document_title: The Ranch (TV series)

question_text: when does season 4 of the ranch on netflix come out

text: The Ranch (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Ashton Kutcher as Colt Bennett, a former high school and college football star who returns to his hometown after a fifteen-year absence for a tryout, but ultimately helps his father and older brother on their family ranch. Colt is frequently the butt of jokes from his father and brother, particularly when it comes to his ranching skills (or lack thereof) and his disappointing pro football career. He is a heavy drinker and has a penchant for not using common sense, but he seems to have a heart of gold and tries to do right by others. Based on his various T-shirts and dialogue throughout the first season, it's implied that Colt has played for the Barcelona Dragons, San Jose SaberCats, Spokane Shock, Orlando Predators, Nebraska Danger, Minnesota Axemen and Philadelphia Soul. Dialogue also states that he was a member of teams in Canada, notably the fictional Saskatoon Cold ("Like the Miami Heat... only cold") and Alaska. He also states in the first episode he was the back up of the back up of the back up for Florida State and won the championship in 1999.
Danny Masterson as Jameson “Rooster” Bennett, Colt's older brother. He has lived and worked on the ranch since Colt left to follow his football career. Despite living in Colt's shadow he is far more competent on the ranch as well as a more level headed thinker. He has however been just as irresponsible as Colt, drinking too much and sleeping around.
Debra Winger as Margaret "Maggie" Bennett, owner of Maggie's, and Colt and Rooster's mother. Maggie is divorced from Beau and lives in a trailer behind the bar she owns. Much more lighthearted and caring than Beau, her company and advice is often sought out by the boys on how to deal with problems, especially those concerning their father. Maggie is something of a hippie and is an avid marijuana smoker.
Elisha Cuthbert as Abigail "Abby" Phillips, a Garrison High School history teacher and Colt's high school and current girlfriend. Abby was in a five-year relationship with Kenny and was briefly engaged to him, but ultimately she broke it off and hooked back up with Colt. (recurring, season 1; main cast, season 2)
Sam Elliott as Beau Bennett, Maggie's ex-husband, and Colt and Rooster's father. A Vietnam War veteran, he has worked the ranch since returning from the war and taking it over after his father died. Beau is difficult to get along with, perpetually annoyed with everyone and everything. He detests many modern amenities and is easily angered by his sons' antics. Beau appears to be a Republican with a special affinity for Ronald Reagan but at times seems to despise all politicians regardless of affiliation.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Barry Corbin as Dale Rivers, a hearing-impaired veterinarian and close friend of Beau's
Grady Lee Richmond as Hank, a regular Maggie's patron
Bret Harrison as Kenneth "Kenny" Ballard, a Courtyard by Marriott manager and Abby's ex-fiancé
Megyn Price as Mary Roth, a Cracker Barrel waitress and Rooster's older girlfriend
Kelli Goss as Heather Roth, Mary's younger daughter and Colt's ex-girlfriend, pregnant with their child.
Molly McCook as Darlene Roth, Mary's older daughter
Kathy Baker as Joanne, a Cracker Barrel waitress, Mary's friend, and potential new love interest for Beau
Ethan Suplee as "Beer Pong Billy" Tompkins, a police officer and high school friend of Colt and Rooster's
Aimee Teegarden as Nikki, Heather's friend and Billy's fiancée
Chasty Ballesteros as Tanya Showers, a sexy weather reporter and Kenny's current girlfriend
Laura Vallejo as Maria, a Maggie's waitress
Sharon Lawrence as Brenda Sanders, a widowed hairdresser who befriended Beau when he and Maggie separated

text: Special Guests[edit]

text:
Jon Cryer as Bill Jensen, a loan officer and former high school football referee
Wilmer Valderrama as Umberto, a former Iron River ranch hand, former employee of Neumann's Hill at the My Little Pony Ranch. He is Rooster and Colt's friend. Currently deported.
Martin Mull as Jerry, Maggie's sometimes acid-tripping attorney
John Amos as Ed Bishop, a longtime family friend of the Bennetts and a Neumann's Hill employee
Thomas F. Wilson as Coach Fitzgerald, the Garrison High School head football coach
Debra Jo Rupp as Janice Phillips, Abby's mother (Season 2)
Jim Beaver as Chuck Phillips, Abby's father, who like Janice is disdainful of Abby's relationship with Colt (Season 2)
Conchata Ferrell as Shirley (Season 2)
Lou Diamond Phillips as Clint, a traveling musician attracted to Maggie (Season 2)
Kurtwood Smith as Sam Peterson, neighbor of the Iron River Ranch (Season 2)

text: Cameos[edit]

text:
Joe Firstman
Pearl Charles
Kurt Neumann
Bukka Allen
Sam Hawksley
Thomas Rhett

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally released

1
20
10
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

10
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

2
20
10
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

10
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

Part 1

1
1
"Back Where I Come From"
David Trainer
Don Reo & Jim Patterson
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

When Colt Bennett returns home from Canada to try out for a semipro Denver team, he learns that his family's ranch has fallen on hard times.

2
2
"Some People Change"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt runs into an ex at Maggie's bar and reminisces with Rooster over a bottle of whiskey. Getting back in Beau's good graces is a losing battle.

3
3
"The Boys of Fall"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jamie Rhonheimer
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

When his inflated ego lands him in hot water, Colt realizes he's not the big man on campus anymore. Beau's doctor makes him trade in steak for salad.

4
4
"Got a Little Crazy"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Nikki Schiefelbein
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt smooths things over with Abby. When Maggie drags Beau to the Marriott for a romantic evening, the guys have some fun back at the house.

5
5
"American Kids"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Rooster and Colt's long-simmering rivalry comes to a head on the first day of hunting season. But their bickering has an upside for Beau and Maggie.

6
6
"Better as a Memory"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Abby gets a taste of her own medicine after a hazy night of drinking. Beau warms to the idea of mending fences with Maggie.

7
7
"I Can't Go There"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt figures out what he wants from Heather. A sick calf gives Beau an excuse to avoid dealing with his feelings -- and creates some unexpected bonds.

8
8
"Til It's Gone"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Matt Ross
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

The ranch's dwindling finances drive a wedge between Beau and the boys, and Colt goes behind his father's back to ask Maggie for help.

9
9
"There Goes My Life"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Max Searle & Nathan Chetty
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Heather sets up Rooster with her sister, but Colt's afraid he'll ruin a good thing. Maggie and Beau air their dirty laundry at marriage counseling.

10
10
"Down the Road"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
April 1, 2016 (2016-04-01)

Colt and Rooster worry when Beau has a change of heart about the calves. But that's just the beginning of the surprises that await the Bennett clan.

Part 2

11
1
"Gone as a Girl Can Get"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

An angry Beau clears Maggie's things out of the house. Colt tries to sort out his feelings for Abby and Heather.

12
2
"Living and Living Well"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Colt struggles to keep his relationship with Abby under wraps. The boys make a big purchase and try to sell Beau on a business opportunity.

13
3
"Sittin' on the Fence"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Steve Tompkins
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Beau's depressed over Maggie, so Mary tries to fix him up with a friend. Colt wonders when Abby's going to follow through on her promise.

14
4
"Let's Fall to Pieces Together"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Steve Leff
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

While Rooster tries to broker peace between Beau and Maggie, Colt apologizes to Heather -- but his timing couldn't be worse.

15
5
"I Know She Still Loves Me"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Jeff Lowell & Max Searle
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Beau and Maggie come to a decision about their relationship, but they don't see eye to eye on the ranch. The boys take Kenny out drinking.

16
6
"Easy Come, Easy Go"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Rooster and Colt try to prove themselves to Beau, but he doesn't have much faith in them. Colt gets jealous when he sees Abby and Kenny together.

17
7
"I've Come to Expect It from You"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Jamie Rhonheimer
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Colt plans a special date with Abby. Rooster vents his frustrations to Maggie, while Joanne gives Beau some sage advice.

18
8
"The Cowboy Rides Away"
David Trainer
Story by : Nikki Schiefelbein & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Steve Leff
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Beau tries to make amends with the boys, but it may be too little, too late. A job offer drives a wedge between Rooster and Colt.

19
9
"Leavin's Been Comin' (For a Long, Long Time)"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Steve Tompkins
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Maggie stands up for Rooster when Beau kicks him out of the house. Meanwhile, Colt is torn between his brother and his father.

20
10
"Merry Christmas (Wherever You Are)"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
October 7, 2016 (2016-10-07)

Colt realizes what he wants for his future, Beau and Maggie find some closure, and the gang celebrates Christmas at the bar.

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

Part 3

21
1
"My Next Thirty Years"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

After Heather drops a bombshell, a visit from Abby's parents is the last thing Colt needs -- and they all end up at church together on Christmas Eve.

22
2
"Things Change"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Heather makes a decision about the pregnancy. Mary reads Rooster the riot act for keeping it a secret, and Colt struggles with how to tell Abby.

23
3
"Take Me Away from Here"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Max Searle & Steve Leff
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

After a heart-to-heart with Maggie, Colt steps up and supports Heather. Meanwhile, the tension between Rooster and Beau takes a toll on Maggie.

24
4
"She'll Have You Back"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Nikki Schiefelbein
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Abby agrees to give Colt a chance, but her father isn't as forgiving. Beau and Rooster go to a cattle auction. Maggie thinks about selling the bar.

25
5
"My Best Friend"
David Trainer
Story by : Ashton Kutcher & Carla Filisha
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jamie Rhonheimer
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

The guys wind up in hot water after an ice fishing trip. Beau takes Brenda out to dinner, but Maggie's not far from his mind.

26
6
"Find Out Who Your Friends Are"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Max Williger
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Emotions run high when Abby and Heather fight, leaving Colt caught in the middle. Rooster faces the consequences of blowing off work.

27
7
"One of Those Nights"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jason Zumwalt
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

During a snowstorm, Colt and Abby head out of town, Beau and Joanne get cozy at the ranch, and Maggie meets a charming stranger.

28
8
"I Didn't Ask and She Didn't Say"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Bryce VanKooten & William Vallery
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Colt gets possessive when Heather starts dating a teacher. Abby gives Beau relationship advice. Maggie has a business proposition for Rooster.

29
9
"Last Dollar (Fly Away)"
David Trainer
Story by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nikki Schiefelbein
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

As Heather's medical bills roll in, Colt realizes how expensive it is having a baby. A surprise visitor at the bar sweeps Maggie off her feet.

