document_title: Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom

question_text: which star from the original jurasic park trilogy returned in jurasic world fallen kingdom

text: Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom

text: Plot[edit]

text: A small team of mercenaries arrives on the abandoned Isla Nublar to collect DNA from the remains of the Indominus rex at the bottom of the park's lagoon. After successfully collecting a bone  fragment, the team's survivors barely escape the island following attacks by the Mosasaurus and Tyrannosaurus rex.[8][9]

text: A U.S. Senate hearing in Washington, D.C. debates whether Isla Nublar's dinosaurs should be saved from an impending volcanic eruption. Mathematician Dr. Ian Malcolm testifies that the dinosaurs should be allowed to perish to correct John Hammond's mistake of cloning them. Meanwhile, Jurassic World's former operations manager, Claire Dearing, has established the Dinosaur Protection Group to save the animals. After the Senate rules against rescuing the dinosaurs, Hammond's former partner, Benjamin Lockwood, summons Claire to his Northern California estate. Lockwood and his aide, Eli Mills, reveal a plan to relocate the dinosaurs to a new island sanctuary. Claire is needed to help reactivate the park's dinosaur tracking system to locate the animals, particularly Blue, the last surviving Velociraptor. Although they are estranged, Claire recruits Jurassic World's former Velociraptor trainer and Blue's alpha, Owen Grady, to help capture her.

text: On Isla Nublar, Claire and former park technician Franklin Webb reactivate the online tracking system. Owen, paleo-veterinarian Zia Rodriguez, and a mercenary team led by Ken Wheatley search for and find Blue. The encounter escalates, resulting in a mercenary soldier shooting Blue, and Wheatley tranquilizing Owen. The mercenaries take Zia with them to treat Blue's injury. The mercenary ship, loaded with the captured dinosaurs, departs for the U.S. mainland as the dinosaurs left behind die in the eruption. Claire, Franklin, and Owen sneak aboard in time and assist Zia in transfusing Blue with Tyrannosaurus blood. The group now realize that the captured dinosaurs were never being transported to a new island and are for another purpose.

text: At the estate, Lockwood's orphaned pre-teen granddaughter Maisie overhears Mills and auctioneer Gunnar Eversol secretly planning to auction the captured dinosaurs on the black market. They will also unveil the Indoraptor, a new genetically-modified dinosaur created by geneticist Dr. Henry Wu using Indominus rex and Velociraptor DNA. Wu wants Blue's DNA to create an enhanced Indoraptor, unaware that Blue's blood is contaminated. After Maisie informs Lockwood about the auction, he confronts Mills, who smothers him with a pillow. Maisie is later revealed to have been cloned from Lockwood's deceased daughter and is the reason John Hammond, who opposed human cloning, ended their association.

text: The dinosaurs are transported to Lockwood's estate and caged. Zia and Franklin narrowly evade capture, but Owen and Claire are apprehended and confined. Owen incites a Stygimoloch into breaking open their cell. They find Maisie, who leads them to the auction where the Indoraptor is being sold despite Wu's protests that it is a prototype. Owen disrupts the proceedings by luring the Stygimoloch into the room. In the ensuing chaos, Wheatley tranquilizes the Indoraptor to extract a tooth as a trophy, but it feigns sedation and kills Wheatley, Eversol, and others as it escapes. The Indoraptor hunts Owen, Claire, and Maisie throughout the mansion. Zia releases Blue, who attacks the Indoraptor, causing it to fall through a glass roof to be impaled by agujaceratops skull killing it.

text: When a hydrogen cyanide gas leak threatens the caged dinosaurs, Maisie frees them, despite Owen's objections. Mills attempts to flee with the Indominus rex bone but is devoured by a Carnotaurus and the Tyrannosaurus, which tramples the bone. Owen, Claire, Maisie, Zia, and Franklin safely escape, while Blue and the other released dinosaurs flee the estate grounds.

text: In a new U.S. Senate hearing, Dr. Malcolm declares the beginning of a Neo-Jurassic Age, where humans and dinosaurs must learn to coexist. The closing scenes show the freed dinosaurs roaming wilderness and outer urban areas.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Chris Pratt as Owen Grady: A Navy veteran and ethologist, and former Velociraptor handler for Jurassic World.[10]
Bryce Dallas Howard as Claire Dearing: Jurassic World's former operations manager, now a dinosaur-rights activist, who has founded the Dinosaur Protection Group to save Isla Nublar's surviving dinosaurs.[10][11]
Rafe Spall as Eli Mills: Lockwood's ambitious assistant who recruits Owen and Claire to rescue the dinosaurs. Speaking of his character's actions over the course of the film, Spall noted that, "Ambition is such a powerful emotion, you can get wrapped up in it and end up doing things in order to succeed. This character believes he is doing right. He has been entrusted with pushing Lockwood's fortune into the future and making it survive after he dies. Mills feels he is simply doing what he was asked to do."[12][2]
Justice Smith as Franklin Webb: A former IT technician for Jurassic World who is now the Dinosaur Protection Group's systems analyst and hacker.[13][11]
Daniella Pineda as Zia Rodriguez: A former Marine who is now the Dinosaur Protection Group's paleoveterinarian.[13][11][2]
James Cromwell as Sir Benjamin Lockwood: John Hammond's former partner in developing the technology to clone dinosaurs.[14][15]
Toby Jones as Gunnar Eversol: An auctioneer host at Lockwood Estate who sells the Isla Nublar dinosaurs for profit.[16][2] In an interview, Jones likened his character to that of "a rogue arms dealer; he sees profits in selling these creatures as weapons. He is totally morally neutral about whatever he is selling. He is only interested in whether or not it will make him a profit."[2]
Ted Levine as Ken Wheatley: A seasoned mercenary who commands the rescue operation on Isla Nublar.[2]
B. D. Wong as Henry Wu:  The former head geneticist of both Jurassic World and the original Jurassic Park. Speaking of his character's actions, Wong stated: "I do think he's motivated by his love for science and his own ego, which is well supported by his massive achievements ... I think he turns a blind eye to the human suffering that comes as a result because he thinks he's looking at some bigger picture."[17][18]
Isabella Sermon as Maisie Lockwood: Lockwood's juvenile granddaughter and legal ward following her parents' deaths.[19][20][21][22]
Geraldine Chaplin as Iris: The Lockwood Estate housekeeper, Maisie's nanny, and protector of the Lockwood family secrets.[23][2]
Jeff Goldblum as Ian Malcolm: An expert in chaos theory who once consulted for InGen's Jurassic Park.[24] In a podcast interview, Goldblum spoke of his role "It's small… who knows, they may cut me out entirely! But if I stay in, I'll be a sprig of parsley or a little garnish, hopefully with some impact!"[25][26] Director Bayona confirmed that Goldblum's role is simply a cameo, stating, "He doesn't have a major role in the action but it's definitely a very meaningful one in terms of the story."[27]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: During early conversations about the 2015 film Jurassic World, executive producer Steven Spielberg told director Colin Trevorrow that he was interested in having several more films made.[28] In April 2014, Trevorrow announced that sequels had been discussed: "We wanted to create something that would be a little bit less arbitrary and episodic, and something that could potentially arc into a series that would feel like a complete story."[29] Trevorrow said Chris Pratt and Omar Sy might reprise their roles for the next few films and that he would direct the film if asked.[29] Trevorrow later told Spielberg he would only focus on directing one film in the series,[28] and announced in May 2015 that he would be involved in the sequel "in some way, but not as director." He felt different directors could bring different qualities to future films.[30] Pratt had been signed for future films in the series,[31] as was Ty Simpkins, who portrayed Gray in Jurassic World.[32]

text: On June 3, 2015, Trevorrow said that Jurassic World left many story possibilities open: "I really like the idea that this group of geneticists aren't the only people who can make a dinosaur […] when you think of the differences between Apple and PC—the minute something goes open-source, there are all kinds of entities and interests that may be able to utilize that technology."[33] On June 8, 2015, Jurassic World producer Frank Marshall met with Trevorrow and Universal Pictures to discuss a sequel.[34] Later that month, he did not deny the film could involve "dinosaur soldiers"[35] and said the series is "not always gonna be about a Jurassic Park". He felt future films could explore the idea of dinosaurs and humans co-existing.[28] Trevorrow also hinted the next film might not involve the Jurassic World theme park,[36] and said he would be interested in seeing a Jurassic Park film made by one of several unnamed Spanish horror film directors.[37]

text: Pre-production[edit]

