document_title: British Expeditionary Force (World War I)

question_text: who commanded the british expeditionary force in world war one

text: Formation[edit]

text: Under the terms of the Entente Cordiale, the British Army's role in a European war was to embark soldiers of the British Expeditionary Force, which consisted of six infantry divisions and five cavalry brigades that were arranged into I Corps and II Corps. In October 1914, 7th Division arrived in France, forming the basis of III Corps and the cavalry had grown to form the Cavalry Corps of three divisions.[2] By December 1914, the BEF had expanded to such an extent that the First Army and the Second Army were formed.[4]

text: By the end of 1914, after the battles of Mons, Le Cateau, the Aisne and Ypres, the old regular British Army had suffered massive casualties and lost most of its fighting strength but had managed to help stop the German advance.[3]

text: Command structure[edit]

text: The force was commanded by Field Marshal Sir John French until December 1915,[5] when he was replaced by General Sir Douglas Haig.[6] The BEF's Chief of Staff on mobilisation was General Archibald Murray.[7] He was replaced in January 1915 by General William Robertson.[8] Lieutenant-General Launcelot Kiggell then served as Chief of Staff from December 1915 to January 1917 when he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Herbert Lawrence. The two initial Army Corps were commanded by Douglas Haig (I Corps) and Horace Smith-Dorrien (II Corps).[3]

text: Kitchener's New Army[edit]

text: As the Regular Army's strength declined, the numbers were made up, first by the Territorial Force, then by volunteers from Field Marshal Kitchener's New Army.[2] By the end of August 1914, he had raised six new divisions and by March 1915, the number of divisions had increased to 29.[2] The Territorial Force was also expanded, raising second and third line battalions and forming eight new divisions, which supplemented its peacetime strength of 14 divisions.[2] The Third Army was formed in July 1915 and with the influx of troops from Kitchener's volunteers and further reorganisation, the Fourth Army and the Reserve Army, became the Fifth Army in 1916.[2]

text: Growth during the War[edit]

text: The BEF grew from six divisions of British regular army and reserves in 1914, to encompass the British Empire's war effort on the Western front in 1918 and some of its allies. Over the course of the war 5,399,563 men served with the BEF, the average strength being 2,046,901 men.[9]

text: First Army[edit]

text: The First Army was formed on 26 December 1914. Its first commander was Douglas Haig promoted from command of the I Corps. When Haig took over command of the BEF in 1915, the new commander was General Henry Horne. First Army remained in France until the end of the war.[10]

text: Second Army[edit]

text: The Second Army was formed at the same time as the First Army on 26 December 1914. The first commander was Smith–Dorrien promoted from command of the II Corps. In May 1915, Smith–Dorrien was sacked and replaced by General Herbert Plumer. Second Army served in France notably in the Ypres Salient, and later served in Italy between November 1917 and March 1918, then returned to France.[10]

text: Third Army[edit]

text: The Third Army was formed in July 1915, the first commander being General Edmund Allenby promoted after commanding the Cavalry Corps and the V Corps. He was replaced after the battle of Arras in May 1917, by General Julian Byng.[10]

text: Fourth Army[edit]

text: The Fourth Army was formed in February 1916, under the command of General Henry Rawlinson. Confusingly, when the Second Army was sent to Italy late in 1917, the Fourth Army was renumbered the Second Army whilst Rawlinson commanded the Ypres Salient. After Plumer's return from Italy Rawlinson spent a period as British Permanent Military Representative at the Supreme War Council at Versailles, but at the start of April he took over the remnants of Gough's Fifth Army after its recent defeat. It was renamed the Fourth Army.[10]

text: Fifth Army[edit]

text: The Fifth or Reserve Army was formed in May 1916, under command of General Hubert Gough. At first known as the Reserve Army, it was renamed the Fifth Army in October 1916. Fifth Army was destroyed during the German offensive in March 1918. It was reformed again in May 1918 under the command of General William Birdwood.[10]

text: Area of operations[edit]

text: The British Army first engaged the German Army in the Battle of Mons on 23 August 1914, which was part of the greater Battle of the Frontiers. The massed rifle fire of the professional British soldiers inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans who attacked en masse over terrain devoid of cover.[11] The British held up the German advance until the evening when they began retiring to a second defensive line in the retreat from Mons during which they were engaged in the Battle of Le Cateau. Following the British defeat at Le Cateau, the BEF retreated unmolested by the Germans for a further five days, eventually retreating a full 400 km in thirteen days.[12]

text: The Allied retreat finally ended at the River Marne, where Entente forces prepared to make a stand to defend Paris. This led to the First Battle of the Marne, which was fought from 5 to 10 September 1914. This battle would prove to be a major turning point of the war: it denied the Germans an early victory.[13] From 13 September the First Battle of the Aisne took place, with both sides starting to dig trenches. Then for a three-week period following the development of trench warfare each side gave up frontal assaults and began trying to encircle each other's flank. This period became known as the Race to the Sea: the Germans aimed to turn the Allied left flank, and the Allies sought to turn the German right flank.[14]

text: By the end of First Battle of Ypres both sides started to dig in and trench warfare replaced the manoeuvre warfare that had featured during the Race to the Sea. The continuous trench lines of the Western Front now stretched 400 miles (640 km) from the North sea to the Swiss frontier. The British Army held a small portion of this 400 mile front: from just north of the pre-war Belgium border to the River Somme in France, varying in length from 20 miles (32 km) in 1914, to over 120 miles (190 km) in 1918, in the area commonly known as Flanders.[15]

text: From the end of 1914, and in 1915, BEF attacks centred around the Ypres Salient. Then in September 1915, six divisions took part in the Battle of Loos – notable for the first use of poison gas by the British.

text: In 1916 the BEF had moved into the Picardy region of France. The Battle of the Somme dominated British military activity for the year.[16] Allied forces attempted to break through the German lines along a 25 miles (40 km) front north and south of the River Somme in northern France. On the first day on the Somme the BEF suffered 59,000 casualties.[17] After the war a final tally counted 419,654 British and 204,253 French killed, wounded, or taken prisoner; of the 623,907 total casualties, 146,431 were either killed or missing.[18]

text: In 1917 the BEF's attacks moved along the front, they operated in the Pas-de-Calais during the Battle of Arras.[19] They then concentrated in Belgium for the Battle of Messines and the Battle of Passchendale, and ended the year back in the Pas-de-Calais for the Battle of Cambrai.[20]

text: In the spring of 1918 the BEF came under attack both in Flanders and on the Somme during the German Spring Offensive. The Second Battle of the Somme represented the BEF response to the German attack. This in turn began the Hundred Days Offensive, which led to the eventual defeat of the German Army on the western front, after the First and Third armies broke through the Hindenburg Line at the Battle of the Canal du Nord.[21] This led to the final battle of the war in November 1918, the Battle of the Sambre by the First, Third and Fourth Armies and to the capture of Mons, 11 November 1918, by the First Army.[22]

text: Empire and Portuguese contribution[edit]

text: The British Empire responded to the British call for troops for the Western Front and major formations of the British Indian Army, Canadian Army, Australian Army, New Zealand Army and the South African Army all served in France. The BEF also integrated most of the Portuguese Army troops who fought on the Western Front.