30
10
"Can't Really Be Gone"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Jeff Lowell
Teleplay by : Don Reo & Nathan Chetty
June 16, 2017 (2017-06-16)

Colt's new responsibilities keep him away from Abby. After a memorable night, Maggie ponders what she wants for her future.

Part 4

31
1
"Learning to Live Again"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Colt wants to buy Sam Peterson's ranch -- with or without his family's blessing. Colt and Heather have a heart-to-heart about their loss.

32
2
"Wrapped Up in You"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Steve Tompkins & Jeff Lowell
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Wondering if he's ready to marry Abby, Colt seeks romantic advice from an unlikely source: Beau. Rooster hires a flaky new waitress.

33
3
"Rodeo and Juliet"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Carla Filisha & Steve Leff
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Beau ponders a lucrative business offer. Rooster runs afoul of the liquor board. Colt tries to make peace with Abby's Dad.

34
4
"Much Too Young (To Feel this Old)"
David Trainer
Story by : Jim Patterson & Matt Ross
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Colt and Abby start planning their wedding, but they don't see eye to eye. Joanne confesses she still has feelings for Beau.

35
5
"More Than a Memory"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Steve Leff
Teleplay by : Jim Patterson & Jeff Lowell
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Abby moves in with Colt and Beah when she learns she's losing her job. Rooster and Jen the engineer bond over getting dumped.

36
6
"When You Come Back to Me Again"
David Trainer
Story by : Bryce VanKooten & William Vallery
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Back in town, Maggie frets about how Rooster's been running the bar. Abby considers a career change.

37
7
"Do What You Gotta Do"
David Trainer
Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

A job opportunity in Denver threatens to drive a wedge between Colt and Abby. Maggie pushes back about the pipeline.

38
8
"Big Money"
David Trainer
Story by : Matt Ross & Nathan Chetty
Teleplay by : Jeff Lowell & Nikki Schiefelbein
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Maggie takes a stand that lands her in hot water. Colt and Rooster come up with a plan to buy the Peterson ranch, but they need Beau's buy-in.

39
9
"Ain't Goin' Down ('Til the Sun Comes Up)"
David Trainer
Story by : Steve Tompkins & Max Searle
Teleplay by : Jamie Rhonheimer & Nathan Chetty
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Beau shrugs off the doctor's orders and resists the family's efforts to help him. Meanwhile, Colt lashes out at Maggie.

40
10
"If Tomorrow Never Comes"
David Trainer
Story by : Don Reo & Jim Patterson
Teleplay by : Matt Ross & Max Searle
December 15, 2017 (2017-12-15)

Beau leaves the boys hanging about the Peterson ranch. Rooster takes Jen on a date. Colt and Abby fight about their future.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Ranch has been met with mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series an approval rating of 56% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic set-up and predictable plotting are elevated by The Ranch's surprising sensitivity and strong performances."[14] Metacritic gave the series a score of 56 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[15]

text: Writing for Slate in a positive review, television critic Willa Paskin wrote of the show, "The Ranch is a red-state sitcom, though it takes place in the swing state of Colorado, and is good enough to be watched by people of any political affiliation" and "The goodness sneaks up on you."[16] Los Angeles Times wrote: "[Elliott and Winger's] scenes together, as restrained as they are, are the show's most emotionally resonant. You will want to check them out."[17]


document_title: Mercutio

question_text: who said a plague on both your houses

question_tokens: who said a plague on both your houses

root

text: Mercutio

text: Role in the play[edit]

text: Romeo steals away Juliet, Capulet's daughter, with whom he has fallen in love, and he falls out of love with Rosaline. When Mercutio sees Romeo the next day, he is glad to see that his friend is his old self again, and he encourages Romeo, all the while making bad jokes at the expense of Juliet's Nurse.

tag: p

text: After Romeo receives a death threat from Juliet's cousin Tybalt, Mercutio expects Romeo to engage Tybalt in a duel. However, Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt, because Romeo now considers Tybalt to be kin due to his secret marriage to Juliet. Mercutio is incensed at his friend's "calm, dishonorable, vile submission", and decides to fight Tybalt himself, right before which, Mercutio refers to his sword as his "fiddlestick." Romeo, not wanting his friend or his relative to get hurt, attempts to intervene. He fails, however, as Mercutio gets stabbed under Romeo's arm and dies. Before he dies, Mercutio curses both the Montagues and Capulets, crying several times, "A plague o' both your houses!" (Act III, Sc. 1, often quoted as "A pox on both your houses"). He makes one final pun before he dies: "Ask for me to-morrow, and you shall find me a grave man." A grief-stricken and enraged Romeo kills Tybalt, resulting in his banishment from Verona and beginning the tragic turn of events that make up the rest of the play.

text: Name origins[edit]

text: The name Mercutio was present in Shakespeare's sources for Romeo and Juliet, though his character was not well developed and he was presented as a romantic rival for Juliet.[2] The name is first used in Luigi Da Porto's 1530 "Giulietta e Romeo". Da Porto briefly introduces a character named Marcuccio Guertio, a noble youth "with very cold hands, in July as in January", who makes Giulietta Cappelletti appreciate the warm hands of Romeo Montecchi.[3][4]

text: Mercutio's death[edit]

text: Earlier versions of te show'd the best of his skill in his Mercutio, and he said himself, that he was forced to murder him in the third Act, to being killed by him."[5]

text: The addition of Mercutio into the fray increases the tension, and Tybalt is seen as a slightly more peaceful character than in previous versions, as Mercutio is disgusted by the fact that Tybalt continues to search for a quarrel with Romeo, when Romeo is trying to bring peace between them. Mercutio hurls insults and taunts at Tybalt, and draws the sword first, in reaction to Tybalt's insults, which are directed to Romeo.

text: Mercutio's death in Act III, scene I is the pivotal point of the play, which up to this point is relatively light-hearted.[6] Mercutio's death is sudden and makes death a dark reality for several characters, causing a domino effect of tragic fate that leads ultimately to the tragic climax.

text: Performers[edit]

text: A number of famous actors have played the role of Mercutio. A small sampling follows.

text: Stage[edit]

text:
In 1933–34, Orson Welles played the role of Mercutio in the Katharine Cornell company's seven-month nationwide tour
In 1935, Laurence Olivier and John Gielgud alternated the roles of Romeo and Mercutio in a London stage production directed by Gielgud.
In 1945, Ralph Richardson made his Broadway debut as Mercutio opposite the Romeo of Maurice Evans and the Juliet of Katharine Cornell.
In 1947, Paul Scofield played Mercutio in a production directed by Peter Brook.
In 1958, Alec McCowen enjoyed a major success as Mercutio in London.
In 2006, Benjamin Walker portrayed Mercutio during the Williamstown Theater Festival with Emmy Rossum as Juliet and Greg Hildreth as Benvolio.
Mickey Calin portrayed Riff Lorton, the Mercutio and Lord Montague character, in the stage musical of West Side Story.
In 2013, Luca Giacomelli Ferrarini played Mercutio in the stage musical of the Italian production "Romeo e Giulietta - Ama e cambia il mondo", directed by Giuliano Peparini.

tag: ul

text: Film[edit]

text:
In 1936, John Barrymore portrayed Mercutio in George Cukor's film Romeo and Juliet opposite Leslie Howard as Romeo.
In 1961, Russ Tamblyn played the Mercutio character, Riff Lorton, in the film adaptation of West Side Story, the musical modernised version of Romeo and Juliet.
In 1968, John McEnery portrayed Mercutio in Franco Zeffirelli's film Romeo and Juliet.
In 1976, Robin Nedwell played Mercutio in the Thames Television production directed by Joan Kemp-Welch, with Christopher Neame as Romeo and Ann Hasson as Juliet.
In 1996, Harold Perrineau Jr. portrayed Mercutio in Baz Luhrmann's modernised version, William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet.
In 1998, Ben Affleck portrayed actor Edward Alleyn in the romantic comedy Shakespeare in Love. In the film, Alleyn serves as history's first Mercutio.
In 2007, Tetsuya Kakihara and Christopher Bevins voice Mercutio in the anime series Romeo x Juliet.
In 2011, Hale Appleman portrayed Mercutio in Alan Brown's Private Romeo, a modern-day adaptation set at an all-male military academy.
In 2013, Christian Cooke played Mercutio in the film adaption directed by Carlo Carlei, starring Douglas Booth as Romeo and Hailee Steinfeld as Juliet.
In 2013, Ricky McLennan played Mercutio in the film adaption "Romeo and Juliet: A Love Song", directed by Tim Van Dammen, starring Christopher Landon as Romeo and Derya Parlak as Juliet.
In 2017, Eli Wilcox played Mercutio in the Hit play, Romeo and Juliet directed by Robert McDunnough starring Christopher Ely as Romeo and Zachary Pringel as Juliet.


document_title: Seat belt legislation

question_text: when was the seat belt law introduced in australia

text: Seat belt legislation

text: National comparisons[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, after the introduction of mandatory front outboard mounting points in 1964, the use of seat belts by all vehicle passengers was made compulsory in the states of Victoria and South Australia in 1970 and 1971, respectively.[1] By 1973, the use of fitted seat belts by vehicle occupants was made compulsory for the rest of Australia and some other countries during the 1970s and 1980s. The subsequent dramatic decline in road deaths is generally because of seat belt laws and subsequent road safety campaigns.[2][3][4] Seat belts are not required for bus occupants, reversing drivers, and those driving some slow moving vehicles. The laws for these differ depending on the state or territory with jurisdiction.

text: Canada[edit]

text: All provinces in Canada have primary enforcement seat belt laws. In 1976, Ontario was the first province to pass a law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts.[5]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, seat belts must be worn at all times if they are fitted to a vehicle unless reversing. Passengers may be exempt from wearing a seat belt for different reasons. Since September 18, 2006, children travelling in the UK must also use an appropriate child seat in addition to the standard seat belt, unless they are 12 years old and/or have reached at least 135 centimetres (53 in) in height.[6]

text: In the UK, a requirement for anchorage points was introduced in 1965, followed by the requirement in 1968 to fit three-point belts in the front outboard positions on all new cars and all existing cars back to 1965.[citation needed] Successive UK Governments proposed, but failed to deliver, seat belt legislation throughout the 1970s. Front seat belts were compulsory equipment on all new cars registered in the UK from 1972, although it did not become compulsory for them to be worn until 1983. Rear seat belts were compulsory equipment from 1986. However, it has never been a legal requirement for cars registered before those dates to be fitted with seat belts.[7] In one such attempt in 1979 similar claims for potential lives and injuries saved were advanced. William Rodgers, then Secretary of State for Transport in the Callaghan Labour Government (1976–1979), stated: "On the best available evidence of accidents in this country - evidence which has not been seriously contested - compulsion could save up to 1000 lives and 10,000 injuries a year."[8]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, seat belt legislation varies by state. The state of Wisconsin introduced legislation in 1961 requiring seat belts to be fitted to the front outboard seat positions of cars.[9] Seat belts have been mandatory equipment since the 1968 model year per Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208.

