of "We're Off to See the Wizard", his voice can be heard. Haley spoke with a distinct Boston accent, thus did not pronounce the r in wizard. By contrast, Ebsen was a Midwesterner, like Garland, and pronounced it. Haley rerecorded Ebsen's solo parts later.

text: Deleted songs[edit]

text: Some musical pieces filmed were deleted in the editing process.

text: The song "The Jitterbug", written in a swing style, was intended for the sequence in which the group is journeying to the Witch's castle. Due to time constraints, the song was cut from the final theatrical version. The film footage for the song has been lost, although silent home film footage of rehearsals for the number has survived. The sound recording for the song, however, is intact and was included in the two-CD Rhino Records deluxe edition of the film soundtrack, as well as on the VHS and DVD editions of the film. A reference to "The Jitterbug" remains in the film: the Witch remarks to her flying monkeys that they should have no trouble apprehending Dorothy and her friends because "I've sent a little insect on ahead to take the fight out of them."

text: Another musical number cut before release occurred right after the Wicked Witch of the West was melted and before Dorothy and her friends returned to the Wizard. This was a reprise of "Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" (blended with "We're Off to See the Wizard" and "The Merry Old Land of Oz") with the lyrics altered to "Hail! Hail! The Witch is Dead!" This started with the Witch's guard saying "Hail to Dorothy! The Wicked Witch is dead!" and dissolved to a huge celebration of the citizens of the Emerald City singing the song as they accompany Dorothy and her friends to see the Wizard. Today, the film of this scene is also lost and only a few stills survive, along with a few seconds of footage used on several reissue trailers. The entire audio still exists and is included on the two-CD Rhino Record deluxe edition of the film soundtrack.[35]

text: In addition, a brief reprise of "Over the Rainbow" was intended to be sung by Garland while Dorothy is trapped in the Witch's castle, but it was cut because it was considered too emotionally intense. The original soundtrack recording still exists, however, and was included as an extra in all home media releases from 1993-onwards.[36]

text: Song list[edit]

text:
"Over the Rainbow" – Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale
Munchkinland Sequence:
"Come Out ..." – Billie Burke as Glinda, and the Munchkins
"It Really Was No Miracle" – Judy Garland as Dorothy, Billy Bletcher and the Munchkins
"We Thank You Very Sweetly" – Frank Cucksey and Joseph Koziel
"Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" – Billie Burke as Glinda (speaking) and the Munchkins
"As Mayor of the Munchkin City"
"As Coroner, I Must Aver"
"Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" (Reprise) – The Munchkins
"The Lullaby League"
"The Lollipop Guild"
"We Welcome You to Munchkinland" – The Munchkins
"Follow the Yellow Brick Road/You're Off to See the Wizard" – Judy Garland as Dorothy, and the Munchkins
"If I Only Had a Brain" – Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, and Judy Garland as Dorothy
"We're Off to See the Wizard" – Judy Garland as Dorothy, and Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow
"If I Only Had a Heart" – Jack Haley as the Tin Man
"If I Only Had a Heart" (original recording)  – Buddy Ebsen as the Tin Man
"We're Off to See the Wizard" (Reprise 1) – Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, and Buddy Ebsen as the Tin Man
"If I Only Had the Nerve" – Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, and Judy Garland as Dorothy
"We're Off to See the Wizard" (Reprise 2) – Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow, Buddy Ebsen as the Tin Man, and Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion
"Optimistic Voices" – MGM Studio Chorus
"The Merry Old Land of Oz" – Frank Morgan as Cabby, Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as Scarecrow, Jack Haley as the Tin Man, Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion and the Emerald City townspeople
"If I Were King of the Forest" – Bert Lahr as the Cowardly Lion, Judy Garland as Dorothy, Ray Bolger as the Scarecrow and Jack Haley as the Tin Man
"The Jitterbug" – Although this song was removed from the final film, it is still available on some extended edition CDs.[37]

text: Underscoring[edit]

text: Extensive edits in the film's final cut removed vocals from the last portion of the film. However, the film was fully underscored, with instrumental snippets from the film's various leitmotifs throughout. There was also some recognizable popular music, including:

text:
Excerpts from Schumann's "The Happy Farmer", at several points early in the film, including the opening scene when Dorothy and Toto are hurrying home after their encounter with Miss Gulch, when Toto escapes from her, and when the house is "riding" the tornado.
An excerpt of Mendelssohn's "Opus 16, #2", when Toto escapes from the Witch's castle.
An excerpt of Mussorgsky's "Night on Bald Mountain", when Dorothy, the Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the Cowardly Lion are trying to escape from the Witch's castle.
"In the Shade of the Old Apple Tree", when Dorothy and the Scarecrow discover the anthropomorphic apple trees.
"Gaudeamus Igitur" during the Wizard's presentation of awards to the group.
"Home! Sweet Home!", in part of the underscore of the closing scene, at Dorothy's house in Kansas.

text: (The above list is excerpted from the liner notes on the Rhino Records collection.)

text: Release[edit]

text:
The film's first sneak preview was held in San Bernardino, California.[38]
The film was previewed in three test markets: on August 11, 1939, at Kenosha, Wisconsin and Cape Cod, Massachusetts,[39][40] and at the Strand Theatre in Oconomowoc, Wisconsin, on August 12.[41]

text: The Hollywood premiere was on August 15, 1939,[40] at Grauman's Chinese Theatre.[42] The New York City premiere, held at Loew's Capitol Theatre on August 17, 1939, was followed by a live performance with Garland and her frequent film co-star Mickey Rooney. They continued to perform there after each screening for a week, extended in Rooney's case for a second week and in Garland's to three (with Oz co-stars Ray Bolger and Bert Lahr replacing Rooney for the third and final week). The film opened nationwide on August 25, 1939.

text: Box office[edit]

text: According to MGM records, during the film's initial release, it earned $2,048,000 in the US and Canada and $969,000 in other countries throughout the world, resulting in total earnings of $3,017,000. While these were considerable earnings, the high production cost, in association with various distribution and other costs, meant the movie initially recorded a loss of $1,145,000 for the studio.[3] It did not show what MGM considered a profit until a 1949 re-release earned an additional $1.5 million (about $15 million today). However, for all the risks and cost that MGM undertook to produce the film, it was considered at least more successful than anyone thought it would be. According to Christopher Finch, author of the Judy Garland biography Rainbow: The Stormy Life of Judy Garland, "Fantasy is always a risk at the box office. The film had been enormously successful as a book, and it had also been a major stage hit, but previous attempts to bring it to the screen had been dismal failures." Finch also writes that after the success of the film, Garland signed a new contract with MGM giving her a substantial increase in salary, making her one of the top-ten box office stars in the United States.[43]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film received much acclaim upon its release. Frank Nugent considered the film a "delightful piece of wonder-working which had the youngsters' eyes shining and brought a quietly amused gleam to the wiser ones of the oldsters. Not since Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs has anything quite so fantastic succeeded half so well."[44] Nugent had issues with some of the film's special effects, writing, "with the best of will and ingenuity, they cannot make a Munchkin or a Flying Monkey that will not still suggest, however vaguely, a Singer's Midget in a Jack Dawn masquerade. Nor can they, without a few betraying jolts and split-screen overlappings, bring down from the sky the great soap bubble in which Glinda rides and roll it smoothly into place." According to Nugent, "Judy Garland's Dorothy is a pert and fresh-faced miss with the wonder-lit eyes of a believer in fairy tales, but the Baum fantasy is at its best when the Scarecrow, the Tin Man, and the Lion are on the move."[44]