text: Indian Expeditionary Force A[edit]

text: In September 1914, the BEF was reinforced by the Indian Expeditionary Force A which eventually formed two corps each of two divisions, the Indian Cavalry Corps and the Indian Infantry Corps.[23][24] Upon arrival in Marseilles on 30 September 1914, only six weeks after the declaration of war, they were moved to the Ypres Salient and took part in the Battle of La Bassée in October 1914.[25] In March 1915, the 7th (Meerut) Division was chosen to lead the assault in the Battle of Neuve Chapelle.[25] The Expeditionary Force was hampered by a lack of familiarity with new equipment, only being issued Lee–Enfield rifles on their arrival in France and they had almost no artillery, relying on support from their neighbouring corps when in the front line.[25] They were not accustomed to the continental weather and were poorly equipped to resist the cold, leading to low morale which was further compounded by the reserve system, whereby reinforcements were drafted in from any regiment and had no affiliation to their new units. Officer casualties were even more of a handicap, as replacements were unfamiliar with the Indian Army and could not speak the language.[25] The infantry divisions were finally withdrawn to Egypt in October 1915, when they were replaced by the new British divisions of Kitchener's Army.[25]

text: South African Overseas Expeditionary Force[edit]

text: The South African Overseas Expeditionary Force consisted of the 1st South African Infantry Brigade of four infantry battalions supported by five Heavy Artillery batteries, a Field Ambulance, a Royal Engineers Signal Company and a General Hospital[26] under the command of Brigadier General Henry Lukin. The brigade arrived in France in April 1916, and was assigned to the 9th (Scottish) Division and took part in the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, and on 14 July the Battle of Delville Wood. Of the 3,153 men in the brigade only 750 were left when the brigade was relieved on 20 July. Later in 1917, the brigade took part in the Battle of Arras and in the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele). The brigade was destroyed in the 1918 German spring offensive and by the end of the war had suffered 15,000 casualties, with 5,000 killed.[27]

text: Canadian Expeditionary Force[edit]

text: The Canadian Expeditionary Force was the designation of the field force created by Canada for service overseas in the First World War. Its major combat formation was the Canadian Corps, which eventually commanded four Canadian infantry divisions.[28] The Canadian Corps' first commander was General Edwin Alderson,[29] who was succeeded by General Julian Byng in 1916,[29] who was in turn succeeded in 1917, by the Canadian General Arthur Currie until the end of the war.[30] They distinguished themselves in battle from the Second Battle of Ypres, through the Somme and particularly in the Battle of Arras at Vimy Ridge in April 1917. Since they were mostly untouched by the German offensive in the spring of 1918, the Canadians were ordered to help spearhead the last campaigns of the War from the Battle of Amiens in August 1918.[28]

text: New Zealand Expeditionary Force[edit]

text: The New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) under the command of General Alexander Godley was the title of the military forces sent from New Zealand to fight for Britain during the First World War. Upon the outbreak of war, New Zealand immediately offered to provide two brigades — one of infantry and one of mounted troops — a total of 8,500 men. The NZEF was closely tied to the AIF for much of the war. When the Gallipoli campaign began, the New Zealand contingent was insufficient to complete a division on their own so was combined with the 4th Australian Infantry Brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division. This division, along with the Australian 1st Division, formed the famous Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) under the command of General William Birdwood. After the end of the Gallipoli campaign, the NZEF formed its own infantry division; the New Zealand Division which served on the Western Front from April 1916. It took part in the Battle of Flers-Courcelette, the Battle of Morval, the Battle of Le Transloy,[31] and the celebrated Battle of Le Quesnoy. The New Zealanders were considered exceptional troops by the Germans, a captured intelligence report named them "...An exceptionally good assault division ...".[32]

text: Australian Imperial Force[edit]

text: The Australian Imperial Force (AIF) was originally supposed to supply 20,000 men organised into one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units. By the end of the war, the AIF on the Western Front comprised five infantry divisions.[33] The first Australian troops arrived in France in June 1915, the 1st Siege Artillery Brigade was formed under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Walter Adams Coxen, the Australian Army's Director of Artillery, for service on the Western Front. About half the men in the unit were permanent gunners of the Garrison Artillery. The brigade departed Melbourne for England on 17 July 1915 and landed in France on 27 February 1916. Its 54th Siege Battery was equipped with 8 inch howitzers and its 55th Siege Battery with 9.2 inch howitzers.[34] Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action on the Western Front in France and Belgium, leaving Egypt in March 1916.[35] Initially they were organised into I Anzac Corps and II Anzac Corps alongside the New Zealand Division, however, on 1 November 1917 the Australian divisions were re-grouped together to form the Australian Corps.[36] The 2nd Division was the first to arrive in France, followed by the 1st Division, while the 4th and 5th left Egypt later in June 1916. The 3rd Division was the last to arrive, having been formed in Australia in March 1916, and moving to England for training in July 1916, before being sent to France in December 1916.[37] When originally formed in 1914 the AIF was commanded by Major General William Throsby Bridges, who also commanded the 1st Division. After Bridges' death at Gallipoli in May 1915, command transferred by default to Lieutenant General William Birdwood, a British officer who was commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.[38] Birdwood was officially confirmed as commander of the AIF on 14 September 1916, while also commanding I Anzac Corps on the Western Front.[39] Birdwood was later given command of the Australian Corps on formation in November 1917. Lieutenant General John Monash, an Australian officer, took over command of the corps in May 1918.[40] Despite being promoted to command the Fifth Army, Birdwood retained command of the AIF.[41]

text: Portuguese Expeditionary Corps[edit]

text: Following a British Government call for Portuguese troops, on 7 August 1916 the Parliament of Portugal agreed the participation of the Portuguese Army on the Western Front. In addition to a heavy artillery corps of 1,000 men under the command of the French Army, most of the Portuguese forces to be sent to the Western Front were to be incorporated in the CEP – Corpo Expedicionário Português (Portuguese Expeditionary Corps) under British command. The CEP was organised as an army corps of two divisions and corps troops, totalling 55,000 men, under the command of General Tamagnini de Abreu. The first CEP troops arrived in France on 2 February 1917. The first troops reached the front on 4 April. On 4 June the 1st Infantry Brigade of the 1st Division repelled the first major attack made by the German Army against the lines defended by the CEP troops. On 5 November 1917 the CEP assumed the responsibility for an autonomous sector in the front, under the direct command of First Army. Most of the CEP was destroyed in the Battle of La Lys on 9 April 1918, losing more than 7,000 men. From July 1918, the remaining men of the CEP participated in the final allied offensives under the command of Fifth Army.[42]

text: Weapons[edit]

text: Until 1914, British infantry officers still carried swords and the cavalry retained the cavalry sword throughout the war.[43] The other officers' weapon was the revolver, the three most common being the Webley MK V or VI, the Colt New Service and the Smith & Wesson hand ejector.[43]