text: New York State passed the first law in the US mandating the use of seat belts in 1984 under the leadership of John D. States, an orthopedic surgeon who dedicated his career to improving automotive safety.[10] Depending on which state a driver is in, not wearing a seat belt in the front seat is either a primary offense or a secondary offense, with the exception of New Hampshire, which does not have a law requiring people over age 18 to wear a seat belt. In the front seat, the driver and each passenger must wear a seat belt, one person per belt. In some states, such as New York, New Hampshire, and Michigan, belts in the rear seats are not mandatory for people over the age of 16, though it is extremely advised. The driver and front-seat passengers aged 16 or older can be fined up to $50 each for failure to buckle up. In California, you must be 15 years or older to accompany the driver in the front seat. Children 14 and younger must sit in the rear seat until they reach the age of 15.Template:DMV.org

text: A primary offense means that a police officer can pull a driver over for the seat belt law violation alone, and secondary offense indicates that one can be punished for a seat belt law violation only if they are already pulled over for another reason. By January 2007 25 states and the District of Columbia had primary seat belt laws, 24 had secondary seat belt laws, and New Hampshire had no laws.[11] In 2009, Public Health Law Research published several evidence briefs summarizing the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health. One stated, "Safety belt laws work, but there is strong evidence to support that primary enforcement safety belt laws are more effective than secondary enforcement laws in increasing seat belt use and reducing crash injuries."[12]

text: Another found that "there is strong evidence that enhanced seat belt enforcement interventions can substantially increase seat belt use and its associated benefits."[13]

text: Developing countries[edit]

text: In many developing countries, pedestrians, cyclists, rickshaw operators and moped users represent the majority of road users.

text: In India, all cars manufactured after March 25, 1994 are equipped with front seat belts. The rule was extended for rear seats in 2002. The usage of seat belts is to be implemented by the respective states, with most states making seat belt usage for front seat passengers mandatory in 2002. Older vehicles that did not originally have seat belts were exempted. However, enforcement is weak in most parts of the country.

text: In Indonesia, belts are only mandatory for front seats. Many low entry car models are not equipped with rear seat belts.[14]

text: In Malaysia, the first stage of safety belt laws was implemented in 1979. This was expanded in January 2009 to include rear passengers. Passenger vehicles registered prior to January 1, 1995, and those weighing more than 3.5 tons are exempted from this rule. The third and fourth stages, which will deal with baby and child seats and the number of passengers in a vehicle, have not taken effect.[15]

text: In the Philippines, a seat belt law, Republic Act No. 8750, was approved in August 5, 1999. The law took effect in 2000 and requires all public and private vehicles, except motorcycles and tricycles, to have their front seats equipped with seat belts. Front seats as defined by the law includes the first row of seats behind the driver for public utility buses. Those below the age of six are prohibited to occupy the front seats of motor vehicles even if wearing a seat belt. Jeepneys are only required lap belts for the front seat passengers and the driver.[16][17]

text: The table below gives an overview of when seat belt legislation was first introduced in different countries. It includes both regional and national legislation.

text:
Country
Compulsory wearing
Compulsory fitting
Source

Cars
Bus passengers
Cars
Buses

Driver
Front passengers
Rear passengers

 Argentina
1994

1994
1994 (First row only, all in school buses)
[18]

 Australia
1970 (Victoria) 1971 (NSW) 1972 (national) 1986 (child restraints)

1969, 1970 (back seat, Victoria) 1971 (back seat)
1983 (≤3.5 tonnes)
[19][20]

 Canada
1976

 Czech Republic
1966 (outside cities)
1990 (all)
1976
1990
2004
1968

[21]

 European Union
1993

[22]

 Finland
1975
1982
1987
2006

 France
1973 (outside cities), 1975 (cities at night), 1979 (all)
1990
2003
1967, 1978 (back seat)
2003
[22]
[23]

 Germany
1976
1984
1999
1970, 1979 (back seat)
1999
Angurtpflicht

 Hungary
1976

1993

[19]

 Hong Kong
1983
1983
1996
2004 (minibuses)
1996 (back seat)
2004 (minibuses)

[24]

 India

1994 (front seats), 2002 (rear seats)

 Ireland
1979

1992

1971 (front seats), 1992 (rear seats)

[25]

 Italy
1989
1990 (where available)‡
2006‡
1988 (new vehicles); 1989 (all*, front seats); 1990 (new vehicles, back seats); 2000 (all*, back seats)
2006
[26]

 Japan
1971† (1985)
1971 (no fines), 1985 (fines on freeway), 1993 (all)
2008
2008
1969

[22]

 Myanmar
2017
2017
2017
2016 (motorway buses enforced)

 Netherlands
1976
1992

1975 (front) 1990 (rear)

 New Zealand
1972
1972 (15 years and over), 1979 (8 years and over)
1989♣

1972 (vehicles registered after 1965), 1975 (after 1955)

[27]

 Philippines
2000 (those below 6 years prohibited to occupy front seats)

2000 (first row beside the driver's seat only)
2000
[28]

 Singapore
1973
1973
1993
2008 (small buses)
1973

 Spain
1975

 Sri Lanka
2011
2011

 Sweden
1975
1986
1969 (front) 1970 (rear)
2004
[22][29]

 Thailand
1996
2009

 United Kingdom
1983
1991
2006
1967 (front) 1987 (rear)

[30]

 United States
1984 (New York; seat belt use law is jurisdiction of individual states)

Wisconsin, 1961. Federally, front lap 1965 model year; front shoulder & rear lap 1968; 3-point front 1974

[22]

tag: table

text:
* - actually only vehicles registered after 15 June 1976; in previous registered vehicles fitting is optional
† - required by the law, but no penalty for violation at the time
‡ - required by the law, but low enforcement
♣ - definitely introduced by this date, possibly earlier

text: Effects[edit]

text: Studies by road safety authorities conclude that seat belt legislation has reduced the number of casualties in road accidents.

text: Experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers also indicated that wearing seat belts should lead to reduced risk of death and injury in car crashes.

text: Studies of accident outcomes suggest that fatality rates among car occupants are reduced by between 30 and 50 percent if seat belts are worn. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that death risks for a driver wearing a lap-shoulder seat belt are reduced by 48 percent. The same study indicated that in 2007, an estimated 15,147 lives were saved by seat belts in the United States and that if seat belt use were increased to 100 percent, an additional 5024 lives would have been saved.[31]

text: An earlier statistical analysis by the NHTSA claimed that seat belts save over 10,000 lives every year in the US.[32]

text: According to a more recent fact sheet produced by the NHTSA:

text: By 2009, despite large increases in population and the number of vehicles, road deaths in Victoria had fallen below 300, less than a third of the 1970 level, the lowest since records were kept, and far below the per capita rate in jurisdictions such as the United States. This reduction was generally attributed to aggressive road safety campaigns beginning with the seat belt laws.[34][35]

text: A 2008 study in the Journal of Health Economics found that mandatory seat belt laws in the U.S. "significantly increased seatbelt use among high school age youths by 45-80%" and "significantly reduced traffic fatalities and serious injuries resulting from fatal crashes by 8 and 9%, respectively."[36] The authors note that these "results suggest that if all states had primary enforcement seatbelt laws then regular youth seatbelt use would be nearly universal and youth fatalities would fall by about 120 per year."[36]

text: Opposition[edit]

text: A number of groups and individuals are opposed to seat belt legislation. The most common grounds for opposition are:

text:
The view that laws requiring the wearing of seat belts are an infringement of individual liberty.
Claims that official estimates of the number of lives saved by seat belts are overstated or fail to take into account additional risks for other road users.

text: Risk compensation and other theories[edit]

text: The most common basis for disputing estimates of the benefits of seat belts is risk compensation and risk homeostasis, advanced by researchers John Adams and Gerald Wilde. The idea of this theory is that, if the risk of death or injury from a car crash is reduced by the wearing of seat belts, drivers will respond by reducing the precautions they take against crashes.

text: Along with many others[who?], Adams accepts the hypothesis that wearing seat belts improves a vehicle occupant’s chances of surviving a crash.[37]

text: In order to explain the disparity between the agreed improvement in crash survival and the observed results, Adams and Wilde argue that protecting someone from the consequences of risky behaviour may tend to encourage greater risk taking. Wilde states, "to compel a person to use protection from the consequences of hazardous driving, as seat belt laws do, is to encourage hazardous driving. A fine for non-compliance will encourage seat belt use, but the fact that the law fails to increase people's desire to be safe encourages compensatory behaviour." [38]

text: Studies and experiments have been carried out to examine the risk compensation theory. In one experiment subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving belted did not drive any slower when subsequently unbelted, but those who started driving unbelted did drive consistently faster when subsequently belted.[39] A study of habitual non-seat belt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seat belt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances.[40] In another study, taxi drivers who were habitual non-wearers were timed over a route with passengers who did, and others who did not, insist on the driver wearing a belt. They completed the route faster when belted.[41]

text: In addition to risk compensation, Adams has suggested other mechanisms that may lead to inaccurate or unsupportable predictions of positive benefits from seat belt legislation.

text:
Case-control studies based on voluntary use of safety aids can attribute to the aid benefits that actually come from the risk-averse nature of those likely to use them voluntarily (confounding), particularly early adopters.
Fatality rates are subject to considerable stochastic noise, and comparison of single years or short periods can be misleading.

text: Individual liberty[edit]

text: Opponents have objected to the laws on libertarian principles.[42] Some do so on the grounds that seat belt laws infringe on their civil liberties. They argue[where?] that not wearing seat belts is a victimless crime as the only person harmed is the one making that decision for himself about his own life.

