document_title: 10 Things I Hate About You

question_text: where was prom filmed in 10 things i hate about you

text: 10 Things I Hate About You

text: Plot[edit]

text: Cameron James, a new student at Padua High School in the Seattle area, becomes instantly smitten with popular sophomore Bianca Stratford. Geeky Michael Eckman warns him that Bianca is vapid and conceited, and that her overprotective father does not allow Bianca or her older sister, the shrewish Kat, to date. Kat, a senior, is accepted to Sarah Lawrence College in New York, but her father, Walter, wants her to stay close to home. Bianca wishes to date affluent senior Joey Donner, but Walter, an obstetrician worrisome of teenage pregnancy, will not allow his daughters to date until they graduate. Frustrated by Bianca's insistence and Kat's rebelliousness, Walter declares that Bianca may date only when Kat does, knowing that Kat's antisocial attitude makes this unlikely.

text: When Cameron asks Bianca out, she informs him of her father's new rule and, as a pretense for allowing her to date Joey, suggests that Cameron find someone willing to date Kat. Cameron selects "bad boy" Patrick Verona, but Patrick scares him off. Michael assists by convincing Joey to pay Patrick to take out Kat, under the pretense that this will allow Joey to date Bianca. Patrick agrees to the deal, but Kat rebuffs his first few advances. Michael and Cameron help him by prying Bianca for information on Kat's likes and dislikes. Armed with this knowledge, Patrick begins to win Kat's interest. She goes to a party with him, which enables Bianca to go as well, much to Walter's dismay.

text: At the party, Kat becomes upset when she sees Bianca with Joey, and responds by getting drunk. Patrick attends to her, and Kat starts to open up, expressing her interest in starting a band. However, when she tries to kiss him, Patrick pulls away and Kat leaves, infuriated. Meanwhile, Bianca ignores Cameron in favor of Joey, leaving Cameron dejected. Bianca soon realizes, however, that Joey is shallow and self-absorbed, and asks Cameron for a ride home. Cameron admits his feelings for her and his frustration with how she has treated him. Bianca responds by kissing him.

text: Joey offers to pay Patrick to take Kat to the prom so he can take Bianca. Patrick initially refuses, but relents when Joey offers him more money. Kat is still angry with Patrick, but he wins her over by serenading her with the accompaniment of the marching band, and she helps him sneak out of detention. They go on a date which turns romantic, but Kat becomes suspicious and angry when Patrick insists that she go with him to the prom, an event she is adamantly against. Bianca is irritated that Cameron has not asked her to the prom, and so accepts Joey's invitation, but Walter will not allow it unless Kat goes too. Kat confesses to Bianca that she dated Joey when they were freshmen and, succumbing to peer pressure, had sex with him. Afterward she regretted it and Joey dumped her, so she vowed to never again do anything just because everyone else was doing it. Bianca insists that she can make her own choices, so Kat agrees to go to the prom with Patrick, and Bianca decides to go with Cameron instead of Joey.

text: All is going well at the prom until Bianca learns that Joey planned to have sex with her that night. Angry that Bianca has spurned him for Cameron, Joey reveals his arrangement with Patrick, which causes Kat to leave heartbroken. Joey then punches Cameron, but is in turn beaten up by Bianca for having hurt her, Kat, and Cameron. Bianca and Cameron share another kiss.

text: The next day, Bianca reconciles with Kat and begins dating Cameron. Walter admits that Kat is capable of taking care of herself, and gives her permission to attend Sarah Lawrence College. For an assignment in which the students were required to write their own version of William Shakespeare's Sonnet 141, Kat reads aloud a poem titled "10 Things I Hate About You", revealing that she still loves Patrick. Patrick surprises her with a guitar bought with the money that Joey paid him, and confesses that he has fallen for her. Kat forgives him, and the two reconcile with a kiss.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Julia Stiles as Katarina "Kat" Stratford, the antisocial, shrewish elder Stratford sister.
Heath Ledger as Patrick Verona, the "bad boy" who is hired to date Kat and falls for her in the process.
Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Cameron James, the new student at Padua High School who is smitten with Bianca and goes to great lengths to win her favor.
Larisa Oleynik as Bianca Stratford, the younger of the two Stratford sisters, superficial and popular.
Larry Miller as Walter Stratford, an obstetrician and single parent who is overprotective of his daughters, Kat and Bianca.
Andrew Keegan as Joey Donner, an affluent, self-absorbed high school senior and aspiring model who intends to have sex with Bianca, and to that end pays Patrick to date Kat.
David Krumholtz as Michael Eckman, a geek who assists Cameron in his quest to woo Bianca, and in the process tries to woo Kat's friend Mandella.
Susan May Pratt as Mandella, Kat's only close friend and an aficionado of William Shakespeare, who ends up going to the prom with Michael.
Gabrielle Union as Chastity Church, Bianca's best friend, who betrays Bianca by going out with Joey when Bianca spurns him.
Daryl Mitchell as Mr. Morgan, teacher of Kat, Patrick, and Joey's English class.
Allison Janney as Ms. Perky, Padua High School's guidance counselor and a writer of erotic literature.
David Leisure as Mr. Chapin, coach of the girls' soccer team.
Greg Jackson as "Scurvy", a friend of Patrick.
Kyle Cease as Bogey Lowenstein, a golf enthusiast and member of a clique of aspiring MBAs.
The band Letters to Cleo (singer Kay Hanley, guitarists Greg McKenna and Michael Eisenstein, bassist Scott Riebling, and drummer Jason Sutter) appears as the band performing at Club Skunk, playing their songs "Come On" and "Co-Pilot", and playing a cover version of Cheap Trick's "I Want You to Want Me" on the school's rooftop during the closing credits. Hanley and Eisenstein also appear in the prom scene, performing a cover of Nick Lowe's "Cruel to Be Kind" with Save Ferris.
The band Save Ferris (singer Monique Powell, guitarist Brian Mashburn, bassist Bill Uechi, trumpeter José Castellaños, trombonist Brian Williams, saxophonist Eric Zamora, and drummer Evan Kilbourne) appears as the band performing at the prom, playing their songs "I Know" and "Can't Stop" as well as covers of The Isley Brothers' "Shout" and Nick Lowe's "Cruel to Be Kind".

text: Production[edit]

text: Many of the scenes were filmed on location at Stadium High School and at a house in the Proctor District of Tacoma, Washington. The prom sequence was shot over three days in Seattle.[2]

text: Costume designer Kim Tillman designed original dresses for Larisa Oleynik and Julia Stiles as well as the period outfits for Susan May Pratt and David Krumholtz. Gabrielle Union's snakeskin prom dress is a Betsey Johnson design. Heath Ledger and Joseph Gordon-Levitt's vintage tuxes came from Isadora's in Seattle.[2]

text: The primary tagline is an allusion to a poem written by Elizabeth Barrett Browning from her Sonnets from the Portuguese collection. ("How do I loathe thee? Let me count the ways.") Another tagline is a spoof from Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet ("Romeo, Oh Romeo, Get Out Of My Face.") and another is a line from The Taming of the Shrew that is spoken in the film by Cameron ("I burn, I pine, I perish!"). The original script was finalized on November 12, 1997.[3]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed US$8,330,681 in 2,271 theaters in the United States and Canada, averaging $3,668 per venue, and ranking number two at the box office (behind The Matrix). It grossed a total of $38,178,166 in the United States and Canada and $15,300,000 in other territories, about $53,500,000 worldwide. The film had an estimated budget of $16 million and is considered a moderate financial and critical success. On October 12, 1999, the Region 1 DVD was released. In the box office, the film is number ten in teen romance, 18th in high school comedies, and ranked 96th in  comedies.[4]

text: Critics[edit]

text: The film received generally positive feedback from critics. Geoff Andrew from Time Out praised the film's leads, stating "Stiles grows into her character, and Ledger is effortlessly charming".[5]  Brad Laidman from Film Threat said the film was "pure of heart and perfectly executed."[6] Ron Wells, another critic from Film Threat, expressed, "Of all the teen films released this year, this one is, by far, the best."[7] Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four:

text:
“

I liked the movie's spirit, the actors and some of the scenes. The music, much of it by the band Letters to Cleo, is subtle and inventive while still cheerful.[8]

