document_title: History of the automobile

question_text: who invented the automobile in the united states

question_tokens: who invented the automobile in the united states

text: History of the automobile

text: Power sources[edit]

text: The early history of the automobile was concentrated on the search for a reliable portable power unit to propel the vehicle.

text: Steam-powered wheeled vehicles[edit]

text: 17th and 18th centuries[edit]

text: Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built a steam-powered vehicle around 1672 as a toy for the Chinese Emperor. It was small scale and could not carry a driver but it was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle ('auto-mobile').[3][4]

text: 1679-1681. Steam trolley RP Verbiest (Notes: - It has alternatively been suggested that the earliest self-propelled vehicle was designed in about 1672 by Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, but that it was too small to carry a driver and may have never been built.

text: [1][5] Citations

text: neither the Englishman Denis Papin nor the Frenchman Cugnot, as it is generally believed, that is the honor of having built the first motor vehicle: it is to a Belgian, the RP Ferdinand VERBIEST whom was a missionary, who lived in China from 1672 to 1686, created a very interesting vehicle to distract the Emperor of China and his court. The steam carriage in question is described in Latin in the book of Father VERBIEST, Astronomia Europae , a work preserved at the National Library of New York. Historians do not agree on the exact date of the realization of the vehicle. Some locate it in 1681. But, according to no less reliable Chinese texts, the test took place in 1679. Be that as it may, these texts describe the machine of the Belgian Jesuit: it measured two feet long ( about 65 cm) and was powered by a turbipyl heated by hot embers. The jet of steam hit a horizontal wheel with blades and meshing the front drive wheels. The cart was tried in the big court of the imperial palace of Peking. In the middle of the axis of the rear wheels, a very flexible drawbar was connected to a wheel of a larger diameter easy to maneuver. The cart went round in the courtyard of the Palais Impérial to the great enthusiasm of the spectators. The Emperor of China filled Father VERBIEST with honors. But the discovery of it remained there: it was considered as a very beautiful toy, without attaching more importance ... Toy which, however, was not forgotten by the Jesuits living in China, because an experiment to about the same happened again in Beijing in the early eighteenth century. This time again, the trial took place in the presence of the Emperor of. China. The builder of the craft was an Italian, RP Grimaldi. The new windmill truck was very similar to that of RP VERBIEST. It seems, moreover, that the Belgian missionary's vehicle served as a model for his Italian successor.

text: Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to transport people and cargo were first devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur ("steam dray"), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. As Cugnot's design proved to be impractical, his invention was not developed in his native France. The center of innovation shifted to Great Britain. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth [6] and in 1801 Richard Trevithick was running a full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789.

text: 19th century[edit]

text: During the 19th century attempts were made to introduce practical steam powered vehicles. Innovations such as hand brakes, multi-speed transmissions and better steering developed. Some commercially successful vehicles provided mass transit until a backlash against these large vehicles resulted in the passage of legislation such as the United Kingdom Locomotive Act (1865), which required many self-propelled vehicles on public roads to be preceded by a man on foot waving a red flag and blowing a horn. This effectively halted road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th century; inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements in railway locomotives. The law was not repealed until 1896, although the need for the red flag was removed in 1878.

text: In 1816, a professor at Prague Polytechnic, Josef Bozek, built an oil-fired steam car.[7]:p.27 Walter Hancock, builder and operator of London steam buses, in 1838 built a 2 seated car phaeton.[7]:p27

text: In 1867, Canadian jeweller Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his 4-wheeled "steam buggy" at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec and again the following year.[8] The basis of the buggy, which he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor.[9]

text: One of the first "real" automobiles was produced by Frenchman Amédée Bollée in 1873, who built self-propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.

text: The first carriage-sized automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United States was a steam-powered vehicle invented in 1871 by Dr. J.W. Carhart, a minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in Racine, Wisconsin.[1][10][self-published source] It induced the State of Wisconsin in 1875 to offer a $10,000 award to the first to produce a practical substitute for the use of horses and other animals. They stipulated that the vehicle would have to maintain an average speed of more than 5 miles per hour (8.0 km/h) over a 200-mile (320 km) course. The offer led to the first city to city automobile race in the United States, starting on 16 July 1878 in Green Bay, Wisconsin, and ending in Madison, via Appleton, Oshkosh, Waupun, Watertown, Fort Atkinson, and Janesville. While seven vehicles were registered, only two started to compete: the entries from Green Bay and Oshkosh. The vehicle from Green Bay was faster, but broke down before completing the race. The Oshkosh finished the 201-mile (323 km) course in 33 hours and 27 minutes, and posted an average speed of six miles per hour. In 1879, the legislature awarded half the prize.[11][12][13]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Steam-powered road vehicles, both cars and wagons, reached the peak of their development in the early 1930s with fast-steaming lightweight boilers and efficient engine designs. Internal combustion engines also developed greatly during WWI, becoming simpler to operate and more reliable. The development of the high-speed diesel engine from 1930 began to replace them for wagons, accelerated in the UK by tax changes making steam wagons uneconomic overnight. Although a few designers continued to advocate steam power, no significant developments in production steam cars took place after Doble in 1931.

text: Whether steam cars will ever be reborn in later technological eras remains to be seen. Magazines such as Light Steam Power continued to describe them into the 1980s. The 1950s saw interest in steam-turbine cars powered by small nuclear reactors[citation needed] (this was also true of aircraft), but the dangers inherent in nuclear fission technology soon killed these ideas.

text: Electric automobiles[edit]

text: In 1828, Ányos Jedlik, a Hungarian who invented an early type of electric motor, created a tiny model car powered by his new motor.[15] In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport, the inventor of the first American DC electric motor, installed his motor in a small model car, which he operated on a short circular electrified track.[16] In 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands and his assistant Christopher Becker created a small-scale electrical car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[17] In 1838, Scotsman Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of 4 miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of tracks as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847.

text: Sources point to different creations as the first electric car. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain) Robert Anderson of Scotland invented a crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells. In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouvé demonstrated a working three-wheeled car powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris.[18] But others regard the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken as the first true electric car.[14]

text: Electric cars enjoyed popularity between the late 19th century and early 20th century, when electricity was among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time. Advances in internal combustion technology, especially the electric starter, soon rendered this advantage moot; the greater range of gasoline cars, quicker refueling times, and growing petroleum infrastructure, along with the mass production of gasoline vehicles by companies such as the Ford Motor Company, which reduced prices of gasoline cars to less than half that of equivalent electric cars, led to a decline in the use of electric propulsion, effectively removing it from important markets such as the United States by the 1930s. However, in recent years, increased concerns over the environmental impact of gasoline cars, higher gasoline prices, improvements in battery technology, and the prospect of peak oil, have brought about renewed interest in electric cars, which are perceived to be more environmentally friendly and cheaper to maintain and run, despite high initial costs, after a failed reappearance in the late-1990s.

text: Internal combustion engines[edit]

text: Early attempts at making and using internal combustion engines were hampered by the lack of suitable fuels, particularly liquids, therefore the earliest engines used gas mixtures.

text: Early experimenters used gases. In 1806, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an engine powered by internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture.[19] In 1826, Englishman Samuel Brown tested his hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter's Hill in south-east London. Belgian-born Etienne Lenoir's Hippomobile with a hydrogen-gas-fuelled one-cylinder internal combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont in 1860, covering some nine kilometres in about three hours.[20] A later version was propelled by coal gas. A Delamare-Deboutteville vehicle was patented and trialled in 1884.

text: About 1870, in Vienna, Austria (then the Austro-Hungarian Empire), inventor Siegfried Marcus put a liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first man to propel a vehicle by means of gasoline. Today, this car is known as "the first Marcus car". In 1883, Marcus secured a German patent for a low-voltage ignition system of the magneto type; this was his only automotive patent. This design was used for all further engines, and the four-seat "second Marcus car" of 1888/89. This ignition, in conjunction with the "rotating-brush carburetor", made the second car's design very innovative. His second car is on display at the Technical Museum in Vienna. During his lifetime he was honored as the originator of the motorcar but his place in history was all but erased by the Nazis during World War II. Because Marcus was of Jewish descent, the Nazi propaganda office ordered his work to be destroyed, his name expunged from future textbooks, and his public memorials removed, giving credit instead to Karl Benz.[21]

text: It is generally acknowledged[according to whom?] that the first really practical automobiles with petrol/gasoline-powered internal combustion engines were completed almost simultaneously by several German inventors working independently: Karl Benz built his first automobile in 1885 in Mannheim. Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886,[22] and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved – with the first long-distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back – that the horseless coach was absolutely suitable for daily use. Since 2008 a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event.[23]

text: Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited with invention of the first motorcycle in 1886, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi of the University of Padua, in 1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9 W) 122 cc (7.4 cu in) one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile and first motorcycle;.[7]:p.26 Bernardi enlarged the tricycle in 1892 to carry two adults.[7]:p.26

text: The first four-wheeled petrol-driven automobile in Britain was built in Walthamstow by Frederick Bremer in 1892.[24] Another was made in Birmingham in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester, who also patented the disc brake. The first electric starter was installed on an Arnold, an adaptation of the Benz Velo, built in Kent between 1895 and 1898.[7]:p.25

text: George F. Foss of Sherbrooke, Quebec built a single-cylinder gasoline car in 1896 which he drove for 4 years, ignoring city officials' warnings of arrest for his "mad antics."[8]

text: In all the turmoil, many early pioneers are nearly forgotten. In 1891, John William Lambert built a three-wheeler in Ohio City, Ohio, which was destroyed in a fire the same year, while Henry Nadig constructed a four-wheeler in Allentown, Pennsylvania. It is likely they were not the only ones.[7]:p.25

text: Eras of invention[edit]

text: Veteran era[edit]

text: The American George B. Selden filed for a patent on 8 May 1879. His application included not only the engine but its use in a 4-wheeled car. Selden filed a series of amendments to his application which stretched out the legal process, resulting in a delay of 16 years before the patent was granted on 5 November 1895.[25] This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the United States. Selden licensed his patent to most major American automakers, collecting a fee on every car they produced.

text: The first production of automobiles was by Karl Benz in 1888 in Germany and, under license from Benz, in France by Emile Roger. There were numerous others, including tricycle builders Rudolf Egg, Edward Butler, and Léon Bollée.[7]:p.20–23 Bollée, using a 650 cc (40 cu in) engine of his own design, enabled his driver, Jamin, to average 45 kilometres per hour (28.0 mph) in the 1897 Paris-Tourville rally.[7]:p.23 By 1900, mass production of automobiles had begun in France and the United States.

