document_title: India at the Olympics

question_text: when was the last time india won gold in olympics

text: India at the Olympics

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: India sent its first athlete to the Summer Olympics for the 1900 Games, but an Indian national team did not compete at the Summer Olympics until 1920. Ahead of the 1920 Games, Sir Dorabji Tata and Governor of Bombay George Lloyd helped India secure representation at the International Olympic Council, enabling it to participate in the Games (see India at the 1920 Olympic Games). India then sent a team to the 1920 Olympics, comprising four athletes, two wrestlers, and managers Sohrab Bhoot and A. H. A. Fyzee. The Indian Olympic movement was then established during the 1920s: some founders of this movement were Dorabji Tata, A.G. Noehren (Madras College of Physical Education), H.C. Buck (Madras College of Physical Education), Moinul Haq (Bihar sports associations), S. Bhoot (Bombay Olympic Association), A.S. Bhagwat (Deccan Gymkhana), and Guru Dutt Sondhi (Punjab Olympic Association); Lt.Col H.L.O. Garrett (from the Government College Lahore and Punjab Olympic Association) and Sagnik Poddar (of St. Stephen's School) helped organise some early national games; and prominent patrons included Maharajas and royal princes Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Ranjitsinhji of Nawanagar, the Maharaja of Kapurthala, and the Maharaja of Burdwan.

text: In 1923, a provisional All India Olympic Committee was formed, and in February 1924, the All India Olympic Games (that later became the National Games of India) were held to select a team for the Paris Summer Olympics. The Indian delegation at the Paris Olympics comprised seven athletes, seven tennis players and team manager Harry Buck.

text: In 1927, the provisional Indian Olympic Committee formally became the Indian Olympic Association (IOA); its main tasks were to promote the development of sports in India, choose host cities for the national games, and send teams selected from the national games to the Summer Olympics. Thus, at the 1928 national games, it selected seven athletes to represent India at the next Summer Olympics, with Sondhi as manager. By this time, the Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had also been established and it sent a hockey team to the Summer Olympics. The national hockey team and additional sportspersons were similarly sent to the 1932 Games (four athletes and one swimmer) and 1936 (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter), along with three officials headed by team manager Sondhi.

text: From 1948 onward, because of the IOA's wider outreach, India began sending delegations of over 50 sportspersons representing several sport, each selected by its sports federation, to the Summer Olympics. The delegation was headed by a chef-de-mission.

text: Thus, India's Summer Olympic delegation in the early Olympic Games was as follows:

text:
1900: One athlete
1920: 6 competitors (four athletes, two wrestlers) and managers Bhoot and Fyzee
1924: 14 competitors (seven athletes, seven tennis players) and manager Harry Crowe Buck
1928: 21 competitors (seven athletes and a hockey team of 14) and manager G D Sondhi
1932: 20 competitors (four athletes, one swimmer, and a hockey team of 15) and three officials headed by manager G D Sondhi
1936: 27 competitors (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter, and a hockey team of 19) and three officials including manager G D Sondhi
1948: 79 competitors and a few officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq
1952: 64 competitors and some officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq

text: Recent history[edit]

text: At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Abhinav Bindra won gold in the Men's 10 metre air rifle event becoming the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games. Vijender Singh got the country's first medal in boxing with his bronze medal in Middleweight category.

text: The 2012 Summer Olympics saw an 83-member Indian contingent participating in the games and setting a new best for the country with a total of six medals. Wrestler Sushil Kumar became the first Indian with multiple individual Olympic medals (bronze at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics) since Norman Pritchard in 1900. Saina Nehwal won bronze medal in badminton in Women's singles getting the country's first Olympic medal in badminton. Pugilist Mary Kom became the first Indian woman to win a medal in boxing with her bronze medal finish in Women's flyweight.

text: At the 2016 Summer Olympics, a record number of 118 athletes competed. Sakshi Malik became the first Indian woman wrestler to win an Olympic medal with her bronze medal finish in Women's freestyle 58 kg category. Shuttler P. V. Sindhu became the first Indian woman to win a silver medal in Olympics and also the youngest Indian Olympic medallist.

text: List of competitors[edit]

text: This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the summer Olympic games.

text:
Games

Sports

Men

Women

Total

Change

 Gold

 Silver

 Bronze

Total

Change

1900

1

1

0

1

NA

0

2

0

2

NA

1920

2

6

0

6

+5

0

0

0

0

−2

1924

2

13

2

15

+8

0

0

0

0

0

1928

2

21

0

21

+7

1

0

0

1

+1

1932

3

30

0

30

+9

1

0

0

1

0

1936

3–4

27

0

27

−3

1

0

0

1

0

1948

10

79

0

79

+52

1

0

0

1

0

1952

11

60

4

64

−15

1

0

1

2

+1

1956

8

58

1

59

−5

1

0

0

1

−1

1960

6

45

0

45

−14

0

1

0

1

0

1964

8

52

1

53

+8

1

0

0

1

0

1968

5

25

0

25

−28

0

0

1

1

0

1972

7

40

1

41

+16

0

0

1

1

0

1976

2

20

0

20

−21

0

0

0

0

−1

1980

1

58

18

76

+56

1

0

0

1

+1

1984

48

−28

0

0

0

0

−1

1988

7

46

−2

0

0

0

0

0

1992

5

53

+7

0

0

0

0

0

1996

13

44

4

49

−4

0

0

1

1

+1

2000

7

65

+16

0

0

1

1

0

2004

14

48

25

73

+8

0

1

0

1

0

2008

12

31

25

56

−17

1

0

2

3

+2

2012

13

60

23

83

+27

0

2

4

6

+3

2016

15

66

54

118

+35

0

1

1

2

−4

tag: table

text: This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the winter Olympic games.

text:
Games

Sports

Men

Women

Total

Change

 Gold

 Silver

 Bronze

Total

Change

1964

1

1

0

1

NA

0

0

0

0

NA

1968

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1988

1

2

1

3

+2

0

0

0

0

0

1992

1

2

0

2

−1

0

0

0

0

0

1998

1

1

0

1

−1

0

0

0

0

0

2002

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

2006

3

3

1

4

+3

0

0

0

0

0

2010

3

3

0

3

−1

0

0

0

0

0

2014

3

3

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

2018

2

2

0

2

−1

0

0

0

0

0

text: Medal tables[edit]

text: Red colour indicates the best performance.

text: Medals by Summer Games[edit]

text:
Games

 Gold

 Silver

 Bronze

Total

Rank

 1896 Athens
did not participate

 1900 Paris
0
2
0
2[1]
17

 1904 St. Louis
did not participate

 1908 London

 1912 Stockholm

 1920 Antwerp
0
0
0
0
-

 1924 Paris
0
0
0
0
-

 1928 Amsterdam
1
0
0
1[2]
23

 1932 Los Angeles
1
0
0
1[3]
19

 1936 Berlin
1
0
0
1[4]
20

 1948 London
1
0
0
1[5]
22

 1952 Helsinki
1
0
1
2[5]
26

 1956 Melbourne
1
0
0
1[5]
24

 1960 Rome
0
1
0
1[6]
32

 1964 Tokyo
1
0
0
1[7]
24

 1968 Mexico City
0
0
1
1[8]
42

 1972 Munich
0
0
1
1[9]
43

 1976 Montreal
0
0
0
0
-

 1980 Moscow
1
0
0
1[10]
23

 1984 Los Angeles
0
0
0
0
-

 1988 Seoul
0
0
0
0
-

 1992 Barcelona
0
0
0
0
-

 1996 Atlanta
0
0
1
1[11]
71

 2000 Sydney
0
0
1
1[12]
71

 2004 Athens
0
1
0
1[13]
65

 2008 Beijing
1
0
2
3[13]
50

 2012 London
0
2
4
6[13]
55

 2016 Rio de Janeiro
0
1[14]
1[15]
2[16]
67

Total
9
7
12
28

text: Medals by sport[edit]

text:
Sport

 Gold

 Silver

 Bronze

Total

Rank

 Field hockey
8
1
2
11
1

 Shooting
1
2
1
4
34

 Athletics
0
2
0
2
71

 Wrestling
0
1
4
5
43

 Badminton
0
1
1
2
9

 Boxing
0
0
2
2
64

 Tennis
0
0
1
1
30

 Weightlifting
0
0
1
1

56

Total
9
7
12
28
12

text: List of medalists[edit]

text:
Medal

Name/Team

Games

Sport

Event

 Silver
Norman Pritchard[1][17]
 1900 Paris
Athletics
Men's 200 metres

 Silver
Norman Pritchard[1][17]
 1900 Paris
Athletics
Men's 200 metre hurdles

 Gold
National team[2]
 1928 Amsterdam
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Gold
National team[3]
 1932 Los Angeles
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Gold
National team[4]
 1936 Berlin
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Gold
National team[5]
 1948 London
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Gold
National team[5]
 1952 Helsinki
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Bronze
Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav[5]
 1952 Helsinki
Wrestling
Men's freestyle bantamweight

 Gold
National team[5]
 1956 Melbourne
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Silver
National team[6]
 1960 Rome
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Gold
National team[7]
 1964 Tokyo
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Bronze
National team[8]
 1968 Mexico City
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Bronze
National team[9]
 1972 Munich
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Gold
National team[10]
 1980 Moscow
Field hockey
Men's competition

 Bronze
Leander Paes[11]
 1996 Atlanta
Tennis
Men's singles

 Bronze
Karnam Malleswari[12]
 2000 Sydney
Weightlifting
Women's 69 kg

 Silver
Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore[13]
 2004 Athens
Shooting
Men's double trap