text: Writing in Variety, John C. Flinn predicted that the film was "likely to perform some record-breaking feats of box-office magic," noting, "Some of the scenic passages are so beautiful in design and composition as to stir audiences by their sheer unfoldment." He also called Garland "an appealing figure" and the musical numbers "gay and bright."[45]

text: Harrison's Reports wrote, "Even though some persons are not interested in pictures of this type, it is possible that they will be eager to see this picture just for its technical treatment. The performances are good, and the incidental music is of considerable aid. Pictures of this caliber bring credit to the industry."[46]

text: Film Daily wrote:

text: Leo the Lion is privileged to herald this one with his deepest roar—the one that comes from way down—for seldom if indeed ever has the screen been so successful in its approach to fantasy and extravaganza through flesh-and-blood... handsomely mounted fairy story in Technicolor, with its wealth of humor and homespun philosophy, its stimulus to the imagination, its procession of unforgettable settings, its studding of merry tunes should click solidly at the box-office.[47]

text: Not all reviews were positive. Some moviegoers felt that the 16-year-old Garland was slightly too old to play the little girl who Baum originally intended his Dorothy to be. Russell Maloney of The New Yorker wrote that the film displayed "no trace of imagination, good taste, or ingenuity" and declared it "a stinkeroo,"[48] while Otis Ferguson of The New Republic wrote, "It has dwarfs, music, Technicolor, freak characters, and Judy Garland. It can't be expected to have a sense of humor, as well - and as for the light touch of fantasy, it weighs like a pound of fruitcake soaking wet."[49] Still, the film placed seventh on Film Daily's year-end nationwide poll of 542 critics naming the best films of 1939.[50]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Roger Ebert chose it as one of his Great Films, writing that "The Wizard of Oz has a wonderful surface of comedy and music, special effects and excitement, but we still watch it six decades later because its underlying story penetrates straight to the deepest insecurities of childhood, stirs them and then reassures them."[51]

text: Writer Salman Rushdie acknowledged "The Wizard of Oz was my very first literary influence" in his 2002 musings about the film.[52] He has written: "When I first saw The Wizard of Oz, it made a writer of me."[53] His first short story, written at the age of 10, was titled "Over the Rainbow".[53]

text: In a 2009 retrospective article about the film, San Francisco Chronicle film critic and author Mick LaSalle declared that the film's "entire Munchkinland sequence, from Dorothy's arrival in Oz to her departure on the yellow brick road, has to be one of the greatest in cinema history – a masterpiece of set design, costuming, choreography, music, lyrics, storytelling, and sheer imagination."[54]

text: On the film critic aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 99% based on 109 reviews, with an average score of 9.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "An absolute masterpiece whose groundbreaking visuals and deft storytelling are still every bit as resonant, The Wizard of Oz is a must-see film for young and old."[55] At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film received the maximum score of 100 out of 100, based on 4 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim",[56] which, as of August 2017, is matched only by five other films.

text: Re-releases[edit]

text: Although the 1949 reissue used sepia tone, as in the original release, beginning with the 1955 re-issue, and continuing until the film's 50th anniversary VHS release in 1989, the opening Kansas sequences were shown in black and white instead of the sepia tone as originally printed. (This includes television showings.)[57]

text: The MGM "Children's Matinees" series rereleased the film twice, in both 1970 and 1971.[58] It was for this release that the film received a G rating from the MPAA.

text: For the film's then-upcoming 60th anniversary, Warner Bros. Pictures released a "Special Edition" on November 6, 1998, digitally restored with remastered audio.

text: In 2002, the film had a very limited re-release in U.S. theaters, earning only $139,905.[59]

text: On September 23, 2009, the film was rereleased in select theaters for a one-night-only event in honor of its 70th anniversary and as a promotion for various new disc releases later in the month. An encore of this event was released in theaters on November 17, 2009.[60]

text: An IMAX 3D theatrical re-release played at 300 theaters in North America for one week only beginning September 20, 2013, as part of the film's 75th anniversary.[61] Warner Bros. spent $25 million on advertising. The studio hosted a premiere of the film's first IMAX 3D release on September 15, 2013, from the newly remodeled TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman's Chinese Theatre, the site of the film's Hollywood premiere) in Hollywood. It was the first to play at the new theater and served as the grand opening of Hollywood's first 3D IMAX screen. It was also shown as a special presentation at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival.[62] This re-release grossed $5.6 million at the North American box office.[63]

text: In 2013, in preparation for its IMAX 3D release, the film was submitted again to the MPAA for re-classification. According to MPAA rules, a film that has been altered in any way from its original version must be submitted for re-classification, as the 3-D conversion fell within that guideline. Surprisingly, the 3D version received a PG rating for "Some scary moments", although no change was made to the film's original story content. The 2D version still retains its G rating.[64]

text: The film was rereleased on January 11 and 14, 2015, as part of the "TCM Presents" series by Turner Classic Movies.[65]

text: Television[edit]

text: The film was first shown on television on November 3, 1956, by CBS, as the last installment of the Ford Star Jubilee.[66]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released multiple times for the home-video commercial market (on a limited scale) on Super 8 film (8 mm format) during the 1970s. These releases include an edited English version (roughly 10 minutes, and roughly 20 minutes), as well as edited Spanish versions of the classic. Also, a full commercial release of it was made on Super 8 (on multiple reels) that came out in the 1970s, as well, for the commercial market.[67]

text: The film was among the first videocassettes (on both VHS and Betamax format for the 1980 release) by MGM/CBS Home Video in 1980;[68] all current home video releases are by Warner Home Video (via current rights holder Turner Entertainment). The first LaserDisc release of it was in 1982, with two versions of a second (one from Turner and one from The Criterion Collection with a commentary track) for the 50th anniversary release in 1989, a third in 1991, a fourth in 1993, a fifth in 1995 and a sixth and final LaserDisc release on September 11, 1996.[69]

text: In addition to VHS (and later, LaserDisc), the film has been released multiple times during the 1980s on the Betamax format, beginning in 1980 simultaneously with the VHS release.[70]

text: The film was released for the first and only time on the CED format in 1982 by MGM/UA Home Video.[71]

text: Outside of the North American and European markets, the film has also been released multiple times on the Video CD format since the 1990s in Asia.[72]

text: The first DVD release was on March 26, 1997, by MGM/Turner and contained no special features or supplements. It was re-released by Warner Bros. for its 60th anniversary on October 19, 1999, with its soundtrack presented in a new 5.1 surround sound mix. The monochrome-to-color transition was more smoothly accomplished by digitally keeping the inside of the house in monochrome while Dorothy and the reveal of Munchkinland are in color.[clarification needed] The DVD also contained a behind-the-scenes documentary, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz: The Making of a Movie Classic, produced in 1990 and hosted by Angela Lansbury, which was originally shown on television immediately following the 1990 telecast of the film; it had been featured in the 1993 "Ultimate Oz" LaserDisc release. Outtakes, the deleted "Jitterbug" musical number, clips of pre-1939 Oz adaptations, trailers, newsreels, and a portrait gallery were also included, as well as two radio programs of the era publicizing the film.

