document_title: Iberian Peninsula

question_text: who invaded the iberian peninsula and lived there for eight centuries

text: Iberian Peninsula

text: Name[edit]

text: Greek name[edit]

text: The word Iberia is a noun adapted from the Latin word "Hiberia" originated by the Ancient Greek word Ἰβηρία (Ibēríā) by Greek geographers under the rule of the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula.[2] At that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people.[3] Strabo's 'Iberia' was delineated from Keltikē (Gaul) by the Pyrenees[4] and included the entire land mass southwest (he says "west") of there.[5]  The noun "Hiberia" fell into disuse when the Romans decided to call the most western part of the peninsula "Lusitania" (today Portugal) and the remaining territory "Hispania" (modern Spain). With the fall of the Roman Empire and the establishment of the new Castillian language in Spain, the word "Iberia" appeared for the first time in use as a direct 'descendant' of the Greek word "Ἰβηρία" and the Roman word "Hiberia".

text: The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean.[6] Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC.[7] Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with... Iberia."[8] According to Strabo,[9] prior historians used Iberia to mean the country "this side of the Ἶβηρος (Ibēros)" as far north as the river Rhône in France, but currently they set the Pyrenees as the limit. Polybius respects that limit,[10] but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, with the Atlantic side having no name. Elsewhere[11] he says that Saguntum is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia."

text: Strabo[12] refers to the Carretanians as people "of the Iberian stock" living in the Pyrenees, who are distinct from either Celts or Celtiberians.

text: Roman names[edit]

text: According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia (Greek: Iberia) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus. Hiber (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro.[4][13] The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC.[14][15][16] Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos ("restless Iberi") in his Georgics.[17] The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania.

text: As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for 'near' and 'far' Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Hispania Lusitania. Strabo says[9] that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the near northern and the far southern provinces. (The name "Iberia" was ambiguous, being also the name of the Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus.)

text: Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees.

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.[18] The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian,[19] uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius[20] states that the "native name" is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination.

text: The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from today's southern Spain to today's southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "Iberian." Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence on the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern Basque, the word ibar[21] means "valley" or "watered meadow", while ibai[21] means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names. In Serbia, there is river Ibar, but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with this Serbian river name.

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: Palaeolithic[edit]

text: The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for at least 1.2 million years as remains found in the sites in the Atapuerca Mountains demonstrate. Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, or a new species called Homo antecessor.

text: Around 200,000 BP, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BP, during the Middle Paleolithic period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. Around 37,000 BP, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. Emanating from Southern France, this culture extended into the north of the peninsula. It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.

text: About 40,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from Southern France.[22] Here, this genetically homogeneous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to Haplogroup R1b, still the most common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males.[23]  On the Iberian Peninsula, modern humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, some of them characterized by the complex forms of the art of the Upper Paleolithic.

text: Neolithic[edit]

text: During the Neolithic expansion, various megalithic cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula.[24] An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the Cardium culture, also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BC. These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the Iberian civilization.

text: Chalcolithic[edit]

text: In the Chalcolithic (c. 3000 BC), a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula's first civilizations and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the Baltic, Middle East and North Africa. Around 2800 – 2700 BC, the Beaker culture, which produced the Maritime Bell Beaker, probably originated in the vibrant copper-using communities of the Tagus estuary in Portugal and spread from there to many parts of western Europe.[25]

text: Bronze Age[edit]

text: Bronze Age cultures developed beginning c.1800 BC,[26] when the civilization of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar.[27][28] From this centre, bronze technology spread to other cultures like the Bronze of Levante, South-Western Iberian Bronze and Las Cogotas.

text: In the Late Bronze Age, the urban civilisation of Tartessos developed in the area of modern western Andalusia, characterized by Phoenician influence and using the Southwest Paleohispanic script for its Tartessian language, not related to the Iberian language.

text: Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Pre-Celts and Celts migrated from Central Europe, thus partially changing the peninsula's ethnic landscape to Indo-European-speaking in its northern and western regions.  In Northwestern Iberia (modern Northern Portugal, Asturias and Galicia), a Celtic culture developed, the Castro culture, with a large number of hill forts and some fortified cities.

text: Proto-history[edit]

text: By the Iron Age, starting in the 7th century BC, the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either Pre-Celtic or Celtic (such as the Lusitanians, Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Astures, Celtici and others), the cultures of the Iberians in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the Aquitanian in the western portion of the Pyrenees.

text: The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. Around 1100 BC, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day Cádiz) near Tartessos. In the 8th century BC, the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks coined the name Iberia, after the river Iber (Ebro). In the sixth century BC, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena, Spain).

text: History[edit]

text: Roman rule[edit]

text: In 218 BC, during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, the first Roman troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula; however, it was not until the reign of Augustus that it was annexed after two centuries of war with the Celtic and Iberian tribes and the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonies. The result was the creation of the province of Hispania. It was divided into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior during the late Roman Republic, and during the Roman Empire, it was divided into Hispania Tarraconensis in the northeast, Hispania Baetica in the south and Lusitania in the southwest.

text: Hispania supplied the Roman Empire with silver, food, olive oil, wine, and metal. The emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, and Theodosius I, the philosopher Seneca the Younger, and the poets Martial and Lucan were born from families living on the Iberian Peninsula.

text: Germanic kingdoms[edit]

text: In the early fifth century, Germanic peoples invaded the peninsula, namely the Suebi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suebi (Quadi and Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who conquered all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day Braga), in 584–585. They would also conquer the province of the Byzantine Empire (552–624) of Spania in the south of the peninsula and the Balearic Islands.

text: Islamic Caliphate[edit]

text: In 711, a Muslim army invaded the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania. Under Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Al-Andalus (Arabic: الإندلس,  tr. al-ʾAndalūs, possibly "Land of the Vandals"),[29][30] is the Arabic name given to what is today southern Spain by its Muslim Berber and Arab occupiers.

text: From the 8th–15th centuries, only the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula was part of the Islamic world. It became a center of culture and learning, especially during the Caliphate of Córdoba, which reached its height of its power under the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his successor al-Hakam II.[31] The Muslims, who were initially Arabs and Berbers, included some local converts, the so-called Muladi.[32] The Muslims were referred to by the generic name, Moors[33] The  Reconquista gained momentum on c. 718, when the Christian Asturians opposed the Moors. The southern march to push out the Muslims continued for three hundred years[citation needed]. For another four hundred years, only the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula was transformed into a Romance-speaking and Arabic-speaking Muslim land, along with pockets of a large minority of Arabic-speaking Sephardi Jews[citation needed].

text: Reconquest[edit]

text: Many of the ousted Gothic nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Kingdom of Asturias. From there, they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors; this war of reconquest is known as the Reconquista. Christian and Muslim kingdoms fought and allied among themselves. The Muslim taifa kings competed in patronage of the arts, the Camino de Santiago attracted pilgrims from all Western Europe, and the Jewish population set the basis of Sephardi culture.[citation needed]

text: During the Middle Ages, the peninsula housed many small states including the Kingdom of Castile, Crown of Aragon, Kingdom of Navarre, Kingdom of León and the Kingdom of Portugal. The peninsula was part of the Almohad Caliphate until it finally uprooted by Castile in the 1230s. The last major Muslim stronghold was Granada, which was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms. After the fall of Granada, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion. Many Jews and Muslims fled to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as Marranos and Moriscos. However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret. The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately forcibly expelled from Spain in the early 17th century.