 Gold
Abhinav Bindra[13]
 2008 Beijing
Shooting
Men's 10 m Air Rifle

 Bronze
Vijender Singh[13]
 2008 Beijing
Boxing
Middleweight

 Bronze
Sushil Kumar[13]
 2008 Beijing
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 66 kg

 Silver
Vijay Kumar[13]
 2012 London
Shooting
Men's 25 Rapid Fire Pistol

 Silver
Sushil Kumar[13]
 2012 London
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 66 kg

 Bronze
Saina Nehwal[13]
 2012 London
Badminton
Women's singles

 Bronze
Mary Kom[13]
 2012 London
 Boxing
Women's flyweight

 Bronze
Gagan Narang[13]
 2012 London
Shooting
Men's 10m Air Rifle

 Bronze
Yogeshwar Dutt[13]
 2012 London
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 60 kg

 Silver

P. V. Sindhu[14]

 2016 Rio de Janeiro

Badminton

Women's singles

 Bronze
Sakshi Malik[15]
 2016 Rio de Janeiro
Wrestling
Women's freestyle 58 kg


document_title: List of heads of state of Trinidad and Tobago

question_text: who was the first president of the republic of trinidad and tobago

root

text: Monarch (1962–1976)[edit]

text: The succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne.

tag: p

text:
№
Monarch
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Reign
Royal House
Prime Minister

Reign start
Reign end

1
Queen Elizabeth II
(1926–)

31 August 1962
1 August 1976
Windsor
Williams

text: Governor-General[edit]

text: The Governor-General was the representative of the Monarch in Trinidad and Tobago and exercised most of the powers of the Monarch. The Governor-General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the Monarch. After the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor-General was appointed solely on the advice of the Cabinet of Trinidad and Tobago without the involvement of the British government. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice served as Officer Administering the Government.

text:
№
Governor-General
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Prime Minister
Monarch

Took office
Left office

1
Sir Solomon Hochoy
(1905–1983)

31 August 1962
15 September 1972
Williams
Elizabeth II

2
Sir Ellis Clarke
(1917–2010)

15 September 1972
1 August 1976

text: President of Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

text: Under the 1976 Constitution, the constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the President replaced the Monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by Parliament for a five-year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate served as Acting President.

text:
№
President
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Elected
Prime Minister(s)

Took office
Left office

1
Sir Ellis Clarke
(1917–2010)

1 August 1976
24 September 1976
1976,
1982
Williams
Chambers
Robinson

24 September 1976
19 March 1987

2
Noor Hassanali
(1918–2006)

20 March 1987
17 March 1997
1987,
1992
Robinson
Manning
Panday

3
A. N. R. Robinson
(1926–2014)

18 March 1997
16 March 2003
1997
Panday
Manning

4
George Maxwell Richards
(1931–2018)

17 March 2003
18 March 2013
2003,
2008
Manning
Persad-Bissessar

5
Anthony Carmona
(1952–)

18 March 2013
19 March 2018
2013
Persad-Bissessar
Rowley

6
Paula-Mae Weekes
(1958–)

19 March 2018
Incumbent
2018
Rowley

text: Standards[edit]

text:
Royal Standard

Governor-General's Standard

Presidential Standard

tag: ul

text: Living former heads of state[edit]

text: There are two living former Trinidadian Heads of State:

text:
Image
Name
Term/Reign
Office
Date of birth

Elizabeth II
1962–1976
Queen of Trinidad and Tobago
(1926-04-21) 21 April 1926 (age 92)

Anthony Carmona
2013–2018
President of Trinidad and Tobago
(1953-03-07) 7 March 1953 (age 65)


document_title: The Good Dinosaur

question_text: who does arlos voice in the good dinosaur

text: The Good Dinosaur

text: Plot[edit]

text: In an alternate history, the asteroid that would have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago passes safely over Earth.

text: Sixty-five million years later, Apatosaurus farmers Henry and Ida have children Libby, Buck, and the runt Arlo, who has trouble adjusting to farm life. While his successful siblings are allowed to "make their mark" (a mud-print on the family's corn silo), Arlo's timid nature makes tasks difficult for him. Henry attempts to give Arlo a sense of purpose by putting him in charge of guarding their silo, and helps him set a trap. It captures a feral caveboy, but Arlo doesn't have the heart to kill him, and sets him free. Disappointed, Henry takes Arlo to track the caveboy, leading them into a ravine. Henry saves Arlo from a flash flood before being swept away and killed.

text: Without his father, Arlo shoulders more of the workload. He spots the same caveboy inside the silo and, blaming him for his father's death, chases him until both fall into a river. Arlo cannot swim, and is swept downstream where he hits his head on a rock and is knocked unconscious. Awakening, he finds himself far from home and tries to survive on his own, but becomes trapped when a boulder pins his leg. The next day Arlo wakes to find his leg has been freed, and the caveboy appears with food for him. The caveboy then leads Arlo to a berry tree, where the caveboy fends off a large snake, amazing Arlo and impressing a nearby eccentric Styracosaurus who wants to keep the boy. He forces Arlo to compete with him to give the boy a name he will respond to, which Arlo finally wins when he calls him "Spot". Arlo and Spot bond as Arlo laments his lost family, and Spot reveals that his own parents are dead. Later, when a storm strikes, Arlo runs away in fear and loses the riverbank he has been following home.

text: The next morning, Arlo wakes to find Spot at his side. They are noticed by a band of pterodactyls, led by Thunderclap, who appear to be conducting a rescue operation but turn out to be savagely carnivorous. When the pterodactyls try to take Spot, Arlo and Spot flee, happening upon a pair of Tyrannosaurus named Nash and Ramsey, who ward off the pterodactyls. Nash, Ramsey, and their father Butch have lost their herd of longhorns, so Arlo offers Spot's help in sniffing them out. They locate the herd, but Butch recognizes the work of cattle rustlers, and uses Arlo as a lure. Arlo and Spot attract the attention of rustler Velociraptor, allowing Butch and his family to attack. During the fight, Arlo musters his courage and fends off two raptors who have overwhelmed Butch, helping to turn the fight in their favor. Having gained their respect, Arlo joins the Tyrannosaurus in driving the cattle south when he sees the familiar mountain peaks of his homeland in the distance, and leaves with Spot to return home. Along the way, they encounter an adult feral caveman in the distance, and though Spot shows interest, Arlo dissuades him and they continue on.

text: As another storm approaches, Thunderclap and the pterodactyls return and attack and carry Spot away. Arlo becomes entangled in vines, where he has a vision of Henry leading him home. Arlo instead resolves to save Spot, making the vision of his father proud before it fades away. Arlo finds and attacks the pterodactyls, who have cornered Spot at the river. Arlo and Spot together plunge Thunderclap and the pterodactyls into the water, where they are swept helplessly downstream. When another flash flood occurs, Arlo leaps into the water to rescue Spot as the two are swept away toward a waterfall. Arlo protects Spot as the two plummet down the fall, and carries him to shore.

text: As they approach Arlo's home, the two again hear the unknown caveman call, and are approached by an entire cave family. With great reluctance, Arlo pushes Spot to join his adoptive family, and the two of them share a tearful goodbye.

text: Arlo finally arrives home to his mother and siblings, and makes his mark on the silo between those of his mother and father.

text: Voice cast[edit]

text:
Raymond Ochoa as Arlo, the youngest of the Apatosaurus family[10][11]

Jack McGraw as Young Arlo

Jack Bright as Spot, a 6-7-year-old human caveboy who befriends Arlo.[10][11]
Sam Elliott as Butch, a Tyrannosaurus who runs a "ranch" filled with prehistoric "longhorns".[10]
Anna Paquin as Ramsey, Butch's daughter[10][11]
A. J. Buckley as Nash, Butch's son[10][11]
Jeffrey Wright as Poppa Henry, the father of the Apatosaurus family.[10][11]
Frances McDormand as Momma Ida, the mother of the Apatosaurus family.[10][11]
Marcus Scribner as Buck, Arlo's brother[10]

Ryan Teeple as Young Buck[12]

