document_title: Eureka, California

question_text: how many days a year does it rain in eureka ca

question_tokens: how many days a year does it rain in eureka ca

text: Eureka, California

text: History[edit]

text: Eureka's Pacific coastal location on Humboldt Bay, adjacent to abundant redwood forests, provided the reason for settlement of this 19th-century seaport town. Before the arrival of Euro-American settlers, including farmers, miners, fishermen, and loggers, the area was occupied by indigenous peoples.

text: Native Americans[edit]

text: The Wiyot people lived in Jaroujiji (Wiyot: "where you sit and rest"), now known as Eureka, for thousands of years prior to European arrival. They are the farthest-southwest people whose language has Algonquian roots. Their traditional coastal homeland ranged from the lower Mad River through Humboldt Bay and south along the lower basin of the Eel River. The Wiyot are particularly known for their basketry and fishery management.[28] An extensive collection of intricate basketry of the area's indigenous groups exists in the Clarke Historical Museum in Old Town Eureka.

text: As of 2013[update], Eureka High School has the largest Yurok language program in California.[29]

text: Founding on Humboldt Bay[edit]

text: For nearly 300 years after 1579, European exploration of the coast of what would become northern California repeatedly missed definitively locating Humboldt Bay due to a combination of geographic features and weather conditions which concealed the narrow bay entrance from view. Despite a well-documented 1806 sighting by Russian explorers, the bay was not definitively known by Europeans until an 1849 overland exploration provided a reliable accounting of the exact location of what is the second largest bay in California.[30] The timing of this discovery would lead to the May 13, 1850 founding of the settlement of Eureka on its shore by the Union and Mendocino Exploring (development) companies.[31]

text: Gold Rush era[edit]

text: After the primary California Gold Rush in the Sierras, Humboldt Bay was settled with the intent of providing a convenient alternative to the long overland route from Sacramento to supply miners on the Trinity, Klamath and Salmon Rivers where gold had been discovered. Though the ideal location on Humboldt Bay adjacent to naturally deeper shipping channels ultimately guaranteed Eureka's development as the primary city on the bay, Arcata's proximity to developing supply lines to inland gold mines ensured supremacy over Eureka through 1856.[26]

text: "Eureka" received its name from a Greek word meaning "I have found it!"[32][33] This exuberant statement of successful (or hopeful) gold rush miners is also the official Motto of the State of California. Eureka is the only U.S. location to use the same seal as the state for its seal.[34] In the United States, Eureka, California is the largest of about a dozen towns and cities dating from the mid-nineteenth century that share the name Eureka.[citation needed]

text: The 1860 Wiyot Massacre[edit]

text: The first Europeans venturing into Humboldt Bay encountered the indigenous Wiyot. Records of early forays into the bay in 1806 reported that the violence of the local indigenous people made it nearly impossible for landing parties to survey the area.[citation needed] After 1850, Europeans ultimately overwhelmed the Wiyot, whose maximum population before the Europeans was in the hundreds in the area of what would become the county's primary city. But in almost every case, settlers ultimately cut off access to ancestral sources of food in addition to the outright theft of land despite efforts of some US Government and military officials to assist the native peoples or at least maintain peace. The 1860 Wiyot Massacre took place on Indian Island in the spring of 1860, committed by a group of locals, thought to be primarily Eureka businessmen.[31] The chronicle of the behavior of European settlers toward the indigenous cultures locally and throughout America is presented in detail in the Fort Humboldt State Historic Park museum, on the southern edge of the city.[citation needed]

text: King timber[edit]

text: Eureka's first post office opened in 1853[35] just as the town began to carve its grid pattern into the edge of a forest it would ultimately consume to feed the building of San Francisco and beyond. Many of the first immigrants who arrived as prospectors were also lumbermen, and the vast potential for industry on the bay was soon realized, especially as many hopeful gold miners realized the difficulty and infrequency of striking it rich in the mines. By 1854, after only four years since the founding, seven of nine mills processing timber into marketable lumber on Humboldt Bay were within Eureka.[citation needed] A year later 140 lumber schooners operated in and out of Humboldt Bay moving lumber from the mills to booming cities along the Pacific coast.[31] By the time the charter for Eureka was granted in 1856, busy mills inside the city had a daily production capacity of 220,000 board feet.[36] This level of production, which would grow significantly and continue for more than a century secured Eureka as the "timber capital" of California. Eureka was at the apex of rapid growth of the lumber industry due to its placement between huge coast redwood forests and its control of the primary port facilities. Loggers brought the enormous redwood trees down. Dozens of movable narrow gauge railroads brought trainloads of logs and finished lumber products to the main rail line, which led directly to Eureka's wharf and waiting schooners. By the 1880s, railroads eventually brought the production of hundreds of mills throughout the region to Eureka, primarily, for shipment through its port. After the early 1900s shipment of products occurred by trucks, trains, and ships from Eureka, Humboldt Bay, and other points in the region, but Eureka would remain the busy center of all this activity for over 120 years. These factors and others made Eureka a significant city in early California state history.[citation needed]

text: Commercial center[edit]

text: A bustling commercial district and ornate Victorians rose in proximity to the waterfront, reflecting the great prosperity experienced during this era. Hundreds of these Victorian homes remain today, of which many are totally restored and a few have always remained in their original elegance and splendor. The representation of these homes in Eureka grouped with those in nearby Arcata and the Victorian village of Ferndale are of considerable importance to the overall development of Victorian architecture built in the nation. The magnificent Carson Mansion on 2nd and M Streets, is perhaps the most spectacular Victorian in the nation. The home was built between 1884–1886 by renowned 19th Century architects Newsom and Newsom for lumber baron William M. Carson. This project was designed to keep mill workers and expert craftsman busy during a slow period in the industry. Old Town Eureka, the original downtown center of this busy city in the 19th Century, has been restored and has become a lively arts center.[37] The Old Town area has been declared an Historic District by the National Register of Historic Places. The district is made up of over 150 buildings, which in total represents much of Eureka's original 19th-century core commercial center. This nexus of culture behind the redwood curtain still contains much of its Victorian architecture, which, if not maintained for original use as commercial buildings or homes, have been transformed into scores of unique lodgings, restaurants, and small shops featuring a burgeoning cottage industry of hand-made creations from glass ware to wood burning stoves and a large variety of art created locally.

text: Fishing, shipping, and boating[edit]

text: Eureka's founding and livelihood was and remains linked to Humboldt Bay, the Pacific Ocean, and related industries, especially fishing. Salmon fisheries sprang up along the Eel River as early as 1851, and within seven years 2,000 barrels of cured fish and 50,000 pounds (23,000 kg) of smoked salmon were processed and shipped out of Humboldt Bay annually from processing plants on Eureka's wharf.[citation needed] In 1858 the first of many ships built in Eureka was launched beginning an industry that spanned scores of years. The bay is also the site of the west coast's largest Oyster farming operations, which began its commercial status in the nineteenth century. Eureka is the home port to more than 100 fishing vessels (with an all-time high of over 400 in 1981) in two modern marinas which can berth approximately 400 boats within the city limits of Eureka[38] and at least 50 more in nearby Fields Landing, which is part of Greater Eureka. Area catches historically include, among other species, salmon, tuna, Dungeness crab, and shrimp, with historic annual total fishing landings totaling about 36,000,000 pounds (16,000,000 kg) in 1981[36] Humboldt State University docks its own vessel, a floating classroom, at Woodley Island Marina, which is Eureka's largest marina.[citation needed]

text: Chinese expulsion[edit]

text: Rising emigration from China in the late 1800s sparked conflict between white settlers and immigrants, which ultimately led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Economic downturns resulting in competition for jobs led some white people to commit violent actions against Chinese immigrants, especially on the Pacific coast. In February 1885, the racial tension in Eureka broke when Eureka City Councilman David Kendall was caught in the crossfire of two rival Chinese gangs and killed. This led to the convening of 600 Eureka men and resulted in the forcible permanent expulsion of all 480 Chinese residents of Eureka's Chinatown.[39] The expelled Chinese unsuccessfully attempted to sue for damages. In the U.S. Circuit Court case Wing Hing v. Eureka, the court noted that the Chinese owned no land and held that their other property was worthless. A citizen's committee then drafted an unofficial law decreeing:

text:
That all Chinamen be expelled from the city and that none be allowed to return.
That a committee be appointed to act for one year, whose duty shall be to warn all Chinamen who may attempt to come to this place to live, and to use all reasonable means to prevent their remaining. If the warning is disregarded, to call mass meetings of citizens to whom the case will be referred for proper action.
That a notice be issued to all property owners through the daily papers, requesting them not to lease or rent property to Chinese.[citation needed]

tag: ol

text: Among those who guarded the city jail during the height of the Sinophobic tension was (then) future Governor of California James Gillett, himself a recent resident of the city.[40] The anti-Chinese ordinance was not repealed until 1959.[39][41]

text: Queen City of the Ultimate West[edit]

text: Completion of the Northwestern Pacific Railroad in 1914 provided the local lumber industry with an alternative to ships for transport of its millions of board feet of lumber to reach markets in San Francisco and beyond. It also provided the first safe land route between San Francisco and Eureka for people to venture to the Redwood Empire without risking their lives on ships. As a direct result, Eureka's population of 7,300 swelled to 15,000 within ten years. By 1922 the Redwood Highway was completed, providing for the first reliable, direct overland route for automobiles from San Francisco.[citation needed] By 1931 the Eureka Street Railway operated fifteen streetcars over twelve miles of track.[42] Eureka's transportation connection to the "outside" world had changed dramatically after more than half a century of stage rides or treacherous steamship passage through the Humboldt Bar and on the Pacific Ocean to San Francisco. The building of the Eureka Inn coincided with the opening of the new road to San Francisco. As a result of immense civic pride during this early 20th Century era of expansion, Eureka officially nicknamed itself "Queen City of the Ultimate West." The tourism industry, lodging to support it, and related marketing had been born.[26] The United States Navy operated a Naval Auxiliary Air Facility for blimps at Eureka during World War II.[43]