text: The first company formed exclusively to build automobiles was Panhard et Levassor in France, which also introduced the first four-cylinder engine.[7]:p.22 Formed in 1889, Panhard was quickly followed by Peugeot two years later. By the start of the 20th century, the automobile industry was beginning to take off in Western Europe, especially in France, where 30,204 were produced in 1903, representing 48.8% of world automobile production that year.[26]

text: In the United States, brothers Charles and Frank Duryea founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company in 1893, becoming the first American automobile manufacturing company. The Autocar Company, founded in 1897, established a number of innovations still in use[27] and remains the oldest operating motor vehicle manufacturer in the United States. However, it was Ransom E. Olds and his Olds Motor Vehicle Company (later known as Oldsmobile) who would dominate this era with the introduction of the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. Its production line was running in 1901. The Thomas B. Jeffery Company developed the world's second mass-produced automobile, and 1,500 Ramblers were built and sold in its first year, representing one-sixth of all existing motorcars in the United States at the time.[28] Within a year, Cadillac (formed from the Henry Ford Company), Winton, and Ford were also producing cars in the thousands. The Studebaker brothers, having become the world's leading manufacturers of horse-drawn vehicles, made a transition to electric automobiles in 1902, and gasoline engines in 1904. They continued to build horse-drawn vehicles until 1919.[29]:p.90

text: The first motor car in Central Europe was produced by the Austro-Hungarian company Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (later renamed to Tatra in today's Czech Republic) in 1897, the Präsident automobile.[30] In 1898, Louis Renault had a De Dion-Bouton modified, with fixed drive shaft and differential, making "perhaps the first hot rod in history" and bringing Renault and his brothers into the car industry.[31] Innovation was rapid and rampant, with no clear standards for basic vehicle architectures, body styles, construction materials, or controls, for example many veteran cars use a tiller, rather than a wheel for steering. During 1903, Rambler standardized on the steering wheel[32] and moved the driver's position to the left-hand side of the vehicle.[33] Chain drive was dominant over the drive shaft, and closed bodies were extremely rare. Drum brakes were introduced by Renault in 1902.[34] The next year, Dutch designer Jacobus Spijker built the first four-wheel drive racing car;[35] it never competed and it would be 1965 and the Jensen FF before four-wheel drive was used on a production car.[36]

text: Within a few years, a dizzying assortment of technologies were being used by hundreds of producers all over the western world. Steam, electricity, and petrol/gasoline-powered automobiles competed for decades, with petrol/gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance by the 1910s. Dual- and even quad-engine cars were designed, and engine displacement ranged to more than a dozen litres. Many modern advances, including gas/electric hybrids, multi-valve engines, overhead camshafts, and four-wheel drive, were attempted, and discarded at this time.

text: Innovation was not limited to the vehicles themselves. Increasing numbers of cars propelled the growth of the petroleum industry,[37] as well as the development of technology to produce gasoline (replacing kerosene and coal oil) and of improvements in heat-tolerant mineral oil lubricants (replacing vegetable and animal oils).[38]

text: There were social effects, also. Music would be made about cars, such as "In My Merry Oldsmobile" (a tradition that continues) while, in 1896, William Jennings Bryan would be the first presidential candidate to campaign in a car (a donated Mueller), in Decatur, Illinois.[39] Three years later, Jacob German would start a tradition for New York City cabdrivers when he sped down Lexington Avenue, at the "reckless" speed of 12 mph (19 km/h).[40] Also in 1899, Akron, Ohio, adopted the first self-propelled paddy wagon.[40]

text: By 1900, the early centers of national automotive industry developed in many countries, including Belgium (home to Vincke, which copied Benz; Germain, a pseudo-Panhard; and Linon and Nagant, both based on the Gobron-Brillié),[7]:p,25 Switzerland (led by Fritz Henriod, Rudolf Egg, Saurer, Johann Weber, and Lorenz Popp),[7]:p.25 Vagnfabrik AB in Sweden, Hammel (by A. F. Hammel and H. U. Johansen at Copenhagen, in Denmark, which only built one car, ca. 1886[7]:p.25), Irgens (starting in Bergen, Norway, in 1883, but without success),[7]:p.25–26 Italy (where FIAT started in 1899), and as far afield as Australia (where Pioneer set up shop in 1898, with an already archaic paraffin-fuelled centre-pivot-steered wagon).[7] Meanwhile, the export trade had begun, with Koch exporting cars and trucks from Paris to Tunisia, Egypt, Iran, and the Dutch East Indies.[7]:p25 Motor cars were also exported very early to British colonies and the first motor car was exported to India in 1897.

text:
Any woman can drive an electric automobile, any man can drive a steam, but neither man nor woman can drive a gasoline; it follows its own odorous will, and goes or goes not as it feels disposed.

—Arthur Jerome Eddy, early automobile enthusiast, 1902[41]

tag: div

text: Throughout the veteran car era, the automobile was seen more as a novelty than as a genuinely useful device. Breakdowns were frequent, fuel was difficult to obtain, roads suitable for traveling were scarce, and rapid innovation meant that a year-old car was nearly worthless. Major breakthroughs in proving the usefulness of the automobile came with the historic long-distance drive of Bertha Benz in 1888, when she traveled more than 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Mannheim to Pforzheim, to make people aware of the potential of the vehicles her husband, Karl Benz, manufactured, and after Horatio Nelson Jackson's successful transcontinental drive across the United States in 1903.

text: Brass or Edwardian era[edit]

text: This period lasted from roughly 1905 through to 1914 and the beginning of World War I. It is generally referred to as the Edwardian era, but in the United States is often known as the Brass era from the widespread use of brass in vehicles during this time.

text: Within the 15 years that make up this era, the various experimental designs and alternate power systems would be marginalised. Although the modern touring car had been invented earlier, it was not until Panhard et Levassor's Système Panhard was widely licensed and adopted that recognisable and standardised automobiles were created. This system specified front-engined, rear-wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission. Traditional coach-style vehicles were rapidly abandoned, and buckboard runabouts lost favour with the introduction of tonneaus and other less-expensive touring bodies.

text: By 1906, steam car development had advanced, and they were among the fastest road vehicles in that period.[citation needed]

text: Throughout this era, development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included the electric ignition system (by dynamotor on the Arnold in 1898,[42] though Robert Bosch, 1903, tends to get the credit), independent suspension (actually conceived by Bollée in 1873),[42] and four-wheel brakes (by the Arrol-Johnston Company of Scotland in 1909).[7]:p27 Leaf springs were widely used for suspension, though many other systems were still in use, with angle steel taking over from armored wood as the frame material of choice. Transmissions and throttle controls were widely adopted, allowing a variety of cruising speeds, though vehicles generally still had discrete speed settings, rather than the infinitely variable system familiar in cars of later eras. Safety glass also made its debut, patented by John Wood in England in 1905.[34] (It would not become standard equipment until 1926, on a Rickenbacker.)[34]

text: Between 1907 and 1912 in the United States, the high-wheel motor buggy (resembling the horse buggy of before 1900) was in its heyday, with over seventy-five makers including Holsman (Chicago), IHC (Chicago), and Sears (which sold via catalog); the high-wheeler would be killed by the Model T.[7]:p.65 In 1912, Hupp (in the United States, supplied by Hale & Irwin) and BSA (in the UK) pioneered the use of all-steel bodies,[43] joined in 1914 by Dodge (who produced Model T bodies).[34] While it would be another two decades before all-steel bodies would be standard, the change would mean improved supplies of superior-quality wood for furniture makers.[7]

text: The 1908 New York to Paris Race was the first circumnavigation of the world by automobile. German, French, Italian and American teams began in New York City 12 February 1908 with three of the competitors ultimately reaching Paris. The US built Thomas Flyer with George Schuster (driver) won the race covering 22,000 miles in 169 days. Also in 1908, the first South American automobile was built in Peru, the Grieve.[44] In 1909, Rambler became the first car company to equip its cars with a spare tire that was mounted on a fifth wheel.[45]

text: Some examples of cars of the period included:[citation needed]

text:
1907 In Japan, the Hatsudoki Seizo Co. Ltd. is formed, which was later renamed in 1951 as Daihatsu Kōgyō Kabushiki-gaisha. Also in April 1907, the aforementioned Komanosuke Uchiyama produced the Takuri, the first entirely Japanese-made gasoline engine car.[46]
1908–1927 Ford Model T — the most widely produced and available 4-seater car of the era. It used a planetary transmission, and had a pedal-based control system. Ford T was proclaimed as the most influential car of the 20th century in the international Car of the Century awards.
1909 Morgan Runabout – a very popular cyclecar, cyclecars were sold in far greater quantities than 4-seater cars in this period[47]
1910 Mercer Raceabout — regarded as one of the first sports cars, the Raceabout expressed the exuberance of the driving public, as did the similarly conceived American Underslung and Hispano-Suiza Alphonso.
1910–1920 Bugatti Type 13 — a notable racing and touring model with advanced engineering and design. Similar models were the Types 15, 17, 22, and 23.
1914–1917, the Kaishinsha Motor Works operated by Masujiro Hashimoto in Tokyo, while importing, assembling and selling British cars, also manufactured seven units of a two-cylinder, 10-horsepower “all-Japanese” car called Dattogo. Kaishinsha was the first automobile manufacturing business in Japan.[46]
1917 Japanese company Mitsubishi builds the Mitsubishi Model A, all hand built in limited numbers for Japanese executives.

text: Vintage era[edit]

text: The vintage era lasted from the end of World War I (1918), through to the Wall Street Crash at the end of 1929. During this period the front-engined car came to dominate with closed bodies and standardised controls becoming the norm. In 1919, 90% of cars sold were open; by 1929, 90% were closed.[7]:p.7 Development of the internal combustion engine continued at a rapid pace, with multi-valve and overhead camshaft engines produced at the high end, and V8, V12, and even V16 engines conceived for the ultra-rich. Also in 1919, hydraulic brakes were invented by Malcolm Loughead (co-founder of Lockheed); they were adopted by Duesenberg for their 1921 Model A.[34] Three years later, Hermann Rieseler of Vulcan Motor invented the first automatic transmission, which had two-speed planetary gearbox, torque converter, and lockup clutch; it never entered production.[34] (Its like would only become an available option in 1940.)[34] Just at the end of the vintage era, tempered glass (now standard equipment in side windows) was invented in France.[34] In this era the revolutionary ponton design of cars without fully articulated fenders, running boards and other non-compact ledge elements was introduced in small series but mass production of such cars was started much later (after WWII).

text: American auto companies in the 1920s expected they would soon sell six million cars a year, but did not do so until 1955. Numerous companies disappeared.[48] Between 1922 and 1925, the number of U.S. passenger car builders decreased from 175 to 70. H. A. Tarantous, managing editor of "MoToR Member Society of Automotive Engineers", in a New York Times article from 1925, suggested many were unable to raise production and cope with falling prices (due to assembly line production), especially for low-priced cars. The new pyroxylin-based paints, eight cylinder engine, four wheel brakes, and balloon tires as the biggest trends for 1925.[49]

text: Examples of period vehicles:[citation needed]

text:
1922–1939 Austin 7 — one of the most widely copied vehicles ever, serving as a template for cars around the world, from BMW to Nissan.
1922–1931 Lancia Lambda — very advanced car for the time, first car to feature a load-bearing monocoque and independent front suspension.[citation needed]
1924–1929 Bugatti Type 35 — one of the most successful racing cars of all time, with over 1,000 victories in five years.[citation needed]
1925–1928 Hanomag 2 / 10 PS — early example of ponton styling.
1927–1931 Ford Model A (1927-1931) — after keeping the brass era Model T in production for too long, Ford broke from the past by restarting its model series with the 1927 Model A. More than 4 million were produced, making it the best-selling model of the era. The Ford Model A was a prototype for the beginning of Soviet mass car production (GAZ A).
1930 Cadillac V-16 — developed at the height of the vintage era, the V16-powered Cadillac would join Bugatti's Royale as the most legendary ultra-luxury cars of the era.

