document_title: Geography of Nigeria

question_text: when does the southwest wind blow in nigeria

text: Geography of Nigeria

text: Climate types found in Nigeria[edit]

text: The tropical monsoon climate, designated by the Köppen climate classification as "Am", is found in the southern part of the country. This climate is influenced by the monsoons originating from the South Atlantic ocean, which is brought into the country by the (maritime tropical) MT airmass, a warm moist sea to land seasonal wind. Its warmth and high humidity gives it a strong tendency to ascend and produce copious rainfall, which is a result of the condensation of water vapour in the rapidly rising air.[1]

text: The Tropical monsoon climate has a very small temperature range. Then temperature ranges are almost constant throughout the year, for example, Warri town in the southern part of Nigeria, records a maximum of 28 °C (82.4 °F) for its hottest month while its lowest temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) in its coldest month. The temperature difference of Warri town is not more than 2 °C (5 °F).

text: The southern part of Nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall. These storms are usually convectional in nature due to the regions proximity, to the equatorial belt. The annual rainfall received in this region is very high, usually above the 2,000 mm (78.7 in) rainfall totals giving for tropical rainforest climates worldwide. Over 4,000 mm (157.5 in) of rainfall is received in the coastal region of Nigeria around the Niger delta area. Bonny town found in the coastal region of the Niger delta area in southern Nigeria receives well over 4,000 mm (157.5 in) of rainfall annually. The rest of the southeast receives between 2,000 and 3,000 mm (118.1 in) of rain per year.

text: The southern region of Nigeria experiences a double rainfall maxima characterised by two high rainfall peaks, with a short dry season and a longer dry season falling between and after each peaks. The first rainy season begins around March and last to the end of July with a peak in June, this rainy season is followed by a short dry break in August known as the August break which is a short dry season lasting for two to three weeks in August. This break is broken by the short rainy season starting around early September and lasting to Mid October with a peak period at the end of September. The ending of the short rainy season in October is followed by long dry season. This period starts from late October and lasts till early March with peak dry conditions between early December and late February.[2]

text: The tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate, is extensive in area and covers most of Western Nigeria to central Nigeria beginning from the Tropical rainforest climate boundary in southern Nigeria to the central part of Nigeria, where it exerts enormous influence on the region.

text: This climate, the tropical savanna climate exhibits a well marked rainy season and a dry season with a single peak known as the summer maximum due to its distance from the equator. Temperatures are above 18 °C (64 °F) throughout the year. Abuja, Nigeria's capital city found in central Nigeria, has a temperature range of 18.45 °C (65.21 °F) to 36.9 °C (98.4 °F), and an annual rainfall of about 1,500 mm (59.1 in) with a single rainfall maxima in September.[3]

text: The single Dry season experienced in this climate, the tropical savanna climate in central Nigeria beginning from December to march, is hot and dry with the Harmattan wind, a continental tropical (CT) airmass laden with dust from the Sahara Desert prevailing throughout this period.

text: With the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) swinging northward over West Africa from the Southern Hemisphere in April, heavy showers coming from pre-monsoonal convective clouds mainly in the form of squall lines also known as the north easterlies formed mainly as a result of the interactions of the two dominant airmasses in Nigeria known as the Maritime tropical(south westerlies) and the Continental tropical(north easterlies),[4] begins in central Nigeria while the Monsoons from the south atlantic ocean arrives in central Nigeria in July bringing with it high humidity, heavy cloud cover and heavy rainfall which can be daily occurrence lasting till September when the monsoons gradually begin retreating southward to the southern part of Nigeria.Rainfall totals in central Nigeria varies from 1,100 mm (43.3 in) in the lowlands of the river Niger Benue trough to over 2,000 mm (78.7 in) along the south western escarpment of the Jos Plateau.[5]

text:
The Sahel climate or tropical dry climate, is the predominant climate type in the northern part of Nigeria. Annual rainfall totals are lower compared to the southern and central part of Nigeria.
The rainy season in the northern part of Nigeria last for only three to four months (June–September). The rest of the year is hot and dry with temperatures climbing as high as 40 °C (104.0 °F) .

text: Alpine climate or highland climate or mountain climate are found on highlands regions in Nigeria. Highlands with the alpine climate in Nigeria, are well over 1,520 metres (4,987 ft) above sea level. Due to their location in the tropics, this elevation is high enough to reach the temperate climate line in the tropics thereby giving the highlands, mountains and the plateau regions standing above this height, a cool mountain climate.

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Nigeria, like the rest of West Africa and other tropical lands, has only two seasons. These are the dry season and the rainy season. The dry season is accompanied by a dust laden airmass from the Sahara Desert, locally known as Harmattan, or by its main name, The Tropical Continental (CT) airmass, while the rainy season is heavily influenced by an airmass originating from the south atlantic ocean, locally known as the south west wind, or by its main name, The Tropical Maritime (MT) airmass. These two major wind systems in Nigeria are known as the trade winds.

text: Trade winds[edit]

text: Tropical maritime airmass[edit]

text: The tropical maritime airmass (MT) is responsible for Nigeria's rainy season. This wind (the tropical maritime airmass) invades the country from February in the southern part of Nigeria while it takes longer for the wind to fully cover the whole of the country, reaching the northern part of Nigeria in June. Its invasion is as a result of the northward retreat, of the tropical continental airmass (CT) known as the harmattan. The northward retreat of the tropical continental airmass (CT), is caused by the sun's northward shift from the tropic of capricorn in the southern hemisphere to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere. This shift begins from February and ends in June, when the sun is fully overhead, at the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere.

text: During this northward migration of the sun as a result of the earth tilting along its axis, the sun crosses the equator (around March), moving over west Africa at this time on its journey to the northern hemisphere. West Africa comes directly under the sun at this time. The sun is overhead throughout west Africa and over Nigeria during this period of the sun's northward migration to the tropic of cancer in the northern hemisphere.

text: The whole of West Africa is heated intensely as result of the increased insolation received from the sun being overhead over west Africa. Temperatures can climb as high as 35 °C (95.0 °F) over west Africa during this time. Temperatures in the northern part of Nigeria can go as high as 48 °C (118.4 °F) in cities like Maiduguri.[6]

text: The high temperatures coupled with an increase in insolation causes a region of low pressure to develop over west Africa and Nigeria (between March to May). The Tropical continental airmass (CT) from the Sahara Desert in the northern part of West Africa, is weakened due to the overheating of the land surface in west Africa and Nigeria at this time. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) begins to retreat northwards to the Sahara Desert due to massive heating of the land which transfers heat in the form of convection into the Tropical continental airmass (CT) which constitutes the main layer of air above the land. This transfer of heat in the Tropical continental airmass (CT) in turn, causes the wind to expand and become lighter as this is the normal behaviour for winds moving above intensely heated grounds. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) loses its strength as a major airmass in the region of west Africa and over Nigeria at this time (around February in the southern part of Nigeria to June in northern Nigeria) and begins to retreat coupled with the rising of air in form of convection within this airmass (Tropical continental airmass (CT)), further weakening the dominance of the wind over west Africa and Nigeria. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) finally retreats from most part of Nigeria, and the West African atmosphere around April to May, leaving an empty atmosphere over Nigeria. The sun's rays enters into the atmosphere of Nigeria more intense than it does during the presence of the Tropical continental airmass, which contained dust (in form of haze) that reduced the intensity of the sun.[7] The overheating of the west Africa land mass and Nigeria in particular creates a low pressure region over west Africa and Nigeria. This low pressure zone attracts the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) from the south Atlantic Ocean since areas of low pressures experiences inward blowing winds because winds are moving air blowing outwards from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure.

text: The Tropical Maritime Airmass is a warm humid and unstable trade wind due to its warmth. Convectional currents are easily set up within the airmass whenever there is little instability in the airmass as a result of a slight to a very high orographic uplift in mountainous regions like the obudu plateau or the heating of the land which can trigger the formation of cumulonimbus cloud leading to thunderstorms within the airmass.

text: During the dominance of the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) in the rainy season of Nigeria, mornings are bright and sunny, the sun's heating of the land in the mornings and afternoons sets up convectional currents, these currents rise vertically and cumulonimbus clouds are formed, by afternoons to evenings, torrential downpour follows.

text: The Easterly wave or the African easterly waves is another major contributor of rainfall during the summer monsoons months of May to September in Nigeria.

text: The nature of this waves changes at about the 15 degrees line. The waves that pass south of this line carry moisture and create convection that leads to rain clouds.[8] Nigeria's northern end is south of the 15 degrees line at about 14 degrees.[9] Nigeria's location in the wetter part of the easterly waves south of the 15 degree line creates wetter climatic conditions for Nigeria especially during the monsoons.

text: Tropical continental airmass[edit]

text: The Tropical Continental Airmass (CT) locally known as the harmattan, is a wind originating from North Africa which crosses the Sahara Desert into west Africa to Nigeria. This airmass dominates Nigeria's climate during the dry season from December to March. The Tropical continental airmass is dusty and creates a haze within the atmosphere of west Africa and Nigeria when it predominates. The haze is as a result of the dust within the airmass limiting visibility and blocking much of the sun's rays from reaching the earth.

text: Effects of the tropical continental airmass[edit]

text: The mass has no ability of forming rain due to low humidity within the airmass, since it crosses the Sahara Desert, it picks up dust instead of water thereby creating little chances for rainfall.

text: The airmass makes life difficult as a result of low visibility which hampers transportation. The dust haze creates an almost desert conditions in the country during the dominance of the Tropical continental airmass (the harmattan). But its coming brings some relief to farmers since the low humidity present in the air quickens the drying of their crops.