”

text: Entertainment Weekly listed the film at #49 on its list of Best High School Movies.[9]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film got a 61% from critics, based on 62 reviews, with a rating of 6.1/10. The critical consensus on the site was:

text:
“

Julia Stiles and Heath Ledger add strong performances to an unexpectedly clever script, elevating 10 Things (slightly) above typical teen fare."[10]

”

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: 10 Things I Hate About You was a breakthrough role for stars Stiles, Ledger, and Gordon-Levitt.[11][12][13] Gordon-Levitt, Stiles, and Oleynik each received Young Star Award nominations for Best Actor/Actress in a Comedy Film. The movie was nominated for seven Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie: Breakout Star (Stiles), Choice Movie: Comedy, Choice Movie: Funniest Scene (featuring Krumholtz), Choice Movie: Love Scene (featuring Stiles and Ledger), Choice Movie: Hissy Fit (Gordon-Levitt), Choice Movie: Villain (Gordon-Levitt) and Choice Movie: Soundtrack. The film's casting directors Marcia Ross and Donna Morong won "Best Casting for Feature Film, Comedy" at the Casting Society of America in 1999. In 2000, Stiles won the CFCA Award for "Most Promising Actress" for her role as Kat Stratford (tied with Émilie Dequenne in Rosetta) and an MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female Performance. The same year, Ledger was nominated for Best Musical Performance for the song "Can't Take My Eyes Off You."

text: Soundtrack album[edit]

text: The soundtrack album features popular modern rock anthems from 1970s up to the late 1990s, including various covers from Letters to Cleo, who created modernised renditions of songs such as "I Want You To Want Me" by Cheap Trick and "Cruel to Be Kind" by Nick Lowe. The albums peak position in the Billboard (magazine) charts was 52nd,[14] which was just after its release and it managed to hold a place in the Billboard top 200 for a total of 27 weeks.[15] Artists such as The Notorious B.I.G. and Joan Jett were also used in the films soundtrack, although were not featured on the soundtrack album. The album was described by AllMusic as "One of the best modern rock soundtracks of the spring 1999 season".[16]

text:
10 Things I Hate About You
Soundtrack album by various artistsReleased
April 6, 1999 (1999-04-06)Genre
Alternative rockskapopfunkLabel
Hollywood

text: Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllmusic[17]

text: No.TitleWriter(s)PerformerLength1."I Want You to Want Me" (originally performed by Cheap Trick)Rick NielsenLetters to Cleo3:252."F.N.T." (from Great Divide, 1996)Dan Wilson, Jacob SlichterSemisonic3:293."I Know" (contains an interpretation of "Shout", written by O'Kelly Isley, Ronald Isley, and Rudolph Isley and originally performed by The Isley Brothers)Michael Holton, Miré Molner, Brian MashburnSave Ferris2:524."Your Winter" (from Fortress, 2000)Ken Block, Jett Beres, Andrew Copeland, Ryan Newell, Mark Trojanowski, Bill SmithSister Hazel4:395."Even Angels Fall" (from Key of a Minor, 2000)Tom Whitlock, Jessica Riddle, Kim Bullard, Penny FramstadJessica Riddle3:276."New World" (from Leroy, 2001)Leroy MillerLeroy3:027."Saturday Night"Rodney Jerkins, Marti Sharron, Dan SembelloTa-Gana4:268."Atomic Dog" (from Computer Games, 1982)George Clinton, Garry Shider, David SpradleyGeorge Clinton4:449."Dazz" (from Good High, 1976)Ray Ransom, Edward Irons, Reginald HargisBrick3:2410."The Weakness in Me" (from Walk Under Ladders, 1981)Joan ArmatradingJoan Armatrading3:3211."War" (from "My Favourite Game", 1998)Peter Svensson, Nina PerssonThe Cardigans3:5712."Wings of a Dove" (1983)Carl Smyth, Graham McPhersonMadness3:0013."Cruel to Be Kind" (originally performed by Nick Lowe)Nick Lowe, Ian GommLetters to Cleo3:0114."One More Thing"Richard GibbsRichard Gibbs3:01Total length:49:59

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: In June 1999, the Scholastic Corporation published a novelization of the story, adapted by David Levithan.[18] The story is retold as it is in the film with each chapter written from the point of view of either Bianca, Cameron, Kat, Patrick, or Michael.

text: In October 2008, ABC Family ordered a pilot episode of 10 Things I Hate About You, a half-hour, single-camera comedy series based on the feature film of the same name. Larry Miller is the only actor from the film to reprise his role in the television series. The director of the film, Gil Junger, directed many of the episodes including the pilot while the film's music composer, Richard Gibbs, also returned to do the show's music. The series was adapted and produced by Carter Covington.[19] The show premiered on July 7, 2009,[20] and lasted 20 episodes.

text: References to Shakespeare[edit]

text: The film is a retelling of William Shakespeare's play The Taming of the Shrew in an American high school setting. Screenwriters Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith also wrote the script for She's the Man (2006), a retelling of Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night set in an American college.

text: Kat and Bianca share the same names as the female leads in the original play. Their surname is Stratford, a nod to Shakespeare’s birthplace. Patrick’s surname Verona references the home of his relative character Petruchio. The characters attend Padua High School, named after where the play is set.

text: Cameron (Lucentio, who disguises himself as a tutor named Cambio) tutors Bianca in French and slips in a line from play while obsessing over her: “I burn, I pine, I perish”. Patrick's character reflects the outlandish behavior of Petruchio, and Michael coerces Patrick into the marching band incident with the words from Sonnet 56: “Sweet love, renew thy force”. The physicality of Petruchio and Katherina is transformed into a playful paintball match; the prom substitutes for the Act V feast; Kat's poem replaces Katherina's famous Act V speech; and Joey Donner's wager over Bianca's virginity parallels the bet placed by Shakespeare's husbands regarding their partners' obedience.[21]


document_title: United States presidential primary

question_text: by tradition which state’s caucus is the first presidential contest held every four years

question_tokens: by tradition which state 's caucus is the first presidential contest held every four years

root

text: United States presidential primary

text: Background[edit]

text: There is no provision for the role of political parties in the United States Constitution, since the Founding Fathers did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. Thus in the first two presidential elections, the Electoral College handled the nominations and elections in 1789 and 1792 that selected George Washington. The beginnings of the American two-party system then emerged from Washington's immediate circle of advisors. Hamilton and Madison, who wrote the aforementioned Federalist Papers against political factions, ended up being the core leaders in this partisanship: Hamilton became the leader of Federalist Party while Madison co-helmed the Democratic-Republican Party with Thomas Jefferson.[1][2]

tag: p

text: Starting with the 1796 election, Congressional party or a state legislature party caucus selected the party's presidential candidates.[3] Before 1820, Democratic-Republican members of Congress would nominate a single candidate from their party. That system collapsed in 1824, and since 1832 the preferred mechanism for nomination has been a national convention.[4]

text: History[edit]

text: The first national convention was called by the Anti-Masonic Party in 1831, as they could not use the caucus system because they had no Congressmen. The party leaders instead called for a national meeting of supporters to select the party's candidate. This convention was held in Baltimore, Maryland on September 26, 1831 which selected William Wirt as their Presidential candidate.[5]

text: Delegates to the national convention were usually selected at state conventions whose own delegates were chosen by district conventions. Sometimes they were dominated by intrigue between political bosses who controlled delegates; the national convention was far from democratic or transparent. Progressive Era reformers looked to the primary election as a way to measure popular opinion of candidates, as opposed to the opinion of the bosses. Florida enacted the first presidential primary in 1901. The Wisconsin direct open primary of 1905 was the first to eliminate the caucus and mandate direct selection of national convention delegates. In 1910, Oregon became the first state to establish a presidential preference primary, which requires delegates to the National Convention to support the winner of the primary at the convention. By 1912, twelve states either selected delegates in primaries, used a preferential primary, or both. By 1920 there were 20 states with primaries, but some went back, and from 1936 to 1968, 12 states used them.