text: Pre-war era[edit]

text: The pre-war part of the classic era began with the Great Depression in 1930, and ended with the recovery after World War II, commonly placed at 1946. It was in this period that integrated fenders and fully closed bodies began to dominate sales, with the new saloon/sedan body style even incorporating a trunk or boot at the rear for storage. The old open-top runabouts, phaetons, and touring cars were largely phased out by the end of the classic era as wings, running boards, and headlights were gradually integrated with the body of the car.

text: By the 1930s, most of the mechanical technology used in today's automobiles had been invented, although some things were later "re-invented", and credited to someone else. For example, front-wheel drive was re-introduced by André Citroën with the launch of the Traction Avant in 1934, though it had appeared several years earlier in road cars made by Alvis and Cord, and in racing cars by Miller (and may have appeared as early as 1897). In the same vein, independent suspension was originally conceived by Amédée Bollée in 1873, but not put in production until appearing on the low-volume Mercedes-Benz 380 in 1933, which prodded American makers to use it more widely.[42] In 1930, the number of auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured, thanks in part to the effects of the Great Depression.

text: Exemplary pre-war automobiles:[citation needed]

text:
1932–1939 Alvis Speed 20 — the first with all-synchromesh gearbox[citation needed]
1932–1948 Ford V-8 (Model B) — introduction of the flathead V8 in mainstream vehicles
1934–1938 Tatra 77 — first serial-produced car with aerodynamical design
1934–1940 Bugatti Type 57 — a singular refined automobile for the wealthy
1934–1956 Citroën Traction Avant — the first mass-produced front-wheel drive car, built with monocoque chassis
1936–1955 MG T series — sports cars
1938–2003 Volkswagen Beetle — a design that was produced for over 60 years with over 20 million units assembled in several counties
1936–1939 Rolls-Royce Phantom III — V12 engine

text: Post-war era[edit]

text: A major change in automobile design since World War II was the popularity of ponton style, in which running boards were eliminated and fenders were incorporated into the body. Among the first representatives of the style were the Soviet GAZ-M20 Pobeda (1946), British Standard Vanguard (1947), United States Studebaker Champion and Kaiser (1946), as well as the low-production Czech luxury Tatra T600 Tatraplan (1946) and the Italian Cisitalia 220 sports car (1947).

text: Automobile design and production finally emerged from the military orientation and other shadow of war in 1949, the year that in the United States saw the introduction of high-compression V8 engines and modern bodies from General Motors' Oldsmobile and Cadillac brands. Hudson introduced the "step-down" design with the 1948 Commodore, which placed the passenger compartment down inside the perimeter of the frame, that was one of the first new-design postwar cars made and featured trend-setting slab-side styling.[50] The unibody/strut-suspended 1951 Ford Consul joined the 1948 Morris Minor and 1949 Rover P4 in the automobile market in the United Kingdom. In Italy, Enzo Ferrari was beginning his 250 series, just as Lancia introduced the revolutionary V6-powered Aurelia.

text: Throughout the 1950s, engine power and vehicle speeds rose, designs became more integrated and artful, and automobiles were marketed internationally. Alec Issigonis' Mini and Fiat's 500 diminutive cars were introduced in Europe, while the similar kei car class became popular in Japan. The Volkswagen Beetle continued production after Hitler and began exports to other nations, including the United States. At the same time, Nash introduced the Nash Rambler, the first successful modern compact car made in the United States,[51] while the standard models produced by the "Big Three" domestic automakers grew ever larger in size, featuring increasing amounts of chrome trim, and luxury was exemplified by the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham. The markets in Europe expanded with new small-sized automobiles, as well as expensive grand tourers (GT), like the Ferrari America.

text: The market changed in the 1960s, as the United States "Big Three" automakers began facing competition from imported cars, the European makers adopted advanced technologies and Japan emerged as a car-producing nation. Japanese companies began to export some of their more popular selling cars in Japan internationally, such as the Toyota Corolla, Toyota Corona, Nissan Sunny, and Nissan Bluebird in the mid-1960s. The success of American Motors' compact-sized Rambler models spurred GM and Ford to introduce their own downsized cars in 1960.[52] Performance engines became a focus of marketing by United States automakers, exemplified by the era's muscle cars. In 1964, the Ford Mustang developed a new market segment, the pony car. New models to compete with the Mustang included the Chevrolet Camaro, AMC Javelin, and Plymouth Barracuda. Captive imports and badge engineering increased in the United States and the UK as amalgamated groups such as the British Motor Corporation consolidated the market. BMC's space-saving and trend-setting transverse engined, front-wheel-drive, independent suspension and monocoque bodied Mini, which first appeared in 1959, was marketed under the Austin and Morris names, until Mini became a marque in its own right in 1969.[53] Competition increased, with Studebaker, a pioneering automaker, shutting down, and the trend for consolidation reached Italy where niche makers like Maserati, Ferrari, and Lancia were acquired by larger companies. By the end of the decade, the number of automobile marques had been greatly reduced.

text: Technology developments included the widespread use of independent suspensions, wider application of fuel injection, and an increasing focus on safety in automotive design. Innovations during the 1960s included NSU's Wankel engine, the gas turbine, and the turbocharger. Of these, only the last endured, pioneered by General Motors, and adopted by BMW and Saab, later seeing mass-market use during the 1980s by Chrysler. Mazda continued developing its Wankel engine, in spite of problems in longevity, emissions, and fuel economy. Other Wankel licensees, including Mercedes-Benz and GM, never put their designs into production because of engineering and manufacturing problems, as well as the lessons from the 1973 oil crisis.

text: The 1970s were turbulent years for automakers and buyers with major events reshaping the industry such as the 1973 oil crisis, stricter automobile emissions control and safety requirements, increasing exports by the Japanese and European automakers, as well as growth in inflation and the stagnant economic conditions in many nations. Smaller-sized grew in popularity. The United States saw the establishment of the subcompact segment with the introduction of the AMC Gremlin, followed by the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto. The station wagons (estate, break, kombi, universal) body design was popular, as well as increasing sales of non-commercial all-wheel drive off-road vehicles.

text: To the end of the 20th century, the United States Big Three (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) partially lost their leading position, Japan became for a while the world's leader of car production and cars began to be mass manufactured in new Asian, East European, and other countries.

text: Notable exemplary post-war cars:[citation needed]

text:
1946–1958 GAZ-M20 Pobeda — Soviet car with full ponton design
1947–1958 Standard Vanguard — British mass-market car with full ponton design
1948–1971 Morris Minor – an early post-war car exported around the world
1953–1971 Chevrolet Bel Air and 1953–2002 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham – first generations were representative of tailfin design
1955–1976 Citroën DS — aerodynamic design and innovative technology, awarded third place as Car of the 20th Century
1959–2000 Mini — a radical and innovative small car that was manufactured for four decades; awarded second place as Car of the 20th Century
1960-1990 Volkswagen Brasília
1961–1975 Jaguar E-type — a classic sports car design
1963–1989 Porsche 911 – a sports car was awarded fifth place as Car of the 20th Century
1964–present Ford Mustang — the pony car that became one of the best-selling cars of the era
1966–end of the 20th century Fiat 124 — an Italian car that was produced under license in many other counties including the Soviet Union
1966–1971 Subaru 1000 – one of the first Japanese built sedans using a boxer engine, front wheel drive and introducing the "double offset joint" drive shaft to the front wheels
1967 NSU Ro 80 — the basic wedge profile of this design was emulated in subsequent decades,[54] unlike its Wankel engine
late 1960s-early 1980s Gurgel BR-800
late 1960s-early 1980s Gurgel Supermini
1969 Datsun 240Z — Japanese sports car[55]
1980–1988 AMC Eagle — the first mass-produced full-time all-wheel drive car[56]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The modern era is normally defined as the 25 years preceding the current year.[citation needed] The modern era has been one of increasing standardisation, platform sharing, computer-aided design, to reduce costs and development time and increasing use of electronic for both engine management and entertainment systems.

text: Some particular contemporary developments are the proliferation of front- and all-wheel drive, the adoption of the diesel engine, and the ubiquity of fuel injection. Most modern passenger cars are front-wheel-drive monocoque/unibody designs, with transversely mounted engines.

text: Body styles have changed as well in the modern era. Three types, the hatchback, sedan, and sport utility vehicle, dominate today's market.[citation needed] All originally emphasised practicality, but have mutated into today's high-powered luxury crossover SUV, sports wagon[ and two-volume Large MPV. The rise of pickup trucks in the United States and SUVs worldwide has changed the face of motoring with these "trucks" coming to command more than half of the world automobile market.[citation needed] There was also the introduction of the MPV class (smaller non-commercial passenger minivans), among the first of which were the French Renault Espace and the Chrysler minivan versions in the United States

text: The modern era has also seen rapidly improving fuel efficiency and engine output. The automobile emissions concerns have been eased with computerised engine management systems.

text: The economic crisis of 2008 cut almost a third of light vehicle sales from Chrysler, Toyota, Ford, and Nissan. It also subtracted about a fourth of Honda's sales and about a seventh of sales from General Motors.[57]

text: Since 2009, China has become the world's largest car manufacturer with production greater than Japan, the United States, and all of Europe. Besides large growth of car production in Asian and other countries, there has been growth in transnational corporate groups, with the production of transnational automobiles sharing the same platforms as well as badge engineering or re-badging to suit different markets and consumer segments.