text: Temperature[edit]

text: Nigeria's location in the tropics has given her a tropical hot climate. Temperatures in Nigeria vary according to the seasons of the year as with other lands found in the tropics. Nigeria's seasons are determined by rainfall with rainy season and dry season being the major seasons in Nigeria.

text: The rainy season of Nigeria brings in cooler weather to the country as a result of an increased cloud cover that acts as a blockage to the intense sunshine of the tropics by blocking much of the suns rays in the rainy season; this in turn cools the land, and the winds above the ground remains cool thereby making for cooler temperatures during the rainy season. But afternoons in the rainy season can be hot and humid, a feature of tropical climates. In the rainy season it is damp, and the rainfalls are usually abundant.

text: The dry season of Nigeria is a period of little cloud cover in the southern part of Nigeria to virtually no cloud cover in the northern part of Nigeria. The sun shines through the atmosphere with little obstructions from the clear skies making the dry season in Nigeria a period of warm weather conditions.In the middle of the dry season around December, a dusty wind from the Sahara Desert called the harmattan enters Nigeria from the northeastern part of the country blocking sun rays partially from shining and also creating haze in the atmosphere, this activities of the wind lowers temperatures considerably saving inhabitants for sometime, from the scorching heat that would have occurred as a result of clearer skies during the dry season. But with the withdrawal of this wind around March to April following the onset of the rainy season, temperatures can go as high as 44 °C (111.2 °F) in some parts of Nigeria.[10]

text: Semi temperate weather conditions prevail on the highlands in central Nigeria above 1,200 metres (3,937 ft) above sea level, namely the Jos Plateau. Temperatures on the Jos plateau ranges between 21 °C to 25 °C which are cool all year round.

text: Temperate weather conditions occur on the highlands along the Nigeria Cameroon border, in the eastern part of Nigeria. Highlands in these region attain an average height of more than 1,524 m (5,000 ft) to some standing above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) above sea level. The climate on these highlands is temperate all year round. The major highlands in this region are the Obudu Plateau above 1,584 m (5,197 ft), Mambilla Plateau above 1,524 m (5,000 ft) and Mt Chappal Waddi above 2,000 m (6,562 ft).

text: Topography[edit]

text: Nigeria's most expansive topographical region is that of the valleys of the Niger and Benue River valleys (which merge into each other and form a "y" shaped confluence at Lokoja).[11] Plains rise to the north of the valleys. To the southwest of the Niger there is "rugged" highland, and to the southeast of the Benue hills and mountains are found all the way to the border with Cameroon. Coastal plains are found in both the southwest and the southeast.[11]

text: Niger Delta[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011)

text: The Niger Delta is located in the southern part of Nigeria. It is one of the world's largest arcuate fan-shaped river deltas.

text: The riverine area of the Niger Delta is a coastal belt of swamps bordering the Atlantic ocean. The swamps are vegetated tidal flats formed by a reticulate pattern of interconnected meandering creeks and distributaries of the River Niger.

text: Vegetation of the Niger Delta[edit]

text: The vegetation of the Niger Delta consist mainly of forest swamps. The forest are of two types, nearest the sea is a belt of saline/brackish Mangrove swamp separated from the sea by sand beach ridges within the mangrove swamp. Numerous sandy islands occur with fresh water vegetation. Fresh water swamps gradually supersede the mangrove on the landward side. About 70% of Nigeria's crude oil and gas production is from the area.

text: Human population in the Niger Delta[edit]

text: The riverine area is home to a large population of people living mainly in small villages scattered along the banks of rivers and creeks.

text: Rainfall in Niger Delta[edit]

text: Rainfall in the coastal belt of the Niger Delta is heavy due to the closeness of the Delta region to the equator. Annual rainfall totals vary from 2400 to over 4000 millimeters.

text: Niger Delta cities and their annually rainfall totals in millimeters:

text:
Warri — 2,730mm
Forcados (coastal town in the Niger Delta) — 4,870mm
Port Harcourt — 2,400mm
Calabar (coastal city) — 3,070mm (rainiest city with over one million people in Nigeria)
Bonny (south of Port Harcourt) — 4,200mm

text: Vegetation[edit]

text: Nigeria is covered by three types of vegetation: forests (where there is significant tree cover), savannahs (insignificant tree cover, with grasses and flowers located between trees), and montane land. (The latter is the least common, and is mainly found in the mountains near the Cameroon border.) Both the forest zone and the savannah zone are divided into three parts.[12]

text: Some of the forest zone's most southerly portion, especially around the Niger River and Cross River deltas, is mangrove swamp (see Central African mangroves). North of this is fresh water swamp, containing different vegetation from the salt water mangrove swamps, and north of that is rain forest.[12]

text: The savannah zone's three categories are divided into mm' Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, made up of plains of tall grass which are interrupted by trees, the most common across the country; Sudan savannah, similar but with shorter grasses and shorter trees; and Sahel savannah patches of grass and sand, found in the northeast.[12]

text: Natural resources and land use[edit]

text: Nigeria's natural resources include but are not limited to petroleum (see petroleum in Nigeria), tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas, hydropower, and arable land.

text: Extreme points[edit]

text: This is a list of the extreme points of Nigeria, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.

text:
Northernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Niger immediately northwest of the town of Chadawa, Sokoto State.
Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with Cameroon immediately east of the village of Munyego, Borno State.
Southernmost point – unnamed headland south of the town of Egeregere, Bayelsa State.
Westernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Benin Republic immediately east of the Beninoise town of Jabata, Oyo State.


document_title: Economy of France

question_text: what kind of economic system does france have

root

text: Economy of France

text: Corporations[edit]

text: With 31 of the 500 biggest companies of the world in 2015, France ranks 4th in the Fortune Global 500, behind the USA, China and Japan.

tag: p

text: Several French corporations rank amongst the largest in their industries such as AXA in insurance and Air France in air transportation.[23] Luxury and consumer good are particularly relevant, with L'Oreal being the world's largest cosmetic company while LVMH and PPR are the world's two largest luxury product companies. In energy and utilities, GDF-Suez and EDF are amongst the largest energy companies in the world, and Areva is a large nuclear-energy company; Veolia Environnement is the world's largest environmental services and water management company; Vinci SA, Bouygues and Eiffage are large construction companies; Michelin ranks in the top 3 tire manufacturers; JCDecaux is the world's largest outdoor advertising corporation; BNP Paribas, Credit Agricole and Societe Generale rank amongst the largest in the world by assets.

text: Carrefour is the world's second largest retail group in terms of revenue; Total is the world's fourth largest private oil company; Danone is the world's fifth largest food company and the world's largest supplier of mineral water; Sanofi Aventis is the world's fifth largest pharmaceutical company; Publicis is the world's third largest advertising company; PSA is the world's 6th and Europe's 2nd largest automaker; Accor is the leading European hotel group; Alstom is one of the world's leading conglomerates in rail transport.

text: Rise and decline of dirigisme[edit]

text: France embarked on an ambitious and very successful programme of modernization under state coordination. This programme of dirigisme, mostly implemented by governments between 1944 and 1983, involved the state control of certain industries such as transportation, energy and telecommunications as well as various incentives for private corporations to merge or engage in certain projects.

text: The 1981 election of president François Mitterrand saw a short-lived increase in governmental control of the economy, nationalising many industries and private banks. This form of increased dirigisme, was criticised as early as 1982. By 1983, the government decided to renounce dirigisme and start an era of rigueur ("rigour") or corporatization. As a result, the government largely retreated from economic intervention; dirigisme has now essentially receded, though some of its traits remain. The French economy grew and changed under government direction and planning much more than in other European countries.

text: Despite being a widely liberalized economy, the government continues to play a significant role in the economy: government spending, at 56% of GDP in 2014, is the second highest in the European Union. Labour conditions and wages are highly regulated. The government continues to own shares in corporations in a range of sectors, including banking, energy production and distribution, automobiles, transportation, and telecommunications. These differ from countries such as the US or UK where most of these companies have been privatized.

text: Government finance[edit]

text: In April and May 2012, France held a presidential election in which the winner François Hollande had opposed austerity measures, promising to eliminate France's budget deficit by 2017. The new government stated that it aimed to cancel recently enacted tax cuts and exemptions for the wealthy, raising the top tax bracket rate to 75% on incomes over a million euros, restoring the retirement age to 60 with a full pension for those who have worked 42 years, restoring 60,000 jobs recently cut from public education, regulating rent increases; and building additional public housing for the poor.

text: In June 2012, Hollande's Socialist Party won an overall majority in the legislative elections, giving it the capability to amend the French Constitution and allowing immediate enactment of the promised reforms. French government bond interest rates fell 30% to record lows,[24] less than 50 basis points above German government bond rates.[25]

text: French government debt[edit]

text: The French government has run a budget deficit each year since the early 1970s. In mid-2012, French government debt levels reached €1,833 billion.[26] This debt level was the equivalent of 91% of French GDP.[26]

text: Under European Union rules, member states are supposed to limit their debt to 60% of output or be reducing the ratio structurally towards this ceiling, and run public deficits of no more than 3.0% of GDP.[26]

text: In late 2012, credit-rating agencies warned that growing French government debt levels risked France's AAA credit rating, raising the possibility of a future credit downgrade and subsequent higher borrowing costs for the French government.[27]

text: In 2012 France was downgraded by ratings agencies Moody's, Standard&Poor's, and Fitch to the AA+ credit rating.[28][29]

text: In December 2014 France's credit rating was further downgraded by Fitch (and S&P) to the AA credit rating.[30]

text: Economic sectors[edit]

text: Industry[edit]

text: 2006 electricity production of France

text: The leading industrial sectors in France are telecommunications (including communication satellites), aerospace and defense, ship building (naval and specialist ships), pharmaceuticals, construction and civil engineering, chemicals, textiles, and automobile production.