text: The counterpoint to the libertarian view toward seat belt laws is that mandatory usage may reduce injuries and deaths (while possibly increasing the number of accidents) but also reduces the economic cost to society.[citation needed] Another notable scenario is of rear-seated passengers being forced forward in a crash and thus inadvertently harming the driver or front passenger. A University of Wisconsin study demonstrated that car accident victims who had not worn seat belts cost the hospital (and the state, in the case of the uninsured) on average 25% more.[43]

text: Side-effects of seat belts[edit]

text: Neck injuries can be caused by the deceleration from a high speed. The passengers head continues to move forward while the body is restrained, potentially causing paralyzing injuries. A study of such injuries notes, "Seatbelts save lives. However, they may cause injury to adjacent structures and when they malfunction can cause injury to the abdominal viscera, bony skeleton and vascular structures. The motor industry has attempted to reduce these injuries by modification of vehicle design and safety equipment."[44]


document_title: Smoking in Japan

question_text: how much is a pack of cigarettes in japan

text: Smoking in Japan

text: History[edit]

text: Until 1985, the tobacco industry was a government-run monopoly; the government of Japan is still involved in the industry through the Ministry of Finance, which after a sell-off in March 2013, now owns only one third of Japan Tobacco's outstanding stock, and the Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare, which is active in public health and other tobacco control policy making.[5]

text: The Diet of Japan has many MPs who have interests in the tobacco industry and thus tobacco control legislation is uncommon.[6]

text: Non-smoking areas are becoming increasingly common in Japan, in homes, offices, restaurants, fast-food eateries, "family restaurants," pachinko parlors, and public areas.[7] Kanagawa Prefecture enacted Japan's first smoke-free public places ordinance in 2009 and Hyogo Prefecture followed with a similar law in 2012.[8] All trains either have non-smoking cars or are completely smoking-free, as are many train station platforms in urban areas.[9]

text: Pricing[edit]

text: A particular brand of cigarettes in Japan costs the same across all vendors, from cigarette machines to big supermarkets to corner shops. Bulk purchases are not discounted. As of 6 August 2013, the price of a typical pack of cigarettes ranged from ¥410 to ¥440 yen. Because of the hike in the consumption sales tax to 8% on 1 April 2014, the range is now 430 to 460 yen.

text: Smoking bans[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2009)

text: Unlike in Europe, Australia and North America, where mandatory smoking bans apply in restaurants, bars, and public areas, smoking in Japan is not made illegal by Article 25 of the nation's Health Promotion Act, which merely urges smoking restrictions.  Limited indoor bans have been enacted in Kanagawa and Hyogo Prefectures, but not nationally.  Other restrictions may be implemented by the choice of public and private property  owners, managers, employers, etc.[10]

text: Many of the wealthier wards of Tokyo, such as Shinjuku and Shibuya, are applying various kinds of anti-smoking  laws. They have designated special smoking sections in areas and it is punishable by fine if caught smoking outside these areas. Chiyoda-ku banned smoking while walking on busy streets from November 2002, the first local government in Japan to do so.[11]

text: Starting in 2007, Kyoto began designating certain city streets as non-smoking areas, and have since then been increasing the number of streets designated as such.[12][13] In a 2010 report, Kyoto Prefecture stated that the major goal of their anti-smoking policies is "to ensure that there is zero chance for people to suffer from second-hand smoke in Kyoto prefecture."[14]

text: Corporate policy[edit]

text: Starbucks is one of the few service industry companies in Japan that bans smoking inside all of its stores,[15] but allows smoking and provides ashtrays in the outside seating areas at most stores in Osaka. McDonald's Japan plans to ban smoking at some of its stores following renovations,[15] and has banned smoking at its 298 restaurants in Kanagawa prefecture since 1 March 2010.[16] Kentucky Fried Chicken banned smoking at one branch in Shibuya, Tokyo in July 2010.[15]

text: Japanese women and smoking[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: While a high percentage of men in Japan have smoked throughout in the postwar years, the rate for women for many years hovered between 10 and 15%, followed there too by a decline in recent years to be floating currently a little below 10%.[18]

text: In the mid-1990s, the number of younger female smokers in particular had risen substantially.  Smoking has since declined among this group as well, but that cohort of women still smokes at a higher rate than their elders.[19]  "The manufacturers were very successful in providing cool images to the consumers," says Ministry of Health and Welfare technical officer Yumiko Mochizuki, when asked to explain the steady rise in female smokers. "Until recently, the Ministry of Health and Welfare had an understanding that smoking was entirely up to the individual."[20]

text: The government's advertising ban based on the "motherhood" argument was watertight until the tobacco industry was privatized in 1985. Advertising that encourages women to smoke is forbidden in Japan under a voluntary industry agreement. The industry group pledged to voluntarily honor the advertising ban and is charged with enforcing it. United States maker Brown & Williamson sells Capri cigarettes in Japan in slim white boxes with a flower-like design on the cover. R.J. Reynolds' Tokyo billboards for Salem's Pianissimo cigarettes are green-and-pink. Philip Morris advertised its Virginia Slims brand with the slogan "Be You" in an ad campaign.

text: Other factors contribute to the rise in female smokers. Some observers cite stress, saying that more Japanese women are smoking to relax as more enter the workforce. Others argue that smoking is one arena in which women can have equality with men.[citation needed] Media influence is also cited, as many women on popular Japanese television dramas smoke.

text: Cigarette vending machines[edit]

text: Cigarettes can be bought in tobacco stores and at vending machines, and public ashtrays dot sidewalks and train platforms. The number of cigarette vending machines in Japan is estimated at 500,000 in 2002.[21]

text: The law prohibits the smoking of cigarettes by persons under the age of twenty.[22]

text: Taspo is a smart card developed by the Tobacco Institute of Japan, the nationwide association of tobacco retailers, and the Japan Vending Machine Manufacturers Association. Introduced in 2008, the card is necessary to purchase cigarettes from vending machines.

text: In 2008 Japan Tobacco commissioned  a series of over 70 public service announcement style "smoking manner" posters about smoking etiquette.[23][24] The ads were displayed in a wide variety of formats ranging from placards in the subway to postcards to beverage coasters.


document_title: Sinusitis

question_text: inflammation of the mucous membranes of the sinuses is called

text: Sinusitis

text: Categories[edit]

text: Sinusitis (or rhinosinusitis) is defined as an inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the paranasal sinuses and is classified chronologically into several categories:[10]

text:
Acute rhinosinusitis – A new infection that may last up to four weeks and can be subdivided symptomatically into severe and non-severe. Some use definitions up to 12 weeks.[1]
Recurrent acute rhinosinusitis – Four or more full episodes of acute sinusitis that occur within one year
Subacute rhinosinusitis – An infection that lasts between four and 12 weeks, and represents a transition between acute and chronic infection
Chronic rhinosinusitis – When the signs and symptoms last for more than 12 weeks.[1]
Acute exacerbation of chronic rhinosinusitis – When the signs and symptoms of chronic rhinosinusitis exacerbate, but return to baseline after treatment

text: All these types of sinusitis have similar symptoms, and are thus often difficult to distinguish. Acute sinusitis is very common. Roughly ninety percent of adults have had sinusitis at some point in their life.[11]

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: Headache/facial pain or pressure of a dull, constant, or aching sort over the affected sinuses is common with both acute and chronic stages of sinusitis. This pain is typically localized to the involved sinus and may worsen when the affected person bends over or when lying down. Pain often starts on one side of the head and progresses to both sides.[12] Acute sinusitis may be accompanied by thick nasal discharge that is usually green in color and may contain pus (purulent) and/or blood.[13] Often a localized headache or toothache is present, and it is these symptoms that distinguish a sinus-related headache from other types of headaches, such as tension and migraine headaches. Another way to distinguish between toothache and sinusitis is that the pain in sinusitis is usually worsened by tilting the head forwards and with valsalva maneuvers.[14]

text: Infection of the eye socket is possible, which may result in the loss of sight and is accompanied by fever and severe illness. Another possible complication is the infection of the bones (osteomyelitis) of the forehead and other facial bones – Pott's puffy tumor.[12]

text: Sinus infections can also cause middle ear problems due to the congestion of the nasal passages. This can be demonstrated by dizziness, "a pressurized or heavy head", or vibrating sensations in the head. Post-nasal drip is also a symptom of chronic rhinosinusitis.

text: Halitosis (bad breath) is often stated to be a symptom of chronic rhinosinusitis; however, gold standard breath analysis techniques have not been applied. Theoretically, there are several possible mechanisms of both objective and subjective halitosis that may be involved.[14]

text: A 2004 study suggested that up to 90% of "sinus headaches" are actually migraines.[15][16][verification needed] The confusion occurs in part because migraine involves activation of the trigeminal nerves, which innervate both the sinus region and the meninges surrounding the brain. As a result, it is difficult to accurately determine the site from which the pain originates. People with migraines do not typically have the thick nasal discharge that is a common symptom of a sinus infection.[17]

text: By location[edit]

text: There are several paired paranasal sinuses, including the frontal, ethmoidal, maxillary and sphenoidal sinuses. The ethmoidal sinuses are further subdivided into anterior and posterior ethmoid sinuses, the division of which is defined as the basal lamella of the middle turbinate. In addition to the severity of disease, discussed below, sinusitis can be classified by the sinus cavity which it affects:

text:
Maxillary – can cause pain or pressure in the maxillary (cheek) area (e.g., toothache,[14] or headache) (J01.0/J32.0)
Frontal – can cause pain or pressure in the frontal sinus cavity (located above eyes), headache, particularly in the forehead (J01.1/J32.1)
Ethmoidal – can cause pain or pressure pain between/behind the eyes, the sides of the upper part of the nose (the medial canthi), and headaches (J01.2/J32.2)[18]
Sphenoidal – can cause pain or pressure behind the eyes, but often refers to the skull vertex (top of the head), over the mastoid processes, or the back of the head.[18]

text: Complications[edit]

text:
Stage
Description

I
Preseptal cellulitis

II
Orbital cellulitis

III
Subperiosteal abscess

IV
Orbital abscess

V
Cavernous sinus septic thrombosis

text: The proximity of the brain to the sinuses makes the most dangerous complication of sinusitis, particularly involving the frontal and sphenoid sinuses, infection of the brain by the invasion of anaerobic bacteria through the bones or blood vessels. Abscesses, meningitis and other life-threatening conditions may result. In extreme cases the patient may experience mild personality changes, headache, altered consciousness, visual problems, seizures, coma and possibly death.[12]

text: Sinus infection can spread through anastomosing veins or by direct extension to close structures. Orbital complications were categorized by Chandler et al.[19] into five stages according to their severity (see table). Contiguous spread to the orbit may result in periorbital cellulitis, subperiosteal abscess, orbital cellulitis, and abscess. Orbital cellulitis can complicate acute ethmoiditis if anterior and posterior ethmoidal veins thrombophlebitis enables the spread of the infection to the lateral or orbital side of the ethmoid labyrinth. Sinusitis may extend to the central nervous system, where it may cause cavernous sinus thrombosis, retrograde meningitis, and epidural, subdural, and brain abscesses.[20] Orbital symptoms frequently precede intracranial spread of the infection . Other complications include sinobronchitis, maxillary osteomyelitis, and frontal bone osteomyelitis.[21][22][23][24] Osteomyelitis of the frontal bone often originates from a spreading thrombo-phlebitis. A periostitis of the frontal sinus causes an osteitis and a periostitis of the outer membrane, which produces a tender, puffy swelling of the forehead.