text: The primary received its first major test in the 1912 election pitting incumbent President William Howard Taft against challengers Theodore Roosevelt and Robert La Follette. Roosevelt proved the most popular candidate, but as most primaries were non-binding "preference" shows and held in only fourteen of the-then forty-eight states, the Republican nomination went to Taft, who controlled the convention.

text: Seeking to boost voter turnout, New Hampshire simplified its ballot access laws in 1949. In the ensuing non-binding "beauty contest" of 1952, Republican Dwight Eisenhower demonstrated his broad voter appeal by out-polling the favored Robert A. Taft, "Mr. Republican." Also, Democrat Estes Kefauver defeated incumbent President Harry S. Truman, leading the latter to decide not to run for another term.[6] The first-in-the-nation New Hampshire primary has since become a widely observed test of candidates' viability.

text: The impetus for national adoption of the binding primary election was the chaotic 1968 Democratic National Convention. Vice President Hubert Humphrey secured the Presidential nomination despite not winning a single primary under his own name. After this, a Democratic National Committee-commissioned panel led by Senator George McGovern – the McGovern–Fraser Commission – recommended that states adopt new rules to assure wider participation. A large number of states, faced with the need to conform to more detailed rules for the selection of national delegates, chose a presidential primary as an easier way to come into compliance with the new national Democratic Party rules. The result was that many more future delegates would be selected by a state presidential primary. The Republicans also adopted many more state presidential primaries. By 1992, Democrats had primaries in 40 states and Republicans in 39.

text: With the broadened use of the primary system, states have tried to increase their influence in the nomination process. One tactic has been to create geographic blocs to encourage candidates to spend time in a region. Vermont and Massachusetts attempted to stage a joint New England primary on the first Tuesday of March, but New Hampshire refused to participate so it could retain its traditional place as the first primary. The first regional primary was the Southern Super Tuesday of March 8, 1988, in which nine states united in the idea that a candidate would reflect regional interests.[7] It failed as all but two of the eight major candidates won at least one primary on that day.

text: Front-loading[edit]

text: Another trend is to stage earlier and earlier primaries, given impetus by Super Tuesday and the mid-1990s move (since repealed) of the California primary and its bloc of votes—the largest in the nation—from June to March. To retain its tradition as the first primary in the country (and adhere to a state law which requires it to be), New Hampshire moved their primary forward, from early March to early January.

text: A major reason states try to increase their influence, and vie for earlier primaries, is that in recent years the races have usually been decided before the primary season has ended in June. For example, John McCain officially clinched the 2008 Republican presidential nomination in March,[8] while during that same month Barack Obama held a substantial lead in pledged delegates in the Democratic Party primaries.[9] In 2012, Obama faced no major challenger in the Democratic Party primaries since he had the advantage of incumbency (see below), while Mitt Romney gained enough delegates to be declared the presumptive Republican nominee by late April.[10]

text: In 2012, both the Republicans and the Democrats moved their Florida primary to January 31, which was an earlier date than past election cycles. In response, other states also changed their primary election dates for 2012, in order to claim a greater influence, creating a cascade of changes in other states. This followed what happened in 2008 when Nevada moved its caucuses to January, causing other states to also move their primaries to earlier dates. Senate Majority Leader and Nevada Senator Harry Reid was a major proponent of moving that state's caucuses to January, arguing that Nevada would be the perfect American microcosm: its western location, significant minority population, and strong labor population would be more representative of the country as a whole than Iowa and New Hampshire.[11]

text: Both parties then enacted stricter timing rules for 2016: primaries and caucuses cannot start until February 1; and only Iowa, New Hampshire, South Carolina and Nevada are entitled to February contests.

text: In U.S. territories[edit]

text: The primary and caucus system is the only method in which voters in Puerto Rico, Guam, and other U.S. territories can have a say in the presidential race. Under the U.S. Constitution, U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College, and thus voters residing in those areas are basically ineligible to vote in the general election. On the other hand, as stated above, the primaries and caucuses are non-governmental party affairs. Both the Democratic and Republican parties, as well as other third parties, have agreed to let these territories participate in the presidential nomination process.[12] In the two major party's rules, "territories" are referred to as "states", which can be carried over in discussion and media implying there are more than 50 states.

text: Advantage of incumbency[edit]

text: An incumbent President seeking re-election usually faces no opposition during their respective party's primaries, especially if they are still popular. For Presidents Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama, for example, their respective paths to nomination became uneventful and the races become merely pro forma; all four then went on to win a second presidential term. Serious challenges are rare, but then generally presage failure to win the general election in the fall. During the 1976 Republican Party primaries, then-former California Governor Reagan carried 23 states while running against incumbent President Gerald Ford; Ford then went on to lose the Presidential election to Jimmy Carter. Senator Ted Kennedy then carried 12 states while running against Carter during the 1980 Democratic Party primaries; Reagan then defeated Carter in the fall. Pat Buchanan captured a decent percentage of a protest vote against George H.W. Bush during the 1992 Republican primaries, but only received a handful of delegates; Bush too subsequently went on to lose in the general election to Clinton.

text: Process[edit]

text: Both major political parties of the U.S.—the Democratic Party and the Republican Party—officially nominate their candidate for President at their respective national conventions. Each of these conventions is attended by a number of delegates selected in accordance with the given party's bylaws. The results of the presidential primaries and caucuses bind many of these delegates, known as pledged delegates, to vote for a particular candidate.[13]

text: Both parties also have a group of unpledged delegates. Republicans have three At-Large delegates selected at the state convention from all the states and territories, 168 in number. These are each states' two national committeepersons and the state chairperson.

text: In Democratic primaries through 2016, about 85% of delegates to the Democratic National Convention are "pledged delegates" who are apportioned to candidates according to the results of primaries and caucuses. The remaining 15% are unpledged superdelegates (consisting of sitting Democratic governors, sitting Democratic members of Congress (i.e., senators and representatives), former and current Democratic presidents and vice presidents, and a few leaders of Democratic National Committee-affiliated organizations, such as the Young Democrats of America) who can vote for whomever they wish.[14][15] Some superdelegates are former or current state or federal lobbyists.[14] In 2016, following a push by Senator Bernie Sanders,[16] the party voted in favor of superdelegate reform, such that in future presidential elections most superdelegates will be bound to their state primary results.[17]

text: Types of primaries and caucuses[edit]

text: Franchise in a primary or caucus is governed by rules established by the state party, although the states may impose other regulations.

text: While most states hold primary elections, a handful of states hold caucuses. Instead of going to a polling place, voters attend local private events run by the political parties, and cast their selections there. The advantage of caucuses is that the state party runs the process directly instead of having the state and local governments run them. The disadvantage is that most election laws do not normally apply to caucuses.[18]

text: Nearly all states have a binding primary or caucus, in which the results of the election depending on state law or party rules legally bind some or all of the delegates to vote for a particular candidate at the national convention, for a certain number of ballots or until the candidate releases the delegates. Some binding primaries are winner-take-all contests, in which all of a state's delegates are required to vote for the same candidate. In a proportional vote, a state's delegation is allocated in proportion to the candidates' percent of the popular vote in a congressional district. In many of those states that have proportional vote primaries, a candidate must meet a certain threshold in the popular vote to be given delegates.[13]

text: A handful of states practice non-binding "beauty contests", which are public opinion surveys for use by caucus delegates to select candidates to a state convention, which then in turn selects delegates to the national convention.