text: Research and development spending is also high in France at 2.26% of GDP, the fourth-highest in the OECD.[31]

text: Energy[edit]

text: France is the world-leading country in nuclear energy, home of global energy giants Areva, EDF and GDF Suez: nuclear power now accounts for about 78% of the country's electricity production, up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990. Nuclear waste is stored on site at reprocessing facilities. Due to its heavy investment in nuclear power, France is the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialized countries in the world.[32]

text: In 2006 electricity generated in France amounted to 548.8 TWh, of which:[33]

text:
428.7 TWh (78.1%) were produced by nuclear power generation
60.9 TWh (11.1%) were produced by hydroelectric power generation
52.4 TWh (9.5%) were produced by fossil-fuel power generation

21.6 TWh (3.9%) by coal power
20.9 TWh (3.8%) by natural-gas power
9.9 TWh (1.8%) by other fossil fuel generation (fuel oil and gases by-products of industry such as blast furnace gases)

6.9 TWh (1.3%) were produced by other types of power generation (essentially waste-to-energy and wind turbines)

The electricity produced by wind turbines increased from 0.596 TWh in 2004, to 0.963 TWh in 2005, and 2.15 TWh in 2006, but this still accounts only for 0.4% of the total production of electricity (as of 2006).

tag: ul

text: In November 2004, EDF (which stands for Electricité de France), the world's largest utility company and France's largest electricity provider, was floated with huge success on the French stock market. Notwistanding, the French state still keeps 70% of the capital.

text: Other electricity providers include Compagnie nationale du Rhône (CNR) and Endesa (through SNET).

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: France is the world's sixth largest agricultural producer and EU's leading agricultural power, accounting for about one-third of all agricultural land within the EU.

text: Northern France is characterized by large wheat farms. Dairy products, pork, poultry, and apple production are concentrated in the western region. Beef production is located in central France, while the production of fruits, vegetables, and wine ranges from central to southern France. France is a large producer of many agricultural products and is currently expanding its forestry and fishery industries. The implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) have resulted in reforms in the agricultural sector of the economy.

text: As the world's second-largest agricultural exporter, France ranks just after the United States.[34] The destination of 49% of its exports is other EU members states. France also provide agricultural exports to many poor African countries (including its former colonies) which face serious food shortages. Wheat, beef, pork, poultry, and dairy products are the principal exports.

text: Exports from the United States face stiff competition from domestic production, other EU member states, and third-world countries in France. US agricultural exports to France, totaling some $600 million annually, consist primarily of soybeans and soybean products, feeds and fodders, seafood, and consumer products, especially snack foods and nuts. French exports to the United States are much more high-value products such as its cheese, processed products and its wine.

text: The French agricultural sector receives almost €11 billion in EU subsidies. France's competitive advantage is mostly linked to the high quality and global renown of its produce, such as cheese and wine.

text: Tourism[edit]

text: France is the most popular tourist destination with more than 83.7 million foreign tourists in 2014,[7] ahead of Spain (58.5 million in 2006) and the United States (51.1 million in 2006). This figure excludes people staying less than 24 hours in France, such as northern Europeans crossing France on their way to Spain or Italy during the summer.

text: France is home to cities of much cultural interest (Paris being the foremost), beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity. France also attracts many religious pilgrims to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrénées département, which hosts several million visitors a year.

text: According to figures from 2003, some popular tourist sites include (in visitors per year):[35] Eiffel Tower (6.2 million), Louvre Museum (5.7 million), Palace of Versailles (2.8 million), Musée d'Orsay (2.1 million), Arc de Triomphe (1.2 million), Centre Pompidou (1.2 million), Mont-Saint-Michel (1 million), Château de Chambord (711,000), Sainte-Chapelle (683,000), Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg (549,000), Puy de Dôme (500,000), Musée Picasso (441,000), Carcassonne (362,000).

text: Arms industry[edit]

text: The French arms industry's main customer, for whom they mainly build warships, guns, nuclear weapons and equipment, is the French government.

text: Record high defence expenditure (currently at €35 billion), which was considerably increased under the government of Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin, goes largely to the French arms industries.

text: During the 2000–2015 period, France was the fourth largest weapons exporter in the world[36][37]

text: French manufacturers export great quantities of weaponry to the United Arab Emirates, Brazil, Greece, India, Pakistan, Taiwan, Singapore and many others.

text: It was reported that in 2015, French arms sales internationally amounted to 17.4 billion U.S. dollars,[38] more than double the figure of 2014.[39] Vice News explained that "While the United Kingdom has lapsed somewhat in this regard, France has maintained a high-level of production of military equipment for land, air, and sea defense – an expensive approach that relies on the export of arms and technology."[40]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Transportation in France relies on one of the densest networks in the world with 146 km of road and 6.2 km of rail lines per 100 km2. It is built as a web with Paris at its center.[41] The highly subsidised rail transport network makes up a relatively small portion of travel, most of which is done by car. However the high-speed TGV trains make up a large proportion of long-distance travel, partially because intercity buses were prevented from operating until 2015.

text: France also boasts a number of seaports and harbours, including Bayonne, Bordeaux, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Brest, Calais, Cherbourg-Octeville, Dunkerque, Fos-sur-Mer, La Pallice, Le Havre, Lorient, Marseille, Nantes, Nice, Paris, Port-la-Nouvelle, Port-Vendres, Roscoff, Rouen, Saint-Nazaire, Saint-Malo, Sète, Strasbourg and Toulon. There are approximately 478 airports in France (1999 est.) and by a 2005 estimate, there are three heliports. 288 of the airports have paved runways, with the remaining 199 being unpaved. The national carrier of France is Air France, a full service global airline which flies to 20 domestic destinations and 150 international destinations in 83 countries (including Overseas departments and territories of France) across all 6 major continents.

text: Labour market[edit]

text: According to a 2011 report by the American Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), France's GDP per capita at purchasing power parity is similar to that of the UK, with just over US$35,000 per head.[42] To explain why French per capita GDP is lower than that of the United States, the economist Paul Krugman stated that "French workers are roughly as productive as US workers", but that the French have allegedly a lower workforce participation rate and "when they work, they work fewer hours". According to Krugman, the difference is due to the French making "different choices about retirement and leisure".[43]

text: Keynesian economists sought out different solutions to the unemployment issue in France, and their theories led to the introduction of the 35-hour workweek law in 1999. Between 2004 and 2008, the government attempted to combat unemployment with supply-side reforms, but was met with fierce resistance;[44] the contrat nouvelle embauche and the contrat première embauche (which allowed more flexible contracts) were of particular concern, and both were eventually repealed.[45] The Sarkozy government used the revenu de solidarité active (in-work benefits) to redress the allegedly negative effect of the revenu minimum d'insertion (unemployment benefits which do not depend on previous contributions, unlike normal unemployment benefits in France) on the incentive to accept even jobs which are insufficient to earn a living.[46]

text: French employment rates for 15–64 years is one of the lowest of the OECD countries: in 2012, only 71% of the French population aged 15–64 years were in employment, compared to 74% in Japan, 77% in the UK, 73% in the US and 77% in Germany.[47] This gap is due to the low employment rate for 15–24 years old: 38% in 2012, compared to 47% in the OECD. Neoliberal economists attribute the low employment rate, particularly evident among young people, to allegedly high minimum wages that would prevent low productivity workers from easily entering the labour market.[48]

text: A December 2012 New York Times article reported on an allegedly "floating generation" in France that formed part of the 14 million unemployed young Europeans documented by the Eurofound research agency.[49] In the same article, Anne Sonnet, a senior economist studying unemployment at the OECD claimed that nearly two million young people in France had given up looking for employment at that time, while French labour minister Michel Sapin said that 82 percent of people hired were only on temporary contracts. Sapin further explained that, in his opinion, the challenge at that time was to create a more flexible system, in which greater trust existed between unions and companies, and "partial unemployment" was accommodated during difficult periods. The so-called floating generation was attributed to an allegedly dysfunctional system: "an elitist educational tradition that does not integrate graduates into the work force, a rigid labour market that is hard to enter for newcomers, and a tax system that makes it expensive for companies to hire full-time employees and both difficult and expensive to lay them off".[50] In July 2013, the unemployment rate for France was 11%.[51]

text: In early April 2014, employers' federations and unions negotiated an agreement with technology and consultancy employers, as employees had been experiencing an extension of their work time through smartphone communication outside of official working hours. Under a new, legally binding labour agreement, around 250,000 employees will avoid handling work-related matters during their leisure time and their employers will, in turn, refrain from engaging with staff during this time.[52]

text: Everyday, about 80,000 French citizens are commuting to work in neighbouring Luxembourg, making it the biggest cross-border workforce group in the whole of the European Union.[53] They are attracted by much higher wages for the different job groups than in their own country and the lack of skilled labour in the booming Luxembourgish economy.

text: External trade[edit]

text: France is the second-largest trading nation in Europe (after Germany).[54] Its foreign trade balance for goods had been in surplus from 1992 until 2001, reaching $25.4 billion (25.4 G$) in 1998; however, the French balance of trade was hit by the economic downturn, and went into the red in 2000, reaching a US$15bn deficit in 2003. Total trade for 1998 amounted to $730 billion, or 50% of GDP—imports plus exports of goods and services. Trade with European Union countries accounts for 60% of French trade.

text: In 1998, US–France trade stood at about $47 billion – goods only. According to French trade data, US exports accounted for 8.7% – about $25 billion – of France's total imports. US industrial chemicals, aircraft and engines, electronic components, telecommunications, computer software, computers and peripherals, analytical and scientific instrumentation, medical instruments and supplies, broadcasting equipment, and programming and franchising are particularly attractive to French importers.

text: The principal French exports to the US are aircraft and engines, beverages, electrical equipment, chemicals, cosmetics, luxury products and perfume. France is the ninth-largest trading partner of the US.

text:
French export destinations in 2006.