text: The diagnosis of these complications can be assisted by noting local tenderness and dull pain, and can be confirmed by CT and nuclear isotope scanning. The most common microbial causes are anaerobic bacteria and S. aureus. Treatment includes performing surgical drainage and administration of antimicrobial therapy. Surgical debridement is rarely required after an extended course of parenteral antimicrobial therapy.[25] Antibiotics should be administered for at least 6 weeks. Continuous monitoring of patients for possible intracranial complication is advised.

text: Causes[edit]

text: Maxillary sinusitis may also be of dental origin ("odontogenic sinusitis"),[26] and constitutes a significant percentage (about 20% of all cases of maxillary sinusitis),[27] given the close proximity of the teeth and the sinus floor. The cause of this situation is usually a periapical or periodontal infection of a maxillary posterior tooth, where the inflammatory exudate has eroded through the bone superiorly to drain into the maxillary sinus. Once an odontogenic infection involves the maxillary sinus, it is possible that it may then spread to the orbit or to the ethmoid sinus.[27] Complementary tests based on conventional radiology techniques and modern technology may be indicated, based on the clinical context.

text: Chronic sinusitis can also be caused indirectly through a common but slight abnormality in the auditory or eustachian tube, which is connected to the sinus cavities and the throat. This tube is usually almost level with the eye sockets but when this sometimes hereditary abnormality is present, it is below this level and sometimes level with the vestibule or nasal entrance.

text: Acute[edit]

text: Acute sinusitis is usually precipitated by an earlier upper respiratory tract infection, generally of viral origin, mostly caused by rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and influenza viruses, others caused by adenoviruses, human parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses, and metapneumovirus. If the infection is of bacterial origin, the most common three causative agents are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.[28] Until recently, Haemophilus influenzae was the most common bacterial agent to cause sinus infections. However, introduction of the H. influenza type B (Hib) vaccine has dramatically decreased H. influenza type B infections and now non-typable H. influenza (NTHI) are predominantly seen in clinics. Other sinusitis-causing bacterial pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus and other streptococci species, anaerobic bacteria and, less commonly, gram negative bacteria. Viral sinusitis typically lasts for 7 to 10 days,[28] whereas bacterial sinusitis is more persistent. Approximately 0.5% to 2% of viral sinusitis results in subsequent bacterial sinusitis. It is thought that nasal irritation from nose blowing leads to the secondary bacterial infection.[29]

text: Acute episodes of sinusitis can also result from fungal invasion. These infections are typically seen in patients with diabetes or other immune deficiencies (such as AIDS or transplant patients on immunosuppressive anti-rejection medications) and can be life-threatening. In type I diabetics, ketoacidosis can be associated with sinusitis due to mucormycosis.[30]

text: Chemical irritation can also trigger sinusitis, commonly from cigarette smoke and chlorine fumes.[31] Rarely, it may be caused by a tooth infection.[28]

text: Chronic[edit]

text: By definition chronic sinusitis lasts longer than 12 weeks and can be caused by many different diseases that share chronic inflammation of the sinuses as a common symptom. Symptoms of chronic sinusitis may include any combination of the following: nasal congestion, facial pain, headache, night-time coughing, an increase in previously minor or controlled asthma symptoms, general malaise, thick green or yellow discharge, feeling of facial 'fullness' or 'tightness' that may worsen when bending over, dizziness, aching teeth, and/or bad breath.[10] Each of these symptoms has multiple other possible causes, which should be considered and investigated as well. Often chronic sinusitis can lead to anosmia, the inability to smell objects.[10] In a small number of cases, acute or chronic maxillary sinusitis is associated with a dental infection. Vertigo, lightheadedness, and blurred vision are not typical in chronic sinusitis and other causes should be investigated.[citation needed]

text: Chronic sinusitis cases are subdivided into cases with polyps and cases without polyps. When polyps are present, the condition is called chronic hyperplastic sinusitis; however, the causes are poorly understood[28] and may include allergy, environmental factors such as dust or pollution, bacterial infection, or fungus (either allergic, infective, or reactive).

text: Chronic rhinosinusitis represents a multifactorial inflammatory disorder, rather than simply a persistent bacterial infection.[28] The medical management of chronic rhinosinusitis is now focused upon controlling the inflammation that predisposes patients to obstruction, reducing the incidence of infections. However, all forms of chronic rhinosinusitis are associated with impaired sinus drainage and secondary bacterial infections. Most individuals require initial antibiotics to clear any infection and intermittently afterwards to treat acute exacerbations of chronic rhinosinusitis.

text: A combination of anaerobic and aerobic bacteria are detected in conjunction with chronic sinusitis. Also isolated are Staphylococcus aureus (including methicilin resistant S.aureus ) and coagulase-negative Staphylococci and Gram negative enteric organisms can be isolated.

text: Attempts have been made to provide a more consistent nomenclature for subtypes of chronic sinusitis. The presence of eosinophils in the mucous lining of the nose and paranasal sinuses has been demonstrated for many patients, and this has been termed eosinophilic mucin rhinosinusitis (EMRS). Cases of EMRS may be related to an allergic response, but allergy is not often documented, resulting in further subcategorization into allergic and non-allergic EMRS.[32]

text: A more recent, and still debated, development in chronic sinusitis is the role that fungi play in this disease. It remains unclear if fungi are a definite factor in the development of chronic sinusitis and if they are, what the difference may be between those who develop the disease and those who remain free of symptoms. Trials of antifungal treatments have had mixed results.

text: Recent theories of sinusitis indicate that it often occurs as part of a spectrum of diseases that affect the respiratory tract (i.e., the "one airway" theory) and is often linked to asthma.[33][34] All forms of sinusitis may either result in, or be a part of, a generalized inflammation of the airway, so other airway symptoms, such as cough, may be associated with it.

text: Both smoking and secondhand smoke are associated with chronic rhinosinusitis.[9]

text: Pathophysiology[edit]

text: It has been hypothesized that biofilm bacterial infections may account for many cases of antibiotic-refractory chronic sinusitis.[35][36][37] Biofilms are complex aggregates of extracellular matrix and inter-dependent microorganisms from multiple species, many of which may be difficult or impossible to isolate using standard clinical laboratory techniques.[38] Bacteria found in biofilms have their antibiotic resistance increased up to 1000 times when compared to free-living bacteria of the same species. A recent study found that biofilms were present on the mucosa of 75% of people undergoing surgery for chronic sinusitis.[39]

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: Acute[edit]

text: Health care providers distinguish bacterial and viral sinusitis by watchful waiting.[1] If a person has had sinusitis for fewer than 10 days without the symptoms becoming worse, then the infection is presumed to be viral.[1] When symptoms last more than 10 days or get worse in that time, then the infection is considered bacterial sinusitis.[40] Imaging by either X-ray, CT or MRI is generally not recommended unless complications develop.[40] Pain caused by sinusitis is sometimes confused for pain caused by pulpitis (toothache) of the maxillary teeth, and vice versa. Classically, the increased pain when tilting the head forwards separates sinusitis from pulpitis.

text: Chronic[edit]

text: For sinusitis lasting more than 12 weeks a CT scan is recommended.[40] On a CT scan, acute sinus secretions have a radiodensity of 10 to 25 Hounsfield units (HU), but in a more chronic state they become thickened, with a radiodensity of 30 to 60 HU.[41]

text: Nasal endoscopy and clinical symptoms are also used to make a positive diagnosis.[28] A tissue sample for histology and cultures can also be collected and tested.[42] Allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS) is often seen in people with asthma and nasal polyps. In rare cases, sinusoscopy may be made.

text: Nasal endoscopy involves inserting a flexible fiber-optic tube with a light and camera at its tip into the nose to examine the nasal passages and sinuses. This is generally a completely painless (although uncomfortable) procedure which takes between five and ten minutes to complete.

text:
MRI image showing sinusitis. Edema and mucosal thickening appears in both maxillary sinuses.