Maleah Padilla as Libby, Arlo's sister[12]
Steve Zahn as Thunderclap, a Nyctosaurus and the leader of a gang of pterodactyls.[10]
Mandy Freund as Downpour, a pterodactyl who is a member of Thunderclap's flock[12]
Steven Clay Hunter as Coldfront, a pterodactyl who is a member of Thunderclap's flock[12]
Peter Sohn as Forrest Woodbush, a Styracosaurus who has various animals perched on his horns.[12][13]
Dave Boat as Bubbha, the leader of a gang of Velociraptor rustlers[12]
Carrie Paff as Lurleane, a Velociraptor who is a member of Bubbha's pack.[12]
John Ratzenberger as Earl, a Velociraptor who is a member of Bubbha's pack.[12]
Calum Mackenzie Grant as Pervis, a Velociraptor who is a member of Bubbha's pack.[12]

text: Production[edit]

text: Bob Peterson and Peter Sohn started working on the film in 2009, when Peterson came up with the idea.[14] The film's first release date of November 27, 2013 was first announced in June 2011.[15] The plot, director and co-director, producer, and other small details were announced at the D23 Expo on August 20, 2011.[16] Peterson and John Walker announced the film as The Untitled Pixar Movie About Dinosaurs.[16] On April 24, 2012, Pixar announced that it would be titled The Good Dinosaur.[17]

text: The filmmakers wanted to explore what dinosaurs represent today, and how they are represented in stereotypes. Peterson stated: "It's time to do a movie where you get to know the dinosaur, what it's really like to be a dinosaur and to be with a dinosaur."[18] Peterson said the inspiration for the project came from a childhood visit to the 1964 New York World's Fair where he was impressed by some dinosaur Audio-Animatronics.[18]

text: On the film's title, Sohn stated, "The title is deceptively simple. It has more meaning than it seems."[18] He additionally explained: "Arlo has a lot of issues when he's born. He's fearful and he's weak and he's disconnected from the family because of these issues and he feels like he's not worthy, and so he finds a way to become worthy."[19]

text: In April 2012, Pixar announced that the film's release date had been shifted from November 27, 2013 to May 30, 2014.[17][20] On August 9, 2013, it was announced at the D23 Expo that Lucas Neff, John Lithgow, Frances McDormand, Neil Patrick Harris, Judy Greer, and Bill Hader had joined the cast of the film.[21]

text: Revisions[edit]

text: By summer 2013, Peterson and Walker had been removed from the film due to story problems.[1] Peterson, who could not crack the film's third act,[22] was absent from the D23 Expo, where Sohn and producer Denise Ream presented footage from the film.[23][24] Ed Catmull, Pixar's president, explained the departure: "All directors get really deep in their film. Sometimes you just need a different perspective to get the idea out. Sometimes directors… are so deeply embedded in their ideas it actually takes someone else to finish it up."[1] Peterson moved on to another project he is developing at Pixar, while Ream replaced Walker, who left to work on Disney's Tomorrowland. On the subject of changing directors, Ream stated, "Sadly, it happens more often than any of us would like… It's given a lot of thought and care. Bob still works at Pixar [and] he's a beloved member of the studio. He helps out on a lot of the movies. We care about him, but he just needed help getting the movie done."[25] John Lasseter, Lee Unkrich, Mark Andrews, and Sohn stepped in temporarily to work on various sections of the film.[1] In September 2013, The Good Dinosaur was pushed back from May 30, 2014 to November 25, 2015 (the scheduled release date for Pixar's Finding Dory). According to Ream, the primary reason for the rescheduling was "the story was not working, period, full stop, it just was not where it needed to be."[26] In November 2013, due to the delay, Pixar laid off 67 employees of its 1,200-person workforce,[22] following the closure of Pixar Canada a month before, when about 80 employees had been laid off, officially to refocus Pixar's efforts at its main headquarters.[27]

text: In the footage shown at the 2013 D23 Expo, Arlo was a huge dinosaur, Sohn recalled: "In the original version of the film, Spot was so tiny, we really wanted to make him feel like a bug. But people had a tough time connecting that these two had a relationship, because Arlo was so large. It was fun, but at the same time we never believed the growth that they could have together. It was really like, 'I’m best friends with a bee!' Bob Peterson, the original director, his first pitch was just a boy and his dog, and so when I took it I said, 'I want to honor that as much as I can.'"[28]

text: In August 2014, Lithgow revealed in an interview that the film had been dismantled and "completely reimagined" and that he was expected to re-record his role in the next month, while mentioning that McDormand was still part of the film.[29] In November 2014, it was reported that new elements had been added to the story, such as treating nature as the film's antagonist.[30] Pixar's general manager and president Jim Morris stated, "We all liked the movie from the beginning, but… the story had some kind of fatal flaws in it that none of us really saw. It was kind of a Billy Elliot story. It was a very different kind of movie—there was a whole dinosaur culture and community and so forth. It was one where the Arlo character was kind of repressed by the community. It never quite felt right. It always felt like that we were vilifying this group [of dinosaur characters] that was otherwise a very likeable group. It just didn't feel like it resonated truly."[31] Morris additionally explained: "We give people the chance to work on a story, and we give them our support, but it doesn't always work out… there were story issues that were just not solvable. So we changed the story to make it better, and we're very proud of the film we have now."[32] In October 2014, Sohn was announced as the new director of the film.[33]

text: In June 2015, it was announced that the majority of the cast had been revised.[10] Of the original cast, only McDormand retained her role in the film. It was revealed that Neff had been replaced by Raymond Ochoa, and Lithgow had been replaced by Jeffrey Wright.[10] Arlo's three siblings, to be voiced by Harris, Hader, and Greer had been cut down to a single brother named Buck, voiced by Marcus Scribner,[10] and later, a sister named Libby, voiced by Maleah Padilla. On the cast revisions, Sohn explained: "It was all about finding a younger Arlo, it was really about finding a boy [to play Arlo], so that we could push into that idea of him growing up and becoming a man, so the actor previous—who is a great actor—he was already a man, and so I needed to push that arc and find that compassionate kid, so that was the major kind of change. Then everything else, all the other characters that supported that story came in and out and changed and evolved and through that evolution, some of those performers changed out of it."[19] It was also confirmed that the farmer aspect was still part of the film.[34]

text: Design and setting[edit]

text: The filmmakers wanted nature to be the antagonist for the main character Arlo. Ream noted "Nature can overcome anything, including a massive dinosaur." In order to achieve the needed realism, the film's team traveled to the American Northwest, spending time in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, Juntura, Oregon, and southern Montana. Production designer Harley Jessup stated: "The area has a fantastic variety of landscapes, ranging from the Jackson Valley and the Tetons to the amazing geysers and waterfalls in Yellowstone, we studied the grasslands of Montana and the Red Desert, then incorporated all of it in Arlo’s journey." To use the landscapes that they had experienced, the filmmakers used data from the U.S. Geological Survey, and satellite images from Google Earth. The geographical data provided a foundation that the team then built on. According to supervising technical director Sanjay Bakshi, this gave Sohn "the freedom to shoot in any direction he wanted to make the world feel big and real." In addition, The Good Dinosaur features three-dimensional, volumetric clouds. In previous Pixar films, clouds have been "painted" onto the sets. Light and photography director Sharon Calahan explained: "Storm clouds are almost like a villain in the film. Plus, it’s very labor-intensive to paint clouds, and they’re in almost every scene." Calahan also noted "These particular clouds can be rendered and we can light them, which we’ve never been able to properly do before."[35][36]

text: According to the filmmakers, the environments and landscapes in the film are not photo-realistic, they are just detailed in a way that advanced technology and style decisions allow. In terms of animating Arlo, animators Rob Thompson and Kevin O’Hara went to a zoo and shot video of elephants in motion. Thompson stated: "One of the most intimidating things to animate is a quadruped, because there’s so much to them and there’s so much to manage. It’s very easy to make it not work if you don’t know what you’re managing. Locomotion is all about efficiency, a lot of times you think, 'We’re animating a big, heavy character. We should slam those feet. That’ll make it feel heavy.' The truth is, that’s not efficient. That wouldn’t be great for the legs."[35][36][37] A system where Arlo's head goes up and his chest goes down when his hips goes up, was therefore created. To get an idea of the scale of Arlo, a complete full-size model was built out of card and foam core. In total The Good Dinosaur took up 300TB of server space, ten times as much space as Monsters University (2013).[38]

text: Arlo was designed so that the audience could identify with him and be able to see the "boy" inside the dinosaur. Sohn explained "When Arlo gets lost in the wilderness, you need to worry that he's out of his element and in danger of getting killed, rather than just thinking 'You're an animal. Why don’t you just turn around and eat some leaves?'" He additionally stated "If you put like a realistic dinosaur in the woods, eat some leaves, you’re fine… But we really wanted to play with that twist of this is a boy out there. A dinosaur boy for sure, but trying to infuse those qualities into him… And also keeping him in a world that had an arc to itself. That it would start off being beautiful and then become dangerous. When we had these designs of the trees where they were a little bit more blocky and a little bit more graphic. We put Arlo in front of it, it’s like 'ooh that kind of is cool, but boy, it doesn’t feel like it's that dangerous.' Like when we get a rock stuck on him, it didn’t feel like anything ’cause when we went on our research trips, boy that idea of like you can get, you could die by a small thing like having a rock on your foot. Or you could die by a huge thing like an avalanche, which we tried to kind of explore in the film. So that was one of our main intents."[25][39]

text: In terms of the film's setting, Sohn stated "Pixar is all about the 'what if' question… 'What if the asteroid missed the earth?' Yeah, we went down the road of: they could be cooking in a dino diner; they could be in space; they could be in anything. But then there was a drawing of a dinosaur farming that kind of sparked people of the idea of 'he’s working hard and this character needs to survive out there.' All of the American dinosaur bones are found in the northwest—from Montana, to Oregon, to Wyoming, and the Dakotas, so the combination of hardworking farm families and the west really brought us into that frontier world immediately… [S]o we started doing research. We started finding all of these people who were surviving out there on the land. They were either cultivating the cattle, or were ranchers in Oregon, or were farmers in the Midwest. It just kept teaching us how much we want to honor this world, and how hard it is to survive out there. It started dictating the world itself."[28]

text: Since The Good Dinosaur is set in a world in which dinosaurs never became extinct, they were instead able to evolve. Herbivores like Arlo and his family become farmers, and carnivores like the T. rex become ranchers. Because they are meant to be reminiscent of cowboys, when the T. rex run, their lower bodies mimic a galloping horse, while their upper bodies have the feel of a riding cowboy. To help inspire Butch's physical look and performance, the filmmakers looked at classic film cowboys such as characters portrayed by Clint Eastwood and Jack Palance.[37]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
The Good Dinosaur

Film score by Mychael Danna and Jeff Danna

Released
November 20, 2015

Recorded
2015

Studio
Eastwood Scoring Stage, Warner Bros., Los Angeles

Genre
Soundtrack, film score

Length
63:22

Label
Walt Disney

Producer
Chris Montan

Pixar film soundtrack chronology

Inside Out: Original Soundtrack
(2015)Inside Out: Original Soundtrack2015
The Good Dinosaur
(2015)
Finding Dory
(2016)Finding Dory2016

Mychael Danna chronology

The Captive
(2014) The Captive2014
The Good Dinosaur
(2015) The Good Dinosaur2015
Storks
(2016) Storks2016

Jeff Danna chronology

Montage of Heck
(2015) Montage of Heck2015
The Good Dinosaur
(2015) The Good Dinosaur2015
Storks
(2016) Storks2016

text: The film's score was composed by Mychael Danna and his brother, Jeff Danna.[3] It marks the first Pixar film to be scored by two composers.[3] Danna was approached by Sohn and Ream due to his score for Life of Pi, which won an Academy Award.[3] Having a lot of work, he invited his brother Jeff Danna as a co-writer.[3] Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on November 20, 2015.[40]

text: All music composed by Mychael Danna and Jeff Danna.