text: In 2005, two DVD editions were released, both featuring a newly restored version of the film with an audio commentary and an isolated music and effects track. One of the two DVD releases was a "Two-Disc Special Edition", featuring production documentaries, trailers, various outtakes, newsreels, radio shows and still galleries. The other set, a "Three-Disc Collector's Edition", included these features, as well as the digitally restored 80th-anniversary edition of the 1925 feature-length silent film version of The Wizard of Oz, other silent Oz adaptations and a 1933 animated short version.

text: The film was released on Blu-ray on September 29, 2009, for its 70th anniversary in a four-disc "Ultimate Collector's Edition", including all the bonus features from the 2005 Collector's Edition DVD, new bonus features about Victor Fleming and the surviving Munchkins, the telefilm The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story, and the miniseries MGM: When the Lion Roars. For this edition, Warner Bros. commissioned a new transfer at 8K resolution from the original negatives. The restoration job was given to Prime Focus World.[73] This restored version also features a lossless 5.1 Dolby TrueHD audio track.[74]

text: On December 1, 2009,[citation needed] three Blu-ray discs of the Ultimate Collector's Edition were repackaged as a less expensive "Emerald Edition", with an Emerald Edition four-disc DVD arriving the following week. A single-disc Blu-ray, containing the restored movie and all the extra features of the two-disc Special Edition DVD, also became available on March 16, 2010.[citation needed]

text: In 2013, the film was re-released on DVD, Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D and UltraViolet for the 90th anniversary of Warner Bros. and as part of its 75th anniversary.[61][75]

text: Also, multiple special editions were released in celebration of the film's the 75th anniversary in 2013, exclusively by both Best Buy (a SteelBook of the 3D Blu-ray) and another version that came with a keepsake lunch bag released by Target stores.[76][77]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: Academy Awards[edit]

text:
Awards

Award

Date of ceremony

Category

Recipient

Outcome

Academy Awards[78]

February 29, 1940

Best Picture

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer

Nominated

Best Cinematography, Color

Harold Rosson

Best Art Direction

Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning

Best Effects, Special Effects

A. Arnold Gillespie and Douglas Shearer

Best Music, Original Score

Herbert Stothart

Won

Best Music, Original Song

"Over the Rainbow"Music by Harold Arlen; Lyrics by E.Y. Harburg

Academy Juvenile Award

Judy GarlandFor her outstanding performance as a screen juvenile during the past year. (She was jointly awarded for her performances in Babes in Arms and The Wizard of Oz).

Honorary

text: American Film Institute lists[edit]

text: The American Film Institute (AFI) has compiled various lists which include this film or elements thereof.

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – No. 6
AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – No. 43
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Wicked Witch of the West – No. 4 villain
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"Over the Rainbow" – No. 1
"Ding-Dong! The Witch Is Dead" – No. 82
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:
"Toto, I've a feeling we're not in Kansas anymore." (Dorothy Gale) – No. 4
"There's no place like home." (Dorothy) – No. 23
"I'll get you, my pretty – and your little dog, too!" (Wicked Witch of the West) – No. 99
AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – No. 3
AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No. 26
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 10
AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 1 Fantasy film[79]

text: Other honors[edit]

text:
1999: Rolling Stone's 100 Maverick Movies – No. 20.[80]
1999: Entertainment Weekly's 100 Greatest Films – No. 32.[81]
2000: The Village Voice's 100 Best Films of the 20th Century – No. 14.[82]
2002: Sight & Sound's Greatest Film Poll of Directors – No. 41.[83]
2005: Total Film's 100 Greatest Films – No. 83.[84]
2005: ranked among the top ten of the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14.[85]
2007: Total Film's 23 Weirdest Films – No. 1.[86]
2007: The Observer ranked the film's songs and music at the top of its list of 50 greatest film soundtracks.[87]

text: Differences from the novel[edit]

text: Roughly 40 identifiable major differences exist between the original book and the MGM interpretation.[88][89]

text: Sequels and reinterpretations[edit]

text: The film was dramatized as a one-hour radio play on Lux Radio Theatre, which was broadcast on December 25, 1950, with Garland reprising her earlier role. In 1964, a one-hour animated cartoon called Return to Oz was shown as an afternoon weekend special on NBC.[citation needed] An official 1972 sequel, the animated Journey Back to Oz starring Liza Minnelli, daughter of Garland, was produced to commemorate the original film's 35th anniversary.[90]

text: In 1975, the stage show The Wiz premiered on Broadway. It was an African American version of The Wizard of Oz reworked for the stage. It starred Stephanie Mills and other Broadway stars and earned a number of Tony Awards. Its financing was handled by actor Geoffrey Holder. Its inspired revivals after it left the stage and an unsuccessful motion picture made in 1978, starring Diana Ross as Dorothy and Michael Jackson as the Scarecrow.[citation needed]

text: In 1985, Walt Disney Productions released the live-action fantasy film Return to Oz, which starred (and introduced) Fairuza Balk as a young Dorothy Gale.[91] Based loosely on The Marvelous Land of Oz (1904) and Ozma of Oz (1907), it fared rather poorly with critics who were unfamiliar with the Oz books and was not successful at the box office, although it has since become a popular cult film, with many considering it a more loyal and faithful adaptation of what L. Frank Baum envisioned.[92][93]

text: In 1995, Gregory Maguire published the novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West, which was adapted into the wildly successful Broadway musical Wicked. The story describes the life of the Wicked Witch of the West and other events prior to Dorothy's arrival.[citation needed]

text: For the film's 56th anniversary, a 1995 stage show also titled The Wizard of Oz was based upon it and the book by L. Frank Baum. It toured from 1995 to 2012, except for 2004.[citation needed]

text: In 2005, The Muppets Studio produced The Muppets' Wizard of Oz, a television film for ABC, starring Ashanti as Dorothy, Jeffrey Tambor as the Wizard, David Alan Grier as Uncle Henry, and Queen Latifah as Aunt Em. Kermit the Frog portrayed the Scarecrow, Gonzo portrayed the Tin Thing (Tin Man), Fozzie Bear portrayed the Lion and Miss Piggy portrayed all the Witches of the West, East, North and South.[citation needed]

text: In 2007, The Sci-Fi Channel released the three-part miniseries Tin Man, a science fiction continuation starring Zooey Deschanel as DG.

text: Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice wrote a stage musical of the same name, which opened in 2011 at the West End's London Palladium. It features all of the songs from the film plus new songs written by Lloyd Webber and Rice. Lloyd Webber also found Danielle Hope to play Dorothy on the reality show, Over the Rainbow. Another production opened in December 2012 at the Ed Mirvish Theatre in Toronto.[94] A reality TV show, also titled Over the Rainbow, found a Canadian girl, Danielle Wade, to play  Dorothy.[95][96] The Canadian production then began a North American tour in September 2013.[97] An Australian tour will begin at the Lyric Theatre, Queensland Performing Arts Centre in November 2017, followed by a season at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney beginning December 2017.[98]

text: An animated film called Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz was released in 2011 by Warner Home Video, incorporating Tom and Jerry into the story as Dorothy's "protectors".[99] A sequel titled Tom and Jerry: Back to Oz was released on DVD on June 21, 2016.[100]

text: In 2013, Walt Disney Pictures released a spiritual prequel titled Oz the Great and Powerful. It was directed by Sam Raimi, and starred James Franco, Mila Kunis, Rachel Weisz and Michelle Williams. It was the second film based on Baum's Oz series to be produced by Disney, after Return to Oz. It was a commercial success and received a mixed critical reception.[101][102]

text: In 2014, now-defunct independent film company Clarius Entertainment released a big-budget animated musical film, Legends of Oz: Dorothy's Return,[103] which follows Dorothy's second trip to Oz. The film was a box office bomb and was received negatively by critics largely for its plot and unmemorable musical numbers.

