document_title: Direct democracy

question_text: who holds the power in a direct democracy

text: Direct democracy

text: Related democratic processes[edit]

text: Direct democracy is similar to, but distinct from, representative democracy, in which people vote for representatives who then enact policy initiatives.[2]

text: Depending on the particular system in use, direct democracy might entail passing executive decisions, the use of sortition, making laws, directly electing or dismissing officials, and conducting trials. Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy.

text: Semi direct democracies in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain the sovereign, allow for three forms of popular action: referendum (plebiscite), initiative, and recall. The first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation.[3]

text: Compulsory referendum subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to a binding popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation. Popular referendum empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a vote by the citizens. Institutions specify the timeframe for a valid petition and the number of signatures required, and may require signatures from diverse communities to protect minority interests.[3] This form of direct democracy effectively grants the voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, as is done in Switzerland.[4][5][6][7]

text: Power of Initiative allows members of the general public to propose specific statutory measures or constitutional reforms to the government and, as with referendums, the vote may be binding or simply advisory. Initiatives may be direct or indirect: With the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote (as exemplified by California's system).[3] With an indirect initiative, a successful proposition is first presented to the legislature for their consideration; however, if no acceptable action is taken after a designated period of time, the proposition moves to direct popular vote. Such a form of indirect initiative is utilized by Switzerland for constitutional amendments.[3]

text: Power of Recall gives the public the power to remove elected officials from office before the end of their term.[8]

text: Many residents, especially of smaller cities but even cities like Encinitas, California, with over 60,000 residents, in passing Prop A in 2013, insist on direct resident voting for some decisions. Such measures agree with anarchists, who have long argued against representative democracy. They argue that direct democracy opposes a strong central authority. That is because decision-making power can reside at only one level. A central authority keeps the people themselves from governing themselves.[9]

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest known direct democracy is said to be the Athenian democracy in the 5th century BC, although it was not an inclusive democracy: women, foreigners, and slaves were excluded from it. The main bodies in the Athenian democracy were the assembly, composed of male citizens; the boulê, composed of 500 citizens; and the law courts, composed of a massive number of jurors chosen by lot, with no judges. There were only about 30,000 male citizens, but several thousand of them were politically active in each year, and many of them quite regularly for years on end. The Athenian democracy was direct not only in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also in the sense that the people through the assembly, boulê, and law courts controlled the entire political process, and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business.[10] Modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system.

text: Also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome, specifically the Roman Republic, beginning around 509 BC.[11] Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire. Indeed, the Senate, formed in the first days of the city, lasted through the Kingdom, Republic, and Empire, and even continued after the decline of Western Rome; and its structure and regulations continue to influence legislative bodies worldwide. As to direct democracy, the ancient Roman Republic had a system of citizen lawmaking, or citizen formulation and passage of law, and a citizen veto of legislature-made law. Many historians mark the end of the Republic with the passage of a law named the Lex Titia, 27 November 43 BC, which eliminated many oversight provisions.[11]

text: Modern-era citizen lawmaking began in the towns of Switzerland in the 13th century. In 1847, the Swiss added the "statute referendum" to their national constitution. They soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliament's laws was not enough. In 1891, they added the "constitutional amendment initiative". Swiss politics since 1891 have given the world a valuable experience base with the national-level constitutional amendment initiative.[12] In the past 120 years, more than 240 initiatives have been put to referendums. The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of these initiatives; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. (See Direct democracy in Switzerland below.)[4][5][6][7]

text: Some of the issues surrounding the related notion of a direct democracy using the Internet and other communications technologies are dealt with in e-democracy and below under the term electronic direct democracy. More concisely, the concept of open source governance applies principles of the free software movement to the governance of people, allowing the entire populace to participate in government directly, as much or as little as they please.[13]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Ancient Athens[edit]

text: Athenian democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, around 500 BC. Athens was one of the very first known democracies. Other Greek cities set up democracies, and even though most followed an Athenian model, none were as powerful, stable, or well-documented as that of Athens. In the direct democracy of Athens, the citizens did not nominate representatives to vote on legislation and executive bills on their behalf (as in the United States) but instead voted as individuals. The public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire of the comic poets in the theatres.[14]

text: Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (508–507 BC), and Ephialtes (462 BC) all contributed to the development of Athenian democracy. Historians differ on which of them was responsible for which institution, and which of them most represented a truly democratic movement. It is most usual to date Athenian democracy from Cleisthenes, since Solon's constitution fell and was replaced by the tyranny of Peisistratus, whereas Ephialtes revised Cleisthenes' constitution relatively peacefully. Hipparchus, the brother of the tyrant Hippias, was killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who were subsequently honored by the Athenians for their alleged restoration of Athenian freedom.

text: The greatest and longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles; after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolution towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; the most detailed accounts are of this 4th-century modification rather than of the Periclean system. It was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but the extent to which they were a real democracy is debatable.[15]

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: The pure form of direct democracy exists only in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus.[16] The Swiss Confederation is a semi-direct democracy (representative democracy with strong instruments of direct democracy).[16] The nature of direct democracy in Switzerland is fundamentally complemented by its federal governmental structures (in German also called the Subsidiaritätsprinzip).[4][5][6][7]

text: Most western countries have representative systems.[16] Switzerland is a rare example of a country with instruments of direct democracy (at the levels of the municipalities, cantons, and federal state). Citizens have more power than in a representative democracy. On any political level citizens can propose changes to the constitution (popular initiative), or ask for an optional referendum to be held on any law voted by the federal, cantonal parliament and/or municipal legislative body.[17]

text: The list for mandatory or optional referendums on each political level are generally much longer in Switzerland than in any other country; for example any amendment to the constitution must automatically be voted on by the Swiss electorate and cantons, on cantonal/communal levels often any financial decision of a certain substantial amount decreed by legislative and/or executive bodies as well.[17]

text: Swiss citizens vote regularly on any kind of issue on every political level, such as financial approvals of a school house or the building of a new street, or the change of the policy regarding sexual work, or on constitutional changes, or on the foreign policy of Switzerland, four times a year.[18] Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, on 103 federal questions besides many more cantonal and municipal questions.[19] During the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums.[16]

text: In Switzerland, simple majorities are sufficient at the municipal and cantonal level, but at the federal level double majorities are required on constitutional issues.[12]

text: A double majority requires approval by a majority of individuals voting, and also by a majority of cantons. Thus, in Switzerland a citizen-proposed amendment to the federal constitution (i.e. popular initiative) cannot be passed at the federal level if a majority of the people approve but a majority of the cantons disapprove.[12] For referendums or propositions in general terms (like the principle of a general revision of the Constitution), a majority of those voting is sufficient (Swiss Constitution, 2005).

text: In 1890, when the provisions for Swiss national citizen lawmaking were being debated by civil society and government, the Swiss adopted the idea of double majorities from the United States Congress, in which House votes were to represent the people and Senate votes were to represent the states.[12] According to its supporters, this "legitimacy-rich" approach to national citizen lawmaking has been very successful. Kris Kobach claims that Switzerland has had tandem successes both socially and economically which are matched by only a few other nations. Kobach states at the end of his book, "Too often, observers deem Switzerland an oddity among political systems. It is more appropriate to regard it as a pioneer." Finally, the Swiss political system, including its direct democratic devices in a multi-level governance context, becomes increasingly interesting for scholars of European Union integration.[20]

text: Paris Commune[edit]

text: In 1871 after the establishment of the Paris Commune, the Parisians established a decentralized direct system of government with appointed organizers to make sense of the largely spontaneous uprising. While it still refused women the right to vote, they were heavily involved in the consensus before votes took place. Everything from the military to when meetings took place was democratized, and such decentralization and aforementioned democratization led many members of the First Internationale to regard the Paris Commune as a stateless society.

text: Due to the short lifespan of the Commune, only one citywide election was held and the structures necessary to facilitate future organized elections on large scales was largely nonexistent. However, the influence of direct democratization in the Paris Commune is not to be understated.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the New England region of the United States, towns in areas such as Vermont decide local affairs through the direct democratic process of the town meeting.[21] This is the oldest form of direct democracy in the United States, and predates the founding of the country by at least a century.

text: Direct democracy was not what the framers of the United States Constitution envisioned for the nation. They saw a danger in tyranny of the majority. As a result, they advocated a representative democracy in the form of a constitutional republic over a direct democracy. For example, James Madison, in Federalist No. 10, advocates a constitutional republic over direct democracy precisely to protect the individual from the will of the majority. He says,

text: Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation, and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government.