text: Post-World War II[edit]

text: In Eureka, both the timber industry and commercial fishing declined after the Second World War.[44]

text: The timber economy of Eureka is part of the Pacific Northwest timber economy which rises and falls with boom and bust economic times.[45]

text: The Columbus Day Storm of 1962 downed trees and flooded the domestic timber market. A log export trade began to remove this surplus material. After 1962, log trade with Japan and other Pacific Rim nations increased.[45] Despite many rumors to the contrary, little of this wood returned to U.S. markets.[45] In 1989, the U.S. changed log export laws permitting lower cost timber from public lands to be exported as raw logs overseas to help balance the federal budget.[46]

text: After 1990, the global log market declined and exports fell at the same time as Pacific Northwest log prices increased; leading buyers to seek less expensive logs from Canada and the southern United States.[45] However, debate continues between four stakeholders: timber owners, domestic processors, consumers and communities on the impact of log export on the local economy.[45][47]

text: During the span 1991 to 2001, timber harvest peaked in 1997.[48] The local timber market was also affected by the Pacific Lumber Company hostile takeover[49] and ultimate bankruptcy.[50]

text: Local fisheries expanded through the 1970s and early 1980s. During the 1970s Eureka fishermen, landed more than half of fish and shellfish produced and consumed in California.[51] In 2010 between 100 and 120 commercial fishing vessels listed Eureka as homeport.[51] The highest landings of all species were 36.9 million pounds in 1981 while the lowest were in 2001 with 9.4 million pounds.[51] Species composition changes during this time with groundfish going down and whiting and crab catches increasing.[51]

text: After 1990 regulatory, economic and other events led to a contraction of the local commercial fleet.[51] In 1991, the Woodley Island marina opened, providing docking facilities for much of Eureka's commercial and recreational fleet.[51] Many species are considered to be overfished.[51] Recreational fishing has increased over time. Fifty percent of recreational fishermen using local boats are tourists from outside the area.[51]

text: Commercial Pacific oyster aquaculture in Humboldt Bay produced an average of 7,600,000 pounds (3,400,000 kg) of oysters from 1956 to 1965[51] an average of 844,444 pounds (383,033 kg) per year. In 2004, only 600,000 pounds (270,000 kg) were harvested.[51] Oysters and oyster seed continue to be exported from Humboldt Bay.[51] The value of the oysters and spawn is more than $6 million a year.[51] Consolidation of buyers and landing facilities resulted in local vulnerability to unexpected events, leading the City to obtain grant funding for and complete the Fishermen's Terminal on the waterfront which will provide fish handling, marketing, and public spaces.[51]

text: Significant earthquakes[edit]

text: The area regularly experiences large earthquakes as it's situated on the southern end the Cascadia subduction zone and near the San Andreas Fault, which interface around the Mendocino Triple Junction.[52] On January 9, 2010, a 6.5 magnitude earthquake occurred about 33 miles (53 km) off shore from Eureka.[53] After two seconds, it became a violent "jumper", making objects fly;[54] the mostly vertical shocks from the ground led to broken windows in shops, overturned shelving in homes and stores, and damage to architectural detail on a number of historic buildings.[53][55] Local hospitals treated mostly minor related injuries and electrical power was out over a large area. Numerous natural gas leaks occurred, but no fires resulted.[54][56] This was the largest recent earthquake since the April 25–26, 1992 sequence.[57] It was followed on February 4, 2010, by a magnitude 5.9 earthquake which struck at 12:20 pm (local time) about 35 miles (56 km) northwest of the community of Petrolia and nearly 50 miles (80 km) west of Eureka. The shaking was felt within a 150-mile (240 km) radius, as far north as southern Oregon and as far south as Sonoma County.[57][58] The largest recorded in the area was the 7.2 Mw event on November 8, 1980.[59][60] The larger earthquakes can pose a tsunami threat to coastal areas.[61]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Eureka is located at 40°47′24″N 124°9′46″W / 40.79000°N 124.16278°W / 40.79000; -124.16278 (40.790022, −124.162752).[20]

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 14.5 square miles (38 km2), of which 9.4 square miles (24 km2) is land and 5.1 square miles (13 km2) or 35.07% is water.

text: Eureka is situated within California's Redwood Empire region which includes Pacific Ocean coast, Humboldt Bay, and several rivers in addition to Redwood National and State Parks and Humboldt Redwoods State Park. The location of Eureka on U.S. 101 is 283 miles (455 km) north of San Francisco and 315 mi (507 km)) north and west of Sacramento. Eureka is the closest city to the most central point of the United States' Pacific Coastline.[citation needed]

text: Eureka's port facilities – the Port of Humboldt Bay – is the largest protected deep-water port between San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound.[citation needed]

text: The city marina is on one of three islands at a narrow point on the 13-mile-long (21 km) bay and increases in elevation slightly as it spreads north, south, and especially to the east. This city of mostly one and two story wooden structures (fewer than ten buildings over five stories)[citation needed] gently encroaches at least two miles (3.2 km) eastward into primarily Redwood and Douglas-fir second growth forests. The city has a traditional grid that generally radiates toward the points of the compass, though a correction to more accuracy in relation to the compass just east of the older downtown and residential area is noticeable.[citation needed] Most post-1970 houses were built in formerly clearcut forested areas.

text: The transition between the official city limits and smaller unincorporated areas described in the demographic section is mostly not discernible. Eastern areas including secluded developments on a golf course among or in close proximity to extensive second growth forest have more recently developed. These new houses were built as a result of the Eureka Community Plan of 1995 in attempt to bring locals close to centers of recreation and encourage community interaction.[62] The city then gives way to hills and mountains of the rugged coast range, which quickly exceed 2,000 feet (610 m) in elevation.

text: Climate[edit]

text: Eureka has a cool-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csb). Due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean, its temperatures resemble those of an oceanic climate. Winters are mild and rainy, and summers cool and dry. The average August high temperature of 64.3 °F (17.9 °C) is very cool for an area at such a southerly latitude. The seasonal temperature variation is very small; the difference between the August average of 58.5 °F (14.7 °C) and the December average of 47.8 °F (8.8 °C) is only 10.7 °F (5.9 °C), about equal to the temperature difference between day and night. The all-time highest and lowest temperatures recorded in Eureka are 87 °F (30.6 °C) on October 26, 1993, and September 2, 2017,[63] and 20 °F (−6.7 °C) on January 14, 1888, respectively. Additionally, Eureka remains the only city on the West Coast of the continental United States to have never recorded a temperature of 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures occasionally drop to freezing or below. NOAA’s weather station averages indicate only 0.18 inches (4.6 mm) of rainfall in July, which is well within the Mediterranean range, only with cooler air than a typical Mediterranean climate.

text: The area experiences coastal fog throughout the year, especially during summer when inland temperatures are significantly warmer. This phenomenon and cool breezes from the Pacific Ocean keep the city relatively cool while areas a few miles inland may have much higher temperatures, with frequent differences in summer and early fall of 30 to 40 °F (17 to 22 °C).

text: Annual precipitation averages 40.3 inches or 1,024 millimetres. Measurable precipitation falls on an average of 119 days each year. The wettest “rain year” was from July 1889 to June 1890 with 73.30 inches (1,861.8 mm) and the driest from July 1976 to June 1977 with 17.56 inches (446.0 mm). The greatest monthly precipitation was 23.21 inches (589.5 mm) in December 2002. The greatest 24-hour precipitation was 6.79 inches (172.5 mm) on December 27, 2002. However, historic “100” year dramatic weather events such as the Christmas Week flood of 1955 and, especially, the Christmas flood of 1964, which severely damaged the region, may not be reflected in records listed herein. Snowfall on the coast happens occasionally, averaging only 0.2 inches or 0.0051 metres as of the 1981–2010 normals, but only five years during that period received measurable snowfall.[64]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Eureka, California (1981–2010 normals, extremes 1886–present)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
78
(26)
85
(29)
78
(26)
80
(27)
84
(29)
85
(29)
77
(25)
82
(28)
87
(31)
87
(31)
81
(27)
77
(25)
87
(31)

Average high °F (°C)
55.6
(13.1)
56.1
(13.4)
56.7
(13.7)
57.7
(14.3)
60.1
(15.6)
62.2
(16.8)
63.4
(17.4)
64.3
(17.9)
63.7
(17.6)
61.7
(16.5)
58.0
(14.4)
55.0
(12.8)
59.6
(15.3)

Daily mean °F (°C)
48.3
(9.1)
48.9
(9.4)
49.7
(9.8)
50.9
(10.5)
53.8
(12.1)
56.1
(13.4)
57.7
(14.3)
58.5
(14.7)
57.0
(13.9)
54.4
(12.4)
50.8
(10.4)
47.8
(8.8)
52.9
(11.6)

Average low °F (°C)
41.1
(5.1)
41.7
(5.4)
42.6
(5.9)
44.1
(6.7)
47.5
(8.6)
50.1
(10.1)
52.0
(11.1)
52.8
(11.6)
50.4
(10.2)
47.1
(8.4)
43.5
(6.4)
40.6
(4.8)
46.1
(7.8)

Record low °F (°C)
20
(−7)
24
(−4)
29
(−2)
31
(−1)
35
(2)
40
(4)
43
(6)
44
(7)
36
(2)
32
(0)
27
(−3)
21
(−6)
20
(−7)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
6.50
(165.1)
5.63
(143)
5.30
(134.6)
3.32
(84.3)
1.78
(45.2)
0.75
(19)
0.18
(4.6)
0.31
(7.9)
0.59
(15)
2.24
(56.9)
5.61
(142.5)
8.12
(206.2)
40.33
(1,024.4)