text: On July 23, 2015, Universal announced a fifth film had been scheduled for a June 22, 2018, release date in the U.S. It was also announced that Trevorrow would write the script with his writing partner Derek Connolly, as they had for Jurassic World; that the film would be produced by Frank Marshall; and that Spielberg and Trevorrow would act as executive producers. Universal also said that Chris Pratt and Bryce Dallas Howard would reprise their roles from the previous film.[10] At the time of the film's announcement, Trevorrow said the series "isn't always going to be limited to theme parks". He confirmed the film would not involve "a bunch of dinosaurs chasing people on an island" stating, "That'll get old real fast."[38] Trevorrow also spoke of the film's possible open-source storyline: "It's almost like InGen is Mac, but what if PC gets their hands on it? What if there are 15 different entities around the world who can make a dinosaur?"[38]

text: In August 2015, Howard said the script was being written,[39] and Universal Studios announced that the film would be released in the UK two weeks early, on June 7, 2018.[40][41] Later that year, B. D. Wong said he "would be happy to return" as Dr. Henry Wu,[42] while Howard announced that filming would begin in 2017.[43] Howard also said she would be interested in seeing characters from earlier Jurassic Park films return for the fifth film, saying, "I could see versions of the film where a lot of the characters come back."[44] By October 2015, director J. A. Bayona was being considered to direct the film. He chose instead to direct the World War Z sequel, a project for which he had already signed on.[45] In January 2016, it was reported that Bayona could still be a candidate to direct the film after he dropped out of the World War Z sequel due to other commitments.[46]

text: In March 2016, London was being scouted as a possible filming location and setting for the film;[47] it was subsequently announced that filming would take place at a UK studio.[48] On April 14, 2016, actor Jeff Goldblum said he had no plans to appear in the film as his character Ian Malcolm, although he said he was open to the possibility.[49] On April 18, 2016, Bayona was announced as the film's director, with Belén Atienza and Patrick Crowley joining Marshall as producers.[50] Spielberg, Marshall, and Kathleen Kennedy had been impressed by his 2012 film, The Impossible, and initially considered having him direct Jurassic World. He declined as he felt there was not enough time for production.[51][52] Trevorrow wanted Bayona to direct the film after seeing his 2007 horror film, The Orphanage.[53][54] Before he was hired, Bayona had met with Trevorrow and became enthused with the project after being shown the script's second half, which would play out like a haunted house film.[55] After Bayona was hired, Trevorrow said of the film, "We're moving it into new territory. J. A. Bayona is an incredible director and I know he'll push the boundaries of what a 'Jurassic' movie is. I think it's important that we take risks. A franchise must evolve or perish."[56] Trevorrow and Bayona worked closely throughout the film's production.[2] In June 2016, actor Sam Neill was asked if he would return to the series as Dr. Alan Grant and responded, "You never say never, but I think it's moved on. It's different times."[57]

text: The film, under the working title of Ancient Futures,[58] was in full pre-production as of July 2016, with storyboards being designed.[59] Andy Nicholson was hired as the film's production designer. He spent four weeks with Bayona in Barcelona, discussing reference pictures and background details, as well as Bayona's ideas for the Lockwood mansion.[2] Production was scheduled to begin in Hawaii in February 2017.[60][61] Wales was also confirmed as a filming location,[62] including Brecon Beacons and Penbryn.[63] Trevorrow said that Hawaii would be used as a primary filming location, while U.K. shooting would be limited to studios, without the story taking place there. Trevorrow also said the film would feature many dinosaurs that were not seen in previous films and denied that the film's story would involve militarized dinosaurs, which would only be mentioned in the film.[64]

text: For the film's second half where dinosaurs are transported by boat to the mainland, Ecuador and Peru had both been scouted as possible filming locations and settings. Marshall thought that Cabo San Lucas would be ideal, but these locations ultimately did not work for the film's story. Although the film was shot partly in England, Spielberg felt the country was too far from the fictional Isla Nublar to be used as the in-film setting for the second half. He and the producers did not want the film to spend too much time on a boat. Crowley stated, "Rather than making it a movie about traveling on a boat, which is not very exciting, you needed to get to the place."[65]

text: In September 2016, Bayona confirmed the film would be the second chapter in a planned Jurassic World trilogy.[66] Later that year, Marshall said that Wong was "probably going to come back".[67] Jurassic World composer Michael Giacchino confirmed that he would return as composer for the fifth film.[68] Óscar Faura was announced as the film's cinematographer at the end of the year.[69]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Although Spielberg was heavily involved in the development of ideas for Jurassic World, he had Trevorrow and Connolly devise their own ideas for the sequel. He retained final approval on the project.[70] In June 2015, about two weeks after the theatrical release of Jurassic World, Trevorrow embarked on a road trip from Los Angeles to his home state of Vermont. Connolly agreed to accompany Trevorrow so they could discuss a basic set of ideas Trevorrow had for the film.[2] During their eight-day trip,[71] they began work on the script and devised the basic story.[72][73] Trevorrow said the film's story was inspired by a quote from Dr. Alan Grant in the first film: "Dinosaurs and man, two species separated by 65 million years of evolution, have suddenly been thrown back into the mix together. How can we possibly have the slightest idea of what to expect?"[74] Trevorrow said that the story was heavily influenced by the idea that, "A mistake made a long time ago just can't be undone."[64]

text: The film is also based on concepts from Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park (1990) and its sequel The Lost World (1995), and includes dialogue from the first novel.[64] Isla Nublar's volcano was in the first novel, and the writers chose to incorporate it into the film's plot.[75] Trevorrow compared the destruction of Isla Nublar to "the burning down of a church or a temple," saying, "I honestly think it's like killing off a character in a way, and if you're going to do that, as long as you approach it with the proper respect and acknowledgement that you understand how indelible and permanent what you're doing is, then hopefully people will have an emotional response but they won't hate you for it."[76] The idea to include a "silent partner" for John Hammond was also inspired by the Jurassic Park novel. Although the character of Benjamin Lockwood was not featured in the novel, the book depicts the early years leading up to the cloning of dinosaurs. This made Trevorrow realize there would have been many people involved in such a project, convincing him that someone like Lockwood would be among those people.[77]

text: In his initial film treatment, Trevorrow had included story elements that Marshall and Crowley considered excessive for a single film. The producers felt it was important to include details about Owen and Claire's lives after the events of Jurassic World.[65] Although the original ending was the same as the final film, Trevorrow had wanted to include more details about the integration of dinosaurs into the world. He chose to remove them to keep the story focused.[78] The script's structure, Trevorrow said, was inspired by Spielberg's 2015 film Bridge of Spies, in which two seemingly unrelated stories "collide in the middle, and move on together."[70] Trevorrow was also inspired by the 1975 film Three Days of the Condor, saying, "It's one of those places where you think you know what the score is, and then everything changes, and then suddenly you don't know who to trust."[70] Having directed Jurassic World, Trevorrow was familiar with how animatronics worked and wrote scenes for the sequel that would allow for their use. For example, animatronics are incapable of certain actions such as running.[79]

text: Regarding the idea of human cloning, Trevorrow said that "we're so much closer to cloning humans than we are to cloning dinosaurs. It felt like far less of a leap to me than dinosaurs do. [...] To have a character who has such deep love and has felt such loss and the inability to go on, I think is something we all feel. So the idea that you might be able to bring someone back in that way is emotionally grounded in a very universal idea."[80] Trevorrow also said he was interested in "the larger impact" of genetic power, including its emotional impact and its potential human impact. He added, "we knew that we didn't want to continue to make movies about the dangers of messing with science. We want to tell a story about where we are now, which is that we have messed with science, we have fundamentally altered our world and now we're dealing with the consequences."[77] Trevorrow was nervous about how audiences would react to the story's human cloning aspect, an idea supported by Spielberg, who was excited about the questions that such an idea could raise in the film's sequel.[76] Because of criticism of the death of Zara in the previous film, Trevorrow said for Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, "We made sure that every death was earned. Everybody deserves their death in this movie, a lesson learned. In 2018 everyone earns it. Horrible people."[76]

text: After Bayona was hired, he began reading Crichton's novels—including Jurassic Park and The Lost World—for inspiration and "to try to immerse myself in Crichton's mind."[81][82] Trevorrow and Connolly began working with Bayona in July 2016, to perfect the script to the director's liking.[64] Trevorrow said the film would be more "suspenseful and scary" than its predecessor: "It's just the way it's designed; it's the way the story plays out. I knew I wanted Bayona to direct it long before anyone ever heard that it was a possibility, so the whole thing was just built around his skillset."[64] Trevorrow later described the film as "The Impossible meets The Orphanage with dinosaurs."[54] Bayona said that with the first half of the film set on an island, "you have what you expect from a Jurassic movie," while the second half "moves to a totally different environment that feels more suspenseful, darker, claustrophobic, and even has this kind of gothic element, which I love."[83] The "gothic element" of suspense was influenced by Alfred Hitchcock films.[84] He compared it to The Empire Strikes Back and Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, which were both considered darker than their predecessors.[85]