text: Since the end of the 20th century, several award competitions for cars and trucks have become widely known, such as European Car of the Year, Car of the Year Japan, North American Car of the Year, World Car of the Year, Truck of the Year, and International Car of the Year. Also, a Car of the Century award was held in which in the US the Ford Model T was named as most influential car of the 20th century.[citation needed]

text: Exemplary modern cars:[citation needed]

text:
1966–present Toyota Corolla – a Japanese saloon/sedan that has become the best-selling nameplate of all time, with over 40 million sold across 11 generations through July 2013.[58]
1966–1992 Oldsmobile Toronado – Introduced electronic anti-lock braking system,[59] and airbag [60] First modern-era American car with front wheel drive.
1973–present Mercedes-Benz S-Class – Seat belt pretensioner, and electronic traction control system
1975–present BMW 3 Series – the 3 Series has been on Car and Driver magazine's annual Ten Best list 17 times
1977–present Honda Accord saloon/sedan — a Japanese sedan that became popular in the United States
1983–present Chrysler minivans – the two-box minivan design nearly pushed the station wagon out of the market
1984–present Renault Espace — first mass one-volume car of non-commercial MPV class
1986–present Ford Taurus — this mid-sized front-wheel drive sedan dominated the United States market in the late-1980s
1997–present Toyota Prius, launched in the Japanese market and became the best known hybrid electric vehicle and also the world's top selling hybrid.[61]
1998–present Ford Focus — one of the most popular hatchbacks and Ford's best selling world car
2008–present Tata Nano — an inexpensive (₹100,000, ≈ $2200), rear-engined, four-passenger city car aimed primarily at the Indian domestic market
2008–2012 Tesla Roadster — first highway-capable all-electric vehicle in serial production for sale in the United States in the modern era. Sold about 2,500 units worldwide.
2008–2013 BYD F3DM – first highway-capable series production plug-in hybrid, launched in China in December 2008, sold over 2,300 units.[62][63]
2009–present, Mitsubishi i-MiEV – first highway-capable series production all-electric car, launched in Japan in July 2009 for fleet customers, and in April 2010 for retail customers. Rebadged versions of the i MiEV are sold in Europe by PSA Peugeot Citroën (PSA) as the Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero.[64][65]
2010–present, Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt — all-electric car and plug-in hybrid correspondingly, launched in December 2010, are the world's top selling mass production vehicles of their kind.[66] As of early December 2015, global Volt sales totaled over 100,000.[67] Nissan Leaf global sales achieved the 300,000 unit milestone in January 2018, making the Leaf the world's all-time best-selling highway-capable electric car in history.[68]
2012–present, Tesla Model S – Plug-in electric vehicle was ranked as the world's best selling plug-in electric vehicle in 2015.[69] It was also named car of the century by Car and Driver.[70]


document_title: List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize

question_text: who won the man booker prize in 2006

question_tokens: who won the man booker prize in 2006

root

text: Shortlists[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Year

Author

Title

Publisher

Chair

Judges

1969
P. H. Newby
Something to Answer For
Faber & Faber

n/a

David Farrer
Frank Kermode
Stephen Spender
Dame Rebecca West
W L Webb

Barry England
Figures in a Landscape

Nicholas Mosley
The Impossible Object

Iris Murdoch
The Nice and the Good

Muriel Spark
The Public Image

Gordon Williams
From Scenes Like These

1970
Bernice Rubens
The Elected Member
Eyre & Spottiswoode

n/a

Antonia Fraser
Ross Higgins
Richard Hoggart
Dame Rebecca West
David Holloway

A L Barker
John Brown's Body

Elizabeth Bowen
Eva Trout

Iris Murdoch
Bruno's Dream

William Trevor
Mrs Eckdorf in O'Neill's Hotel

Terence Wheeler
The Conjunction

1970   Awarded in 2010 as the  Lost Man Booker PrizeNote #A
J. G. Farrell
Troubles
Phoenix

n/a

Rachel Cooke
Katie Derham
Tobias Hill

Nina Bawden
The Birds on the Trees
Virago

Shirley Hazzard
The Bay of Noon
Virago

Mary Renault
Fire From Heaven
Arrow

Muriel Spark
The Driver's Seat
Penguin

Patrick White
The Vivisector
Vintage

1971
V. S. Naipaul
In a Free State
Deutsch

John Gross

Saul Bellow
John Fowles
Lady Antonia Fraser
Philip Toynbee

Thomas Kilroy
The Big Chapel
Faber & Faber

Doris Lessing
Briefing for a Descent into Hell
Jonathan Cape

Mordecai Richler
St. Urbain's Horseman
Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Derek Robinson
Goshawk Squadron
Heinemann

Elizabeth Taylor
Mrs. Palfrey at the Claremont
Chatto & Windus

1972
John Berger
G.
Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Cyril Connolly

George Steiner
Elizabeth Bowen

Susan Hill
The Bird of Night
Hamish Hamilton

Thomas Keneally
The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith
Angus & Robertson

