document_title: Largest organisms

question_text: what is the biggest animal that ever lived on land

text: Largest organisms

text: Plants[edit]

text: The largest single-stem tree by wood volume and mass is the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum), native to Sierra Nevada and California; it typically grows to a height of 70–85 m (230–280 ft) and 5–7 m (16–23 ft) in diameter.

text: Multiple-stem trees such as banyan can be enormous. Thimmamma Marrimanu in India spreads over 1.0 ha (2.5 acres).

text: The largest organism in the world, according to mass, is the aspen tree whose colonies of clones can grow up to five miles long. The largest such colony is Pando, in the Fishlake National Forest in Utah.

text: Another form of flowering plant that rivals Pando as the largest organism on earth in breadth, if not mass, is the giant marine plant, Posidonia oceanica, discovered in the Mediterranean near the Balearic Islands, Spain. Its length is about 8 km (5 mi). It may also be the oldest living organism in the world, with an estimated age of 100,000 years.[7]

text: Green algae[edit]

text: Green algae are photosynthetic unicellular and multicellular protists that are related to land plants. The thallus of the unicellular mermaid's wineglass, Acetabularia, can grow to several inches (perhaps 0.1 to 0.2 m) in length. The fronds of the similarly unicellular, and invasive Caulerpa taxifolia can grow up to a foot (0.3 m) long.

text: Animals[edit]

text: A member of the order Cetacea, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), is thought to be the largest animal ever to have lived. The maximum recorded weight was 190 metric tonnes for a specimen measuring 27.6 metres (91 ft), whereas longer ones, up to 33.6 metres (110 ft), have been recorded but not weighed.[8][9][10]

text: The African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), of the order Proboscidea, is the largest living land animal. A native of various open habitats in sub-Saharan Africa, this elephant is commonly born weighing about 100 kilograms (220 lb).[11] The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in Angola in 1974. It was a male measuring 10.67 metres (35.0 ft) from trunk to tail and 4.17 metres (13.7 ft) lying on its side in a projected line from the highest point of the shoulder to the base of the forefoot, indicating a standing shoulder height of 3.96 metres (13.0 ft). This male had an computed weight of 12.25 tonnes.[8]

text: The heaviest living animals are all cetaceans, and thus also the largest living mammals. Since no scale can accommodate the whole body of a large whale, most whales have been weighed by parts.

text:
Rank

Animal

Average mass[tonnes]

Maximum mass[tonnes]

Average total length[m (ft)]

Illustration

1
Blue whale
110[12]
190[8]
24 (79)[13]

2
North Pacific right whale
60[14]
120[8]
15.5 (51)[12]

3
Southern right whale
58[12]
110[15]
15.25 (50)[12]

4
Fin whale
57[12]
120[15]
19.5 (64)[12]

5
Bowhead whale
54.5[12][16]
120[8]
15 (49)[12]

6
North Atlantic right whale
54[12][17]
110[15][18]
15 (49)[12][18]

7
Sperm whale
31.25[12][19]
57[8]
13.25 (43.5)[12][19]

8
Humpback whale
29[12][20]
48[21]
13.5 (44)[12]

9
Sei whale
22.5[12]
45[22]
14.8 (49)[12]

10
Gray whale
19.5[12]
45[23]
13.5 (44)[12]

text: The following is a list of the heaviest wild land animals, which are all mammals. The African elephant is now listed as two species, the African bush elephant and the African forest elephant, as they are now generally considered to be two separate species.[24]

text:
Rank

Animal

Average mass[tonnes]

Maximum mass[tonnes]

Average total length[m (ft)]

1
African bush elephant

4.9[25][26]
12.25[8]
6 (19.7)[27]

2
Asian elephant
4.15[8][28]
8.15[8]
6.8 (22.3)[28]

3
African forest elephant
2.7[29]
6.0[29]
6.2 (20.3)[30]

4
White rhinoceros[dubious  – discuss]
2[31][32]
4.5[33]
4.4 (14.4)[34]

5
Indian rhinoceros
1.9[35][36]
4.0[37]
4.2 (13.8)[38]

6
Hippopotamus
1.8[39][40]
4.5[41]
4 (13.1)[42]

7
Javan rhinoceros
1.75[43][44]
2.3[45]
3.8 (12.5)[46]

8
Black rhinoceros
1.1[47]
2.9[48]
4 (13.1)[49]

9
Giraffe
1.0[8]
2[50]
5.15 (16.9)[51]

10
Gaur
0.95[52]
1.5[52]
3.8 (12.5)[53]

text: Tunicates (Tunicata)[edit]

text: The largest tunicates are Synoicum pulmonaria, found at depths of 20 and 40 metres (66 and 131 ft), and are up to 14 centimetres (6 in) in diameter. It is also present in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, around the coasts of Greenland and Newfoundland, but is less common here than in the east, and occurs only at depths between 10 and 13 metres (33 and 43 ft).[54]

text: Entergonas (Enterogona)

text: Pleurogonas (Pleurogona)

text: Aspiraculates (Aspiraculata)

text: Thaliacea[edit]

text: Doliolida (Doliolida)

text: Salps (Salpida)

text: Larvaceans  (Larvacea)

text: Cephalochordate (Leptocardii)[edit]

text: The largest lancelets: European lancelet (Branchiostoma lanceolatum) "primitive fish". It can grow up to 6 cm (2.5 in) long.[62]

text: Vertebrates[edit]

text: Mammals (Mammalia)[edit]

text: The blue whale is the largest mammal.