Average snowfall inches (cm)
0
(0)
0.2
(0.5)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0.2
(0.5)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
16.6
14.9
16.2
13.4
9.1
5.8
2.7
3.2
4.4
8.5
15.2
17.5
127.5

Mean monthly sunshine hours
140.1
143.7
207.4
253.1
280.5
277.7
273.4
236.5
220.3
175.8
131.3
126.2
2,466

Percent possible sunshine
47
48
56
63
63
62
60
55
59
51
44
44
55

Source: NOAA (sun and relative humidity 1961–1990)[64][65][66]

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1880
2,639

—

1890
4,858

84.1%

1900
7,327

50.8%

1910
11,845

61.7%

1920
12,923

9.1%

1930
15,752

21.9%

1940
17,055

8.3%

1950
23,058

35.2%

1960
28,137

22.0%

1970
24,337

−13.5%

1980
24,153

−0.8%

1990
27,025

11.9%

2000
26,128

−3.3%

2010
27,191

4.1%

Est. 2016
27,226
[14]
0.1%

U.S. Decennial Census[67]

text: The population of the city was 27,191 at the 2010 census, up from 26,128 at the 2000 census, representing a 4.1% increase, and the population of Greater Eureka[21] was 45,034[12][20] at the 2010 Census, up from 43,452[68] at the 2000 census, representing a 3.6% increase.

text: According to a report by the City of Eureka, the Greater Eureka area minimally includes the unincorporated adjacent or nearby neighborhoods and Census Defined Populated Areas of Bayview, Cutten, Elk River, Freshwater, Humboldt Hill, Indianola, Myrtletown, Pine Hill, Ridgewood Heights, and Rosewood,[69] all of which have Eureka addresses, postal zip codes and Eureka-specific telephone numbers. The Greater Eureka area makes up the largest urban settlement on the Pacific Coast between San Francisco and Portland.[21] This area is similar to what the US Census officially defines as the Eureka UC (urban cluster), which is a "densely settled core of census tracts and/or census blocks that meet minimum population density requirements, along with adjacent territory containing non-residential urban land uses as well as territory with low population density included to link outlying densely settled territory with the densely settled core" of up to 50,000 in population. The bayside communities of Manila, Samoa, and Fairhaven (all on the Samoa Peninsula), and King Salmon and Fields Landing (both located south of the city), and communities listed above, with the exception of Elk River and Freshwater, are shown to be part of the Eureka Urban Cluster.[70] A 2011 community study performed by the St. Joseph Health System, projects increased growth of 20,000 to occur in the unincorporated communities (outskirts) located adjacent to Eureka. If that forecast is realized, Greater Eureka could achieve a population of at least 65,000, barring any increase within the city limits.[71] Eureka is the largest city of the Eureka-Arcata-Fortuna Micropolitan Area, a construct of the US Census Bureau, which is synonymous with the County of Humboldt.[72]

text: 2000 Census data[edit]

text: As of the census[73] of 2000, there were 26,128 people. The population density was 2,764.5 people per square mile (1,067.5/km²). There were 11,637 housing units at an average density of 1,231.3 per square mile (475.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 88.5% White, 1.2% Black or African American, 4.2% Native American, 2.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 2.7% from other races, and 5.10% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 10.8% of the population.

text: There were 10,957 households out of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.8% were married couples living together, 14.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.3% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city, the population dispersal was 22.4% under the age of 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.7 males.

text: The median income for a household in the city was $25,849, and the median income for a family was $33,438. Males had a median income of $28,706 versus $22,038 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,174. About 15.8% of families and 23.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.6% of those under the age of 18 and 11.1% of those 65 and older.

text: 2010 Census data[edit]

text: The 2010 United States Census[74] reported that Eureka had a population of 27,191. The population density was 1,881.3 people per square mile (726.4/km²). The racial makeup of Eureka was 21,565 (79.3%) White, 514 (1.9%) African American, 1,011 (3.7%) Native American, 1,153 (4.2%) Asian, 176 (0.6%) Pacific Islander, 1,181 (4.3%) from other races, and 1,591 (5.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 3,143 persons (11.6%).

text: The Census reported that 25,308 people (93.1% of the population) lived in households, 1,434 (5.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 449 (1.7%) were institutionalized.

text: There were 11,150 households, out of which 2,891 (25.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 3,554 (31.9%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,449 (13.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 710 (6.4%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,161 (10.4%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 146 (1.3%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 3,971 households (35.6%) were made up of individuals and 1,183 (10.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27. There were 5,713 families (51.2% of all households); the average family size was 2.93.

text: The population dispersal was 5,431 people (20.0%) under the age of 18, 3,102 people (11.4%) aged 18 to 24, 8,021 people (29.5%) aged 25 to 44, 7,422 people (27.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 3,215 people (11.8%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.2 years. For every 100 females there were 106.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 105.7 males. There were 11,891 housing units at an average density of 822.7 per square mile (317.6/km²), of which 4,829 (43.3%) were owner-occupied, and 6,321 (56.7%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.7%. 11,251 people (41.4% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 14,057 people (51.7%) lived in rental housing units.

text: Economy[edit]

text: The economic base of the city was founded on timber and fishing and supplying gold mining efforts inland. Gold mining diminished quickly in the early years and activities of timber and fishing have also diminished, especially in the latter decades of the twentieth century. Today, the major industries are tourism, timber (in value), and healthcare and services (in number of jobs). Major employers today in Eureka include the following governmental entities: College of the Redwoods, The County of Humboldt, and the Humboldt County Office of Education. In 2006 St. Joseph Hospital in Eureka the largest private employer in Eureka.[75]

text: The 2000 U.S. Census indicates that 3.7% of the employed civilian population 16 years and over (totaling 20,671) worked in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting industries. This percentage may not be indicative of the actual number of people in these professions as many are self-employed, especially in the fishing industry. The 2000 U.S. Census reported that 24.9% of the community worked in education, health care, and social services. Another 18.4% were employed by the government, while self-employed workers totaled 11.2% of all workers. The unemployment rate in 2000 was 5.5% compared to the national average of 5.7% (calculated by dividing the unemployed population by the labor force). For the population 16 years and older, 42.7% were not in the labor force, while 57.3% were employed.[76] According to the 2000 U.S. Census, in 1999 the median household income was $25,849 and the per capita income was $16,174. Inhabitants whose income was below poverty level in 1999 were 23.7% of the population. Of the 11,637 housing units in 2000, 94.2% of the housing units were occupied, while 5.8% were vacant. Of the occupied housing units, 46.5% were owner occupied and 53.5% were renter occupied.[77]

text: Government[edit]

text: Local government[edit]

text: The City of Eureka has a Mayor-Council system of governance. Primary power lies with the five council members, divided up into five wards. The Mayor has the power to appoint, as well as ceremonial duties, though the job includes presiding over council meetings, and meeting visiting dignitaries.[78] Official city business is administered by the Office of the City Manager. The Eureka City Council regularly meets on the 1st and 3rd Tuesdays of the month at 5:30 pm for closed session, and 6:30 pm for open session. All meetings are open to the public, with the exception of the published closed session portion. Time is allowed during every council meeting for the public to address the council. The meetings are held in the Council Chambers on the 2nd floor of Eureka City Hall at 531 "K" Street, Eureka.[79]

text: State and federal government[edit]

text: Eureka is in the 2nd Senate District, represented by Democrat Mike McGuire,[7] and the 2nd Assembly District, represented by Democrat Jim Wood.[8]

text: Federally, Eureka is in California's 2nd congressional district, represented by Democrat Jared Huffman.[9]

text: Infrastructure[edit]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Land[edit]

text: U.S. Route 101 is the major north and south highway, which connects Eureka to the rest of the North Coast region. The highway connects to Oregon, located approximately 100 miles (160 km) to the north, and San Francisco, over 250 miles (400 km) to the south. The highway follows city streets through the city, with flow and cross-traffic controlled by traffic signals. Highway 101 enters Eureka from the south as Broadway. As it reaches the downtown area, it splits into a one-way couplet composed of 4th Street and 5th Street. On the northern side of the city, northbound and southbound rejoin at the Northeast side before the highway becomes a heavily restricted (safety corridor) expressway (to Arcata and points beyond) as double bridges cross the Eureka Slough (mouth of the Freshwater Creek).[80]

text:
State Route 255 is an alternate route of U.S. 101 between Eureka and the nearby city of Arcata, running along the western shore of Humboldt Bay. It begins in the downtown area at U.S. 101 and proceeds north along R Street towards the Samoa Bridge and the community of Samoa.[80]
 State Route 299 (formerly U.S. Route 299) connects to U.S. Route 101 at the northern end of Arcata. Route 299 begins at that point and extends easterly to serve as the major traffic artery to the east for Eureka.[80]

text: Air[edit]

text: Eureka's full service airport is the Arcata-Eureka Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) north in McKinleyville. This airport has two airlines, United and PenAir, and connects to both San Francisco, California and Portland, Oregon. Murray Field and Eureka Municipal Airport are general aviation airports for private and charter air service. Both are located adjacent to Humboldt Bay either at the edge of Eureka or just outside the city limits. East-southeast of Downtown Eureka by 10 miles (16 km), Kneeland Airport, also a general aviation airport, at 2,737 feet (834 m) elevation, provides an option for pilots choosing to land when the prevalent marine layer is affecting airports nearer sea level.[81]

text: Water[edit]

text: The Humboldt Bay Harbor Recreation & Conservation District manages the resources of Humboldt Bay and its environs, including the deep water port. The port is located directly west of the city and is serviced across the bay in the community of Samoa. In addition to two deep water channel docks for large ships, several modern small craft marinas are available for private use, with a total capacity of more than 400 boats.[82]

text: Public[edit]

text: Public bus transportation services within Eureka are provided by the Eureka Transit Service. The Redwood Transit System provides bus transportation through Eureka and connects to major towns and places outside the city, including educational institutions. Dial-A-Ride service is available through an application process.