International trade balance of France in percentage of the GDP since January 1975.
  Exports
  Imports
  Trade surplus
  Trade deficit

France export by products in 2014 from MIT Atlas of Economic Complexity.

text: Régions economy[edit]

text: The economic disparity between French regions is not as high as that in other European countries such as the UK, Italy or Germany, and higher than in countries like Sweden or Denmark, or even Spain. However, Europe's wealthiest and second largest regional economy, Ile-de-France (the region surrounding Paris), has long profited from the capital city's economic hegemony.

text: The most important régions are Ile-de-France (world's 4th and Europe 2nd wealthiest and largest regional economy), Rhône-Alpes (Europe's 5th largest regional economy thanks to its services, high-technologies, chemical industries, wines, tourism), Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (services, industry, tourism and wines), Nord-Pas-de-Calais (European transport hub, services, industries) and Pays de la Loire (green technologies, tourism).

text: Régions like Alsace, which has a rich past in industry (machine tool) and currently stands as a high income service-specialized region, are very wealthy without ranking very high in absolute terms.

text: The rural areas are mainly in Auvergne, Limousin, and Centre-Val de Loire, and wine production accounts for a significant proportion of the economy in Aquitaine (Bordeaux (or claret)), Burgundy, and champagne produced in Champagne-Ardennes.

text: List of French régions ranked by GDP total and per capita.

text:
Rank
Region
GDP
(in million euros, 2009)
GDP per capita
(euros, 2009)
GDP
(in million US Dollars, 2009)
GDP per capita
(US Dollars, 2009)

1
Île-de-France
552,052
51,101
769,705
69,973

2
Rhône-Alpes
181,810
29,420
253,491
41,019

3
Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
138,002
27,855
192,411
38,837

4
Nord-Pas de Calais
96,839
24,025
135,019
33,497

5
Pays de la Loire
94,032
26,481
131,105
36,921

6
Aquitaine
85,693
26,710
119,478
37,241

7
Brittany
81,632
25,739
113,816
35,887

8
Midi-Pyrénées
76,522
26,628
106,692
37,126

9
Centre-Val de Loire
65,173
25,571
90,868
35,653

10
Languedoc-Roussillon
60,523
22,984
84,385
32,046

11
Lorraine
55,396
23,653
77,237
32,978

12
Alsace
50,701
27,322
70,690
38,094

13
Upper Normandy
48,555
26,599
67,698
37,086

14
Picardy
43,725
22,894
60,964
31,920

15
Poitou-Charentes
42,379
24,046
59,087
33,526

16
Burgundy
41,805
25,516
58,287
35,576

17
Champagne-Ardenne
35,779
26,768
49,885
37,322

18
Lower Normandy
34,869
23,737
48,617
33,096

19
Auvergne
33,174
24,680
46,253
34,410

20
Franche-Comté
28,083
24,042
39,155
33,521

21
Limousin
17,509
23,637
24,412
32,956

22
Corsica
7,279
23,800
10,149
33,183

tag: table

text: Source : INSEE. Source : fxtop.com.

text: Departements economy and cities[edit]

text: Departemental income inequalities[edit]

text: In terms of income, important inequalities can be observed among the French départements.

text: According to the 2008 statistics of the INSEE, the Yvelines is the highest income département of the country with an average income of €4,750 per month. Hauts-de-Seine comes second, Essonne third, Paris fourth, Seine-et Marne fifth.

text: Ile-de-France is the wealthiest region in the country with an average income of €4,228 per month (and is also the wealthiest region in Europe) compared to €3,081 at the national level. Alsace comes second, Rhône-Alpes third, Picardy fourth, and Upper Normandy fifth.

text: The poorest parts of France are the French overseas départements, French Guiana being the poorest département with an average household income of €1,826. In metropolitan France it is Creuse in the Limousin region which comes bottom of the list with an average household income of €1,849 per month.[55]

text: Urban income inequalities[edit]

text: Huge inequalities can also be found among cities. In the Paris metropolitan area, significant differences exist between the higher standard of living of Paris Ouest and lower standard of living in areas in the northern banlieues of Paris such as Seine-Saint-Denis.

text: For cities of over 50,000 inhabitants, Neuilly-sur-Seine, a western suburb of Paris, is the wealthiest city in France with an average household income of €5,939, and 35% earning more than €8,000 per month.[56] But within Paris, four arrondissements surpass wealthy Neuilly-sur-Seine in household income: the 6th, the 7th, the 8th and the 16th; the 8th "arrondissement" being the wealthiest district in France (the other three following it closely as 2nd, 3rd and 4th wealthiest ones).

text: Wealth[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: In 2010, the French had an estimated wealth of US$14.0 trillion for a population of 63 million.[57]

text:
In terms of aggregate wealth, the French are the wealthiest Europeans, accounting for more than a quarter of wealthiest European households.[58] Globally, the French nation ranks fourth-wealthiest,.[59][60]
In 2010, wealth per French adult was a little higher than $290,000, down from a pre-crisis high of $300,000 in 2007. According to this ratio, French are the wealthiest in Europe. The tax on wealth is paid by 1.1M of people in France, the payment of this tax starts when a €1.3M of assets is reached (there is a discount on the principal residence value).
Almost every French household has at least $1,000 in assets.[61] Proportionally, there are twice as many French with assets of over $10,000 and four times as many French with assets of over $100,000 than the world average.[62]
The French are also among the least indebted populations in the developed world with personal debt accounting for "little more than 10% of household assets".[63]

text: Millionaires[edit]

text: France has the third highest number of millionaires in Europe as of 2015. There were 1.8 million millionaire households (measured in terms of US dollars) living in France in 2015, behind the UK (2.4M) and Germany (1.5M).[64]

text: The world's wealthiest woman and France's richest person is French L'Oreal cosmetic empire heiress Liliane Bettencourt. The wealthiest man in France is the LVMH CEO and owner Bernard Arnault.


document_title: U and non-U English

question_text: who described words and phrases as u or non-u

text: U and non-U English

text: History[edit]

text: The debate[clarification needed] was set in motion in 1954 by the British linguist Alan S. C. Ross, professor of linguistics in the University of Birmingham. He coined the terms "U" and "non-U" in an article, on the differences that social class makes in English language usage, published in a Finnish professional linguistics journal.[1]  Though his article included differences in pronunciation and writing styles, it was his remark about differences of vocabulary that received the most attention.

text: The English author Nancy Mitford was alerted and immediately took up the usage in an essay, "The English Aristocracy", which Stephen Spender published in his magazine Encounter in 1954. Mitford provided a glossary of terms used by the upper classes (some appear in the table at right), unleashing an anxious national debate about English class-consciousness and snobbery, which involved a good deal of soul-searching that itself provided fuel for the fires. The essay was reprinted, with contributions by Evelyn Waugh, John Betjeman, and others, as well as a "condensed and simplified version"[2] of Ross' original article, as Noblesse Oblige: an Enquiry into the Identifiable Characteristics of the English Aristocracy[3] in 1956. Betjeman's poem How to Get on in Society  concluded the collection.

text: The issue of U and non-U could have been taken lightheartedly, but at the time many took it very seriously. This was a reflection of the anxieties of the middle class in Britain of the 1950s, recently emerged from post-war austerities. In particular the media used it as a launch pad for many stories, making much more out of it than was first intended. In the meantime, the idea that one might "improve oneself" by adopting the culture and manner of one's "betters", instinctively assented to before World War II, was now greeted with resentment.[4]

text: Some of the terms and the ideas behind them were largely obsolete by the late 20th century, when, in the United Kingdom, reverse snobbery led younger members of the British upper and middle classes to adopt elements of working class speech (see: Estuary English and Mockney).  Yet many, if not most, of the differences remain very much current, and therefore perfectly usable as class indicators.[5]


document_title: Skin of my teeth

question_text: where did skin of your teeth come from

question_tokens: where did skin of your teeth come from

text: Skin of my teeth

text: Skin of my teeth (Hebrew: ע֣וֹר שִׁנָּֽי ‘ō-wr šin-nāy) is a phrase from the Bible. In Job 19:20, the King James Version of the Bible says, "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth." In the Geneva Bible, the phrase is rendered as "I have escaped with the skinne of my tethe."[1]

text: In modern times, "by the skin of my teeth" is used to describe a situation from which one barely managed to escape.

text: Cultural references to the phrase[edit]

text:
Skin o' My Teeth—Megadeth used this phrase as a song name in their 1992 album, Countdown to Extinction, referring to the theme of a failed suicide attempt.
The Skin of Our Teeth—A play by Thornton Wilder with multiple Biblical allusions.
Skin o' My Tooth—A book by Baroness Emma Orczy in which the phrase is a nickname of the main character, a lawyer. The nickname is given by a client who says that he was freed "by the skin o' my tooth."