text: The largest land mammal extant today is the African bush elephant. The largest extinct land mammal known was long considered to be Paraceratherium orgosensis, a rhinoceros relative thought to have stood up to 4.8 m (15.7 ft) tall, measured over 7.4 m (24.3 ft) long and may have weighed about 17 tonnes.[63][64] In 2015, a study suggested that one example of the proboscidean Palaeoloxodon namadicus may have been the largest land mammal ever, based on extensive research of fragmentary leg bone fossils from one individual, with a maximum estimated size of 22 tonnes.[65][63]

text: Stem-mammals (Synapsida)[edit]

text: The Permian era Cotylorhynchus, from what is now the southern United States, probably was the largest of all synapsids (most of which became extinct 250 million years ago), at 6 m (20 ft) and 2 tonnes.[66] The largest carnivorous synapsid was Anteosaurus from what is now South Africa during Middle Permian era. Anteosaurus was 5–6 m (16–20 ft) long, and weighed about 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb).[67]

text: Pelycosauria

text: Therapsida

text: Reptiles (Reptilia)[edit]

text: The largest living reptile, a representative of the order Crocodilia, is the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) of Southern Asia and Australia, with adult males being typically 3.9–5.5 m (13–18 ft) long. The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record was 6.32 m (20.7 ft) long, and weighed about 1,360 kg (3,000 lb).[8] Unconfirmed reports of much larger crocodiles exist, but examinations of incomplete remains have never suggested a length greater than 7 m (23 ft).[70] Also, a living specimen estimated at 7 m (23 ft) and 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) has been accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records.[71] However, due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions has yet to be verified. A specimen named Lolong caught alive in the Philippines in 2011 (died February 2013) was found to have measured 6.17 m (20.2 ft) in length.[72][73][74][75][76]

text: The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), also known as the "Komodo monitor", is a large species of lizard found in the Indonesian islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Gili Motang, Nusa kode and Padar. A member of the monitor lizard family (Varanidae), it is the largest living species of lizard, growing to a maximum length of 3 metres (9.8 feet) in rare cases and weighing up to approximately 70 kilograms (150 pounds).

text: The following is a list of the heaviest living reptile species ranked by average weight, which is dominated by the crocodilians. Unlike mammals, birds, or fish, the mass of large reptiles is frequently poorly documented and many are subject to conjecture and estimation.[8]

text:
Rank

Animal

Average mass[kg (lb)]

Maximum mass[kg (lb)]

Average total length[m (ft)]

1
Saltwater crocodile
450 (990)[77][78]
2,000 (4,400)[79][80]
4.5 (14.8)[77][81]

2
Nile crocodile
410 (900)[82][83]
1,090 (2,400)[8]
4.2 (13.8)[82][83]

3
Orinoco crocodile
380 (840)[84]
1,100 (2,400)[citation needed]
4.1 (13.5)[84][85]

4
Leatherback sea turtle
364 (800)[86][87]
932 (2,050)[8]
2.0 (6.6)[8]

5
Black caiman
350 (770)[88]
1,100 (2,400)[89][90]
3.9 (12.8)[91][92][93][94]

6
American crocodile
335 (739)[95]
1,000 (2,200)[96]
4.0 (13.1)[97][98]

7
Gharial
250 (550)[99]
977 (2,150)[100]
4.5 (14.8)[99]

8
American alligator
240 (530)[101][102]
1,000 (2,200)[8]
3.4 (11.2)[102]

9
Mugger crocodile
225 (495)[101]
700 (1,500)[103][104]
3.3 (10.8)[102]

10
Tomistoma
210 (460)[105]
500 (1,100)[106]
4.0 (13.1)[107]

11
Aldabra giant tortoise
205 (450)[108]
360 (790)[8]
1.4 (4.6)[109]

12
Loggerhead sea turtle
200 (441)[110]
545 (1202)[110]
0.95 (3.2)[109]

13
Green sea turtle
190 (418.9)[111]
395 (870.8)[82]
1.12 (3.67)[82]

14
Slender-snouted crocodile
180 (400)[112][113]
325 (720)[112]
3.3 (10.8)[112]

15
Galapagos tortoise
175 (390)[114]
400 (880)[115]
1.5 (4.9)[116]

text: Dinosaurs (Dinosauria)[edit]

text:
Sauropods (Sauropoda)
The largest dinosaurs, and the largest animals to ever live on land, were the plant-eating, long-necked Sauropoda. The tallest and heaviest sauropod known from a complete skeleton is a specimen of an immature Giraffatitan discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912, now mounted in the Museum für Naturkunde of Berlin. It is 12 m (39 ft) tall and weighed 23.3–39.5 tonnes.[117][118][119][120][121] The longest is a 25 m (82 ft) long specimen of Diplodocus discovered in Wyoming, and mounted in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Natural History Museum in 1907. A Patagotitan specimen found in Argentina in 2014 is estimated to have been 40 m (130 ft) long and 20 m (66 ft) tall, with a weight of 77 tonnes.[122]
There were larger sauropods, but they are known only from a few bones. The current record-holders include Argentinosaurus, which may have weighed 73 tonnes; Supersaurus which might have reached 34 m (112 ft) in length and Sauroposeidon which might have been 18 m (59 ft) tall. Two other such sauropods include Bruhathkayosaurus and Amphicoelias fragillimus. Both are known only from fragments. Bruhathkayosaurus might have been between 40–44 m (131–144 ft) in length and 175–220 tonnes in weight according to some estimates.[123] A. fragillimus might have been approximately 58 m long and 122.4 metric tons in weight.
Theropods (Theropoda)
The largest theropod known from a nearly complete skeleton is the biggest and most complete Tyrannosaurus rex specimen, nicknamed "Sue", which was discovered in South Dakota in 1990 and now mounted in the Field Museum of Chicago at a total length of 12.3 m (40 ft). Body mass estimates have reached over 9,500 kg,[124] though other figures, such as Hartman's 2013 estimate of 8,400 kg,[125] have been lower.
Another giant theropod is the semi-aquatic Spinosaurus aegyptiacus from the mid-Cretaceous of North Africa. Size estimates have been fluctuating far more over the years, with length estimates ranging from 12.6 to 18 m and mass estimates from 7 to 20.9 t.[126][127] Recent findings favour a length exceeding 15 m [128] and a body mass of 7.5 tons.[129]
Other contenders known from partial skeletons include Giganotosaurus carolinii (est. 12.2–13.2 m and 6-13.8 tonnes) and Carcharodontosaurus saharicus (est. 12-13.3 m and 6.2-15.1 tonnes).[127][130][131][132][133][134]
The largest extant theropod is the Ostrich (see birds, below).
Armored dinosaurs (Thyreophora)