text: Post-reconquest[edit]

text: The small states gradually amalgamated over time. Portugal was the exception, except for a brief period (1580–1640) during which the whole peninsula was united politically under the Iberian Union. After that point, the modern position was reached and the peninsula now consists of the countries of Spain and Portugal (excluding their islands—the Portuguese Azores and Madeira and the Spanish Canary Islands and Balearic Islands; and the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla), Andorra, French Cerdagne and Gibraltar.

text: Geography and geology[edit]

text: The Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan.[34] It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west, and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe. Its southern tip is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea.

text: The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa (36°00′15″N 5°36′37″W / 36.00417°N 5.61028°W / 36.00417; -5.61028) to the northernmost extremity at Punta de Estaca de Bares (43°47′38″N 7°41′17″W / 43.79389°N 7.68806°W / 43.79389; -7.68806) over a distance between lines of latitude of about 865 km (537 mi) based on a degree length of 111 km (69 mi) per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca (38°46′51″N 9°29′54″W / 38.78083°N 9.49833°W / 38.78083; -9.49833) to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus (42°19′09″N 3°19′19″E / 42.31917°N 3.32194°E / 42.31917; 3.32194) over a distance between lines of longitude at 40° N latitude of about 1,155 km (718 mi) based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km (56 mi) for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer Strabo.[35]

text: About three quarters of that rough octagon is the Meseta Central, a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude.[36] It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered Getafe just south of Madrid). It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.

text: Coastline[edit]

text: The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is 3,313 km (2,059 mi), 1,660 km (1,030 mi) on the Mediterranean side and 1,653 km (1,027 mi) on the Atlantic side.[37] The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of 115–120 m (377–394 ft) lower than today at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years BP.[38] The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated 700 km (430 mi) length of Atlantic shelf is only 10–65 km (6.2–40.4 mi) wide. At the 500 m (1,600 ft) isobath, on the edge, the shelf drops off to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[39]

text: The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately, the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at 4,800 m (15,700 ft) on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama seamounts, which form the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by Nazaré Canyon, which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.

text: Rivers[edit]

text: The major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems. These are the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir.[40][41] All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.

text: The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal. The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.

text: Mountains[edit]

text: The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely mountainous.[42] The major mountain systems are:

text:
The Pyrenees and their foothills, the Pre-Pyrenees, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel. Aneto in the Maladeta massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest point
The Cantabrian Mountains along the northern coast with the massive Picos de Europa. Torre de Cerredo, at 2,648 m, is the highest point
The Galicia/Trás-os-Montes Massif in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks.[43] Pena Trevinca, at 2,127 m, is the highest point
The Sistema Ibérico, a complex system at the heart of the Peninsula, in its central/eastern region. It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers. Moncayo, at 2,313 m, is the highest point
The Sistema Central, dividing the Iberian Plateau into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of Continental Portugal (1,993 m) is located in the Serra da Estrela). Pico Almanzor in the Sierra de Gredos is the highest point, at 2,592 m
The Montes de Toledo, which also stretches into Portugal from the La Mancha natural region at the eastern end. Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is La Villuerca in the Sierra de Villuercas, Extremadura
The Sierra Morena, which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers. At 1,332 m, Bañuela is the highest point
The Baetic System, which stretches between Cádiz and Gibraltar and northeast towards Alicante Province. It is divided into three subsystems:
Prebaetic System, which begins west of the Sierra Sur de Jaén, reaching the Mediterranean Sea shores in Alicante Province. La Sagra is the highest point at 2,382 m.
Subbaetic System, which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from Cape Trafalgar in Cádiz Province across Andalusia to the Region of Murcia.[44] The highest point, at 2,027 m (6,650 ft), is Peña de la Cruz in Sierra Arana.
Penibaetic System, located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces. It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén in the Sierra Nevada.[45]

text: Geology[edit]

text: The Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Recent, and almost every kind of rock is represented. World-class mineral deposits can also be found there. The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif. On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Baetic System. These twofold chains are part of the Alpine belt. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the magma-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the Sistema Ibérico and the Catalan Mediterranean System.

text: Climate[edit]

text: The Iberian peninsula has two dominant climate types. One of these is the oceanic climate seen in the Atlantic coastal region resulting in evenly temperatures with relatively cool summers. However, most of Portugal and Spain have a mediterranean climate with various precipitation and temperatures depending on latitude and position versus the sea. There are also more localized semi-arid climates in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental mediterranean climate. In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in Sierra Nevada and areas with extremely low precitipation and desert climates or semi-arid climates such as the Almería[46] area, Murcia area and southern Alicante area. In the Spanish interior the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with Córdoba averaging around 37 °C (99 °F) in July.[47] The Spanish mediterranean coast usually averages around 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. In sharp contrast A Coruña at the northern tip of Galicia has a summer daytime high average at just below 23 °C (73 °F).[48] This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline. Winter temperatures are more consistent throughout the peninsula, although frosts are common in the Spanish interior, even though daytime highs are usually above the freezing point. In Portugal, the warmest winters of the country are found in the area of Algarve, very similar to the ones from Huelva in Spain, while most of the Portuguese Atlantic coast has fresh and humid winters, similar to Galicia.

text:
Average temperatures for the six largest urban areas of the peninsula[49][50]

Location

Coldest month

April

Warmest month

October

Madrid

9.8 °C (49.6 °F)  2.7 °C (36.9 °F)

18.2 °C (64.8 °F)  7.7 °C (45.9 °F)

32.1 °C (89.8 °F)  19.0 °C (66.2 °F)

19.4 °C (66.9 °F)  10.7 °C (51.3 °F)

Barcelona

14.8 °C (58.6 °F)  8.8 °C (47.8 °F)

19.1 °C (66.4 °F)  12.5 °C (54.5 °F)

29.0 °C (84.2 °F)  23.1 °C (73.6 °F)

22.5 °C (72.5 °F)  16.5 °C (61.7 °F)

Valencia

16.4 °C (61.5 °F)  7.1 °C (44.8 °F)

20.8 °C (69.4 °F)  11.5 °C (52.7 °F)

30.2 °C (86.4 °F)  21.9 °C (71.4 °F)

24.4 °C (75.9 °F)  15.2 °C (59.4 °F)

Seville

16.0 °C (60.8 °F)  5.7 °C (42.3 °F)

23.4 °C (74.1 °F)  11.1 °C (52.0 °F)

36.0 °C (96.8 °F)  20.3 °C (68.5 °F)

26.0 °C (78.8 °F)  14.4 °C (57.9 °F)

Lisbon

14.8 °C (58.6 °F)  8.3 °C (46.9 °F)

19.8 °C (67.6 °F)  11.9 °C (53.4 °F)

28.3 °C (82.9 °F)  18.6 °C (65.5 °F)

22.5 °C (72.5 °F)  15.1 °C (59.2 °F)

Porto

13.8 °C (56.8 °F)  5.2 °C (41.4 °F)

18.1 °C (64.6 °F)  9.1 °C (48.4 °F)

25.7 °C (78.3 °F)  15.9 °C (60.6 °F)

20.7 °C (69.3 °F)  12.2 °C (54.0 °F)

text: Major modern countries[edit]

text: Political divisions of the Iberian Peninsula sorted by area:

text:
Country/Territory

Mainland population[51]

km2

sq mi

%

Share

Spain

43,731,572 approx.[52]

492,175

190,030

79%

occupies most of the peninsula

Portugal

10,047,083 approx.[53]

89,015

34,369

15%

occupies most of the west of the peninsula

France

3,191,059

33,563

12,959

6%

French Cerdagne is on the south side of the Pyrenees mountain range, which runs along the border between Spain and France.[54][55][56] For example, the Segre river, which runs west and then south to meet the Ebro, has its source on the French side. The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula, although the French coastline converges away from the rest of Europe north of the range.