document_title: Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571

question_text: where did the rugby team crash in the andes

text: Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571

text: Background[edit]

text: On 13 October 1972, a chartered Uruguayan Air Force twin turboprop Fairchild FH-227D was flying over the Andes carrying the Old Christians Club rugby union team from Montevideo, Uruguay, to play a match in Santiago, Chile. The trip had begun the day before when the Fairchild departed from Carrasco International Airport, but inclement mountain weather forced an overnight stop in Mendoza, Argentina. At the Fairchild's ceiling of 9,000 metres (30,000 ft), the aircraft could not fly directly from Mendoza, over the Andes, to Santiago, in large part because of the weather. Instead, the pilots had to fly south from Mendoza parallel to the Andes, then turn west towards the mountains, fly through a low pass (Planchon), cross the mountains, and emerge on the Chilean side of the Andes south of Curicó before finally turning north and initiating descent into Santiago.

text: Dipping into the cloud cover while still over the mountains, the Fairchild soon crashed on an unnamed peak (later called Cerro Seler, also known as Glaciar de las Lágrimas or Glacier of Tears), between Cerro Sosneado and Volcán Tinguiririca, straddling the remote mountainous border between Chile and Argentina. The aircraft clipped the peak at 4,200 metres (13,800 ft), severing the right wing, which was thrown back with such force that it cut off the vertical stabilizer, leaving a gaping hole in the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft then clipped a second peak which severed the left wing and left the aircraft as just a fuselage flying through the air. One of the propellers sliced through the fuselage as the wing it was attached to was severed. The fuselage hit the ground and slid down a steep mountain slope before finally coming to rest in a snow bank. The location of the crash site is 34°45′54″S 70°17′11″W / 34.76500°S 70.28639°W / -34.76500; -70.28639, in the Argentine municipality of Malargüe (Malargüe Department, Mendoza Province).

text: Early days[edit]

text: Of the 45 people on the aircraft, 12 died in the crash or shortly thereafter; another five died by the next morning; and one more succumbed to injuries on the eighth day. The remaining 27 faced severe difficulties surviving in the freezing mountains at such a high altitude. Many had suffered injuries from the crash, including broken legs from the aircraft's seats piling together. The survivors lacked equipment such as cold-weather clothing and crampons (footwear) suitable for the area, mountaineering goggles to prevent snow blindness (although one of the eventual survivors, 24-year-old Adolfo "Fito" Strauch, devised a couple of sunglasses by using the sun visors in the pilot's cabin, which helped protect the survivors' eyes from the sun), and medical supplies, and the death of Dr. Francisco Nicola left a first and a second year medical student who had survived the crash in charge to improvise splints and braces with salvaged parts of what remained of the aircraft.

text: Search efforts[edit]

text: Search parties from three countries[which?] looked for the missing aircraft, but the initial search was cancelled after eight days. Since the aircraft was white, it blended in with the snow, making it invisible from the sky. At one point, the survivors tried to use several sticks of lipstick recovered from the luggage to write an SOS on the roof of the aircraft but abandoned the effort after it became apparent that they lacked the necessary lipstick to make letters that would be plainly recognizable from the air. The survivors found a small transistor radio on the aircraft, and Roy Harley first heard the news that the search was cancelled on their 11th day on the mountain. Piers Paul Read's book Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors (based upon interviews with the survivors) described the moments after this discovery:

text:
“
The others who had clustered around Roy, upon hearing the news, began to sob and pray, all except Parrado, who looked calmly up at the mountains which rose to the west. Gustavo [Coco] Nicolich came out of the aircraft and, seeing their faces, knew what they had heard… [Nicolich] climbed through the hole in the wall of suitcases and rugby shirts, crouched at the mouth of the dim tunnel, and looked at the mournful faces which were turned towards him. 'Hey boys,' he shouted, 'there's some good news! We just heard on the radio. They've called off the search.' Inside the crowded aircraft there was silence. As the hopelessness of their predicament enveloped them, they wept. 'Why the hell is that good news?' Paez shouted angrily at Nicolich. 'Because it means,' [Nicolich] said, 'that we're going to get out of here on our own.' The courage of this one boy prevented a flood of total despair.[2]
”

text: Cannibalism[edit]

text: The survivors had a small amount of food: a few chocolate bars, assorted snacks, and several bottles of wine. During the days following the crash, they divided up this food in very small amounts to make their meager supply last as long as possible. Fito Strauch devised a way to obtain water by using metal from the seats and placing snow on it. The snow melted in the sun and dripped into empty wine bottles.

text: Even with this strict rationing, their food stock dwindled quickly. There were no natural vegetation or animals on the snow-covered mountain.

text: The group survived by collectively deciding to eat flesh from the bodies of their dead comrades. This decision was not taken lightly, as most of the dead were classmates, close friends, or even relatives. In his memoir, Miracle in the Andes: 72 Days on the Mountain and My Long Trek Home (2006), Nando Parrado comments on this decision:

text:
“
At high altitude, the body's caloric needs are astronomical ... we were starving in earnest, with no hope of finding food, but our hunger soon grew so voracious that we searched anyway ...again and again we scoured the fuselage in search of crumbs and morsels. We tried to eat strips of leather torn from pieces of luggage, though we knew that the chemicals they'd been treated with would do us more harm than good. We ripped open seat cushions hoping to find straw, but found only inedible upholstery foam ... Again and again I came to the same conclusion: unless we wanted to eat the clothes we were wearing, there was nothing here but aluminum, plastic, ice, and rock.[3]
”

text: All of the passengers were Roman Catholic. According to Read, some rationalized the act of necrotic cannibalism as equivalent to the ritual of Holy Communion, or justified it according to a Bible verse (John 15:13): "no man hath greater love than this: that he lay down his life for his friends"). Others initially had reservations, though after realizing that it was their only means of staying alive, changed their minds a few days later. There are reports that the only surviving female passenger, Liliana, although not seriously injured in the crash, was the last survivor to initially refuse eating the human flesh due to her strong religious convictions. She later began eating after being convinced by her husband, Javier, and the other survivors – though she died shortly thereafter in the avalanche.[citation needed]

text: Avalanche[edit]

text: On the afternoon of 29 October, an avalanche cascaded down on the survivors as they slept in the fuselage, killing eight of the initial survivors, among them the last surviving female passenger, Liliana Methol, the wife of survivor Javier Methol. For three days the others survived in an appallingly confined space since the aircraft was buried under several feet of snow. Nando Parrado was able to poke a hole in the roof of the fuselage with a metal pole, providing ventilation.

text: Hard decisions[edit]

text: Before the avalanche, a few of the survivors became insistent that their only way of survival would be to climb over the mountains themselves and search for help. Because of the co-pilot's assertion that the aircraft had passed Curicó (which was completely wrong, the real position was more than 55 miles (89 km) to the east deep in the Andes), the group assumed the Chilean countryside was just a few miles away to the west. The aircraft had crashed inside Argentina, and unknown to the survivors there was an abandoned hotel named the Hotel Termas Sosneado just 18 miles (29 km) east of them. Although the hotel had been closed since 1953, and the building was in ruins, there is a hot spring there, and the walls that remained standing might have provided some shelter. On the other hand, there were no supplies at the hotel, and the trek would have taken 1–2 days, perhaps exhausting the survivors even further. Several brief expeditions were made in the immediate vicinity of the aircraft in the first few weeks after the crash, but they found that a combination of altitude sickness, dehydration, snow blindness, malnourishment, and the extreme cold of the nights made climbing any significant distance an impossible task.

text: Therefore, it was decided that a group would be chosen, and then allocated the most rations of food and the warmest of clothes, and spared the daily manual labour around the crash site that was essential for the group's survival, so that the chosen might build their strength. Although several survivors were determined to be on the expedition team no matter what, including Nando Parrado and Roberto Canessa, one of the two medical students, others were less willing or unsure of their ability to withstand such a physically exhausting ordeal. Numa Turcatti and Antonio Vizintin were chosen to accompany Canessa and Parrado. At Canessa's urging, they waited nearly seven days, to allow for the arrival of summer, and with it higher temperatures.

text: Although they were hoping to get to Chile, a large mountain lay due west of the crash site, blocking any effort they made to walk in that direction. Therefore, they initially headed east, hoping that at some point the valley they were in would make a U-turn and allow them to start walking west. After several hours of walking east, the trio unexpectedly found the tail section of the aircraft, which was still largely intact. Within and surrounding the tail were numerous suitcases belonging to the passengers, containing cigarettes, candy, clean clothing and even some comic books. The group decided to camp that night inside the tail section and continue east the next morning. However, on the second night of the expedition, which was their first night sleeping outside exposed to the elements, the group nearly froze to death. After some debate the next morning, they decided that it would be wiser to return to the tail, remove the aircraft's batteries, and bring them back to the fuselage so they might power up the radio and make an SOS call to Santiago for help.

text: Radio[edit]

text: Upon returning to the tail, the trio found that the batteries were too heavy to take back to the fuselage, which lay uphill from the tail section. They decided instead that it would be more effective to return to the fuselage and disconnect the radio system from the aircraft's electrical mainframe, take it back to the tail, and connect it to the batteries. One of the other team members, Roy Harley, was an amateur electronics enthusiast, and they recruited his help in the endeavour. Unknown to any of the team members, the aircraft's electrical system used alternating current while the batteries in the tail produced direct current, making the plan futile from the beginning. After several days of trying to make the radio work, they gave up and returned to the fuselage with the knowledge that they would have to climb out of the mountains if they were to have any hope of being rescued.

text: Sleeping bag[edit]

text: It was now apparent that the only way out was to climb over the mountains to the west. They also realized that unless they found a way to survive the freezing temperature of the nights, a trek was impossible. It was at this point that the idea for a sleeping bag was raised.