text: In many states, only voters registered with a party may vote in that party's primary, known as a closed primary. In some states, a semi-closed primary is practiced, in which voters unaffiliated with a party (independents) may choose a party primary in which to vote. In an open primary, any voter may vote in any party's primary. In all of these systems, a voter may participate in only one primary; that is, a voter who casts a vote for a candidate standing for the Republican nomination for president cannot cast a vote for a candidate standing for the Democratic nomination, or vice versa. A few states once staged a blanket primary, in which voters could vote for one candidate in multiple primaries, but the practice was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 2000 case of California Democratic Party v. Jones as violating the freedom of assembly guaranteed by the First Amendment.[19]

text: Delegate selection rules[edit]

text: Both the Democratic Party and the Republican Party usually modify their delegate selection rules between presidential elections, including how delegates are allocated to each state and territory.

text: Under the current Democratic Party selection rules, adopted in 2006, pledged delegates are selected under proportional representation, which requires a candidate have a minimum of 15% of a state's popular vote to receive delegates. In addition, the Democratic Party may reject any candidate under their bylaws. Each state publishes a Delegate Selection Plan that notes the mechanics of calculating the number of delegates per congressional district, and how votes are transferred from local conventions to the state and national convention.[20] Since the 2012 Democratic primaries, the number of pledged delegates allocated to each of the 50 U.S. states and Washington, D.C. is based on two main factors: (1) the proportion of votes each state gave to the Democratic candidate in the last three presidential elections, and (2) the number of electoral votes each state has in the United States Electoral College. States who schedule their primary or caucus later in the primary season may also get additional bonus delegates.[21]

text: The Republican Party's rules since 2008 leave more discretion to the states in choosing a method of allocating pledged delegates. As a result, states variously applied the statewide winner-take-all method (e.g., New York), district- and state-level winner-take-all (e.g., California), or proportional allocation (e.g., Massachusetts).[22] Changes in the rules before 2012 brought proportional representation to more states. Also, three delegates are allocated for each congressional district. For at-large ones elected statewide, each state gets at least 10, plus additional bonus delegates based on whether it has a Republican governor, it has GOP majorities in one or all chambers of its state legislature, and whether it has GOP majorities in its delegation to the U.S. Congress, among other factors.[23]

text: Each party's bylaws also specify which current and former elected officeholders and party leaders qualify as unpledged delegates. Because of possible deaths, resignations, or the results of intervening or special elections, the final number of these superdelegates may not be known until the week of the convention.

text: Delegate voting at the convention[edit]

text: During the convention, there is generally a roll call of the votes. Each delegation announces its vote tallies, usually accompanied with some boosterism of their state or territory. The delegation may pass, nominally to retally their delegates' preferences, but often to allow a different delegation to give the leading candidate the honor of casting the majority-making vote.

text: If no single candidate has secured a majority of delegates (including both pledged and unpledged) during the first vote, then a "brokered convention" results. All pledged delegates are then "released" and are able to switch their allegiance to a different candidate. Thereafter, the nomination is decided through a process of alternating political horse trading, and additional rounds of re-votes.[24][25][26][27]

text: A customary ceremonial practice has been for the losing candidate(s) in the primary season to "release" their delegates at the convention and exhort them to vote for the winning nominee as a sign of party unity. Thus, the vote tallied on the convention floor is unanimous or nearly so. For example, during the 2008 Democratic National Convention, Hillary Clinton (who only captured about 22 percent of delegates compared to Barack Obama's approximate 72 percent)[28] moved to nominate Obama by acclamation, making it a unanimous vote.[29]

text: Calendar[edit]

text: Campaigning for President often begins almost a year before the New Hampshire primary, almost two years before the presidential election. This is largely because federal campaign finance laws including the Federal Election Campaign Act state that a candidate who intends to receive contributions aggregating in excess of $5,000 or make expenditures aggregating in excess of $5,000, among others, must first file a Statement of Candidacy with the Federal Election Commission.[30] Thus, presidential candidates officially announce their intentions to run that early so they can start raising or spending the money needed to mount their nationwide campaigns.[31]

text: During the first six months of the year, primaries and caucuses are separately held in each state, Puerto Rico, insular areas, and the District of Columbia, Each party sets its own calendar and rules, and in some cases actually administers the election. However, to reduce expenses and encourage turnout, the major parties' primaries are usually held the same day and may be consolidated with other state elections. The primary election itself is administered by local governments according to state law. In some cases, state law determines how delegates will be awarded and who may participate in the primary; where it does not, party rules prevail.[32]

text: Since the 1970s, states have held increasingly early primaries to maximize their leverage[33] (see Front-loading and compression below). In reaction to these moves, both the Democratic and Republican National Committees imposed a timing tier system of scheduling rules, stripping states of delegates if they move their primaries early, such as the case in both the Florida Democratic primary and the Florida Republican primary in 2008.

text: The election dates for 2016, up to and including Super Tuesday are as follows:

text:
February 1: Iowa caucus (both parties)
February 9: New Hampshire primary (both parties)
February 20: Nevada Democratic caucuses and South Carolina Republican primary
February 23: Nevada Republican caucuses
February 27: South Carolina Democratic primary
March 1: Super Tuesday: Primaries/caucuses for both parties in several states

tag: ul

text: Iowa and New Hampshire[edit]

text: The first binding event, in which a candidate can secure convention delegates, is traditionally the Iowa caucus, usually held in late January or early February of the presidential election year. It is generally followed by the New Hampshire primary, the first primary by tradition since 1920 and by New Hampshire state law. New Hampshire law states the primary shall be held "on the Tuesday at least seven days immediately preceding the date on which any other state shall hold a similar election." The Iowa caucuses are not considered to be "a similar election" under New Hampshire's law because the former uses caucuses instead of primary elections. Should any other state move its primary too close to New Hampshire's, or before, the New Hampshire Secretary of State is required to reschedule the primary accordingly.[34]

text: In recent elections, the Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary have garnered over half the media attention paid to the entire selection process.[35] After Iowa and New Hampshire, the front runners then attempt to solidify their status, while the others fight to become #2.[36]

text: Because these states are small, campaigning takes place on a much more personal scale. As a result, even a little-known, underfunded candidate can use "retail politics" to meet intimately with interested voters and perform better than expected. The Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary have produced a number of headline-making upsets in history:[37]