text: Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)

text: Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)

text: Birds (Aves)[edit]

text: The largest living bird, a member of the Struthioniformes, is the common ostrich (Struthio camelus), from the plains of Africa and Arabia. A large male ostrich can reach a height of 2.8 m (9.2 ft) and weigh over 156 kg (344 lb).[142] A mass of 200 kg (440 lb) has been cited for the common ostrich but no wild ostriches of this weight have been verified.[143] Eggs laid by the ostrich can weigh 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) and are the largest eggs in the world today.

text: The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds (Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in height and 500 kg (1,100 lb).[8] The last of the elephant birds became extinct about 300 years ago. Of almost exactly the same upper proportions as the largest elephant birds was Dromornis stirtoni of Australia, part of a 26,000-year-old group called mihirungs of the family Dromornithidae.[144] The largest carnivorous bird was Brontornis, an extinct flightless bird from South America which reached a weight of 350 to 400 kg (770 to 880 lb) and a height of about 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in).[145] The tallest carnivorous bird was Kelenken, which could reach 3 to 3.2 meters in height and 220 to 250 kilograms. The tallest bird ever was the giant moa (Dinornis maximus), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct around 1500 AD. This particular species of moa stood up to 3.7 m (12 ft) tall,[142] but weighed about half as much as a large elephant bird or mihirung due to its comparatively slender frame.[8]

text: The heaviest bird ever capable of flight was Argentavis magnificens, the largest member of the now extinct family Teratornithidae, found in Miocene-aged fossil beds of Argentina, with a wingspan up to 5.5 m (18 ft), a length of up to 1.25 m (4.1 ft), a height on the ground of up to 1.75 m (5.7 ft) and a body weight of at least 71 kg (157 lb).[8][146][147] Pelagornis sandersi is thought to have had an even larger wingspan of about 6.1–7.4 m (20–24 ft), but is only about 22–40 kg (49–88 lb), half the mass of the former.[148][147]

text: The following is a list of the heaviest living bird species based on maximum reported or reliable mass, but average weight is also given for comparison. These species are almost all flightless, which allows for these particular birds to have denser bones and heavier bodies. Flightless birds comprise less than 2% of all living bird species.

text:
Rank

Animal

Binomial Name

Average mass[kg (lb)]

Maximum mass[kg (lb)]

Average total length[cm (ft)]

Flighted

1
Ostrich
Struthio camelus
104 (230)[149]
156.8 (346)[149]
210 (6.9)[150]
No

2
Somali ostrich
Struthio molybdophanes
90 (200)[149]
130 (287)[citation needed]
200 (6.6)[149]
No

3
Southern cassowary
Casuarius casuarius
45 (99)[149]
85 (190)[151]
155 (5.1)[149]
No

4
Northern cassowary
Casuarius unappendiculatus
44 (97)[149]
75 (170)[149]
149 (4.9)[150]
No

5
Emu
Dromaius novaehollandiae
33 (73)[149][152]
70 (150)[citation needed]
153 (5)[149]
No

6
Emperor penguin
Aptenodytes forsteri
31.5 (69)[150][153]
46 (100)[150]
114 (3.7)[150]
No

7
Greater rhea
Rhea americana
23 (51)[152]
40 (88)[150]
134 (4.4)[149]
No

8
Domestic turkey/wild turkey
Meleagris gallopavo
13.5 (29.8) [154]
39 (86)[155]
100 - 124.9 (3.3 – 4.1)[citation needed]
Yes

9
Dwarf cassowary
Casuarius bennetti
19.7 (43)[149]
34 (75)[149]
105 (3.4)[citation needed]
No

10
Lesser rhea
Rhea pennata
19.6 (43)[149]
28.6 (63)[149]
96 (3.2)[150]
No

11
Mute swan
Cygnus olor
11.87 (26.2)
23 (51)
100-130 (3.3-4.3)[156]
Yes

12
Great bustard
Otis tarda
10.6 (23.4)[citation needed]
21 (46)[8]
115 (3.8)[citation needed]
Yes

13
King penguin
Aptenodytes patagonicus
13.6 (30)[150][153]
20 (44)[157]
92 (3)[citation needed]
No

14
Kori bustard
Ardeotis kori
11.4 (25.1)[150]
20 (44.1)[citation needed]
150 (5)[150]
Yes

14
Trumpeter swan
Cygnus buccinator
11.6 (25.1)
17.2 (38)
138-165
Yes

15
Wandering albatross
Diomedea exulans
11.9 (24)
16.1 (38)[158]
107-135
Yes

16
Whooper swan
Cygnus cygnus
11.4 (25)
15.5 (32)
140-165
Yes

17
Dalmatian Pelican
Pelecanus crispus
11.5 (25)
15 (33.1)[citation needed]
183 (6)[citation needed]
Yes

18
Andean condor
Vultur gryphus
11.3 (25)[156]
14.9 (33)[156]
100-130 (3.3-4.3)[156]
Yes

text: Amphibians (Amphibia)[edit]