text: [A] pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will be felt by a majority, and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party. Hence it is, that democracies have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have, in general, been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.[22]

text: John Witherspoon, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, said: "Pure democracy cannot subsist long nor be carried far into the departments of state – it is very subject to caprice and the madness of popular rage." Alexander Hamilton said, "That a pure democracy if it were practicable would be the most perfect government. Experience has proved that no position is more false than this. The ancient democracies in which the people themselves deliberated never possessed one good feature of government. Their very character was tyranny; their figure, deformity."[23]

text: Despite the framers' intentions in the beginning of the republic, ballot measures and their corresponding referendums have been widely used at the state and sub-state level. There is much state and federal case law, from the early 1900s to the 1990s, that protects the people's right to each of these direct democracy governance components (Magleby, 1984, and Zimmerman, 1999). The first United States Supreme Court ruling in favor of the citizen lawmaking was in Pacific States Telephone and Telegraph Company v. Oregon, 223 U.S. 118 in 1912 (Zimmerman, December 1999). President Theodore Roosevelt, in his "Charter of Democracy" speech to the 1912 Ohio constitutional convention, stated: "I believe in the Initiative and Referendum, which should be used not to destroy representative government, but to correct it whenever it becomes misrepresentative."[24]

text: In various states, referendums through which the people rule include:

text:
Referrals by the legislature to the people of "proposed constitutional amendments" (constitutionally used in 49 states, excepting only Delaware – Initiative & Referendum Institute, 2004).
Referrals by the legislature to the people of "proposed statute laws" (constitutionally used in all 50 states – Initiative & Referendum Institute, 2004).
Constitutional amendment initiative is a constitutionally-defined petition process of "proposed constitutional law", which, if successful, results in its provisions being written directly into the state's constitution. Since constitutional law cannot be altered by state legislatures, this direct democracy component gives the people an automatic superiority and sovereignty, over representative government (Magelby, 1984). It is utilized at the state level in nineteen states: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon and South Dakota (Cronin, 1989). Among these states, there are three main types of the constitutional amendment initiative, with different degrees of involvement of the state legislature distinguishing between the types (Zimmerman, December 1999).
Statute law initiative is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated petition process of "proposed statute law", which, if successful, results in law being written directly into the state's statutes. The statute initiative is used at the state level in twenty-one states: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming (Cronin, 1989). Note that, in Utah, there is no constitutional provision for citizen lawmaking. All of Utah's I&R law is in the state statutes (Zimmerman, December 1999). In most states, there is no special protection for citizen-made statutes; the legislature can begin to amend them immediately.
Statute law referendum is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated petition process of the "proposed veto of all or part of a legislature-made law", which, if successful, repeals the standing law. It is used at the state level in twenty-four states: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming (Cronin, 1989).
The recall is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated, petition process, which, if successful, removes an elected official from office by "recalling" the official's election. In most state and sub-state jurisdictions having this governance component, voting for the ballot that determines the recall includes voting for one of a slate of candidates to be the next office holder, if the recall is successful. It is utilized at the state level in nineteen states: Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, Washington and Wisconsin (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2011, Recall Of State Officials).

text: A total of 24 American states had constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated direct democracy governance components as of 1999 (Zimmerman, December 1999).

text: Rojava[edit]

text: The Rojava cantons are governed through a combination of district and civil councils. District councils consist of 300 members as well as two elected co-presidents- one man and one woman. District councils decide and carry out administrative and economic duties such as garbage collection, land distribution and cooperative enterprises.[25] Civil councils exist to promote social and political rights in the community.

text: Democratic reform trilemma[edit]

text: Democratic theorists have identified a trilemma due to the presence of three desirable characteristics of an ideal system of direct democracy, which are challenging to deliver all at once. These three characteristics are participation – widespread participation in the decision making process by the people affected; deliberation – a rational discussion where all major points of view are weighted according to evidence; and equality – all members of the population on whose behalf decisions are taken have an equal chance of having their views taken into account. Empirical evidence from dozens of studies suggests deliberation leads to better decision making.[9][26][27] The most popularly disputed form of direct popular participation is the referendum on constitutional matters.[28]

text: For the system to respect the principle of political equality, either everyone needs to be involved or there needs to be a representative random sample of people chosen to take part in the discussion. In the definition used by scholars such as James Fishkin, deliberative democracy is a form of direct democracy which satisfies the requirement for deliberation and equality but does not make provision to involve everyone who wants to be included in the discussion. Participatory democracy, by Fishkin's definition, allows inclusive participation and deliberation, but at a cost of sacrificing equality, because if widespread participation is allowed, sufficient resources rarely will be available to compensate people who sacrifice their time to participate in the deliberation. Therefore, participants tend to be those with a strong interest in the issue to be decided and often will not therefore be representative of the overall population.[29] Fishkin instead argues that random sampling should be used to select a small, but still representative, number of people from the general public.[8][9]

text: Fishkin concedes it is possible to imagine a system that transcends the trilemma, but it would require very radical reforms if such a system were to be integrated into mainstream politics.

text: Electronic direct democracy[edit]

text: Electronic direct democracy (EDD), also known as direct digital democracy (DDD),[30] is a form of direct democracy which utilizes telecommunications to facilitate public participation. Electronic direct democracy is sometimes referred to by other names, such as open-source governance and collaborative governance.[31]

text: EDD requires electronic voting or some way to register votes on issues electronically. As in any direct democracy, in an EDD, citizens would have the right to vote on legislation, author new legislation, and recall representatives (if any representatives are preserved).

text: Technology for supporting ED. has been researched and developed at the Florida Institute of Technology,[32] where the technology is used with student organizations. Numerous other software development projects are underway,[33] along with many supporting and related projects.[34] Several of these projects are now collaborating on a cross-platform architecture, under the umbrella of the Metagovernment project.[35]

text: EDD as a system is not fully implemented in a political government anywhere in the world, although several initiatives are currently forming. Ross Perot was a prominent advocate of EDD when he advocated "electronic town halls" during his 1992 and 1996 presidential campaigns in the United States. Switzerland, already partially governed by direct democracy, is making progress towards such a system.[36] Senator Online, an Australian political party running for the Senate in the 2007 federal elections, proposed to institute an EDD system so that Australians can decide which way the senators vote on each and every bill.[37] A similar initiative was formed in 2002 in Sweden where the party Aktivdemokrati, running for the Swedish parliament, offers its members the power to decide the actions of the party over all or some areas of decision, or alternatively to use a proxy with immediate recall for one or several areas. Since early 2011, EDD parties are working together on the Participedia wiki E2D

text: The first mainstream direct democracy party to be registered with any country's electoral commission [checked against each country's register] is the UK's People's Administration Direct Democracy party.[38] The People's Administration have developed and published the complete architecture for a legitimate reform to EDD [including the required Parliamentary reform process].[39] Established by musicians and political activists, the People's Administration advocates using the web and telephone to enable the majority electorate to create, propose, and vote upon all policy implementation. The People's Administration's blueprint has been published in various forms since 1998 and the People's Administration is the first direct democracy party registered in a vote-able format anywhere in the world—making transition possible through evolution via election with legitimate majority support, instead of potentially through revolution via violence.

text: Flux (political party) is a political movement which aims to replace the world's elected legislatures with a new electronic system known as issue-based direct democracy (IBDD). Flux originated in and is most active in Australia, but it is also active internationally, with a group existing in Brazil.[40]

text: Relation to other movements[edit]

text: Anarchists have advocated forms of direct democracy as an alternative to the centralized state and capitalism; however, others (such as individualist anarchists) have criticized direct democracy and democracy in general for ignoring the rights of the minority, and instead have advocated a form of consensus decision-making. Libertarian Marxists, however, fully support direct democracy in the form of the proletarian republic and see majority rule and citizen participation as virtues. The Young Communist League USA in particular refers to representative democracy as "bourgeois democracy", implying that they see direct democracy as "true democracy".[41]

text: In schools[edit]

text: Democratic schools modeled on Summerhill School resolve conflicts and make school policy decisions through full school meetings in which the votes of students and staff are weighted equally.[42]

text: Contemporary movements[edit]

text: Some notable contemporary movements working for direct democracy via direct democratic praxis include:[43]