text: In his book, Miracle in the Andes: 72 Days on the Mountain and My Long Trek Home, Nando Parrado would comment 34 years later upon the making of the sleeping bag:

text:
“
The second challenge would be to protect ourselves from exposure, especially after sundown. At this time of year we could expect daytime temperatures well above freezing, but the nights were still cold enough to kill us, and we knew now that we couldn't expect to find shelter on the open slopes. We needed a way to survive the long nights without freezing, and the quilted batts of insulation we'd taken from the tail section gave us our solution ... as we brainstormed about the trip, we realized we could sew the patches together to create a large warm quilt. Then we realized that by folding the quilt in half and stitching the seams together, we could create an insulated sleeping bag large enough for all three expeditionaries to sleep in. With the warmth of three bodies trapped by the insulating cloth, we might be able to weather the coldest nights.
Carlitos [Páez] took on the challenge. His mother had taught him to sew when he was a boy, and with the needles and thread from the sewing kit found in his mother's cosmetic case, he began to work ... to speed the progress, Carlitos taught others to sew, and we all took our turns ... Coche [Inciarte], Gustavo [Zerbino], and Fito [Strauch] turned out to be our best and fastest tailors.[4]

”

text: After the sleeping bag was completed and Numa Turcatti died from an illness, the hesitant Canessa was finally persuaded to set out, and the three men took to the mountain on 12 December.[citation needed]

text: 12 December[edit]

text: On 12 December 1972, two months after the crash, Parrado, Canessa, and Vizintín began their trek up the mountain. Parrado took the lead and often had to be called to slow down, although the thin oxygen made it difficult for all of them. It was still bitterly cold, but the sleeping bag allowed them to live through the nights. In the film Stranded, Canessa called the first night during the ascent, when they had difficulty finding a place to use the sleeping bag, the worst night of his life.

text: On the third day of the trek, Parrado reached the top of the mountain before the other two. Stretched before him as far as the eye could see were more mountains. In fact, he had just climbed one of the mountains (as high as 4,650 metres (15,260 ft)) which forms the border between Argentina and Chile, meaning the trekkers were still tens of kilometres from the green valleys of Chile. After spying a small "Y" in the distance, Parrado gauged that a way out of the mountains must lie beyond and refused to give up hope. When he and Canessa realized the hike was going to take more time than they had originally planned for, and they were running out of food, they sent Vizintín back to the crash site. Since the return was entirely downhill, it only took him one hour to get back to the fuselage using a makeshift sleigh.

text: Search for help[edit]

text: Parrado and Canessa hiked for several more days. First, they were able to reach the narrow valley that Parrado had seen on the top of the mountain, where they found the bed of Río San José, leading to Río Portillo which meets Río Azufre at Maitenes. They followed the river and reached the end of the snowline. Gradually, there appeared more and more signs of human presence, first some signs of camping, and finally on the ninth day, some cows. When they rested that evening they were very tired, and Canessa seemed unable to proceed further. As Parrado was gathering wood to build a fire, Canessa noticed what looked like a man on a horse at the other side of the river, and yelled at the near-sighted Parrado to run down to the banks. At first it seemed that Canessa had been imagining the man on the horse, but eventually they saw three men on horseback. Divided by the Portillo River, Nando and Canessa tried to convey their situation, but the noise of the river made communication difficult.

text: One of the horsemen, a Chilean arriero named Sergio Catalán, shouted, "Tomorrow!" The trekkers knew at this point they would be saved and settled to sleep by the river. During the evening dinner, Catalán discussed what he had seen with the other arrieros who were staying in a little summer ranch called Los Maitenes. Someone mentioned that several weeks before, the father of Carlos Paez, who was desperately searching for any possible news about the aircraft, had asked them about the Andes crash. The arrieros could not imagine that anyone could still be alive. The next day, Catalán took some loaves of bread and went back to the riverbank. There he found the two men still on the other side of the river, on their knees and asking for help. Catalán threw them the loaves, which they immediately ate, and a pen and paper tied to a rock. Parrado wrote a note telling about the aircraft crash and asking for help. Then he tied the paper to a rock and threw it back to Catalán, who read it and gave them a sign that he understood.

text: Catalán rode on horseback for many hours westwards to bring help. During the trip he saw another arriero on the south side of Río Azufre, and asked him to reach the boys and to bring them to Los Maitenes. Then, he followed the river to its intersection with the Río Tinguiririca, where after passing a bridge he was able to reach the narrow route that linked the village of Puente Negro to the holiday resort of Termas del Flaco. Here, he was able to stop a truck and reach the police station at Puente Negro, where the news was finally dispatched to the Army command in San Fernando, Chile and then to Santiago. Meanwhile, Parrado and Canessa were rescued and reached Los Maitenes, where they were fed and allowed to rest.

text: The following morning, the rescue expedition left Santiago and, after a stop in San Fernando, moved eastwards. Two helicopters had to fly in the fog but reached a place near Los Maitenes just when Parrado and Canessa were passing on horseback while going to Puente Negro. Parrado was recruited to fly back to the mountain in order to guide the helicopters to the remaining survivors. The news that people had survived the crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 on 13 October had also leaked to the international press, and a flood of reporters began to appear along the narrow route from Puente Negro to Termas del Flaco. The reporters hoped to be able to see and interview Parrado and Canessa about the crash and their survival ordeal.

text: Mountain rescue[edit]

text: In the morning of the day when the rescue started, those remaining at the crash site heard on their radio that Parrado and Canessa had been successful in finding help and that afternoon, 22 December 1972, two helicopters carrying search and rescue climbers arrived. The expedition (with Parrado on board) was unable to reach the crash site until the afternoon due to the difficulty of air travel through the Andes. The weather was very poor, and the two helicopters were able to take only half of the survivors. They departed, leaving the rescue team and remaining survivors at the crash site to once again sleep in the fuselage, until a second expedition with helicopters could arrive the following morning. The second expedition arrived at daybreak on 23 December with the remaining survivors. They were taken to hospitals in Santiago for evaluation and were treated for a variety of conditions, including altitude sickness, dehydration, frostbite, broken bones, scurvy, and malnutrition.

text: Timeline[edit]

text: October 1972[edit]

text: November 1972[edit]

text: December 1972[edit]

text: Passengers and Crew[edit]

text: Crew[edit]

text:
Colonel Julio César Ferradas, Pilot (died in crash)
Lieutenant Colonel Dante Héctor Lagurara, Co-Pilot (died on first night)
Lieutenant Ramón Martínez, Navigator (fell to death from aircraft)
Sergeant Ovidio Joaquín Ramírez, Flight attendant (fell to death from aircraft)
Sergeant Carlos Roque, Mechanic (died in avalanche)

text: Passengers[edit]

text:
Survivors

José Pedro Algorta
Roberto Canessa*
Alfredo Delgado
Daniel Fernández
Roberto "Bobby" Francois
Roy Harley*
José "Coche" Luis Inciarte
Álvaro Mangino
Javier Methol
Carlos Páez Rodríguez*
Nando Parrado*
Ramón Sabella
Adolfo "Fito" Strauch
Eduardo Strauch
Antonio "Tintin" Vizintín*
Gustavo Zerbino*

Died in fall from aircraft

Gastón Costemalle*
Alexis Hounié*
Guido Magri*
Daniel Shaw*
Carlos Valeta

Died in crash or soon afterward

Dr. Francisco Nicola, Team physician
Esther Horta Pérez de Nicola
Eugenia Dolgay Diedug de Parrado
Fernándo Vázquez

Died during first night

Francisco Abal*
Felipe Maquirriain
Julio Martínez-Lamas*

Died on second day

Graciela Augusto Gumila de Mariani

Died on eighth day

Susana Parrado

Died in avalanche

Daniel Maspons*
Juan Carlos Menéndez
Liliana Navarro Petraglia de Methol
Gustavo Nicolich*
Marcelo Pérez* (Captain of the rugby team)
Enrique Platero*
Diego Storm
Sergeant Carlos Roque (Mechanic)

Died later

Arturo Nogueira* (34th day)
Rafael Echavarren (37th day)
Numa Turcatti (60th day)

text: *Rugby players

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: When first rescued, the survivors initially explained that they had eaten some cheese they had carried with them, planning to discuss the details in private with their families. They were pushed into the public eye when photos were leaked to the press and sensational articles were published.

text: The survivors held a press conference on 28 December at Stella Maris College in Montevideo, where they recounted the events of the past 72 days.[6] (Over the years, they also participated in the publication of two books, two films, and an official website about the event.)

text: The rescuers and a Chilean priest later returned to the crash site and buried the bodies of the dead, 80 m (260 ft) from the aircraft. Close to the grave they built a stone pile with an iron cross. They doused the remains of the fuselage in gasoline and set it alight.[7]

text: Books[edit]

text:
Blair, Clay, Jr. (1973). Survive!. American Heritage Center – Virtual Exhibits. Retrieved 14 October 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Read, Piers Paul (1974). Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors.  Read's book, based on interview of the survivors and their families, was a critical success and remains a highly popular work of non-fiction. In the book's opening, the survivors explain why they wanted it to be written:

text:
“
We decided that this book should be written and the truth known because of the many rumors about what happened in the cordillera. We dedicate this story of our suffering and solidarity to those friends who died and to their parents who, at the time when we most needed it, received us with love and understanding.
”

text:
Harper published a reprint in 2005, re-titled: Alive: Sixteen Men, Seventy-two Days, and Insurmountable Odds—The Classic Adventure of Survival in the Andes. It includes a revised introduction as well as interviews with Piers Paul Read, Coche Inciarte, and Álvaro Mangino.