text: The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus). The maximum size of this nearly human-sized river-dweller is 64 kg (141 lb) and almost 1.83 m (6.0 ft).[8] Before amniotes became the dominant tetrapods, several giant amphibian proto-tetrapods existed and were certainly the dominant animals in their ecosystems. The largest known was the crocodile-like Prionosuchus, which reached a length of 9 m (30 ft).[159]

text: Frogs (Anura)

text: Caecilians (Gymnophiona)

text: Salamanders (Urodela)

text: Fish[edit]

text: Invertebrates[edit]

text: Sponges (Porifera)[edit]

text: The largest known species of sea sponge is the giant barrel sponge, Xestospongia muta. These massively built sponges can reach 2.4 m (8 ft) in height and can be of about the same number of feet across at the thickest part of the "body".[167] Some of these creatures have been estimated to be over 2,400 years of age.[168]

text: Calcareous sponges (Calcarea)

text: Hexactinellid sponges (Hexactinellida)

text: Cnidarians (Cnidaria)[edit]

text: The lion's mane jellyfish (Cyanea capillata) is the largest cnidaria species, of the class Scyphozoa. The largest known specimen of this giant, found washed up on the shore of Massachusetts Bay in 1870,[170][171] had a bell diameter of 2.5 m (8.2 ft), a weight of 150 kg (330 lb). The tentacles of this specimens were as long as 37 m (121 ft) and were projected to have a tentacular spread of about 75 m (246 ft) making it one of the longest extant animals.[8]

text: Corals and sea-anemones (Anthozoa)

text: Lion's mane jellyfish

text: Hydrozoans (Hydrozoa)

text: Flatworms (Platyhelminthes)[edit]

text: Monogenean flatworms (Monogenea)

text: Flukes (Trematoda)

text: Tapeworms (Cestoda)

text: Roundworms (Nematoda)[edit]

text: The largest roundworm, Placentonema gigantissima,[180] is a parasite found in the placentas of sperm whales which can reach up to 9 m (30 ft) in length.[181]

text: Segmented worms (Annelida)[edit]

text: The largest of the segmented worms (commonly called earthworms) is the African giant earthworm (Microchaetus rappi). Although it averages about 1.36 m (4.5 ft) in length, this huge worm can reach a length of as much as 6.7 m (22 ft) and can weigh over 1.5 kg (3.3 lb).[182] Only the giant Gippsland earthworm, Megascolides australis, and a few giant polychaetes, including the notorious Eunice aphroditois, reach nearly comparable sizes, reaching 4 and 3.6 m (13 and 12 ft), respectively.[8]

text: Echinoderms (Echinodermata)[edit]

text: The largest species of echinoderm in terms of bulk is probably the starfish species Thromidia gigas, of the class Asteroidea, which reaches a weight of over 6 kg (13 lb),[183] but it might be beaten by some giant sea cucumbers such as Thelenota anax. However, at a maximum span of 63 cm (25 in), Thromidia gigas is quite a bit shorter than some other echinoderms.[8] The longest echinoderm known is the conspicuous sea cucumber Synapta maculata, with a slender body that can extend up to 3 m (9.8 ft). In comparison, the biggest sea star is the brisingid sea star Midgardia xandaros, reaching a span of 1.4 m (4.6 ft), despite being quite slender.[8] Evasterias echinosoma is another giant echinoderm and can measure up to 1 m (3.3 ft) across and weigh 5.1 kg (11 lb).[8]

text: Crinoids (Crinoidea)

text: Sea urchins and allies (Echinoidea)

text: Sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea)

text: Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea)

text: Sea stars (Asteroidea)

text: Ribbon worms (Nemertea)[edit]

text: The largest nemertean is the bootlace worm, Lineus longissimus. A specimen found washed ashore on a beach in St. Andrews, Scotland in 1864 was recorded at a length of 55 m (180 ft).[189]

text: Mollusks (Mollusca)[edit]

text: Both the largest mollusks and the largest of all invertebrates (in terms of mass) are the largest squids. The colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni) is projected to be the largest invertebrate.[190] Current estimates put its maximum size at 12 to 14 m (39 to 46 ft) long and 750 kg (1,650 lb),[191] based on analysis of smaller specimens. In 2007, authorities in New Zealand announced the capture of the largest known colossal squid specimen. It was initially thought to be 10 m (33 ft) and 450 kg (990 lb). It was later measured at 4.2 m (14 ft) long and 495 kg (1,091 lb) in weight.[192] The mantle was 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long when measured.

text: The giant squid (Architeuthis dux) was previously thought to be the largest squid, and while it is less massive and has a smaller mantle than the colossal squid, it may exceed the colossal squid in overall length including tentacles. One giant squid specimen that washed ashore in 1878 in Newfoundland reportedly measured 18 m (59 ft) in total length (from the tip of the mantle to the end of the long tentacles), head and body length 6.1 m (20 ft), 4.6 m (15 ft) in diameter at the thickest part of mantle, and weighed about 900 kg (2,000 lb). This specimen is still often cited as the largest invertebrate that has ever been examined.[8][193][194] However, no animals approaching this size have been scientifically documented and, according to giant squid expert Steve O'Shea, such lengths were likely achieved by greatly stretching the two tentacles like elastic bands.[195]

text: Aplacophorans (Aplacophora)

text: Chitons (Polyplacophora)

text: Bivalves (Bivalvia)

text: Gastropods (Gastropoda)

text: Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)

text: Velvet worms (Onychophora)[edit]

text: Solórzano's velvet worm (Peripatus solorzanoi) is the largest velvet worm known. An adult female was recorded to have a body length of 22 cm (approximately 8.7 in).[203]

text: Arthropods (Arthropoda)[edit]