text: All other ranks in the BEF carried a .303 Lee–Enfield rifle fitted with an easily loaded ten-round magazine and issued with a seventeen-inch (430 mm) bayonet. These rifles enabled a high rate of fire with good accuracy, such that pre-war British soldiers were trained to hit a target fifteen times a minute at a range of 300 yards.[44] The devastating efficiency and accuracy of the BEF infantry led the Germans to incorrectly believe that there were approximately 28 machine guns in each battalion.[45]

text: When the BEF landed in France each infantry battalion and cavalry regiment was equipped with two Vickers or Maxim machine guns.[43] Part of the reason for only allocating two guns per unit was the cost of manufacture and the need of a ten-week intensive training course for a Vickers gunner.[43] During the course of 1916, the quicker to manufacture and more versatile Lewis guns began to be issued on the intended scale of the sixteen per battalion, one for each platoon. At the same time, the Vickers guns and their trained operators were redeployed to specialist companies of the Machine Gun Corps; one company was attached to each infantry brigade.[46]

text: Campaign medals[edit]

text: As well as individual gallantry awards, all members of the BEF qualified for up to three campaign medals. The 1914 Star, the 1914–15 Star, the British War Medal and the Victory Medal.[47]

text: The 1914 Star was issued to officers and men of British forces who served in France or Belgium between 5 August and midnight 22/23 November 1914. The former date is the day after Britain's declaration of war against the Central Powers, and the closing date marks the end of the First Battle of Ypres.[47]

text: The 1914–1915 Star was issued to officers and men of British and Imperial forces who served in any theatre of the War between 5 August 1914 and 31 December 1915 (other than those who had already qualified for the 1914 Star).[47]

text: The British War Medal was issued to officers and men of British and Imperial forces who had rendered service between 5 August 1914 and 11 November 1918. Officers and men of the Royal Navy, Royal Marines, and Dominion and Colonial naval forces (including reserves) were required to have completed 28 days mobilised service — the medal was automatically awarded in the event of death on active service before the completion of this period.[47]

text: The Victory Medal was issued to all those who received the 1914 Star or the 1914–1915 Star, and to those who were awarded the British War Medal. It was never awarded singly. Women qualified for this and the earlier two medals, for service in nursing homes and other auxiliary forces.[47]

text: The Territorial Force War Medal was only awarded soldiers in the Territorial Force. To qualify, the recipient had to have been a member of the Territorial Force on or prior to 30 September 1914, and to have served in an operational theatre outside of the United Kingdom between 5 August 1914 and 11 November 1918.[47]

text: The Silver War Badge was issued in the United Kingdom to service personnel who had been honourably discharged due to wounds or sickness during the War. The badge, sometimes known as the Discharge Badge, Wound Badge or Services Rendered Badge, was first issued in September 1916, along with an official certificate of entitlement.[47]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: The British Army during the Great War was the largest military force that Britain had ever put into the field up to that point.[48] On the Western Front, the British Expeditionary Force ended the war as a strong fighting force, more experienced and slightly bigger than the United States Army and with better morale than the French Army.[48]

text: The cost of victory, however, was high. The official "final and corrected" casualty figures for the British Army, including the Territorial Force , were issued on 10 March 1921. The losses for the period between 4 August 1914, and 30 September 1919, included 573,507 "killed in action, died from wounds and died of other causes" and 254,176 missing (minus 154,308 released prisoners), for a net total of 673,375 dead and missing. Casualty figures also indicated that there were 1,643,469 wounded.[49]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "Some British Army statistics of the Great War". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Tucker & Roberts (2005), p.504
^ Jump up to: a b c Chandler (2003), p.211
Jump up ^ Chappell (2003), p.7
Jump up ^ Pearce & Stewart (2002), pp.289–290
Jump up ^ Griffiths & Greiss (2003), p.69
Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography J. E. Edmonds, 2004
Jump up ^ Woodward, David R. (September 2004). "'Robertson, Sir William Robert, first baronet (1860–1933)'". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35786. Retrieved 2007-12-07. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "Some British Army statistics of the Great War". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Chris Baker. "British Armies of 1914–1918". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
Jump up ^ General French, First dispatch third supplement to the London Gazette 8 September 1914
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "The Battle of Le Cateau". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ General French Second dispatch, second supplement to London Gazette 16 October 1914
Jump up ^ General French, Third despatch second supplement to London Gazette 16 October 1914
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "France and Flanders". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
Jump up ^ "Liste des arrondissement du département de la Somme". Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Pelger p.122
Jump up ^ Sheffield (2003), p.151
Jump up ^ "Fiche de la commune d'Arras". L'Insee et la statistique publique. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ "Région Nord-Pas-de-Calais". L'Insee et la statistique publique. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Christie, Norm M (1997). The Canadians at Cambrai and the Canal du Nord, August–September 1918. For King and Empire: a social history and battlefield tour. 6. CEF Books. ISBN 1-896979-18-1. OCLC 166099767.
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "The final advance in Picardy". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
Jump up ^ Sumner, p.4
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "The British Corps of 1914–1918". The Long, Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-07-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sumner, p.5
Jump up ^ "South African forces in the British Army". Retrieved July 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "South African forces in the British Army". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Chris Baker. "The Canadian Divisions of 1914–1918". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alderson, Sir Edwin Alfred Hervey". Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
Jump up ^ "No. 30178". The London Gazette (Supplement). 10 July 1917. p. 6956.
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "New Zealand Division". The Long Long Trail. Retrieved 2009-11-18.
Jump up ^ Harper, Glynn (2008). Dark Journey. Harper Collins. p. 544. ISBN 9781869505790.
Jump up ^ Chris Baker. "The Australian Divisions of 1914–1918". The Long Long Trail.
Jump up ^ Horner 1995, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Grey 2008, p. 100.
Jump up ^ Grey (2008), p.107.
Jump up ^ First AIF Order of Battle 1914–1918.
Jump up ^ Dennis et al (2008), p.63.
Jump up ^ Hill (1979), pp. 293–296.
Jump up ^ Fleming (2012), p.7.
Jump up ^ Grey (2001), p.46.
Jump up ^ "Corpo Expedicionário Português, de 1916 a 1919". O Portal da História. Retrieved 2010-03-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sheffield & Pelger, p106
Jump up ^ Jarymowycz (2008), p.124
Jump up ^ Meyer, p.139
Jump up ^ Cornish, p. 80
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "First World War Medal Index Cards". The National Archive. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
^ Jump up to: a b Tucker & Roberts (2006), p.816
Jump up ^ The Army Council (1921), pp.62–72


document_title: Minoan Bull-leaper

question_text: when was the bull leaping bronze statue found

root

text: Minoan Bull-leaper

text: Description[edit]

text: The group was cast in a single mould using the lost-wax casting technique. The group's homogeneity was demonstrated by analysing the composition of the bronze of bull and leaper: both contain about 96% copper and 1.5% tin, with 1% zinc.[4] The small amount of tin in the alloy would have made it difficult for the bronze to fill the mould, resulting in the missing lower legs of the leaper, and probably the arms.[2] Stylistically, the group is coherent, since the arched back of the leaper mirrors the flying gallop posture of the bull.