Andorra

84,082

468

181

0.1%

a northern edge of the peninsula in the south side of the Pyrenees range between Spain and France

Gibraltar (United Kingdom)

29,431

7

3

<0.1%

a British overseas territory near the southernmost tip of the peninsula

text: Major urban areas[edit]

text:
Urban Area

Country

Region

Population

Madrid

Spain

Community of Madrid

6,321,398[57]

Barcelona

Spain

Catalonia

4,604,000[58]

Lisbon

Portugal

Lisbon

3,035,000[59]

Porto

Portugal

Northern Portugal

2,163,000[60]

Valencia

Spain

Valencian Community

1,564,145[61]

text: The main metropolitan areas of the Iberian Peninsula are Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, Valencia, Porto, Seville, Bilbao, Guimarães, Málaga, Braga, Central Asturias (Gijón-Oviedo-Avilés), Alicante-Elche, Murcia and Coimbra.

text: Major cities[edit]

text:
List of cities in the Iberian Peninsula by population

City/Town

Region & Country

Population (2011–12)

City/Town

Region & Country

Population (2011–12)

1
Madrid
Madrid, Spain
3,233,527

11
Córdoba
Andalusia, Spain
328,841

2
Barcelona
Catalonia, Spain
1,620,943

12
Valladolid
Castile and León, Spain
311,501

3
Valencia
Valencia, Spain
809,267

13
Vigo
Galicia, Spain
297,733

4
Seville
Andalusia, Spain
702,355

14
Vila Nova de Gaia
Norte, Portugal
288,749

5
Zaragoza
Aragon, Spain
679,624

15
Gijón
Asturias, Spain
277,554

6
Málaga
Andalusia, Spain
567,433

16
L'Hospitalet
Catalonia, Spain
257,057

7
Lisbon
Lisboa, Portugal
547,631

17
A Coruña
Galicia, Spain
246,146

8
Murcia
Murcia, Spain
441,354

18
Vitoria-Gasteiz
Basque Country, Spain
242,223

9
Bilbao
Basque Country, Spain
351,629

19
Porto
Norte, Portugal
237,591

10
Alicante
Valencia, Spain
334,678

20
Granada
Andalusia, Spain
237,540

text: Various other notable cities (populations given are for the cities proper not the metro areas or municipalities) are also present on the peninsula, such as: Elche (228,647) (part of the Alicante-Elche-Elda metro area), Oviedo (225,973), Badalona (220,977) and Terrassa (215 678) in Spain; and Braga (192,494), Amadora (175,558), Almada (174,030), Odivelas (144,549) and Coimbra (143,397) in Portugal.

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Forests[edit]

text: The woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct ecosystems. Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.

text: While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.

text: East Atlantic flyway[edit]

text: The Iberian Peninsula in an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example, curlew sandpipers rest in the region of  the Bay of Cádiz.[62]

text: In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In Galicia are Ría de Arousa (a home of grey plover), Ria de Ortigueira, Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe. In Portugal, the Aveiro Lagoon hosts Recurvirostra avosetta, the common ringed plover, grey plover and little stint. Ribatejo Province on the Tagus supports Recurvirostra arosetta, grey plover, dunlin, bar-tailed godwit and common redshank. In the Sado Estuary are dunlin, Eurasian curlew, grey plover and common redshank. The Algarve hosts red knot, common greenshank and turnstone. The Guadalquivir Marshes region of Andalusia and the Salinas de Cádiz are especially rich in wintering wading birds: Kentish plover, common ringed plover, sanderling, and black-tailed godwit in addition to the others. And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above.[63]

text: Languages[edit]

text: With the sole exception of Basque, which is of unknown origin,[64] all modern Iberian languages descend from Vulgar Latin and belong to the Western Romance languages.[65] Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse. Basque is the only non-Indo-European surviving language in Iberia and Western Europe.[66]

text: In modern times, Spanish (cf. 30 to 40 million speakers), Portuguese (cf. around 10 million speakers), Catalan (cf. around 9 million speakers), Galician (cf. around 3 million speakers) and Basque (cf. around 1 million speakers)[67] are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula. Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming global languages.

text: Economy[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing. Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna and anchovies. Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains. Commodities mined include: iron, gold, coal, lead, silver, zinc, and salt.


document_title: List of National Football League career rushing yards leaders

question_text: who is the leading rusher of all time

question_tokens: who is the leading rusher of all time

root

text: Players with at least 10,000 rushing yards[edit]

text:
Key

^
Inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame

*
Denotes player who is still active in the NFL

tag: table

text: Through end of 2017 season.

tag: p

text:
Rank
Player
Team(s) by season
Carries
Yards
Average

1
Emmitt Smith^
Dallas Cowboys (1990–2002)
Arizona Cardinals (2003–2004)
4,409
18,355
4.2

2
Walter Payton^
Chicago Bears (1975–1987)
3,838
16,726
4.4

3
Barry Sanders^
Detroit Lions (1989–1998)
3,062
15,269
5.0

4
Curtis Martin^
New England Patriots (1995–1997)
New York Jets (1998–2005)
3,518
14,101
4.0

5
Frank Gore*
San Francisco 49ers (2005–2014)
Indianapolis Colts (2015–2017)
Miami Dolphins (2018–present)
3,226
14,026
4.3

6
LaDanian Tomlinson^
San Diego Chargers (2001–2009)
New York Jets (2010–2011)
3,174
13,684
4.3

7
Jerome Bettis^
St. Louis/L.A. Rams (1993–1995[a])
Pittsburgh Steelers (1996–2005)
3,479
13,662
3.9

8
Eric Dickerson^
Los Angeles Rams (1983–1987[b])
Indianapolis Colts (1987–1991)
Los Angeles Raiders (1992)
Atlanta Falcons (1993)
2,996
13,259
4.4