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Regarding the original Baum storybook, it has been said that "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is America's greatest and best-loved home grown fairytale. The first totally American fantasy for children, it is one of the most-read children's books ... and despite its many particularly American attributes, including a wizard from Omaha, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has universal appeal."[104]

text: The film was one inductee of a group of 25 films that inaugurated in 1989 the National Film Registry list,[105][106] based on at least it being declared by the Library of Congress as the most viewed film on television syndication.[10] In June 2007, the film was listed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register.[107] The film placed at number 86 on Bravo's 100 Scariest Movie Moments.[108] In 1977, Aljean Harmetz wrote The Making of The Wizard of Oz, a detailed description of the creation of the film based on interviews and research; it was updated in 1989.[109]

text: Ruby slippers[edit]

text: Because of their iconic stature,[110] the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in the film are now among the most treasured and valuable film memorabilia in movie history.[111] The silver slippers that Dorothy wore in the book series were changed to ruby to take advantage of the new Technicolor process. Adrian, MGM's chief costume designer, was responsible for the final design. There are five known pairs of the ruby slippers in existence.[112]

text: After filming, the slippers were stored among the studio's extensive collection of costumes and faded from attention. They were found in the basement of MGM's wardrobe department during preparations for a mammoth auction in 1970. One pair was the highlight of the auction, going for a then unheard of $15,000 to an anonymous buyer, who apparently donated them to the Smithsonian Institution in 1979. Of the four other pairs, one sold for $666,000 at auction in 2000, and another pair was stolen from the Judy Garland Museum in Grand Rapids, Minnesota and remains missing.[113]

text: Another, differently styled pair unused in the film was sold at auction with the rest of her collections by owner actress Debbie Reynolds for $510,000 (not including the buyer's premium) in June 2011.[114]

text: Impact upon LGBT culture[edit]


document_title: Forbes' list of world's highest-paid athletes

question_text: who is the highest paid athlete in north america

text: 2017 list[edit]

text: The 2017 list:[1]

text:
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements

1
Cristiano Ronaldo
Football
 Portugal
$93 million
$58 million
$35 million

2
LeBron James
Basketball
 United States
$86.2 million
$31.2 million
$55 million

3
Lionel Messi
Football
 Argentina
$80 million
$53 million
$27 million

4
Roger Federer
Tennis
 Switzerland
$64 million
$6 million
$58 million

5
Kevin Durant
Basketball
 United States
$60.6 million
$26.6 million
$34 million

6
Andrew Luck
American football
 United States
$50 million
$47 million
$3 million

6
Rory McIlroy
Golf
 Northern Ireland
$50 million
$16 million
$34 million

8
Stephen Curry
Basketball
 United States
$47.3 million
$12.3 million
$35 million

9
James Harden
Basketball
 United States
$46.6 million
$26.6 million
$20 million

10
Lewis Hamilton
Auto racing
 England
$46 million
$38 million
$8 million

tag: table

text: 2016 list[edit]

text: The 2016 list:[2]

text:
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements

1
Cristiano Ronaldo
Football
 Portugal
$88 million
$56 million
$32 million

2
Lionel Messi
Football
 Argentina
$81.4 million
$53.4 million
$28 million

3
LeBron James
Basketball
 United States
$77.2 million
$23.2 million
$54 million

4
Roger Federer
Tennis
 Switzerland
$67.8 million
$7.8 million
$60 million

5
Kevin Durant
Basketball
 United States
$56.2 million
$20.2 million
$36 million

6
Novak Djokovic
Tennis
 Serbia
$55.8 million
$21.8 million
$34 million

7
Cam Newton
American football
 United States
$53.1 million
$41.1 million
$12 million

8
Phil Mickelson
Golf
 United States
$52.9 million
$2.9 million
$50 million

9
Jordan Spieth
Golf
 United States
$52.8 million
$20.8 million
$32 million

10
Kobe Bryant
Basketball
 United States
$50 million
$25 million
$25 million

text: 2015 list[edit]

text: The 2015 list was released on 10 June 2015.[3]

text:
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements

1
Floyd Mayweather Jr.
Boxing
 United States
$300 million
$285 million
$15 million

2
Manny Pacquiao
Boxing
 Philippines
$160 million
$148 million
$12 million

3
Cristiano Ronaldo
Football
 Portugal
$79.6 million
$52.6 million
$27 million

4
Lionel Messi
Football
 Argentina
$73.8 million
$51.8 million
$22 million

5
Roger Federer
Tennis
 Switzerland
$67 million
$9 million
$58 million

6
LeBron James
Basketball
 United States
$64.8 million
$20.8 million
$44 million

7
Kevin Durant
Basketball
 United States
$54.1 million
$19.1 million
$35 million

8
Phil Mickelson
Golf
 United States
$50.8 million
$2.8 million
$48 million

9
Tiger Woods
Golf
 United States
$50.6 million
$0.6 million
$50 million

10
Kobe Bryant
Basketball
 United States
$49.5 million
$23.5 million
$26 million

text: 2014 list[edit]

text: The 2014 list was released on 11 June 2014.[4]

text:
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements

1
Floyd Mayweather Jr.
Boxing
 United States
$105 million
$105 million
$0

2
Cristiano Ronaldo
Football
 Portugal
$80 million
$52 million
$28 million

3
LeBron James
Basketball
 United States
$72.3 million
$19.3 million
$53 million

4
Lionel Messi
Football
 Argentina
$64.7 million
$41.7 million
$23 million

5
Kobe Bryant
Basketball
 United States
$61.5 million
$30.5 million
$31 million

6
Tiger Woods
Golf
 United States
$61.2 million
$6.2 million
$55 million

7
Roger Federer
Tennis
 Switzerland
$56.2 million
$4.2 million
$52 million

8
Phil Mickelson
Golf
 United States
$53.2 million
$5.2 million
$48 million

9
Rafael Nadal
Tennis
 Spain
$44.5 million
$14.5 million
$30 million

10
Matt Ryan
American football
 United States
$43.8 million
$42 million
$1.8 million

text: 2013 list[edit]

text: The 2013 list was released on 5 June 2013.[5]

text:
Rank
Name
Sport
Nation
Total
Salary/Winnings
Endorsements

1
Tiger Woods
Golf
 United States
$78.1 million
$13.1 million
$65 million

2
Roger Federer
Tennis
 Switzerland
$71.5 million
$6.5 million
$65 million

3
Kobe Bryant
Basketball
 United States
$61.9 million
$27.9 million
$34 million

4
LeBron James
Basketball
 United States
$59.8 million
$17.8 million
$42 million

5
Drew Brees
American football
 United States
$51 million
$40 million
$11 million

6
Aaron Rodgers
American football
 United States
$49 million
$43 million
$6 million

7
Phil Mickelson
Golf
 United States
$48.7 million
$4.7 million
$44 million

8
David Beckham
Football
 England
$47.2 million
$5.2 million
$42 million

9
Cristiano Ronaldo
Football
 Portugal
$44 million
$23 million
$21 million

10
Lionel Messi
Football
 Argentina
$41.3 million
$20.3 million
$21 million

text: 2012 list[edit]

text: The 2012 list was released on 18 June 2012.[6]