text: The largest arthropod known to have existed is the eurypterid (sea scorpion) Jaekelopterus, reaching up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in body length, followed by the millipede relative Arthropleura at around 2.1 m (6.9 ft) in length.[204] Among living arthropods, the Japanese spider crab (Macrocheira kaempferi) is the largest in overall size, the record specimen, caught in 1921, had an extended arm span of 3.8 m (12 ft) and weighed about 19 kg (42 lb).[8] The heaviest is the American lobster (Homarus americanus), the largest verified specimen, caught in 1977 off of Nova Scotia weighed 20 kg (44 lb) and its body length was 1.1 m (3.6 ft).[8] The largest land arthropod and the largest land invertebrate is the coconut crab (Birgus latro), up to 40 cm (1.3 ft) long and weighing up to 4 kg (8.8 lb) on average. Its legs may span 1 m (3.3 ft).[8]

text: Arachnids (Arachnida)[edit]

text: Spiders (Araneae)

text: Scorpions (Scorpiones)

text: Pseudoscorpions (Pseudoscorpiones)

text: Crustaceans (Crustacea)[edit]

text: Branchiopods (Branchiopoda)

text: Barnacles and allies (Maxillopoda)

text: Ostracods (Ostracoda)

text: Amphipods, isopods, and allies (Peracarida)

text: Remipedes (Remipedia)

text: Horseshoe crabs (Xiphosura)[edit]

text: Sea spiders (Pycnogonida)[edit]

text: Trilobites (Trilobita)[edit]

text: Myriapods (Myriapoda)[edit]

text: Centipedes (Chilopoda)

text: Millipedes (Diplopoda)

text: Insects (Insecta)[edit]

text: Insects, a class of Arthropoda, are easily the most numerous class of organisms, with over one million identified species, and probably many undescribed species. The heaviest insect is almost certainly a species of beetle, which incidentally is the most species-rich order of organisms. Although heavyweight giant wetas (Deinacrida heteracantha) are known, the elephant beetles of Central and South America, (Megasoma elephas) and (M. actaeon), the Titan beetle (Titanus giganteus) of the neotropical rainforests or the Goliath beetles, (Goliathus goliatus) and (G. regius), of Africa's rainforests are thought to reach a higher weight.[227] The most frequently crowned are the Goliath beetles, the top known size of which is at least 100 g (3.5 oz) and 11.5 cm (4.5 in).[8] The elephant beetles and titan beetle can reach greater lengths than the Goliath, at up to 13.1 and 15.2 cm (5.2 and 6.0 in), respectively, but this is in part thanks to their rather large horns. The Goliath beetle's wingspan can range up to 25 cm (9.8 in).[8]

text: Some moths and butterflies have much larger areas than the heaviest beetles, but weigh a fraction as much.

text: The longest insects are the stick insects, see below.

text: Representatives of the extinct dragonfly-like order Protodonata such as the Carboniferous Meganeura monyi of what is now France and the Permian Meganeuropsis permiana of what is now North America are the largest insect species yet known to have existed. These creatures had a wingspan of some 75 cm (30 in) and a mass of over 1 pound (450 g), making them about the size of a crow.[8]

text: Cockroaches and termites (Blattodea)

text: Beetles (Coleoptera)

text: Earwigs (Dermaptera)

text: True flies (Diptera)

text: Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)

text: True bugs (Hemiptera)

text: Ants and allies (Hymenoptera)

text: Moths and allies (Lepidoptera)

text: Mantises (Mantodea)

text: Alderflies and allies (Megaloptera)

text: Net-winged insects (Neuroptera)

text: Dragonflies (Odonata)

text: Grasshoppers and allies (Orthoptera)

text: Stick insects (Phasmatodea)

text: Lice (Phthiraptera)

text: Stoneflies (Plecoptera)

text: Booklice (Psocoptera)

text: Fleas (Siphonaptera)

text: Silverfishes and allies (Thysanura)

text: Thrips (Thysanoptera)

text: Caddisflies (Trichoptera)

text: Fungi[edit]

text:
The largest living fungus may be a honey fungus[261] of the species Armillaria ostoyae.[262]
A mushroom of this type in the Malheur National Forest in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon, U.S. was found to be the largest fungal colony in the world, spanning 8.9 km2 (2,200 acres) of area.[263][264] This organism is estimated to be 2,400 years old. The fungus was written about in the April 2003 issue of the Canadian Journal of Forest Research. While an accurate estimate has not been made, the total weight of the colony may be as much as 605 tons[vague]. If this colony is considered a single organism, then it is the largest known organism in the world by area, and rivals the aspen grove "Pando" as the known organism with the highest living biomass. It is not known, however, whether it is a single organism with all parts of the mycelium connected.[264]

text: In Armillaria ostoyae, each individual mushroom (the fruiting body, similar to a flower on a plant) has only a 5 cm (2.0 in) stipe, and a pileus up to 12.5 cm (4.9 in) across. There are many other fungi which produce a larger individual size mushroom. The largest known fruiting body of a fungus is a specimen of Phellinus ellipsoideus (formerly Fomitiporia ellipsoidea) found on Hainan Island.[265] The fruiting body masses up to 500 kg (1,100 lb).[266][267]

text: Until P. ellipsoideus replaced it, the largest individual fruit body came from Rigidoporus ulmarius. R. ulmarius can grow up to 284 kg (626 lb), 1.66 m (5.4 ft) tall, 1.46 m (4.8 ft) across, and has a circumference of up to 4.9 m (16 ft).

text: Protists[edit]

text: (Note: the group Protista is not used in current taxonomy.)

text: Amoebozoans (Amoebozoa)[edit]

text: Euglenozoans (Euglenozoa)[edit]

text: Rhizarians (Rhizaria)[edit]

text: Alveolates (Alveolata)[edit]

text: Stramenopiles (Stramenopila)[edit]

text: Bacteria[edit]

text: The largest known species of bacterium is Thiomargarita namibiensis, which grows to 0.75 mm (0.030 in) in diameter, making it visible to the naked eye and a thousand times the size of more typical bacteria.