text:
Abahlali baseMjondolo – South African shack dwellers' movement
Aktivdemokrati – political party for e-democracy Sweden
Autonomous Action – a Russian libertarian communist and anarchist movement
Change 2011 – a Finnish political party
¡Democracia Real YA! – Real Democracy NOW! Movement started from Spain.
Democracy International eV
Demoex – direct democracy party and experiment in Sweden
Direct Democracy Ireland
Direct Democracy Party of New Zealand
Direct Democracy (Poland) – Polish political party promoting direct democracy, established 2012
Direktdemokraterna; an alliance of three direct democratically oriented parties in Sweden, which received approx. 3000 votes in the 2014 election.
Electronic Democracy Party  – Turkish political party promoting e-democracy
Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy
The Federal Democratic Party of Uganda – advocates for direct democracy. Simon Peter Kabala-Kasirye, the party's founder, advises that the Federal States of Uganda each should practice pure democracy and forward their deliberations to the central government which has no powers to alter the result of the deliberations (e.g., Buganda Kingdom Federal State has values that Karamoja Federal State may not agree with, and vice versa, but neither can alter the result of the deliberations in either state).
Inclusive Democracy – Takis Fotopoulos' Inclusive Democracy Project that also publishes the Journal of Inclusive Democracy
Internet Party – registered party in Spain proposing a liquid democracy system.
Land Party – a ruralist direct democracy party in Galicia, Spain.
The Metagovernment project – a global umbrella group supporting development and implementation of Internet-based governance software[44]
myDirectDemocracy project – Global and Local groups developing a New Human Right and Freedom – Direct Democracy
The National Initiative for Democracy – United States movement led by former US Senator Mike Gravel to allow national ballot initiatives
Occupy Movement and Occupy Wall Street
Party for Accountability, Competency and Transparency – an electronic direct democracy party (pending registration) in Canada
Partido de la Red – party in Argentina that promotes a balance between direct and representative democracy
The Party of Internet Democracy – a direct democracy party in Hungary
People's Administration Direct Democracy Party
Pirate Party
Flux (political party) – an electronic direct democracy party in Australia utilising block-chain technology.
Senator On-Line – an electronic direct democracy party in Australia Renamed "Online Direct Democracy" http://www.onlinedirectdemocracy.org/
Thrive New Zealand – New Zealand-based political party promoting direct democracy utilising an on-line tool called RealVoice.
Direct Democracy Romania – the first Romanian political party promoting direct democracy, established in 2015


document_title: Rainbow Bridge (Texas)

question_text: where is the rainbow bridge located in texas

root

text: Rainbow Bridge (Texas)

text:
Rainbow Bridge

U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Westbound approach to Rainbow Bridge

Location
TX 87 at the Jefferson and Orange County line

Coordinates
29°58′47″N 93°52′18″W / 29.97972°N 93.87167°W / 29.97972; -93.87167Coordinates: 29°58′47″N 93°52′18″W / 29.97972°N 93.87167°W / 29.97972; -93.87167

Built
1936

NRHP reference #
96001127

Added to NRHP
October 10, 1996

tag: table

text: The Rainbow Bridge is a through truss bridge crossing the Neches River in Southeast Texas just upstream from Sabine Lake. It allows State Highway 87 and State Highway 73 to connect Port Arthur in Jefferson County on the southwest bank of the river with Bridge City in Orange County on the northeast bank.

tag: p

text: Construction on the bridge began in 1936 under the guidance of the Texas State Highway Department. Due to concerns by the upstream city of Beaumont about the bridge posing a threat to ship navigation, the Rainbow Bridge was built with a 680 foot (210 m) main span. In addition, it has a vertical clearance of 177.0 feet (54 m),[1] which was intended to allow what was at the time the tallest ship in the US Navy, the USS Patoka, passage under the bridge (however, the Patoka never did). However, the height of the bridge did allow the construction of jack up offshore drilling rigs at the Bethlehem Steel Beaumont Shipyard. With seventy-two (72) rigs built, the shipyard was one of the major sources of offshore rigs built in the United States.[2]

text: The bridge was completed on September 8, 1938. The nearby town of Prairie View took on the name "Bridge City" in response. Initially named the Port Arthur-Orange Bridge, it received its current name in 1957. The bridge was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1996.

text: Veterans Memorial Bridge[edit]

text: In 1988, construction began on the Veterans Memorial Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge. This bridge runs parallel to the Rainbow Bridge, and was dedicated on September 8, 1990.[3] With a vertical clearance of 143 feet (43.5 m), the bridge is somewhat shorter than its neighbor.[4]

text: After the completion of the Veterans Memorial Bridge, the Rainbow Bridge was closed for renovations. On its re-opening in 1997,[5] the Rainbow Bridge became one way, handling westbound traffic only. The Veterans Memorial Bridge serves eastbound traffic.[6]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20061007061958/http://www.dot.state.tx.us/insdtdot/geninfo.htm?pg=facts
Jump up ^ "Drilling Rigs Built in U.S.Shipyards". ShipbuildingHistory.com. Retrieved November 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ "History of Our Bridges". City of Bridge City. Retrieved 2013-06-14.
Jump up ^ "Bridge City Texas". Ohwy.com. Retrieved 2011-08-19.
Jump up ^ http://memim.com/rainbow-bridge-texas.html
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20060322150854/http://www.dot.state.tx.us/mcd/onestop/const/beaumont.htm

tag: ol

text: Sources[edit]

text:
Rainbow Bridge in the Handbook of Texas
Rainbow Bridge at Structurae
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. TX-43, "Rainbow Bridge"

tag: ul

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Port Arthur, Texas

Areas

Griffing Park
Lakeview
Pear Ridge
Port Acres
Sabine Pass

Primary and
secondary schools

Port Arthur ISD

Memorial HS

Nederland ISD
Port Neches-Groves ISD
Sabine Pass ISD
Bob Hope School

Community
colleges

Lamar State College–Port Arthur
Galveston College (for Sabine Pass ISD residents)

Transportation

Rainbow Bridge
Jack Brooks Regional Airport (northeast of the city)

Landmarks

Museum of the Gulf Coast

This list is incomplete.

text:
[show]

v
t
e

National Register of Historic Places in Texas

Lists
by county

Anderson
Andrews
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Bailey
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Palo Pinto
Panola
Parker
Parmer
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Polk
Potter
Presidio
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Randall
Reagan
Real
Red River
Reeves
Refugio
Roberts
Robertson
Rockwall
Runnels
Rusk
Sabine
San Augustine
San Jacinto
San Patricio
San Saba
Schleicher
Scurry
Shackelford
Shelby
Sherman
Smith
Somervell
Starr
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Stonewall
Sutton
Swisher
Tarrant
Taylor
Terrell
Terry
Throckmorton
Titus
Tom Green
Travis
Trinity
Tyler
Upshur
Upton
Uvalde
Val Verde
Van Zandt
Victoria
Walker
Waller
Ward
Washington
Webb
Wharton
Wheeler
Wichita
Wilbarger
Willacy
Williamson
Wilson
Winkler
Wise
Wood
Yoakum
Young
Zapata
Zavala

National Parks

Big Bend National Park
Guadalupe Mountains National Park

Other lists

Bridges
National Historic Landmarks
National Natural Landmarks
Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks

United States National Register of Historic Places listings
Keeper of the Register
History of the National Register of Historic Places
Property types
Historic district
Contributing property

text: Bridges completed in 1938Bridges completed in 1990Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in TexasBuildings and structures in Jefferson County, TexasBuildings and structures in Orange County, TexasCable-stayed bridges in the United StatesTruss bridges in the United StatesHistoric American Engineering Record in TexasTransportation in Jefferson County, TexasTransportation in Orange County, TexasRoad bridges in TexasNational Register of Historic Places in Orange County, TexasSteel bridges in the United States

text: Coordinates on WikidataStructurae ID not in Wikidata


document_title: Amygdala

question_text: an over stimulated amygdala could result in what kind of behaviors

text: Amygdala

text: Structure[edit]

text: The regions described as amygdala nuclei encompass several structures with distinct connectional and functional characteristics in humans and other animals.[4] Among these nuclei are the basolateral complex, the cortical nucleus, the medial nucleus, the central nucleus, and the intercalated cell clusters. The basolateral complex can be further subdivided into the lateral, the basal, and the accessory basal nuclei.[3][5][6]

text: Anatomically, the amygdala,[7] and more particularly its central and medial nuclei,[8] have sometimes been classified as a part of the basal ganglia.

text: Hemispheric specializations[edit]

text: There are functional differences between the right and left amygdala. In one study, electrical stimulations of the right amygdala induced negative emotions, especially fear and sadness. In contrast, stimulation of the left amygdala was able to induce either pleasant (happiness) or unpleasant (fear, anxiety, sadness) emotions.[9] Other evidence suggests that the left amygdala plays a role in the brain's reward system.[10]

text: Each side holds a specific function in how we perceive and process emotion. The right and left portions of the amygdala have independent memory systems, but work together to store, encode, and interpret emotion.