9
Tony Dorsett^
Dallas Cowboys (1977–1987)
Denver Broncos (1988)
2,936
12,739
4.3

10
Jim Brown^
Cleveland Browns (1957–1965)
2,359
12,312
5.2

11
Marshall Faulk^
Indianapolis Colts (1994–1998)
St. Louis Rams (1999–2005)
2,836
12,279
4.3

12
Adrian Peterson*
Minnesota Vikings (2007–2016)
New Orleans Saints (2017)
Arizona Cardinals (2017)
2,574
12,276
4.8

13
Edgerrin James
Indianapolis Colts (1999–2005)
Arizona Cardinals (2006– 2008)
Seattle Seahawks (2009)
3,028
12,246
4.0

13
Marcus Allen^
Los Angeles Raiders (1982–1992)
Kansas City Chiefs (1993–1997)
3,022
12,243
4.1

15
Franco Harris^
Pittsburgh Steelers (1972–1983)
Seattle Seahawks (1984)
2,949
12,120
4.1

16
Thurman Thomas^
Buffalo Bills (1988–1999)
Miami Dolphins (2000)
2,877
12,074
4.2

17
Fred Taylor
Jacksonville Jaguars (1998–2008)
New England Patriots (2009–2010)
2,534
11,695
4.6

18
Steven Jackson
St. Louis Rams (2004–2012)
Atlanta Falcons (2013–2014)
New England Patriots (2015)
2,764
11,438
4.1

19
John Riggins^
New York Jets (1971–1975)
Washington Redskins (1976–1985)
2,916
11,352
3.9

20
Corey Dillon
Cincinnati Bengals (1997–2003)
New England Patriots (2004–2006)
2,618
11,241
4.3

21
O. J. Simpson^
Buffalo Bills (1969–1977)
San Francisco 49ers (1978–1979)
2,404
11,236
4.7

22
Warrick Dunn
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1997–2001)
Atlanta Falcons (2002–2007)
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2008)
2,669
10,967
4.1

23
Ricky Watters
San Francisco 49ers (1992–1994)
Philadelphia Eagles (1995–1997)
Seattle Seahawks (1998–2001)
2,622
10,643
4.1

24
Jamal Lewis
Baltimore Ravens (2000–2006)
Cleveland Browns (2007–2009)
2,542
10,607
4.2

25
Thomas Jones
Arizona Cardinals (2000–2002)
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2003)
Chicago Bears (2004–2006)
New York Jets (2007–2009)
Kansas City Chiefs (2010–2011)
2,678
10,591
4.0

26
Tiki Barber
New York Giants (1997–2006)
2,217
10,449
4.7

27
Eddie George
Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans (1996[c]–2003)
Dallas Cowboys (2004)
2,865
10,441
3.6

28
Ottis Anderson
St. Louis Cardinals (1979–1986[d])
New York Giants (1986–1992)
2,562
10,273
4.0

29
LeSean McCoy*
Philadelphia Eagles (2009–2014)
Buffalo Bills (2015–present)
2,185
10,092
4.6

30
Ricky Williams
New Orleans Saints (1999–2001)
Miami Dolphins (2002–2003), (2005–2010)
Baltimore Ravens (2011)
2,431
10,009
4.1

31
Marshawn Lynch*
Buffalo Bills (2007–2010)
Seattle Seahawks (2010–2015)
Oakland Raiders (2017–present)
2,251
10,003
4.3

text: Active player with 9,000–9,999 yards[edit]

text: Through end of 2017 season.

text: Chris Johnson, 9,651

tag: ul

text: Historical rushing yards leaders[edit]

text: Seven players have been recognized as having held the career rushing yards record in the NFL. Since reliable yardage statistics were not recorded prior to 1932, the first NFL player recognized as the career leader in rushing yards was Cliff Battles, who played from 1932 to 1937 for the Boston Braves / Boston Redskins / Washington Redskins.[1] He led the NFL with 576 yards in 1932 and held on to the record throughout his career. Emmitt Smith has held the record since surpassing Walter Payton's long-standing total in 2002.[2]

text:
Reign
Player
Team(s) by season
Carries
Yards
Average

1932–1941
(9 years)
Cliff Battles^
Washington Redskins (1932–1937)
839
3,511
4.2

1941–1949
(8 years)
Clarke Hinkle^
Green Bay Packers (1932–1941)
1,171
3,860
3.3

1949–1958
(9 years)
Steve Van Buren^
Philadelphia Eagles (1944–1951)
1,320
5,860
4.4

1958–1963
(5 years)
Joe Perry^
San Francisco 49ers (1948–1960, 1963)
Baltimore Colts (1961–1962)
1,737
8,378
4.8

1963–1984
(21 years)
Jim Brown^
Cleveland Browns (1957–1965)
2,359
12,312
5.2

1984–2002
(18 years)
Walter Payton^
Chicago Bears (1975–1987)
3,838
16,726
4.4

2002–present
(15 years)
Smith, EmmittEmmitt Smith^
Dallas Cowboys (1990–2002)
Arizona Cardinals (2003–2004)
4,409
18,355
4.2


document_title: Titus

question_text: who was the emperor of rome when pompeii was destroyed

question_tokens: who was the emperor of rome when pompeii was destroyed

text: Titus

text: Early life[edit]

text: Titus was born in Rome, probably on 30 December 39 AD, as the eldest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Domitilla the Elder.[1] He had one younger sister, Domitilla the Younger (born 45), and one younger brother, Titus Flavius Domitianus (born 51), commonly referred to as Domitian.

text: Family background[edit]

text: Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new provincial nobility during the early part of the 1st century.[2] One such family was the gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Titus's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.[3]

text: Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Titus's grandfather.[4] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia. By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.[4]

text: The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.[5] What little is known of Titus's early life has been handed down to us by Suetonius, who records that he was brought up at the imperial court in the company of Britannicus,[6] the son of emperor Claudius, who would be murdered by Nero in 55.

text: The story was even told that Titus was reclining next to Britannicus, the night he was murdered, and sipped of the poison that was handed to him.[6] Further details on his education are scarce, but it seems he showed early promise in the military arts and was a skilled poet and orator both in Greek and Latin.[7]

text: Adult life[edit]

text: From c. 57 to 59 he was a military tribune in Germania. He also served in Britannia, perhaps arriving c. 60 with reinforcements needed after the revolt of Boudica. In c. 63 he returned to Rome and married Arrecina Tertulla, daughter of Marcus Arrecinus Clemens, a former Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. She died c. 65.[8]

text: Titus then took a new wife of a much more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who perished after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65.[9] Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy.[10][11]

text: Titus never remarried. He appears to have had multiple daughters,[12] at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla.[13] The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia.[14] During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.[13]

text: Judaean campaigns[edit]

text: In 66 the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon and forced to retreat from Jerusalem.[15] The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans.[16]

text: Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, who was dispatched to the region at once with the Fifth Legion and Tenth Legion.[16] He was later joined at Ptolemais by Titus with the Fifteenth Legion.[17] With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans prepared to sweep across Galilee and march on Jerusalem.[17]

text: The history of the war was covered in detail by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in his work The Wars of the Jews. Josephus served as a commander in the city of Yodfat when the Roman army invaded Galilee in 67. After an exhausting siege which lasted 47 days, the city fell, with an estimated 40,000 killed. Titus, however, was not simply set on ending the war.[18]

text: Surviving one of several group suicides, Josephus surrendered to Vespasian and became a prisoner. He later wrote that he provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt.[19] By 68, the entire coast and the north of Judaea were subjugated by the Roman army, with decisive victories won at Taricheae and Gamala, where Titus distinguished himself as a skilled general.[13][20]