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Homestead"
2:11

2.
"Hello Arlo"
2:49

3.
"Chores"
0:55

4.
"Make Your Mark"
2:07

5.
"Fireflies"
2:16

6.
"Critter Problem"
1:04

7.
"You're Me and More"
3:05

8.
"Family Struggle"
1:23

9.
"Swept Away"
1:33

10.
"Mountain Top"
0:51

11.
"Lost in the World"
3:35

12.
"Offerings"
1:32

13.
"Unexpected Friend"
2:56

14.
"Pet Collector"
2:24

15.
"Swimming Lessons"
2:29

16.
"Orphans"
4:39

17.
"The Storm"
1:17

18.
"I'm Never Getting Home"
0:44

19.
"Storm Chasers"
1:22

20.
"Bloodhound"
1:37

21.
"Fight Them Rustlers"
1:46

22.
"Run With the Herd"
3:51

23.
"Returned Call"
1:25

24.
"Sky Sharks"
1:46

25.
"Arlo's Vision"
1:35

26.
"Rescue"
2:31

27.
"Over the Falls"
2:41

28.
"Goodbye Spot"
4:12

29.
"Homecoming"
1:24

30.
"Arlo Makes His Mark"
1:22

Total length:
63:22

text: Video game[edit]

text: A figure of Spot and Power Discs of Arlo, Ramsey, Nash, and Butch have been released for Disney Infinity 3.0.[41]

text: Release[edit]

text: The Good Dinosaur was theatrically released on November 25, 2015.[42] Before the rescheduling from 2014 to 2015, a Monsters University short film titled Party Central was set to accompany the film, but was instead shown with the theatrical release of Disney's Muppets Most Wanted.[43] In April 2015, it was announced that a new Pixar short, Sanjay's Super Team, directed by Sanjay Patel, would be shown in front of The Good Dinosaur instead.[44]

text: The film's teaser trailer was released on June 2, 2015,[45][46] and the first official trailer was released on July 21, 2015.[47] The film received an exclusive run at The Grand Rex in Paris a week before its U.S. and European premiere.[48]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Good Dinosaur was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu-ray (2D and 3D), DVD, and digital download in the United States on February 23, 2016. Blu-ray bonus features include Sanjay's Super Team, audio commentary, behind-the-scenes featurettes, deleted scenes, and the "Hide and Seek" short promotional clip.[49][50]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Good Dinosaur grossed $123.1 million in the United States and Canada and $209.1 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $332.2 million[7] against a production budget of $175–200 million,[5][6] making it Pixar's lowest-grossing film. Adding in the marketing budget, the film had a cost of $350 million,[51] which it was not able to recoup.[52][53][54][55] However, the film proved to be much more financially successful in terms of home video sales.[56][57]

text: In North America, The Good Dinosaur opened on Wednesday, November 25, 2015 alongside Creed and Victor Frankenstein, as well as the wide releases of Brooklyn, Spotlight, and Trumbo. The film was projected to gross $60–65 million from 3,749 theaters in its first five days, including $45 million in its opening weekend.[58] It made $1.3 million from its Tuesday night previews and $9.8 million on its first day. The film ended up grossing $55.6 million in its first five days, including $39.2 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind the second weekend of Mockingjay – Part 2, the final installment in the Hunger Games film series.[59]

text: Outside North America, it earned $28.7 million from 39 markets, including 8 significant markets. Unlike the USA, where it had the benefit of the Thanksgiving weekend, it did not have the same benefit internationally. Rather, its release date was designed to set it up to run through the December holiday.[60] The top openings were in the United Kingdom ($4.3 million), Mexico ($3.6 million), France ($3.2 million), Argentina ($2.2 million), and Russia ($2.1 million). Of those, it opened at No. 1 in Mexico, Argentina and Russia.[61] In terms of total earnings, its leading markets are the United Kingdom ($10.1 million), Mexico ($8.7 million), and France ($8.1 million).[62]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 77%, based on 198 reviews, with a rating average of 6.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Good Dinosaur delivers thrillingly beautiful animation in service of a worthy story that, even if it doesn't quite live up to the lofty standards set by Pixar, still adds up to charming, family-friendly entertainment."[63] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[64] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[59]

text: Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described it as "antic and unexpected as well as homiletic, rife with subversive elements, wacky critters and some of the most beautiful landscapes ever seen in a computer animated film."[65] Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt the film "has a few things on its mind, but its tone is overwhelmingly playful, not hectoring."[66] Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal opined that "As Pixar productions go, this one isn't a groundbreaker, but it's heartfelt and endearing, as well as visually splendiferous, and kids will love it for sure."[67] "Clever and cloying by turns, it's a movie that always seems to be trying to evolve beyond its conventional trappings, and not succeeding as often as Pixar devotees have come to expect," wrote Justin Chang of Variety.[68] Many of the reviewers praised the sophistication of its nearly photorealistic backgrounds.[66][69][70][71]

text: Christopher Orr of The Atlantic felt it to be the studio's first film explicitly targeted towards children, though it is "by no means a bad movie […] It's a simple story, well-told."[69] Mark Feeney, writing for The Boston Globe, felt similarly, deeming it a "very middling movie […] The Good Dinosaur generally features a sort of sentimentality and emotional reductiveness that make it seem meant for small children as no previous Pixar movie has."[70] The Washington Post's Stephanie Merry dubbed it "a nice, conventional story, but it’s not Pixar-level imaginative."[71] Richard Roeper, for the Chicago Sun-Times, felt it "one strange, aggressively gross and dark adventure […] Inconsistent and weird, The Good Dinosaur is second-level Pixar all the way."[72] Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter derided its "disappointingly derivative" screenplay.[73]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient
Outcome

American Cinema Editors Awards
January 29, 2016
Best Edited Animated Feature Film
Stephen Schaffer
Nominated

Annie Awards[74]
February 6, 2016
Best Animated Feature
The Good Dinosaur

Outstanding Achievement in Animated Effects in an Animated Production
John Reisch and Stephen Marshall
Won

Outstanding Achievement in Character Animation in a Feature Production
Mark C. Harris
Nominated

K.C. Roeyer

Outstanding Achievement in Character Design in an Animated Feature Production
Matt Nolte

Outstanding Achievement in Music in an Animated Feature Production
Mychael Danna and Jeff Danna

Outstanding Achievement in Production Design in an Animated Feature Production
Harley Jessup, Sharon Calahan, Bryn Imagire, Noah Klocek and Huy Nguyen

Outstanding Achievement in Storyboarding in an Animated Feature Production
Bill Presing

Rosana Sullivan

J.P. Vine, Tony Rosenast and Enrico Casarosa

Austin Film Critics Association Awards[75]
December 29, 2015
Best Animated Film
The Good Dinosaur

Black Reel Awards
February 18, 2016
Best Voice Performance
Jeffrey Wright (Poppa Henry)

British Academy Children's Awards[76][77]
November 20, 2016
Feature Film
Peter Sohn and Meg LeFauve

BAFTA Kids' Vote
The Good Dinosaur

Chicago Film Critics Association Awards
December 16, 2015
Best Animated Film

Critics' Choice Awards
January 17, 2016
Best Animated Feature

Florida Film Critics Circle Awards
December 23, 2015
Best Animated Film

Golden Globe Awards[78]
January 10, 2016
Best Animated Feature Film

Golden Reel Awards[79]
February 27, 2016
Best Sound Editing: Sound Effects, Foley, Dialogue & ADR in an Animation Feature Film
Shannon Mills

Houston Film Critics Society Awards
January 9, 2016
Best Animated Feature Film
The Good Dinosaur

Online Film Critics Society Awards[80]
December 14, 2015
Best Animated Film

Producers Guild of America Awards
January 23, 2016
Outstanding Producer of Animated Theatrical Motion Pictures
Denise Ream

San Diego Film Critics Society Awards[81][82]
December 14, 2015
Best Animated Film
The Good Dinosaur

Satellite Awards[83]
February 21, 2016
Best Motion Picture, Animated or Mixed Media

Saturn Awards[84]
June 22, 2016
Best Animated Film

St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Awards[85]
December 20, 2015
Best Animated Film

Village Voice Film Poll[86]
January 7, 2016
Best Animated Film
10th Place

Visual Effects Society Awards
February 2, 2016
Outstanding Visual Effects in an Animated Feature
Sanjay Bakshi, Denise Ream, Michael Venturini, and Jon Reisch
Won