text:
Rank
Name
Sport
Nationality
Total earnings
Salary/winnings
Endorsements

1
Floyd Mayweather Jr.
Boxing
 United States
$85 million
$85 million
$0

2
Manny Pacquiao
Boxing
 Philippines
$62 million
$56 million
$6 million

3
Tiger Woods
Golf
 United States
$59.4 million
$4.4 million
$55 million

4
LeBron James
Basketball
 United States
$53 million
$13 million
$40 million

5
Roger Federer
Tennis
 Switzerland
$52.7 million
$7.7 million
$45 million

6
Kobe Bryant
Basketball
 United States
$52.3 million
$20.3 million
$32 million

7
Phil Mickelson
Golf
 United States
$47.8 million
$4.8 million
$43 million

8
David Beckham
Football
 England
$46 million
$9 million
$37 million

9
Cristiano Ronaldo
Football
 Portugal
$42.5 million
$20.5 million
$22 million

10
Peyton Manning
American football
 United States
$42.4 million
$32.4 million
$10 million


document_title: Semi-acoustic guitar

question_text: what is the point of a semi hollow guitar

text: Semi-acoustic guitar

text: History[edit]

text: In the 1930s guitar players and manufacturers were attempting to increase the overall volume of the guitar, which had a hard time competing in loudness with other instruments—especially in large orchestras and jazz bands.[1] This led makers to try a series of designs that focused on amplifying a guitar electrically through a loudspeaker. In 1936, Gibson made their first production run of electric guitars. These guitars, known as ES-150s (Electric Spanish Series) were the first manufactured semi-acoustic guitars.[2]

text: Gibson based them on a standard production archtop, with f holes on the face of the guitar's soundbox. This model resembled traditional jazz guitars that were popular at the time. The soundbox on the guitar let limited sound emit from the hollow body of the guitar. These guitars, however, could be electrically amplified via a Charlie Christian pickup, a magnetic single-coil pickup that converted the energy of the vibrating strings into an electrical signal.[2] The clear sound of the pickups made the ES series immediately popular with jazz musicians.[1] The first semi-acoustic guitars are often thought of as an evolutionary step in the progression from acoustic guitars to full electric models.

text: However, Gibson made the ES-150 several years after Rickenbacker made the first solid-body electric guitar. The ES series was merely an experiment the Gibson company used to test the potential success of electric guitars. The experiment was a successful financial venture, and the ES series is often referred to as the first successful electric guitar. The ES-150 was followed by the ES-250 a year later, in what became a long line of semi acoustics for the Gibson company.[3]

text: In 1949 Gibson released two new models: the ES-175 and ES-5. These guitars came standard with built-in electric pickups and are widely considered the first fully electric semi-acoustic guitars.[4] Prior models were not built with pickups; rather, they came as attachments. As the production and popularity of solid body electric guitars increased, there was still a market of guitar players who wanted to have the traditional look associated with the semi-acoustic guitars of the 1930s but also wanted the versatility and comfort of new solid body guitars. Several models, including the ES-350T by Gibson, were made in the 1950s to accommodate this growing demand by including a more comfortable version of the archtop model.[2]

text: Gibson and other makers followed these variations with an entirely new type of guitar that featured a block of solid wood between the front and back sections of the guitars cutaway. This guitar still functioned acoustically, but had a smaller resonant cavity inside, which makes less sound emit from the f holes. Gibson first manufactured this variant in 1958. It is commonly referred to as a semi-hollow body guitar, because of the smaller, less open body.[2]

text: Rickenbacker also began making semi-acoustic guitars in 1958. When the company changed ownership in 1954, they hired German guitar crafter, Roger Rossmiesl. He developed the 300 series for Rickenbacker, which was a wide semi-acoustic that did not use a traditional f hole. Rather it used a sleeker dash hole on one side of the guitar, the other side had a large pickguard. This model boasted a modern design with a unique Fireglo finish. It quickly became one of Rickenbacker's most popular series and became a strong competitor to Gibson's models.[5]

text: In addition to the main model variants of the guitar, Gibson made several small changes to the guitar, including a laminated top for the ES-175 model and mounted top pickups for general use on all their models, as opposed to Charlie Christian models from the 1930s.[1] While Gibson provided many of the innovations in semi-acoustic guitars from the 1930s to the 1950s, there were also various makes by other companies including a hollow archtop by Gretsch. The 6120 model by Gretsch became very popular as a rockabilly model despite having almost no technical differences from Gibson models.[6] Rickenbacker was also a prominent maker of the semi-hollow body guitar. Gibson, Gretsch, Rickenbacker, and other companies still make semi-acoustic and semi-hollow body guitars, making slight variations on their yearly designs.

text: Usage[edit]

text: The semi-acoustic and semi-hollow body guitars were generally praised for their clean and warm tones. This led to widespread use throughout the jazz communities in the 1930s. As new models came out with sleeker designs, the guitars began to make their way into popular circles. The guitar became used in pop, folk, and blues. The guitars sometimes produced feedback when played through an amplifier at a loud level. This made the guitars unpopular for bands that had to play loud enough to perform in large venues. As rock became more experimental in the late 60s and 70s, the guitar became more popular because players learned to use its feedback issues creatively.

text: Semi-hollow guitars share some of the tonal characteristics of hollow guitars, such as their praised warmth and clean tone. However, the addition of the central block helps to manage feedback and allows the guitar to be played normally at higher gain and higher volume. Semi-hollow guitars with a central block are also more durable than fully hollow guitars, whose sound is particularly popular with jazz, blues, rockabilly and psychobilly guitarists.

text: Today, semi-acoustic and semi-hollow body guitars are still popular among many artists across various genres. Examples include Dan Auerbach of The Black Keys, renowned jazz guitarist George Benson, John Scofield, and pop rock guitartist Paul McCartney. Famous guitarists of the past who have used semi acoustic guitars include John Lennon of The Beatles and B.B. King. Semi-acoustic guitars have also been valued as good practice guitars because, when played "unplugged," they are quieter than full acoustic guitars, but more audible than solid-body electric guitars because of their open cavity. This makes the guitar particularly useful when volume is an issue. They are also popular because the cavities reduce the weight of the guitar.[7]

text: With most solid-body guitars, the electronics are accessed, repaired, or replaced by removing either the pick guard or an access panel on the back of the guitar’s body. In a semi-acoustic guitar, where there is no solid body to create a chamber to house the electronics, these components are pushed or pulled through the lower f-hole of the guitar’s body.[8]

text: Variations[edit]

text: Other semi-acoustic instruments include basses and mandolins. These are similarly constructed to semi-acoustic guitars, and are used in the same ways and with the same limitations.

text: Some semi-acoustic models have a fully hollow body (for instance the Gibson ES-175 and Epiphone Casino), others may have a solid center block running the length and depth of the body, called semi hollow body (for instance the Gibson ES-335).

text: Other guitars are borderline between semi-acoustic and solid body. For example, some Telecaster guitars have chambers built into an otherwise solid body to enrich the sound. This type of instrument can be referred to as a semi-hollow or a chambered body guitar. Players disagree on exactly where to draw the line between a constructed sound box and a solid wooden body (whose construction also affects the sound according to many players). Any of the following can be called semi-acoustic:

text:
Instruments that start from a solid body blank that has been routed out to make a chambered body guitar
Instruments with semi-hollow bodies constructed from plates of wood around a solid core, with no soundholes, such as the Gibson Lucille or Brian May Red Special
Instruments with a solid core but hollow bouts and soundholes (usually f-holes), such as the Gibson ES-335. In these, the bridge is fixed to a solid block of wood rather than to a sounding board, and the belly vibration is minimised much as in a solid body instrument
Thin-bodied archtop guitars, such as the Epiphone Casino, that have a sounding board and sound box, but purely to modify the sound transmitted to the pickups—still intended as purely electric instruments because of their weak acoustic sound
Full hollowbody semi-acoustic instruments, often called Jazz guitars, such as the Gibson ES-175; these have a full-size sound box, but are still intended to be played through an amplifier.