text: Cyanobacteria

text: Viruses[edit]

text: The largest virus on record so far is the Pithovirus sibericum with the length of 1.5 micrometres, comparable to the typical size of a bacterium and large enough to be seen in light microscopes. It was discovered in March 2014 in a soil sample collected from a riverbank in Siberia. Prior to this discovery, the largest virus was the peculiar virus genus Pandoravirus, which have a size of approximately 1 micrometer and whose genome contains 1,900,000 to 2,500,000 base pairs of DNA.[275]

text: Both these viruses infect amoebas specifically.


document_title: History of cotton

question_text: where did cotton come from during the industrial revolution

root

text: History of cotton

text: Early history[edit]

text: The oldest cotton textiles were found in graves and city ruins of civilizations from dry climates, where the fabrics did not decay completely.[3]

tag: p

text: America[edit]

text: Some of the oldest cotton bolls were discovered in a cave in Tehuacán Valley, Mexico, and were dated to approximately 5500 BCE, but some doubt has been cast on these estimates. Seeds and cordage dating to about 2500 BCE have been found in Peru.[1] By 3000 BCE cotton was being grown and processed in Mexico, and Arizona. Pre-Incan cotton grave cloths were found in Huaca Prieta in Peru, and date back to 2500 BCE.[4]

text: Indian subcontinent[edit]

text: The Indus Valley civilization started cultivating cotton by 2500 BCE. Cotton was mentioned in Hindu hymns in 1500 BCE.[4]

text: Herodotus, an ancient Greek historian, mentions Indian cotton in the 5th century BCE as "a wool exceeding in beauty and goodness that of sheep." When Alexander the Great invaded India, his troops started wearing cotton clothes that were more comfortable than their previous woolen ones.[5] Strabo, another Greek historian, mentioned the vividness of Indian fabrics, and Arrian told of Indian–Arab trade of cotton fabrics in 130 CE.[6]

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: Eastern world[edit]

text: Egyptians grew and spun cotton from 6–700 CE.[4]

text: Handheld roller cotton gins had been used in India since the 6th century, and was then introduced to other countries from there.[7] Between the 12th and 14th centuries, dual-roller gins appeared in India and China. The Indian version of the dual-roller gin was prevalent throughout the Mediterranean cotton trade by the 16th century. This mechanical device was, in some areas, driven by water power.[8]

text: The spinning wheel was invented in India, between 500 and 1000 AD.[9] The earliest clear illustrations of the spinning wheel come from the Islamic world in the eleventh century.[10]

text: Western world[edit]

text: Cotton was a common fabric during the Middle Ages, and was hand-woven on a loom. Cotton manufacture was introduced to Europe during the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily. The knowledge of cotton weaving was spread to northern Italy in the 12th century, when Sicily was conquered by the Normans, and consequently to the rest of Europe. The spinning wheel, introduced to Europe circa 1350, improved the speed of cotton spinning.[11] By the 15th century, Venice, Antwerp, and Haarlem were important ports for cotton trade, and the sale and transportation of cotton fabrics had become very profitable.[5]

text: Christopher Columbus, in his explorations of the Bahamas and Cuba, found natives wearing cotton ("the costliest and handsomest... cotton mantles and sleeveless shirts embroidered and painted in different designs and colours"), a fact that may have contributed to his incorrect belief that he had landed on the coast of India.[2]:11–13

text: Early modern period[edit]

text: Mughal India[edit]

text: Under the Mughal Empire, which ruled in the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th century to the early 18th century, Indian cotton production increased, in terms of both raw cotton and cotton textiles. The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms such as a new revenue system that was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton and indigo, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand.[12]

text: The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade.[13] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century.[14] Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan.[15] The most important center of cotton production was the Bengal Subah province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.[16]

text: Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles imported by the Dutch from Asia,[17] Bengali cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[18] and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "daka" textiles.[16] Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.[19]

text: The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire some time around the 16th century,[20] and is still used in India through to the present day.[7] Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[21] The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin, led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.[22]

text: It was reported that, with an Indian cotton gin, which is half machine and half tool, one man and one woman could clean 28 pounds of cotton per day. With a modified Forbes version, one man and a boy could produce 250 pounds per day. If oxen were used to power 16 of these machines, and a few people's labour was used to feed them, they could produce as much work as 750 people did formerly.[23]

text: Western world[edit]

text: Cotton cloth started to become highly sought-after for the European urban markets during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.[citation needed] Vasco da Gama (d. 1524), a Portuguese explorer, opened Asian sea trade, which replaced caravans and allowed for heavier cargo. Indian craftspeople had long protected the secret of how to create colourful patterns. However, some converted to Christianity and their secret was revealed by a French Catholic priest, Father Coeurdoux (1691–1779). He revealed the process of creating the fabrics in France, which assisted the European textile industry.[24]

text: In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for cotton textiles from Mughal India.[13] European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles.[citation needed] From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.[17] In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woolens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India in order to pay for South Asian imports.[13]

text: Egypt[edit]

text: Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth most productive cotton industry in the world, in terms of the number of spindles per capita.[25] The industry was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as animal power, water wheels, and windmills, which were also the principle energy sources in Western Europe up until around 1870.[26] It was under Muhammad Ali of Egypt in the early 19th century that steam engines were introduced to the Egyptian cotton industry.[26]

text: British Empire[edit]

text: East India Company[edit]