A computed tomograph showing infection of the ethmoid sinus

Maxillary sinusitis caused by a dental infection associated with periorbital cellulitis

Frontal sinusitis

text: Treatment[edit]

text:
Treatments[43][44]

Treatment
Indication
Rationale

Time
Viral and some bacterial sinusitis
Sinusitis is usually caused by a virus which is not affected by antibiotics[43]

Antibiotics
Bacterial sinusitis
Cases accompanied by extreme pain, skin infection, or which last a long time may be caused by bacteria.[43]

Nasal irrigation
Nasal congestion
Can provide relief by helping decongest.[43]

Drink liquids
Thick phlegm
Remaining hydrated loosens mucus.[43]

Antihistamines
Concern with allergies
Antihistamines do not relieve typical sinusitis or cold symptoms much; this treatment is not needed in most cases.[43]

Nasal spray
Desire for temporary relief
Tentative evidence that it help symptoms.[5] Does not treat cause. not recommended for more than three days' use.[43]

text: Recommended treatments for most cases of sinusitis include rest and drinking enough water to thin the mucus.[45] Antibiotics are not recommended for most cases.[45]

text: Breathing low-temperature steam such as from a hot shower or gargling can relieve symptoms.[45][46] There is tentative evidence for nasal irrigation.[5] Decongestant nasal sprays containing oxymetazoline may provide relief, but these medications should not be used for more than the recommended period. Longer use may cause rebound sinusitis.[47] It is unclear if nasal irrigation, antihistamines, or decongestants work in children with acute sinusitis.[48]

text: Antibiotics[edit]

text: Most sinusitis cases are caused by viruses and resolve without antibiotics.[28] However, if symptoms do not resolve within 10 days, amoxicillin is a reasonable antibiotic to use first for treatment[28] with amoxicillin/clavulanate being indicated when the person's symptoms do not improve after 7 days on amoxicillin alone.[40] A 2012 Cochrane review, however, found only a small benefit between 7 and 14 days, and could not recommend the practice when compared to potential complications and risk of developing resistance.[49] Antibiotics are specifically not recommended in those with mild / moderate disease during the first week of infection due to risk of adverse effects, antibiotic resistance, and cost.[50]

text: Fluoroquinolones, and a newer macrolide antibiotic such as clarithromycin or a tetracycline like doxycycline, are used in those who have severe allergies to penicillins.[51] Because of increasing resistance to amoxicillin the 2012 guideline of the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends amoxicillin-clavulanate as the initial treatment of choice for bacterial sinusitis.[52] The guidelines also recommend against other commonly used antibiotics, including azithromycin, clarithromycin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, because of growing drug resistance. The FDA recommends against the use of fluoroquinolones when other options are available due to higher risks of serious side effects.[53]

text: A short-course (3–7 days) of antibiotics seems to be just as effective as the typical longer-course (10–14 days) of antibiotics for those with clinically diagnosed acute bacterial sinusitis without any other severe disease or complicating factors.[54] The IDSA guideline suggest five to seven days of antibiotics is long enough to treat a bacterial infection without encouraging resistance. The guidelines still recommend children receive antibiotic treatment for ten days to two weeks.[52]

text: Corticosteroids[edit]

text: For unconfirmed acute sinusitis, intranasal corticosteroids have not been found to be better than a placebo either alone or in combination with antibiotics.[55] For cases confirmed by radiology or nasal endoscopy, treatment with corticosteroids alone or in combination with antibiotics is supported.[56] The benefit, however, is small.[57]

text: There is only limited evidence to support short treatment with oral corticosteroids for chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps.[58][59]

text: Surgery[edit]

text: For chronic or recurring sinusitis, referral to an otolaryngologist may be indicated, and treatment options may include nasal surgery. Surgery should only be considered for those people who do not benefit with medication.[58][60] It is unclear how benefits of surgery compare to medical treatments in those with nasal polyps as this has been poorly studied.[61]

text: Maxillary antral washout involves puncturing the sinus and flushing with saline to clear the mucus. A 1996 study of patients with chronic sinusitis found that washout confers no additional benefits over antibiotics alone.[62]

text: A number of surgical approaches can be used to access the sinuses and these have generally shifted from external/extranasal approaches to intranasal endoscopic ones. The benefit of functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) is its ability to allow for a more targeted approach to the affected sinuses, reducing tissue disruption, and minimizing post-operative complications.[63] The use of drug eluting stents such as propel mometasone furoate implant may help in recovery after surgery.[64]

text: Another recently developed treatment is balloon sinuplasty. This method, similar to balloon angioplasty used to "unclog" arteries of the heart, utilizes balloons in an attempt to expand the openings of the sinuses in a less invasive manner.

text: For persistent symptoms and disease in patients who have failed medical and the functional endoscopic approaches, older techniques can be used to address the inflammation of the maxillary sinus, such as the Caldwell-luc antrostomy. This surgery involves an incision in the upper gum, opening in the anterior wall of the antrum, removal of the entire diseased maxillary sinus mucosa and drainage is allowed into inferior or middle meatus by creating a large window in the lateral nasal wall.[65]

text: Epidemiology[edit]

text: Sinusitis is a common condition, with between 24 and 31 million cases occurring in the United States annually.[66][67] Chronic sinusitis affects approximately 12.5% of people.[9]

text: Research[edit]

text: Based on recent theories on the role that fungus may play in the development of chronic sinusitis, antifungal treatments have been used, on a trial basis. These trials have had mixed results.[28]


document_title: Solar-powered calculator

question_text: when was the first solar powered calculator invented

text: Solar-powered calculator

text: Solar-powered calculators are hand-held electronic calculators powered by solar cells mounted on the device.[1] They were introduced at the end of the 1970s.[2]

text: Amorphous silicon has been used as a photovoltaic solar cell material for devices which require very little power, such as pocket calculators, because their lower performance compared to conventional crystalline silicon solar cells is more than offset by their lower cost and simplified deposition onto a substrate. The first solar powered calculators available in the late 1970s included the Royal Solar 1, the Sharp EL-8026, and the Teal Photon.

text: Solar calculators use liquid crystal displays as they are power efficient and capable of operating in the low voltage range of 1.5–2 V. Some models also use a light pipe to converge light onto the solar cells.[3] However, solar calculators may not work well in indoor conditions under ambient lighting if sufficient light is not available.[4][5][6]

text: Anylite Technology is the name of a solar technology used by Texas Instruments since the 1980s in some calculators. They are intended to be able to function with less light than other solar calculators. This was essentially achieved by using relatively large photovoltaic solar cells.[7] The use of Anylite technology in modern TI calculators is denoted by a lower case "a" at the end of the model number (e.g. TI-30a). In older models, such as the TI-36 Solar, Anylite Solar is printed on the calculator.[8]

text: As of the 2010s, some very cheap calculators include a "dummy" solar panel, implying that they are solar-powered, when they are actually powered only by battery.[9]


document_title: Moana (2016 film)

question_text: what are the names of the characters in moana

text: Moana (2016 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: On the Polynesian island of Motunui, the inhabitants worship the goddess Te Fiti, who brought life to the ocean, using a pounamu stone as her heart and the source of her power. Maui, the shapeshifting demigod and master of sailing, steals the heart to give humanity the power of creation. However, Te Fiti disintegrates, and Maui is attacked by Te Kā, a volcanic demon, losing both his magical giant fishhook and the heart to the depths.

text: A millennium later, Moana, daughter of Motunui's chief Tui, is chosen by the ocean to return the heart to Te Fiti. However, Tui arrives and takes Moana away, causing her to lose the heart. Tui and Moana's mother, Sina, try to keep her away from the ocean to prepare her for ascension as the island's chief. Years later, a blight strikes the island, rotting the coconuts and dwindling the number of fish caught. Moana suggests going beyond the island's reef to find more fish, but Tui forbids it. Moana tries conquering the reef but is overpowered by the tides and shipwrecked back on Motunui.

text: Moana's grandmother Tala shows her a secret cave, where a number of ships are hidden, revealing to Moana that their people used to be voyagers. Tala explains they stopped when Maui stole Te Fiti's heart and that Te Kā's darkness is poisoning the island, but it can be cured if Moana finds Maui and makes him restore the heart of Te Fiti, which she gives to Moana. Tala falls ill shortly after and dies.

text: Moana sets sail on a camakau found in the cavern. She is caught in a typhoon and shipwrecked on an island where she finds the stranded Maui, who traps her and steals the camakau, but Moana catches up to him with help from the ocean. She demands that Maui return the heart but he refuses. Maui is accompanied by a sentient "Mini-Maui" tattoo, acting as his conscience.

text: They are attacked by Kakamora—coconut-armored pirates—who seek the heart, but Moana and Maui outwit them. Moana realizes Maui is no longer a hero, and convinces him to redeem himself by returning the heart. Maui first needs to obtain his magical fishhook, which is located in Lalotai, the Realm of Monsters, and is in the possession of Tamatoa, a giant, greedy coconut crab. Maui retrieves his fishhook while Moana distracts Tamatoa, but Maui discovers he cannot control his shapeshifting and loses self-confidence, quickly becoming overpowered by Tamatoa. Moana's quick thinking allows them to escape with the hook. Maui reveals that his first tattoo was earned when his mortal parents rejected him. After reassurance from Moana, Maui teaches her the art of sailing and regains control of his powers.

text: The two arrive at Te Fiti's island, only to be attacked by Te Kā, who badly damages Maui's fishhook. Fearful he will lose his hook, and therefore his power, Maui angrily abandons Moana, who tearfully asks the ocean to find someone else to restore the heart. The ocean obliges and takes the heart from Moana. Tala's spirit appears, inspiring Moana to find her true calling. She retrieves the heart and sails back to confront Te Kā. Maui returns, having had a change of heart, and buys Moana time to reach Te Fiti by fighting Te Kā, destroying his fishhook in the process. Moana discovers Te Fiti is missing, and realizes Te Kā is Te Fiti without her heart. Moana tells the ocean to clear a path, allowing her to restore Te Fiti's heart, transforming her back to normal. Te Fiti then heals the ocean and islands of the blight. Maui apologizes to Te Fiti, who restores his fishhook and falls into a deep sleep.

text: Moana bids farewell to Maui, returning home where she reunites with her parents. She takes up her role as chief and wayfinder, leading her people on a voyage.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Auliʻi Cravalho as Moana, the 16-year-old daughter of village chief Tui and Sina, who is chosen by the ocean to restore the heart of Te Fiti
Cravalho reprised her role in the Hawaiian-language version of the movie.[5]
Louise Bush as a younger Moana
Dwayne Johnson as Maui, a legendary shapeshifting demigod who sets off with Moana on her journey
Rachel House as Tala, Moana's grandmother. Like Moana, Tala shares a passion for the ocean
House reprised her role in the Māori-language version of the movie.[6][7]
Temuera Morrison as Tui, Moana's overprotective father, who is Tala's son, chief of Motunui Island
Morrison reprised his role in the Māori-language version of the movie.[6][7]
Christopher Jackson as Tui's singing voice
Jemaine Clement as Tamatoa, a giant treasure-hoarding coconut crab from Lalotai, the Realm of Monsters
Clement reprised his role in the Māori-language version of the movie.[6][7]
Nicole Scherzinger as Sina, Moana's mother and Tui's wife
Scherzinger also reprised her role in the Hawaiian-language version of the movie.[8]
Alan Tudyk as Heihei, Moana's pet rooster
Tudyk also voices Villager No. 3, who suggests cooking Heihei
Oscar Kightley as a fisherman
Troy Polamalu as Villager No. 1
Puanani Cravalho (Auliʻi's mother) as Villager No. 2