text:
Harry S. Truman ended his re-election bid in 1952 after losing the New Hampshire primary.[38]
Lyndon Baines Johnson dropped his 1968 reelection bid after performing far below expectations in the New Hampshire primary.
In the 1972 Democratic primaries, George McGovern was initially considered a dark horse but he had better-than-expected second-place finishes in Iowa and New Hampshire and eventually won the nomination; frontrunner Edmund Muskie who won both contests instead lost momentum.
George H. W. Bush won the Iowa caucus in 1980, leading him to claim that he had "Big Mo" (momentum) over frontrunner Ronald Reagan. However, Reagan won the New Hampshire primary and several others to take the nomination. In the 1988 Republican presidential nomination, Bush, serving as Reagan's vice president, unexpectedly finished third in Iowa which Bob Dole won. Dole was also leading in New Hampshire polls but ended up losing that primary as he failed to counterattack ads from Bush. Bush had no serious trouble clinching the nomination afterward.
Gary Hart was initially not considered a serious contender in 1984, which featured former Vice President Walter Mondale as the frontrunner. However, Hart had a respectable showing in Iowa and then stunned Mondale in New Hampshire, the latter where Hart had started campaigning months earlier. This resulted in a long primary battle, with Mondale eventually emerging as the nominee after Super Tuesday III.
Pat Buchanan's 2nd place showing in the 1992 and win in the 1996 New Hampshire primaries coincided with the weakness of the future nominees, incumbent George H. W. Bush, and Senator Bob Dole respectively, Bush and Dole subsequently lost the general election.
In 1992, then Governor Bill Clinton's better-than-expected second-place finish in New Hampshire salvaged his campaign and he went on to win the nomination, following on to be elected President with a 43% plurality.
Senator John McCain upset George W. Bush in the New Hampshire primary in 2000, Bush's frontrunner campaign had initially not expected serious opposition after other potential candidates like Elizabeth Dole and Dan Quayle decided not to run. McCain's new-found momentum ended after his defeat in the South Carolina primary (see below), and though he pulled out wins in Michigan and his home state of Arizona, his campaign was ended by Super Tuesday.
In the 2004 primaries, John Kerry, whose campaign had been sagging in prior months, won the Iowa caucus while John Edwards unexpectedly finished second, over heavily favored Howard Dean and Richard Gephardt (the latter two had been trading negative attacks in the weeks leading up to the vote). Gephardt immediately ended his campaign, while Dean's post-concession speech drew negative attention. Kerry went on to overcome Dean's initial lead in New Hampshire to win that primary, and eventually the Democratic presidential nomination.
In 2008, frontrunner Hillary Clinton, whose campaign initially banked on a knockout victory in Iowa, unexpectedly finished third in that caucus behind winner Barack Obama and John Edwards.[39] Clinton then pulled off a comeback victory in New Hampshire where Obama had been leading the polls. Although Obama and Clinton were largely well matched in most of the subsequent primaries, Obama's better organization and uncontested caucus victories were crucial to his winning the Democratic nomination.
In 2008, John McCain, initially struggling among Republican contenders in 2007, decided to skip Iowa and concentrate on New Hampshire (the same primary where he had unexpectedly triumphed back in 2000) and McCain's win rejuvenated his presidential campaign and he became the Republican nominee. Rudy Giuliani and Mitt Romney, two candidates who had each led in the polls in 2007, did not perform as expected in Iowa and New Hampshire.
In 2012, Mitt Romney was initially reported to be the first Republican non-incumbent presidential candidate, since the Iowa caucus started in 1976, to win both the Iowa caucus (albeit, by an 8-vote margin over Rick Santorum) and New Hampshire primary.[40][41] However a final count released by the Iowa state party sixteen days after the caucus contest reported Santorum as the winner by 34 votes over Romney, but by then Romney had already won New Hampshire by a comfortable margin.[42]

text: South Carolina[edit]

text: South Carolina is generally the "First in the South" primary.[43][44] For the Republicans, it is considered a "firewall" to protect establishment favorites and frontrunners in the presidential nomination race, being designed to stop the momentum of insurgent candidates who could have received a boost from strong showings in Iowa and New Hampshire.[45][46] From its inception in 1980 through the election of 2008, the winner of the South Carolina Republican presidential primary has gone on to win the nomination.[47] In the 2012 Republican primaries, Newt Gingrich initially finished poorly in the early states, but then scored an upset victory in South Carolina over frontrunner Mitt Romney.[48] However, after suffering a decisive defeat to Romney in Florida, Gingrich's campaign was relegated back to third place, leaving Rick Santorum as the main challenger to Romney for the rest of the primaries.

text: Super Tuesday[edit]

text: The Tuesday in February or March when the greatest number of states hold primary elections and caucuses is known as "Super Tuesday". Because it is held in various states from geographically and socially diverse regions of the country, it typically represents a presidential candidate's first test of national electability. More delegates can be won on Super Tuesday than on any other single day of the primary calendar, thus convincing wins during this day have usually propelled candidates to their party's nomination.

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Representativeness[edit]

text: Because they are the states that traditionally hold their respective contests first, the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire primary usually attract the most media attention;[35] however, critics, such as Mississippi Secretary of State Eric Clark and Tennessee Senator William Brock, point out that these states are not representative of the United States as a whole: they are overwhelmingly white, more rural, and wealthier than the national average, and neither is in the fast-growing West or South.

text: Conversely, states that traditionally hold their primaries in June, like California (the most populous state overall) and New Jersey (the most densely populated state), usually end up having no say in who the presidential candidate will be. As stated above, the races were usually over well before June. California and New Jersey moved their primaries to February for the 2008 election, but in 2012 both states ended up moving them back to June. California lawmakers stated that consolidating their presidential and statewide primary election in June saves them about $100 million, and that it is not worth the cost when there is generally no competitive balance between the two political parties within California.[49]

text: In 2005, the primary commission of the Democratic National Committee began considering removing Iowa and New Hampshire from the top of the calendar, but this proposal never gained approval, so those two states remain as the first two contests. New Hampshire also fought back by obliging candidates who wanted to campaign in the state to pledge to uphold that primary as the first one.

text: Front-loading and compression[edit]

text: States vie for earlier primaries to claim greater influence in the nomination process, as the early primaries can act as a signal to the nation, showing which candidates are popular and giving those who perform well early on the advantage of the bandwagon effect. Also, candidates can ignore primaries that fall after the nomination has already been secured, and would owe less to those states politically. As a result, rather than stretching from March to July, most primaries take place in a compressed time frame in February and March. National party leaders also have an interest in compressing the primary calendar, as it enables the party to reduce the chance of a bruising internecine battle and to preserve resources for the general campaign.[citation needed]

text: In such a primary season, however, many primaries will fall on the same day, forcing candidates to choose where to spend their time and resources. Indeed, Super Tuesday was created deliberately to increase the influence of the South. When states cannot agree to coordinate primaries, however, attention flows to larger states with large numbers of delegates at the expense of smaller ones. Because the candidate's time is limited, paid advertising may play a greater role. Moreover, a compressed calendar limits the ability of lesser-known candidates to corral resources and raise their visibility among voters, especially when a better-known candidate enjoys the financial and institutional backing of the party establishment.[50]

text: In an article from Detroit News, Tennessee Senator William (Bill) Brock said about front-loading, "Today, too many people in too many states have no voice in the election of our major party nominees. For them, the nominations are over before they have begun."[50]

text: Role of superdelegates[edit]

text: The term "superdelegate" itself was used originally as a criticism of unpledged delegates. Political commentator Susan Estrich argued in 1981 that these delegates, who at the time were predominantly white and male, had more power than other delegates because of their greater freedom to vote as they wish.[51] The Democratic Party in particular has faced accusations that it conducts its nominating process in an undemocratic way,[52][53] because superdelegates are generally chosen without regard to their preferences in the presidential race and are not obligated to support the candidate chosen by the voters.

text: Reform proposals[edit]

text: There are several proposals for reforming the primary system. Some have called for a single nationwide primary to be held on one day. Others point out that requiring candidates to campaign in every state simultaneously would exacerbate the purported problem of campaigns being dominated by the candidates who raise the most money. The following proposals attempt to return the primary system to a more relaxed schedule, and would help less-funded candidates by lowering the cost of entry.

text: California Plan (American Plan)[edit]

text: One reform concept is the graduated random presidential primary system, variations of which have been referred to as the American Plan or the California Plan. This plan starts with small primaries, and gradually moves up to larger ones, in 10 steps, with states chosen at random. The idea is that fewer initial primaries, typically in smaller states, would allow grassroots campaigns to score early successes and pick up steam. However, since states are chosen at random, travel costs may still be significant.