text: Amtrak provides Thruway Bus service to Eureka at its unstaffed bus stop. The bus service connects passengers from the northernmost coastal train station in Martinez, California and continues to southern Oregon.

text: Greyhound provides bus service to San Francisco from Eureka. Tickets may be purchased online or at the nearest full service station in Arcata.

text: Utilities[edit]

text: Electricity and natural gas[edit]

text: Eureka residents are served by Pacific Gas and Electric Company. Some reserves of natural gas are located south of the city. These and other fuels help power the Humboldt Bay Power Plant (which includes the now defunct and dismantled Humboldt Bay Nuclear Power Plant). The cogeneration plant, completely rebuilt and expanded next to the original site and defunct Nuclear power facility, has all new, state of the art, European designed and built power units which increased the 130 MW total combined capacity production of the old units to 163 MW in late 2010.[83]

text: Water[edit]

text: The City of Eureka is the largest of the local water districts supplied by the Humboldt Bay Municipal Water District. The entire region is one of the few places in California that has historically enjoyed a significant surplus of water.[84] The reduction in major forest products manufacturing in recent decades has left the area with a 45 MGD surplus of industrial water.[85]

text: Healthcare[edit]

text: Eureka is the regional center for healthcare. The city is served by St. Joseph Hospital, which is the largest medical acute care hospital north of the San Francisco Bay Area on the California Coast. The hospital was the first opened by the order in 1920 and was still operated by the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Orange in 2016. The facility is composed of two parts: a main campus contains the acute care facility and a nearby second site, the former General Hospital Campus, which contains a rehabilitation facility and a skilled nursing site.

text: In November 2012, the hospital completed required earthquake safety standards upgrades. The new primary wing contains surgical suites, intensive care, 24-hour emergency care, as well as new and enlarged patient rooms for those requiring care beyond short stay or outpatient procedures, assisted living facilities, skilled nursing facilities, surgery centers, and radiology (including MRI) facilities.[citation needed]

text: In June 2016, The California Attorney General’s office approved merging the St. Joseph Health system and the Providence Health and Services which includes St. Joseph's in Eureka, which becomes part of the third-largest non-profit health system in the nation.[86] The merger raises local and regional concerns about health care.[87]

text: Eureka is also the site of the only comprehensive private and county operated mental health emergency and hospitalization facilities north of San Francisco within California. Most of the doctors for the many medical specialties available on the far North Coast are located in or near Eureka, which also has the only oncology program and dialysis clinic in the region.[citation needed]

text: Education[edit]

text: Institutions of higher learning include the College of the Redwoods located on the south edge of the Greater Eureka Area and Humboldt State University, located just eight miles (13 km) north in Arcata. College of the Redwoods manages a downtown satellite campus to augment offerings of the 270-acre (1.1 km2) campus located south of the city.

text: Eureka City Schools, the largest school district in the region, administers the public schools of the city. Eureka High School receives all students from city grammar schools as well as all those from nearby unincorporated communities. Specific Schools within the 95501 and 95503 zip codes include: Alice Birney Elementary, Grant Elementary, Lafayette Elementary, Washington Elementary, Winship Middle School, Zane Middle School, Eureka High School, Humboldt Bay High School, Zoe Barnum High School, the Eureka Adult School, and Winzler Children's Center. The District offices are located in the remodeled Marshall School, which also contains the Marshall Family Resource Center, a site designed to offer programs in support of parents and families.[88][citation needed]

text: Offices of the administration of the Superintendent of Humboldt County Schools are located in the Franklin Elementary School site in the city of Eureka. Humboldt County Office of Education (HCOE) administers the Glen Paul Center in Eureka, which specializes in the education of children with special education needs, from ages 3–22.[89][90]

text: Shopping[edit]

text: The North Coast's primary shopping facility, the Bayshore Mall, is the largest north of the San Francisco Bay Area on the California coast. The mall features over 70 stores, which is anchored by Kohl's, Sears, and Walmart. TJ Maxx opened August 25, 2013, Ulta opened December 2013. Eureka is the site of the only Costco, Target, and Wal-Mart in the region.

text: Other major shopping areas and centers include Henderson Center, the Eureka Mall, Burre Center, and Downtown and Old Town Eureka. After K-Mart announced that the Eureka location will close, Target be the only major shopping place not at a shopping center, at the north end of town.

text: Arts and culture[edit]

text: Eureka is one of California's historic landmarks. The California State Historical marker, #477, designating Eureka, is located in Old Town, one of the nation's best preserved original Victorian era commercial districts.[94] The city was voted as the No. 1 best small art town in John Villani's book "The 100 Best Small Art Towns in America."[95] Eureka hosts the region's largest monthly cultural and arts event, "Arts' Alive!" on the first Saturday of each month.[96] More than 80 Eureka business and local galleries open their doors to the public.[96] Often local cuisine and beverages accompany live performances by acclaimed regional bands and other types of performance art.[96] The downtown Eureka area is also decorated with many murals.[97]

text: Theater offerings include year round productions from several various theater groups including the North Coast Repertory Theater and the Eureka Theater. Various events occur throughout the year at the Redwood Acres Fairgrounds.[98] As a regional center, the city offers lodging, restaurants and shopping areas, including dozens of specialty shops in its historic 19th Century Old Town commercial district[99] and the only large mall in the region.

text: Annual cultural events[edit]

text:
Redwood Coast Music Festival – March[100]
Perilous Plunge – March[101]
Rhododendron Festival – April[102]
Kinetic sculpture race – May
Redwood Acres Fair and Rodeo – June[103]
Humboldt Wood Fair – June[104]
Summer Concert Series on the Boardwalk – June – August[105]
Fourth of July Celebration – July[106]
Humboldt Bay Full of Blues – August 30 & 31, 2014[107]
Chicken Wingfest – September[108]
Excalibur Medieval Tournament and Market Faire – September[109]
Pride Parade and Celebration – September[110]
Humboldt Bay Paddle Fest – September[111]
Craftsman's Days – November[112]
Christmas Truckers Parade – December[113]

text: Museums and galleries[edit]

text: Museums include the Clarke Historical Museum, the Humboldt Bay Maritime Museum, the Morris Graves Museum of Art, HSU First Street Gallery, Discovery Museum for Children, the Fort Humboldt State Historic Park and the Blue Ox Millworks and Historic Park.

text: Architecture[edit]

text: Due to northern isolation and unfavorable economic conditions in the latter part of the twentieth century, much of the post-war redevelopment and urban renewal that other cities experienced did not occur in Eureka. As a result, Eureka has hundreds of examples of 19th- and early 20th-century architecture and historic districts. David Gebhard, Professor of architectural history at University of California, Santa Barbara, wrote that Eureka has the potential of becoming the West Coast Williamsburg. He stated Williamsburg, Virginia preserves an authentic colonial environment; Eureka preserves intact Victorian and early twentieth-century architecture. The extensive array of intact Victorian era and later homes and public buildings include many ornate examples of Colonial Revival, Eastlake, Greek Revival, Italianate, Queen Anne, and Stick styles of Victorian architecture.[citation needed] All of these styles are present in the Carson Mansion (pictured above).

text: A remake of another Newsom and Newsom (builder architects of the Carson Mansion), is the Carter House Inn located only two blocks from the mansion. The original Queen Anne mansion built on these plans was lost in the fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Plans were found and the building rebuilt as original.[citation needed] Local craftsman, including the owners of the Blue Ox Millworks in Eureka, have revived the old ways and secrets in building from the bygone era and are in demand in local refurbishment and other projects, including from the White House.[citation needed]

text: Approximately 16% of the city's structures are cataloged as important historical structures, with many of those attaining the status of state and national significance in terms of a particular structure's importance in relationship to the body of surviving examples of the architectural style attributed to its construction and related detail.[citation needed] Thirteen distinct districts have been identified which meet the criteria for the National Register of Historic Places. Among them are the 2nd Street District (10 buildings), 15th Street district (13 buildings) and the O Street district (43 buildings). Hillsdale Street, a popular and well-preserved district, contains 17 buildings of historic interest. In all, some 1,500 buildings have been recognized as qualifying for the National Register. The Eureka Heritage Society, a local architectural preservation group founded in 1973, has been instrumental in protecting and preserving many of Eureka’s fine Victorians.[citation needed]

text: Parks and recreation[edit]

text: Sequoia Park Zoo, situated on more than 67 acres (270,000 m2) of mature second-growth Redwood forest, includes Eureka's largest public playground and a duck pond in addition to meticulously kept gardens and examples of the area's many varieties of rhododendron bushes. The City of Eureka Recreation Department manages 13 playgrounds, including Cooper Gulch, which is 33 acres (13 ha), and many ball fields as well as tennis courts and others, including basketball and soccer. Other parks in or near Eureka include the Humboldt Botanical Garden and the Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge, and the Eureka Marsh, an accessible protected marsh between the Bayshore Mall and Humboldt Bay. There is a modern boardwalk along the city's waterfront and two large marinas capable of mooring over 400 small craft.[114]

text: Media[edit]

text: Though Eureka has been the base for two major daily newspapers at different times in its 150 years, only the Times-Standard, owned by the Colorado-based Media News Group, survives, printing nearly 20,000 papers a day.[115] This major daily contains original local news and syndicated content on state, national and international news. The Eureka Reporter, founded in 2003, became a daily in 2006. It began publishing only five days a week at the end of 2007 and permanently closed in November 2008.[116] Media News Group also owns a weekly classified advertiser, the Tri-City Weekly. [117]

text: The North Coast Journal, a regional weekly, moved from Arcata to Eureka in 2009. Eureka is also home to several alternative weekly publications.