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: After directing The Princess and the Frog (2009), Clements and Musker started working on an adaptation of Terry Pratchett's Mort,[9] but problems with acquiring the necessary film rights prevented them from continuing with that project. To avoid a recurrence of that issue, they pitched three original ideas.[10] The genesis of one of those ideas (the one that was ultimately green-lighted) occurred in 2011, when Musker began reading up on Polynesian mythology, and learned of the heroic exploits of the demigod Māui. Intrigued with the rich culture of Polynesia, he felt it would be a suitable subject for an animated film. Shortly thereafter, Musker and Clements wrote a treatment and pitched it to John Lasseter, who recommended that both of them should go on research trips.[11][12] Accordingly, in 2012, Clements and Musker went on research trips to Fiji, Samoa, and Tahiti to meet the people of the South Pacific Ocean and learn about their culture.[13] At first, they had planned to make the film entirely about Maui, but their initial research trips inspired Clements to pitch a new idea focused on the young daughter of a chief.[14]

text: Clements and Musker were fascinated to learn during their research that the people of Polynesia abruptly stopped making long-distance voyages about three thousand years ago. Their navigational traditions predated those of European explorers, beginning around 300 CE.[15] Native people of the Pacific possessed knowledge of the world and their place in it prior to the incursion of foreigners. For example, Kānaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians) were well aware of the existence of far away islands, had names for these places, and were interested in exploring them to benefit their societies.[15] This voyaging heritage was made possible by a geographical knowledge system based on individual perspective rather than the European cardinal direction system.[15] The reasons for the halt of this voyaging tradition remain unknown, but scholars have offered climate change and resulting shifts in ocean currents and wind patterns as one possible explanation.[15] Native peoples of the Pacific resumed voyaging again a thousand years later. Clements and Musker set the film at the end of that era, about two thousand years ago, on a fictional island in the central Pacific Ocean, which drew inspiration from elements of the real-life island nations of Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga.[16]

text: Over the five years it took to develop and produce the film, Clements and Musker recruited experts from across the South Pacific to form an Oceanic Story Trust, who consulted on the film's cultural accuracy and sensitivity as the story evolved through nine versions.[17] The Trust responded negatively, for example, to a depiction of Maui as bald, and to a proposed scene in which Moana threw a tantrum by throwing coconuts. In response, Maui was reworked with long hair and the coconut scene was scrapped.[14]

text: Te Kā was referred to in early drafts of the film as Te Pō,[18] a reference to the Māori goddess Hine-nui-te-pō, who was originally the life-giving goddess Hine-tītama, but became the goddess of death upon discovering that her husband the god Tāne was also her father.[19] Māui set out to defeat her in order to bring immortality to humans, but failed and was himself killed.[20]

text: During the 2015 D23 Expo's panel for Disney's slate of upcoming animated films, Moana's last name was given as "Waialiki", but that name was not retained in the final film.[21]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Taika Waititi wrote the initial screenplay.[22] The first draft focused on Moana as the sole daughter in a family with "five or six brothers",[23] in which gender played into the story. However, the brothers and gender-based theme were deleted from the story, as the directors thought Moana's journey should be about finding herself.[12] A subsequent draft presented Moana's father as the one who wanted to resume navigation, but it was rewritten to have him oppose navigation so he would not overshadow Moana.[12] Instead, Pamela Ribon came up with the idea of a grandmother character for the film,[24] who would serve as a mentor linking Moana to ancient traditions.[23] Another version focused on Moana rescuing her father, who had been lost at sea.[25] The film's story changed drastically during the development phase (which happens with most Disney films), and that idea ultimately survived only as a subtle element of the father's backstory.[25] Aaron and Jordan Kandell joined the project during a critical period to help deepen the emotional story architecture of the film. They are credited with developing the core relationship between Moana and Maui, the prologue, the Cave of the Wayfinders, the Kakamora, and the collector crab Tamatoa (played by Jemaine Clement).[26] Jared Bush received sole credit as the writer of the final version of the screenplay.

text: Like most Disney and Pixar animated films, several major story problems were identified in 2015 only after the film had already transitioned from development into production, but computer-generated films tend to have much shorter production schedules and much larger animation teams (in this case, about 90 animators) than traditionally animated films.[25] Since Clements and Musker were already working 12-hour days (and Saturdays) directing such a large team of animators, Don Hall and Chris Williams (who had just finished directing Big Hero 6) came on board as co-directors to help fix the film's story issues.[25] The scene in which Maui and Moana encounter the Kakamora is an intentional homage to Mad Max: Fury Road.[25]

text: Casting[edit]

text: After the filmmakers sat through auditions of hundreds of candidates from across the Pacific,[13] 14-year-old high school freshman Auliʻi Cravalho was cast as the lead character Moana.[27][28] At that point in time, the design of Moana's face and personality was already complete, and Cravalho's obvious physical resemblance to her character was simply a coincidence.[29] During animation production, Disney animators were able to integrate some of Cravalho's mannerisms into Moana's behavior as depicted onscreen.[29]

text: The majority of the film's cast members are of Polynesian descent: Auliʻi Cravalho (Moana) and Nicole Scherzinger (Sina, Moana's mother) were born in Hawaii and are of Native Hawaiian heritage; Dwayne Johnson (Maui), Oscar Kightley (Fisherman), and Troy Polamalu (Villager No. 1) are of Samoan heritage; and New Zealand–born Rachel House (Tala, Moana's grandmother), Temuera Morrison (Tui, Moana's father), and Jemaine Clement (Tamatoa) are of Māori heritage.

text: Animation[edit]

text: Moana is Clements and Musker's first fully computer-animated film.[13][30] One of the reasons for using computer animation was that the environment, including the ocean, benefited much more from the use of CGI as opposed to traditional animation.[31] The filmmakers have also suggested that three-dimensional computer animation is well-suited to the "beautiful sculpturing" of the faces of the people of the South Pacific.[32] Eric Goldberg worked on the hand-drawn animation used to depict Maui's sentient tattoos.[33][34] During early development, the filmmakers considered the possibility of making the film with hand-drawn traditional animation, but only a few early animation tests were made in that style. In the final cut, only Maui's tattoos are hand-drawn.[35]

text: Moana was produced in makeshift quarters in a giant warehouse in North Hollywood (together with Zootopia), while Disney Animation's headquarters building in Burbank was being renovated. Musker observed that Moana was similar in that respect to The Little Mermaid, which was produced in a warehouse in Glendale. Production wrapped on October 20, 2016.[36]

text: Music and soundtrack[edit]

text: The film's soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on November 18, 2016. The songs were written by Opetaia Foa'i, Mark Mancina, and Lin-Manuel Miranda, while the score was written by Mancina.[37][38] The lyrics are in English, Samoan, and the Tokelauan language.[39] The soundtrack peaked at number two on the Billboard 200.[40]

text: Localization[edit]

text: In many European countries, the name of the titular character, Moana, was changed to Vaiana due to a trademark conflict. The film was released in those countries to bear the alternative name in the title.[41] In Italy, the film was released with the title Oceania.[42] Media outlets speculated that the name change was to avoid confusion with Italian pornographic actress Moana Pozzi,[43][44] and Disney Italy's head of theatrical marketing, Davide Romani, acknowledged they were "thinking about the issue" at a meeting of Italian exhibitors in 2015.[44]

text:
Following the success brought by international productions of Disney's Frozen, which led to the release of a complete set album which included all the official versions of "Let It Go" released at the time,[45] Disney decided to produce a special Tahitian dubbing for the movie. On October 25, 2016, at a press conference in Papeete, it was announced that the film will be the first motion picture to be fully dubbed in the Tahitian language.[46] This marks the third time Disney has released a special dubbing dedicated to the culture which inspired the film: the first case was The Lion King (1994), for which the directors travelled to South Africa to cast voice actors for a Zulu-dubbed version;[47] and the second case was Mulan (1998), which was the first Disney film to have a Mandarin Chinese dubbing made in China, separate from and independent of the version released in Taiwan.[48]
In June 2017, a Māori-language dubbing of the movie was announced,[49] premiering in Auckland on September 11, with 30 theatres screening it for free as part of Māori Language Week.[50] Rachel House, Jemaine Clement, Temuera Morrison, and Oscar Kightley reprised their respective roles in this version, directed by Rachel House herself.[51][52]
In November 2017, a Hawaiian-language dubbing was announced to be under way, with Auli'i Cravalho reprising her role as Moana.[5] The movie premiered on June 10, 2018.[53]

text:
show"Moana" worldwide

Language

Title

Translation

Arabic

موانا (Moana)

Bengali

মোয়ানা (Moana)

Brazilian Portuguese

Moana: Um mar de aventuras

Moana: A seaful of adventures

Bulgarian

Смелата Ваяна (Smelata Vayana)

Brave Vaiana

Canadian French

Moana

Cantonese Chinese

魔海奇缘

Romance of the demon of the ocean

Castilian Spanish

Vaiana

Catalan

Vaiana

Croatian

Vaiana: Potraga za mitskim otokom

Vaiana: Quest for an island of myth

Czech

Odvážná Vaiana: Legenda o konci světa

Brave Vaiana: The legend of the end of the world

Danish

Vaiana

Dutch

Vaiana

Estonian

Vaiana

European French

Vaiana, la Légende du bout du monde

Vaiana, the legend from the end of the Earth

European Portuguese

Vaiana

Finnish

Vaiana

Flemish

Vaiana

German

Vaiana – Das Paradies hat einen Haken

Vaiana – Paradise has a hook

Greek

Βαϊάνα (Vaiana)

Hawaiian

Moana

Hebrew

מואנה (Moana)

Hindi

मोआना (Moana)

Hungarian

Vaiana

Icelandic

Vaiana

Italian

Oceania

Japanese

モアナと伝説の海 (Moana to densetsu no umi)

Moana and the sea of legend

Kazakh

Моана (Moana)

Korean

모아나 (Moana)

Latin American Spanish

Moana: Un mar de aventuras

Moana: A seaful of adventures

Latvian

Vaiana

Lithuanian

Vaiana

Mandarin Chinese (China)

海洋奇缘 (Hǎiyáng qí yuán)

The romance of the ocean

Mandarin Chinese (Taiwan)

海洋奇缘 (Hǎiyáng qí yuán)

The romance of the ocean

Māori

Moana

Norwegian

Vaiana

Polish

Vaiana: Skarb oceanu

Vaiana: Treasure of the ocean

Romanian

Vaiana

Russian

Моана (Moana)