text: Year of the Four Emperors[edit]

text: The last and most significant fortified city held by the Jewish resistance was Jerusalem. The campaign came to a sudden halt when news arrived of Nero's death.[21] Almost simultaneously, the Roman Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania, as Emperor of Rome. Vespasian decided to await further orders, and sent Titus to greet the new princeps.[22]

text: Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, governor of Lusitania, and that Vitellius and his armies in Germania were preparing to march on the capital, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, he abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.[23] Meanwhile, Otho was defeated in the First Battle of Bedriacum and committed suicide.[24]

text: When the news reached the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus, they took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69.[25] Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus, joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria.[26] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.[27][28] By the end of 69, the forces of Vitellius had been beaten, and Vespasian was officially declared emperor by the Senate on 21 December, thus ending the Year of the Four Emperors.[29]

text: Siege of Jerusalem[edit]

text: Meanwhile, the Jews had become embroiled in a civil war of their own, splitting the resistance in Jerusalem among several factions. The Sicarii, led by Menahem ben Judah, could hold on for long; the Zealots, led by Eleazar ben Simon, eventually fell under the command of the Galilean leader John of Gush Halav; and the other northern rebel commander, Simon Bar Giora, managed to gain leadership over the Idumeans.[30] Titus besieged Jerusalem. The Roman army was joined by the Twelfth Legion, which had been previously defeated under Cestius Gallus, and from Alexandria, Vespasian sent Tiberius Julius Alexander, governor of Egypt, to act as Titus' second in command.[31]

text: Titus surrounded the city, with three legions (Vth, XIIth and XVth) on the western side and one (Xth) on the Mount of Olives to the east. He put pressure on the food and water supplies of the inhabitants by allowing pilgrims to enter the city to celebrate Passover, and then refusing them egress. Jewish raids continuously harassed the Roman army, one of which nearly resulted in Titus being captured.[32]

text: After attempts by Josephus to negotiate a surrender had failed, the Romans resumed hostilities and quickly breached the first and second walls of the city.[33] To intimidate the resistance, Titus ordered deserters from the Jewish side to be crucified around the city wall.[34] By this time the Jews had been exhausted by famine, and when the weak third wall was breached, bitter street fighting ensued.[35]

text: The Romans finally captured the Antonia Fortress and began a frontal assault on the gates of the Temple.[36] As they breached the gate, the Romans set the upper and lower city aflame, culminating with the destruction of the Second Temple. When the fires subsided, Titus gave the order to destroy the remainder of the city, allegedly intending that no one would remember the name Jerusalem.[37] The Temple was demolished, after which Titus' soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory.[38]

text: Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish.[39] Josephus' death toll assumptions are rejected as impossible by modern scholarship, since around the time about a million people lived in Palestine, about half of them were Jews, and sizable Jewish populations remained in the area after the war was over, even in the hard-hit region of Judea.[40] 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar-Giora and John of Jish.[39] Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean Sea. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, as he claimed that he had not won the victory on his own, but had been the vehicle through which their God had manifested his wrath against his people.[41]

text: The Jewish diaspora at the time of the Temple’s destruction, according to Josephus, was in Parthia (Persia), Babylonia (Iraq), Arabia, as well as some Jews beyond the Euphrates and in Adiabene (Kurdistan).[42]

text: Heir to Vespasian[edit]

text: Unable to sail to Italy during the winter, Titus celebrated elaborate games at Caesarea Maritima and Berytus, then travelled to Zeugma on the Euphrates, where he was presented with a crown by Vologases I of Parthia. While visiting Antioch he confirmed the traditional rights of the Jews in that city.[43]

text: On his way to Alexandria, he stopped in Memphis to consecrate the sacred bull Apis. According to Suetonius, this caused consternation: the ceremony required Titus to wear a diadem, which the Romans associated with monarchy, and the partisanship of Titus's legions had already led to fears that he might rebel against his father. Titus returned quickly to Rome – hoping, says Suetonius, to allay any suspicions about his conduct.[44]

text: Upon his arrival in Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph.[45] Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, Titus rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Pentateuch.[46] Simon Bar Giora was executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.[47] The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.

text: With Vespasian declared emperor, Titus and his brother Domitian received the title of Caesar from the Senate.[48] In addition to sharing tribunician power with his father, Titus held seven consulships during Vespasian's reign[49] and acted as his secretary, appearing in the Senate on his behalf.[49] More crucially, he was appointed Praetorian prefect (commander of the Praetorian Guard), ensuring the Guard's loyalty to the Emperor and further solidifying Vespasian's position as a legitimate ruler.[49]

text: In this capacity Titus achieved considerable notoriety in Rome for his violent actions, frequently ordering the execution of suspected traitors on the spot.[49] When in 79, a plot by Aulus Caecina Alienus and Eprius Marcellus to overthrow Vespasian was uncovered, Titus invited Alienus to dinner and ordered him to be stabbed before he had even left the room.[49][50]

text: During the Jewish wars, Titus had begun a love affair with Berenice, sister of Agrippa II.[23] The Herodians had collaborated with the Romans during the rebellion, and Berenice herself had supported Vespasian in his campaign to become emperor.[51] In 75, she returned to Titus and openly lived with him in the palace as his promised wife. The Romans were wary of the eastern queen and disapproved of their relationship.[52] When the pair was publicly denounced by Cynics in the theatre, Titus caved in to the pressure and sent her away,[53] but his reputation suffered further regardless.

text: Emperor (79–81)[edit]

text: Succession[edit]

text: Vespasian died of an infection on 23 June 79 AD,[54] and was immediately succeeded by his son Titus.[55] As Pharaoh of Egypt, Titus adopted the titulary Autokrator Titos Kaisaros Hununefer Benermerut (“Emperor Titus Caesar, the perfect and popular youth”).[56] Because of his many (alleged) vices, many Romans feared that he would be another Nero.[57] Against these expectations, however, Titus proved to be an effective Emperor and was well loved by the population, who praised him highly when they found that he possessed the greatest virtues instead of vices.[57]

text: One of his first acts as Emperor was to order a halt to trials based on treason charges,[58] which had long plagued the principate. The law of treason, or law of majestas, was originally intended to prosecute those who had corruptly "impaired the people and majesty of Rome" by any revolutionary action.[59] Under Augustus, however, this custom had been revived and applied to cover slander and libel as well.[59] This led to numerous trials and executions under Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero, and the formation of networks of informers (Delators), which terrorized Rome's political system for decades.[58]

text: Titus put an end to this practice, against himself or anyone else, declaring:

text: It is impossible for me to be insulted or abused in any way. For I do naught that deserves censure, and I care not for what is reported falsely. As for the emperors who are dead and gone, they will avenge themselves in case anyone does them a wrong, if in very truth they are demigods and possess any power.[60]

text: Consequently, no senators were put to death during his reign;[60] he thus kept to his promise that he would assume the office of Pontifex Maximus "for the purpose of keeping his hands unstained".[61] The informants were publicly punished and banished from the city. Titus further prevented abuses by making it unlawful for a person to be tried under different laws for the same offense.[58] Finally, when Berenice returned to Rome, he sent her away.[57]

text: As Emperor he became known for his generosity, and Suetonius states that upon realising he had brought no benefit to anyone during a whole day he remarked, "Friends, I have lost a day."[58]

text: Challenges[edit]

text: Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted.[62] The eruption almost completely destroyed the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava,[63] killing thousands.[64] Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano.[58] Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year.[65]

text: During the second visit, in spring of AD 80, a fire broke out in Rome, burning large parts of the city for three days and three nights.[58][65] Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64—crucially sparing the many districts of insulae—Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of the Theatre of Pompey, and the Saepta Julia among others.[65] Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions.[65] According to Suetonius, a plague also broke out during the fire.[58] The nature of the disease, however, or the death toll are unknown.