text: The right hemisphere is associated with negative emotion.[citation needed] It plays a role in the expression of fear and in the processing of fear-inducing stimuli. Fear conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus acquires aversive properties, occurs within the right hemisphere. When an individual is presented with a conditioned, aversive stimulus, it is processed within the right amygdala, producing an unpleasant or fearful response. This emotional response conditions the individual to avoid fear-inducing stimuli.

text: The right hemisphere is also linked to declarative memory, which consists of facts and information from previously experienced events and must be consciously recalled. It also plays a significant role in the retention of episodic memory. Episodic memory consists of the autobiographical aspects of memory, permitting you to recall your personal emotional and sensory experience of an event. This type of memory does not require conscious recall. The right amygdala plays a role in the association of time and places with emotional properties.[11]

text: Development[edit]

text: There is considerable growth within the first few years of structural development in both male and female amygdalae.[12] Within this early period, female limbic structures grow at a more rapid pace than the male ones. Amongst female subjects, the amygdala reaches its full growth potential approximately 1.5 years before the peak of male development. The structural development of the male amygdala occurs over a longer period than in women. Despite the early development of female amygdalae, they reach their growth potential sooner than males, whose amygdalae continue to develop. The larger relative size of the male amygdala may be attributed to this extended developmental period.

text: In addition to longer periods of development, other neurological and hormonal factors may contribute to sex-specific developmental differences. The amygdala is rich in androgen receptors – nuclear receptors that bind to testosterone. Androgen receptors play a role in the DNA binding that regulates gene expression. Though testosterone is present within the female hormonal systems, women have lower levels of testosterone than men. The abundance of testosterone in the male hormonal system may contribute to development. In addition, the grey matter volume on the amygdala is predicted by testosterone levels, which may also contribute to the increased mass of the male amygdala.

text:
In addition to sex differences, there are observable developmental differences between the right and left amygdala in both males and females. The left amygdala reaches its developmental peak approximately 1.5–2 years prior to the right amygdala. Despite the early growth of the left amygdala, the right increases in volume for a longer period of time. The right amygdala is associated with response to fearful stimuli as well as face recognition. It is inferred that the early development of the left amygdala functions to provide infants the ability to detect danger.[12]
In childhood, the amygdala is found to react differently to same-sex versus opposite-sex individuals. This reactivity decreases until a person enters adolescence, where it increases dramatically at puberty.[13]

text: Sex distinction[edit]

text: The amygdala is one of the best-understood brain regions with regard to differences between the sexes. The amygdala is larger in males than females in children ages 7–11,[14] in adult humans,[15] and in adult rats.[16]

text: In addition to size, other functional and structural differences between male and female amygdalae have been observed. Subjects' amygdala activation was observed when watching a horror film and subliminal stimuli. The results of the study showed a different lateralization of the amygdala in men and women. Enhanced memory for the film was related to enhanced activity of the left, but not the right, amygdala in women, whereas it was related to enhanced activity of the right, but not the left, amygdala in men.[17]  One study found evidence that on average, women tend to retain stronger memories for emotional events than men.[18]

text: The right amygdala is also linked with taking action as well as being linked to negative emotions,[9] which may help explain why males tend to respond to emotionally stressful stimuli physically. The left amygdala allows for the recall of details, but it also results in more thought rather than action in response to emotionally stressful stimuli, which may explain the absence of physical response in women.

text: Function[edit]

text: Connections[edit]

text:
The amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the  facial nerve, the ventral tegmental area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.[5] The basolateral amygdala projects to the nucleus accumbens, including the medial shell.
[19][20]

text: The medial nucleus is involved in the sense of smell and pheromone-processing. It receives input from the olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex.[21]  The lateral amygdalae, which send impulses to the rest of the basolateral complexes and to the centromedial nuclei, receive input from the sensory systems. The centromedial nuclei are the main outputs for the basolateral complexes, and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats.[5][6][22]

text: Emotional learning[edit]

text: In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research indicates that, during fear conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation,[23][24] a sustained enhancement of signaling between affected neurons.[25]  There have been studies that show that damage to the amygdala can interfere with memory that is strengthened by emotion.  One study examined a patient with bilateral degeneration of the amygdala.  He was told a violent story accompanied by matching pictures and was observed based on how much he could recall from the story.  The patient had less recollection of the story than patients with functional amygdala, showing that the amygdala has a strong connection with emotional learning.[26]

text: Emotional memories are thought to be stored in synapses throughout the brain. Fear memories, for example, are considered to be stored in the neuronal connections from the lateral nuclei to the central nucleus of the amygdalae and the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (part of the extended amygdala). Of course, these connections are not the sole site of fear memories given that the nuclei of the amygdala receive and send information to other brain regions that are important for memory such as the hippocampus. Some sensory neurons  project their axon terminals to the central nucleus.[27]  The central nuclei are involved in the genesis of many fear responses such as defensive behavior (freezing or escape responses), autonomic nervous system responses (changes in blood pressure and heart rate/tachycardia), neuroendocrine responses (stress-hormone release), etc. Damage to the amygdalae impairs both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning, a form of classical conditioning of emotional responses.[25]

text:
The amygdalae are also involved in appetitive (positive) conditioning. It seems that distinct neurons respond to positive and negative stimuli, but there is no clustering of these distinct neurons into clear anatomical nuclei.[28][29] However, lesions of the central nucleus in the amygdala have been shown to reduce appetitive learning in rats. Lesions of the basolateral regions do not exhibit the same effect.[30] Research like this indicates that different nuclei within the amygdala have different functions in appetitive conditioning.[31][32]
Nevertheless, researchers found an example of appetitive emotional learning showing an important role for the basolateral amygdala: The naïve female mice are innately attracted to non-volatile pheromones contained in male-soiled bedding, but not by the male-derived volatiles, become attractive if associated with non-volatile attractive pheromones, which act as unconditioned stimulus in a case of Pavlovian associative learning.[33] In the vomeronasal, olfactory and emotional systems, Fos protein show that non-volatile pheromones stimulate the vomeronasal system, whereas air-borne volatiles activate only the olfactory system. Thus, the acquired preference for male-derived volatiles reveals an olfactory-vomeronasal associative learning. Moreover, the reward system is differentially activated by the primary pheromones and secondarily attractive odorants. Exploring the primary attractive pheromone activates the basolateral amygdala and the shell of nucleus accumbens but neither the ventral tegmental area nor the orbitofrontal cortex. In contrast, exploring the secondarily attractive male-derived odorants involves activation of a circuit that includes the basolateral amygdala, prefrontal cortex and ventral tegmental area. Therefore, the basolateral amygdala stands out as the key center for vomeronasal-olfactory associative learning.[34]

text: Reward[edit]

text: Glutaminergic neurons in the basolateral amygdala send projections to the nucleus accumbens(NAc) shell and core.  Activation of these projections drive motivational salience.  The ability of these projections to drive incentive salience is dependent upon dopamine receptor D1.[19][20]

text: Memory modulation[edit]

text: The amygdala is also involved in the modulation of memory consolidation. Following any learning event, the long-term memory for the event is not formed instantaneously. Rather, information regarding the event is slowly assimilated into long-term (potentially lifelong) storage over time, possibly via long-term potentiation. Recent studies suggest that the amygdala regulates memory consolidation in other brain regions.  Also, fear conditioning, a type of memory that is impaired following amygdala damage, is mediated in part by long-term potentiation.[23][24]

text: During the consolidation period, the memory can be modulated. In particular, it appears that emotional arousal following the learning event influences the strength of the subsequent memory for that event. Greater emotional arousal following a learning event enhances a person's retention of that event. Experiments have shown that administration of stress hormones to mice immediately after they learn something enhances their retention when they are tested two days later.[35]

text: The amygdala, especially the basolateral nuclei, are involved in mediating the effects of emotional arousal on the strength of the memory for the event, as shown by many laboratories including that of James McGaugh. These laboratories have trained animals on a variety of learning tasks and found that drugs injected into the amygdala after training affect the animals' subsequent retention of the task. These tasks include basic classical conditioning tasks such as inhibitory avoidance, where a rat learns to associate a mild footshock with a particular compartment of an apparatus, and more complex tasks such as spatial or cued water maze, where a rat learns to swim to a platform to escape the water. If a drug that activates the amygdalae is injected into the amygdalae, the animals had better memory for the training in the task.[36] If a drug that inactivates the amygdalae is injected, the animals had impaired memory for the task.