David Storey
Pasmore
Longman

1973
J. G. Farrell
The Siege of Krishnapur
Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Karl Miller

Edna O'Brien
Mary McCarthy

Beryl Bainbridge
The Dressmaker
Duckworth

Elizabeth Mavor
The Green Equinox
Michael Joseph

Iris Murdoch
The Black Prince
Chatto & Windus

1974
Nadine Gordimer
The Conservationist
Jonathan Cape

Ion Trewin

A. S. Byatt
Elizabeth Jane Howard

Stanley Middleton
Holiday
Hutchinson

Kingsley Amis
Ending Up
Jonathan Cape

Beryl Bainbridge
The Bottle Factory Outing
Duckworth

C. P. Snow
In Their Wisdom
Macmillan

1975
Ruth Prawer Jhabvala
Heat and Dust
John Murray

Angus Wilson

Peter Ackroyd
Susan Hill
Roy Fuller

Thomas Keneally
Gossip from the Forest
Collins

1976
David Storey
Saville
Jonathan Cape

Walter Allen

Mary Wilson
Francis King

André Brink
An Instant in the Wind
W. H. Allen

R. C. Hutchinson
Rising
Michael Joseph

Brian Moore
The Doctor's Wife
Jonathan Cape

Julian Rathbone
King Fisher Lives
Michael Joseph

William Trevor
The Children of Dynmouth
Bodley Head

1977
Paul Scott
Staying On
Heinemann

Philip Larkin

Beryl Bainbridge
Brendan Gill
David Hughes
Robin Ray

Paul Bailey
Peter Smart's Confessions
Jonathan Cape

Caroline Blackwood
Great Granny Webster
Duckworth

Jennifer Johnston
Shadows on our Skin
Hamish Hamilton

Penelope Lively
The Road to Lichfield
Heinemann

Barbara Pym
Quartet in Autumn
Macmillan

1978
Iris Murdoch
The Sea, the Sea
Chatto & Windus

Sir Alfred Ayer

Derwent May
P. H. Newby
Angela Huth
Clare Boylan

Kingsley Amis
Jake's Thing
Hutchinson

André Brink
Rumours of Rain
W. H. Allen

Penelope Fitzgerald
The Bookshop
Duckworth

Jane Gardam
God on the Rocks
Hamish Hamilton

Bernice Rubens
 A Five-Year Sentence
W. H. Allen

1979
Penelope Fitzgerald
Offshore
Collins

Lord Briggs

Benny Green
Michael Ratcliffe
Hilary Spurling
Paul Theroux

Thomas Keneally
Confederates
Collins

V. S. Naipaul
A Bend in the River
Deutsch

Julian Rathbone
Joseph
Michael Joseph

Fay Weldon
Praxis
Hodder & Stoughton

1980
William Golding
Rites of Passage
Faber & Faber
David Daiches

Ronald Blythe
Margaret Forster
Claire Tomalin
Brian Wenham

Anthony Burgess
Earthly Powers
Hutchinson

Anita Desai
Clear Light of Day
Heinemann

Alice Munro
The Beggar Maid
Viking

Julia O'Faolain
No Country for Young Men
Viking

Barry Unsworth
Pascali's Island
Michael Joseph

J. L. Carr
A Month in the Country
Harvester

1981
Salman Rushdie
Midnight's Children
Jonathan Cape

Professor Malcolm Bradbury

Brian Aldiss
Joan Bakewell
Samuel Hynes
Hermione Lee

Molly Keane
Good Behaviour
Deutsch

Doris Lessing
The Sirian Experiments
Jonathan Cape

Ian McEwan
The Comfort of Strangers
Jonathan Cape

Ann Schlee
Rhine Journey
Macmillan

Muriel Spark
Loitering with Intent
Bodley Head

D. M. Thomas
The White Hotel
Gollancz

1982
Thomas Keneally
Schindler's Ark
Hodder & Staughton
John Carey

Paul Bailey
Frank Delaney
Janet Morgan
Lorna Sage

John Arden
Silence Among the Weapons
Methuen

William Boyd
An Ice-Cream War
Hamish Hamilton

Lawrence Durrell
Constance or Solitary Practices
Faber & Faber

Alice Thomas Ellis
The 27th Kingdom
Duckworth

Timothy Mo
Sour Sweet
Deutsch

1983
J. M. Coetzee
Life & Times of Michael K
Secker & Warburg
Fay Weldon

Angela Carter
Terence Kilmartin
Peter Porter
Libby Purves

Malcolm Bradbury
Rates of Exchange
Secker & Warburg

John Fuller
Flying to Nowhere
Salamander

Anita Mason
The Illusionist
Hamish Hamilton

Salman Rushdie
Shame
Jonathan Cape

Graham Swift
Waterland
Heinemann

1984
Anita Brookner
Hotel du Lac
Jonathan Cape

Professor Richard Cobb

Anthony Curtis
Polly Devlin
John Fuller
Ted Rowlands

J. G. Ballard
Empire of the Sun
Gollancz

Julian Barnes
Flaubert's Parrot
Jonathan Cape

Anita Desai
In Custody
Heinemann

Penelope Lively
According to Mark
Heinemann

David Lodge
Small World
Secker & Warburg

1985
Keri Hulme
The Bone People
Hodder & Stoughton

Norman St John-Stevas

Nina Bawden
J. W. Lambert
Joanna Lumley
Marina Warner

Peter Carey
Illywhacker
Faber & Faber

J. L. Carr
The Battle of Pollocks Crossing
Viking

Doris Lessing
The Good Terrorist
Jonathan Cape

Jan Morris
Last Letters from Hav
Viking

Iris Murdoch
The Good Apprentice
Chatto & Windus

1986
Kingsley Amis
The Old Devils
Hutchinson

Anthony Thwaite

Edna Healey
Isabel Quigley
Gillian Reynolds
Bernice Rubens

Margaret Atwood
The Handmaid's Tale
Jonathan Cape

Paul Bailey
Gabriel's Lament
Jonathan Cape

Robertson Davies
What's Bred in the Bone
Viking

Kazuo Ishiguro
An Artist of the Floating World
Faber & Faber

Timothy Mo
An Insular Possession
Chatto & Windus

1987
Penelope Lively
Moon Tiger
Deutsch
P. D. James

Selina Hastings
Allan Massie
Trevor McDonald
John B. Thompson

Chinua Achebe
Anthills of the Savannah
Heinemann

Peter Ackroyd
Chatterton
Hamish Hamilton

Nina Bawden
Circles of Deceit
Macmillan

Brian Moore
The Colour of Blood
Jonathan Cape

Iris Murdoch
The Book and the Brotherhood
Chatto & Windus

1988
Peter Carey
Oscar and Lucinda
Faber & Faber

The Rt Hon Michael Foot

Sebastian Faulks
Philip French
Blake Morrison
Rose Tremain

Bruce Chatwin
Utz
Jonathan Cape

Penelope Fitzgerald
The Beginning of Spring
Collins

David Lodge
Nice Work
Secker & Warburg

Salman Rushdie
The Satanic Verses
Viking

Marina Warner
The Lost Father
Chatto & Windus

1989
Kazuo Ishiguro
The Remains of the Day
Faber & Faber
David Lodge

Maggie Gee
Helen McNeil
David Profumo
Edmund White

Margaret Atwood
Cat's Eye
Bloomsbury

John Banville
The Book of Evidence
Secker & Warburg

Sybille Bedford
Jigsaw
Hamish Hamilton

James Kelman
A Disaffection
Secker & Warburg

Rose Tremain
Restoration
Hamish Hamilton

1990
A. S. Byatt
Possession: A Romance
Chatto & Windus

Sir Denis Forman

Susannah Clapp
A. Walton Litz
Hilary Mantel
Kate Saunders

Beryl Bainbridge
An Awfully Big Adventure
Duckworth

Penelope Fitzgerald
The Gate of Angels
Collins

John McGahern
Amongst Women
Faber & Faber

Brian Moore
Lies of Silence
Bloomsbury

Mordecai Richler
Solomon Gursky Was Here
Chatto & Windus

1991
Ben Okri
The Famished Road
Jonathan Cape

Jeremy Treglown

Penelope Fitzgerald
Jonathan Keates
Nicholas Mosley
Ann Schlee

Martin Amis
Time's Arrow
Jonathan Cape

Roddy Doyle
The Van
Secker & Warburg

Rohinton Mistry
Such a Long Journey
Faber & Faber

Timothy Mo
The Redundancy of Courage
Chatto & Windus

William Trevor
Reading Turgenev[1]
Viking

1992
Michael Ondaatje
The English Patient
Bloomsbury

Victoria Glendinning

John Coldstream
Valentine Cunningham
Dr Harriet Harvey Wood
Mark Lawson

Barry Unsworth
Sacred Hunger
Hamish Hamilton

Christopher Hope
Serenity House
Macmillan

Patrick McCabe
The Butcher Boy
Picador

Ian McEwan
Black Dogs
Jonathan Cape

Michèle Roberts
Daughters of the House
Virago

1993
Roddy Doyle
Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha
Secker & Warburg

Lord Gowrie

Professor Gillian Beer
Anne Chisholm
Nicholas Clee
Olivier Todd

Tibor Fischer
Under the Frog
Polygon

Michael Ignatieff
Scar Tissue
Chatto & Windus

David Malouf
Remembering Babylon
Chatto & Windus

Caryl Phillips
Crossing the River
Bloomsbury

Carol Shields
The Stone Diaries
Fourth Estate

1994
James Kelman
How late it was, how late
Secker & Warburg

Professor John Bayley

Rabbi Julia Neuberger
Dr Alastair Niven
Alan Taylor[2]
James Wood

Romesh Gunesekera
Reef
Granta Books

Abdulrazak Gurnah
Paradise
Hamish Hamilton

Alan Hollinghurst
The Folding Star
Chatto & Windus

George Mackay Brown
Beside the Ocean of Time
John Murray

Jill Paton Walsh
Knowledge of Angels
Green Bay

1995
Pat Barker
The Ghost Road
Viking

George Walden MP

Kate Kellaway
Peter Kemp
Adam Mars-Jones
Ruth Rendell

Justin Cartwright
In Every Face I Meet
Sceptre

Salman Rushdie
The Moor's Last Sigh
Jonathan Cape

Barry Unsworth
Morality Play
Hamish Hamilton

Tim Winton
The Riders
Picador

1996
Graham Swift
Last Orders
Picador

Carmen Callil

Jonathan Coe
Ian Jack
A. L. Kennedy
A. N. Wilson

Margaret Atwood
Alias Grace
Bloomsbury

Beryl Bainbridge
Every Man for Himself
Duckworth

Seamus Deane
Reading in the Dark
Jonathan Cape

Shena Mackay
The Orchard on Fire
Heinemann

Rohinton Mistry
A Fine Balance
Faber & Faber

1997
Arundhati Roy
The God of Small Things
Flamingo

Professor Gillian Beer

Rachel Billington
Jason Cowley
Jan Dalley
Professor Dan Jacobson

Jim Crace
Quarantine
Viking

Mick Jackson
The Underground Man
Picador

Bernard MacLaverty
Grace Notes
Jonathan Cape

Tim Parks
Europa
Secker & Warburg

Madeleine St John
The Essence of the Thing
Fourth Estate

1998
Ian McEwan
Amsterdam
Jonathan Cape

Douglas Hurd

Professor Valentine Cunningham
Penelope Fitzgerald
Miriam Gross
Nigella Lawson

Beryl Bainbridge
Master Georgie
Duckworth

Julian Barnes
England, England
Jonathan Cape

Martin Booth
The Industry of Souls
Dewi Lewis

Patrick McCabe
Breakfast on Pluto
Picador

Magnus Mills
The Restraint of Beasts
Flamingo

1999
J. M. Coetzee
Disgrace
Secker & Warburg

Gerald Kaufman

Shena Mackay
John Sutherland
Boyd Tonkin
Natasha Walter

Anita Desai
Fasting, Feasting
Chatto & Windus

Michael Frayn
Headlong
Faber & Faber

Andrew O'Hagan
Our Fathers
Faber & Faber

Ahdaf Soueif
The Map of Love
Bloomsbury

Colm Tóibín
The Blackwater Lightship
Picador

2000
Margaret Atwood
The Blind Assassin
Bloomsbury

Simon Jenkins

Professor Roy Foster
Mariella Frostrup
Caroline Gascoigne
Rose Tremain

Trezza Azzopardi
The Hiding Place
Picador

Michael Collins
The Keepers of Truth
Phoenix House

Kazuo Ishiguro
When We Were Orphans
Faber & Faber

Matthew Kneale
English Passengers
Hamish Hamilton

Brian O'Doherty
The Deposition of Father McGreevy
Arcadia

2001
Peter Carey
True History of the Kelly Gang
Faber & Faber

Kenneth Baker

Philip Hensher
Michèle Roberts
Kate Summerscale
Professor Rory Watson

Ian McEwan
Atonement
Jonathan Cape

Andrew Miller
Oxygen
Sceptre

David Mitchell
number9dream
Sceptre

Rachel Seiffert
The Dark Room
William Heinemann

Ali Smith
Hotel World
Hamish Hamilton

2002
Yann Martel
Life of Pi
Canongate

Lisa Jardine

David Baddiel
Russell Celyn Jones
Salley Vickers
Erica Wagner

Rohinton Mistry
Family Matters
Faber & Faber

Carol Shields
Unless
Fourth Estate

William Trevor
The Story of Lucy Gault
Viking

Sarah Waters
Fingersmith
Virago

Tim Winton
Dirt Music
Picador

2003
DBC Pierre
Vernon God Little
Faber & Faber

John Carey

A. C. Grayling
Francine Stock
Rebecca Stephens MBE
D. J. Taylor

Monica Ali
Brick Lane
Doubleday

Margaret Atwood
Oryx and Crake
Bloomsbury

Damon Galgut
The Good Doctor
Atlantic

Zoë Heller
Notes on a Scandal
Viking

Clare Morrall
Astonishing Splashes of Colour
Tindal Street

2004
Alan Hollinghurst
The Line of Beauty
Picador

Chris Smith

Tibor Fischer
Robert Macfarlane
Rowan Pelling
Fiammetta Rocco

Achmat Dangor
Bitter Fruit
Atlantic

Sarah Hall
The Electric Michelangelo
Faber & Faber

David Mitchell
Cloud Atlas
Sceptre

Colm Tóibín
The Master
Picador

Gerard Woodward
I'll Go to Bed at Noon
Chatto & Windus

2005
John Banville
The Sea
Picador

John Sutherland

Lindsay Duguid
Rick Gekoski
Josephine Hart
David Sexton

Julian Barnes
Arthur & George
Jonathan Cape

Sebastian Barry
A Long Long Way
Faber & Faber

Kazuo Ishiguro
Never Let Me Go
Faber & Faber

Ali Smith
The Accidental
Hamish Hamilton

Zadie Smith
On Beauty
Hamish Hamilton

2006
Kiran Desai
The Inheritance of Loss
Hamish Hamilton

Hermione Lee

Simon Armitage
Candia McWilliam
Antony Quinn
Fiona Shaw

Kate Grenville
The Secret River
Canongate

M. J. Hyland
Carry Me Down
Canongate

Hisham Matar
In the Country of Men
Viking

Edward St Aubyn
Mother's Milk
Picador

Sarah Waters
The Night Watch
Virago

2007
Anne Enright
The Gathering
Jonathan Cape

Howard Davies

Wendy Cope
Giles Foden
Ruth Scurr
Imogen Stubbs

Nicola Barker
Darkmans
Fourth Estate

Mohsin Hamid
The Reluctant Fundamentalist
Hamish Hamilton

Lloyd Jones
Mister Pip
John Murray

Ian McEwan
On Chesil Beach
Jonathan Cape

Indra Sinha
Animal's People
Simon & Schuster

2008
Aravind Adiga
The White Tiger
Atlantic

Michael Portillo

Alex Clark
Louise Doughty
James Heneage
Hardeep Singh Kohli

Sebastian Barry
The Secret Scripture
Faber & Faber

Amitav Ghosh
Sea of Poppies
John Murray

Linda Grant
The Clothes on Their Backs
Virago

Philip Hensher
The Northern Clemency
Fourth Estate

Steve Toltz
A Fraction of the Whole
Hamish Hamilton

2009[3]
Hilary Mantel
Wolf Hall
Fourth Estate

James Naughtie

Lucasta Miller
John Mullan
Sue Perkins
Michael Prodger

A. S. Byatt
The Children's Book
Chatto and Windus

J. M. Coetzee
Summertime
Harvill Secker

Adam Foulds
 The Quickening Maze
Jonathan Cape

Simon Mawer
The Glass Room
Little, Brown

Sarah Waters
The Little Stranger
Virago

2010
Howard Jacobson
The Finkler Question
Bloomsbury

Andrew Motion

Rosie Blau
Deborah Bull