text: Senior News[118] is a 24-page monthly newspaper distributed along a 150-mile stretch of the Northwest California coast. Senior News has been published by the Humboldt Senior Resource Center since 1981, telling stories of local seniors and local issues of importance to seniors, their families and caregivers. The small staff is augmented by community volunteer writers and by senior volunteers who distribute 5,000 free newspapers to more than 100 locations from Crescent City to Garberville. 8,000 newspapers are distributed into Times-Standard subscriber issues on the last Tuesday of each month. Its distribution is 13,000.

text: Many of Humboldt County's commercial radio stations are based in Eureka: KINS-FM,[119] KWSW-AM,[120] and KEKA-FM,[121] owned and operated by Eureka Broadcasting Co. Inc. KFMI, KRED, KJNY and KATA. Lost Coast Communications owns and operates several stations broadcasting to Eureka: KSLG-FM, KHUM, KLGE, and KWPT. Eureka also hosts KMUE, the local repeater for Redway-based community radio station KMUD. On August 26, 2006 the Blue Ox Millworks launched KKDS-LP, a low power FM station focused on youth and community issues. On November 3, 2008, a low-power part 15 AM radio station, Old Glory Radio 1650 AM,[122] based in the Myrtletown neighborhood of Eureka went on the air and airs the area's only daily live local call-in program in the morning. KHSU, the region's local public radio station, is broadcast from Humboldt State University in Arcata.

text: Notable people[edit]

text: Popular culture[edit]

text:
Disney characters Donald Duck, Scrooge McDuck, Huey, Dewey, and Louie, Daisy Duck, and most of their supporting cast live in the fictional city of Duckburg, first mentioned in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #49 in 1944, created by Carl Barks,[124] where Duckburg is described as a medium size city located in the fictional U.S. state of Calisota. Don Rosa, a subsequent cartoonist of Donald Duck, described his placement of the imaginary town: "I won't bother to say precisely where I situated Duckburg and Calisota on America's west coast... but if you get out a good map and compare the coastline, you'll see that I stuck the old gold-prospector's adopted hometown directly across the bay from a very appropriately named actual city."[123]
In the 1977 film Heroes, starring Henry Winkler and Sally Field, the plot revolves around Winkler's character trying to get to Eureka, California to start a worm farm. While the film depicts scenes supposedly in Eureka, the actual shooting location was elsewhere.

text: Sister cities[edit]

text:
Country
City
State / region
Since

 Japan
Kamisu
Ibaraki Prefecture

 New Zealand
 Nelson
 Nelson


document_title: Meteoroid

question_text: in which layer of the atmosphere do meteors burn up before impacting earth

root

text: Meteoroid

text: Meteoroids[edit]

text: In 1961, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined a meteoroid as "a solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than an asteroid and considerably larger than an atom".[9][10] In 1995, Beech and Steel, writing in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, proposed a new definition where a meteoroid would be between 100 µm and 10 meters across.[11] In 2010, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 m in size, Rubin and Grossman proposed a revision of the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 m in diameter in order to maintain the distinction.[2] According to Rubin and Grossman, the minimum size of an asteroid is given by what can be discovered from Earth-bound telescopes, so the distinction between meteoroid and asteroid is fuzzy. Some of the smallest asteroids discovered (based on absolute magnitude H) are 2008 TS26 with H = 33.2[12] and 2011 CQ1 with H = 32.1[13] both with an estimated size of 1 meter.[14] In April 2017, the IAU adopted an official revision of its definition, limiting size to between 30 µm and 1 m in diameter, but allowing for a deviation for any object causing a meteor.[15]

tag: p

text: Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as micrometeoroids and interplanetary dust. The Minor Planet Center does not use the term "meteoroid".

text: Composition[edit]

text: Almost all meteoroids contain extraterrestrial nickel and iron. They have three main classifications: iron, stone, and stony-iron. Some stone meteoroids contain grain-like inclusions known as chondrules and are called chondrites. Stony meteoroids without these features are called "achondrites", which are typically formed from extraterrestrial igneous activity; they contain little or no extraterrestrial iron.[16] The composition of meteoroids can be inferred as they pass through Earth's atmosphere from their trajectories and the light spectra of the resulting meteor. Their effects on radio signals also give information, especially useful for daytime meteors, which are otherwise very difficult to observe. From these trajectory measurements, meteoroids have been found to have many different orbits, some clustering in streams (see meteor showers) often associated with a parent comet, others apparently sporadic. Debris from meteoroid streams may eventually be scattered into other orbits. The light spectra, combined with trajectory and light curve measurements, have yielded various compositions and densities, ranging from fragile snowball-like objects with density about a quarter that of ice,[17] to nickel-iron rich dense rocks. The study of meteorites also gives insights into the composition of non-ephemeral meteoroids.

text: In the Solar System[edit]

text: Most meteoroids come from the asteroid belt, having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from comets, giving rise to meteor showers. Some meteoroids are fragments from bodies such as Mars or our moon, that have been thrown into space by an impact.

text: Meteoroids travel around the Sun in a variety of orbits and at various velocities. The fastest move at about 42 kilometers per second through space in the vicinity of Earth's orbit. This is escape velocity from the sun, equal to the square root of 2 times Earth's speed, and is the upper speed limit of objects in the vicinity of Earth, unless they come from interstellar space. Earth travels at about 29.6 kilometers per second, so when meteoroids meet the atmosphere head-on (which only occurs when meteors are in a retrograde orbit such as the Eta Aquarids, which are associated with the retrograde Halley's Comet) the combined speed may reach about 71 kilometers per second (see Specific energy#Astrodynamics). Meteoroids moving through Earth's orbital space average about 20 km/s.[18]

text: On January 17, 2013 at 05:21 PST, a 1 meter-sized comet from the Oort cloud entered Earth atmosphere over California and Nevada.[19] The object had a retrograde orbit with perihelion at 0.98 ± 0.03 AU. It approached from the direction of the constellation Virgo (which was in the south about 50° above the horizon at the time), and collided head-on with Earth's atmosphere at 72 ± 6 km/s[19] vapourising more than 100 km above ground over a period of several seconds.

text: Collision with Earth's atmosphere[edit]

text: When meteoroids intersect with Earth's atmosphere at night, they are likely to become visible as meteors. If meteoroids survive the entry through the atmosphere and reach Earth's surface, they are called meteorites. Meteorites are transformed in structure and chemistry by the heat of entry and force of impact. A noted 4-meter asteroid, 2008 TC3, was observed in space on a collision course with Earth on 6 October 2008 and entered Earth's atmosphere the next day, striking a remote area of northern Sudan. It was the first time that a meteoroid had been observed in space and tracked prior to impacting Earth.[9] NASA has produced a map showing the most notable asteroid collisions with Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors (see below).

text: Meteors[edit]

text: A meteor, known colloquially as a "shooting star" or "falling star", is the visible passage of a glowing meteoroid, micrometeoroid, comet or asteroid through Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to incandescence by collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere,[9][22][23] creating a streak of light via its rapid motion and sometimes also by shedding glowing material in its wake. Although a meteor may seem to be a few thousand feet from the Earth,[24] meteors typically occur in the mesosphere at altitudes from 76 to 100 km (47 to 62 mi).[25] The root word meteor comes from the Greek meteōros, meaning "high in the air".[22]

text: Millions of meteors occur in Earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids that cause meteors are about the size of a grain of sand.[citation needed] Meteors may occur in showers, which arise when Earth passes through a stream of debris left by a comet, or as "random" or "sporadic" meteors, not associated with a specific stream of space debris. A number of specific meteors have been observed, largely by members of the public and largely by accident, but with enough detail that orbits of the meteoroids producing the meteors have been calculated. All of the orbits passed through the asteroid belt.[26] The atmospheric velocities of meteors result from the movement of Earth around the Sun at about 30 km/s (18 miles/second),[27] the orbital speeds of meteoroids, and the gravity well of Earth.

text: Meteors become visible between about 75 to 120 km (47 to 75 mi) above Earth. They usually disintegrate at altitudes of 50 to 95 km (31 to 59 mi).[28] Meteors have roughly a fifty percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are, however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For bodies with a size scale larger than 10 cm to several meters meteor visibility is due to the atmospheric ram pressure (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.

text: History[edit]

text: Although meteors have been known since ancient times, they were not known to be an astronomical phenomenon until early in the nineteenth century. Prior to that, they were seen in the West as an atmospheric phenomenon, like lightning, and were not connected with strange stories of rocks falling from the sky. In 1807, Yale University chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman investigated a meteorite that fell in Weston, Connecticut.[29] Silliman believed the meteor had a cosmic origin, but meteors did not attract much attention from astronomers until the spectacular meteor storm of November 1833.[30] People all across the eastern United States saw thousands of meteors, radiating from a single point in the sky. Astute observers noticed that the radiant, as the point is now called, moved with the stars, staying in the constellation Leo.[31]

text: The astronomer Denison Olmsted made an extensive study of this storm, and concluded that it had a cosmic origin. After reviewing historical records, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers predicted the storm's return in 1867, which drew the attention of other astronomers to the phenomenon. Hubert A. Newton's more thorough historical work led to a refined prediction of 1866, which proved to be correct.[30] With Giovanni Schiaparelli's success in connecting the Leonids (as they are now called) with comet Tempel-Tuttle, the cosmic origin of meteors was now firmly established. Still, they remain an atmospheric phenomenon, and retain their name "meteor" from the Greek word for "atmospheric".[32]

text: Fireball[edit]

text: A fireball is a brighter-than-usual meteor. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines a fireball as "a meteor brighter than any of the planets" (apparent magnitude −4 or greater).[33] The International Meteor Organization (an amateur organization that studies meteors) has a more rigid definition. It defines a fireball as a meteor that would have a magnitude of −3 or brighter if seen at zenith. This definition corrects for the greater distance between an observer and a meteor near the horizon. For example, a meteor of magnitude −1 at 5 degrees above the horizon would be classified as a fireball because, if the observer had been directly below the meteor, it would have appeared as magnitude −6.[34]

text: Fireballs reaching apparent magnitude −14 or brighter are called bolides.[35] The IAU has no official definition of "bolide", and generally considers the term synonymous with "fireball". Astronomers often use "bolide" to identify an exceptionally bright fireball, particularly one that explodes. They are sometimes called detonating fireballs (also see List of meteor air bursts). It may also be used to mean a fireball which creates audible sounds. In the late twentieth century, bolide has also come to mean any object that hits Earth and explodes, with no regard to its composition (asteroid or comet).[36] The word bolide comes from the Greek βολίς (bolis) [37] which can mean a missile or to flash. If the magnitude of a bolide reaches −17 or brighter it is known as a superbolide.[35][38] A relatively small percentage of fireballs hit Earth's atmosphere and then pass out again: these are termed Earth-grazing fireballs. Such an event happened in broad daylight over North America in 1972. Another rare phenomena is a meteor procession, where the meteor breaks up into several fireballs traveling nearly parallel to the surface of Earth.