text: Trevorrow said the film's dinosaurs would be "a parable of the treatment animals receive today: the abuse, medical experimentation, pets, having wild animals in zoos like prisons, the use the military has made of them, animals as weapons."[86] The idea of weaponized dinosaurs came from Spielberg.[71][87] Trevorrow said that with the film's dinosaur auction, "The worst instincts of mankind are revealed. The first film was very clearly about corporate greed. This is just about human greed."[88] The film includes ideas previously featured in a rejected 2004 draft for Jurassic Park IV (later Jurassic World), presented in the same structure: a return to Isla Nublar followed by a second half set in a large Gothic building on the mainland. The idea of a dinosaur auction was also in the rejected draft, which Trevorrow had read while writing the first Jurassic World film.[89][90]

text: Bayona had his own ideas incorporated into the script while essentially retaining the original story devised by Trevorrow and Connolly.[59] The film's underwater opening sequence was already in their script. Bayona asked Trevorrow to push for it to become a bigger scene with a larger set.[55] One of Trevorrow's ideas was to include Jeff Goldblum's character of Ian Malcolm, who appeared in the franchise's earlier films.[91] Trevorrow and Goldblum discussed dialogue ideas for Malcolm, and Trevorrow said he used a lot of dialogue from Crichton's Jurassic Park novel for the character.[2][92] Marshall said that Trevorrow wrote Malcolm as "the 'Uh oh, danger, I told you so' kind of character".[52] Trevorrow said of Malcolm, "I saw him as kind of Al Gore. He's got a beard now, and he's like, 'I told all of you this was going to be a disaster, and sure enough it is.'"[93] Bayona and Trevorrow ultimately removed certain moments from the script they felt would be better for the sequel, which was expected to depict dinosaurs having spread around the world.[76]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In October 2016, casting was underway for the role of a nine-year-old girl.[94] Approximately 2,500 girls were interviewed for the part, which ultimately went to Isabella Sermon, marking her film debut.[2] By November 2016, Tom Holland—who previously starred in The Impossible—had discussed a role in the film with Bayona, but did not believe he would be available because of scheduling conflicts.[95] Toby Jones, Rafe Spall, and Justice Smith were cast at the end of the year.[96][97][98]

text: Daniella Pineda, Ted Levine and James Cromwell were cast in early 2017,[99][100][15] while Wong confirmed his return as Dr. Henry Wu.[17] To maintain secrecy, the Ancient Futures title was used in the casting phase. During auditions, references to dinosaurs were replaced with animals such as lions and grizzly bears.[101][102] To convince the studio that Pineda was right for the role of Zia, Bayona had her demonstrate she could perform comedy and drama scenes, as well as improvise. Pineda auditioned seven times before being given the role. She auditioned for Bayona, Atienza, and Crowley but did not meet the cast until she arrived in England for filming.[103]

text: In March 2017, Bayona announced that Geraldine Chaplin, who had appeared in each of his previous films, had joined the cast.[23] The next month, it was announced that Jeff Goldblum would be reprising his role from the first two films as Dr. Ian Malcolm.[24] Bayona considered Malcolm a "great character!"[82] Marshall said, "The world has changed a lot since Ian Malcolm went to Jurassic Park and we need his point of view now more than ever. He told us about chaos theory, he was right."[104]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Filming began at Langley Business Centre in Slough, England, on February 23, 2017.[105][106] Scenes shot at the business center included Claire's Dinosaur Protection Group office, Owen training his baby raptors, and Owen and Claire attempting to retrieve blood from the sedated T. rex.[2] Most of the filming in England took place at Pinewood Studios.[107] Because of its large sound stages, it was considered perfect for the film's many interior scenes.[65] After filming concluded in England, production moved to Hawaii,[108] which was used as a primary filming location.[64] Scenes shot in Hawaii were set on Isla Nublar, the fictional island featured in the first and fourth films.[109] Scenes were also expected to be shot at Brecon Beacons National Park in Wales.[110] The film was shot in CinemaScope, and is the first entry in the Jurassic Park series presented in a 2.40:1 aspect ratio. The film crew used Arri Alexa 65 exclusively.[91] Several scenes were shot to reference various films including From Here to Eternity (1953) and Dracula (1979), as well as Spielberg's films Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982).[76][111] Spielberg was shown scenes from the film during production and offered Bayona his opinions.[53]

text: During filming, and in between takes, Bayona used an iPod to play different types of music on set to inspire the actors, as he had done with his previous films.[112][113] He also played sound effects from other films in the series,[114] including a T. rex roar that he sometimes used to get a natural reaction from the actors.[115] In particular, Bayona played unexpected sounds and loud music to scare Smith for certain scenes, as his character is portrayed as easily frightened.[101][112] Bayona and Pratt discussed each scene involving Owen's character before it was shot. Many of Pratt's ideas were used in the film. Discussing Levine's character, Bayona said, "He came with this idea of creating this kind of military man. He just wanted to portray the most hateable character possible. […] And he was so creative on set, trying to give ideas, bringing story notes to make this character more and more hateable."[55] The film includes several indirect references to U.S. President Donald Trump, including an idea from Trevorrow where a news ticker says the "U.S. president" has questioned the "existence of dinosaurs in the first place."[116][117][76][118] Jones was allowed to decide his character's appearance, which included a wig similar to Trump's hairstyle.[76][117] An unscripted moment left in the film involves Levine's character referring to Pineda's character Zia as a "nasty woman", a comment that was previously made famous by Trump.[117][119][118]

text: In April 2017, scenes were filmed at East Berkshire College in Berkshire, England,[120] and at Loch Long in Argyll and Bute, Scotland.[121] Also that month, filming took place at Hartland Park—formerly the Pyestock jet engine test site—in Fleet, Hampshire, England,[122][123] where the film's opening sequence was shot. It was filmed through the night and involved helicopters, rain machines, and lightning simulators to depict a thunderstorm.[2] Bayona described the opening scene as a "massive action piece" that resembled the prologues used in James Bond films.[124] Scenes were filmed on sets at Hawley Common, also in Hampshire,[123] where the exterior of Lockwood's mansion was built, as well as a mainland loading dock where the dinosaurs are brought.[2] The exterior of the ship that transports Isla Nublar's dinosaurs to the mainland was created entirely through computer-generated effects by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), which worked on the previous films. The ship's interior was constructed by Nicholson and his team as a large set at Pinewood Studios, and after filming, it was rebuilt to depict the large rooftop of the Lockwood Estate.[2] The exterior of the Cragside country house in Northumberland, England, along with its coniferous surroundings, was used to depict the Lockwood Estate exterior. The film crew took plate shots of Cragside and used a computer to combine the shots with footage filmed on set to create the exterior of the Lockwood Estate. No actors were involved in the Cragside shoot.[125][126]

text: Nicholson previsualized each of the sets he and his team built to ensure they would be large enough for the intended scenes. He noted, "Someone can tell you a Velociraptor is X-feet long, but until you see it in the space, you can't appreciate what that means in terms of your set and the action that needs to take place within it."[2] The interior of the multi-floor Lockwood Estate was built entirely on sound stages at Pinewood Studios. The estate set included Eli Mills' office, Dr. Wu's large underground laboratory, an underground dinosaur containment facility, separate bedrooms belonging to Benjamin and Maisie Lockwood, and a large library with dinosaur skeletons and artifacts. When filming was completed in the Lockwood library, the set was redecorated and converted into the estate's underground garage, where the dinosaur auction takes place.[2] Pratt said the film involved significantly more stunts than its predecessor.[2] An improvised fist fight scene, between Owen and several men during the dinosaur auction, was added late in filming. It was the first such scene to be featured in the film series, and was filmed in a single continuous shot with the use of a dolly track.[76]

text: On May 10, 2017, Rock Barracks military base, near Woodbridge, Suffolk, confirmed that filming was taking place on the base.[127] On May 24, 2017, scenes were shot at Hampshire's Blackbushe Airport, which stood in as an American airfield.[128] Filming in the United Kingdom concluded on June 10, 2017.[108] Up to that point, Trevorrow was present as an on-set writer for each day of production so he could aid Bayona with any possible script changes.[129][130] Goldblum shot his scenes in a single day at Pinewood Studios,[131] during the last day of filming in the United Kingdom.[132] Jones also filmed his scenes on large sets at Pinewood Studios.[2]