Tom Sutcliffe
Frances Wilson

Peter Carey
Parrot and Olivier in America
Faber & Faber

Emma Donoghue
Room
Picador

Damon Galgut
In a Strange Room
Atlantic Books

Andrea Levy
The Long Song
Hachette

Tom McCarthy
C
Jonathan Cape

2011
Julian Barnes
The Sense of an Ending
Jonathan Cape

Dame Stella Rimington

Matthew d'Ancona
Susan Hill
Chris Mullin
Gaby Wood

Carol Birch
Jamrach's Menagerie
Canongate

Patrick deWitt
The Sisters Brothers
Granta Books

Esi Edugyan
Half-Blood Blues
Serpent's Tail

Stephen Kelman
Pigeon English
Bloomsbury

A D Miller
Snowdrops
Atlantic Books

2012
Hilary Mantel
Bring Up the Bodies
Fourth Estate

Sir Peter Stothard

Dinah Birch
Dan Stevens
Amanda Foreman
Bharat Tandon

Deborah Levy
Swimming Home
And Other Stories/Faber & Faber

Alison Moore
The Lighthouse
Salt Publishing

Will Self
Umbrella
Bloomsbury

Tan Twan Eng
The Garden of Evening Mists
Myrmidon Books

Jeet Thayil
Narcopolis
Faber & Faber

2013
Eleanor Catton
The Luminaries
Granta

Robert Macfarlane

Martha Kearney
Stuart Kelly
Natalie Haynes
Robert Douglas-Fairhurst

NoViolet Bulawayo

We Need New Names

Chatto & Windus

Jim Crace
Harvest
Picador

Jhumpa Lahiri
The Lowland
Bloomsbury

Ruth Ozeki
A Tale for the Time Being
Canongate

Colm Tóibín
The Testament of Mary
Viking

2014
Richard Flanagan
The Narrow Road to the Deep North
Chatto & Windus

AC Grayling

Sarah Churchwell
Jonathan Bate
Dr Daniel Glaser
Dr Alastair Niven
Erica Wagner

Joshua Ferris
To Rise Again at a Decent Hour
Viking

Karen Joy Fowler
We Are All Completely Beside Ourselves
Serpent's Tail

Howard Jacobson
J
Jonathan Cape

Neel Mukherjee
The Lives of Others
Jonathan Cape

Ali Smith
How to Be Both
Hamish Hamilton

2015[4]
Marlon James
A Brief History of Seven Killings
Oneworld Publications

Michael Wood

John Burnside
Sam Leith
Frances Osborne
Ellah Wakatama Allfrey

Tom McCarthy
Satin Island
Jonathan Cape

Chigozie Obioma
The Fishermen
One

Sunjeev Sahota
The Year of the Runaways
Picador

Anne Tyler
A Spool of Blue Thread
Chatto & Windus

Hanya Yanagihara
A Little Life
Picador

2016
Paul Beatty
The Sellout
Oneworld Publications

Amanda Foreman

Jon Day
David Harsent
Olivia Williams
Abdulrazak Gurnah

Deborah Levy
Hot Milk
Hamish Hamilton

Graeme Macrae Burnet
His Bloody Project
Contraband

Ottessa Moshfegh
Eileen
Jonathan Cape

David Szalay
All That Man Is
Jonathan Cape

Madeleine Thien
Do Not Say We Have Nothing
Granta Books

2017[5]
George Saunders
Lincoln in the Bardo
Bloomsbury

Baroness Lola Young

Lila Azam Zanganeh
Sarah Hall
Colin Thubron
Tom Phillips

Paul Auster
4 3 2 1
Faber & Faber

Emily Fridlund
History of Wolves
Weidenfeld & Nicolson

Mohsin Hamid
Exit West
Hamish Hamilton

Fiona Mozley
Elmet
JM Originals, John Murray

Ali Smith
Autumn
Hamish Hamilton

text: Winners[edit]

text:
John Berger won with G in 1972.

Nadine Gordimer won with The Conservationist in 1974.

Salman Rushdie won with Midnight's Children in 1981.

J. M. Coetzee won with Life & Times of Michael K in 1983, and again with Disgrace in 1999.

Kazuo Ishiguro won with The Remains of the Day in 1989.

A. S. Byatt won with Possession in 1990.

Michael Ondaatje won with The English Patient in 1992.

Roddy Doyle won with Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha  in 1993.

Arundhati Roy won with The God of Small Things  in 1997.

Ian McEwan won with Amsterdam  in 1998.

Margaret Atwood won with The Blind Assassin  in 2000.

Yann Martel won with Life of Pi  in 2002.

Alan Hollinghurst won with The Line of Beauty  in 2004.

John Banville won with The Sea  in 2005.

Kiran Desai won with The Inheritance of Loss  in 2006.

Anne Enright won with The Gathering  in 2007.

Eleanor Catton won with The Luminaries in 2013.

Richard Flanagan won with The Narrow Road to the Deep North in 2014.

Marlon James won with A Brief History of Seven Killings in 2015.

Paul Beatty won with The Sellout in 2016.

George Saunders won with Lincoln in the Bardo in 2017.

tag: ul


document_title: Say Uncle

question_text: where does the term cry uncle come from

question_tokens: where does the term cry uncle come from

text: Say Uncle

text: "Say 'uncle'!" is a North American expression demanding that the opponent in a contest submits. The response "Uncle!" is equivalent to "I give up" and indicates submission. There are two theories as to the origin of the term; one relates to the Roman Empire when a bullied child would be forced to say "Patrue, mi Patruissimo," or, "Uncle, my best Uncle," in order to surrender; alternatively the expression may have originated in a 19th-century English joke about a bullied parrot. This use of this term is also very common in Arabian Peninsula countries "gol aami" "say uncle" "قول عمي".

tag: p

text: Definition[edit]

text: In the United States and Canada, the idiomatic expression "Say 'uncle'!" may be used as an imperative command to demand submission of one's opponent, such as during an informal wrestling match. Similarly, the exclamation "Uncle!" is an indication of submission – analogous to "I give up" – or it may be a cry for mercy, in such a game or match.[1]

text: Origin[edit]

text: Although it is often regarded as an Americanism, there are at least two differing theories as to the true origin of the phrase: ancient Rome and 19th-century in England.

text: The Roman Empire theory says, Roman children, when beset by a bully, would be forced to say the Latin phrase, "Patrue, mi Patruissimo," or, "Uncle, my best Uncle," in order to surrender and be freed. [2]

text: There are various opinions as to the reason that Roman bullies forced their victims to "cry 'Uncle!'". It may be that it was simply a way of making the victim call out for help from a grownup, thus proving his or her weakness. Alternatively, it may have started as a way of forcing the victim to grant the victor a title of respect – as in "Call me Uncle!" — for in Roman times, one's father's brother was accorded nearly the same power and status as one's father. The chosen form of the Latin word for "uncle" ("patrue") tends to support this theory, in that it specifically denotes the paternal uncle – as opposed to the brother of one's mother ("avunculus"), who occupied a somewhat lower rung in patrilineal Roman society.[2]

text: The 19th-century England theory says it comes from an English joke about a bullied parrot being coaxed to address his owner's uncle.[3][4][5]


document_title: National Football League team captains

question_text: what are the stars on the c on nfl jerseys for

text: National Football League team captains

text: In the National Football League, the team captain designation is a team-appointed position that designates certain players as leaders on and off the field. The captains program was implemented by the NFL Player Advisory Council established by NFL commissioner Roger Goodell in conjunction with the NFL Players Association. Starting in 2007, the league began permitting teams to name up to six players as captains.[1]

text: Players who have been named a team captain typically have a "C" patch on their jerseys. There is a standard design used by all teams participating in the captaincy program. The patches are in team colors and are worn on the front left or right breast (depending on other patches, etc. worn by the specific team). The number of stars filled in on the patch represents the number of consecutive years that player has been named captain by that team. If they've been named captain for longer than four years, the "C" on the patch is gold. Some teams (e.g. Pittsburgh and New England) do not have this patch on their jerseys but still designate captains. In the case of the Green Bay Packers, they would use weekly captains during the regular season, but would switch to assigning captains whenever they qualify for the playoffs.

text: The New York Jets suspended designated team captains after an incident involving Santonio Holmes in a 2011 game. In the 4th quarter of the final game of the 2011 season against the Miami Dolphins, Holmes appeared to get into an argument with Jets offensive tackle Wayne Hunter while the team was huddling. As a result of the argument, Holmes was benched for the remainder of the game, and the Jets ended up losing the game, which resulted in the Jets missing the postseason for the first time in three years. His leadership qualities and credibility as a captain have since been questioned. In 2015, under new head coach Todd Bowles, the Jets resumed appointing captains weekly.[2]

text: During special recognitions, the patch may be a different color; e.g., pink for breast cancer awareness;[3] or camouflage for military service recognition.

text: Because of the nature of the game, most teams include their starting quarterbacks as an offensive captain. The starting quarterback has no other responsibility or authority on field. However, he may, depending on the league or individual team, have various informal duties, such as participation in pre-game ceremonies, the coin toss, the trophy presentation, or other events outside the game. Often compared to captains of other team sports, the starting quarterback is usually the de facto team leader and a well-respected player on and off the field, even before the NFL implemented the team captain's patch in 2007.

text: Rules[edit]

text: NFL rule 18 details the guidelines for team captains. Within Rule 18, there are four articles that pertain to:

text:
Number of Team Captains
Coin Toss Procedures
Choice on Penalty Option
Change of [Team] Captains

tag: ol

text: Coin Toss Procedures – Each team can send as many as 6 team captains to the center of the field. On each team, one captain is designated the "speaking captain" of the delegation. The visiting team or the team designated "visitor" by the referee (if no team is declared 'visitor') shall choose "heads or tails" or in the case of a special ceremony coin, the options on the face and rear of that coin.

text: The winner of the coin toss have 3 options, 1. Defer the choice to the second half, 2. Receive/kick the ball, 3. Choose an end zone to defend. There is strategy in employing your election. It could depend on such conditions as weather, or making an aggressive statement at the beginning of the game, or something simple as coming out of the locker room in the second half receiving the ball.

text: After the winning captain makes their choice, the opposing team captain chooses from the remaining 2 options.

text: Choice on Penalty Option(s) – The offended team captain has a choice of accepting a penalty enforcement or declining, except where said penalty is automatically "enforced by rule." In some circumstances, a team captain may elect to "decline" the penalty. This typically happens in a situation in which declining the penalty may mean that the next down should occur (3rd or 4th). A good example would be on an "offensive holding" enforcement, the defensive team might elect a "4th down and 5 yards to gain" v. a "3rd down and 15 yards to gain."

text: List[edit]

text: Players listed in bold currently wear the 5+ star all gold captain patches.

text:
Team
Offensive captain(s)
Defensive captain(s)
Special teams captain(s)

Arizona Cardinals[4]
Carson Palmer, Larry Fitzgerald
Frostee Rucker, Patrick Peterson
Phil Dawson

Atlanta Falcons[5]
Appointed weekly

Baltimore Ravens[6]
Appointed weekly

Buffalo Bills[7]
Eric Wood, Tyrod Taylor
Kyle Williams, Lorenzo Alexander
Steven Hauschka

Carolina Panthers[8]
Cam Newton, Ryan Kalil, Jonathan Stewart ,
Luke Kuechly, Thomas Davis, Julius Peppers
None

Chicago Bears[9]
Mike Glennon, Josh Sitton
Jerrell Freeman, Quintin Demps
Sherrick McManis

Cincinnati Bengals[10]
Appointed weekly

Cleveland Browns[11]
Joe Thomas
Christian Kirksey, Jamie Collins, Jamar Taylor
Britton Colquitt

Dallas Cowboys[12]
Dak Prescott, Jason Witten
Sean Lee, Tyrone Crawford, Orlando Scandrick
Dan Bailey

Denver Broncos[13]
Demaryius Thomas, Trevor Siemian
Von Miller, Aqib Talib
Brandon McManus

Detroit Lions[14]
Appointed weekly

Green Bay Packers[15]
Appointed weekly

Houston Texans[16]
Appointed weekly

Indianapolis Colts[17]
Andrew Luck
None
Adam Vinatieri

Jacksonville Jaguars[18]
Brandon Linder, Marcedes Lewis
Paul Posluszny, Telvin Smith
Arrelious Benn

Kansas City Chiefs[19]
Alex Smith, Travis Kelce
Justin Houston, Eric Berry,
Dustin Colquitt, Tyreek Hill

Los Angeles Chargers[20]
Philip Rivers, Antonio Gates, Matt Slauson
Brandon Mebane, Melvin Ingram
None

Los Angeles Rams[21]
Todd Gurley, Andrew Whitworth
Alec Ogletree, Connor Barwin, Trumaine Johnson
Johnny Hekker

Miami Dolphins[22]
Kenny Stills, Mike Pouncey
Cameron Wake, Ndamukong Suh
Michael Thomas