tag: p

text: Background[edit]

text: Arthur Evans, the excavator of Knossos, first published this object in the Journal of Hellenic Studies.[5] Evans dated the bull-leaper to the Late Minoan I period, so that this object dates to approximately 1600 BC.[6]

text: It was acquired by the British Museum in 1966 as part of the collection of Captain Edward George Spencer-Churchill (1876-1964). He acquired it in Crete in 1921.[7] The object was widely known before its acquisition and display in the Museum. It was illustrated in several general books[8][9][10] and exhibited at the British Academy in 1936.[11]

text: Bull-leaping[edit]

text: Bull leaping and bulls in general are believed to have been an important part of Minoan culture; excavations at Knossos have revealed several frescos depicting bull-leaping.[12] It has been suggested bulls may have had some religious significance to them for example the large, exaggerated size of the bull compared to the human leaper may give an idea of the Minoans' reverence for the power of the animals.[1]

text: This object has been central to discussions of bull-leaping, since Arthur Evans used it as the basis for his reconstruction of the mechanics of the leap: the leaper grabs the bull's horns, executes a back flip onto the bull's back and then dismounts.[5] As John Younger has pointed out, although this reconstruction has become part of bull-leaping in the popular imagination, comparatively few Minoan depictions show exactly this schema. The majority show the leaper diving over the bull's horns onto the back.[13]

text: Size of ancient Minoan bull leaping bulls[edit]

text: Archaeological evidence has now uncovered that the type of bull used by ancient Minoan bull leapers was a cross breed giant aurochs bull, now extinct in Europe. It had a shoulder height of over 6 ft (180 cm) and a hoof size similar to the size of a human head.[14][verification needed]

text: Media appearances[edit]

text: The bull-leaper was object 18[15] in the BBC Radio 4 Series A History of the World in 100 Objects. Week 4 of the series was 'The Beginning of Science and Literature': Neil MacGregor emphasised the importance of bronze, used to manufacture tools as well as art objects, and its central role in Mediterranean trade in the Bronze Age.

text: The BBC promoted A History of the World in 100 Objects with television adverts. One of these was a 30-second commercial featuring a Spanish recortador (bull-leaper) created by the ad agency Fallon Worldwide.[16]


document_title: Stations of the Cross

question_text: where did the stations of the cross come from

text: Stations of the Cross

text: History[edit]

text: The Stations of the Cross originated in pilgrimages to Jerusalem and a desire to reproduce Via Dolorosa. Imitating holy places was not a new concept. For example, the religious complex of Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, replicated the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other religious sites, including Mount of Olives and Valley of Josaphat.[8]

text: After the siege of 1187, Jerusalem fell to Muslims. Forty years later Franciscans were allowed back into the Holy Land. Their founder, Saint Francis of Assisi, held the Passion of Christ in special veneration and was the first person to receive stigmata.[9] In 1217, St. Francis also founded the Custody of the Holy Land to guard and promote the devotion to holy places. Their efforts were recognized when Franciscans were officially proclaimed custodians of holy places by Pope Clement VI in 1342.[9] Although several travelers who visited the Holy Land during the 12–14th centuries (e.g. Riccoldo da Monte di Croce, Burchard of Mount Sion, James of Verona), mention a "Via Sacra", i.e. a settled route that pilgrims followed, there is nothing in their accounts to identify this with the Way of the Cross, as we understand it.[10] The earliest use of the word "stations", as applied to the accustomed halting-places in the Via Sacra at Jerusalem, occurs in the narrative of an English pilgrim, William Wey, who visited the Holy Land in the mid-15th century, and described pilgrims following the footsteps of Christ to the cross. In 1521, a book called Geystlich Strass (German: "spiritual road") was printed with illustrations of the stations in the Holy Land.[10]

text: During the 15th and 16th centuries the Franciscans began to build a series of outdoor shrines in Europe to duplicate their counterparts in the Holy Land. The number of stations varied between seven and thirty; seven was common. These were usually placed, often in small buildings, along the approach to a church, as in a set of 1490 by Adam Kraft, leading to the Johanneskirche in Nuremberg.[11] A number of rural examples were established as attractions in their own right, usually on attractive wooded hills. These include the Sacro Monte di Domodossola (1657) and Sacro Monte di Belmonte (1712), and form part of the Sacri Monti of Piedmont and Lombardy World Heritage Site, together with other examples on different devotional themes. In these the sculptures are often approaching life-size and very elaborate. Remnants of these are often referred to as calvary hills.

text: In 1686, in answer to their petition, Pope Innocent XI granted to the Franciscans the right to erect stations within their churches. In 1731, Pope Clement XII extended to all churches the right to have the stations, provided that a Franciscan father erected them, with the consent of the local bishop. At the same time the number was fixed at fourteen. In 1857, the bishops of England were allowed to erect the stations by themselves, without the intervention of a Franciscan priest, and in 1862 this right was extended to bishops throughout the church.[12]

text: Stations[edit]

text: The early set of seven scenes was usually numbers 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 11, and 14 from the list below.[11] The standard set from the 17th to 20th centuries has consisted of 14 pictures or sculptures depicting the following scenes:

text:
Pilate condemns Jesus to die
Jesus accepts his cross
Jesus falls for the first time
Jesus meets his mother, Mary
Simon helps carry the cross
Veronica wipes the face of Jesus
Jesus falls for the second time
Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem
Jesus falls for the third time
Jesus is stripped of his clothes
Jesus is nailed to the cross
Jesus dies on the cross
Jesus is taken down from the cross
Jesus is placed in the tomb

tag: ol

text: Although not traditionally part of the Stations, the Resurrection of Jesus is, in very rare instances, included as a fifteenth station.[13][14]

text: Scriptural form[edit]

text: Out of the fourteen traditional Stations of the Cross, only eight have clear scriptural foundation. Stations 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9 are not specifically attested to in the gospels (in particular, no evidence exists of station 6 ever being known before medieval times) and Station 13 (representing Jesus's body being taken down off the cross and laid in the arms of his mother Mary) seems to embellish the gospels' record, which states that Joseph of Arimathea took Jesus down from the cross and buried him. To provide a version of this devotion more closely aligned with the biblical accounts, Pope John Paul II introduced a new form of devotion, called the Scriptural Way of the Cross on Good Friday 1991. He celebrated that form many times but not exclusively at the Colosseum in Rome.[15][16]

text: In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI approved an overlapping but distinct set of stations for meditation and public celebration; they follow this sequence:[17][better source needed]

text:
Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane;
Jesus is betrayed by Judas and arrested;
Jesus is condemned by the Sanhedrin;
Jesus is denied by Peter;
Jesus is judged by Pilate;
Jesus is scourged and crowned with thorns;
Jesus takes up his cross;
Jesus is helped by Simon of Cyrene to carry his cross;
Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem;
Jesus is crucified;
Jesus promises his kingdom to the repentant thief;
Jesus entrusts Mary and John to each other;
Jesus dies on the cross; and
Jesus is laid in the tomb.

text: Modern usage[edit]