text: Delaware Plan (Fourfold Round Plan)[edit]

text: A commission empaneled by the Republican National Committee recommended the Delaware Plan in 2000. This plan had states grouped by size into four groups, with the smallest primaries first, then the next-smallest, and so on. Populous states objected to the plan, however, because it would have always scheduled their primaries at the end of the season. Other criticisms included the wide geographic range of the states, necessitating high travel costs. The Delaware Plan was put to vote at Republican National Convention of 2000 and rejected.

text: Rotating regional primary system[edit]

text: The National Association of Secretaries of State has endorsed a rotating regional primary system, with the country split into four regions: the West, the Midwest, the South, and the Northeast.[54] Unlike the Delaware Plan and the American Plan, the Rotating Regional Primary System would lower campaigning costs by restricting groups of primaries to single, contiguous regions.

text: Author and political scientist Larry J. Sabato is also a proponent of this plan, but his proposal would have the order of regional primaries determined by lottery on January 1 of each presidential election year instead of on a rotating basis. In addition, his plan would allow for a few small population states, such as Iowa and New Hampshire, to hold their primaries in advance of the first region.

text: Criticisms of the regional plan include the higher entry costs than the other plans (since 1/4 of the country would vote in the first regional), and the political bias of certain regions (the South or the Northeast) unduly influencing the selection of a nominee.

text: Interregional primary plan[edit]

text: In the interregional primary plan, the country is divided into geographical regions. On each primary date from March to June, one state from each of six regions votes. Each election date would contain a wide variety of perspectives. The order of the states in each region is set by a lottery. In a 24-year cycle, every state would have a chance to be among the first primary states. The primary criticism of this plan is that travel costs would be quite high: in each round, candidates would essentially have to cover the entire country to campaign effectively. Contrary to most reform plans, this would reduce the ability of lesser-funded candidates to build up from small contests to large ones.[55]

text: Timing adjustment[edit]

text: In the 2008 Republican primary, states that ran early primaries were punished by a reduction of 50% in the number of delegates they could send to the national convention. Extension of this idea would set timing tiers, under which states that ran earlier primaries would send proportionally fewer delegates to the national convention, and states that waited would get a higher proportional number of delegates to the convention. For example, the party allowed primaries before March 1 to send 40% of delegates; those during March could send 60%; those during April could send 80%; those during May could send 100%; and those during June could send 120%.

text: The effect of such a plan would be clumping of primaries at the beginning of each month. It would still allow states to determine the timing of their own primaries, while giving them some incentive to hold primaries later. The disadvantage of the timing adjustment method is that it does not reduce travel time as the regional plans do, although it does permit regional groups of states to voluntarily clump together in a single superprimary as they have done in the past.

text: In practice, however, this timing tier system did not prevent states from moving their primaries in 2008 and 2012. For example, during the 2012 Republican primary, Florida and several other states still moved their primaries to earlier dates despite being penalized delegates.

text: Both parties then enacted more severe penalties in 2016 for violating their timing rules. For Republicans, states with more than 30 delegates that violate the timing rules will be deprived of all their delegates but nine; states with less than 30 will be reduced to six.[56] For Democrats, states violating these rules will be penalized half of their pledged delegates and all of their unpledged delegates.[21]

text: Lists of primaries[edit]


document_title: New York City water supply system

question_text: where does new york city's water come from

question_tokens: where does new york city 's water come from

text: New York City water supply system

text: Responsibility for water supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment[edit]

text: Responsibility for the city water supply is shared among three institutions: the New York City Department of Environmental Protection ("DEP"), which operates and maintains the system and is responsible for investment planning; the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority ("NYW"), which raises debt financing in the market to underwrite the system's costs; and the Water Board, which sets rates and collects user payments.

text: New York City Department of Environmental Protection[edit]

text: The DEP has a workforce of over 6,000 employees. It includes three bureaus in charge of, respectively, the upstate water supply system, New York City's water and sewer operations, and wastewater treatment:

text:
The Bureau of Water Supply manages, operates and protects New York City's upstate water supply system to ensure the delivery of a sufficient quantity of high quality drinking water. The Bureau is also responsible for the overall management and implementation of the provisions of the city's $1.5 billion Watershed Protection Program.
In addition to operating and maintaining the water supply and sewerage system, the Bureau of Water and Sewer Operations is also responsible for the operation of the Staten Island Bluebelt, an ecologically sound, cost-effective natural alternative to storm sewers, which occupies approximately 15 square miles (39 km2) of land in the South Richmond area of Staten Island. This project preserves streams, ponds and other wetland ("bluebelt") areas, allowing them to perform their natural function of conveying, storing and filtering storm water.
The Bureau of Wastewater Treatment operates 14 water pollution control plants treating an average of 1.5 billion US gallons (5,700,000 m3) of wastewater a day; 95 wastewater pump stations; eight dewatering facilities; 490 sewer regulators; and 7,000 miles (11,000 km) of intercepting sewers.[3]

text: New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority[edit]

text: The NYW finances the capital needs of the water and sewer system of the city through the issuance of bonds, commercial paper, and other debt instruments. It is a public-benefit corporation created in 1985 pursuant to the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority Act. The Authority is administered by a seven-member Board of Directors. Four of the members are ex officio members: the Commissioner of Environmental Protection of the City, the Director of Management and Budget of the City, the Commissioner of Finance of the City, and the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation of the State. The remaining three members are public appointments: two by the Mayor, and one by the Governor.[4]

text: New York City Water Board[edit]

text: The New York City Water Board sets water and sewer rates for New York City sufficient to pay the costs of operating and financing the system, and collects user payments from customers for services provided by the water and wastewater utility systems of the City of New York. The five Board members are appointed to two-year terms by the Mayor.[5]

text: Overview of infrastructure[edit]

text: New York City's water system consists of aqueducts, distribution pipes, reservoirs, and water tunnels that channel drinking water to residents and visitors. A comprehensive raised-relief map of the system is on display at the Queens Museum of Art. Until the early 21st century, some places in southeastern Queens received their water from local wells of the former Jamaica Water Supply Company.[6]

text: Reservoirs and aqueducts[edit]

text: The water system has a storage capacity of 550 billion US gallons (2.1×109 m3) and provides over 1.2 billion US gallons (4,500,000 m3) per day of drinking water to more than eight million city residents, another one million users in four upstate counties bordering on the water supply system, and visitors to the region. Three separate sub-systems, each consisting of aqueducts and reservoirs, bring water from Upstate New York to the New York City:

text:
The New Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1890, brings water from the New Croton Reservoir in Westchester and Putnam counties.
The Catskill Aqueduct, completed in 1916, is significantly larger than New Croton and brings water from two reservoirs in the eastern Catskill Mountains.
The Delaware Aqueduct, completed in 1945, taps tributaries of the Delaware River in the western Catskill Mountains and provides approximately half of New York City's water supply.[7]

text: The latter two aqueducts provide 90% of New York City's drinking water. Water from both aqueducts is stored first in the large Kensico Reservoir and subsequently in the much smaller Hillview Reservoir closer to the city.