text: Filming in Hawaii was underway as of June 13, 2017,[133][134] and lasted more than 25 days, with locations that included Dillingham Airfield and Pua'ena Point.[135] On June 21, 2017, filming began at Heʻeia Kea Small Boat Harbor,[136] which served as Isla Nublar's shipping dock.[2] More than half the harbor was closed for filming, which required the use of smoke machines. Scenes were scheduled to be shot there until the end of the month.[136][137] Filming also took place in a nearby Heʻeia jungle for scenes where Owen searches for and locates Blue.[2] As a reference to the first Jurassic Park film, the scene between Owen and Blue includes an overturned Ford Explorer, previously featured in the original film as a Jurassic Park tour vehicle. Trevorrow had initially considered including the vehicle in a scene in Jurassic World, before settling on the original Jurassic Park visitor center instead.[138] On June 22, 2017, the film's official title was announced as Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom.[139] At the time, filming was underway at Kualoa Ranch on the Hawaiian island of Oahu.[140] Filming at Kualoa Ranch included the exterior set for a radio tower bunker.[2]

text: In Hawaii, scenes where characters are running were filmed with the use of the Edge Arm, a stabilized camera that was attached to a crane, which was mounted to a truck that drove alongside the actors. This specialized camera allowed for scenes to be shot steadily despite the truck being driven over rough terrain.[141] The film includes a scene on Isla Nublar where Claire and Franklin are riding in a ball-shaped Jurassic World Gyrosphere ride to evade dinosaurs.[142] It was shot at Kualoa Ranch[2] and in England. Bayona described it as one of the film's biggest challenges.[142] In Hawaii, the Edge Arm was used to film the actors riding in the Gyrosphere as it was hauled on a trailer to simulate its movement.[142][141] In England, an outdoor roller coaster track with a 40-foot drop was constructed for the Gyrosphere, which Howard and Smith rode in to shoot a scene where the ride plummets off a cliff and into the water surrounding Isla Nublar.[142][143] Although this portion of the scene could have been shot with the use of a green screen, Bayona wanted the actors to express genuine fear for the scene.[143] The last part of the scene was shot at Pinewood Studios, where a large indoor tank was constructed and filled with water to depict the submerged ride as Owen tries to break it open and rescue Claire and Franklin.[142][144] This portion of the scene was filmed in five different takes that were merged to make it seem like a single continuous shot.[145] Pratt was aided by a diving instructor while he shot the scene, which also involved Howard and Smith being underwater.[142][144] Filming in the tank lasted five days,[2] and required a crew of 85.[146] It was shot primarily by a second unit crew, as Bayona was busy directing scenes on other soundstages.[145]

text: David Vickery and his team at ILM created the volcanic special effects and consulted volcanologists for research. According to Vickery, the team asked "how a volcano of this type might erupt" and also requested information about "the various stages of lava and pyroclastic flow. We are speeding it up a bit for the sake of our film, but it is definitely all based on real science."[2] The lava was created through digital effects, although one scene used cat litter set on fire as a stand-in on set, so the actors would know where to react. The scene was set in an Isla Nublar bunker as lava begins dripping from the roof. The litter had been soaked in flammable liquid, and was dropped from 12 different nozzles above the set.[143][147]

text: The Main Street section of the Jurassic World theme park was rebuilt on Police Beach in Hawaii for a scene where Owen and Claire return to the island.[2] The set had been built previously in Louisiana for filming of the previous Jurassic World, but was dismantled after filming concluded.[138] For the sequel, Nicholson had part of the Main Street practically built, although the park's visitor center could not be constructed in its entirety because of its large size. Unbuilt portions of the park were created by ILM using digital set extensions. Main Street was the largest set built in Hawaii, and required more than three months to complete.[2] Many of the same prop makers returned to recreate the Main Street set, which then had to be aged to give the appearance of abandonment.[138]

text: On July 7, 2017, filming took place at Oahu's Hālona Blowhole,[148][149] where Pratt, Howard and Smith shot scenes on a beach.[2] Filming concluded on July 8, 2017,[150] after shooting was completed at Hālona Blowhole.[151] Bayona said that making the film was the biggest challenge of his life.[54] The original cut of the film was approximately two hours and 45 minutes,[152] which the filmmakers considered too long.[153] It was trimmed to two hours and eight minutes for the final cut.[152] One scene removed from the film for runtime reasons revealed the character of Zia to be a lesbian, an idea that came from Bayona and Trevorrow.[153]

text: Creatures on screen[edit]

text: The film's dinosaurs were created using a combination of animatronics and computer-generated imagery (CGI).[2] Special effects artist Neal Scanlan served as the film's creature effects supervisor,[154] while Vickery and Alex Wuttke were visual effects supervisors.[155] Scanlan worked on the animatronic dinosaurs, while Vickery and his ILM team created versions of the dinosaurs through CGI.[154] ILM animators in Vancouver worked on dinosaur stampede scenes, while ILM's London studio created the remaining creature scenes. Approximately 52 ILM animators worked on the film.[156] Scanlan worked closely with Bayona and Vickery to create the creatures.[154] Vickery and ILM did extensive research to accurately create and depict the dinosaurs, which included consulting with paleontologists. The ILM team also referred to elephants and rhinos to determine how the dinosaurs should move and behave.[2] Dinosaur expert John Hankla, of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, served as an advisor on the film.[157] After reading fan thoughts on dinosaurs and speaking with children, Bayona realized that dinosaur textures and colors were often brought up and said, "I thought that was the area where I could play with. They feel somehow a little bit more exotic and richer in this movie."[154] New research had also suggested that real dinosaurs were more colorful and brighter than previously thought.[2]

text: The film features more dinosaurs than any previous film in the series.[54] Bayona wanted to include several new dinosaurs not seen in earlier films,[154] including Allosaurus, Baryonyx, Carnotaurus, Sinoceratops, Stygimoloch, and the fictional Indoraptor.[158] Baryonyx and Carnotaurus were among the creatures created through CGI.[156] Dilophosaurus was in the film's original cut, but was removed.[152] The film features more animatronic dinosaurs than any previous sequel,[159][160] and the animatronics used were more technologically advanced than in the earlier films.[159] Five animatronic dinosaurs were created for the film, whereas the previous film featured only one.[2] More animatronics were used because the film features closer interaction between humans and dinosaurs than its predecessor, including a scene where Howard rides atop the sedated T. rex.[2][161] Bayona said that animatronics "are very helpful on set, especially for the actors so they have something to perform against. There's an extra excitement if they can act in front of something real."[154] Scanlan felt animatronics were not best for every scene: "In some ways it will have an impact on your shooting schedule; you have to take time to film with an animatronic. In the balance, we ask ourselves if it is economically and artistically more valuable to do it that way, or as a post-production effect. Once we have looked at each particular case, with the director and the VFX supervisor we decide whether—because of the environment or the circumstances—it is the right way to go practically."[2]

text: Scanlan spent more than eight months at Pinewood Studios working on the creatures before and during filming, with a crew of approximately 35 people.[162] Scanlan's team created functional animatronic models of the T. rex, the Indoraptor and Blue, while ILM worked on CGI versions of the creatures.[154][156]

text:
The T. rex was one of the first animatronic creatures needed for filming, in the form of a full-scale head and shoulders. ILM sent Scanlan a model of the T. rex from its appearance in Jurassic World. Scanlan used it to create a full-scale 3D print of the T. rex head and shoulders.[2] The life-sized T. rex animatronic, which had the ability to breathe and move its head, was controlled with joysticks.[159] It was used for a scene where the sedated creature is inside a cage while Owen and Claire attempt to retrieve blood from it. The beginning shots of the scene were created using only the animatronic, while the ending shots solely used CGI. The middle portion of the scene used a combination of the two methods.[156] Within the film's story, the T. rex is portrayed as the same individual featured in previous films.[163] Trevorrow said, "We've been following this same character since the beginning; she's the same T. rex that was in Jurassic Park and in Jurassic World. She is iconic—not just because she's a T. rex, but because she's this T. rex."[2]
The Blue animatronic was created to lay down on an operating table, depicting the animal in an injured state while the character of Zia operates on the creature. Up to 12 puppeteers, hidden under the operating table, were needed to control the animatronic during filming.[2] The scene was shot twice, with and without the Blue animatronic, and the two versions were later combined for a seamless effect.[76] In creating Blue through CGI, the animators referred to the animal's appearance in the previous film.[156] According to Vickery, Blue's movements were designed to resemble a dog: "You look at the way Blue cocks her head and looks up at you. It's exactly like a dog. You're trying to sort of connect the dinosaur with things that you understand as a human."[155]
The Indoraptor was primarily created through CGI, while a practical head, neck, shoulders, foot and arm were created for close-up shots.[157] For some scenes, an inflatable Indoraptor stand-in was operated by two puppeteers on set, to be later replaced by a CGI version of the creature.[143] The Indoraptor was designed to have long human-like arms.[76] The creature is depicted as a quadruped and biped,[156] with a height of approximately 10 ft (3.0 m) tall while standing on two legs.[2] Bayona chose black for the Indoraptor's color because he wanted the creature to have the appearance of a black shadow, saying "it's very terrifying when you see the Indoraptor in the dark because you can only see the eyes and the teeth."[76]