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, the devotion may be conducted personally by the faithful, making their way from one station to another and saying the prayers, or by having an officiating celebrant move from cross to cross while the faithful make the responses. The stations themselves must consist of, at the very least, fourteen wooden crosses, pictures alone do not suffice, and they must be blessed by someone with the authority to erect stations.[18]

text: Pope John Paul II led an annual public prayer of the Stations of the Cross at the Roman Colosseum on Good Friday. Originally, the pope himself carried the cross from station to station, but in his last years when age and infirmity limited his strength, John Paul presided over the celebration from a stage on the Palatine Hill, while others carried the cross. Just days prior to his death in 2005, Pope John Paul II observed the Stations of the Cross from his private chapel. Each year a different person is invited to write the meditation texts for the Stations. Past composers of the Papal Stations include several non-Catholics. The pope himself wrote the texts for the Great Jubilee in 2000 and used the traditional Stations.

text: The celebration of the Stations of the Cross is especially common on the Fridays of Lent, especially Good Friday. Community celebrations are usually accompanied by various songs and prayers. Particularly common as musical accompaniment is the Stabat Mater. At the end of each station the Adoramus Te is sometimes sung. The Alleluia is also sung, except during Lent.

text: Structurally, Mel Gibson's 2004 film, The Passion of the Christ, follows the Stations of the Cross.[19] The fourteenth and last station, the Burial, is not prominently depicted (compared to the other thirteen) but it is implied since the last shot before credit titles is Jesus resurrected and about to leave the tomb.

text: Debates[edit]

text: Place of Christ's resurrection[edit]

text: Some modern liturgists[20] say the traditional Stations of the Cross are incomplete without a final scene depicting the empty tomb and/or the resurrection of Jesus, because Jesus' rising from the dead was an integral part of his salvific work on Earth. Advocates of the traditional form of the Stations ending with the body of Jesus being placed in the tomb say the Stations are intended as a meditation on the atoning death of Jesus, and not as a complete picture of his life, death, and resurrection. Another point of contention, at least between some ranking liturgists vs. traditionalists, is (the use of) the "New Way of the Cross" being recited exclusively in the Philippines and by Filipinos abroad.

text: The Stations of the Resurrection (also known by the Latin name of Via Lucis, Way of Light) are used in some churches at Eastertide to meditate on the Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus Christ.

text: Music[edit]

text: Franz Liszt wrote a Via crucis for choir, soloists and piano or organ or harmonium in 1879. In 1931, French organist Marcel Dupré improvised and transcribed musical meditations based on fourteen poems by Paul Claudel, one for each station. Peter Maxwell Davies's Vesalii Icones (1969), for male dancer, solo cello and instrumental ensemble, brings together the Stations of the Cross and a series of drawings from the anatomical treatise De humani corporis fabrica (1543) by the Belgian physician Andreas van Wesel (Vesalius). In Davies's sequence, the final "station" represents the Resurrection, but of Antichrist, the composer's moral point being the need to distinguish what is false from what is real.[21] David Bowie regarded his 1976 song "Station to Station" as "very much concerned with the stations of the cross".[22] Michael Valenti (known primarily as a Broadway composer) wrote, with librettist Diane Seymour, an oratorio depicting the fourteen Stations of the Cross entitled "The Way". It was premiered in 1991. Stefano Vagnini's 2002 modular oratorio, Via Crucis,[23] a composition for organ, computer, choir, string orchestra and brass quartet, depicts the fourteen Stations of the Cross.

text: In 2009, U2 released Moment of Surrender, mentioning the Stations of the Cross.

text: As the Stations of the Cross are prayed during the season of Lent in Catholic churches, each station is traditionally followed by a verse of the Stabat Mater, composed in the 13th century by Franciscan Jacopone da Todi. James Matthew Wilson's poetic sequence, The Stations of the Cross, is written in the same meter as da Todi's poem.[24]

text: Literature[edit]

text: Dimitris Lyacos' third part of the Poena Damni trilogy, The First Death, is divided in fourteen sections in order to emphasise the "Via Dolorosa" of its marooned protagonist during his ascent on the mount of the island which constitutes the setting of the work.

text: Via Dolorosa sites[edit]

text: These fourteen sites along the Via Dolorosa are where the events of the Stations of the Cross happened, according to tradition. These 14 stops form a route ending at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher that pilgrims have walked for centuries and are the inspiration for the Stations of the Cross in many churches today.

text:
1st Station, Jesus is condemned to death

2nd Station, Jesus carries his cross

3rd Station, Jesus falls for the first time

4th Station, Jesus meets his mother

5th Station, Simon of Cyrene helps Jesus carry the cross

6th Station, Veronica wipes the face of Jesus

7th Station, Jesus falls for the second time

8th Station, Jesus meets the women of Jerusalem

9th Station, Jesus falls the for third time

10th Station, Jesus is stripped of his garments

11th Station, Crucifixion: Jesus is nailed to the cross

12th Station, Jesus dies on the cross

13th Station, Jesus is taken down from the cross

14th Station, Jesus is laid in the tomb

tag: ul


document_title: The White Queen (TV series)

question_text: who played elizabeth of york in the white queen

text: The White Queen (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: House of York[edit]

text:
Rebecca Ferguson as Elizabeth Woodville, the "White Queen" and consort to Edward IV
Max Irons as Edward IV of England
Faye Marsay as Lady Anne Neville, "the Kingmaker's Daughter" and queen consort to Richard III
Aneurin Barnard as Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later King Richard III; brother of Edward IV
James Frain as Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, "the Kingmaker", a great-grandson of John, Duke of Lancaster
Janet McTeer as Jacquetta, Lady Rivers, Elizabeth Woodville’s mother
David Oakes as George, Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV
Eleanor Tomlinson as Lady Isabel Neville, Duchess of Clarence, wife of George, Duke of Clarence and elder sister of Lady Anne Neville
Juliet Aubrey as Lady Anne Beauchamp, Countess of Warwick, wife of Warwick and mother to Lady Isabel and Lady Anne; herself a great-granddaughter of Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York
Caroline Goodall as Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, a granddaughter of John, Duke of Lancaster
Sonny Ashbourne Serkis as the Prince of Wales (later King Edward V), eldest son and heir to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville; later one of the Princes in the Tower
Freya Mavor as Elizabeth of York, eldest daughter and child to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville
Elinor Crawley as Cecily of York, daughter to Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville

text: House of Lancaster[edit]

text:
Amanda Hale as Lady Margaret Beaufort, "the Red Queen", mother of Henry Tudor, a great-granddaughter of John, Duke of Lancaster
Veerle Baetens as Margaret of Anjou, queen consort to Henry VI of England
Joey Batey as Edward of Lancaster, son of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou, married to Lady Anne Neville
Michael Marcus as Henry Tudor, later Henry VII of England; son and heir of Lady Margaret Beaufort by Sir Edmund Tudor
Oscar Kennedy as young Henry Tudor
Tom McKay as Jasper Tudor, half-brother of Henry VI, brother-in-law to Lady Margaret Beaufort and uncle to Henry Tudor

text: Additional cast[edit]