text: Buddhist monks who do compassion meditation have been shown to modulate their amygdala, along with their temporoparietal junction and insula, during their practice.[37] In an fMRI study, more intensive insula activity was found in expert meditators than in novices.[38] Increased activity in the amygdala following compassion-oriented meditation may contribute to social connectedness.[39]

text: Amygdala activity at the time of encoding information correlates with retention for that information. However, this correlation depends on the relative "emotionalness" of the information. More emotionally arousing information increases amygdalar activity, and that activity correlates with retention. Amygdala neurons show various types of oscillation during emotional arousal, such as theta activity. These synchronized neuronal events could promote synaptic plasticity (which is involved in memory retention) by increasing interactions between neocortical storage sites and temporal lobe structures involved in declarative memory.[40]

text: Research using Rorschach test blot 03 finds that the number of unique responses to this random figure links to larger sized amygdalae. The researchers note, "Since previous reports have indicated that unique responses were observed at higher frequency in the artistic population than in the nonartistic normal population, this positive correlation suggests that amygdalar enlargement in the normal population might be related to creative mental activity."[41]

text: Neuropsychological correlates of amygdala activity[edit]

text: Early  research on primates provided explanations as to the functions of the amygdala, as well as a basis for further research. As early as 1888, rhesus monkeys with a lesioned temporal cortex (including the amygdala) were observed to have significant social and emotional deficits.[42] Heinrich Klüver and Paul Bucy later expanded upon this same observation by showing that large lesions to the anterior temporal lobe produced noticeable changes, including overreaction to all objects, hypoemotionality, loss of fear, hypersexuality, and hyperorality, a condition in which inappropriate objects are placed in the mouth. Some monkeys also displayed an inability to recognize familiar objects and would approach animate and inanimate objects indiscriminately, exhibiting a loss of fear towards the experimenters. This behavioral disorder was later named Klüver-Bucy syndrome accordingly,[43] and later research proved it was specifically due to amygdala lesions. Monkey mothers who had amygdala damage showed a reduction in maternal behaviors towards their infants, often physically abusing or neglecting them.[44] In 1981, researchers found that selective radio frequency lesions of the whole amygdala caused Klüver-Bucy syndrome.[45]

text: With advances in neuroimaging technology such as MRI, neuroscientists have made significant findings concerning the amygdala in the human brain. A variety of data shows the amygdala has a substantial role in mental states, and is related to many psychological disorders. Some studies have shown children with anxiety disorders tend to have a smaller left amygdala. In the majority of the cases, there was an association between an increase in the size of the left amygdala with the use of SSRIs (antidepressant medication) or psychotherapy. The left amygdala has been linked to social anxiety, obsessive and compulsive disorders, and post traumatic stress, as well as more broadly to separation and general anxiety.[46] In a 2003 study, subjects with borderline personality disorder showed significantly greater left amygdala activity than normal control subjects. Some borderline patients even had difficulties classifying neutral faces or saw them as threatening.[47] Individuals with psychopathy show reduced autonomic responses to instructed fear cues than otherwise healthy individuals.[48] In 2006, researchers observed hyperactivity in the amygdala when patients were shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. Patients with severe social phobia showed a correlation with increased response in the amygdala.[49] Similarly, depressed patients showed exaggerated left amygdala activity when interpreting emotions for all faces, and especially for fearful faces. This hyperactivity was normalized when patients were administered antidepressant medication.[50] By contrast, the amygdala has been observed to respond differently in people with bipolar disorder. A 2003 study found that adult and adolescent bipolar patients tended to have considerably smaller amygdala volumes and somewhat smaller hippocampal volumes.[51] Many studies have focused on the connections between the amygdala and autism.[52]

text: Studies in 2004 and 2006 showed that normal subjects exposed to images of frightened faces or faces of people from another race will show increased activity of the amygdala, even if that exposure is subliminal.[53][54] However, the amygdala is not necessary for the processing of fear-related stimuli, since persons in whom it is bilaterally damaged show rapid reactions to fearful faces, even in the absence of a functional amygdala.[55]

text: Recent research suggests that parasites, in particular toxoplasma, form cysts in the brain of rats, often taking up residence in the amygdala. This may provide clues as to how specific parasites may contribute to the development of disorders, including paranoia.[56]

text: Future studies have been proposed to address the role of the amygdala in positive emotions, and the ways in which the amygdala networks with other brain regions.[57]

text: Sexual orientation[edit]

text: Recent studies have suggested possible correlations between brain structure, including differences in hemispheric ratios and connection patterns in the amygdala, and sexual orientation. Homosexual men tend to exhibit more feminine patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual males do, just as homosexual females tend to show more masculine patterns in the amygdala than heterosexual women do. It was observed that amygdala connections were more widespread from the left amygdala in homosexual males, as is also found in heterosexual females. Amygdala connections were more widespread from the right amygdala in homosexual females, as in heterosexual males.[58][59]

text: Social interaction[edit]

text: Amygdala volume correlates positively with both the size (the number of contacts a person has) and the complexity (the number of different groups to which a person belongs) of social networks.[60][61] Individuals with larger amygdalae had larger and more complex social networks. They were also better able to make accurate social judgments about other persons' faces.[62] The amygdala's role in the analysis of social situations stems specifically from its ability to identify and process changes in facial features. It does not, however, process the direction of the gaze of the person being perceived.[63][64]

text: The amygdala is also thought to be a determinant of the level of a person's emotional intelligence. It is particularly hypothesized that larger amygdalae allow for greater emotional intelligence, enabling greater societal integration and cooperation with others.[65]

text: The amygdala processes reactions to violations concerning personal space. These reactions are absent in persons in whom the amygdala is damaged bilaterally.[66] Furthermore, the amygdala is found to be activated in fMRI when people observe that others are physically close to them, such as when a person being scanned knows that an experimenter is standing immediately next to the scanner, versus standing at a distance.[66]

text: Aggression[edit]

text: Animal studies have shown that stimulating the amygdala appears to increase both sexual and aggressive behavior. Likewise, studies using brain lesions have shown that harm to the amygdala may produce the opposite effect. Thus, it appears that this part of the brain may play a role in the display and modulation of aggression.[67]

text: Fear[edit]

text: There are cases of human patients with focal bilateral amygdala lesions due to the rare genetic condition Urbach-Wiethe disease.[68][69] Such patients fail to exhibit fear-related behaviors, leading one, S.M., to be dubbed the "woman with no fear". This finding reinforces the conclusion that the amygdala "plays a pivotal role in triggering a state of fear".[70]

text: Alcoholism and binge drinking[edit]

text: The amygdala appears to play a role in binge drinking, being damaged by repeated episodes of intoxication and withdrawal.[71] Alcoholism is associated with dampened activation in brain networks responsible for emotional processing[clarification needed], including the amygdala.[72] Protein kinase C-epsilon in the amygdala is important for regulating behavioral responses to morphine, ethanol, and controlling anxiety-like behavior. The protein is involved in controlling the function of other proteins and plays a role in development of the ability to consume a large amount of ethanol.[73][74]

text: Anxiety[edit]

text: There may also be a link between the amygdala and anxiety.[75] In particular, there is a higher prevalence of females that are affected by anxiety disorders. In an experiment, degu pups were removed from their mother but allowed to hear her call. In response, the males produced increased serotonin receptors in the amygdala but females lost them. This led to the males being less affected by the stressful situation.

text: The clusters of the amygdala are activated when an individual expresses feelings of fear or aggression. This occurs because the amygdala is the primary structure of the brain responsible for fight or flight response. Anxiety and panic attacks can occur when the amygdala senses environmental stressors that stimulate fight or flight response.

text: The amygdala is directly associated with conditioned fear. Conditioned fear is the framework used to explain the behavior produced when an originally neutral stimulus is consistently paired with a stimulus that evokes fear. The amygdala represents a core fear system in the human body, which is involved in the expression of conditioned fear. Fear is measured by changes in autonomic activity including increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, as well as in simple reflexes such as flinching or blinking.

text: The central nucleus of the amygdala has direct correlations to the hypothalamus and brainstem – areas directly related to fear and anxiety. This connection is evident from studies of  animals that have undergone amygdalae removal. Such studies suggest that animals lacking an amygdala have less fear expression and indulge in non-species-like behavior. Many projection areas of the amygdala are critically involved in specific signs that are used to measure fear and anxiety.