Outstanding Animated Performance in an Animated Feature
Ana Gabriela Lacaze, Jacob Brooks, Lou Hamou-Lhadj, and Mark C. Harris (Spot)
Nominated

Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature
David Munier, Matthew Webb, Matt Kuruc, and Tom Miller (The Farm)
Won

Outstanding Effects Simulations in an Animated Feature
Stephen Marshall, Magnus Wrenninge, Michael Hall, and Hemagiri Arumugam


document_title: Andaman and Nicobar Islands

question_text: latitude and longitude extent of andaman and nicobar islands

text: Andaman and Nicobar Islands

text: History[edit]

text: First inhabitants[edit]

text: The earliest archaeological evidence yet documented goes back some 2,200 years. However, genetic and cultural studies suggest that the indigenous Andamanese people may have been isolated from other populations since some time during the Middle Paleolithic, which ended 30,000 years ago.[7] Since that time, the Andamanese have diversified into distinct linguistic, cultural and territorial groups.

text: The Nicobar Islands appear to have been populated by people of various backgrounds. At the time of the European contact, the indigenous inhabitants were the Nicobarese people, speaking a Mon-Khmer language; and the Shompen, whose language is of uncertain affiliation. Both are unrelated to the Andamanese, but being closely related to the Austroasiatic languages in mainland Southeast Asia.

text: Chola empire period[edit]

text: Rajendra Chola I (1014 to 1042 AD), used the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a strategic naval base to launch an expedition against the Sriwijaya Empire (Indonesia). The Cholas called the island Ma-Nakkavaram ("great open/naked land"), found in the Thanjavur inscription of 1050 AD. European traveller Marco Polo (12th–13th century) also referred to this island as 'Necuverann' and a corrupted form of the Tamil name Nakkavaram would have led to the modern name Nicobar during the British colonial period.[8]

text: Danish colonial period and British Rule[edit]

text: The history of organised European colonisation on the islands began when the Danish settlers of the Danish East India Company arrived in the Nicobar Islands on 12 December 1755. On 1 January 1756, the Nicobar Islands were made a Danish colony, first named New Denmark,[9] and later (December 1756) Frederick's Islands (Frederiksøerne). During 1754–1756 they were administrated from Tranquebar (in continental Danish India). The islands were repeatedly abandoned due to outbreaks of malaria between 14 April 1759 and 19 August 1768, from 1787 to 1807/05, 1814 to 1831, 1830 to 1834 and gradually from 1848 for good.[9]

text: From 1 June 1778 to 1784, Austria mistakenly assumed that Denmark had abandoned its claims to the Nicobar Islands and attempted to establish a colony on them,[10] renaming them Theresia Islands.[9]

text: In 1789 the British set up a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island next to Great Andaman, where now lies the town of Port Blair. Two years later the colony was moved to Port Cornwallis on Great Andaman, but it was abandoned in 1796 due to disease.

text: Denmark's presence in the territory ended formally on 16 October 1868 when it sold the rights to the Nicobar Islands to Britain,[10] which made them part of British India in 1869.

text: In 1858 the British again established a colony at Port Blair, which proved to be more permanent. The primary purpose was to set up a penal colony criminal convicts from the Indian subcontinent. The colony came to include the infamous Cellular Jail.

text: In 1872 the Andaman and Nicobar islands were united under a single chief commissioner at Port Blair.

text: World War II[edit]

text: During World War II, the islands were practically under Japanese control, only nominally under the authority of the Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind of Subhash Chandra Bose. Bose visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as "Shaheed-dweep" (Martyr Island) and "Swaraj-dweep" (Self-rule Island).

text: General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army was made the Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. On 22 February 1944 he along with four INA officers—Major Mansoor Ali Alvi, Sub. Lt. Md. Iqbal, Lt. Suba Singh and stenographer Srinivasan—arrived at Lambaline Airport in Port Blair. On 21 March 1944 the Headquarters of the Civil Administration was established near the Gurudwara at Aberdeen Bazaar. On 2 October 1944, Col. Loganathan handed over the charge to Maj. Alvi and left Port Blair, never to return.[11] The islands were reoccupied by British and Indian troops of the 116th Indian Infantry Brigade on 7 October 1945, to whom the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered.

text: Post independence[edit]

text: During the independence of both India (1947) and Burma (1948), the departing British announced their intention to resettle all Anglo-Indians and Anglo-Burmese on these islands to form their own nation, although this never materialised. It became part of India in 1950 and was declared as a union territory of the nation in 1956.[12]

text: India has been developing defence facilities on the islands since the 1980s. The islands now have a key position in India's strategic role in the Bay of Bengal and the Malacca Strait.[13]

text: 2004 tsunami[edit]

text: On 26 December 2004 the coasts of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were devastated by a 10 m (33 ft) high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. More than 2,000 people lost their lives, more than 4,000 children were orphaned or suffered the loss of one parent, and a minimum of 40,000 people were rendered homeless. More than 46,000 people were injured.[14] The worst affected Nicobar islands were Katchal and Indira Point; the latter subsided 4.25 metres (13.9 feet) and was partially submerged in the ocean. The lighthouse at Indira Point was damaged but has been repaired since then. The territory lost a large amount of area which is now submerged. The territory which was at 8,073 km2 (3,117 sq mi) is now at 7,950 km2 (3,070 sq mi).[15]

text: While locals and tourist of the islands suffered the greatest casualties from the tsunami, most of the aboriginal people survived because oral traditions passed down from generations ago warned them to evacuate from large waves that follow large earthquakes.[16]

text: Geography[edit]

text: There are 572 islands [17] in the territory having an area of 8,249 km2 (3,185 sq mi). Of these, about 38 are permanently inhabited. The islands extend from 6° to 14° North latitudes and from 92° to 94° East longitudes. The Andamans are separated from the Nicobar group by a channel (the Ten Degree Channel) some 150 km (93 mi) wide. The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at 732 m (2,402 ft)). The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi).[12]:33

text: The capital of the union territory, Port Blair, is located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata, 1,200 km (750 mi) from Visakhapatnam and 1,190 km (740 mi) from Chennai.[12]:33 The northernmost point of the Andaman and Nicobars group is 901 km (560 mi) away from the mouth of the Hooghly River and 190 km (120 mi) from Myanmar. Indira Point at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E at the southern tip of the southernmost island, Great Nicobar, is the southernmost point of India and lies only 150 km (93 mi) from Sumatra in Indonesia. The only volcano in India, Barren Island, is located in Andaman and Nicobar. It is an active volcano and erupted in 2017.

text: Flora[edit]

text: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands have a tropical rainforest canopy, made of a mixed flora with elements from Indian, Myanmar, Malaysian and endemic floral strains. So far, about 2,200 varieties of plants have been recorded, out of which 200 are endemic and 1,300 do not occur in mainland India.

text: The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids. The Middle Andamans harbours mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterised by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers. The North Nicobar Islands (including Car Nicobar and Battimalv) are marked by the complete absence of evergreen forests, while such forests form the dominant vegetation in the central and southern islands of the Nicobar group. Grasslands occur only in the Nicobars, and while deciduous forests are common in the Andamans, they are almost absent in the Nicobars. The present forest coverage is claimed to be 86.2% of the total land area.

text: This atypical forest coverage is made up of twelve types, namely:

text:
Giant evergreen forest
Andamans tropical evergreen forest
Southern hilltop tropical evergreen forest
Cane brakes
Wet bamboo brakes
Andamans semi-evergreen forest
Andamans moist deciduous forest
Andamans secondary moist deciduous forest
Littoral forest
Mangrove forest
Brackish water mixed forest
Submontane forest

tag: ol

text: Fauna[edit]

text: This tropical rain forest, despite its isolation from adjacent land masses, is surprisingly rich with a diversity of animal life.

text: About 50 varieties of forest mammals are found to occur in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Some are endemic, including the Andaman wild boar. Rodents are the largest group with 26 species, followed by 14 species of bat. Among the larger mammals there are two endemic[citation needed] varieties of wild boar, Sus scrofa andamanensis from Andaman and Sus scrofa nicobaricus from Nicobar, which are protected by the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Sch I). Saltwater crocodile is also found in abundance. The State Animal of Andaman is the dugong, also known as the sea cow, which can be found in Little Andaman. Around 1962 there was an attempt to introduce the leopard, which was unsuccessful because of unsuitable habitat. These were ill-considered moves as exotic introductions can cause havoc to island flora and fauna.

text: About 270 species of birds are found in the territory; 14 of them are endemic, the majority to the Nicobar island group. The islands' many caves are nesting grounds for the edible-nest swiftlet, whose nests are prized in China for bird's nest soup.[18]

text: The territory is home to about 225 species of butterflies and moths. Ten species are endemic to these Islands. Mount Harriet National Park is one of the richest areas of butterfly and moth diversity on these islands.

text: The islands are well known for prized shellfish, especially from the genera Turbo, Trochus, Murex and Nautilus. Earliest recorded commercial exploitation began during 1929. Many cottage industries produce a range of decorative shell items. Giant clams, green mussels and oysters support edible shellfishery. The shells of scallops, clams, and cockle are burnt in kilns to produce edible lime.

text: There are 96 wildlife sanctuaries, nine national parks and one biosphere reserve in these islands.[19]

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
[show]Population growth

Census
Pop.