text:
Scanlan's team also made puppeteering aids, rod puppets, and several prop dinosaurs, all created by coordinating with Vickery to ensure a consistent result between the practical effects and CGI.[154] Animal motions that could not be perfected with puppetry, such as blinking, were created with computer technology.[2] Among the puppeteer dinosaurs were baby velociraptors used for a scene with Pratt.[162] The scene's final, wider shots used two-wheeled, remote-controlled toys to stand-in for the baby raptors on set. The toys included a spring which gave them the ability to jump. The feature was used to get a genuinely startled reaction from Pratt.[143] Although motion capture was used in the previous film to depict velociraptors, ILM determined after several tests the technology would not be adequate for depicting dinosaurs in Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom. They chose instead to use key frame animation done for the previous films. However, some motion capture was done as a form of previsualization to aid Bayona.[156] ILM used key framing to create scenes involving a large number of dinosaurs and referred to high-speed photography of horses racing for aid in creating such scenes.[156]
The fight scene between Blue and the Indoraptor, set in Maisie's bedroom, was designed in London and key framed by ILM. Jance Rubinchik, animation supervisor for ILM, said the fight was the "trickiest sequence" because of the lack of previsualization.[156] According to Bayona, a Brachiosaurus shown dying in the volcanic eruption is meant to be the same individual that is first seen in the original Jurassic Park. The Brachiosaurus in the new film was created using the same animations from the 1993 film. The dinosaur's death was the last shot on the entire film to be finished; Bayona and the post-production team worked through the night to perfect the scene's colors and composition, shortly before the film's release.[76]

text: For advice on veterinary procedures and animatronic movements, the filmmakers sought a veterinary surgeon who had experience with African wildlife. Jonathan Cranston, a Gloucestershire veterinary surgeon, was recommended for the position because of his experience with wildlife in South Africa. He advised Bayona and the producers on how to choreograph several scenes to accurately depict complex veterinarian procedures that involved the dinosaurs. Cranston also worked closely with Pratt, Howard, Pineda and Smith to teach them how to perform such procedures. He also advised the puppeteers on creating subtle and authentic animal movements and worked with Bayona on two scenes. Cranston was on set for 12 days, primarily at Pinewood Studios.[164]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: A six-second clip from the film was released on November 22, 2017.[165][166] The first trailer was teased for release on November 30, 2017. This was later confirmed to be incorrect.[167] Several teaser trailers and a behind-the-scenes featurette of the film were released in early December 2017,[168][169][170][171] before the release of a full-length trailer on December 7.[22][168] That month,[172] Universal launched a website for the Dinosaur Protection Group. It included miscellaneous information about the group and its effort to save the island's dinosaurs,[13] as well as a video featuring Howard, Pineda and Smith as their characters.[173] The website was created by Timothy Glover and Jack Anthony Ewins, who created the Masrani Global website for Jurassic World.[174] A second trailer aired during Super Bowl LII on February 4, 2018.[175][176] A 30-second teaser trailer was released on April 13, 2018, announcing the release of a third full trailer on April 18.[177][178] Several of the trailers and commercials for the film included scenes from the ending that depict the Tyrannosaurus rex and the Mosasaurus now loose in the world. This frustrated Trevorrow, who preferred not to show such scenes before the film's release.[77][179]

text: Universal had the benefit of a global marketing campaign by its partners valued at $185 million, more than double the value of the previous film's partner program.[180] The campaign included nine partners—Dairy Queen, Doritos, Dr Pepper, Ferrero SpA, Jeep, Juicy Fruit, Kellogg's, M&M's, and Skittles—who aired television commercials and sold products to promote the film.[180] The global marketing campaign consisted of 1.3 billion promotional items including 100 million boxes of Kellogg's products and 15 million packages of Kinder Joy candy by Ferrero.[180] Dairy Queen, a returning partner from the previous film, sold "Jurassic Chomp" ice cream desserts in collectable cups, while Doritos and Dr Pepper marketed versions of their products that featured images of the film's dinosaurs.[180][181] For Super Bowl LII, Trevorrow directed a Jeep commercial starring Goldblum featuring a T. rex. Within 24 hours of its release, the commercial received 39.7 million online views, more than any film trailer watched online following its Super Bowl television debut.[180] Universal also teamed up with Amazon for a marketing stunt where a dinosaur-sized box was driven around Los Angeles on a truck to promote the film.[182][183]

text: Licensing partners Mattel, Lego, and Funko created toys based on the film.[184][185][186][187] Mattel produced a variety of toys,[188] including dinosaurs and action figures,[189][190] as well as Barbie dolls featuring the likeness of Pratt and Howard as their characters.[185] Mattel released a mobile app titled Jurassic World Facts as a tie-in to its dinosaur toys, which included symbols that could be scanned to collect facts about each creature.[191] Lego released a number of Lego sets and characters based on the film.[192] A video game, Jurassic World Evolution, was released simultaneously with the film.[193] A two-part virtual reality miniseries titled Jurassic World: Blue, created by Felix & Paul Studios and Industrial Light and Magic, was released for Oculus VR headsets as a film tie-in, featuring Blue on Isla Nublar at the time of the volcanic eruption.[194][195][196][197] Trevorrow, Glover and Ewins created a website and campaign for "Extinction Now!" (the antithesis to the Dinosaur Protection Group), which was launched shortly before the film's release.[174] The campaign included a found-footage clip of a Tyrannosaurus loose in San Diego, a reference to The Lost World: Jurassic Park.[174][198]

text: Release[edit]

text: Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom had its premiere at the WiZink Center in Madrid, Spain, on May 21, 2018.[199][200] The film's international theatrical release began in Singapore and Malaysia on June 7,[201][202] the United Kingdom, India, Italy, South Korea and Angola on June 8,[203] and Pakistan on June 16, 2018. The film was released in the United States on June 22, 2018.[10][84]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom was released digitally on September 4, 2018, and on Blu-ray, DVD, Blu-ray 3D and 4K Blu-ray on September 18, 2018.[204]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of  October 4, 2018[update], Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom has grossed $416.8 million in the United States and Canada plus $888.1 million in other territories for a total worldwide gross of $1.305 billion. The production budget was in the range of $170–187 million.[6]

text: The film crossed the $1 billion mark on July 5, 2018, becoming the 35th film of all-time to reach this milestone, and the seventh film for Universal. It also made Universal the second studio (after Disney) to have at least two films in three different franchises make $1 billion worldwide, alongside The Fast and the Furious and Despicable Me.[205]

text: United States and Canada[edit]

text: In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Fallen Kingdom was one of the most anticipated films of 2018.[206] Initial projections three weeks before its release had the film grossing between $130–150 million in its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with BoxOffice magazine estimating a total of $325–380 million for its final domestic gross.[207][208] By the week of its release, the low-end projections had reached $135 million.[5] It was released on June 22, 2018, in 4,475 theaters (the second-widest release ever behind Despicable Me 3) grossing $58.7 million on its opening day, the second-highest of the franchise and 28th-best on record.[209] The film grossed $15.3 million from Thursday night previews at 3,600 theaters, down from the $18.5 million grossed by Jurassic World. It ended up debuting at $148 million, the 20th-best opening weekend of all-time and second highest for Universal. It also marked the second time two films opened to over $100 million on back-to-back weekends, following Incredibles 2's $182.7 million debut the week before, since May 2007 when Shrek the Third and Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End opened to $121.6 million and $114.7 million, respectively.[209][210][211] In its second weekend the film made $60 million, a drop of 59% and less than the $105.8 million made by Jurassic World in its sophomore weekend. In its third weekend made $28.3 million.[212][213]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: Overseas, the film was released in 48 countries between June 6 and June 8, 2018, including France, Germany, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Italy, Russia, and Spain. It was projected to gross $130–145 million on its opening weekend.[214] It made $20.2 million on its first day, including $1.4 million in France and $1 million in Indonesia. In South Korea, it grossed $9.7 million (₩10.3 billion) and sold over 1 million tickets, setting opening day records for both (beating The Mummy's ₩7.4 billion and Avengers: Infinity War's 980,000).[215] It went on to have an international debut of $151.1 million, including $8 million from IMAX screenings. Its largest opening markets were South Korea ($27.2 million), the UK ($19.9 million), France ($10 million), Spain ($9.5 million) and Germany ($9.1 million).[216] In China, the film was released on June 15 and made $34.4 million (¥220 million) on its opening day, nearly double the first day total of its predecessor ($17.5 million).[217] The film went on to open to $111.9 million (¥715 million), the fourth best-ever in the country for a Hollywood release (behind The Fate of the Furious, Avengers: Infinity War and Transformers: The Last Knight), and bringing its two week international total to $372.1 million, more than the entire lifetime gross of Jurassic Park III ($368 million).[218] In its third week of international release the film made $106.7 million, bringing its total to $561.5 million. China remained one of the top markets with $32.4 million (a standard 71% drop for Hollywood films in the country), while it was also released in Mexico ($12.3 million), Brazil ($9.2 million) and Australia $7.9 million).[219] As of July 5, 2018, the film has grossed $245.5 million in China, making it the 5th highest grossing Hollywood film of all-time in the country.[205]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received mixed reviews by most critics. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Fallen Kingdom holds an approval rating of 48% based on 348 reviews, and an average rating of 5.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom adds another set piece-packed entry to the blockbuster franchise, although genuinely thrilling moments are in increasingly short supply."[220] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 59 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[221] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an 82% overall positive score.[209]