text: Mammals have very similar ways of processing and responding to danger. Scientists have observed similar areas in the brain – specifically in the amygdala – lighting up or becoming more active when a mammal is threatened or beginning to experience anxiety. Similar parts of the brain are activated when rodents and when humans observe a dangerous situation, the amygdala playing a crucial role in this assessment. By observing the amygdala’s functions, people can determine why one rodent may be much more anxious than another. There is a direct relationship between the activation of the amygdala and the level of anxiety the subject feels.

text: Feelings of anxiety start with a catalyst – an environmental stimulus that provokes stress. This can include various smells, sights, and internal feelings that result in anxiety. The amygdala reacts to this stimuli by preparing to either stand and fight or to turn and run. This response is triggered by the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream. Consequently, blood sugar rises, becoming immediately available to the muscles for quick energy. Shaking may occur in an attempt to return blood to the rest of the body. A better understanding of the amygdala and its various functions may lead to a new way of treating clinical anxiety.[76]

text: Posttraumatic stress disorder[edit]

text: There seems to be a connection with the amygdalae and how the brain processes posttraumatic stress disorder.  Multiple studies have found that the amygdalae may be responsible for the emotional reactions of PTSD patients.  One study in particular found that when PTSD patients are shown pictures of faces with fearful expressions, their amygdalae tended to have a higher activation than someone without PTSD.[77]

text: Bipolar disorder[edit]

text:
Amygdala dysfunction during face emotion processing is well-documented in bipolar disorder. Individuals with bipolar disorder showed greater amygdala activity (especially the amygdala/medial-prefrontal-cortex circuit).[78]
[79]

text: Political orientation[edit]

text: Amygdala size has been correlated with cognitive styles with regard to political thinking. A study found that "greater liberalism was associated with increased gray matter volume in the anterior cingulate cortex, whereas greater conservatism was associated with increased volume of the right amygdala." These findings suggest that the volume of the amygdala and anterior cingulate gyrus may be associated with an individual's ability to tolerate uncertainty and conflict.[80]


document_title: Puppy Dog Pals

question_text: the voice of bob on puppy dog pals

question_tokens: the voice of bob on puppy dog pals

text: Puppy Dog Pals

text: Plot[edit]

text: Puppy Dog Pals is about brothers[1] Bingo and Rolly, two pug puppies who have fun travelling around their neighborhood when their owner Bob leaves home. They also have a cat sister named Hissy, and a robot dog named ARF.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Bingo (voiced by Issac Ryan Brown) is a black 1-year-old dog with a blue collar. He is the leader of the two and is Rolly's older brother.
Rolly (voiced by Sam Lavagnino) is a light brown 1-year-old pup with a red collar. He isn't as smart as Bingo, and is very silly. He is Bingo's younger brother. In "Bob Loves Mona", he starts a bad habit of chewing everything he can find.
Bob (voiced by Harland Williams) is the owner of Bingo, Rolly, Hissy, and A.R.F. He works as an inventor.
Hissy (voiced by Jessica DiCicco) is a sarcastic 1-year-old purple cat. In some episodes, she ends up going along with Bingo and Rolly on their missions. These episodes are: "A Pyramaid Scheme", "Hissy's Big Day", "Bob Loves Mona, "Puzzling Pugs", "A Seat at the Theatre", and "Return to the Pumpkin Patch", but only Collared up on Puzzling Pugs and Return to the Pumpkin Patch. She is the first and currently only female character to sing.
A.R.F. (fully known as Auto-Doggy Robotic Friend; voiced by Tom Kenny) is a robotic dog that Bob invented. He first appears in the episode "A.R.F.". Later in the series, he is updated by Bob in "Go, Dog, Go!"

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Cupcake (voiced by Jill Talley) is a pink puppy who does not like Bingo and Rolly. She is the main antagonist of the series.
Rufus is the bulldog with a black collar who is always with Cupcake and does not speak. He has been known to chase Bingo and Rolly multiple times.
Baseball Announcer (voiced by Bob Uecker) is the announcer at the baseball game in the episode "Take Me to The Pug Game".
Captain Dog (voiced by Patrick Warburton) is the star of the pups' favorite television show.
Frank Exposition (voiced by Leslie David Baker) is a man that is usually seen vacationing with his wife during Bingo and Rolly's missions. In "A Pyramid Scheme" he gets tangled in ribbons, which leads to Bingo and Rolly mistaking him for a mummy.
Esther Exposition (voiced by Cheri Oteri) is Frank's wife. In "Hissy's Big Day", she is shown to have a pet iguana named Iggy.
Daisy (voiced by Yvette Nicole Brown) is a kind German Shepherd.
Bulworth (voiced by Huey Lewis) is the junkyard dog.
Hedgie the Hedgehog (voiced by Jack McBrayer)
The Go-Long Retriever (Voiced by Harland Williams) is the toy stick and one of Bob's inventions that Bingo and Rolly tried to get rid of. Its only phrase is "Play fetch with me!"
Johnathan (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is Bingo and Rolly's wisecracking seagull friend.
Cagey (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is Bingo and Rolly's hamster friend who lives in a cage at the pet store.
Crumpet (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is the royal dog.
Whaley (voiced by Jessica DiCicco) is the whale that Bingo and Rolly helped.
Nelly (voiced by Grey DeLisle) is a bluebird who Appears in "Polly Wants A Pug".
Snowflake (Meows provided by Alanna Ubach) is a kitten who becomes friends with Hissy.
Miss Mudge (voiced by Alanna Ubach) is Snowflake's owner.
Guard Dog (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) is a Doberman who is friends with Bulworth.
Chloe (voiced by Emma Shannon) is a little girl who is Bob's neighbor.
Chloe's Mom (Voiced by Tara Strong) is Chloe's Mom.
Bob's Mom (voiced by Tress MacNeille) is a old lady who appears in "Special Delivery" and "Your Royal Pug-Ness".
Bizzy the Beaver (voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson) is a beaver who lives in the forest.
Strider the Sheepdog (vocied by Mo Collins) is a fast-talking sheep herder who appears in the episodes, "Counting Sheep" and "Rhapsody in Pug".
Shockero (voiced by Kevin Micheal Richaradson) is a lavender Scotty Dog.
Bark Knight (voiced by Gary Anthony Williams) is Captain Dog's sidekick.
Titus (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is a leopard who now owns Hissy's squeaky toy.
Harriet (voiced by Mo Collins) is a smart African Elephant.
Barry (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is a giraffe who let Bingo, Rolly, and Hissy ride on his head.
Quinty Mcsquinty (voiced by Jeff Bennett) is an old Basset Hound who told Bingo and Rolly the legend of Ol' Snapper.
Ol' Snapper (voiced by Tom Kenny) is a turtle mistaken as a monster.
Baby (barks provided by Jessica DiCocco) is a huge Great Dane puppy.
Queen Kazoo (voiced by Alanna Ubach) is the star of Bob's Favorite play.
Baboo (voiced by Gary Anothony Williams) is Queen Kazoo's dog.
Charlie (voiced by Jackson Dollinger) is a Crow.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Storyboards by
Original air date
Prod.
code [4]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1a
"Hawaii Pug-Oh"
Scott Bern
Harland Williams
Paul Cohen
April 14, 2017 (2017-04-14)
101
1.39[5]

When Bob says he'd love to feel the sand on his toes, pug puppy brothers Bingo and Rolly go on a mission to Hawaii.

1b
"A.R.F."
Trevor Wall
Bob Smiley
James Gibson
April 14, 2017 (2017-04-14)
101
1.39[5]

Bob introduces the pups to A.R.F., a robotic dog that is programmed to clean up their messes.

2a
"The French Toast Connection"
Stephanie Arnett
Brendan Duffy
Kris Wimberly
April 14, 2017 (2017-04-14)
TBA
1.36[5]

Bingo and Rolly travel to France to get Bob some french toast.

2b
"Take Me Out to the Pug Game"
Scott Bern
Sean Coyle
Doris Umschaden
April 14, 2017 (2017-04-14)
TBA
1.36[5]

The pugs chase Bob's prized baseball across the city.

3a
"The Go-Long Retriever"
Stephanie Arnett
Jessica Carleton
Kris Wimberly
April 21, 2017 (2017-04-21)
TBA
0.99[6]

Bingo and Rolly try to get away from a self-fetching stick that begins chasing them.

3b
"Pot O' Pugs"
Scott Bern
Bob Smiley
Doris Umschaden
April 21, 2017 (2017-04-21)
TBA
0.99[6]

After Bob says he needs a pot of gold, the pups search for one at the end of a rainbow.

4a
"A Pyramid Scheme"
Trevor Wall
Jeff Rothpan
Julia Briemle
April 21, 2017 (2017-04-21)
TBA
1.05[6]

Bongo and Rolly travel to Egypt to find the Great Pyramids.