text: Cotton's rise to global importance came about as a result of the cultural transformation of Europe and Britain's trading empire.[6] Calico and chintz, types of cotton fabrics, became popular in Europe, and by 1664 the East India Company was importing a quarter of a million pieces into Britain.[24] By the 18th century, the middle class had become more concerned with cleanliness and fashion, and there was a demand for easily washable and colourful fabric. Wool continued to dominate the European markets, but cotton prints were introduced to Britain by the East India Company in the 1690s.[6] Imports of calicoes, cheap cotton fabrics from Kozhikode, then known as Calicut, in India, found a mass market among the poor. By 1721 these calicoes threatened British manufacturers, and Parliament passed the Calico Act that banned calicoes for clothing or domestic purposes. In 1774 the act was repealed with the invention of machines that allowed for British manufacturers to compete with Eastern fabrics.[27]

text: Indian cotton textiles, particularly those from Bengal, continued to maintain a competitive advantage up until the 19th century. In order to compete with India, Britain invested in labour-saving technical progress, while implementing protectionist policies such as bans and tariffs to restrict Indian imports.[28] At the same time, the East India Company's rule in India contributed to its deindustrialization, opening up a new market for British goods,[28] while the capital amassed from Bengal after its 1757 conquest was used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacturing and greatly increase British wealth.[29][30][31] British colonization also forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton, giving Britain a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources.[32][28][33] India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods.[34] Britain eventually surpassed India as the world's leading cotton textile manufacturer in the 19th century.[28]

text: The cotton industry grew under the British commercial empire. British cotton products were successful in European markets, constituting 40.5% of exports in 1784–1786. Britain's success was also due to its trade with its own colonies, whose settlers maintained British identities, and thus, fashions. With the growth of the cotton industry, manufacturers had to find new sources of raw cotton, and cultivation was expanded to West India.[6] High tariffs against Indian textile workshops, British power in India through the East India Company,[24] and British restrictions on Indian cotton imports[35] transformed India from the source of textiles to a source of raw cotton.[24] Cultivation was also attempted in the Caribbean and West Africa, but these attempts failed due to bad weather and poor soil. The Indian subcontinent was looked to as a possible source of raw cotton, but intra-imperial conflicts and economic rivalries prevented the area from producing the necessary supply.[6]

text: Britain[edit]

text: Cotton's versatility allowed it to be combined with linen and be made into velvet. It was cheaper than silk and could be imprinted more easily than wool, allowing for patterned dresses for women. It became the standard fashion and, because of its price, was accessible to the general public. New inventions in the 1770s—such as the spinning jenny, the water frame, and the spinning mule—made the British Midlands into a very profitable manufacturing centre. In 1794–1796, British cotton goods accounted for 15.6% of Britain's exports, and in 1804–1806 grew to 42.3%.[6]

text: The Lancashire textile mills were major parts of the British industrial revolution. Their workers had poor working conditions: low wages, child labour, and 18-hour work days. Richard Arkwright created a textile empire by building a factory system powered by water, which was occasionally raided by the Luddites, weavers put out of business by the mechanization of textile production. In the 1790s, James Watt's steam power was applied to textile production, and by 1839 200,000 children worked in Manchester's cotton mills. Karl Marx, who frequently visited Lancashire, may have been influenced by the conditions of workers in these mills in writing Das Kapital.[24]

text: United States of America[edit]

text: Pre–Civil War[edit]

text: Anglo-French warfare in the early 1790s restricted access to continental Europe, causing the United States to become an important—and temporarily the largest—consumer for British cotton goods.[6] In 1791, U.S. cotton production was small, at only 900,000 kilograms. Several factors contributed to the growth of the cotton industry in the U.S.: the increasing British demand; innovations in spinning, weaving, and steam power; inexpensive land; and a slave labour force.[36] The modern cotton gin, invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney, enormously grew the American cotton industry, which was previously limited by the speed of manual removal of seeds from the fibre,[37] and helped cotton to surpass tobacco as the primary cash crop of the South.[38] By 1801 the annual production of cotton had reached over 22 million kilograms, and by the early 1830s the United States produced the majority of the world's cotton. Cotton also exceeded the value of all other United States exports combined.[36] The need for fertile land conducive to its cultivation lead to the expansion of slavery in the United States and an early 19th-century land rush known as Alabama Fever.[39][40]

text: Cultivation of cotton using black slaves brought huge profits to the owners of large plantations, making them some of the wealthiest men in the U.S. prior to the Civil War. In the non-slave-owning states, farms rarely grew larger than what could be cultivated by one family due to scarcity of farm workers. In the slave states, owners of farms could buy many slaves and thus cultivate large areas of land. By the 1850s, slaves made up 50% of the population of the main cotton states: Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Slaves were the most important asset in cotton cultivation, and their sale brought profits to slaveowners outside of cotton-cultivating areas. Thus, the cotton industry contributed significantly to the Southern upper class's support of slavery. Although the Southern small-farm owners did not grow cotton due to its lack of short-term profitability, they were still supportive of the system in the hopes of one day owning slaves.[36]

text: Cotton's central place in the national economy and its international importance led Senator James Henry Hammond of South Carolina to make a famous boast in 1858:

text: Without firing a gun, without drawing a sword, should they make war on us, we could bring the whole world to our feet... What would happen if no cotton was furnished for three years?... England would topple headlong and carry the whole civilized world with her save the South. No, you dare not to make war on cotton. No power on the earth dares to make war upon it. Cotton is king.[41]

text: Cotton diplomacy, the idea that cotton would cause Britain and France to intervene in the Civil War, was unsuccessful.[42] It was thought that the Civil War caused the Lancashire Cotton Famine, a period between 1861–1865 of depression in the British cotton industry, by blocking off American raw cotton. Some, however, suggest that the Cotton Famine was mostly due to overproduction and price inflation caused by an expectation of future shortage.[43]

text: Prior to the Civil War, Lancashire companies issued surveys to find new cotton-growing countries if the Civil War were to occur and reduce American exports. India was deemed to be the country capable of growing the necessary amounts. Indeed, it helped fill the gap during the war, making up only 31% of British cotton imports in 1861, but 90% in 1862 and 67% in 1864.[44]

text: Additionally, the main purchasers of cotton, Britain and France, began to turn to Egyptian cotton. The Egyptian government of Viceroy Isma'il took out substantial loans from European bankers and stock exchanges. After the American Civil War ended in 1865, British and French traders abandoned Egyptian cotton and returned to cheap American exports,[citation needed] sending Egypt into a deficit spiral that led to the country declaring bankruptcy in 1876, a key factor behind Egypt's occupation by the British Empire in 1882.