Minnesota Vikings[23]
Kyle Rudolph, Sam Bradford, Riley Reiff
Everson Griffen, Brian Robison, Terence Newman
None

New England Patriots[24]
Tom Brady, Rob Gronkowski, David Andrews
Dont'a Hightower, Devin McCourty, Duron Harmon
Matthew Slater

New Orleans Saints[25]
Drew Brees, Zach Strief, Max Unger
Cameron Jordan, A. J. Klein
Craig Robertson

New York Giants[26]
Eli Manning
Jonathan Casillas
Zak DeOssie

New York Jets[27]
Appointed weekly

Oakland Raiders[28]
Rodney Hudson, Derek Carr
Khalil Mack, Reggie Nelson
None

Philadelphia Eagles[29]
Carson Wentz, Jason Peters
Malcolm Jenkins, Brandon Graham
Chris Maragos

Pittsburgh Steelers[30]
Ben Roethlisberger
Cameron Heyward
Appointed weekly

San Francisco 49ers[31]
Appointed weekly

Seattle Seahawks[32]
Russell Wilson
Kam Chancellor, Bobby Wagner
Jon Ryan

Tampa Bay Buccaneers[33]
Jameis Winston, Mike Evans
Gerald McCoy, Lavonte David, Kwon Alexander
Josh Robinson

Tennessee Titans[34]
Delanie Walker, Marcus Mariota
Jurrell Casey, Brian Orakpo
Wesley Woodyard

Washington Redskins[35]
Trent Williams, Kirk Cousins
D.J. Swearinger
Niles Paul


document_title: Motion Picture Association of America film rating system

question_text: when can you see an r rated movie

question_tokens: when can you see an r rated movie

text: Ratings[edit]

text: MPAA film ratings[edit]

text: Since the late 1990s, the MPAA film ratings have been as follows:[3]

text:
Rating symbol
Meaning

G – General Audiences
All ages admitted. Nothing that would offend parents for viewing by children.

PG – Parental Guidance Suggested
Some material may not be suitable for children. Parents urged to give "parental guidance". May contain some material parents might not like for their young children.

PG-13 – Parents Strongly Cautioned
Some material may be inappropriate for children under 13. Parents are urged to be cautious. Some material may be inappropriate for pre-teenagers.

R – Restricted
Under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian. Contains some adult material. Parents are urged to learn more about the film before taking their young children with them.

NC-17 – Adults Only
No One 17 and Under Admitted. Clearly adult. Children are not admitted.

text: Other labels[edit]

text: If a film has not been submitted for a rating or is an uncut version of a film that was submitted, the labels Not Rated (NR) or Unrated (UR) are often used. Uncut/extended versions of films that are labeled "Unrated" also contain warnings saying that the uncut version of the film contains content that differs from the theatrical release and might not be suitable for minors.

text: If a film has not yet been assigned a final rating, the label This Film Is Not Yet Rated is used in trailers and television commercials.

text: Advertising materials[edit]

text: It has been suggested that Trailer (promotion)#MPAA rating cards for theatrical trailers be merged into this section. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2016.

text: The MPAA also rates film trailers, print advertising, posters, and other media used to promote a film. Green, yellow, or red title cards displayed before the start of a trailer indicate the trailer's rating.

text:
Green: When the trailer accompanies another rated feature, the wording on the green title card states "The following preview has been approved to accompany this feature." For trailers hosted on the internet, the wording has been slightly altered to "The following preview has been approved for appropriate audiences."[4]
Yellow: A yellow title card exists solely for trailers hosted on the internet, with the wording stipulating "The following preview has been approved only for age-appropriate internet users." The MPAA defines "age-appropriate internet users" as visitors to sites either frequented mainly by adults or accessible only between 9:00 p.m. and 4:00 a.m. The yellow card is reserved for trailers previewing films rated PG-13 or stronger.[5]
Red: A red title card indicates that the trailer is restricted and when it accompanies another feature, the wording states "The following restricted preview has been approved to accompany this feature only." For trailers hosted on the internet, the wording is tweaked to "The following restricted preview has been approved for appropriate audiences."[4] The red title card is reserved for trailers previewing R and NC-17 rated films. Trailers hosted on the internet carrying a red title card require viewers to pass an age verification test which entails users aged 17 and older to match their names, birthdays and ZIP codes to public records on file.[5]

text: Tennessee law[edit]

text: In 1989, Tennessee enacted a law whereby patrons of an R-rated motion picture were not admitted unless they were at least 18 years old or accompanied by a parent, or an adult guardian.[6]

text: History[edit]

text: Replacement of Hays Code[edit]

text: Jack Valenti, who had become president of the Motion Picture Association of America in May 1966, deemed the Motion Picture Production Code – in place since 1930 and rigorously enforced since 1934 – as out of date and bearing "the odious smell of censorship". Filmmakers were pushing at the boundaries of the Code, and Valenti cited examples such as Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, which contained the expressions "screw" and "hump the hostess"; and Blowup, which was denied Code approval due to nudity, resulting in the MPAA member studio releasing it through a subsidiary. He revised the Code to include the "SMA" (Suggested for Mature Audiences) advisory as a stopgap measure. To accommodate "the irresistible force of creators determined to make 'their films'", and to avoid "the possible intrusion of government into the movie arena", he developed a set of advisory ratings which could be applied after a film was completed. On November 1, 1968, the voluntary MPAA film rating system took effect, with three organizations serving as its monitoring and guiding groups: the MPAA, the National Association of Theater Owners (NATO), and the International Film Importers & Distributors of America (IFIDA).[7]

text: The ratings used from 1968 to 1970 were:[8]

text:
Rated G: Suggested for General Audiences
Rated M: Suggested for Mature Audiences – parental discretion advised
Rated R: Restricted – persons under 16 not admitted, unless accompanied by parent or adult guardian.
Rated X: Persons Under 16 Not Admitted

text: This content classification system originally was to have three ratings, with the intention of allowing parents to take their children to any film they chose. However, the National Association of Theater Owners urged the creation of an adults-only category, fearful of possible legal problems in local jurisdictions. The "X" rating was not an MPAA trademark and would not receive the MPAA seal; any producer not submitting a film for MPAA rating could self-apply the "X" rating (or any other symbol or description that was not an MPAA trademark).[7]

text: From M to GP to PG[edit]

text: In 1970 the ages for "R" and "X" were raised from 16 to 17.[9] Also, due to confusion over whether "M"-rated films were suitable for children,[9] "M" was renamed to "GP" (for General audiences, Parental guidance suggested),[10][11] and in 1971 the MPAA added the content advisory "Some material not generally suitable for pre-teenagers".[12] In 1972, "GP" was revised to "PG".[9]

text: The ratings used from 1970 to 1972 were:

text:
Rated G: All Ages Admitted – General Audiences
Rated GP: All Ages Admitted – Parental Guidance Suggested [Sometimes a disclaimer would say "This film contains material which may not be suitable for pre-teenagers"]
Rated R: Restricted – Under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian
Rated X: No one under 17 admitted

text: The ratings used from 1972 to 1984 were:[13]

text:
Rated G: General Audiences – All ages admitted
Rated PG: Parental Guidance Suggested – Some material may not be suitable for pre-teenagers
Rated R: Restricted – Under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian.
Rated X: No one under 17 admitted

text: Addition of PG-13 rating[edit]

text: In the early 1980s complaints about violence and gore in films such as Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Gremlins, both of which received PG ratings, refocused attention on films seen by small children and pre-teens.[14] According to author Filipa Antunes, this revealed the conundrum of a film which "could not be recommended for all children but also could not be repudiated for all children uniformly," leading to speculation that the rating system’s scope, in particular its PG classification, "no longer matched a notion of childhood most parents in America could agree on."[15] Steven Spielberg, director of Temple of Doom and executive producer of Gremlins, suggested a new intermediate rating between "PG" and "R".[16] The "PG-13" rating was introduced in July 1984, with the advisory "Parents Are Strongly Cautioned to Give Special Guidance for Attendance of Children Under 13 – Some Material May Be Inappropriate for Young Children". The first film to be released with this rating was the 1984 John Milius war film Red Dawn.[17] In 1985, the wording was simplified to "Parents Strongly Cautioned – Some Material May Be Inappropriate for Children Under 13".[18] Around the same time, the MPAA won a trademark infringement lawsuit against the producers and distributors of I Spit on Your Grave over a fraudulent application of its R rating to the uncut version of the film,[19] and forced its member studios and several other home video distributors to put MPAA ratings on the packaging of MPAA-rated films via a settlement that would come into effect by fall that year.[20]

text: The ratings used from 1984 to 1990 were:

text:
Rated G: General Audiences – all ages admitted
Rated PG: Parental Guidance Suggested – some material may not be suitable for children
Rated PG-13: Parents Strongly Cautioned – some material may be inappropriate for children under 13
Rated R: Restricted – under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian
Rated X: No one under 17 admitted

text: X replaced by NC-17[edit]

text: In the rating system's early years, "X"-rated films such as Midnight Cowboy (1969) and A Clockwork Orange (1971) were understood to be unsuitable for children, but non-pornographic and intended for the general public. However, pornographic films often self-applied the non-trademarked "X" rating, and it soon became synonymous with pornography in American culture.[21] In late 1989 and early 1990, two critically acclaimed art films featuring strong adult content, Henry: Portrait of a Serial Killer and The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover, were released. Neither film was approved for an MPAA rating, thus limiting their commercial distribution, and prompting criticism of the rating system's lack of a designation for such films.[22][23]

text: In September 1990, the MPAA introduced the rating "NC-17" ("No Children Under 17 Admitted").[24] Henry & June – previously to be assigned an "X" rating – was the first film to receive the "NC-17" rating instead.[24][25] Although films with an "NC-17" rating had more mainstream distribution opportunities than "X"-rated films, many theaters refused to screen them, most entertainment media did not accept advertising for them, and many large video outlets refused to stock them.[26] In 1996,[27] the minimum age for "NC-17" films was raised to 18, by rewording it to "No One 17 and Under Admitted".[28]

text: The ratings used since 1990 are:[3]

text:
Rated G: General Audiences – all ages admitted
Rated PG: Parental Guidance Suggested – some material may not be suitable for children
Rated PG-13: Parents Strongly Cautioned – some material may be inappropriate for children under 13
Rated R: Restricted – under 17 requires accompanying parent or adult guardian
Rated NC-17: No children under 17 admitted [1990–1996] / No one 17 and under admitted [1996–present]

text: Rating explanations[edit]

text: Since September 1990, the MPAA has included brief explanations of why each film received an "R" rating, allowing parents to know what type of content the film contained. For example, some films' explanations may read "Strong Brutal Violence, Pervasive Language, Some Strong Sexual Content, and Drug Material". Around the late 1990s, the MPAA began applying rating explanations for "PG", "PG-13", and "NC-17" films as well.[29]

text: Rating components[edit]

text: Violence[edit]

text: Depictions of violence are generally restricted to PG and above. The violence in a PG rated film will not be intense, while violence that is both intense and persistent will generally require at least an R rating. Violence is not prohibited in G rated films, but if present will be minimal.[2]

text: Language[edit]