4b
"Special Delivery"
Stephanie Arnett
Bob Smiley
Otis Brayboy
April 21, 2017 (2017-04-21)
TBA
1.05[6]

The pugs try to deliver a Mother's Day card for Bob.

5a
"Design-A-Dog"
Scott Bern
Jessica Carleton
Paul Cohen
April 28, 2017 (2017-04-28)
TBA
0.91[7]

Bingo and Rolly accidentally chew Bob's childhood toy.

5b
"Ice, Ice Puggy"
Trevor Wall
Darrin Rose
James Gibson
April 28, 2017 (2017-04-28)
TBA
0.91[7]

When Bob's ice maker breaks, the pugs go to Antarctica to get him ice.

6a
"Free Whaley"
Trevor Wall
Sean Tweedley
Julia Briemle
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)
106
1.05[8]

Bingo and Rolly help a baby whale that has been separated from her family.

6b
"Putting It Together"
Stephanie Arnett
Brendan Duffy
Otis Brayboy
May 5, 2017 (2017-05-05)
106
1.05[8]

The pugs retrace their steps to remember where they buried Bob's unicycle.

7a
"Hissy's Big Day"
Trevor Wall
Bill Fuller
Julia Briemle
May 12, 2017 (2017-05-12)
107
1.05[9]

Bingo and Rolly try to make Hissy feel better by taking her to their favorite places.

7b
"Go, Dog. Go!"
Stephanie Arnett
Bob Smiley
Otis Brayboy
May 12, 2017 (2017-05-12)
107
1.05[9]

The reprogrammed A.R.F. takes the pugs where they want to go but the pugs learn that the robotic dog isn't programmed to bring them back.

8a
"Pigs and Pugs"
Trevor Wall
Jessica Carleton
Bill Breneisen & Alfred Gimeno
May 19, 2017 (2017-05-19)
108
1.04[10]

Bob mistakes a mud-covered pig for Rolly and accidentally leaves him behind on the farm.

8b
"Bob Loves Mona"
Scott Bern
Joe Ansolabehere (story)
Jessica Carleton
Rudi Bloss
May 19, 2017 (2017-05-19)
108
1.04[10]

The pugs travel to the Great Wall of China to search for the missing Mona Lisa.

9a
"Don't Rain on my Pug-rade"
Trevor Wall
Bob Smiley
Arthur Valencia
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
109
1.59[11]

Bingo and Rolly head to England to learn how to treat a queen.

9b
"Their Royal Pug-ness"
Stephanie Arnett
Bob Smiley
Otis Brayboy
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)
109
1.59[11]

When Bob can't leave his house to watch a parade, the pups enlist a family of ducks to march past the house.

10a
"Scuba-Doggies"
Scott Bern
Jessica Carleton (story)
Bob Smiley
Rudi Bloss
June 23, 2017 (2017-06-23)
110
1.25[12]

An underwater adventure to get a package.

10b
"Walking the Bob"
Trevor Wall
Bob Smiley
Bill Breneisen
June 23, 2017 (2017-06-23)
110
1.25 [12]

Pups lead a blurry-visioned Bob home.

11a
"Hissy's Kitty"
Stephanie Arnett
Jessica Carleton
Kris Wimberly
July 7, 2017 (2017-07-07)
111
1.21[13]

When Bob brings home a lost kitty, Bingo and Rolly try find her a home.

11b
"Polly Wants a Pug"
Scott Bern
Michael Olson & Bob Smiley
Julia Briemle & Doris Umschaden
July 7, 2017 (2017-07-07)
111
1.21[13]

While in Florida, Bingo and Rolly search for an old friend of Bob's.

12a
"Leave it to Beavers"
Trevor Wall
Jessica Carleton
Julia Briemle
July 14, 2017 (2017-07-14)
112
1.35[14]

Bingo and Rolly try to build a dam to protect their doghouse from a rainstorm.

12b
"Counting Sheep"
Stephanie Arnett
Jessica Carleton
Otis Brayboy
July 14, 2017 (2017-07-14)
112
1.35[14]

When Bob says he'll count sheep to sleep, the pugs herd a flock of sheep into the backyard to help.

13a
"Captain Rolly"
Scott Bern
Brian Hall
Rudi Bloss
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)
113
1.20[15]

The pugs attend the Captain Dog fan party.

13b
"The Coolest Dogs in Town"
Trevor Wall
Brian Hall
Bill Breneisen
July 28, 2017 (2017-07-28)
113
1.20[15]

A.R.F takes Bingo and Rolly places to get cool.

14a
"Puzzling Pugs"
Stephanie Arnett
Harland Williams & Michael Olson (story)
Ashley Lenz
August 11, 2017 (2017-08-11)
TBA
1.25[16]

Bingo, Rolly, and Hissy find a leopard for Bob's puzzle after A.R.F tears it up.

14b
"Rhapsody in Pug"
Scott Bern
Amy Van Curen
Doris Umschaden
August 11, 2017 (2017-08-11)
TBA
1.25[16]

Bingo and Rolly go to a concert.

15a
"The Legend of Ol' Snapper"
Trevor Wall
Sean Coyle
Julia Briemle
August 25, 2017 (2017-08-25)
TBA
0.84[17]

Bob's fishing pole is stolen by a legendary creature.

15b
"Adventures in Puppy-Sitting"
Stephanie Arnett
Jessica Carleton
Otis Brayboy
August 25, 2017 (2017-08-25)
TBA
0.84[17]

The pugs are tasked to babysit a big dog that causes trouble around the town.

16a
"Bye Bye, Butterfly"
Trevor Wall
Jessica Carleton & Harland Williams
Ed Baker
September 22, 2017 (2017-09-22)
TBA
0.63[18]

Bingo and Rolly help a butterfly find a way back to her family.

16b
"A Seat at the Theatre"
Scott Bern
Jessica Carleton
Rudi Bloss
September 22, 2017 (2017-09-22)
TBA
0.63

Bingo and Rolly try to take a seat to Bob's favorite play and try not to wake up Hissy at the same time.

17a
"Return to the Pumpkin Patch"[citation needed]
Scott Bern
Bob Smiley (story)
Amy Van Curen
Doris Umschaden
October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01)
TBA
0.97[19]

Bingo, Rolly and Hissy go to a pumpkin to find Bingo's collar after he loses it in the maze.

17b
"Haunted Howl-oween"[citation needed]
Stephanie Arnett
Amy Van Curen (story)
Jessica Carleton
Ashley Lenz
October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01)
TBA
0.97

Bingo and Rolly go on a mission to find Chloe's Halloween Costume.


document_title: Stone (unit)

question_text: what do the british use to measure weight

text: Stone (unit)

text: Antiquity[edit]

text: The name "stone" derives from the use of stones for weights, a practice that dates back into antiquity. The Biblical law against the carrying of "diverse weights, a large and a small"[7] is more literally translated as "you shall not carry a stone and a stone (אבן ואבן), a large and a small". There was no standardised "stone" in the ancient Jewish world,[8] but in Roman times stone weights were crafted to multiples of the Roman pound.[9] Such weights varied in quality: the Yale Medical Library holds 10 and 50-pound examples of polished serpentine,[10] while a 40-pound example at the Eschborn Museum is made of sandstone.[11]

text: Britain and Ireland[edit]

text: England[edit]

text: The English stone under law varied by commodity and in practice varied according to local standards. The Assize of Weights and Measures, a statute of uncertain date from c. 1300, describes stones of 5 merchants' pounds used for glass; stones of 8 lb. used for beeswax, sugar, pepper, alum, cumin, almonds,[12] cinnamon, and nutmegs;[13] stones of 12 lb. used for lead; and the London stone of 12 1⁄2 lb. used for wool.[12][13] In 1350, Edward III issued a new statute defining the stone weight, to be used for wool and "other Merchandizes", at 14 pounds,[nb 2] reaffirmed by Henry VII in 1495.[15]

text: In England, merchants traditionally sold potatoes in half-stone increments of 7 pounds. Live animals were weighed in stones of 14 lb; but, once slaughtered, their carcasses were weighed in stones of 8 lb. Thus, if the animal's carcass accounted for 8⁄14 of the animal's weight, the butcher could return the dressed carcasses to the animal's owner stone for stone, keeping the offal, blood and hide as his due for slaughtering and dressing the animal.[17] Smithfield market continued to use the 8 lb stone for meat until shortly before the Second World War.[18] The Oxford English Dictionary also lists:[19]

text:
Commodity
Number of Pounds

Wool
14, 15, 24

Wax
12

Sugar and spice
8

Beef and mutton
8

text: Scotland[edit]

text: The Scottish stone was equal to 16 Scottish pounds (17 lb 8 oz avoirdupois or 7.936 kg). In 1661, the Royal Commission of Scotland recommended that the Troy stone be used as a standard of weight and that it be kept in the custody of the burgh of Lanark. The tron (or local) stone of Edinburgh, also standardised in 1661, was 16 tron pounds (24 lb 1 oz avoirdupois or 9.996 kg).[20][21] In 1789, an encyclopedic enumeration of measurements was printed for the use of "his Majesty's Sheriffs and Stewards Depute, and Justices of Peace, ... and to the Magistrates of the Royal Boroughs of Scotland" and provided a county-by-county and commodity-by-commodity breakdown of values and conversions for the stone and other measures.[22] The Scots stone ceased to be used for trade when the Act of 1824 established a uniform system of measure across the whole of the United Kingdom, which at that time included all of Ireland.[23]