text: Brooklyn Reservoirs[edit]

text: Brooklyn has had many water reservoirs; they can be seen on an 1864 map of Brooklyn Waterworks.[8] They are listed below, from east to west:

text:
Hempstead Reservoir
Smith's Pond
Rockville Reservoir
Valley Stream Pond
Watts Pond
Clear Stream Reservoir
Brookfield Reservoir
Conselyea Pond
P. Cornells Pond
Springfield Pond
One Mile Pond
Jamaica Reservoir
Ridgewood Reservoir
Mount Prospect Reservoir

tag: ol

text: Tunnels and distribution system[edit]

text: From the Hillview reservoir water flows by gravity through three tunnels under New York City, where water rises again to the surface under natural pressure, through a number of shafts. The three tunnels are:

text:
New York City Water Tunnel No.1, completed in 1917. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central Bronx, Harlem River, West Side, Midtown, and Lower East Side of Manhattan, and under the East River to Brooklyn where it connects to Tunnel 2. It is expected to undergo extensive repairs upon completion of Tunnel No. 3, in 2020.
New York City Water Tunnel No. 2, completed in 1935. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central Bronx, East River, and western Queens to Brooklyn, where it connects to Tunnel 1 and the Richmond Tunnel to Staten Island. When completed, it was the longest large diameter water tunnel in the world.[9]
The uncompleted New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, the largest capital construction project in New York City's history (see below).[10]

text: The distribution system is made up of an extensive grid of water mains stretching approximately 6,500 miles (10,500 km).

text: Ongoing repairs and upgrades[edit]

text: The Croton Water Filtration Plant Project[edit]

text: In order to comply with federal and state laws regarding the filtration and disinfection of drinking water, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the New York State Department of Health called on the city to create a treatment plan to serve the Croton System. The underground filtration plant is under construction in Van Cortlandt Park. While the Bloomberg administration originally budgeted the project at $992 million in 2003, an audit by the city's comptroller placed the actual costs at $2.1 billion in August 2009.[11]

text: Delaware Aqueduct repair[edit]

text: The New York City water supply system leaks at a rate of up to 36 million US gallons (140,000 m3) per day.[12] A complex five-year project with an estimated $240 million construction cost was initiated in November 2008, to correct some of this leakage.

text: Water tunnel No. 3[edit]

text: The construction of Water tunnel No. 3 is intended to provide the city with a critical third connection to its Upstate New York water supply system, allowing the city to close tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 for repair for the first time of their history. The tunnel will eventually be more than 60 miles (97 km) long. Construction on the tunnel began in 1970, and its first and second phases are completed. The latter opened with a ceremony under Central Park, in 2013. Completion of all phases is not expected until at least 2020.[13]


document_title: Fetal pig

question_text: where are fetal pigs found growing in their mother

text: Fetal pig

text: Use in biology labs[edit]

text: Along with frogs and earthworms, fetal pigs are among the most common animals used in classroom dissection. There are several reasons for this, the main reason being that pigs, like humans, are mammals. Shared traits include common hair, mammary glands, live birth, similar organ systems, metabolic levels, and basic body form.  They also allow for the study of fetal circulation, which differs from that of an adult. Secondly, fetal pigs are easy to obtain because they are by-products of the pork industry. Fetal pigs are the unborn piglets of sows that were killed by the meat packing industry. These pigs are not bred and killed for this purpose, but are extracted from the deceased sow’s uterus. Fetal pigs not used in classroom dissections are often used in fertilizer or simply discarded.[1] Thirdly, fetal pigs are cheap, which is an essential component for dissection use by schools. They can be ordered for a little more than $25 at biological product companies. Fourthly, fetal pigs are easy to dissect because of their soft tissue and incompletely developed bones that are still made of cartilage.[2] In addition, they are relatively large with well-developed organs that are easily visible. As long as the pork industry exists, fetal pigs will be relatively abundant, making them the prime choice for classroom dissections.

text: Alternatives[edit]

text: Several peer-reviewed comparative studies have concluded that the educational outcomes of students who are taught basic and advanced biomedical concepts and skills using non-animal methods are equivalent or superior to those of their peers who use animal-based laboratories such as animal dissection.[3][4]

text: A systematic review concluded that students taught using non-animal methods demonstrated “superior understanding of complex biological processes, increased learning efficiency, and increased examination results.” [5] It also reported that students’ confidence and satisfaction increased as did their preparedness for laboratories and their information-retrieval and communication abilities.[6]

text: Three studies at universities across the United States found that students who modeled body systems out of clay were significantly better at identifying the constituent parts of human anatomy than their classmates who performed animal dissection.[7][8][9]

text: Another study found that students preferred using clay modeling over animal dissection and performed just as well as their cohorts who dissected animals.[10]

text: Development[edit]

text: The size of the fetal pig depends on the time allowed for the mother to gestate:

text:
Size

Time

80 mm
68 days

100 mm
75 days

158 mm
86 days

220 mm
100 days

300 mm
114 days

tag: table

text: Nutrition[edit]

text: No studies have found significant data regarding the mother swine’s diet and fetal pig survival rate.  However, there is a correlation between a mother pig having a nutritious diet containing proteins, vitamins and minerals during gestation period and the survival rate of piglets.  The correlation, however, is not statistically different.  Weight is also not a factor of survival rate because a healthier diet does not lead to a heavier offspring or a greater chance of live birth.[11]

text: Placental development[edit]

text: The placenta is used as a means of transferring nutrients from the mother to the fetus. The efficiency at which nutrients are transferred dictates the health and growth of the fetus. FRP, or fetal weight: placental weight ratio, was commonly used to determine placental efficiency. However, increasing FPR does not prove to increase litter size.  Instead, a more accurate way of determining fetus growth is through certain characteristics of the placental lining. The placenta is made of a folded trophoblast/endometrial epithelial bilayer.  The width and length of the placenta folds are positively related and increase as gestation progresses.

text: The width of the placental folds decreases until day 85 of gestation.  From here, the width increases with gestation and is at its largest around day 105.  The rate at which these folds increase is negatively related to fetus size.  Thus, greater fold widths will be seen in smaller fetuses. Although increasing placental fold width does increase the interaction between fetus and mother, nutrient exchange is not most efficient in smaller fetal pigs, as would be expected.  Many other factors, including depth of placental folds, are also responsible for these interactions.[12]

text: Prenatal development[edit]

text: The prenatal development of the fetus includes all the tissue and organ development. Within hours of mating, the sperm and egg undergo fertilization in the oviduct and three days later the egg moves into the uterus. The cells begin to specialize by day six, and attach themselves to the uterus lining by day eleven. From fertilization to day 18, the endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm have been forming inside the embryo, and are completely formed by day 18, the same day the placenta forms. The endoderm transforms into the lungs, trachea, thyroid gland, and digestive tract of the fetus. The ectoderm has a greater role in the development of the fetus. It forms into the skin, nervous system, enamel of the teeth, lining of the intestine, mammary and sweat glands, hoofs, and hair. The mesoderm forms the major organ components that help keep the fetus alive. It forms the muscles and connective tissues of the body, blood vessels and cells, the skeleton, kidneys, adrenal glands, heart, and the reproductive organs. By day 20, most of the major organs are visible, and the last half of gestation focuses greatly on increasing the size of the fetuses.[13]

text: Development of lymphoid and haematopoiesis tissues[edit]

text: The development of the lymphatic system and the formation of blood circulation occur at different stages of fetal pig development. The first lymphatic organ to become present is the thymus. Lymphocyte builds up in the spleen on the 70th day.  By day 77, the thymus is already completely developed and is distinguishable from other organs. Also, follicles are present on the tongue and intestines on day 77. On the 84th day, Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths appear in the fetal pig. By this time, the liver and bone marrow are active and functional.[14]

text: Environmental effects on swine reproductive performance[edit]

text:
Studies have shown that litter size, the amount of floor space during the growing period, and the number of pigs the gilt, or female pig, is placed with while growing affect the reproduction rates of the gilts. Data from a study in 1976 by Nelson and Robinson showed that gilts from a small litter size ovulated more than the gilts from the larger litters. The study suggests stress plays a role in impacting the reproduction. The amount of floor space has been shown to impact the time it takes gilts to reach puberty. An adequate amount of floor space allowed the higher percentage of gilts to reach puberty sooner than those gilts who had less floor space. The gilts placed in smaller groups bore one more pig per litter than gilts in larger groups. Still, the environment in which the fetal gilt develops is significant to the reproductive and physiological development.[15]
Author: Brandon Anderson

text: Preservation[edit]

text:
Fetal pigs are often preserved in formaldehyde[citation needed], a carcinogenic substance. A 1980 study found that exposure to formaldehyde could possibly cause nasal cancer in rats, leading to research on whether this was possible in humans or not.[16] In 1995 it was concluded by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) that formaldehyde is a carcinogen for humans.[17]
In Albania, fetal pigs are preserved by means of alcohol, and are used as an ingredient in Raki, a local moonshine liquor.[citation needed]