text: A steadily growing number of fireballs are recorded at the American Meteor Society every year.[39] There are probably more than 500,000 fireballs a year,[40] but most will go unnoticed because most will occur over the ocean and half will occur during daytime.

text:
Fireball Sightings reported to the American Meteor Society [39]

Year
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016

Number
726
692
948
1,629
2,326
3,556
3,751
4,210
3,577[41]

tag: table

text: Effect on atmosphere[edit]

text: The entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere produces three main effects: ionization of atmospheric molecules, dust that the meteoroid sheds, and the sound of passage. During the entry of a meteoroid or asteroid into the upper atmosphere, an ionization trail is created, where the air molecules are ionized by the passage of the meteor. Such ionization trails can last up to 45 minutes at a time.

text: Small, sand-grain sized meteoroids are entering the atmosphere constantly, essentially every few seconds in any given region of the atmosphere, and thus ionization trails can be found in the upper atmosphere more or less continuously. When radio waves are bounced off these trails, it is called meteor burst communications. Meteor radars can measure atmospheric density and winds by measuring the decay rate and Doppler shift of a meteor trail. Most meteoroids burn up when they enter the atmosphere. The left-over debris is called meteoric dust or just meteor dust. Meteor dust particles can persist in the atmosphere for up to several months. These particles might affect climate, both by scattering electromagnetic radiation and by catalyzing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere.[42] Meteoroids or their fragments may achieve dark flight after deceleration to terminal velocity.[43] Dark flight starts when they decelerate to about 2–4 km/s (4,500–8,900 mph).[44] Larger fragments will fall further down the strewn field.

text: Colours[edit]

text: The visible light produced by a meteor may take on various hues, depending on the chemical composition of the meteoroid, and the speed of its movement through the atmosphere. As layers of the meteoroid abrade and ionize, the colour of the light emitted may change according to the layering of minerals. Colours of meteors depend on the relative influence of the metallic content of the meteoroid versus the superheated air plasma, which its passage engenders:[45]

text:
Orange-yellow (sodium)
Yellow (iron)
Blue-green (magnesium)
Violet (calcium)
Red (atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen)

tag: ul

text: Acoustic manifestations[edit]

text: Sound generated by a meteor in the upper atmosphere, such as a sonic boom, typically arrives many seconds after the visual light from a meteor disappears. Occasionally, as with the Leonid meteor shower of 2001,"crackling", "swishing", or "hissing" sounds have been reported,[46] occurring at the same instant as a meteor flare. Similar sounds have also been reported during intense displays of Earth's auroras.[47][48][49][50]

text: Theories on the generation of these sounds may partially explain them. For example, scientists at NASA suggested that the turbulent ionized wake of a meteor interacts with Earth's magnetic field, generating pulses of radio waves. As the trail dissipates, megawatts of electromagnetic power could be released, with a peak in the power spectrum at audio frequencies. Physical vibrations induced by the electromagnetic impulses would then be heard if they are powerful enough to make grasses, plants, eyeglass frames, and other conductive materials vibrate.[51][52][53][54] This proposed mechanism, although proven to be plausible by laboratory work, remains unsupported by corresponding measurements in the field. Sound recordings made under controlled conditions in Mongolia in 1998 support the contention that the sounds are real.[55] (Also see Bolide.)

text: Meteor shower[edit]

text: A meteor shower is the result of an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet or other source. The passage of Earth through cosmic debris from comets and other sources is a recurring event in many cases. Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951,[56] and by breakup. Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "dust tail" caused by the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

text: The frequency of fireball sightings increases by about 10-30% during the weeks of vernal equinox.[57] Even meteorite falls are more common during the northern hemisphere's spring season. Although this phenomenon has been known for quite some time, the reason behind the anomaly is not fully understood by scientists. Some researchers attribute this to an intrinsic variation in the meteoroid population along Earth's orbit, with a peak in big fireball-producing debris around spring and early summer. Others have pointed out that during this period the ecliptic is (in the northern hemisphere) high in the sky in the late afternoon and early evening. This means that fireball radiants with an asteroidal source are high in the sky (facilitating relatively high rates) at the moment the meteoroids "catch up" with Earth, coming from behind going in the same direction as Earth. This causes relatively low relative speeds and from this low entry speeds, which facilitates survival of meteorites.[58] It also generates high fireball rates in the early evening, increasing chances of eye witness reports. This explains a part, but perhaps not all of the seasonal variation. Research is in progress for mapping the orbits of the meteors to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon.[59]

text: Notable meteors[edit]

text: Gallery of meteors[edit]

text:
Orionid meteor

Sporadic bolide over the desert of Central Australia and a Lyrid (top edge)

Meteor (center) seen from the International Space Station

Possible meteor (center) photographed from Mars, March 7, 2004, by MER Spirit

Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 colliding with Jupiter: The sequence shows fragment W turning into a fireball on the planet's dark side

text: Meteorites[edit]

text: A meteorite is a portion of a meteoroid or asteroid that survives its passage through the atmosphere and hits the ground without being destroyed.[69] Meteorites are sometimes, but not always, found in association with hypervelocity impact craters; during energetic collisions, the entire impactor may be vaporized, leaving no meteorites. Geologists use the term, "bolide", in a different sense from astronomers to indicate a very large impactor. For example, the USGS uses the term to mean a generic large crater-forming projectile in a manner "to imply that we do not know the precise nature of the impacting body ... whether it is a rocky or metallic asteroid, or an icy comet for example".[70]

text: Meteoroids also hit other bodies in the solar system. On such stony bodies as the Moon or Mars that have little or no atmosphere, they leave enduring craters.

text: Frequency of impacts[edit]

text: The diameter of the largest impactor to hit Earth on any given day is likely to be about 40 centimeters (16 inches), in a given year about 4 meters, and in a given century about 20 meters. These statistics are obtained by the following:

text: Over at least the range from 5 centimeters (2.0 inches) to roughly 300 meters (980 feet), the rate at which Earth receives meteors obeys a power-law distribution as follows:

text: where N (>D) is the expected number of objects larger than a diameter of D meters to hit Earth in a year.[71] This is based on observations of bright meteors seen from the ground and space, combined with surveys of near-Earth asteroids. Above 300 meters in diameter, the predicted rate is somewhat higher, with a two-kilometer asteroid (one million-megaton TNT equivalent) every couple of million years — about 10 times as often as the power-law extrapolation would predict.

text: Impact craters[edit]

text: Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede, and most small moons and asteroids, create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io, and Titan, visible impact craters may become eroded, buried, or transformed by tectonics over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth.[72] Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite. These are often mistaken for meteorites.

text: Gallery of meteorites[edit]

text:
Two tektites, molten terrestrial ejecta from a meteorite impact

A partial slice of the Esquel pallasite

Willamette Meteorite, from Oregon, USA

Meteorite, which fell in Wisconsin in 1868

Marília Meteorite, a chondrite H4, which fell in Marília, Brazil (1971)

Children posing behind the Tucson Meteorite at the Arizona Museum of Natural History

Meteorite with brecciation and carbon inclusions from Tindouf, Algeria[73]


document_title: Krista Allen

question_text: who is the girl in liar liar in the elevator

text: Krista Allen

text: Early life[edit]

text: Krista Allen was born in Ventura, California.[2] Allen has an older brother, Dalton Earl Allen, Jr. She grew up in Houston[2] and later lived in Austin, Texas, where she worked in the beauty department at Foley's department store at Barton Creek mall. She attended school at Austin Community College and majoring in education. Krista transferred to, and graduated from, the University of Texas with an education degree. She considered teaching as a profession, interning as a kindergarten teacher, but decided to move back to California and pursue an acting career. Allen also is a certified yoga instructor.[3]

text: Career[edit]

text: Allen first gained attention playing the lead role in the erotic cable television series Emmanuelle in Space (1994)

text: She appeared on the television shows Days of Our Lives in the role of Billie Reed from 1996–2000, and Baywatch as Jenna Avid (2000-2001).

text: Allen played a sexy virtual reality character Maitreya/Jade Blue Afterglow in an episode of The X-Files, and made a brief appearance as the "Elevator Girl" in the Jim Carrey comedy Liar Liar.

text: In 2002, she appeared in an episode of Friends, "The One Where Joey Dates Rachel" as Joey's girlfriend Mable. In 2005 she appeared in the short-lived Fox sitcom Head Cases.[4] In both Smallville and Mutant X, Allen played a woman who could control men with her sex pheromones. In 2001 Allen guest starred in supernatural TV series Charmed as "The Oracle" for three episodes, She also appeared in Toby Keith's video "A Little Too Late", and had a small role in CSI: Crime Scene Investigation as Kristy Hopkins, a hooker who caught the eye of Nick Stokes, in the pilot episode on October 6, 2000. She returned later in the first season as a murder victim.[4]

text: In 2002, she had a role in Confessions of a Dangerous Mind.[5]

text: In 2005, she was one of the stars of HBO's Unscripted, playing herself as an actress who struggles to overcome her sex symbol status in order to win more serious roles.