tag: ul

text: Sound Hole Variations:

text: Many hollow body guitars, both semi and full have Cat-Eyed or Cat Eye sound holes which are shaped like the eye of a cat instead of the traditional F Holes.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
B. B. King's Lucille

Epiphone Dot

Gibson ES-335

The Rickenbacker 330 JG

text: Examples[edit]

text: Some companies that have produced famous semi-acoustic guitars include: Gibson, Gretsch R M Olson and Rickenbacker. A variety of manufacturers now produce semi-acoustic model guitars: D'Angelico, Epiphone, Ibanez, etc.

text:
Gibson L-5
Gibson ES-175
Epiphone Joe Pass Emperor II
Hofner 500/1

text:
Epiphone Casino / Gibson ES-330
Gretsch White Falcon

text:
Gibson ES-335 / Epiphone Dot
Gibson ES-339
Duesenberg Guitars Fullerton Series
D'Angelico EX-DC

text: Gibson Lucille

text:
Rickenbacker 330
Fender Telecaster Thinline
Guild Bluesbird
Gretsch Penguin
RM Oldon Ollandoc

text: Brian May Red Special

text:
Archtop guitars. Guitars with a fully hollow or semi-hollow body, with or without pickups.
Electro-acoustic guitars. Fully acoustic guitars with piezo pickups.
Hybrid guitars. Guitars with both magnetic and piezo pickups. Can be solid, semi-hollow or hollow bodied.
Silent guitars. Solid body guitars with a piezo pickups.


document_title: Hemodynamics

question_text: where does blood flow have the highest velocity

question_tokens: where does blood flow have the highest velocity

text: Hemodynamics

text: Blood[edit]

text: Blood is a complex liquid. Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements. The plasma contains 91.5% water, 7% proteins and 1.5% other solutes. The formed elements are platelets, white blood cells and red blood cells, the presence of these formed elements and their interaction with plasma molecules are the main reasons why blood differs so much from ideal Newtonian fluids.[1]

text: Viscosity of plasma[edit]

text: Normal blood plasma behaves like a Newtonian fluid at physiological rates of shear. Typical values for the viscosity of normal human plasma at 37 °C is 1.4 mN·s/m2.[3] The viscosity of normal plasma varies with temperature in the same way as does that of its solvent water; a 5 °C increase of temperature in the physiological range reduces plasma viscosity by about 10%.

text: Osmotic pressure of plasma[edit]

text: The osmotic pressure of solution is determined by the number of particles present and by the temperature. For example, a 1 molar solution of a substance contains 7023602200000000000♠6.022×1023 molecules per liter of that substance and at 0 °C it has an osmotic pressure of 2.27 MPa (22.4 atm). The osmotic pressure of the plasma affects the mechanics of the circulation in several ways. An alteration of the osmotic pressure difference across the membrane of a blood cell causes a shift of water and a change of cell volume. The changes in shape and flexibility affect the mechanical properties of whole blood. A change in plasma osmotic pressure alters the hematocrit, that is, the volume concentration of red cells in the whole blood by redistributing water between the intravascular and extravascular spaces. This in turn affects the mechanics of the whole blood.[4]

text: Red blood cells[edit]

text:
The red blood cell is highly flexible and biconcave in shape. Its membrane has a Young's modulus in the region of 106 Pa. Deformation in red blood cells is induced by shear stress. When a suspension is sheared, the red blood cells deform and spin because of the velocity gradient, with the rate of deformation and spin depending on the shear-rate and the concentration.
This can influence the mechanics of the circulation and may complicate the measurement of blood viscosity. It is true that in a steady state flow of a viscous fluid through a rigid spherical body immersed in the fluid, where we assume the inertia is negligible in such a flow, it is believed that the downward gravitational force of the particle is balanced by the viscous drag force. From this force balance the speed of fall can be shown to be given by Stokes' law

text: Where a is the particle radius, ρp, ρf are the respectively particle and fluid density μ is the fluid viscosity, g is the gravitational acceleration. From the above equation we can see that the sedimentation velocity of the particle depends on the square of the radius. If the particle is released from rest in the fluid, its sedimentation velocity Us increases until it attains the steady value called the terminal velocity (U), as shown above.

text: Hemodilution[edit]

text: Hemodilution is the dilution of the concentration of red blood cells and plasma constituents by partially substituting the blood with colloids or crystalloids. It is a strategy to avoid exposure of patients to the potential hazards of homologous blood transfusions.

text: Hemodilution can be normovolemic, which implies the dilution of normal blood constituents by the use of expanders. During acute normovolemic hemodilution, (ANH) blood subsequently lost during surgery contains proportionally fewer red blood cells per millimetre, thus minimizing intraoperative loss of the whole blood. Therefore, blood lost by the patient during surgery is not actually lost by the patient, for this volume is purified and redirected into the patient.

text: On the other hand, hypervolemic hemodilution (HVH) uses acute preoperative volume expansion without any blood removal. In choosing a fluid, however, it must be assured that when mixed, the remaining blood behaves in the microcirculation as in the original blood fluid, retaining all its properties of viscosity.[5]

text: In presenting what volume of ANH should be applied one study suggests a mathematical model of ANH which calculates the maximum possible RCM savings using ANH, given the patients weight Hi and Hm. (See below for a glossary of the terms used.)

text:
To maintain the normovolemia, the withdrawal of autologous blood must be simultaneously replaced by a suitable hemodilute. Ideally, this is achieved by isovolemia exchange transfusion of a plasma substitute with a colloid osmotic pressure (OP). A colloid is a fluid containing particles that are large enough to exert an oncotic pressure across the micro-vascular membrane.
When debating the use of colloid or crystalloid, it is imperative to think about all the components of the starling equation:

text: To identify the minimum safe hematocrit desirable for a given patient the following equation is useful:

text:
where EBV is the estimated blood volume; 70 mL/kg was used in this model and Hi (initial hematocrit) is the patient’s initial hematocrit.
From the equation above it is clear that the volume of blood removed during the ANH to the Hm is the same as the BLs.
How much blood is to be removed is usually based on the weight, not the volume. The number of units that need to be removed to hemodilute to the maximum safe hematocrit (ANH) can be found by

text:
This is based on the assumption that each unit removed by hemodilution has a volume of 450 mL (the actual volume of a unit will vary somewhat since completion of collection ais dependent on weight and not volume).
The model assumes that the hemodilute value is equal to the Hm prior to surgery, therefore, the re-transfusion of blood obtained by hemodilution must begin when SBL begins.
The RCM available for retransfusion after ANH (RCMm) can be calculated from the patient's Hi and the final hematocrit after hemodilution(Hm)

text: The maximum SBL that is possible when ANH is used without falling below Hm(BLH) is found by assuming that all the blood removed during ANH is returned to the patient at a rate sufficient to maintain the hematocrit at the minimum safe level

text:
If ANH is used as long as SBL does not exceed BLH there will not be any need for blood transfusion. We can conclude from the foregoing that H should therefore not exceed s.
The difference between the BLH and the BLs therefore is the incremental surgical blood loss (BLi) possible when using ANH.