text: Snippets of language that go "beyond polite conversation" are permitted in G rated films, but no stronger words are present. Profanity may be present in PG rated films, and use of one of the harsher "sexually-derived words" as an expletive will initially incur at least a PG-13 rating. Multiple occurrences will usually incur an R rating as will the usage of such an expletive in a sexual context. Nevertheless, the ratings board may still award a PG-13 rating passed by a two-thirds majority if they believe the language is justified by the context or by the manner in which the words are used.[2]

text: There are several exceptional cases in which PG-13 rated films contain multiple occurrences of the word fuck: Adventures in Babysitting, where the word is used twice in the same scene;[30] The Hip Hop Project, which has seventeen uses;[31] Gunner Palace, a documentary of soldiers in the Second Gulf War, which has 42 uses of the word with two used sexually;[32] Bully, a 2011 documentary about bullying;[33] Philomena, released in November 2013, which has two uses of the word;[34] and The Martian, which also has two uses of the word.[35]

text: Substance abuse[edit]

text: Drug use content is restricted to PG-13 and above.[2] An example of an otherwise PG film being assigned a PG-13 rating for a drug reference (momentary, along with brief language) is Whale Rider. The film contained only mild profanity, but was rated PG-13 because of a scene where drug paraphernalia were briefly visible. Critic Roger Ebert criticized the MPAA for the rating and called it "a wild overreaction".[36]

text: In May 2007, the MPAA announced that depictions of cigarette smoking would be considered in a film's rating.[37][38] Anti-smoking advocates stated that the child-friendly PG rating was inappropriate for the 2011 Nickelodeon-animated film Rango, which included over 60 depictions of characters smoking.[39]

text: Nudity[edit]

text: Nudity is restricted to PG and above, and anything that constitutes more than brief nudity will require at least a PG-13 rating. Nudity that is sexually oriented will generally require an R rating.[2] As of 2010, the MPAA has added a descriptor of "male nudity" to films featuring said content.[40]

text: Sexual content[edit]

text: The MPAA does not have any explicit criteria for sexual content other than excluding sex scenes from G rated films.[2]

text: Effects of ratings[edit]

text: Commercial viability of the NC-17 rating[edit]

text: In its initial years of use, few films with the NC-17 rating were profitable. In 1995, United Artists released the big-budget film Showgirls (1995). It became the most widely distributed film with an NC-17 rating (showing in 1,388 cinemas simultaneously), but was a financial failure that grossed only 45% of its $45 million budget.[41] Some modest successes can be found among NC-17 theatrical releases; however, Fox Searchlight Pictures released the original NC-17-rated American edition of the European film The Dreamers (2003) in theaters in the United States, and later released both the original NC-17 and the cut R-rated version on DVD. A Fox Searchlight spokesman said the NC-17 rating did not give them much trouble in releasing this film (they had no problem booking it, and only the Salt Lake City newspaper Deseret News refused to take the film's ad), and Fox Searchlight was satisfied with this film's United States box office result.[42] Another notable exception is Bad Education (2004), an NC-17 foreign-language film which grossed $5.2 million in the United States theatrically[43] (a moderate success for a foreign-language film[44]).

text: As of March 2007, according to Variety, MPAA chairman Dan Glickman had been made aware of the attempts to introduce a new rating, or find ways to reduce the stigma of the NC-17 rating. Film studios have pressured the MPAA to retire the NC-17 rating, because of its likely impact on their film's box office revenue.[45][46]

text: During the controversy about the MPAA's decision to give the film Blue Valentine (2010) an NC-17 rating (The Weinstein Company challenged this decision, and the MPAA ended up awarding the same cut an R rating on appeal), actor Ryan Gosling, who stars in the film, noted that NC-17 films are not allowed wide advertisement and that, given the refusal of major cinema chains like AMC and Regal to show NC-17 rated movies, many such films will never be accessible to people who live in markets that do not have art house theatres.[47]

text: Legal scholar Julie Hilden wrote that the MPAA has a "masterpiece exception" that it has made for films that would ordinarily earn an NC-17 rating, if not for the broader artistic masterpiece that requires the violence depicted as a part of its message. She cites Saving Private Ryan, with its bloody depiction of the D-Day landings, as an example. This exception is troubling, Hilden argues, because it ignores context and perspective in evaluating other films and favors conventional films over edgier films that contribute newer and more interesting points to public discourse about violence.[48]

text: Issuance of "R Cards"[edit]

text: Starting in 2004, GKC Theatres (now AMC Theatres) introduced "R-Cards", which parents could obtain for their teenage children, under the age of 17, to see R-rated films without adult accompaniment. The cards generated much controversy; MPAA president Jack Valenti said in a news article: "I think it distorts and ruptures the intent of this voluntary film ratings system. All R-rated films are not alike."[49] John Fithian, the president of the National Association of Theatre Owners, also said that the cards can be harmful. He noted in a news article for the Christian Science Monitor that the R rating is "broad enough to include relatively family-friendly fare such as Billy Elliot and Erin Brockovich (which were both rated R for language) along with films that push the extremes of violence, including Pulp Fiction and Kill Bill."[50]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: Emphasis on sex and language versus violence[edit]

text: The film rating system has had a number of high-profile critics. Film critic Roger Ebert argued that the system places too much emphasis on sex, while allowing the portrayal of massive amounts of gruesome violence. The uneven emphasis on sex versus violence is echoed by other critics, including David Ansen, as well as many filmmakers. Moreover, Ebert argued that the rating system is geared toward looking at trivial aspects of the film (such as the number of times a profane word is used) rather than at the general theme of the film (for example, if the film realistically depicts the consequences of sex and violence). He called for an A (adults only) rating, to indicate films high in violence or mature content that should not be marketed to teenagers, but do not have NC-17 levels of sex. He also called for the NC-17 rating to be removed and have the X rating revived. He felt that everyone understood what X-rated means, while fewer people understood what NC-17 meant. He called for ratings A and X to identify whether an adult film is pornographic or not.[51][52][53]

text: MPAA chairman Dan Glickman has disputed these claims, stating that far more films are initially rated NC-17 for violence than for sex, but that these are later edited by studios to receive an R rating.[54]

text: Despite this, an internal critic of the early workings of the ratings system is film critic and writer Stephen Farber, who was a CARA intern for six months during 1969 and 1970. In The Movie Ratings Game,[55] he documents a prejudice against sex in relation to violence. This Film Is Not Yet Rated also points out that four times as many films received an NC-17 rating for sex than they did for violence according to the MPAA's own website, further mentioning a bias against homosexual content compared to heterosexual content, particularly with regards to sex scenes. Filmmaker Darren Stein further insists that his tame teen comedy G.B.F., which features multiple same-sex kisses but no intercourse, strong language, violence, or nudity, was "rated R for being gay."[56]

text: The 2011 documentary Bully received an R rating for the profanity contained within the film, which prevented most of the intended audience, middle and high schoolers, from seeing the film. The film's director, Lee Hirsch, has refused to recut the film, stating, "I feel a responsibility as a filmmaker, as the person entrusted to tell (these kids') stories, to not water them down." A petition collected more than 200,000 signatures to change the film's rating[57] and a version with less profanity was finally given a PG-13 rating. The same, however, could not be said about the 1995 teen drama Kids, which director Larry Clark wanted rated R so parents could take their kids to it for educational purposes, but the MPAA rated it NC-17 due to its content of teen sex and turned down Clark's appeal. The movie was then released unrated by Miramax (under Shining Excalibur Films as Miramax, owned by Disney, hesitated to release it as an NC-17 film).

text: Tougher standards for independent studios[edit]

text: Many critics of the MPAA system, especially independent distributors, have charged that major studios' releases often receive more lenient treatment than independent films. The independent film Saints and Soldiers, which contains no nudity, almost no sex (although, there is a scene in which a German soldier is about to rape a French woman), very little profanity, and a minimum of violence, was said to have been rated R for a single clip where a main character is shot and killed, and required modification of just that one scene to receive a PG-13 rating.[58][59] Eric Watson, producer of the independently-distributed, NC-17-rated Requiem for a Dream complained that the studios are paying the budget of the MPAA, which gives the studios leverage over the MPAA's decisions.[60]

text: The comedy Scary Movie, released by Dimension Films, at the time a division of The Walt Disney Company, contained "strong crude sexual humor, language, drug use and violence," including images of ejaculation and an erect penis, but was rated R, to the surprise of many reviewers and audiences; by comparison, the comparatively tame porn spoof Orgazmo, an independent release by South Park creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker, contained "explicit sexual content and dialogue" and received an NC-17 (the only on-screen penis seen in the film is a dildo). As Parker and Stone did not have the money and the time to edit the film, it retained its NC-17 rating. In contrast, Parker and Stone's second feature film, South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut, was distributed by a major studio (Paramount Pictures) and, after multiple submissions and notes from the MPAA, received an R rating.[60]

text: Call for publicizing the standards[edit]

text: Many critics of the system, both conservative and liberal, would like to see the MPAA ratings unveiled and the standards made public. The MPAA has consistently cited nationwide scientific polls (conducted each year by the Opinion Research Corporation of Princeton, New Jersey), which show that parents find the ratings useful. Critics such as Matt Stone in Kirby Dick's documentary This Film is not Yet Rated respond this proves only that parents find the ratings more useful than nothing at all.[61] In the film, it is also discussed how the MPAA will not reveal any information about how or why certain decisions are made, and that the association will not even reveal to the filmmaker the specific scenes that need to be cut in order to get alternative rating.

text: Accusation of "ratings creep"[edit]

text: Although there has always been concern about the content of films,[62] the MPAA has, in recent years, been accused of a "ratings creep", whereby the films that fall into today's ratings categories now contain more objectionable material than those that appeared in the same categories two decades earlier.[63] A study put forward by the Harvard School of Public Health in 2004 concluded that there had been a significant increase in the level of profanity, sex and violence in films released between 1992 and 2003.[64] Kimberly Thompson, director of the study, stated: "The findings demonstrate that ratings creep has occurred over the last decade and that today’s movies contain significantly more violence, sex, and profanity on average than movies of the same rating a decade ago."[64]

text: Questions of relevance[edit]

text: Slashfilm.com managing editor David Chen wrote on the website: "It's time for more people to condemn the MPAA and their outrageous antics. We're heading towards an age when we don't need a mommy-like organization to dictate what our delicate sensibilities can and can't be exposed to. I deeply hope that the MPAA's irrelevance is imminent."[65]

text: Chicago Tribune film critic Michael Phillips wrote that the MPAA ratings board "has become foolish and irrelevant, and its members do not have my interests at heart, or yours. They're too easy on violence yet bizarrely reactionary when it comes to nudity and language."[66]


document_title: Albert Alexander

question_text: who was the first human patient to be treated with penicillin

text: Albert Alexander

text: Albert Alexander may refer to:

text:
Albert Alexander (police officer) (1873–1941), first patient to be treated with injections of penicillin
Albert Ernest Alexander (1914–1970), British-Australian chemist
Albert R. Alexander (1859–1966), Canadian-born American judge
Albert Alexander Sr., figure in early 20th century English football
A. V. Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough (1885–1965), British politician

text: This disambiguation page lists articles about people with the same name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

text: Human name disambiguation pages

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