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Before the early 19th century, as in England, the stone varied both with locality and with commodity. For example, the Belfast stone for measuring flax equaled 16.75 avoirdupois pounds.[24]) The most usual value was 14 pounds.[25] Among the oddities related to the use of the stone was the practice in County Clare of a stone of potatoes being 16 lb in the summer and 18 lb in the winter.[25]

text: United Kingdom and Ireland[edit]

text: The 1772 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica defined the stone:[26]

text: STONE also denotes a certain quantity or weight of some commodities. A stone of beef, in London, is the quantity of eight pounds; in Hertfordshire, twelve pounds; in Scotland sixteen pounds.

text: The Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which applied to all of the United Kingdom, consolidated the weights and measures legislation of several centuries into a single document. It revoked the provision that bales of wool should be made up of 20 stones, each of 14 pounds, but made no provision for the continued use of the stone. Ten years later, a stone still varied from 5 pounds (glass) to 8 pounds (meat and fish) to 14 pounds (wool and "horseman's weight").[27] However, the Act of 1835 permitted using a stone of 14 pounds for trade[28] but other values remained in use. James Britten, in 1880 for example, catalogued a number of different values of the stone in various British towns and cities, ranging from 4 lb to 26 lb.[29] The value of the stone and associated units of measure that were legalised for purposes of trade were clarified by the Weights and Measures Act 1835 as follows:[28]

text:
Pounds
Unit
Stone
kg

1
1 pound
1⁄14
0.4536

14
1 stone
1
6.350

28
1 quarter
2
12.70

112
1 hundredweight
8
50.80

2240
1 (long) ton
160
1016

text: In 1965, the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured adopting the metric system. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the Government, agreed to support a ten-year metrication programme. There would be minimal legislation, as the programme was to be voluntary and costs were to be borne where they fell.[30] Under the guidance of the Metrication Board, the agricultural product markets achieved a voluntary switchover by 1976.[31] The stone was not included in the Directive 80/181/EEC as a unit of measure that could be used within the EEC for "economic, public health, public safety or administrative purposes",[32] though its use as a "supplementary unit" was permitted. The scope of the directive was extended to include all aspects of the EU internal market as from 1 January 2010.[33]

text: With the adoption of metric units by the agricultural sector, the stone was, in practice, no longer used for trade; and, in the Weights and Measures Act 1985, passed in compliance with EU directive 80/181/EEC,[32] the stone was removed from the list of units permitted for trade in the United Kingdom.[34][35][36] In 1983, in response to the same directive, similar legislation was passed in Ireland.[37] The Act repealed earlier acts that defined the stone as a unit of measure for trade.[36] (British law had previously been silent regarding other uses of the stone.)

text: The stone remains widely used in the UK and Ireland for human body weight: in those countries people may commonly be said to weigh, e.g., "11 stone 4" (11 stones and 4 pounds), rather than "72 kilograms" as in many other countries, or "158 pounds" (the conventional way of expressing the same weight in the US).[38] The correct plural form of stone in this context is stone (as in, "11 stone" or "12 stone 6 pounds"); in other contexts, the correct plural is stones (as in, "Please enter your weight in stones and pounds"). In Australia and New Zealand, metrication has almost entirely displaced stone and pounds since the 1970s.

text: In many sports in both Britain and Ireland, such as professional boxing, wrestling and horse racing,[39] the stone is used to express body weights.

text: Elsewhere[edit]

text: The use of the stone in the British Empire was varied. In Canada for example, it never had a legal status.[40] Shortly after the United States declared independence, Thomas Jefferson, then Secretary of State presented a report on weights and measures to the U.S. House of Representatives. Even though all the weights and measures in use in the United States at the time were derived from English weights and measures, his report made no mention of the stone being used. He did, however, propose a decimal system of weights in which his "[decimal] pound" would have been 9.375 ounces (265.8 g) and the "[decimal] stone" would have been 5.8595 pounds (2.6578 kg).[41]

text: Before the advent of metrication, units called "stone" (German: Stein; Dutch: steen; Polish: kamień) were used in many North-Western European countries.[42][43] Its value, usually between 3 and 10 kg, varied from city to city and sometimes from commodity to commodity. The number of local "pounds" in a stone also varied from city to city. During the early 19th century, states such as the Netherlands (including Belgium) and the South Western German states, which had redefined their system of measures using the kilogramme des Archives as a reference for weight (mass), also redefined their stone to align it with the kilogram.

text: This table shows a selection of stones from various North European Continental cities:

text:
City
Modern country
Term used
Weight of
stone in
kilograms
Weight of
stone in
local pounds
Comments

Dresden[44]
Germany
Stein
10.15
22
Before 1841

10.0
20
From 1841 onwards

Mecklenburg-Strelitz[44]
Berlin[44]
Germany
schwerer Stein
10.296
22
heavy stone

leichter Stein
5.148
11
light stone

Danzig (Gdańsk)[44]
Königsberg (Kaliningrad)[44]
Poland
Russia
grosser Stein
15.444
33
large stone

kleiner Stein
10.296
22
small stone

Bremen[44]
Germany
Steinflachs
9.97
20
stone of flax

Stein Wolle und Federn
4.985
10
stone of wool and feathers

Oldenburg[44]
Germany
Stein Flachs
9.692
20
stone of flax

Steinwolle und Federn
4.846
10
stone of wool and feathers

Kraków[44]
Poland
Stein
10.137
25

Osnabrück[44]
Germany
Stein
4.941
10

Amsterdam[44]
Netherlands
Steen
3.953
8
Before 1817

3
6
"Metric stone" (after 1817)

Karlsruhe[44]
Germany
Stein
5.00
10

Leipzig,[44]
Weimar[45]
Germany
Stein
10.287
22

Breslau (Wrocław)[44]
Poland
Stein
9.732
24

Antwerpen[44]
Belgium
Steen
3.761
8

Prague[45]
Czech Republic
Stein
10.29
20

Solothurn[44]
Switzerland
Stein
5.184
10

Stockholm[45]
Sweden
Sten
13.60
32
(32 Skålpund)

Warsaw[45]
Poland
Kamień
10.14
25
25 Funtów

Vilnius[45]
Lithuania
Kamieni
14.992
40
40 Funtów

Vienna[45]
Austria
Stein
11.20
20

text: Metric stone[edit]

text: Although the advent of the metric system spelt the demise of the stone as a unit of measure, the stone was used in some early discussions and implementations of the metric system. In his Philosophical essay written in 1668, John Wilkins proposed a system of measure whose unit of length, the standard, was approximately one metre and whose unit of mass was the mass of a cubic standard of rainwater (which would have been approximately 1,000 kg). He proposed that one tenth of this mass (100 kg) should be called a stone.[46][47] In 1791, a few years before the French Revolutionary Government agreed on the metre as the basis of the metric system, Thomas Jefferson, in a report to Congress proposed that the United States should adopt a decimal currency system (which was adopted) and a decimal-based system of measure (which was not adopted).[48] Jefferson's proposal for units of measure included a "decimal" pound equal to 9.375 ounces (265.8 g) in the "customary" system and a "decimal" stone of 10 "decimal" pounds or 5.8595 pounds (2.6578 kg).

text: Neither Wilkins' nor Jefferson's proposals were adopted; but, in the Netherlands, where the metric system was adopted in 1817, the pond (pound) was set equal to a kilogram.<ref group=nb>In modern colloquial Dutch, a pond is used as an alternative for 500 grams or half a kg, and the steen (stone), which had previously been 8 Amsterdam pond (3.953 kg), was redefined as being 3 kg.[43]