text:
Frances Tomelty as Lady Beauchamp, mother of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Michael Maloney as Sir Henry Stafford, third husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Ben Lamb as Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers
Hugh Mitchell as Richard Welles, half-brother of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Rupert Young as Sir William Herbert, Lord Pembroke
Robert Pugh as Baron Rivers (later Earl Rivers), father of Elizabeth Woodville
Rupert Graves as Lord Stanley, the fourth husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort
Andrew Gower, as Lord Strange, son of Lord Stanley
Shaun Dooley, as Sir Robert Brackenbury
Arthur Darvill, as Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham
Emily Berrington, as Jane Shore, Edward IV's mistress
Andreas Perschewski as Louis XI of France

text: The large majority of the cast is British, but since the series is shot in Belgium, several local actors are featured: Veerle Baetens,[13] Jurgen Delnaet, Joren Seldeslachts, Elsa Houben, Ben Forceville and Ben Van den Heuvel all appear in the series.[14] Rebecca Ferguson who portrays Elizabeth Woodville, the White Queen, is from Sweden (her mother is originally from England).[15]

text: Production[edit]

text: The budget was £25 million and took 120 days to shoot, consisting of 250 sets including: dungeons, palaces, castles, 12 state banquets and at least two coronations.[16]

text: Two versions were made, one for the BBC and a more sexually explicit version for the U.S.[17]

text: A companion two-part documentary series, The Real White Queen and Her Rivals, presented by Philippa Gregory, was made to accompany the series. It was broadcast on BBC Two on 17 and 24 July 2013.[18]

text: Credits[edit]

text:
Executive producers: John Griffin, George Faber, Charles Pattinson for Company Pictures, Eurydice Gysel for Czar Television, Polly Hill for the BBC, Philippa Gregory and Colin Callender.
Series lead writer: Emma Frost[8] and produced by Company Pictures. Lisa McGee[19] and Nicole Taylor are also writers.
James Kent directed the first three episodes.[20]
Other episodes were directed by Jamie Payne[21] and Colin Teague.[22]
Cinematographer: Jean Philippe Gossart.[23] and David Luther.[23][24]
Music: John Lunn.[1]

text: Locations[edit]

text: The White Queen was filmed on location in Belgium, where several landmarks in Bruges and Ghent represent locations in London and elsewhere:[25]

text:
The Gothic Hall in Bruges' Town Hall represents Westminster Hall
Church of Our Lady in Bruges represents St Stephen's Chapel in the old Palace of Westminster
Heilige Geeststraat in Bruges represents a medieval London street
Basilica of the Holy Blood in Bruges represents Tower of London
In Ghent filming took place in the Castle of the Counts (Gravensteen), Saint Peter's Abbey (Sint-Pietersabdij), Saint Bavo's Abbey (Sint-Baafsabdij), Cloth hall (Lakenhalle), Castle of Gerald the Devil (Geeraard de Duivelsteen), Saint Bavo Cathedral (Sint-Baafskathedraal), and Agustijnklooster (Academiestraat).
Additional filming took place at Rumbeke, in Damme, and at Ursel Airfield—23 locations for the first three episodes. The rest of the set was constructed at a nearby Philips factory.[25]

text: Nominations and reception[edit]

text: The series received mixed reviews, with an average critic rating of 7.6/10 on Rotten Tomatoes and a score of 70 on Metacritic; the critic consensus that it "sometimes suffers from clunky storytelling", but "delivers sufficient intrigue, thanks to its gorgeous costumes, splendid cast, and sexy, soapy plots".[26][27] The show currently holds a 79% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 20 reviews, and a score of 7.8/10 on IMDb based on 10,230 user ratings.[26][28]

text: The White Queen was nominated for several awards including three Golden Globe Awards, four Primetime Emmy Awards and a People's Choice Award for Favorite TV Movie/Miniseries.

text: 71st Golden Globe Awards (2014)

text:
Best Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television
Best Performance by an Actress in a Mini-Series or a Motion Picture Made for Television - (Rebecca Ferguson)
Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television - (Janet McTeer)

text: 66th Primetime Emmy Awards (2014)

text: Outstanding Miniseries

text: 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards (2014)

text:
Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special (Original Dramatic Score) - For episode: " The Final Battle"
Outstanding Costumes for a Miniseries, Movie, or Special - For episode: "The Price of Power"
Outstanding Hairstyling for a Miniseries or Movie

text: 40th People's Choice Awards (2014)

text: Favorite TV Movie/Miniseries

text: 2014 Saturn Awards - Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films

text: SBest Television Release on DVD/Blu-ray

text: 2014 ASC Award - American Society of Cinematographers

text: Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Television Movie/Mini-Series - David Luther for Episode: "War at First Hand" (nomination)[24]

text: OFTA Television Awards 2014 - Online Film & Television Association

text: Best Miniseries

text: Satellite Awards 2013

text: Best Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television

text: Reception in the UK[edit]

text: In the UK the critical reception was described as 'mixed at best'[29] and 'mostly scathing'.[30] Sam Wollaston of The Guardian praised the show's characters, suggesting Janet McTeer (Jacquetta) stole the show. He also praised the show's romantic elements, commenting "Mmmm, steamy".[31] Gerard O'Donovan of The Daily Telegraph praised the casting of the supporting characters and the exciting "lust and vengeance" fueling the drama, but objected to the prettified portrayal of 15th century England.[32] Deborah Ross of The Daily Mail gave the mixed review of both one and five stars, "because it possesses the sort of one-star awfulness that, if properly embraced, can transport you all the way to five-star joy."[33] The Independent's Tom Sutcliffe found it "less historically plausible than Game of Thrones", but concluded that "I’m sure it will give innocent pleasure to many."[34] Barbara Ellen in The Observer, compared the show to "a strange Timotei advert, featuring fornication, shouting, horses, armour", whilst commenting that the sex scenes, toned down in the British version, "were so vanilla, I ended up fancying an ice cream. "[35]

text: Reviewing the final episode for The Daily Telegraph, Bernadette McNulty stated that the series, "fell between two stools—not serious enough for the scholars nor glitzy enough for the Game of Thrones fans."[36] The ratings were however good. The first episode received 6 million viewers, stabilising at around the 4–4.5 million mark from the second episode,[37][38] although occasionally it dipped below this on first broadcast figures.[39]

text: Reception in the U.S.[edit]

text: The White Queen received generally mixed reviews after airing on the Starz network on 10 August 2013. Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post described the series as "Sexy, empowering and violent".[40] Linda Stasi of the New York Post agreed that the series is a hit, exclaiming "The White Queen a royal winner".[41] It was again unfavourably compared to HBO's high budget and fast-paced Game of Thrones. In comparison to Game of Thrones Neil Genzlinger speculates that "even if dragons were allowed, they’d mostly be lounging around and, between bouts of relatively tame dragon sex, talking about eating people rather than actually eating them".[42] The performances of Janet McTeer and James Frain were praised by several American reviewers. Amanda Hale, despite receiving praise for her performance by British reviewers,[43] was unfavourably reviewed by U.S. critic Matthew Gilbert. He said "There were moments when I rolled my eyes—Amanda Hale, as the mother of young Henry Tudor, looks as if she is going to explode with ill intent. Really, her performance could be transposed into a Mel Brooks spoof".[44] Louise Mellor of Den of Geek added "Why does Lady Margaret Beaufort constantly look like she is sucking on a Murray Mint?"[45] TV Guide writer Matt Roush praised Hale's performance as "intense", and favored the series, labeling it as "fun", and on a one to ten scale, ranking it at seven.[46]