text: Variety's Owen Gleiberman called the film better than the first Jurassic World but wrote "... [Fallen Kingdom] ends up being just a so-so ride. I hope the next one is an all-out ride—but that for the first time since Spielberg's 1993 original, it's actually a great one. The audience for this series has proved that it will turn out in mega-droves."[222] Lindsey Bahr of the Associated Press wrote, "Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom will not stand up to rigorous scrutiny, and yet, it’s kind of an enjoyable, preposterous and thrilling ride that ticks through nostalgia beats like a shopping list."[223] The Boston Globe's Ty Burr likened the film to a "Universal Studios theme park ride" noting, "It’s enough for a fun fright night at the movies but lacks anything else: character, mystery, wonder, danger. The film’s a rush for an audience that only wants the high." [224]

text: In a more critical assessment, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said "...this sequel has the perfunctory vibe that comes from filmmakers who cynically believe the public will buy anything T. rex-related, no matter how shoddy the goods or warmed-over the plot." [225] Senior Editor Matt Goldberg of Collider also criticized the screenplay stating, "The film is too lazy to even bother with the modest housekeeping of explaining its characters’ motives."[226] The Verge's Bryan Bishop was equally critical, writing, "Like its predecessor, Fallen Kingdom is overstuffed with ethical conundrums, and not sophisticated enough to fully engage with them ... the movie's villains become such cartoony caricatures that it's impossible to take Fallen Kingdom's attempted philosophical musings seriously."[227] Sam Machkovech of Ars Technica called the film a B movie consisting of "a sixth-grade sketchbook mash of dino-murder, cartoonish villains, and plot holes",[228] while Travis M. Andrews of The Washington Post said the film had "achieved the impossible: it makes dinosaurs boring."[229]

text: In a positive review, Scott Mendelson of Forbes wrote, "Fallen Kingdom is a gorgeous, mostly enjoyable blockbuster that looked great in IMAX. That it doesn't cash all the checks it tries to write is why it's merely a good movie instead of a great one."[230] Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, John DeFore also praised the film saying, "Finally making good on its name, J.A. Bayona's Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom says goodbye to the park for good, not just carrying the de-extincted dinos off the island but freeing itself from the genre trappings of the previous four films."[231] In a review for Empire, Ben Travis lauded the film giving it four out of five stars saying, "despite some familiar echoes of The Lost World, Fallen Kingdom also takes big, ballsy, irreversible strides, deriving tantalising logical conclusions from Michael Crichton’s original premise and setting up a brave new World for this trilogy’s final chapter.[232]

text: Many reviewers singled out the scene where a lone Brachiosaurus, stranded on Isla Nublar, succumbs to the volcanic fumes while the characters helplessly watch from the departing ship, as "poignant" or "haunting", especially given the species' role in the first movie.[222][225][233][234]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: An untitled sequel, known as Jurassic World 3, is scheduled for release on June 11, 2021.[235][236] Trevorrow will direct the film,[237] and write the screenplay with Emily Carmichael. It is based on a story by Trevorrow and Connolly. Trevorrow will also serve as executive producer with Steven Spielberg; Marshall and Crowley will serve as producers.[238][239][235] Pratt and Howard will reprise their roles for the film.[240]


document_title: Hydrogen bond

question_text: what is the physical nature of the hydrogen bond

root

text: Hydrogen bond

text: Bonding[edit]

text: A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom will play the role of the hydrogen bond donor.[11] This electronegative atom is usually fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. A hydrogen attached to carbon can also participate in hydrogen bonding when the carbon atom is bound to electronegative atoms, as is the case in chloroform, CHCl3.[12][13][14] An example of a hydrogen bond donor is the hydrogen from the hydroxyl group of ethanol, which is bonded to an oxygen.

tag: p

text: In a hydrogen bond, the electronegative atom not covalently attached to the hydrogen is named proton acceptor, whereas the one covalently bound to the hydrogen is named the proton donor.

text: In the donor molecule, the electronegative atom attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus of the donor, and, by decentralizing the cloud, leaves the atom with a positive partial charge. Because of the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecules, the resulting charge, though only partial, represents a large charge density. A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a lone pair of electrons on another heteroatom, which then becomes the hydrogen-bond acceptor.

text: The hydrogen bond is often described as an electrostatic dipole-dipole interaction. However, it also has some features of covalent bonding: it is directional and strong, produces interatomic distances shorter than the sum of the van der Waals radii, and usually involves a limited number of interaction partners, which can be interpreted as a type of valence. These covalent features are more substantial when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors.

text: The partially covalent nature of a hydrogen bond raises the following questions: "To which molecule or atom does the hydrogen nucleus belong?" and "Which should be labeled 'donor' and which 'acceptor'?" Usually, this is simple to determine on the basis of interatomic distances in the X−H···Y system, where the dots represent the hydrogen bond: the X−H distance is typically ≈110 pm, whereas the H···Y distance is ≈160 to 200 pm. Liquids that display hydrogen bonding (such as water) are called associated liquids.

text:
Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from very weak (1–2 kJ mol−1) to extremely strong (161.5 kJ mol−1 in the ion HF−
2).[15][16] Typical enthalpies in vapor include:

text:
F−H···:F (161.5 kJ/mol or 38.6 kcal/mol)
O−H···:N (29 kJ/mol or 6.9 kcal/mol)
O−H···:O (21 kJ/mol or 5.0 kcal/mol)
N−H···:N (13 kJ/mol or 3.1 kcal/mol)
N−H···:O (8 kJ/mol or 1.9 kcal/mol)
HO−H···:OH+
3 (18 kJ/mol[17] or 4.3 kcal/mol; data obtained using molecular dynamics as detailed in the reference and should be compared to 7.9 kJ/mol for bulk water, obtained using the same molecular dynamics.)

tag: ul

text: Quantum chemical calculations of the relevant interresidue potential constants (compliance constants) revealed[how?] large differences between individual H bonds of the same type. For example, the central interresidue N−H···N hydrogen bond between guanine and cytosine is much stronger in comparison to the N−H···N bond between the adenine-thymine pair.[18]

text: The length of hydrogen bonds depends on bond strength, temperature, and pressure. The bond strength itself is dependent on temperature, pressure, bond angle, and environment (usually characterized by local dielectric constant). The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm. The ideal bond angle depends on the nature of the hydrogen bond donor. The following hydrogen bond angles between a hydrofluoric acid donor and various acceptors have been determined experimentally:[19]

text:
Acceptor···donor
VSEPR geometry
Angle (°)

HCN···HF
linear
180

H2CO···HF
trigonal planar
120

H2O···HF
pyramidal
46

H2S···HF
pyramidal
89

SO2···HF
trigonal
142

tag: table

text: History[edit]

text: In the book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Linus Pauling credits T. S. Moore and T. F. Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen bond, in 1912.[20][21] Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to account for the fact that trimethylammonium hydroxide is a weaker base than tetramethylammonium hydroxide. The description of hydrogen bonding in its better-known setting, water, came some years later, in 1920, from Latimer and Rodebush.[22] In that paper, Latimer and Rodebush cite work by a fellow scientist at their laboratory, Maurice Loyal Huggins, saying, "Mr. Huggins of this laboratory in some work as yet unpublished, has used the idea of a hydrogen kernel held between two atoms as a theory in regard to certain organic compounds."

text: Hydrogen bonds in water[edit]

text: The most ubiquitous and perhaps simplest example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.

text: Liquid water's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can form, relative to its low molecular mass. Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds, water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. For example, hydrogen fluoride—which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom—can form only two bonds; (ammonia has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair).