%±

1951
31,000

—

1961
64,000

106.5%

1971
115,000

79.7%

1981
189,000

64.3%

1991
281,000

48.7%

2001
356,000

26.7%

2011
380,000

6.7%

Source:Census of India[20]

text: As of 2011[update] Census of India, the population of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands was 379,944, of which 202,330 (53.25%) were male and 177,614 (46.75) were female. The sex ratio was 878 females per 1,000 males.[21] Only 10% of the population lived in Nicobar islands.

text: The areas and populations (at the 2001 and 2011 Censuses) of the three districts[22] are:

text:
Name
Area (km2)
Population
Census 2001
Population
Census 2011
Capital

Nicobar Islands
1,765
42,068
36,842
Car Nicobar

North and Middle Andaman
3,536
105,613
105,597
Mayabunder

South Andaman
2,640
208,471
238,142
Port Blair

Totals
7,950
356,152
380,581

text: Hindi and English are the official languages of the islands.[3] Bengali is the dominant and most spoken language, with 26% of the population speaking Bengali. The other major languages spoken in the islands are Bengali (26%) Hindi (18.23%), Tamil (17.68%), Telugu (12.81%), Malayalam (8.11%) and Nicobarese (8.05%) according to 2001 Census of India.[3] Other minor spoken languages are Kurukh/Oraon, Munda and Kharia. Andaman Creole Hindi is widely used as a trade language in the Andamans.

text: There remain approximately 400–450 indigenous Andamanese in the Andaman islands, the Jarawa and Sentinelese in particular maintaining a steadfast independence and refusing most attempts at contact. In the Nicobar Islands, the indigenous people are the Nicobarese, or Nicobari, living throughout many of the islands, and the Shompen, restricted to the hinterland of Great Nicobar. More than 2,000 people belonging to the Karen tribe live in the Mayabunder tehsil of North Andaman district, almost all of whom are Christians. Despite their tribal origins, the Karen of Andamans have Other Backward Class (OBC) status in the Andamans.

text: Religion[edit]

text: Religion in Andaman and Nicobar (2011)[23]

text: The majority of people of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are Hindus (69.44%), with Christians forming a large minority of 21.7% of the population, according to the 2011 census of India. There is a small but significant Muslim (8.51%) minority.

text: Administration[edit]

text: In 1874, the British had placed the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in one administrative territory headed by a Chief Commissioner as its judicial administrator. On 1 August 1974, the Nicobar islands were hived off into another revenue district with district headquarters at Car Nicobar under a Deputy Commissioner. In 1982, the post of Lieutenant Governor was created who replaced the Chief Commissioner as the head of administration. Subsequently, a "Pradesh council" with Counselors as representatives of the people was constituted to advise the Lieutenant Governor.[12] The Islands sends one representative to Lok Sabha from its Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Lok Sabha constituency).

text: Administrative divisions[edit]

text: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is divided into three districts. Each district is further divided into sub-divisions and taluks:

text: North and Middle Andaman

text:
Headquarters: Mayabunder
Diglipur Sub-Division

Diglipur taluk

Mayabunder Sub-Division

Mayabunder taluk
Rangat taluk

text: South Andaman

text:
Headquarters: Port Blair
Port Blair Sub-Division

Port Blair taluk
Ferrargunj taluk
Jirkatang taluk (native Jarawa reservation)

Ritchie's Archipelago Sub-Division

Ritchie's Archipelago taluka (Havelock Island)

Little Andaman Sub-Division

Little Andaman taluka (Hut Bay)

text: Nicobar

text:
Headquarters: Car Nicobar
Car Nicobar Sub-Division

Car Nicobar taluk

Nancowrie Sub-Division

Nancowrie taluk
Kamorta taluk
Teressa taluk
Katchal taluk

Great Nicobar Sub-Division

Great Nicobar taluk (Campbell Bay)
Little Nicobar taluk

text: Economy[edit]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: A total of 48,675 hectares (120,280 acres) of land is used for agriculture purposes. Paddy, the main food crop, is mostly cultivated in Andaman group of islands, whereas coconut and arecanut are the cash crops of Nicobar group of islands. Field crops, namely pulses, oilseeds and vegetables are grown, followed by paddy during Rabi season. Different kinds of fruits such as mango, sapota, orange, banana, papaya, pineapple and root crops are grown on hilly land owned by farmers. Spices such as pepper, clove, nutmeg, and cinnamon are grown under a multi-tier cropping system. Rubber, red oil, palm, noni and cashew are grown on a limited scale in these islands.

text: Industry[edit]

text: There are 1,374 registered small-scale, village and handicraft units. Two units are export-oriented in the line of fish processing activity. Apart from this, there are shell and wood based handicraft units. There are also four medium-sized industrial units. SSI units are engaged in the production of polythene bags, PVC conduit pipes and fittings, paints and varnished, fibre glass and mini flour mills, soft drinks and beverages, etc. Small scale and handicraft units are also engaged in shell crafts, bakery products, rice milling, furniture making, etc.

text: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation has spread its wings in the field of tourism, fisheries, industries and industrial financing and functions as authorised agents for Alliance Air/Jet Airways. The Islands have become a tourist destination, due to the draw of their largely unspoiled virgin beaches and waters.[24]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Andaman and Nicobar Islands are developing into a major tourism hub with exotic-looking beaches and pristine islands having equally exotic names, wonderful opportunities for adventure sports like snorkelling and sea-walking.[25]

text: In Port Blair, the main places to visit are the Cellular Jail, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park, Andaman Water sports complex, Chatham Saw Mill, Mini Zoo, Corbyn's cove, Chidiya Tapu, Wandoor Beach, Forest Museum, Anthropological Museum, Fisheries Museum, Naval Museum (Samudrika), Ross Island and Viper Island. Other places include Havelock island famous for Radhanagar Beach, Neil Island for Scuba diving/snorkelling, Cinque island, Saddle peak, Mt Harriet and Mud Volcano. The southern group (Nicobar islands) is mostly inaccessible to tourists.

text: Indian tourists do not require a permit to visit the Andaman islands but if they wish to visit any tribal areas they need a special permit from the Deputy Commissioner, Port Blair. Permits are required for foreign nationals. For foreign nationals arriving by air, these are granted upon arrival at Port Blair.

text: According to official estimates, the flow of tourists doubled to nearly 300,000 in 2012 from 130,000 in 2008–09. The Radha Nagar beach of Andamans was chosen as Asia’s best Beach in 2004.[25]

text: Macro-economic trend[edit]

text: This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product (GSDP) of Andaman and Nicobar Islands at market prices, estimated by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, with figures in millions of Indian rupees.[26]

text:
Year
GSDP (millions of ₹)

1985
590

1990
1,100

1995
4,000

2000
7,750

2005
10,560

2010
16,130

text: Andaman and Nicobar Islands' gross state domestic product for 2004 was estimated at $354 million in current prices.

text: Power generation[edit]

text: With Japanese assistance, Southern Andaman Island will now have a 15-Megawatt Diesel power plant. This would be the first foreign investment of any kind allowed at this strategically significant island chain. This is believed to be an Indo-Japanese strategic initiative to strengthen civilian infrastructure in the vicinity of the Strait of Malacca – a strategically important choke-point for the Chinese oil supply.[27][28]

text: The Sisters (Andaman)[edit]

text: The Sisters are small uninhabited islands in the Andaman Archipelago, at the northern side of the Duncan Passage, about 6 km (3.2 nmi) southeast of Passage Island and 18 km (9.7 nmi) north of North Brother: East Sister Island (Andaman) and West Sister Island (Andaman). The islands are about 250 metres (820 feet) apart, connected by a coral reef. They are covered by forests, and have rocky shores except for a beach on the NW side of East Sister. They belong to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Territory of India.

text: Before the British established a colony on the Andaman, the Sister islands were visited occasionally by the Onge people of Little Andaman Island for fishing. They may have been a waystation for their temporary settlement of Rutland Island between 1890 and 1930. The islands have been a wildlife refuge since 1987, with 0.36 square km of area.


document_title: Map projection

question_text: what does it mean when a map projection distorts the earth

question_tokens: what does it mean when a map projection distorts the earth

text: Map projection

text: Background[edit]

text: Maps can be more useful than globes in many situations: they are more compact and easier to store; they readily accommodate an enormous range of scales; they are viewed easily on computer displays; they can facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being mapped; they can show larger portions of the Earth's surface at once; and they are cheaper to produce and transport. These useful traits of maps motivate the development of map projections.

text: However, Carl Friedrich Gauss's Theorema Egregium proved that a sphere's surface cannot be represented on a plane without distortion. The same applies to other reference surfaces used as models for the Earth. Since any map projection is a representation of one of those surfaces on a plane, all map projections distort. Every distinct map projection distorts in a distinct way. The study of map projections is the characterization of these distortions.

text: Projection is not limited to perspective projections, such as those resulting from casting a shadow on a screen, or the rectilinear image produced by a pinhole camera on a flat film plate. Rather, any mathematical function transforming coordinates from the curved surface to the plane is a projection. Few projections in actual use are perspective.

text: For simplicity, most of this article assumes that the surface to be mapped is that of a sphere. In reality, the Earth and other large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, whereas small objects such as asteroids often have irregular shapes. These other surfaces can be mapped as well. Therefore, more generally, a map projection is any method of "flattening" a continuous curved surface onto a plane.

text: Metric properties of maps[edit]

text: Many properties can be measured on the Earth's surface independent of its geography. Some of these properties are:

text:
Area
Shape
Direction
Bearing
Distance
Scale

text: Map projections can be constructed to preserve at least one of these properties, though only in a limited way for most. Each projection preserves or compromises or approximates basic metric properties in different ways. The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map. Because many purposes exist for maps, a diversity of projections have been created to suit those purposes.