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: The anatomy of a fetal pig is similar to that of the adult pig in various aspects. Systems that are similar include the nervous, skeletal, respiratory (neglecting the under developed diaphragm), and muscular. Other important body systems have significant differences from the adult pig.

text: Circulatory system[edit]

text: There are only a few differences between the circulatory system of an adult pig and a fetal pig, besides from the umbilical arteries and vein. There is a shunt between the wall of the right and left atrium called the foramen ovale. This allows blood to pass directly from the right to left atrium. There is also the ductus arterius which allows blood from the right atrium to be diverted to the aortic arch. Both of these shunts close a few minutes after birth.

text: Digestive[edit]

text: The monogastric digestive system of the fetal pig harbors many similarities with many other mammals. The fetal pig's digestive organs are well developed before birth, although it does not ingest food. These organs include the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. Mesenteries serve to connect the organs of the fetal pig together. In order for digestion to occur, the fetal pig would have to ingest food. Instead, it gains much needed nutrition from the mother pig via the umbilical cord. In the adult pig, food will follow the general flow through the esophagus, which can be located behind the tracheae. From the oral cavity, the esophagus leads to the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Other organs developing during fetal pig development such as the gallbladder, pancreas and spleen are all critical in contributing to the overall flow of the digestive system because they contain digestive enzymes that will perform chemical digestion of food. After food is digested and nutrients are absorbed, the food follows through the large intestine and solid wastes are excreted through the anus. In the fetal pig however, the metabolic wastes are sent back to the mother through the umbilical cord where the mother excretes the wastes. Other remaining wastes remain in the fetal pig until birth. Then

text: The oral cavity of the fetal pig begins developing before birth. The tongue's taste buds, located in the enlarged papillae, facilitate food handling after birth. These taste buds develop during fetal development. Adult pigs have up to 15,000 taste buds, a much larger number than the average human tongue, which has 9,000.[18]

text: The dental anatomy of the fetal pig shows differences from adult pigs. The fetal pig develops primary teeth (which are later replaced with permanent teeth). Some may erupt during fetal stage, which is why some of the fetuses show evidence of teeth. Depending on the age of the fetal pig, it is natural to see eruptions of third incisor and canine in the fetal pig.[19] Because the fetal pigs were still in the mother’s uterus, teeth will still form which supports reasons for hollow unerupted teeth that may be seen. Similar to human dental anatomy, the overall dental anatomy of the pig consists of incisors, canines, pre-molars, and molars. Piglets can have 28 teeth total and adult pigs can have 44 teeth total.[20]

text: Urogenital[edit]

text: The fetal pig's urogenital system is similar to the adult pig's system with the exception of the reproductive organs.  The fetal pig urinary tract is relatively developed and easy to locate during dissection. The kidneys are located behind the abdominal organs and are partially embedded into the dorsal body wall by the spine. The ureters carry the urine to the urinary bladder, the large sack-like organ by the umbilical artery and vein, to the urethra. From there, the urine can be excreted.

text: Female[edit]

text: If the fetal pig is a female, there will be a fleshy protrusion ventral near the anus called the genital papilla.[21] The female's internal reproductive system is located below the kidneys.  The two sac-like organs attached to the coil-like fallopian tubes are the ovaries.[22] The uterus, which becomes the vagina, is located where the fallopian tubes meet. This system can be difficult to find as it is small as well as extremely dorsal and posterior to the other systems.

text: Male[edit]

text: Male fetal pigs have an urogenital opening located behind the umbilical cord.  The swelling behind the hind legs of the fetal pig[23] is the scrotum. The male's internal reproductive system has two scrotal sacs, which depending on the age of the fetal pig may or may not have developed testes.[24] The epididymis coil on the testes connects to the vas deferens. The vas deferens crosses over the ureter and enters the urethra, which then connects to the penis located just posterior to the skin.[25] Similar to the female system, it may be difficult to identify all parts.


document_title: Baseball metaphors for sex

question_text: what does it mean to get to third base

question_tokens: what does it mean to get to third base

text: Baseball metaphors for sex

text: Details and popularity[edit]

text: Among the most commonly used metaphors are the bases describing levels of physical intimacy (generally from a heterosexual perspective). Definitions vary, but the following are typical usages of the terms:[4]

text:
First base – mouth-to-mouth kissing, especially French kissing;
Second base – skin-to-skin touching/kissing of the breasts; in some contexts, it may instead refer to touching any erogenous zones through the clothes (i.e., not actually touching the skin), or manual stimulation of the genitals;
Third base – touching below the waist (without sexual intercourse); in some contexts, it may instead refer to oral stimulation of the genitals;
Home run (home base or scoring) – "full" sexual intercourse.

text: Additionally,

text: Strikeout – a failure to engage in any form of foreplay or other sexual activity;

text: Additionally, there are two metaphors used to refer to men who have sex with men:

text:
Pitching – the man performing anal sex
Catching – the man receiving anal sex
Batting average - The number of times a male has ejaculated by the actions of another person over the number of times he has masturbated i.e. Sexual actions/Masturbation = Batting Average[citation needed][dubious – discuss]

text: Other similar metaphors include:

text:
Switch hitter – a bisexual individual, referencing a player who can bat from either side
Playing for the other team – usually indicating a person is gay or lesbian
Playing for both teams – usually indicating a person is bisexual

text: The metaphors are found variously in popular American culture, with one well-known example in the Meat Loaf song "Paradise by the Dashboard Light", which describes a young couple "making out", with a voice-over commentary, by baseball announcer Phil Rizzuto, of a portion of a baseball game as a metaphor for the couple's activities.[5] A similar example can be found in Billy Joel's song "Zanzibar" in which he compares himself to Pete Rose and sings the lines "Me, I'm trying just to get to second base and I'd steal it if she only gave the sign. She's gonna give the go ahead, the inning isn't over yet for me."[6]

text: David Letterman chronicled many of these in his "Top Ten Baseball Euphemisms for Sex" — a recurring theme on the Top Ten Lists featured on the late-night talk shows he hosted before his retirement.[7]

text: Sex education[edit]

text: Educators have found the baseball metaphor an effective instructional tool when providing sex education to middle school students.[8] Leman and Bell, in their book A Chicken's Guide to Talking Turkey With Your Kids About Sex, make use of it to aid parents in the discussion of puberty with their children, dividing the topics into "first base" ("Changes from the neck up"), "second base" ("Changes from the neck to the waist"), "third base" ("Changes from the waist down"), and "home plate" ("The Big 'It'").[9]

text: Alternative views[edit]

text: This sequence of "running the bases" is often regarded as a script, or pattern, for young people who are experimenting with sexual relationships. The script may have slightly changed since the 1960s. Kohl and Francoeur state that with the growing emphasis in the 1990s on safe sex to expand sex beyond heterosexual penetrative intercourse, the "home run" has taken on the additional dimension of oral sex. Richters and Rissel conversely state that "third base" is now sometimes considered to comprise oral sex as part of the accepted pattern of activities, as a precursor to "full" (i.e. penetrative) sex.[10][11]