text: The exact number of hydrogen bonds formed by a molecule of liquid water fluctuates with time and depends on the temperature.[23] From TIP4P liquid water simulations at 25 °C, it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds. At 100 °C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 °C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69.[23] A more recent study found a much smaller number of hydrogen bonds: 2.357 at 25 °C.[24] The differences may be due to the use of a different method for defining and counting the hydrogen bonds.

text: Where the bond strengths are more equivalent, one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two polyatomic ions of opposite charge, specifically hydroxide (OH−) and hydronium (H3O+). (Hydronium ions are also known as "hydroxonium" ions.)

text: Indeed, in pure water under conditions of standard temperature and pressure, this latter formulation is applicable only rarely; on average about one in every 5.5 × 108 molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule, in accordance with the value of the dissociation constant for water under such conditions. It is a crucial part of the uniqueness of water.

text: Because water may form hydrogen bonds with solute proton donors and acceptors, it may competitively inhibit the formation of solute intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Consequently, hydrogen bonds between or within solute molecules dissolved in water are almost always unfavorable relative to hydrogen bonds between water and the donors and acceptors for hydrogen bonds on those solutes.[25] Hydrogen bonds between water molecules have an average lifetime of 10−11 seconds, or 10 picoseconds.[26]

text: Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water[edit]

text:
A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds, rather than one. This type of bonding is called "bifurcated" (split in two or "two-forked"). It can exist, for instance, in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules.[27] It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation.[28]
Acceptor-type hydrogen bonds (terminating on an oxygen's lone pairs) are more likely to form bifurcation (it is called overcoordinated oxygen, OCO) than are donor-type hydrogen bonds, beginning on the same oxygen's hydrogens.[29]

text: Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins[edit]

text: Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three-dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases. In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule's physiological or biochemical role. For example, the double helical structure of DNA is due largely to hydrogen bonding between its base pairs (as well as pi stacking interactions), which link one complementary strand to the other and enable replication.

text: In the secondary structure of proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens. When the spacing of the amino acid residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions i and i + 4, an alpha helix is formed. When the spacing is less, between positions i and i + 3, then a 310 helix is formed. When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand, a beta sheet is formed. Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure of protein through interaction of R-groups. (See also protein folding).

text: The role of hydrogen bonds in protein folding has also been linked to osmolyte-induced protein stabilization. Protective osmolytes, such as trehalose and sorbitol, shift the protein folding equilibrium toward the folded state, in a concentration dependent manner. While the prevalent explanation for osmolyte action relies on excluded volume effects, that are entropic in nature, recent circular dichroism (CD) experiments have shown osmolyte to act through an enthalpic effect.[30] The molecular mechanism for their role in protein stabilization is still not well established, though several mechanism have been proposed. Recently, computer molecular dynamics simulations suggested that osmolytes stabilize proteins by modifying the hydrogen bonds in the protein hydration layer.[31]

text: Several studies have shown that hydrogen bonds play an important role for the stability between subunits in multimeric proteins. For example, a study of sorbitol dehydrogenase displayed an important hydrogen bonding network which stabilizes the tetrameric quaternary structure within the mammalian sorbitol dehydrogenase protein family.[32]

text: A protein backbone hydrogen bond incompletely shielded from water attack is a dehydron. Dehydrons promote the removal of water through proteins or ligand binding. The exogenous dehydration enhances the electrostatic interaction between the amide and carbonyl groups by de-shielding their partial charges. Furthermore, the dehydration stabilizes the hydrogen bond by destabilizing the nonbonded state consisting of dehydrated isolated charges.[33]

text: Hydrogen bonds in polymers[edit]

text: Many polymers are strengthened by hydrogen bonds in their main chains. Among the synthetic polymers, the best known example is nylon, where hydrogen bonds occur in the repeat unit and play a major role in crystallization of the material. The bonds occur between carbonyl and amine groups in the amide repeat unit. They effectively link adjacent chains to create crystals, which help reinforce the material. The effect is greatest in aramid fibre, where hydrogen bonds stabilize the linear chains laterally. The chain axes are aligned along the fibre axis, making the fibres extremely stiff and strong. Hydrogen bonds are also important in the structure of cellulose and derived polymers in its many different forms in nature, such as wood and natural fibres such as cotton and flax.

text: The hydrogen-bond networks make both natural and synthetic polymers sensitive to humidity levels in the atmosphere because water molecules can diffuse into the surface and disrupt the network. Some polymers are more sensitive than others. Thus nylons are more sensitive than aramids, and nylon 6 more sensitive than nylon-11.

text: Symmetric hydrogen bond[edit]

text: A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms. The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal. It is an example of a three-center four-electron bond. This type of bond is much stronger than a "normal" hydrogen bond. The effective bond order is 0.5, so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond. It is seen in ice at high pressure, and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure. It is also seen in the bifluoride ion [F−H−F]−.

text: Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in formic acid at high pressure (>GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (Ice X). Low-barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two heteroatoms is very small.

text: Dihydrogen bond[edit]

text: The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related dihydrogen bond, which is also an intermolecular bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms. These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by crystallography;[34] however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, ionic bond, and covalent bond remains unclear. Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the nitrogen, and chalcogen groups). In some cases, these proton acceptors may be pi-bonds or metal complexes. In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor, thus forming a hydrogen-hydrogen interaction. Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex/hydrogen donor system.[34]

text: Advanced theory of the hydrogen bond[edit]

text: In 1999, Isaacs et al.[35] showed from interpretations of the anisotropies in the Compton profile of ordinary ice that the hydrogen bond is partly covalent. However, this interpretation was challenged by Ghanty et al.,[36] who concluded that considering electrostatic forces alone could explain the experimental results. Some NMR data on hydrogen bonds in proteins also indicate covalent bonding.

text: Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric-dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds. This is slightly different from the intramolecular bound states of, for example, covalent or ionic bonds; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the interaction energy has a net negative sum. The initial theory of hydrogen bonding proposed by Linus Pauling suggested that the hydrogen bonds had a partial covalent nature. This remained a controversial conclusion until the late 1990s when NMR techniques were employed by F. Cordier et al. to transfer information between hydrogen-bonded nuclei, a feat that would only be possible if the hydrogen bond contained some covalent character.[37] While much experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in water, for example, that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and molecular thermodynamics, the kinetic and dynamical properties of the hydrogen bond in dynamic systems remain unchanged.

text: O:H-O bond cooperativity:

text: Since 2012, Sun et al [38] [39] [40] proposed and intensively verified that the hydrogen bond (O:H-O) performs like an asymmetrical, short range, coupled oscillator pair. The O:H-O bond segmental disparity and the O-O repulsivity form the soul dictating the extraordinary adaptivity, cooperativity, recoverability, and sensitivity of water and ice [41].

text: Under external excitation,the oxygen anions dislocate in the same direction but by different amounts along the O:H-O with respect to the H+ as the coordination origin. The O:H always relaxes more than the H-O in length [42][43]. This theory has enabled resolution of multiple mysteries of water and ice [44] [45].

text: Dynamics probed by spectroscopic means[edit]

text: The dynamics of hydrogen bond structures in water can be probed by the IR spectrum of OH stretching vibration.[46] In the hydrogen bonding network in protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs), which are a type of phase change material exhibiting solid-solid phase transitions prior to melting, variable-temperature infrared spectroscopy can reveal the temperature dependence of hydrogen bonds and the dynamics of both the anions and the cations.[47] The sudden weakening of hydrogen bonds during the solid-solid phase transition seems to be coupled with the onset of orientational or rotational disorder of the ions.[47]

text: Hydrogen bonding phenomena[edit]

text:
Dramatically higher boiling points of NH3, H2O, and HF compared to the heavier analogues PH3, H2S, and HCl.
Increase in the melting point, boiling point, solubility, and viscosity of many compounds can be explained by the concept of hydrogen bonding.
Occurrence of proton tunneling during DNA replication is believed to be responsible for cell mutations.[48]
Viscosity of anhydrous phosphoric acid and of glycerol
Dimer formation in carboxylic acids and hexamer formation in hydrogen fluoride, which occur even in the gas phase, resulting in gross deviations from the ideal gas law.
Pentamer formation of water and alcohols in apolar solvents.
High water solubility of many compounds such as ammonia is explained by hydrogen bonding with water molecules.
Negative azeotropy of mixtures of HF and water
Deliquescence of NaOH is caused in part by reaction of OH− with moisture to form hydrogen-bonded H
3O−
2 species. An analogous process happens between NaNH2 and NH3, and between NaF and HF.
The fact that ice is less dense than liquid water is due to a crystal structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
The presence of hydrogen bonds can cause an anomaly in the normal succession of states of matter for certain mixtures of chemical compounds as temperature increases or decreases. These compounds can be liquid until a certain temperature, then solid even as the temperature increases, and finally liquid again as the temperature rises over the "anomaly interval"[49]
Smart rubber utilizes hydrogen bonding as its sole means of bonding, so that it can "heal" when torn, because hydrogen bonding can occur on the fly between two surfaces of the same polymer.
Strength of nylon and cellulose fibres.
Wool, being a protein fibre, is held together by hydrogen bonds, causing wool to recoil when stretched. However, washing at high temperatures can permanently break the hydrogen bonds and a garment may permanently lose its shape.