text: Meanwhile, war had resumed in Britannia, where Gnaeus Julius Agricola pushed further into Caledonia and managed to establish several forts there.[66] As a result of his actions, Titus received the title of Imperator for the fifteenth time.[67]

text: His reign also saw the rebellion led by Terentius Maximus, one of several false Neros who appeared throughout the 70s.[68] Although Nero was primarily known as a universally hated tyrant, there is evidence that for much of his reign, he remained highly popular in the eastern provinces. Reports that Nero had in fact survived his overthrow were fueled by the confusing circumstances of his death and several prophecies foretelling his return.[69]

text: According to Cassius Dio, Terentius Maximus resembled Nero in voice and appearance and, like him, sang to the lyre.[60] Terentius established a following in Asia minor but was soon forced to flee beyond the Euphrates, taking refuge with the Parthians.[60][68] In addition, sources state that Titus discovered that his brother Domitian was plotting against him but refused to have him killed or banished.[61][70]

text: Public works[edit]

text: Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum, was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus.[71] In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was also conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars.[72]

text: The inaugural games lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races.[73] During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.[73]

text: Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus had also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, the Baths of Titus.[73] Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.[57]

text: Practice of the imperial cult was revived by Titus, though apparently it met with some difficulty as Vespasian was not deified until six months after his death.[74] To further honor and glorify the Flavian dynasty, foundations were laid for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian.[75][76]

text: Death (81 AD)[edit]

text: At the closing of the games, Titus officially dedicated the amphitheatre and the baths, which was to be his final recorded act as Emperor.[70] He set out for the Sabine territories but fell ill at the first posting station[77] where he died of a fever, reportedly in the same farm-house as his father.[78] Allegedly, the last words he uttered before passing away were: "I have made but one mistake".[70][77]

text: Titus had ruled the Roman Empire for just over two years, from the death of his father in 79 to his own on 13 September 81.[70] He was succeeded by Domitian, whose first act as emperor was to deify his brother.[79]

text: Historians have speculated on the exact nature of his death, and to which mistake Titus alluded in his final words. Philostratus writes that he was poisoned by Domitian with a sea hare (Aplysia depilans), and that his death had been foretold to him by Apollonius of Tyana.[80] Suetonius and Cassius Dio maintain he died of natural causes, but both accuse Domitian of having left the ailing Titus for dead.[70][79] Consequently, Dio believes Titus's mistake refers to his failure to have his brother executed when he was found to be openly plotting against him.[70]

text: The Babylonian Talmud (Gittin 56b) attributes Titus's death to an insect that flew into his nose and picked at his brain for seven years, in a repetition of another legend referring to the biblical King Nimrod.[81][82]

text: Jewish folklore says that Titus was plagued by God for destroying the second Temple Mount and a gnat went up his nose and he had a large growth inside of his brain that killed him.[83]

text: Ancestry[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
[show]Ancestors of Titus

8. Titus Flavius Petro

4. Titus Flavius Sabinus I

18. Tertullus

9. Tertulla

2. Emperor Vespasian

10. Vespasius Pollio

5. Vespasia Polla

1. Titus

6. Flavius Liberalis

3. Flavia Domitilla Major

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Historiography[edit]

text: Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries, present a highly favorable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian.

text: The Wars of the Jews offers a first-hand, eye-witness account of the Jewish rebellion and the character of Titus. The neutrality of Josephus' writings has come into question however, as he was heavily indebted to the Flavians. In 71, he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, became a Roman citizen and took on the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen Titus from his patrons. He received an annual pension and lived in the palace.[84]

text: It was while in Rome, and under Flavian patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known works. The War of the Jews is heavily slanted against the leaders of the revolt, portraying the rebellion as weak and unorganized, and even blaming the Jews for causing the war.[85] The credibility of Josephus as a historian has subsequently come under fire.[86]

text: Another contemporary of Titus was Publius Cornelius Tacitus, who started his public career in 80 or 81 and credits the Flavian dynasty with his elevation.[87] The Histories—his account of this period—was published during the reign of Trajan. Unfortunately only the first five books from this work have survived until the present day, with the text on Titus's and Domitian's reign entirely lost.

text: Suetonius Tranquilius gives a short but highly favourable account on Titus's reign in The Lives of Twelve Caesars,[88] emphasizing his military achievements and his generosity as Emperor, in short describing him as follows:

text: Titus, of the same surname as his father, was the delight and darling of the human race; such surpassing ability had he, by nature, art, or good fortune, to win the affections of all men, and that, too, which is no easy task, while he was emperor.[88]

text: Finally, Cassius Dio wrote his Roman History over a hundred years after the death of Titus. He shares a similar outlook as Suetonius, possibly even using the latter as a source, but is more reserved, noting:

text: His satisfactory record may also have been due to the fact that he survived his accession but a very short time, for he was thus given no opportunity for wrongdoing. For he lived after this only two years, two months and twenty days—in addition to the thirty-nine years, five months and twenty-five days he had already lived at that time. In this respect, indeed, he is regarded as having equalled the long reign of Augustus, since it is maintained that Augustus would never have been loved had he lived a shorter time, nor Titus had he lived longer. For Augustus, though at the outset he showed himself rather harsh because of the wars and the factional strife, was later able, in the course of time, to achieve a brilliant reputation for his kindly deeds; Titus, on the other hand, ruled with mildness and died at the height of his glory, whereas, if he had lived a long time, it might have been shown that he owes his present fame more to good fortune than to merit.[55]

text: Pliny the Elder, who later died during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius,[89] dedicated his Naturalis Historia to Titus.[90]

text: In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.[91]

text: Titus in later arts[edit]

text: The war in Judaea and the life of Titus, particularly his relationship with Berenice, have inspired writers and artists through the centuries. The bas-relief in the Arch of Titus has been influential in the depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, with the Menorah frequently being used to symbolise the looting of the Second Temple.

text: Literature[edit]

text:
The early medieval Christian text Vindicta Salvatoris anachronistically portrays Titus as Roman client king of Libya, north of Judah.[92]
Bérénice, a play by Jean Racine (1670) which focuses on the love affair between Titus and Berenice.
Tite et Bérénice, a play by Pierre Corneille which was in competition with Racine the same year, and concerns the same subject matter.
La clemenza di Tito, an opera by Mozart, that centers around a plot to kill Emperor Titus instigated by Vitellia, daughter of Vitellius, in order to gain what she believes to be her rightful place as Queen.
The Josephus Trilogy, novels by Lion Feuchtwanger, about the life of Flavius Josephus and his relation with the Flavian dynasty.