34 years after the rescue, Nando Parrado published the book Miracle in the Andes: 72 Days on the Mountain and My Long Trek Home (with Vince Rause), which has received positive reviews. In this text, Parrado also touches upon public reaction to this event:[8]

text:
“
In fact, our survival had become a matter of national pride. Our ordeal was being celebrated as a glorious adventure… I didn't know how to explain to them that there was no glory in those mountains. It was all ugliness and fear and desperation, and the obscenity of watching so many innocent people die. I was also shaken by the sensationalism with which many in the press covered the matter of what we had eaten to survive. Shortly after our rescue, officials of the Catholic Church announced that according to church doctrine we had committed no sin by eating the flesh of the dead. As Roberto had argued on the mountain, they told the world that the sin would have been to allow ourselves to die. More satisfying for me was the fact that many of the parents of the boys who died had publicly expressed their support for us, telling the world they understood and accepted what we had done to survive … despite these gestures, many news reports focused on the matter of our diet, in reckless and exploitive ways. Some newspapers ran lurid headlines above grisly front-page photos. (247–8)
”

text: Canessa, Roberto (Survivor) (2016). I Had to Survive: How a Plane Crash in the Andes Inspired My Calling to Save Lives.  In this book, Canessa recalls how the plane crash helped him learn many life lessons about survival, and how his time in the mountains helped renew his motivation to become a doctor. Today, Canessa is a successful pediatric cardiologist in Uruguay.[9]

text: In art, entertainment, and media[edit]

text: Films and television[edit]

text:
Survive! (1976), also known as Supervivientes de los Andes, is a Mexican feature film production directed by René Cardona, Jr.[10] and based on Blair's book, Survive! (1973)[11]
Alive (1993) is a feature film directed by Frank Marshall, narrated by John Malkovich, and starring Ethan Hawke, based on Read's book Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors. Nando Parrado served as a technical adviser to the film. Additionally, Carlitos Páez and Ramon "Moncho" Sabella visited the fuselage set during the production to aid with the historical accuracy of the set, and to advise the actors on how events unfolded.
Alive: 20 Years Later (1993) is a documentary film produced, directed, and written by Jill Fullerton-Smith and narrated by Martin Sheen. It explores the lives of the survivors 20 years after the crash and discusses their participation in the production of Alive: The Miracle of the Andes.
Stranded: I Have Come from a Plane That Crashed on the Mountains (2007), written and directed by Gonzalo Arijón, is a documentary film interlaced with dramatised scenes. All the survivors are interviewed, along with some of their family members and people involved with the rescue operation, and an expedition in which the survivors return to the crash site is documented. The film premiered at the 2007 International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam, Netherlands and received the Joris Ivens Award.[12] This film appeared on PBS Independent Lens as "STRANDED: The Andes Plane Crash Survivors" in May 2009.[13]
"Trapped: Alive in the Andes" (7 November 2007) is a season 1 episode of the National Geographic Channel documentary television series Trapped. The series examines incidents which left survivors trapped in their situation for a period of time.
I Am Alive: Surviving the Andes Plane Crash (20 October 2010) is a documentary film directed by Brad Osborne that first aired on the History Channel. The film mixed reenactments with interviews with the survivors and members of the original search teams. Also interviewed were Piers Paul Read, renowned mountain climber Ed Viesturs, Andes Survivors expert and alpinist Ricardo Peña, historians, expert pilots, and high-altitude medical experts.

text: Music[edit]

text:
Miracle in the Andes, composed and created by musician Adam Young, is a musical score comprising 10 tracks that tell the story of the Andes flight disaster through song.
Punk band GBH included a graphic experience of the passengers on the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 in their song "Passenger On The Menu" (1982).
"The Plot Sickens" was written by the American Metalcore Band Ice Nine Kills on their 2015 album Every Trick in the Book.


document_title: Vibe (comics)

question_text: who is cisco supposed to be in the flash

text: Vibe (comics)

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Vibe first appearance was in Justice League of America Annual #2 (October 1984),[1] and he was created by Gerry Conway and Chuck Patton.[2]

text: Fictional character biography[edit]

text: Paco Ramone or Cisco Ramon began his career as Vibe shortly after Aquaman disbanded the original Justice League. When young Cisco heard that a new Justice League was forming in his own hometown of Detroit, he decided to give up his position as the leader of a local street gang, Los Lobos, to join.[1] What made Ramon a candidate was his metahuman ability to emit powerful vibratory shock waves.

text: Vibe's presence on the team caused Aquaman and the Martian Manhunter to harbor some strong doubts about the new JLA, particularly after he got the League involved in a rumble with a rival gang.[3] Vibe soon proved his mettle during the League's battles against Cadre,[4] Anton Allegro[5] and Amazo.[6] He stayed with the League through the Crisis on Infinite Earths crossover, when his powers played a vital role in defeating Despero.[7]

text: During Darkseid's assault on Earth during the Legends mini-series, the Justice League of America was disbanded and Paco left his JLA comrades to seek the familiar solace of the streets. Vibe was attacked by one of Professor Ivo's androids, and became the first Justice League member to be killed in the line of duty.[8] The Martian Manhunter brought Vibe's body back to the League's mountain sanctuary, where Vibe was laid to rest in a cryogenic chamber. Paco's dead form has twice been resurrected by evil-doers.[9][10]

text: One of Vibe's brothers, Armando Ramon, developed a similar set of vibratory powers.

text: In the Trinity maxi-series, reality is altered, and a living Cisco is shown as a member of The League, an underground version of the Justice League.[11] Soon after Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman return, his head is disintegrated by an energy blast, killing him again.

text: In a Justice League of America tie-in to the "Blackest Night" storyline, Vibe was reanimated as a member of the Black Lantern Corps, rising from his coffin in the Hall of Justice.[12] Alongside the Black Lantern Steel, Vibe attacked his former teammates, Gypsy and Vixen, until Doctor Light destroyed him.[13]

text: The New 52[edit]

text: In DC's Free Comic Book Day 2012 sample during The New 52, a gatefold revealed various characters who will make an appearance in Justice League over the coming year, one of which is Vibe. Geoff Johns revealed that Vibe's return would be explored in greater detail in the third story arc of Justice League.[14] On August 26, 2012, DC announced a new Justice League of America title which would feature Vibe.[15] On November 5, 2012, DC announced that Vibe would star in his own ongoing monthly title.[16] It was written by Andrew Kreisberg and drawn by Pete Woods and debuted in February 2013.[17] In new continuity, Vibe's powers derive from being "caught in the event horizon of a Boom Tube", in which "interdimensional forces rewrote his DNA". Justice League of America's Vibe lasted for ten issues, with the final issue released on December 18, 2013.[18]

text: Another of Vibe's brothers, Dante Ramon, is seen in The New 52.

text: Powers and abilities[edit]

text: Vibe's powers revolve around vibration, frequency and resonance; Vibe's powers enabled him to create shock waves of considerable strength that could shatter concrete or steel. His powers can affect the physical world as seismic vibration (and even Terrakinesis), or the fabric of spacetime (interdimensional, transdimensional and extradimensional portals).

text: Vibe's reintroduction in 2013 redefined his powers as having to do with inter-dimensional physics. Vibe's waves have the power to disrupt the Speed Force, making him one of the few characters who poses a serious threat to the Flash.[19] For this reason, he is recruited into the JLA by Steve Trevor, which exists to guard against the threat of the main Justice League going rogue.[20]

text: Amanda Waller says that "Cisco Ramon might be one of the most powerful super-humans on the planet. He wields vibrational powers that could in theory shake the Earth apart. And he's the only person we know of who can find and track inter-dimensional breaches."[21] He is also undetectable by security cameras.[20]

text: In The Flash 2014 series, Vibe's powers first manifested as precognitive/retrocognitive visions brought-on by touch or by a strong-enough imprint, initially, before the developed further, such as focused waves of concussive, vibrational force, to inter/extradimensional breaches.

text: In addition, his agility is above average (and he was a super breakdancer). Under Batman's secret tutelage, Vibe became a more skilled combatant.[citation needed]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text:
Vibe made several non-voiced appearances in Justice League Unlimited. This version was often seen next to the Detroit League's other members but did not get a major role in any episode. His most prominent action is in the episode "Flashpoint" helping rescue New Mexico's civilians in the aftermath of the Cadmus facility's destruction. He is also shown with fellow Detroit-era members Vixen, Steel and Gypsy in the final 'curtain call' of the series finale "Destroyer".
Vibe made an appearance in his 2-part DC Nation cartoon short "Enter Extremo", voiced by Carlos Alazraqui.

text:
Carlos Valdes portrays Cisco Ramon / Vibe in The CW's Arrowverse. This version of the character is a mechanical engineering genius at S.T.A.R. Labs with known metahuman abilities to detect anomalies within reality and sonic manipulation.