text: Another consideration in the configuration of a projection is its compatibility with data sets to be used on the map. Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the chosen datum (model) of the Earth. Different datums assign slightly different coordinates to the same location, so in large scale maps, such as those from national mapping systems, it is important to match the datum to the projection. The slight differences in coordinate assignation between different datums is not a concern for world maps or other vast territories, where such differences get shrunk to imperceptibility.

text: Which projection is best?[edit]

text: The mathematics of projection do not permit any particular map projection to be "best" for everything. Something will always be distorted. Therefore, many projections exist to serve the many uses of maps and their vast range of scales.

text: Modern national mapping systems typically employ a transverse Mercator or close variant for large-scale maps in order to preserve conformality and low variation in scale over small areas. For smaller-scale maps, such as those spanning continents or the entire world, many projections are in common use according to their fitness for the purpose.[3]

text: Thematic maps normally require an equal area projection so that phenomena per unit area are shown in correct proportion.[4] However, representing area ratios correctly necessarily distorts shapes more than many maps that are not equal-area. Hence reference maps of the world often appear on compromise projections instead. Due to distortions inherent in any map of the world, the choice of projection becomes largely one of aesthetics.

text: The Mercator projection, developed for navigational purposes, has often been used in world maps where other projections would have been more appropriate.[5][6][7][8] This problem has long been recognized even outside professional circles. For example, a 1943 New York Times editorial states:

text: The time has come to discard [the Mercator] for something that represents the continents and directions less deceptively ... Although its usage ... has diminished ... it is still highly popular as a wall map apparently in part because, as a rectangular map, it fills a rectangular wall space with more map, and clearly because its familiarity breeds more popularity.[2]:166

text: A controversy in the 1980s over the Peters map motivated the American Cartographic Association (now Cartography and Geographic Information Society) to produce a series of booklets (including Which Map Is Best[9]) designed to educate the public about map projections and distortion in maps. In 1989 and 1990, after some internal debate, seven North American geographic organizations adopted a resolution recommending against using any rectangular projection (including Mercator and Gall–Peters) for reference maps of the world.[10][11]

text: Distortion[edit]

text: The classical way of showing the distortion inherent in a projection is to use Tissot's indicatrix. For a given point, using the scale factor h along the meridian, the scale factor k along the parallel, and the angle θ′ between them, Nicolas Tissot described how to construct an ellipse that characterizes the amount and orientation of the components of distortion.[2]:147–149[12] By spacing the ellipses regularly along the meridians and parallels, the network of indicatrices shows how distortion varies across the map.

text: Construction of a map projection[edit]

text: The creation of a map projection involves two steps:

text:
Selection of a model for the shape of the Earth or planetary body (usually choosing between a sphere or ellipsoid). Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.
Transformation of geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to Cartesian (x,y) or polar plane coordinates. In large-scale maps, cartesian coordinates normally have a simple relation to eastings and northings defined as a grid superimposed on the projection. In small-scale maps, eastings and northings are not meaningful, and grids are not superimposed.

text: Some of the simplest map projections are literal projections, as obtained by placing a light source at some definite point relative to the globe and projecting its features onto a specified surface. This is not the case for most projections, which are defined only in terms of mathematical formulae that have no direct geometric interpretation.

text: Choosing a projection surface[edit]

text: A surface that can be unfolded or unrolled into a plane or sheet without stretching, tearing or shrinking is called a developable surface. The cylinder, cone and the plane are all developable surfaces. The sphere and ellipsoid do not have developable surfaces, so any projection of them onto a plane will have to distort the image. (To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing and warping it.)

text: One way of describing a projection is first to project from the Earth's surface to a developable surface such as a cylinder or cone, and then to unroll the surface into a plane. While the first step inevitably distorts some properties of the globe, the developable surface can then be unfolded without further distortion.

text: Aspect of the projection[edit]

text: Once a choice is made between projecting onto a cylinder, cone, or plane, the aspect of the shape must be specified. The aspect describes how the developable surface is placed relative to the globe: it may be normal (such that the surface's axis of symmetry coincides with the Earth's axis), transverse (at right angles to the Earth's axis) or oblique (any angle in between).

text: Notable lines[edit]

text: The developable surface may also be either tangent or secant to the sphere or ellipsoid. Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe. Moving the developable surface away from contact with the globe never preserves or optimizes metric properties, so that possibility is not discussed further here.

text: Tangent and secant lines (standard lines) are represented undistorted. If these lines are a parallel of latitude, as in conical projections, it is called a standard parallel. The central meridian is the meridian to which the globe is rotated before projecting. The central meridian (usually written λ0) and a parallel of origin (usually written φ0) are often used to define the origin of the map projection.[13][14]

text: Scale[edit]

text: A globe is the only way to represent the earth with constant scale throughout the entire map in all directions. A map cannot achieve that property for any area, no matter how small. It can, however, achieve constant scale along specific lines.

text: Some possible properties are:

text:
The scale depends on location, but not on direction. This is equivalent to preservation of angles, the defining characteristic of a conformal map.
Scale is constant along any parallel in the direction of the parallel. This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.
Combination of the above: the scale depends on latitude only, not on longitude or direction. This applies for the Mercator projection in normal aspect.
Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location. This is the defining characteristic of an equidistant projection such as the Azimuthal equidistant projection. There are also projections (Maurer, Close) where true distances from two points are preserved.[2]:234

text: Choosing a model for the shape of the body[edit]

text: Projection construction is also affected by how the shape of the Earth or planetary body is approximated. In the following section on projection categories, the earth is taken as a sphere in order to simplify the discussion. However, the Earth's actual shape is closer to an oblate ellipsoid. Whether spherical or ellipsoidal, the principles discussed hold without loss of generality.

text: Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface. Auxiliary latitudes are often employed in projecting the ellipsoid.

text: A third model is the geoid, a more complex and accurate representation of Earth's shape coincident with what mean sea level would be if there were no winds, tides, or land. Compared to the best fitting ellipsoid, a geoidal model would change the characterization of important properties such as distance, conformality and equivalence. Therefore, in geoidal projections that preserve such properties, the mapped graticule would deviate from a mapped ellipsoid's graticule. Normally the geoid is not used as an Earth model for projections, however, because Earth's shape is very regular, with the undulation of the geoid amounting to less than 100 m from the ellipsoidal model out of the 6.3 million m Earth radius. For irregular planetary bodies such as asteroids, however, sometimes models analogous to the geoid are used to project maps from.[15][16][17][18][19]

text: Classification[edit]

text: A fundamental projection classification is based on the type of projection surface onto which the globe is conceptually projected. The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the earth, followed by an implied scaling operation. These surfaces are cylindrical (e.g. Mercator), conic (e.g. Albers), or azimuthal or plane (e.g. stereographic). Many mathematical projections, however, do not neatly fit into any of these three conceptual projection methods. Hence other peer categories have been described in the literature, such as pseudoconic, pseudocylindrical, pseudoazimuthal, retroazimuthal, and polyconic.

text: Another way to classify projections is according to properties of the model they preserve. Some of the more common categories are:

text:
Preserving direction (azimuthal or zenithal), a trait possible only from one or two points to every other point[20]
Preserving shape locally (conformal or orthomorphic)
Preserving area (equal-area or equiareal or equivalent or authalic)
Preserving distance (equidistant), a trait possible only between one or two points and every other point
Preserving shortest route, a trait preserved only by the gnomonic projection

text: Because the sphere is not a developable surface, it is impossible to construct a map projection that is both equal-area and conformal.

text: Projections by surface[edit]

text: The three developable surfaces (plane, cylinder, cone) provide useful models for understanding, describing, and developing map projections. However, these models are limited in two fundamental ways. For one thing, most world projections in actual use do not fall into any of those categories. For another thing, even most projections that do fall into those categories are not naturally attainable through physical projection. As L.P. Lee notes,

text: No reference has been made in the above definitions to cylinders, cones or planes. The projections are termed cylindric or conic because they can be regarded as developed on a cylinder or a cone, as the case may be, but it is as well to dispense with picturing cylinders and cones, since they have given rise to much misunderstanding. Particularly is this so with regard to the conic projections with two standard parallels: they may be regarded as developed on cones, but they are cones which bear no simple relationship to the sphere. In reality, cylinders and cones provide us with convenient descriptive terms, but little else.[21]

text: Lee's objection refers to the way the terms cylindrical, conic, and planar (azimuthal) have been abstracted in the field of map projections. If maps were projected as in light shining through a globe onto a developable surface, then the spacing of parallels would follow a very limited set of possibilities. Such a cylindrical projection (for example) is one which:

text:
Is rectangular;
Has straight vertical meridians, spaced evenly;
Has straight parallels symmetrically placed about the equator;
Has parallels constrained to where they fall when light shines through the globe onto the cylinder, with the light source someplace along the line formed by the intersection of the prime meridian with the equator, and the center of the sphere.

text: (If you rotate the globe before projecting then the parallels and meridians will not necessarily still be straight lines. Rotations are normally ignored for the purpose of classification.)

text: Where the light source emanates along the line described in this last constraint is what yields the differences between the various "natural" cylindrical projections. But the term cylindrical as used in the field of map projections relaxes the last constraint entirely. Instead the parallels can be placed according to any algorithm the designer has decided suits the needs of the map. The famous Mercator projection is one in which the placement of parallels does not arise by "projection"; instead parallels are placed how they need to be in order to satisfy the property that a course of constant bearing is always plotted as a straight line.