Der jüdische Krieg (Josephus), 1932
Die Söhne (The Jews of Rome), 1935
Der Tag wird kommen (The day will come, Josephus and the Emperor), 1942

The Marcus Didius Falco novels, which take place during the reign of Vespasian.
Titus figures prominently in "The Pearl-Maiden", a novel by H. Rider Haggard, first published in 1901.

text: Paintings and visual arts[edit]

text:
The Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1846). Oil on canvas, 585 x 705 cm. Neue Pinakothek, Munich. An allegorical depiction of the destruction of Jerusalem, dramatically centered around the figure of Titus.
The Destruction and Sack of the Temple of Jerusalem by Nicolas Poussin (1626). Oil on canvas, 145.8 x 194 cm. Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army led by Titus.
The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Francesco Hayez (1867). Oil on canvas, 183 x 252 cm. Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Venice. Depicts the destruction and looting of the Second Temple by the Roman army.
The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans Under the Command of Titus, A.D. 70 by David Roberts (1850). Oil on canvas, 136 x 197 cm. Private collection. Depicts the burning and looting of Jerusalem by the Roman army under Titus.
The Triumph of Titus and Vespasian by Giulio Romano (1540). Oil on wood, 170 x 120 cm. Louvre, Paris. Depicts Titus and Vespasian as they ride into Rome on a triumphal chariot, preceded by a parade carrying spoils from the war in Judaea. The painting anachronistically features the Arch of Titus, which was not completed until the reign of Domitian.
The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.[93] Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.[70][77]
Rear Panel of the Franks Casket. Northumbrian, early 8th century. Whale's bone carving with Anglo-Saxon runic inscription, 22.9 x 19 cm. British Museum, London. Titus leads Roman army into Jerusalem and captures Temple. Inhabitants flee into exile, judgement is passed on offenders, and captives are led away.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Classical Latin spelling and reconstructed Classical Latin pronunciation:

TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS
IPA: [ˈtɪ.tʊs ˈflaː.wi.ʊs ˈkae̯.sar wɛs.pa.siˈaː.nʊs au̯ˈgʊs.tʊs]

tag: ol


document_title: History of rugby union matches between South Africa and Wales

question_text: when did wales last beat south africa in rugby

text: Summary[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text:
Details

Played

Won by South Africa

Won by Wales

Drawn

South Africa points

Wales points

In South Africa

10
10
0
0
415
156

In Wales

19
15
4
1
389
299

Neutral venue

4
3
1
0
88
77

Overall

34
28
5
1
892
532

text: AQ

text: Records[edit]

text: Note: Date shown in brackets indicates when the record was or last set.

text:
Record

South Africa

Wales

Longest winning streak

16 (26 November 2000–29 November 2014)

3 (26 November 2016–Present)

Largest points for

Home

96 (27 June 1998)

36 (6 November 2004)

Away

38 (6 November 2004)

30 (21 June 2014)

Largest winning margin

Home

83 (27 June 1998)

14 (26 November 2016)

Away

22 (24 November 2007)

2 (2 June 2018)

text: Results[edit]

text:
No.

Date

Venue

Score

Winner

Competition

1

1 December 1906

St. Helen's, Swansea

0–11

 South Africa

2

14 December 1912

Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff

0–3

 South Africa

3

5 December 1931

St. Helen's, Swansea

3–8

 South Africa

4

22 December 1951

Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff

3–6

 South Africa

5

3 December 1960

National Stadium, Cardiff

0–3

 South Africa

6

23 May 1964

Kings Park, Durban

24–3

 South Africa

7

24 January 1970

National Stadium, Cardiff

6–6

  draw

8

26 November 1994

National Stadium, Cardiff

12–20

 South Africa

9

2 September 1995

Ellis Park, Johannesburg

40–11

 South Africa

Welsh tour to South Africa

10

15 December 1996

National Stadium, Cardiff

20–37

 South Africa

11

27 June 1998

Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria

96–13

 South Africa

Welsh tour to South Africa

12

14 November 1998

Wembley Stadium, England

20–28

 South Africa

13

26 June 1999

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

29–19

 Wales

14

26 November 2000

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

13–23

 South Africa

15

8 June 2002

Free State Stadium, Bloemfontein

34–19

 South Africa

16

15 June 2002

Newlands, Cape Town

19–8

 South Africa

17

26 June 2004

Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria

53–18

 South Africa

18

6 November 2004

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

36–38

 South Africa

2004 Autumn Internationals

19

19 November 2005

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

16–33

 South Africa

2005 Autumn Internationals

20

24 November 2007

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

12–34

 South Africa

2007 Autumn Internationals

21

7 June 2008

Free State Stadium, Bloemfontein

43–17

 South Africa

Welsh tour to South Africa

22

14 June 2008

Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria

37–21

 South Africa

23

8 November 2008

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

15–20

 South Africa

2008 Autumn Internationals

24

5 June 2010

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

31–34

 South Africa

25

13 November 2010

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

25–29

 South Africa

2010 Autumn Internationals

26

11 September 2011

Wellington Regional Stadium, Wellington

17–16

 South Africa

2011 Rugby World Cup

27

9 November 2013

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

15–24

 South Africa

2013 Autumn International

28

14 June 2014

Kings Park, Durban

38–16

 South Africa

Welsh Tour to South Africa

29

21 June 2014

Mbombela Stadium, Nelspruit

31–30

 South Africa

30

29 November 2014

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

12–6

 Wales

2014 Autumn International

31

17 October 2015

Twickenham Stadium, London, England

23–19

 South Africa

2015 Rugby World Cup Quarter-final

32

26 November 2016

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

27–13

 Wales

2016 Autumn International

33

2 December 2017

Millennium Stadium, Cardiff

24–22

 Wales

2017 Autumn International

34

2 June 2018

RFK Stadium, Washington, D.C., United States

20–22

 Wales

2018 June test match


document_title: Olaf's Frozen Adventure

question_text: who plays elsa in olaf's frozen adventure

question_tokens: who plays elsa in olaf 's frozen adventure

text: Olaf's Frozen Adventure

text: Plot[edit]

text: It is the first Christmas season since the gates reopened and Anna and Elsa host a celebration for all of Arendelle. When the townspeople unexpectedly leave early to enjoy their individual holiday customs, the sisters realize they have no family traditions of their own. Elsa laments the fact that because she had isolated herself most of her life, she and Anna were unable to spend time with each other. Olaf decides to look for traditions with Sven's help.

text: Going through the town, Olaf encounters various family traditions relating to Christmas, Hanukkah and Winter solstice. After a visit to Oaken, Olaf, Sven and their sleigh full of traditions travel through the snowy tundra only for a coal (from a portable sauna given to them by Oaken) to set the sleigh on fire. They slide down a hill and Olaf and Sven end up separated by a chasm. With only a fruit cake, Olaf attempts to travel through the woods and is attacked by wolves.

text: Meanwhile, Anna and Elsa discover some forgotten items in their attic where they find things from their past. Sven returns to Kristoff and informs him (in vain), Anna, and Elsa of Olaf's plight. They gather the residents of Arendelle to go look for Olaf. Elsewhere, Olaf manages to escape the wolves, but loses the fruit cake to a hawk and gives up by a tree not too far from the kingdom. Anna and Elsa find him and cheer him up by revealing that they do have a tradition: After Elsa had shut herself away for years, Anna began annually sliding cards and dolls of their snowman, Olaf, under her door. As they all celebrate the holidays, the hawk drops the fruit cake on Olaf. Upon getting the fruit cake back, Olaf declares it "A Christmas miracle!"