Serbian

Вајана (Vaiana)

Slovak

Vaiana

Slovene

Vaiana

Swedish

Vaiana

Tamil

மோனா (Moana)

Tahitian

Moana

Thai

ผจญภัยตำนานหมู่เกาะทะเลใต้ (P̄hcỵ p̣hạy tảnān h̄mū̀ keāa thale tı̂)

Adventure on the islands of the legendary southern sea

Turkish

Moana

Ukrainian

Ваяна (Vayana)

Vietnamese

Hành trình của Moana

Moana’s journey

text: Release[edit]

text: On October 20, 2014, Walt Disney Pictures announced that it would be releasing the film in late 2016,[54] and hinted that it might be the November 23, 2016 release window previously announced by the studio in March 2014 for a then-untitled film.[55] In November 2014, Disney confirmed that it would be releasing the film on November 23, 2016.[56] The film is accompanied by the short film, Inner Workings.[57] The film's world premiere was held at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on November 14, 2016.[58]

text: On January 27, 2017, a sing-along version of Moana was released in more than 2,000 theaters in the United States, featuring on-screen lyrics.[59]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On October 15, 2016, Hawaiian Airlines unveiled their Moana-themed livery for three of their Airbus A330-200 fleet.[60]

text: There are currently meet-and-greets with Moana at Disneyland, Walt Disney World, Disneyland Paris, and at Aulani, a Disney Resort and Spa. At Hong Kong Disneyland, there will be a stage show called Moana's Village Festival, which is scheduled to open in 2018.

text: Home media[edit]

text: Moana was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray (2D and 3D) and DVD in the United States on March 7, 2017, with a digital release on February 21, 2017. The releases include the short film, Inner Workings. The Blu-ray release also introduces a short film featuring Maui and Moana, titled Gone Fishing.[61] The film is also available for streaming on Netflix.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Moana grossed $248.7 million in the U.S. and Canada, and $394.5 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $643.3 million.[3] On January 22 and March 16, 2017, respectively, the film reached the $500 million and $600 million marks, becoming the fourth consecutive Walt Disney Animation Studios film to reach both milestones after Frozen (2013), Big Hero 6 (2014), and Zootopia (2016).[62][63] Although Disney has not disclosed the film's production budget, most of its animated films cost around $150 million.[64][65] Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $121.3 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 12th-most profitable release of 2016.[1]

text: North America[edit]

text: In the United States, Moana was released during the Thanksgiving weekend. The film played in 3,875 theaters of which a majority of them (80%) screened it in 3D. It also played in 50 premium large-format screens and more than 400 D-Box screens. It was projected to take in around $50 million in three days, with $75–85 million in five days (some estimates going as high as $90 million).[66][67][68] Deadline.com said the numbers were good for the original Disney film and marked a great rebound for the company in the wake of Pixar's The Good Dinosaur the previous year, which had made $55 million over five days off a production budget of $175–200 million.[69]

text: Moana made $2.6 million from Tuesday paid previews which began at 7 pm, the highest ever for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film and for a non-Pixar Disney animated film.[70] On its opening day, it made $15.5 million, a new record for a Walt Disney Animation Studios film opening on Wednesday (breaking Frozen's record) and the biggest opening day ever for a film released on pre-Thanksgiving Day.[71] On Thanksgiving Day, it earned $9.9 million, a decrease of 36% from its previous day. On Black Friday—the highest-grossing day of the Thanksgiving stretch—it made $21.8 million, a 127% increase from the day before.[72] Through Sunday, the film posted a three-day opening weekend worth $56.6 million over its Friday-to-Sunday debut and $82.1 million from Wednesday to Sunday, the third biggest three-day Thanksgiving opening[73] (behind Frozen and Toy Story 2) and the second-biggest five-day Thanksgiving opening[74] (behind Frozen), dethroning Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them off the top spot. Among all films that did not necessarily open in this weekend but may have played, Moana ranks sixth among three-day[75] weekends and fifth among five-day weekends.[76]

text: The film's opening was considered to be another animated success for the studio after Zootopia and Pixar's Finding Dory posted huge openings, respectively, the same year in March and June.[77]

text: In its second weekend, the film dropped by about 50% for a total of $28.3 million, a smaller drop than Toy Story 2, Frozen, Tangled, and The Good Dinosaur.[78][79] The film managed to top the box office for its third weekend, despite competition from newcomers and holdovers, earning $18.5 million while falling by 34%. It became the sixth film of 2016 to top the box office three times, following Deadpool, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, Finding Dory, and Suicide Squad.[80] The film was overtaken by Disney's own Rogue One: A Star Wars Story in its fourth weekend, despite only a marginal decline.[81]

text: It fell to number six in its fifth weekend, due to competition from four new releases—Sing, Passengers, Why Him?, and Assassin's Creed—despite a small drop again; it grossed $2.9 million on Christmas Day.[82] On the holiday week of December 23–29, the film finished at number four with a gross of $26 million, which was 14% up from the previous week, despite losing over 300 theaters.[83] It finished at number four in its sixth weekend, going up 42% and 97%, respectively, during the three-day[84] and four-day weekends;[85] it grossed $3.6 million on New Year's Day.

text: It fell outside the top ten in its eighth weekend (which included Martin Luther King Jr. Day), dropping 33% and 4%, respectively, during the three-day[86] and four-day weekends.[87]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: Internationally, the film earned $17.2 million in its first weekend from 12 markets, the bulk of which came from China. In its second weekend, the film expanded to a total of 30 markets, adding an additional $33.7 million.[88]

text: In China, the film had a November 25 opening day[89] with $1.9 million from 38,000 screenings. However, it enjoyed a big weekend bump on Saturday—even though its screens dipped—and Sunday.[90] In total, it scored an opening weekend of $17.2 million, the second best for a Disney animated title, behind only Zootopia. It was No. 2 behind Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. Strong social media numbers showed among the highest the studio has seen there, similar to how Zootopia started off slow and later became a blockbuster phenomenon.[91] The film slipped 55% in its second weekend, earning $5.8 million, and $21.8 in total in China.[92] It would eventually earn a total of $32.7 million in China.[89]

text: It had similar successful number-one debuts in France, Russia, Mexico and Spain. The film also saw success in Belgium, the Netherlands and French-speaking Switzerland.[88] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film faced competition from Fantastic Beasts—which was playing in its third weekend—and as a result, it posted a low opening of only £2.2 million ($2.8 million).[93]

text: The biggest earning markets to date have been Japan ($45.9 million), followed by France ($35.5 million), China ($32.8 million), the UK ($25.3 million), Brazil ($22.9 million), Australia ($19 million), Germany ($17 million), Italy ($15.9 million), and South Korea ($15.5 million).[94]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Moana holds an approval rating of 96% based on 246 reviews, and an average rating of 7.9/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "With a title character as three-dimensional as its lush animation and a story that adds fresh depth to Disney's time-tested formula, Moana is truly a family-friendly adventure for the ages."[95] Subsequently, the film is also listed as number 11 on the website's "50 Best Computer Animated Movies" list.[96] On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 81 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[97] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on a scale ranging from A+ to F, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave an 89% overall positive score and a 71% "definite recommend".[70]

text: Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal proclaimed that "Moana is beautiful in more ways than I can tell, thanks to the brilliance of more animators than I could count."[98] Animator Eric Goldberg received praise from critics and audiences for his hand-drawn animation of Maui's tattoos, which they claimed "stole the show" from the actual CGI-animated motion picture.[99][100][101] Wai Chee Dimock, writing in the Los Angeles Review of Books, compared the ocean in Moana to the one in "The Water Baby", a short story by Jack London, saying that both are animated: one, by the tension between digital and analog animation, and the other, by the tension between an encroaching future and a past in retreat still capable of pushing back.[102]

text: Christy Lemire of RogerEbert.com gave the film three-and-a-half out of four stars, stating that "'Moana' would have been enormously entertaining regardless of when it came out, but its arrival at this particular moment in history gives it an added sense of significance—as well as inspiration."[103] Peter Debruge of Variety praised the film, calling it "a return to the heights of the Disney Renaissance".[104]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Disney has been accused of appropriating Polynesian mythology and culture. Through the film, the corporation has been claimed to perpetuate settler colonialist practices of exploitation and erasure by utilizing the knowledge and narratives of native peoples to spur a profitable capitalist enterprise of music, celebrities and merchandise.[105] A Maui "skin suit" costume made to tie in with the film was pulled by Disney from its online store following complaints about it being culturally insensitive[106] and for appearing to promote brownface.[107]

text: The film takes specific cultural elements from a variety of native Pacific groups and incorporates them into one generalized portrayal of Polynesian culture. This conglomeration of cultures has been regarded as degrading to the diversity of the Pacific, falsely reducing all of Polynesia to a single cultural entity.[105]

text: The film has also been criticized as a tourism advertisement for the Pacific. It has been accused of fetishizing Polynesian island nations as exotic vacation spots, the people and culture of which exist only to entertain foreign audiences.[105] Disney initiating a partnership with Hawaiian Airlines[108] to promote the film has been perceived as having this particular motive, as well as Auliʻi Cravalho speaking with The New York Times in an interview sharing travel tips for visitors to Hawaii.[109] Critiques of these promotional tactics focus on how adverse effects of tourism have devastated native communities in the Pacific, resulting in environmental degradation and poverty.[110]

text: Colin Philp, an educator on Polynesian history, noted that the sailing canoe used by the film's protagonists is believed to be a Fijian camakau, and that the film's concept artists based it on one of the canoes they saw when they visited the Korova settlement in Laucala. Philp said that using that design without permission of the Korova community could be viewed as a violation of the intellectual property rights of their elders.[111]

text: Brigham Young University–Hawaii sociocultural anthropologist Tēvita 'Ō. Ka'ili stated that "despite its important girl-power message, the film had a major flaw. It lacked symmetry by its omission of a heroic goddess. Disney resorted to reducing the mighty god Maui to a one-dimensional, selfish, borderline abusive, buffoon to foreground the strength of the movie's protagonist Moana." He went on to explain that, "the omission of a goddess-heroine is significant because Polynesia is a culture with a vast pantheon of powerful heroic goddesses. Hina, a companion goddess to the god Maui, was nowhere to be found in Disney's imagineering of Moana."[112]

text: Accolades[edit]