text: When expressed in terms of the RCM

text: Where RCMi is the red cell mass that would have to be administered using homologous blood to maintain the Hm if ANH is not used and blood loss equals BLH.

text: The model used assumes ANH used for a 70 kg patient with an estimated blood volume of 70 ml/kg (4900 ml). A range of Hi and Hm was evaluated to understand conditions where hemodilution is necessary to benefit the patient.[6][7]

text: Result[edit]

text:
The result of the model calculations are presented in a table given in the appendix for a range of Hi from 0.30 to 0.50 with ANH performed to minimum hematocrits from 0.30 to 0.15. Given a Hi of 0.40, if the Hm is assumed to be 0.25.then from the equation above the RCM count is still high and ANH is not necessary, if BLs does not exceed 2303 ml, since the hemotocrit will not fall below Hm, although five units of blood must be removed during hemodilution. Under these conditions, to achieve the maximum benefit from the technique if ANH is used, no homologous blood will be required to maintain the Hm if blood loss does not exceed 2940 ml. In such a case ANH can save a maximum of 1.1 packed red blood cell unit equivalent, and homologous blood transfusion is necessary to maintain Hm, even if ANH is used.
This model can be used to identify when ANH may be used for a given patient and the degree of ANH necessary to maximize that benefit.

text:
For example, if Hi is 0.30 or less it is not possible to save a red cell mass equivalent to two units of homologous PRBC even if the patient is hemodiluted to an Hm of 0.15. That is because from the RCM equation the patient RCM falls short from the equation giving above.
If Hi is 0.40 one must remove at least 7.5 units of blood during ANH, resulting in an Hm of 0.20 to save two units equivalence. Clearly, the greater the Hi and the greater the number of units removed during hemodilution, the more effective ANH is for preventing homologous blood transfusion. The model here is designed to allow doctors to determine where ANH may be beneficial for a patient based on their knowledge of the Hi, the potential for SBL, and an estimate of the Hm. Though the model used a 70 kg patient, the result can be applied to any patient. To apply these result to any body weight, any of the values BLs, BLH and ANHH or PRBC given in the table need to be multiplied by the factor we will call T

text: Basically, the model considered above is designed to predict the maximum RCM that can save ANH.

text: In summary, the efficacy of ANH has been described mathematically by means of measurements of surgical blood loss and blood volume flow measurement. This form of analysis permits accurate estimation of the potential efficiency of the techniques and shows the application of measurement in the medical field.

text: Blood flow[edit]

text: Cardiac output[edit]

text: The heart is the driver of the circulatory system, pumping blood through rhythmic contraction and relaxation. The rate of blood flow out of the heart (often expressed in L/min) is known as the cardiac output (CO).

text: Blood being pumped out of the heart first enters the aorta, the largest artery of the body. It then proceeds to divide into smaller and smaller arteries, then into arterioles, and eventually capillaries, where oxygen transfer occurs. The capillaries connect to venules, and the blood then travels back through the network of veins to the right heart. The micro-circulation — the arterioles, capillaries, and venules —constitutes most of the area of the vascular system and is the site of the transfer of O2, glucose, and enzyme substrates into the cells. The venous system returns the de-oxygenated blood to the right heart where it is pumped into the lungs to become oxygenated and CO2 and other gaseous wastes exchanged and expelled during breathing. Blood then returns to the left side of the heart where it begins the process again.

text: In a normal circulatory system, the volume of blood returning to the heart each minute is approximately equal to the volume that is pumped out each minute (the cardiac output).[8] Because of this, the velocity of blood flow across each level of the circulatory system is primarily determined by the total cross-sectional area of that level.  This is mathematically expressed by the following equation:

text: where

text:
v = velocity (cm/s)
Q = blood flow (ml/s)
A = cross sectional area (cm2)

text: Turbulence[edit]

text: Blood flow is also affected by the smoothness of the vessels, resulting in either turbulent (chaotic) or laminar (smooth) flow. Smoothness is reduced by the buildup of fatty deposits on the arterial walls.

text: The Reynold’s number (denoted NR or Re) is a relationship that helps determine the behavior of a fluid in a tube, in this case blood in the vessel.

text: The equation for this dimensionless relationship is written as:[9]

text:
ρ: density of the blood
v: mean velocity of the blood
L: characteristic dimension of the vessel, in this case diameter
μ: viscosity of blood

text: The Reynold’s number is directly proportional to the velocity and diameter of the tube. Note that NR is directly proportional to the mean velocity as well as the diameter. A Reynold’s number of less than 2300 is laminar fluid flow, which is characterized by constant flow motion, whereas a value of over 4000, is represented as turbulent flow.[9] Due to its smaller radius and lowest velocity compared to other vessels, the Reynold’s number at the capillaries is very low, resulting in laminar instead of turbulent flow.[10]

text: Velocity[edit]

text:
Often expressed in cm/s. This value is inversely related to the total cross-sectional area of the blood vessel and also differs per cross-section, because in normal condition the blood flow has laminar characteristics. For this reason, the blood flow velocity is the fastest in the middle of the vessel and slowest at the vessel wall. In most cases, the mean velocity is used.[11] There are many ways to measure blood flow velocity, like videocapillary microscoping with frame-to-frame analysis, or laser Doppler anemometry.[12]
Blood velocities in arteries are higher during systole than during diastole. One parameter to quantify this difference is the pulsatility index (PI), which is equal to the difference between the peak systolic velocity and the minimum diastolic velocity divided by the mean velocity during the cardiac cycle. This value decreases with distance from the heart.[13]

text:
Relation between blood flow velocity and total cross-section area in human

Type of blood vessels

Total cross-section area

Blood velocity in cm/s

Aorta
3–5 cm2
40 cm/s

Capillaries
4500–6000 cm2
0.03 cm/s[14]

Vena cavae inferior and superior
14 cm2
15 cm/s

text: Blood vessels[edit]

text: Vascular resistance[edit]

text: Resistance is also related to vessel radius, vessel length, and blood viscosity.

text: In a first approach based on fluids, as indicated by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation.[9] The equation is as follows:

text:
∆P: pressure drop/gradient
µ: viscosity
l: length of tube. In the case of vessels with infinitely long lengths, l is replaced with diameter of the vessel.
Q: flow rate of the blood in the vessel
r: radius of the vessel

text: In a second approach, more realistic of the vascular resistance and coming from experimental observations on blood flows, according to Thurston,[15] there is a plasma release-cell layering at the walls surrounding a plugged flow. It is a fluid layer in which at a distance δ, viscosity η is a function of δ written as η(δ), and these surrounding layers do not meet at the vessel centre in real blood flow. Instead, there is the plugged flow which is hyperviscous because holding high concentration of RBCs. Thurston assembled this layer to the flow resistance to describe blood flow by means of a viscosity η(δ) and thickness δ from the wall layer.