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Josh Gad as Olaf, a talking snowman who was magically created by Elsa in the first film. He serves as the titular protagonist of the short film.
Kristen Bell as Anna, the younger of the two sisters, the Princess of Arendelle, and Kristoff's girlfriend.
Idina Menzel as Elsa, the elder of the two sisters and Queen of Arendelle.

Eva Bella as Young Elsa

Jonathan Groff as Kristoff, an ice seller and Anna's boyfriend.
Chris Williams as Oaken, the owner of Wandering Oaken's Trading Post and Sauna.
John de Lancie as Mr. Olsen
Lauri Fraser as Mrs. Olsen
Stevie Wermers as Candy Cane Mother
Benjamin Deters as Candy Cane Kid
Kate Anderson as Norwegian Cookie Lady & Cat Lady
Elyssa Samsel as Kittens

text: Production[edit]

text: On February 9, 2016, the short film was announced as a television special, to be aired on ABC,[7] produced by Roy Conli, and directed by Kevin Deters and Stevie Wermers. The title was revealed during the airing of The Making of Frozen: Return to Arendelle on ABC in 2016, and it was announced that it would feature original songs by Elyssa Samsel and Kate Anderson, the sister of Frozen songwriter Kristen Anderson-Lopez. However, in June 2017, it was announced that the film would instead receive a limited time[5] theatrical release in front of Disney·Pixar's Coco, as it was deemed too cinematic for television. The main original cast, Josh Gad, Kristen Bell, Idina Menzel, and Jonathan Groff, returned, and the story follows Olaf as he tries to find the best holiday traditions for Anna, Elsa, and Kristoff.[3][8]

text: The music was recorded by an 80-piece orchestra in May 2017. The short was the filmmakers' first musical. They noted the requirement to keep the plot "pretty simple", and commented that they removed anything that diverted too much from that story. The fruitcake jokes in the short are a continuing motif from the filmmakers' previous project Prep & Landing. As they crafted the story, the Frozen team had barely started sketching out the plot of Frozen 2.[9]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Olaf's Frozen Adventure

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
November 3, 2017

Length
25:40

Label
Walt Disney Records

Producer

Elyssa Samsel
Kate Anderson
Christophe Beck
Jeff Morrow

text: There are four original songs in the film, written by Elyssa Samsel and Kate Anderson, titled "Ring in the Season", "The Ballad of Flemmingrad", "That Time of Year" and "When We're Together". Film's score has been composed by Christophe Beck and Jeff Morrow. The full soundtrack was released on November 3, 2017 by Walt Disney Records.[10][11]

text:
Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

No.
Title
Performer(s)
Length

1.
"Ring in the Season"

Kristen Bell
Idina Menzel
Josh Gad

1:58

2.
"The Ballad of Flemmingrad"
Jonathan Groff
0:44

3.
"Ring in the Season" (Reprise)
Idina Menzel
1:16

4.
"That Time of Year"

Josh Gad
Idina Menzel
Kristen Bell
Cast

3:03

5.
"That Time of Year" (Reprise)
Josh Gad
0:52

6.
"When We're Together"

Idina Menzel
Kristen Bell
Josh Gad
Jonathan Groff

2:50

7.
"Olaf's Frozen Adventure" (Score Suite)

Christophe Beck
Jeff Morrow

4:27

8.
"The Ballad of Flemmingrad" (Traditional Version)
Groff
3:06

9.
"Ring in the Season" (Instrumental Karaoke Mix)

Elyssa Samsel
Kate Anderson

1:58

10.
"That Time of Year" (Instrumental Karaoke Mix)

Samsel
Anderson

3:02

11.
"When We're Together" (Instrumental Karaoke Mix)

Samsel
Anderson

2:49

Total length:
25:40

text: Release[edit]

text: Olaf's Frozen Adventure was released by Walt Disney Pictures in 3D in theaters as a limited time offering[5] on November 22, 2017, preceding screenings of Pixar's Coco.[3][8] In the UK, it was shown before re-releases of Frozen on November 25 and 26, and December 2 and 3, 2017. On November 23, Disney announced the release of Olaf's Frozen Adventure on Disney's cable television channels in Latin America, along with Netflix, on December 8, and later on Mexican channels Azteca 7 and 13.[12] Coco co-director Adrian Molina said that the short's placement before Coco was an "experiment" due to its length.[13] It ended its limited time run in US screenings on December 8.[14] Due to its brevity, the film was released as a matinee in Gibraltar, after which the 2013 film Frozen was also shown.[15]

text: Reception as pre-Coco short[edit]

text: The week after Coco's release in Mexico, local media noted audiences' strong dislike for the length of the short film.[16][17][18][19] A few days later, all cinemas in Mexico offered apologies for it, and removed the short film from exhibition.[20][21] American audiences had a similar reaction.[22] It was reported that some theaters put warning signs up about the length of the Frozen short ahead of Coco.[23] The Disney Movies Review felt that the choice to put a franchise-expander in the short film slot prevented a Pixar animator from sharing their unique cultural and creative voice.[24] The Washington Post argued that the "emotionally complex work," of Pixar becomes jarring when paired with the "truly silly jokes and big, showy production numbers" of the short film.[25] Mashable's review focused on the placement of the short before Coco, and deemed it a "horrendous waste of time".[26]

text: Reception as Frozen TV special[edit]

text: The short made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017, as part of 25 Days of Christmas.[27] It was viewed by 5.64 million viewers.[28] Reviewers began to review the film as a television special rather than a pre-Coco short and had a favorable reception to it as part of the Frozen franchise. Simon Boyle of The Sun wrote that the short film "doesn't disappoint", adding it "provides a perfect bridge to the hotly anticipated full sequel".[29] Indiwire deemed the short a "bridge" and a "setup" to Frozen 2,[30] while The Mirror felt it would "tide fans over" until the next feature length installment of the franchise.[31] Meanwhile, KSDK thought it was "an 'Adventure' worth taking,"[32] and Slashfilm wrote that "When We're Together" had the potential to be 2017's version of "Let It Go".[33] Slate noted the short film's overt commercialism, and also thought it committed the well-trodden sin of turning a comedic side-character into the star, describing it as an "increasingly desperate one-man show". However, the reviewer felt ultimately won over by the music, animation, and heartwarming conclusion.[34]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

2018
Annie Award
Best Animated Special Production
Olaf's Frozen Adventure
Nominated
[35]

Animated Effects in an Animated Production
Christopher Hendryx, Dan Lund, Mike Navarro, Hiroaki Narita, Steven Chitwood
Nominated

Music in an Animated Feature Production
Elyssa Samsel, Kate Anderson, Christophe Beck
Nominated

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was made available in the digital format on December 19, 2017,[36][37] while in the UK it was released as a Tesco-exclusive DVD on December 7, 2017.[38]