Cisco appears as a recurring character in Arrow, where he helps Oliver Queen, Laurel Lance and the other members of Team Arrow to fight against the criminals, and also offering to them upgrades to their arsenals.
Cisco appears as a series regular in The Flash. He is a part of Team Flash alongside Caitlin Snow and Harrison Wells which support Barry Allen saving lives and fighting crime as the Flash. A talented engineer and creative mind, Cisco builds much of the Flash's equipment and is fond of assigning colorful nicknames to criminal metahumans. He has also has a rocky relationship with his brother Dante Ramon. In season one, he becomes good friends with Barry. Although Cisco initially appears unaffected by the particle accelerator blast which was behind the Flash's and many others' powers, he begins having visions of people in other timelines and thus is a metahuman; Cisco's ability is what helps the team to discover that Wells is actually the Reverse-Flash. In season two, Cisco takes the "Vibe" nickname after embracing his metahuman status. He eventually learns to call upon his powers to a greater degree while the team faces off against the Earth-2 supervillain Zoom, and discovers from his own Earth-2 doppelganger Reverb that he has the latent power to open dimensional portals and emit powerful destructive blasts. He develops these abilities himself thanks to Harry Wells but to a limited degree. In season three, his relationship with Barry is temporally strained after Barry's timeline changes lead to Dante's death. But after he changes history during the Dominators invasion, he realizes that Barry made the exact mistake and reconciles. He also grows more confident in using his powers offensively, to trigger visions, and to open up portals across Central City and to other worlds. As Vibe, he used his powers offensively against opponents (such as the Rival to help Barry, Gypsy to save H.R. Wells from execution, and finally Killer Frost due to Savitar).
Cisco appears in Legends of Tomorrow. He first made a cameo appearance in the episode "Fail-Safe", as part of Martin Stein's dream. Cisco officially debuted on the show in the episode "Invasion!".
Cisco appears in Supergirl. At the end of episode "Medusa",[22] he and Barry arrive at Kara's apartment via interdimensional portal in order to recruit her to fight against the Dominators.

text: Film[edit]

text: Vibe's Earth-3 counterpart Breakdance is shown in the movie Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, voiced by Carlos Alazraqui. He is a member of the Crime Syndicate of America and first appears as part of Owlman's clean-up crew. Breakdance is shown with the other evil counterparts of the Detroit-era Justice League, including Fortuneteller and Vamp.

text: Video games[edit]

text: Vibe appears as playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker.

text: Web series[edit]

text:
Cisco Ramon appears in the animated web series Vixen, voiced by Carlos Valdes. In episode 3, Cisco has been running a modified facial recognition algorithm created by Felicity Smoak at S.T.A.R. Labs in an attempt to locate Meta-humans outside Central City. The software picks up Mari McCabe's encounter with the thugs from episode 1, and Cisco alerts a distracted Barry Allen attempting to locate a missing USB drive containing crime scene statistics. Cisco gives Mari the name Vixen, and tells Barry that she's currently in Detroit before asking him to check out the situation.
Cisco Ramon is the main character in the web series Chronicles of Cisco, reprised by Carlos Valdes, which details Cisco Ramon being alone at S.T.A.R. Labs at night, where he encounters an intruder, Peek-a-Boo.
Vibe is one of the background students in the web series DC Super Hero Girls.


document_title: Take Your Dog to Work Day

question_text: when is bring your dog to work day

question_tokens: when is bring your dog to work day

text: Take Your Dog to Work Day

text: History[edit]

text:
In 1999, PSI held the first Take Your Dog to Work Day in the United States on Friday, June 24. An estimated 300 companies participated nationwide.
In 2000, the now defunct Pets.com purchased the rights to the day. That same year, Pets.com closed its doors as a result of the dot-com crash, and PSI regained the trademark.
In 2001, Pet Sitters International hosted the 3rd Annual Take Your Dog To Work Day event. Ernie, the adopted pet of PSI President Patti Moran, became the first TYDTWDay Poster Dog.
In 2002, a dog named Sandy became the official Poster Dog for PSI's 4th Annual Take Your Dog To Work Day®.
In 2003, Take Your Dog To Work Day celebrated five years of helping to save the lives of homeless pets. More than 5,000 companies joined in the celebration.
In 2005, more than 37,000 dog lovers visited the TYDTWDay website to download information and learn more about the event. Adopted pit bull Chloe, the 2005 Poster Dog, showed the world that all breeds can make great pets.
In 2006, website visits in the month of June increased to more than 52,000 as more and more businesses began opening their doors to employees’ dogs for the day. Hoover Charleston "Roo" McGinnis was the 2006 Poster Dog.
In 2015, PSI celebrated the 17th annual TYDTWDay and revived its 2001 theme, "Because who's ever heard of working like a cat?!," to playfully highlight the joys of dogs in the workplace.
In 2016, PSI and event sponsor Modern Dog magazine encouraged pet lovers to "make it your business to help pets in need" by participating in the 18th annual TYDTWDay.

text: 2018 marks the 20th annual celebration of Take Your Dog To Work Day and the event is scheduled for Friday, June 22.

text: Take Your Dog To Work Day in the News[edit]

text: PSI's annual Take Your Dog To Work Day event has been covered by media outlets across the United States and abroad. Many celebrities, companies and government officials have also posted about the day on social media, including Liam Hemsworth, Barack Obama, Ben & Jerry's and the MLB.


document_title: Second Fleet (Australia)

question_text: when did the second fleet arrive in australia

text: Second Fleet (Australia)

text: Fleet summary[edit]

text:
Ship
Image
Type
Master
Crew
Dep. England
Arr. Sydney
Duration
Male convicts arrived (boarded)
Female convicts arrived (boarded)

Lady Juliana

convict transport
Thomas Edgar
35
29 July 1789
3 June 1790
309 days
n/a
222 (226)

Guardian

converted gun ship to convict transport
Edward Riou

12 September 1789
disabled en route
n/a
20 (25) - see below
n/a

Justinian

storeship

20 January 1790
20 June 1790
151 days

Surprize

converted merchant ship to convict transport
Nicholas Anstis

19 January 1790
26 June 1790
158 days
218 (254)
n/a

Neptune

convict transport
Donald Traill

19 January 1790
27 June 1790
159 days
 ? (421) + 12 from Guardian
 ? (78)

Scarborough

converted transport to convict ship
John Marshall

19 January 1790
28 June 1790
160 days
180 (253) + 8 from Guardian
n/a

TOTAL

859 [114] (973)
300 [4] (304)

text: Origins and history[edit]

text: Lady Juliana sailed before the other convict ships and is not always counted as a member of the Second Fleet. The storeship Justinian did not sail with the convict ships and arrived before them. HMS Guardian set out before the convict ships but struck ice after leaving the Cape of Good Hope, returned to southern Africa, and was wrecked on the coast.

text: Surprize, Neptune, and Scarborough were contracted from the firm Camden, Calvert & King, which undertook to transport, clothe and feed the convicts for a flat fee of £17 7s. 6d per head, whether they landed alive or not. This firm had previously been involved in transporting slaves to North America. The only agents of the Crown in the crew were the naval agent, Lieutenant John Shapcote, and the Captain of the Guard; Camden and Calvert supplied all other crew.[citation needed].

text: The three vessels left England on 19 January 1790, with 1,006 convicts (928 male and 78 female) on board. They made only one stop on the way, at the Cape of Good Hope. Here 20 male convicts, survivors from HMS Guardian, were taken on board. The three vessels made a faster trip than the First Fleet, arriving at Port Jackson in the last week of June 1790, three weeks after Lady Juliana, and one week after the storeship Justinian.[2]

text: The passage was relatively fast, but the mortality rate was the highest in the history of transportation to Australia. Of the 1,038 convicts embarked, 273 died during the voyage (26%) and 486 landed sick.[3]. This sits in stark contrast to the mortality rates reported on the First Fleet where "with nearly an equal number of persons, only 24 had died and not thirty landed sick. The difference can be accounted for only by the comparing the manner in which each fleet was fitted out and conducted."[4]

text: On Neptune the convicts were deliberately starved, kept chained, and frequently refused access to the deck. Scurvy could not be checked. On Scarborough, rations were not deliberately withheld, but a reported mutiny attempt led to the convicts being closely confined below decks.[5]

text: Captain William Hill, commander of the guard, afterwards wrote a strong criticism of the ships' masters stating that “the more they can withhold from the unhappy wretches the more provisions they have to dispose of at a foreign market, and the earlier in the voyage they die, the longer they can draw the deceased's allowance to themselves”.[6]

text: Arrival at Port Jackson[edit]

text: On arrival at Port Jackson, half-naked convicts were lying without bedding, too ill to move. Those unable to walk were slung over the side. All were covered with lice. At least 486 sick were landed (47% of those embarked). Of these, 124 died shortly after they had landed. Of the rest the Rev. Johnson, who went among them as soon as the ships reached port, wrote:[7]

text: The misery I saw amongst them is indescribable ... their heads, bodies, clothes, blankets, were all full of lice. They were wretched, naked, filthy, dirty, lousy, and many of them utterly unable to stand, to creep, or even to stir hand or foot.

text: Governor Phillip noted [8]

text: I will not, sir, dwell on the scene of misery which the hospitals and sick tents exhibited when these people were landed, but it would be want of duty not to say that it was occasioned by the contractors having crowded too many on board these ships, and from their being too much confined during the passage.

text: Among the arrivals on the Second Fleet were D'Arcy Wentworth and his convict mistress Catherine Crowley, on Neptune, and John Macarthur, then a young lieutenant in the New South Wales Corps, and his wife Elizabeth, on Scarborough. Macarthur's eldest son, Edward Macarthur, who accompanied his parents on the Neptune and Scarborough, is believed to be the only person who sailed in the Second Fleet of whom we have a photograph as well as being the last survivor of the voyage (see reference below).

text: When news of the horrors of the Second Fleet reached England, public and official response was shock. An enquiry was held but no attempt was made to arrest Donald Traill, master of Neptune and described as a demented sadist, or bring a public prosecution against him, the other masters, or the firm of contractors. They had already been contracted by the government to prepare the Third Fleet for sailing to Port Jackson in 1791.

text: Traill and his Chief Mate William Ellerington were privately prosecuted for the murder of an unnamed convict, seaman Andrew Anderson and John Joseph, cook. But, after a trial lasting three hours before Sir James Marriott in the Admiralty Court, the jury acquitted both men on all charges "without troubling the Judge to sum up the evidence".