text: The South continued to be a one-crop economy until the 20th century, when the New Deal and World War II encouraged diversification.[38] Many ex-slaves as well as poor whites worked in the sharecropping system in serf-like conditions.[citation needed]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: Boll weevils[edit]

text:
“

The farmer said to the merchant
I need some meat and meal.
Get away from here, you son-of-a-gun,
You got boll weevils in your field.
Going to get your home, going to get your home.

”

— Carl Sandburg's version of "The Boll Weevil Song", 1920

tag: table

text: Boll weevils, insects that entered the United States from Mexico in 1892, created 100 years of problems for the U.S. cotton industry. Many consider the boll weevil almost as important as the Civil War as an agent of change in the South, forcing economic and social changes. In total, the boll weevil is estimated to have caused $22 billion in damages. In the late 1950s, the U.S. cotton industry faced economic problems, and eradication of the boll weevil was prioritized. The Agricultural Research Service built the Boll Weevil Research Laboratory, which came up with detection traps and pheromone lures. The program was successful, and pesticide use reduced significantly while the boll weevil was eradicated in some areas.[45]

text: Africa and India[edit]

text: After the Cotton Famine, the European textile industry looked to new sources of raw cotton. The African colonies of West Africa and Mozambique provided a cheap supply. Taxes and extra-market means again discouraged local textile production. Working conditions were brutal, especially in the Congo, Angola, and Mozambique. Several revolts occurred, and a cotton black market created a local textile industry. In recent history, United States agricultural subsidies have depressed world prices, making it difficult for African farmers to compete.[24]

text: India's cotton industry struggled in the late 19th century because of unmechanized production and American dominance of raw cotton export. India, ceasing to be a major exporter of cotton goods, became the largest importer of British cotton textiles.[46] Mohandas Gandhi believed that cotton was closely tied to Indian self-determination. In the 1920s he launched the Khadi Movement, a massive boycott of British cotton goods. He urged Indians to use simple homespun cotton textiles, khadi. Cotton became an important symbol in Indian independence. During World War II, shortages created a high demand for khadi, and 16 million yards of cloth were produced in nine months. The British Raj declared khadi subversive; damaging to the British imperial rule. Confiscation, burning of stocks, and jailing of workers resulted, which intensified resistance.[2]:309–311 In the second half of the 20th century, a downturn in the European cotton industry led to a resurgence of the Indian cotton industry. India began to mechanize and was able to compete in the world market.[46]

text: Decline in the British cotton industry[edit]

text: In 1912, the British cotton industry was at its peak, producing eight billion yards of cloth. In World War I, cotton couldn't be exported to foreign markets, and some countries built their own factories, particularly Japan. By 1933 Japan introduced 24-hour cotton production and became the world's largest cotton manufacturer. Demand for British cotton slumped, and during the interwar period 345,000 workers left the industry and 800 mills closed.

text: India's boycott of British cotton products devastated Lancashire, and in Blackburn 74 mills closed in under four years.

text: In World War II, the British cotton industry saw an upturn and an increase in workers, with Lancashire mills being tasked with creating parachutes and uniforms for the war.

text: In the 1950s and '60s, many workers came from the Indian sub-continent and were encouraged to look for work in Lancashire. An increase in the work force allowed mill owners to introduce third (night) shifts. This resurgence in the textile industry did not last long, and by 1958, Britain had become a net importer of cotton cloth.

text: Modernization of the industry was attempted in 1959 with the Cotton Industry Act.

text: Mill closures occurred in Lancashire, and it was failing to compete with foreign industry. During the 1960s and '70s, a mill closed in Lancashire almost once a week. By the 1980s, the textile industry of North West Britain had almost disappeared.[47]

text: Economy[edit]

text: Textile mills have moved from Western Europe to, more recently, lower-wage areas. Industrial production is currently mostly located in countries like India, Bangladesh, China, and in Latin America. In these regions labour is much less expensive than in the first world, and attracts poor workers.[24] Biotechnology plays an important role in cotton agriculture as genetically modified cotton that can resist Roundup, a herbicide made by the company Monsanto, as well as repel insects.[2]:277 Organically grown cotton is becoming less prevalent in favour of synthetic fibres made from petroleum products.[2]:301

text: The demand for cotton has doubled since the 1980s.[48] The main producer of cotton, as of December 2016, is India, at 26%, past China at 20% and the United States at 16%.[49] The leading cotton exporter is the United States, whose production is subsidized by the government, with subsidies estimated at $14 billion between 1995 and 2003. The value of cotton lint has been decreasing for sixty years, and the value of cotton has decreased by 50% in 1997–2007. The global textile and clothing industry employs 23.6 million workers, of which 75% are women.[48]

text: Max Havelaar, a fair trade association, launched a fair trade label for cotton in 2005, the first for a non-food commodity. Working with small producers from Cameroon, Mali, and Senegal, the fair trade agreement increases substantially the price paid for goods and increases adherence to World Labour Organization conventions. A two-year period in Mali has allowed farmers to buy new agricultural supplies and cattle, and enroll their children in school.[50]