text: The blood resistance law appears as R adapted to blood flow profile :

text: where

text:
R = resistance to blood flow
c = constant coefficient of flow
L = length of the vessel
η(δ) = viscosity of blood in the wall plasma release-cell layering
r = radius of the blood vessel
δ = distance in the plasma release-cell layer

text:
Blood resistance varies depending on blood viscosity and its plugged flow (or sheath flow since they are complementary across the vessel section) size as well, and on the size of the vessels.
Assuming steady, laminar flow in the vessel, the blood vessels behavior is similar to that of a pipe. For instance if p1 and p2 are pressures are at the ends of the tube, the pressure drop/gradient is:[16]

text: The larger arteries, including all large enough to see without magnification, are conduits with low vascular resistance (assuming no advanced atherosclerotic changes) with high flow rates that generate only small drops in pressure. The smaller arteries and arterioles have higher resistance, and confer the main blood pressure drop across major arteries to capillaries in the circulatory system.

text: In the arterioles blood pressure is lower than in the major arteries. This is due to bifurcations, which cause a drop in pressure. The more bifurcations, the higher the total cross-sectional area, therefore the pressure across the surface drops. This is why[citation needed] the arterioles have the highest pressure-drop. The pressure drop of the arterioles is the product of flow rate and resistance: ∆P=Q xresistance. The high resistance observed in the arterioles, which factor largely in the ∆P is a result of a smaller radius of about 30 µm.[17] The smaller the radius of a tube, the larger the resistance to fluid flow.

text: Immediately following the arterioles are the capillaries. Following the logic observed in the arterioles, we expect the blood pressure to be lower in the capillaries compared to  the arterioles. Since pressure is a function of force per unit area, (P = F/A), the larger the surface area, the lesser the pressure when an external force acts on it. Though the radii of the capillaries are very small, the network of capillaries have the largest surface area in the vascular network. They are known to have the largest surface area (485 mm) in the human vascular network. The larger the total cross-sectional area, the lower the mean velocity as well as the pressure.[18]

text: Substances called vasoconstrictors can reduce the size of blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. Vasodilators (such as nitroglycerin) increase the size of blood vessels, thereby decreasing arterial pressure.

text: If the blood viscosity increases (gets thicker), the result is an increase in arterial pressure. Certain medical conditions can change the viscosity of the blood. For instance, anemia (low red blood cell concentration), reduces viscosity, whereas increased red blood cell concentration increases viscosity. It had been thought that aspirin and related "blood thinner" drugs decreased the viscosity of blood, but instead studies found that they act by reducing the tendency of the blood to clot.[19]

text: Wall tension[edit]

text: Regardless of site, blood pressure is related to the wall tension of the vessel according to the Young–Laplace equation (assuming that the thickness of the vessel wall is very small as compared to the diameter of the lumen):

text: where

text:
P is the blood pressure
t is the wall thickness
r is the inside radius of the cylinder.

σ

θ

{\displaystyle \sigma _{\theta }\!}

 is the cylinder stress or "hoop stress".

text: For the thin-walled assumption to be valid the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more than about one-tenth (often cited as one twentieth) of its radius.

text: The cylinder stress, in turn, is the average force exerted circumferentially (perpendicular both to the axis and to the radius of the object) in the cylinder wall, and can be described as:

text: where:

text:
F is the force exerted circumferentially on an area of the cylinder wall that has the following two lengths as sides:
t is the radial thickness of the cylinder
l is the axial length of the cylinder

text: Stress[edit]

text: When force is applied to a material it starts to deform or move. As the force needed to deform a material (e.g. to make a fluid flow) increases with the size of the surface of the material A.,[4] the magnitude of this force F is proportional to the area A of the portion of the surface. Therefore, the quantity (F/A) that is the force per unit area is called the stress. The shear stress at the wall that is associated with blood flow through an artery depends on the artery size and geometry and can range between 0.5 and 4 Pa.[20]

text: Under normal conditions, to avoid atherogenesis, thrombosis, smooth muscle proliferation and endothelial apoptosis, shear stress maintains its magnitude and direction within an acceptable range. In some cases occurring due to blood hammer, shear stress reaches larger values. While the direction of the stress may also change by the reverse flow, depending on the hemodynamic conditions. Therefore, this situation can lead to atherosclerosis disease.[21]

text: Capacitance[edit]

text: Veins are described as the "capacitance vessels" of the body because over 70% of the blood volume resides in the venous system. Veins are more compliant than arteries and expand to accommodate changing volume.[22]

text: Blood pressure[edit]

text: The blood pressure in the circulation is principally due to the pumping action of the heart.[23] The pumping action of the heart generates pulsatile blood flow, which is conducted into the arteries, across the micro-circulation and eventually, back via the venous system to the heart. During each heartbeat, systemic arterial blood pressure varies between a maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure.[24] In physiology, these are often simplified into one value, the mean arterial pressure (MAP), which is calculated as follows:

text: where:

text:
MAP = Mean Arterial Pressure
BPdia = Diastolic blood pressure
BPsys = Systolic blood pressure

text: Differences in mean blood pressure are responsible for blood flow from one location to another in the circulation. The rate of mean blood flow depends on both blood pressure and the resistance to flow presented by the blood vessels. Mean blood pressure decreases as the circulating blood moves away from the heart through arteries and capillaries due to viscous losses of energy. Mean blood pressure drops over the whole circulation, although most of the fall occurs along the small arteries and arterioles.[25] Gravity affects blood pressure via hydrostatic forces (e.g., during standing), and valves in veins, breathing, and pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles also influence blood pressure in veins.[23]

text: The relationship between pressure, flow, and resistance is expressed in the following equation:[8]

text: When applied to the circulatory system, we get:

text: where

text:
CO = cardiac output (in L/min)
MAP = mean arterial pressure (in mmHg), the average pressure of blood as it leaves the heart
RAP = right atrial pressure (in mmHg), the average pressure of blood as it returns to the heart
TPR = total peripheral resistance (in mmHg * min/L)

text: A simplified form of this equation assumes right atrial pressure is approximately 0:

text: The ideal blood pressure in the brachial artery, where standard blood pressure cuffs measure pressure, is <120/80 mmHg. Other major arteries have similar levels of blood pressure recordings indicating very low disparities among major arteries. In the innominate artery, the average reading is 110/70 mmHg, the right subclavian artery averages 120/80 and the abdominal aorta is 110/70 mmHg.[18] The relatively uniform pressure in the arteries indicate that these blood vessels act as a pressure reservoir for fluids that are transported within them.

text: Pressure drops gradually as blood flows from the major arteries, through the arterioles, the capillaries until blood is pushed up back into the heart via the venules, the veins through the vena cava with the help of the muscles. At any given pressure drop, the flow rate is determined by the resistance to the blood flow. In the arteries, with the absence of diseases, there is very little or no resistance to blood. The vessel diameter is the most principal determinant to control resistance. Compared to other smaller vessels in the body, the artery has a much bigger diameter (4  mm), therefore the resistance is low.[18]

text: The arm–leg (blood pressure) gradient is the difference between the blood pressure measured in the arms and that measured in the legs. It is normally less than 10 mm Hg,[26] but may be increased in e.g. coarctation of the aorta.[26]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Monitoring[edit]

text: Hemodynamic monitoring is the observation of hemodynamic parameters over time, such as blood pressure and heart rate. Blood pressure can be monitored either invasively through an inserted blood pressure transducer assembly (providing continuous monitoring), or noninvasively by repeatedly measuring the blood pressure with an inflatable blood pressure cuff.

text: Glossary[edit]

text: Etymology and pronunciation[edit]

text: The word hemodynamics (/ˌhiːmədaɪˈnæmɪks, -moʊ-/[27]) uses combining forms of hemo- and dynamics, thus "the dynamics of blood". The vowel of the hemo- syllable is variously written according to the ae/e variation.