text: The White Queen was nominated three times at the 71st Golden Globe Awards, with acting nominations for Ferguson and McTeer and an overall nomination for the series in the Best Miniseries or Television Film category.[47]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Despite initial plans for a second series, on 20 August 2013 the BBC announced they were not commissioning one, possibly due to the lukewarm reception the series received.[48] However, in October 2013,The Telegraph reported that Starz was planning to develop a sequel miniseries called The White Princess, based on Gregory's 2013 novel of the same name.[10] Starz CEO Chris Albrecht announced in January 2014 that the network was working with White Queen screenwriter Emma Frost on the project.[49] Starz would produce the White Princess miniseries without involvement from the BBC.[49] Gregory confirmed that the project was underway in August 2015.[11] On 7 February 2016, Gregory announced on Facebook that the sequel was officially confirmed to be in production, with the scripts being written.[12] Production on the eight episode limited series began in June 2016.[50][51]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: The Starz episode title is shown below the original BBC title if different. Final UK episode ratings from BARB.

text:
No.
Title[52][53][54]
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
US air date[53]
UK viewers
(million)[55]
US viewers
(million)

1
"In Love With the King"
James Kent
Emma Frost
16 June 2013 (2013-06-16)
9 August 2013
5.33[56][57]
0.457[58]

It is 1464. Having been widowed and lost access to her Lancastrian husband's property in the War of the Roses, Elizabeth Woodville is encouraged by her mother Jacquetta to put herself in the way of the new Yorkist King, Edward IV, and appeal to him directly. Edward, already with a reputation as a womanizer, is instantly drawn to Elizabeth's beauty, and makes arrangements to see her again. When Elizabeth rejects his sexual advances, he agrees to marry her and make her Queen of England. However, the secret marriage does not go down well with England's court, especially with Edward's mother, Duchess Cecily, and his most trusted adviser, the Earl of Warwick.

2
"The Price of Power"
James Kent
Emma Frost
23 June 2013 (2013-06-23)
17 August 2013
5.70
0.801[59]

An extravagant coronation is planned in an attempt to silence critics of the marriage between Elizabeth and the king. Warwick's discontent with Edward's choice quickly makes itself known, as he refuses to allow his daughters to become her ladies-in-waiting. Margaret Beaufort, whose son Henry Tudor has a claim to the throne, sides with Warwick and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence, in the hope that her child will be returned to her. Meanwhile, Warwick makes use of his elder daughter Isabel in an attempt to unify the Nevilles and the Yorks by marrying her to the Duke of Clarence, heir presumptive to King Edward.

3
"The Storm"
James Kent
Emma Frost
30 June 2013 (2013-06-30)
24 August 2013
5.32
0.704[60]

After a rebellion by the Earl of Warwick results in the deaths of Elizabeth's father and brother but fails to put George, Duke of Clarence, on the throne in Edward's place, an uneasy peace is concluded between Warwick and Edward. It lasts only a short time before they rebel again and are forced to flee to France. Their supporters in England, including committed Lancastrian Margaret Beaufort, are left to face the consequences. Seeking vengeance for her father and brother's deaths, Elizabeth and her mother Jacquetta turn to the occult, with devastating consequences for Isabel Neville, who loses her baby while en route to France with her husband.

4
"The Bad Queen"
Jamie Payne
Lisa McGee
7 July 2013 (2013-07-07)
7 September 2013
5.00
0.811[61]

Warwick's campaign with George has failed, so the desperate Kingmaker turns to Margaret of Anjou, the Lancastrian Queen, as his only option to stop his family from losing everything. To seal the deal, his youngest daughter Anne is married off to the heir to the Lancastrian throne, the cruel and spoilt Edward, Prince of Wales. Back in London, Edward and Elizabeth are troubled by news of this new alliance, and are taken by surprise when Warwick leads an assault on London. Warwick, now in control of the country, has Jacquetta tried for witchcraft, but his plans are thwarted when she appeals to her friend Margaret of Anjou for a testimonial. Seeking sanctuary at Westminster Abbey with her children, Elizabeth is joined by her mother and finally gives birth to a baby boy.

5
"War at First Hand"
Jamie Payne
Malcolm Campbell
14 July 2013 (2013-07-14)
14 September 2013
4.56
0.929[62]

Lancaster is restored to the throne in the form of the demented Henry VI, and Margaret Beaufort brings her son to receive his blessing. Margaret of Anjou sails for England with her new daughter-in-law Anne Neville by her side, to take her place beside her husband. However, news that Edward is returning with an army unsettles the court. As Warwick and the Lancastrians raise an army to confront Edward, in a desperate attempt to protect her husband on the battlefield, Elizabeth again turns to supernatural forces. Margaret Beaufort is horrified when her husband decides to fight for York; he is seriously wounded in the battle. Edward's rule is assured by his victories at Barnet and Tewkesbury (during which Warwick and Prince Edward are killed) and the capture of Margaret of Anjou. Anne, grieving for her father, is nearly assaulted by Yorkist troops, but is rescued and brought to court by Richard. Elizabeth rejoices at her husband's return, but is dismayed when he and his brothers murder Henry VI in order to remove all Lancastrian opposition.

6
"Love and Marriage"
"Love and Death"
Jamie Payne
Nicole Taylor
21 July 2013 (2013-07-21)
21 September 2013
4.59
0.859[63]

Although Warwick, Henry VI and Edward of Lancaster are all dead, the court is unsettled. Elizabeth is concerned by Edward's growing attraction to his new mistress, Jane Shore. She is devastated by the death of a baby son shortly after birth, coinciding with the death of her mother Jacquetta; her distress causes Edward to reaffirm his love for her. Meanwhile, George attempts to control the widowed Anne Neville and obtain sole access to the Neville inheritance by locking her away and threatening her with a convent. Anne's upset is further increased as Isabel sides with George; her only friend is the King's youngest brother, Richard, who eventually snatches Anne from Clarence's grasp and marries her. The fanatical Margaret Beaufort tries to increase her power by re-marrying to one of King Edward's closest advisers, Thomas Stanley.

7
"Poison and Malmsey Wine"
Colin Teague
Emma Frost
28 July 2013 (2013-07-28)
28 September 2013
4.58
0.896[64]

The brief peace is broken when Edward decides to make war on France, but both George and Richard are horrified when he makes peace in return for financial gain. Both Elizabeth and Anne give birth to sons. George's frustrations lead him to make a deal with the French king. When his wife Isabel dies, after giving birth to the son he has longed for, he accuses Elizabeth of causing her death by poisoning and employs a sorcerer to work against her "witchcraft" and plot the king's death. Left with no choice, Edward recognizes his brother as a traitor to the crown, and condemns him to death. Duchess Cecily, who greatly favors George above her other sons, pleads with Edward and blames Elizabeth. George selects drowning in a butt of Malmsey wine as the method of execution. Elizabeth finally has her revenge against her father's and brother's killer, but it brings her no satisfaction.