text: Allen had a recurring role on the ABC series What About Brian as Bridget, a reluctant but potential love interest for the main character Brian, played by Barry Watson.[6]

text: In 2007, Allen appeared in the ABC reality television series Fast Cars and Superstars: The Gillette Young Guns Celebrity Race, featuring a dozen celebrities in a stock car racing competition. In the first round, she matched up against skateboarder Tony Hawk and rodeo champion Ty Murray.[7] Allen appeared on the second season of Denise Richards: It's Complicated which premiered on June 7, 2009. Allen also appeared on an episode of NBC's Love Bites in 2011.

text: In August 2015, Allen began appearing as Lydia Marlowe on The CW series Significant Mother.[8]

text: In addition to acting, Allen also has done nude modeling, being featured in Spanish magazine, Interviu, and French magazine, Newlook.[9][10][11][12] Allen was featured in Maxim magazine's Girls of Maxim gallery and was Named #70 on the Maxim "Hot 100 of 2005" list.[13]

text: Allen had a T-shirt line called Superexcellent for several years.[7]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Allen is vegan.[14][15]

text: On September 14, 1996, she married Justin Moritt, a production manager and producer. She gave birth to her first child at age 26, a son named Jakob Nolan Moritt (aka Jake Moritt) on July 12, 1997. The couple later divorced in 1999.

text: On October 10, 2010, she married Mams Taylor, an Iranian rapper. They separated in April 2011 and Allen filed for divorce at Los Angeles County Superior Court on February 12, 2012.[16]

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1996
Raven
Cali Goodwin
Video

1997
Liar Liar
Woman in Elevator

Haunted Sea, TheThe Haunted Sea
2nd Mate Johnson

2000
Sunset Strip
Jennifer

2001
Totally Blonde
Meg Peters

2002
Face Value
Syd Deshaye

Confessions of a Dangerous Mind
Pretty Woman

2003
Anger Management
Stacy

Paycheck
Holographic Woman

2004
Shut Up and Kiss Me!
Tiara Benedette

Tony n' Tina's Wedding
Maddy

2005
Feast
Tuffy

2007
Leo
Krista
Short film

All Along
Dr. Sara Thompson

2008
Meet Market
Lucinda

Third Nail, TheThe Third Nail
Hannah

2009
Alien Presence
Waymar

Locker 13
Patricia
Short film

Shannon's Rainbow
Jessica

Silent Venom
Dr. Andrea Swanson
Video

Final Destination, TheThe Final Destination
Samantha Lane

2010
Black Widow
Jennifer

2012
Amazing Racer
Jessica

Little Women, Big Cars
Doro

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1994
Emmanuelle 1: First Contact
Emmanuelle
TV movie

Emmanuelle 2: A World of Desire

Emmanuelle 3: A Lesson in Love

Emmanuelle 4: Concealed Fantasy

Emmanuelle 5: A Time to Dream

Emmanuelle 6: One Final Fling

Emmanuelle 7: The Meaning of Love

Emmanuelle 8: Queen of the Galaxy

1995
The Bold and the Beautiful
Shelley

Deadly Games
Mrs. Fleisig
Episode: "One Mean Mother"

High Tide
Patty
Episode: "Bikini Patrol"

1996
Episode: "A Three Hour Tour"
Episode: "Sunspirit"

Silk Stalkings
Cora Jean Riggs / Sharon Grayson
Episode: "Black and Blue"

Diagnosis: Murder
Page Tanner
Episode: "Misdiagnosis Murder"

Married... with Children
Crystal Clark
Episode: "Calendar Girl"

Weird Science
Annabel
Episode: "Gary and Wyatt's Bloodsucking Adventure"

Rolling Thunder
Michelle
TV movie

1996–1999
Days of Our Lives
Billie Reed
41 episodes

1996
Pacific Blue
Theresa Vanoni
Episode: "Takedown"

1999
Ann Fairchild
Episode: "Just a Gigolo"

2000
X-Files, TheThe X-Files
Jade Blue Afterglow / Maitreya
Episode: "First Person Shooter"

18 Wheels of Justice
Jessica Macy
Episode: "Smuggler's Blues"

2000–2001
Baywatch
Jenna Avid
26 episodes

2000
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
Kristy Hopkins (uncredited)
Episode: "Pilot"

2001
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
Kristy Hopkins
Episode "I-15 Murders"
Episode: "Boom"

Arli$$
Krista
Episode: "Hard Choices"

Spin City
Jesse (uncredited)
Episode: "Yeah Baby!"

Charmed
The Oracle
3 episodes

Inside Schwartz
Kelsie Anders
Episode: "Comic Relief Pitcher"

2002
Zero Effect

TV movie

Friends
Mable
Episode: "The One Where Joey Dates Rachel"

Glory Days
Melanie Stark
Episode: "Miss Fortune Teller"

Mutant X
Lorna Templeton
Episode: "Deadly Desire"

Smallville
Desiree Atkins
Episode: "Heat"

2003
Fastlane
Skyler Kase
Episode: "Defense"
Episode: "Offense"

Andromeda
The Princess
Episode: "The Illusion of Majesty"

Just Shoot Me!
Mary Elizabeth
Episode: "The Last Temptation of Elliot"

Lyon's Den, TheThe Lyon's Den
Gloria
Episode: "The Quantum Theory"
Episode "Separation Anxiety"

Frasier
Liz Wright
Episode: "The Placeholder"

Two and a Half Men
Olivia Pearson
Episode: "Did You Check with the Captain of the Flying Monkeys?"

2004
I'm with Her
Jennifer
Episode: "I'm Not with Her"

Screaming Cocktail Hour, TheThe Screaming Cocktail Hour
Singer
TV series

2005
Monk
Teresa Telenko
Episode: "Mr. Monk Goes to Vegas"

Jake in Progress
Lisa
Episode: "Take a Number"

Head Cases
Laurie Payne
Episode: "Pilot"
Episode: "S(elf) Help"

2006
Out of Practice
Kathy Kelly
Episode: "Restaurant Row"

Freddie
Kaitlyn
Episode: "Freddie and the Hot Mom"

2006–2007
What About Brian
Bridget Keller
11 episodes

2007
Business Class
Lori
TV movie

2008
Held Up

TV movie

Cashmere Mafia
Victoria
Episode: "Conference Call"

Starter Wife, TheThe Starter Wife
Eve
4 episodes

2009
Dirty Sexy Money
Dana Whatley
Episode: "The Unexpected Arrival"
Episode: "The Bad Guy"

Philanthropist, TheThe Philanthropist
Julia Rist
3 episodes

2010
Jesse Stone: No Remorse
Cissy Hathaway
TV movie

Life Unexpected
Candace Carter
Episode: "Homecoming Crashed"

2011
Protector, TheThe Protector
Miss Monroe
Episode: "Pilot"

Love Bites
Janine
Episode: "Sky High"

2012
L.A. Complex, TheThe L.A. Complex
Jennifer Bell
Recurring Role

2013
Rules of Engagement
Heidi
Episode: "Timmy Quits"

Melissa & Joey
Candice
Episode: "Teach Your Children"

2014
Hawaii Five-0
Nani Kahanu
Episode: "Ho'i Hou"

Mistresses
Janine Winterbaum
2 Episodes

Castle
Naomi Duvray
Episode: "Last Action Hero"

2015
Significant Mother
Lydia Marlowe
9 Episodes

2018
Party Mom [17]
Jackie
TV movie


document_title: Conflict of the Orders

question_text: how did the roman patricians respond when the plebeians seceded from rome in 494 bc

text: Conflict of the Orders

text: The Patrician era (494–367 BC)[edit]

text: In 494 BC Rome was at war with three Italic tribes (the Aequi, Sabines and Volsci),[1] but the Plebeian soldiers advised by Lucius Sicinius Vellutus refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded to the Sacred Mount outside Rome. A settlement was negotiated and the patricians agreed that the plebs be given the right to elect their own officials.[1] The Plebeians named these new officials Plebeian Tribunes (tribuni plebis).

text: During the 5th century BC there were a number of unsuccessful attempts to reform Roman agrarian laws to distribute newly conquered territories amongst the plebs. In a number of instances these reforms were advocated by the plebeian tribunes.

text: In 471 BC the Lex Publilia was passed. It was an important reform shifting practical power from the patricians to the plebeians. The law transferred the election of the tribunes of the plebs to the comitia tributa, thereby freeing their election from the influence of the patrician clientes.

text: During the early years of the republic, the Plebeians were not allowed to hold magisterial office. Neither Tribunes nor Aediles were technically magistrates, since they were both elected solely by the Plebeians, rather than by both the Plebeians and the Patricians. While the Plebeian Tribunes regularly attempted to block legislation unfavorable to their order, the Patricians frequently tried to thwart them by gaining the support of one or another of the tribunes. One example of this occurred in 448 BC, when only five tribunes were elected to fill ten positions; following tradition and pressured by the Patricians, they co-opted five colleagues, two of whom were Patricians. Concerns that the Patricians would attempt to influence future elections in this manner, or by obtaining the office themselves prevent the Plebeian Tribunes from exercising their powers, led to the passage of the Lex Trebonia, forbidding the Plebeian Tribunes from co-opting their colleagues in the future.[2]

text: In 445 BC, the Plebeians demanded the right to stand for election as consul (the chief-magistrate of the Roman Republic),[3] but the Roman senate refused to grant them this right. Ultimately, a compromise was reached, and while the Consulship remained closed to the Plebeians, Consular command authority (imperium) was granted to a select number of Military Tribunes. These individuals, the so-called Consular Tribunes ("Military Tribunes with Consular powers" or tribuni militares consulari potestate) were elected by the Centuriate Assembly (the assembly of soldiers), and the senate had the power to veto any such election.[3] This was the first of many attempts by the Plebeians to achieve political equality with the Patricians.