text: Cylindrical[edit]

text: The term "normal cylindrical projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced vertical lines and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to horizontal lines.

text: The mapping of meridians to vertical lines can be visualized by imagining a cylinder whose axis coincides with the Earth's axis of rotation. This cylinder is wrapped around the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.

text: By the geometry of their construction, cylindrical projections stretch distances east-west. The amount of stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical projections, and is given by the secant of the latitude as a multiple of the equator's scale. The various cylindrical projections are distinguished from each other solely by their north-south stretching (where latitude is given by φ):

text:
North-south stretching equals east-west stretching (sec φ): The east-west scale matches the north-south scale: conformal cylindrical or Mercator; this distorts areas excessively in high latitudes (see also transverse Mercator).
North-south stretching grows with latitude faster than east-west stretching (sec2 φ): The cylindric perspective (or central cylindrical) projection; unsuitable because distortion is even worse than in the Mercator projection.
North-south stretching grows with latitude, but less quickly than the east-west stretching: such as the Miller cylindrical projection (sec 4/5φ).
North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or "plate carrée".
North-south compression equals the cosine of the latitude (the reciprocal of east-west stretching): equal-area cylindrical. This projection has many named specializations differing only in the scaling constant, such as the Gall–Peters or Gall orthographic (undistorted at the 45° parallels), Behrmann (undistorted at the 30° parallels), and Lambert cylindrical equal-area (undistorted at the equator). Since this projection scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at the expense of shapes.

text: In the first case (Mercator), the east-west scale always equals the north-south scale. In the second case (central cylindrical), the north-south scale exceeds the east-west scale everywhere away from the equator. Each remaining case has a pair of secant lines—a pair of identical latitudes of opposite sign (or else the equator) at which the east-west scale matches the north-south-scale.

text: Normal cylindrical projections map the whole Earth as a finite rectangle, except in the first two cases, where the rectangle stretches infinitely tall while retaining constant width.

text: Pseudocylindrical[edit]

text: Pseudocylindrical projections represent the central meridian as a straight line segment. Other meridians are longer than the central meridian and bow outward away from the central meridian. Pseudocylindrical projections map parallels as straight lines. Along parallels, each point from the surface is mapped at a distance from the central meridian that is proportional to its difference in longitude from the central meridian. Therefore, meridians are equally spaced along a given parallel. On a pseudocylindrical map, any point further from the equator than some other point has a higher latitude than the other point, preserving north-south relationships. This trait is useful when illustrating phenomena that depend on latitude, such as climate. Examples of pseudocylindrical projections include:

text:
Sinusoidal, which was the first pseudocylindrical projection developed. On the map, as in reality, the length of each parallel is proportional to the cosine of the latitude.[22] The area of any region is true.
Collignon projection, which in its most common forms represents each meridian as two straight line segments, one from each pole to the equator.

text:
Tobler hyperelliptical

Mollweide

Goode homolosine

Eckert IV

Eckert VI

Kavrayskiy VII

text: Hybrid[edit]

text: The HEALPix projection combines an equal-area cylindrical projection in equatorial regions with the Collignon projection in polar areas.

text: Conic[edit]

text: The term "conic projection" is used to refer to any projection in which meridians are mapped to equally spaced lines radiating out from the apex and circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to circular arcs centered on the apex.[23]

text: When making a conic map, the map maker arbitrarily picks two standard parallels. Those standard parallels may be visualized as secant lines where the cone intersects the globe—or, if the map maker chooses the same parallel twice, as the tangent line where the cone is tangent to the globe. The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area near those standard parallels. Distances along the parallels to the north of both standard parallels or to the south of both standard parallels are stretched; distances along parallels between the standard parallels are compressed. When a single standard parallel is used, distances along all other parallels are stretched.

text: Conic projections that are commonly used are:

text:
Equidistant conic, which keeps parallels evenly spaced along the meridians to preserve a constant distance scale along each meridian, typically the same or similar scale as along the standard parallels.
Albers conic, which adjusts the north-south distance between non-standard parallels to compensate for the east-west stretching or compression, giving an equal-area map.
Lambert conformal conic, which adjusts the north-south distance between non-standard parallels to equal the east-west stretching, giving a conformal map.

text: Pseudoconic[edit]

text:
Bonne
Werner cordiform, upon which distances are correct from one pole, as well as along all parallels.
American polyconic

text: Azimuthal (projections onto a plane)[edit]

text: Azimuthal projections have the property that directions from a central point are preserved and therefore great circles through the central point are represented by straight lines on the map. These projections also have radial symmetry in the scales and hence in the distortions: map distances from the central point are computed by a function r(d) of the true distance d, independent of the angle; correspondingly, circles with the central point as center are mapped into circles which have as center the central point on the map.

text: The mapping of radial lines can be visualized by imagining a plane tangent to the Earth, with the central point as tangent point.

text: The radial scale is r′(d) and the transverse scale r(d)/(R sin d/R) where R is the radius of the Earth.

text: Some azimuthal projections are true perspective projections; that is, they can be constructed mechanically, projecting the surface of the Earth by extending lines from a point of perspective (along an infinite line through the tangent point and the tangent point's antipode) onto the plane:

text:
The gnomonic projection displays great circles as straight lines. Can be constructed by using a point of perspective at the center of the Earth. r(d) = c tan d/R; so that even just a hemisphere is already infinite in extent.[24][25]
The General Perspective projection can be constructed by using a point of perspective outside the earth. Photographs of Earth (such as those from the International Space Station) give this perspective.
The orthographic projection maps each point on the earth to the closest point on the plane. Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin d/R.[26] Can display up to a hemisphere on a finite circle. Photographs of Earth from far enough away, such as the Moon, approximate this perspective.
The stereographic projection, which is conformal, can be constructed by using the tangent point's antipode as the point of perspective. r(d) = c tan d/2R; the scale is c/(2R cos2 d/2R).[27] Can display nearly the entire sphere's surface on a finite circle. The sphere's full surface requires an infinite map.

text: Other azimuthal projections are not true perspective projections:

text:
Azimuthal equidistant: r(d) = cd; it is used by amateur radio operators to know the direction to point their antennas toward a point and see the distance to it. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to surface distance on the earth (;[28] for the case where the tangent point is the North Pole, see the flag of the United Nations)
Lambert azimuthal equal-area. Distance from the tangent point on the map is proportional to straight-line distance through the earth: r(d) = c sin d/2R[29]
Logarithmic azimuthal is constructed so that each point's distance from the center of the map is the logarithm of its distance from the tangent point on the Earth. r(d) = c ln d/d0); locations closer than at a distance equal to the constant d0 are not shown.[30][31]

text: Projections by preservation of a metric property[edit]

text: Conformal[edit]

text: Conformal, or orthomorphic, map projections preserve angles locally, implying that they map infinitesimal circles of constant size anywhere on the Earth to infinitesimal circles of varying sizes on the map. In contrast, mappings that are not conformal distort most such small circles into ellipses of distortion. An important consequence of conformality is that relative angles at each point of the map are correct, and the local scale (although varying throughout the map) in every direction around any one point is constant. These are some conformal projections:

text:
Mercator: Rhumb lines are represented by straight segments
Transverse Mercator
Stereographic: Any circle of a sphere, great and small, maps to a circle or straight line.
Roussilhe
Lambert conformal conic
Peirce quincuncial projection
Adams hemisphere-in-a-square projection
Guyou hemisphere-in-a-square projection

text: Equal-area[edit]

text: Equal-area maps preserve area measure, generally distorting shapes in order to do that. Equal-area maps are also called equivalent or authalic. These are some projections that preserve area:

text:
Albers conic
Bonne
Bottomley
Collignon
Cylindrical equal-area
Eckert II, IV and VI
Gall orthographic (also known as Gall–Peters, or Peters, projection)
Goode's homolosine
Hammer
Hobo–Dyer
Lambert azimuthal equal-area
Lambert cylindrical equal-area
Mollweide
Sinusoidal
Snyder’s equal-area polyhedral projection, used for geodesic grids.
Tobler hyperelliptical
Werner

text: Equidistant[edit]

text: These are some projections that preserve distance from some standard point or line:

text:
Equirectangular—distances along meridians are conserved
Plate carrée—an Equirectangular projection centered at the equator
Azimuthal equidistant—distances along great circles radiating from centre are conserved
Equidistant conic
Sinusoidal—distances along parallels are conserved
Werner cordiform distances from the North Pole are correct as are the curved distance on parallels
Soldner
Two-point equidistant: two "control points" are arbitrarily chosen by the map maker. Distance from any point on the map to each control point is proportional to surface distance on the earth.

text: Gnomonic[edit]

text: Great circles are displayed as straight lines:

text: Gnomonic projection

text: Retroazimuthal[edit]

text: Direction to a fixed location B (the bearing at the starting location A of the shortest route) corresponds to the direction on the map from A to B:

text:
Littrow—the only conformal retroazimuthal projection
Hammer retroazimuthal—also preserves distance from the central point
Craig retroazimuthal aka Mecca or Qibla—also has vertical meridians

text: Compromise projections[edit]

text: Compromise projections give up the idea of perfectly preserving metric properties, seeking instead to strike a balance between distortions, or to simply make things "look right". Most of these types of projections distort shape in the polar regions more than at the equator. These are some compromise projections:

text:
Robinson
van der Grinten
Miller cylindrical
Winkel Tripel
Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion
B. J. S. Cahill's Butterfly Map
Kavrayskiy VII projection
Wagner VI projection
Chamberlin trimetric
Oronce Finé's cordiform