8
"The King is Dead"
"Long Live the King"
Colin Teague
Malcolm Campbell
4 August 2013 (2013-08-04)
5 October 2013
4.35
0.910[65]

In 1483, Edward IV is taken ill. Foreseeing his death, he asks Elizabeth to send for his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, whom he appoints Lord Protector. Elizabeth, mistrustful of Gloucester, asks her brother Anthony to arrange for her son, now King Edward V, to be brought to London by his half-brother Richard Grey; they are intercepted by Gloucester and the young king is taken to the Tower of London. Anthony pleads with Elizabeth to cooperate with Gloucester, and initially a truce is worked out, but Margaret Beaufort and her husband Thomas Stanley sow seeds of mistrust in both camps, recognizing the potential advantage for Margaret's son. Meanwhile, the Duke of Buckingham, himself a distant claimant to the throne, works for his own ends. Elizabeth takes her children into sanctuary and tells Anthony to ensure that the fleet is ready to rescue them; ordered to send her second son to join his brother in the Tower, she sends a boy of common birth as a substitute. Gloucester, at first protective of his nephews, executes Anthony for treason when he learns of the Woodvilles' intentions. Richard's wife Anne Neville (who fears Elizabeth will eventually work to have Richard, her, and their son executed as traitors) instead persuades him to have his nephews declared illegitimate, on the grounds of a previous promise of marriage made by Edward to another woman. He and Anne are then crowned instead of his nephew.

9
"The Princes in the Tower"
Colin Teague
Emma Frost
11 August 2013 (2013-08-11)
12 October 2013
4.16
0.741[66]

Stanley advises Margaret to ensure that the two young princes do not survive the attempt to free them from the Tower; having unsuccessfully sought a sign from God, she instructs her men to kill the boys, leaving Princess Elizabeth's marriage to her son as the only option. Anne Neville, now queen, simultaneously hints to Brackenbury that she would prefer them dead. The attempted "rescue" is thwarted. Buckingham is persuaded to give his allegiance to Henry Tudor and implies that he will carry out the murder of the princes. It soon becomes clear that the two boys in the tower (the Prince of Wales and the impostor planted by Elizabeth) are dead, and King Richard, horrified, returns to London to look for them; Anne feels remorse, wondering if her hint to Brackenbury caused him to take action. After Richard secretly visits Elizabeth in sanctuary and assures her he played no part in her sons' death, she realizes that Margaret has deceived her and puts a curse on the boys’ murderer. Buckingham, unable to join forces with Jasper Tudor, is captured and executed, and Margaret is placed under house arrest by Stanley (who is still keeping a foot in both camps) for her role in the failed rebellion.

10
"The Final Battle"
Colin Teague
Emma Frost
18 August 2013 (2013-08-18)
19 October 2013
4.41
1.155[67]

Despite the threat from Henry Tudor, King Richard III remains confident that his reign is unthreatened. Richard begins to take an interest in his niece Elizabeth of York. Queen Anne Neville is jealous, but Richard reveals that he is doing so only to prevent Elizabeth's marriage alliance with Henry Tudor. The former Queen Elizabeth warns her daughter of the curse they cast on Prince Edward's killer (that his children and grandchildren would be struck down prematurely); this could include the young Elizabeth's children should she marry Richard. Following the death of their only son and heir, an embittered and grief-stricken Anne dies. Remorseful, Richard immediately dismisses Elizabeth, realizing that his strategy has driven away Neville supporters. Lady Margaret Beaufort is still under house arrest, and there is friction between her and the young Elizabeth of York, who has been sent to stay with her; Elizabeth believes she will become Queen regardless of who wins the battle. As Henry Tudor prepares to cross the Channel with his army of French convicts and mercenaries, a solar eclipse takes place; Margaret sees this as a message from God that Henry will be king. She defies her house arrest to ride to Bosworth field where she pleads with Stanley to fight against the king, but he refuses to commit himself because Richard (suspicious of Stanley's allegiance) has taken his son as a hostage. Margaret sees Jasper and is able to talk to Henry before battle commences at Bosworth. Things are not going well for Tudor (Richard has twice his numbers) until Stanley's men charge the king's forces. Richard is killed in the ensuing meelee. As Stanley kneels to offer Henry the crown, Margaret declares herself "Margaret Regina", ordering her husband to remain kneeling before the mother of the king. Elizabeth is reunited with her son Richard and warns him not to seek revenge. She tells her daughter that she will marry Tudor and become queen, just as she herself once was.

tag: table

text: Historical accuracy[edit]

text: A number of anachronisms and historical inaccuracies within the show received attention, especially in the costumes and locations used in the series.[68] Pat Stacey of the Irish Evening Herald newspaper, said that "the historical howlers are piling up like bodies on a battlefield, week after week", comparing it to the "flaws" spotted by "nitpickers" in Downton Abbey and Foyle's War.[69] Deborah Ross, of the Daily Mail newspaper, criticised the cleanliness and "amazing teeth" of the actors involved, whilst also pointing out glimpses of a modern drainpipe and stair-rail.[33] Bernadette McNulty, of The Daily Telegraph newspaper, commented that in the final episode of the series, the Battle of Bosworth Field appears to take place in a forest rather than a field.[36] Mary McNamara, of the LA Times newspaper, states that in order to fit thirty years of history into ten episodes, "Years collapse into minutes, intricate policy is condensed into cardboard personalities, and the characters are swiftly categorized as good or evil."[70] Others questioned the depiction of the major characters. Amy Licence, Cecily's biographer, states that Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, is portrayed in the first episode as "a Cecily straight from the pages of a novel rather than the actual proud aristocrat who asserted her own right to rule".[71] Historian Michael Hicks commented, "They've fiddled with the chronology" but added, "I can see why they decided to restrict the cast of characters, and play up the rivalry between Elizabeth and the Earl of Warwick," and also said "As with Philippa Gregory's source novels, they've done their research".[72]

text: In response to criticisms of the series being "ahistorical", Gregory stated that "What [BBC One and Starz] wanted was not a historical series based on the documents from the War of the Roses. They wanted my take on it, so that's what they got."[73] Aneurin Barnard (who played Richard) stated, with regard to inaccuracies, "...the truth can be pretty boring. You have to up the stakes and make something up or twist it to make it a little bit more exciting."[74][75]

text: DVD and Blu-ray releases[edit]

text:
DVD title
Discs
Year
Episodes
DVD release
Notes

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

The complete series
4
2013
10
4 February 2014
19 August 2013
n/a
BBC version in region 2

Blu-ray title
Discs
Year
Episodes
Blu-ray Disc release
Notes

Region A
Region B
Region C

The complete series
3
2013
10
4 February 2014
19 August 2013
n/a
BBC version in region B