text: Starting around the year 400 BC, a series of wars were fought against several neighboring tribes (in particular the Aequi, the Volsci, the Latins, and the Veii). The disenfranchised Plebeians fought in the army, while the Patrician aristocracy enjoyed the fruits of the resulting conquests.[3] The Plebeians, by now exhausted and bitter, demanded real concessions, so the Tribunes Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius passed a law in 367 BC (the Licinio-Sextian law),[4] which dealt with the economic plight of the Plebeians. However, the law also required the election of at least one Plebeian Consul each year. The opening of the Consulship to the Plebeians was probably the cause behind the concession of 366 BC, in which the Praetorship and Curule Aedileship were both created, but opened only to Patricians.[5][6]

text: Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Centuriate Assembly became the principal Roman assembly in which magistrates were elected, laws were passed, and trials occurred. Also around this time, the Plebeians assembled into an informal Plebeian Curiate Assembly, which was the original Plebeian Council. Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia (and thus by clan), they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons. In 471 BC, a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius,[7] which allowed the Plebeians to organize by Tribe, rather than by Curia. Thus, the Plebeian Curiate Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and the Plebeians became politically independent.[7]

text: During the regal period, the king nominated two quaestors to serve as his assistants, and after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Consuls retained this authority. However, in 447 BC, Cicero tells us that the Quaestors began to be elected by a tribal assembly that was presided over by a magistrate.[8] It seems as though this was the first instance of a joint Patricio-Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and thus was probably an enormous gain for the Plebeians. While Patricians were able to vote in a joint assembly, there were never very many Patricians in Rome. Thus, most of the electors were Plebeians, and yet any magistrate elected by a joint assembly had jurisdiction over both Plebeians and Patricians. Therefore, for the first time, the Plebeians seemed to have indirectly acquired authority over Patricians.[8] Most contemporary accounts of an assembly of the Tribes refer specifically to the Plebeian Council.

text: The distinction between the joint Tribal Assembly (composed of both Patricians and Plebeians) and the Plebeian Council (composed only of Plebeians) is not well defined in the contemporary accounts, and because of this, the very existence of a joint Tribal Assembly can only be assumed through indirect evidence.[8] During the 4th century BC, a series of reforms were passed (the leges Valeriae Horatiae or the "laws of the Consul Publius Valerius Publicola and the Dictator Quintus Hortensius"), which ultimately required that any law passed by the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians. This gave the Plebeian Tribunes, who presided over the Plebeian Council, a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, Tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanctity of their person (intercessio) to veto acts of the senate, assemblies, or magistrates. It was a modification to the Valerian law in 449 BC which first allowed acts of the Plebeian Council to have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians, but eventually the final law in the series was passed (the "Hortensian Law"), which removed the last check that the Patricians in the senate had over this power.

text: The end of the Conflict of the Orders (367–287 BC)[edit]

text: In the decades following the passage of the Licinio-Sextian law of 367 BE, a series of laws were passed which ultimately granted Plebeians political equality with Patricians.[9][10] The Patrician era came to a complete end in 287 BC, with the passage of the Hortensian law.[10] When the Curule Aedileship had been created, it had only been opened to Patricians. However, an unusual agreement was ultimately secured between the Plebeians and the Patricians. One year, the Curule Aedileship was to be open to Plebeians, and the next year, it was only to be open to Patricians.[11] Eventually, however, this agreement was abandoned and the Plebeians won full admission to the Curule Aedileship. In addition, after the Consulship had been opened to the Plebeians, the Plebeians acquired a de facto right to hold both the Roman Dictatorship and the Roman Censorship [5] since only former Consuls could hold either office. 356 BC saw the appointment of the first Plebeian Dictator,[12] and in 339 BC the Plebeians facilitated the passage of a law (the lex Publilia), which required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor for each five-year term.[12] In 337 BC, the first Plebeian Praetor (Q. Publilius Philo) was elected.[12] In addition, during these years, the Plebeian Tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close.[13] The senate realized the need to use Plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals,[13] and so to win over the Tribunes, the senators gave the Tribunes a great deal of power, and unsurprisingly, the Tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the Tribunes and the senators grew closer, Plebeian senators were often able to secure the Tribunate for members of their own families.[14] In time, the Tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.[14]

text: During the era of the kingdom, the Roman King appointed new senators through a process called lectio senatus, but after the overthrow of the kingdom, the Consuls acquired this power. Around the middle of the 4th century BC, however, the Plebeian Council enacted the "Ovinian Plebiscite" (plebiscitum Ovinium),[15] which gave the power to appoint new senators to the Roman Censors. It also codified a commonplace practice, which all but required the Censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate.[15] While this was not an absolute requirement, the language in the law was so strict that the Censors rarely disobeyed it. It is not known what year this law was passed, although it was probably passed between the opening of the Censorship to Plebeians (in 339 BC) and the first known lectio senatus by a Censor (in 312 BC).[16] By this point, Plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices, and so the number of Plebeian senators probably increased quickly.[16] It was, in all likelihood, simply a matter of time before the Plebeians came to dominate the senate.

text: Under the new system, newly elected magistrates were awarded with automatic membership in the senate, although it remained difficult for a Plebeian from an unknown family to enter the senate. On the rare occasion that an individual of an unknown family (ignobilis) was elected to high office, it was usually due to the unusual character of that individual, as was the case for both Gaius Marius and Marcus Tullius Cicero.[16] Several factors made it difficult for individuals from unknown families to be elected to high office, in particular the very presence of a long-standing nobility, as this appealed to the deeply rooted Roman respect for the past.[16] In addition, elections were expensive, neither senators nor magistrates were paid, and the senate often did not reimburse magistrates for expenses associated with their official duties. Therefore, an individual usually had to be independently wealthy before seeking high office.[16] Ultimately, a new Patricio-Plebeian aristocracy (nobilitas) emerged,[16] which replaced the old Patrician nobility. It was the dominance of the long-standing Patrician nobility which ultimately forced the Plebeians to wage their long struggle for political power. The new nobility, however, was fundamentally different from the old nobility.[17] The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only Patricians were allowed to stand for high office, and it was ultimately overthrown after those laws were changed. Now, however, the new nobility existed due to the organization of society, and as such, it could only be overthrown through a revolution.[17]

text: The Conflict of the Orders was finally coming to an end, since the Plebeians had achieved political equality with the Patricians.[17][18] A small number of Plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic Patrician families had always had, but these new Plebeian aristocrats were as uninterested in the plight of the average Plebeian as the old Patrician aristocrats had always been.[17] During this time period, the Plebeian plight had been mitigated due to the constant state of war that Rome was in.[19] These wars provided employment, income, and glory for the average Plebeian, and the sense of patriotism that resulted from these wars also eliminated any real threat of Plebeian unrest. The lex Publilia, which had required the election of at least one Plebeian Censor every five years, contained another provision. Before this time, any bill passed by an assembly (either by the Plebeian Council, the Tribal Assembly, or the Centuriate Assembly) could only become a law after the Patrician senators gave their approval. This approval came in the form of an auctoritas patrum ("authority of the fathers" or "authority of the Patrician senators"). The lex Publilia modified this process, requiring the auctoritas patrum to be passed before a law could be voted on by one of the assemblies, rather than after the law had already been voted on.[20] It is not known why, but this modification seems to have made the auctoritas patrum irrelevant.[21]

text: By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average Plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness,[22] and the Plebeians quickly demanded relief. The senators, most of whom belonged to the creditor class, refused to abide by the demands of the Plebeians, and the result was the final Plebeian secession. The Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill, and to end the secession, a Dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed. Hortensius, a Plebeian, passed a law called the "Hortensian Law" (lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Plebeian Council or the Tribal Assembly.[22] The requirement was not changed for the Centuriate Assembly. The Hortensian Law also reaffirmed the principle that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both Plebeians and Patricians, which it had originally acquired as early as 449 BC.[21] The importance of the Hortensian Law was in that it removed from the Patrician senators their final check over the Plebeian Council.[23] It should therefore not be viewed as the final triumph of democracy over aristocracy,[23] since, through the Tribunes, the senate could still control the Plebeian Council.[example needed] Thus, the ultimate significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the Patricians of their final weapon over the Plebeians. The result was that the ultimate control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of democracy, but onto the shoulders of the new Patricio-Plebeian aristocracy.[23]

text: Historicity[edit]

text: The traditional account was long accepted as factual, but it has a number of problems and inconsistencies, and almost every element of the story is controversial today; some scholars, such as Richard E. Mitchell, have even argued that there was no conflict at all, the Romans of the late Republic having interpreted events of their distant past as if they were comparable to the class struggles of their own time. The crux of the problem is that there is no contemporaneous account of the conflict; writers such as Polybius, who might have met persons whose grandparents participated in the conflict, do not mention it (which may not be surprising, since Polybius' history covered a period after the conflict), while the writers who do speak of the conflict, such as Livy or Cicero, are sometimes thought to have reported fact and fable equally readily, and sometimes assume that there were no fundamental changes in Roman institutions in nearly 500 years. However, there are numerous Roman and Greek authors who record the events which form part of the conflict of the orders, and they each rely on more ancient sources, and if the story were false it could only be because there were some great collusion between them to distort history or some deliberate fabrication of history, which seems unlikely.[24]

text: For instance, the fasti report a number of consuls with plebeian names during the 5th century, when the consulate was supposedly only open to patricians, and explanations to the effect that previously patrician gentes somehow became plebeians later are difficult to prove. Another point of difficulty is the apparent absence of armed revolt; as the history of the late Republic shows, similar types of grievances tended to lead to bloodshed rather quickly, yet Livy's account seems to entail debate mostly, with the occasional threat of secessio. None of this is helped by our basic uncertainty as to who the plebs actually were; many of them are known to have been wealthy landowners, and the "lower class" label dates from the late Republic.[24]