document_title: NFC North

question_text: when was the last time the minnesota vikings won the nfc north

text: NFC North

text: Division lineups[edit]

text: Place cursor over year for division champ or Super Bowl team.

text:
Years

NFL Western Conference
Central Division
NFC Central Division[B]

1900s
2000s

67[A]
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01

Chicago Bears

Detroit Lions

Green Bay Packers

Minnesota Vikings

Tampa Bay Buccaneers[C]

NFC North Division[D]

2000s

02[D]
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Chicago Bears

Detroit Lions

Green Bay Packers

Minnesota Vikings

     Team not in division      Division Won Super Bowl      Division Won NFC Championship      Division won NFL Championship, Lost Super Bowl

text: Division champions[edit]

text:
Season
Team
Record
Playoff Results

NFL Central (pre-merger)

1967
Green Bay Packers
9–4–1
Won 1967 NFL Championship Game
Won Super Bowl II

1968
Minnesota Vikings
8–6
Lost NFL Divisional Playoffs

1969
Minnesota Vikings
12–2
Won 1969 NFL Championship Game
Lost Super Bowl IV

NFC Central (post merger)

1970
Minnesota Vikings
12–2
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1971
Minnesota Vikings
11–3
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1972
Green Bay Packers
10–4
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1973
Minnesota Vikings
12–2
Lost Super Bowl VIII

1974
Minnesota Vikings
10–4
Lost Super Bowl IX

1975
Minnesota Vikings
12–2
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1976
Minnesota Vikings
11–2–1
Lost Super Bowl XI

1977
Minnesota Vikings
9–5
Lost NFC Championship Game

1978
Minnesota Vikings
8–7–1
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1979
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
10–6
Lost NFC Championship Game

1980
Minnesota Vikings
9–7
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1981
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
9–7
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1982+
Green Bay Packers
5–3–1
Lost NFC Second Round

1983
Detroit Lions
9–7
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1984
Chicago Bears
10–6
Lost NFC Championship Game

1985
Chicago Bears
15–1
Won Super Bowl XX

1986
Chicago Bears
14–2
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1987
Chicago Bears
11–4
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1988
Chicago Bears
12–4
Lost NFC Championship Game

1989
Minnesota Vikings
10–6
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1990
Chicago Bears
11–5
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

1991
Detroit Lions
12–4
Lost NFC Championship Game

1992
Minnesota Vikings
11–5
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

1993
Detroit Lions
10–6
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

1994
Minnesota Vikings
10–6
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

1995
Green Bay Packers
11–5
Lost NFC Championship Game

1996
Green Bay Packers
13–3
Won Super Bowl XXXI

1997
Green Bay Packers
13–3
Lost Super Bowl XXXII

1998
Minnesota Vikings
15–1
Lost NFC Championship Game

1999
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
11–5
Lost NFC Championship Game

2000
Minnesota Vikings
11–5
Lost NFC Championship Game

2001
Chicago Bears
13–3
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

NFC North

2002
Green Bay Packers
12–4
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

2003
Green Bay Packers
10–6
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

2004
Green Bay Packers
10–6
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

2005
Chicago Bears
11–5
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

2006
Chicago Bears
13–3
Lost Super Bowl XLI

2007
Green Bay Packers
13–3
Lost NFC Championship Game

2008
Minnesota Vikings
10–6
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

2009
Minnesota Vikings
12–4
Lost NFC Championship Game

2010
Chicago Bears
11–5
Lost NFC Championship Game

2011
Green Bay Packers
15–1
Won Super Bowl XLV

2012
Green Bay Packers
11–5
Lost NFC Divisional Playoffs

2013
Green Bay Packers
8–7–1
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

2014
Green Bay Packers
12–4
Lost NFC Championship Game

2015
Minnesota Vikings
11–5
Lost NFC Wild Card Playoffs

2016
Green Bay Packers
10–6
Lost NFC Championship Game

2017
Minnesota Vikings
13–3
Lost NFC Championship Game

text: + A players' strike in 1982 reduced the regular season to nine games, so the league used a special 16-team playoff tournament just for this year. Division standings were ignored; Green Bay had the best record of the division teams.

text: Wild Card qualifiers[edit]

text:
Season
Team
Record
Playoff Results

NFC Central

1970
Detroit Lions
10–4–0
Lost Divisional Playoffs

1977
Chicago Bears
9–5–0
Lost Divisional Playoffs

1979
Chicago Bears
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

1982+
Minnesota Vikings
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Detroit Lions
5–4–0
5–4–0
4–5–0
Lost NFC Second Round
Lost NFC First Round
Lost NFC First Round

1987
Minnesota Vikings
8–7–0
Lost NFC Championship Game

1988
Minnesota Vikings
11–5–0
Lost Divisional Playoffs

1991
Chicago Bears
11–5–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

1993
Minnesota Vikings
Green Bay Packers
9–7–0
9–7–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs

1994
Detroit Lions
Chicago Bears
Green Bay Packers
9–7–0
9–7–0
9–7–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs

1995
Detroit Lions
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

1996
Minnesota Vikings
9–7–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

1997
Detroit Lions
Minnesota Vikings
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
9–7–0
9–7–0
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs

1998
Green Bay Packers
11–5–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

1999
Detroit Lions
Minnesota Vikings
8–8–0
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs

2000
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

2001
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Green Bay Packers
9–7–0
12–4–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs
Lost Divisional Playoffs

NFC North

2004
Minnesota Vikings
8–8–0
Lost Divisional Playoffs

2009
Green Bay Packers
11–5–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

2010
Green Bay Packers
10–6–0
Won Super Bowl XLV

2011
Detroit Lions
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

2012
Minnesota Vikings
10–6–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

2014
Detroit Lions
11–5–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

2015
Green Bay Packers
10–6–0
Lost Divisional Playoffs

2016
Detroit Lions
9–7–0
Lost Wild Card Playoffs

text: Total playoff berths[edit]

text: Total playoff berths as members of the NFC Central/North[edit]

text: (1966–2016 seasons)

text:
Team
Division
Championships
Playoff
Berths
NFL League
Titles
Super Bowl
Appearances
Super Bowl
Wins

Minnesota Vikings
20
29
1
4
0

Green Bay Packers
15
22
2
5
4

Chicago Bears
10
14
0
2
1

Detroit Lions
3
12
0
0
0

text: To sort table above, click button to right of heading.

text: Total playoff berths in team history[edit]

text: (1920–2016 seasons)

text:
Team
Division
Championships
Playoff
Berths
NFL League
Titles
(pre-merger)
Conference
Wins
Super Bowl
Wins
Total (1)
Championships

Minnesota Vikings
20
29
1
4
0
1

Green Bay Packers
18
31
11
9
4
13

Chicago Bears
18
25
8
4
1
9

Detroit Lions
4
18
4
4
0
4

text: Schedule assignments[edit]

text:
Year
Opponents

Interconf.
Intraconf.

2017
AFC North
NFC South

2018
AFC East
NFC West

2019
AFC West
NFC East

2020
AFC South
NFC South

2021
AFC North
NFC West

2022
AFC East
NFC East

2023
AFC West
NFC South

2024
AFC South
NFC West

2025
AFC North
NFC East

2026
AFC East
NFC South

2027
AFC West
NFC West

2028
AFC South
NFC East


document_title: Hepatic portal system

question_text: the hepatic portal system is composed of blood vessels that bring

text: Hepatic portal system

text: Function[edit]

text: The portal venous system is responsible for directing blood from parts of the gastrointestinal tract to the liver. Substances absorbed in the small intestine travel first to the liver for processing before continuing to the heart. Not all of the gastrointestinal tract is part of this system. The system extends from about the lower portion of the esophagus to the upper part of the anal canal. It also includes venous drainage from the spleen and pancreas.

text: Many drugs that are absorbed through the GI tract are substantially metabolized by the liver before reaching general circulation. This is known as the first pass effect. As a consequence, certain drugs can only be taken via certain routes. For example, nitroglycerin cannot be swallowed because the liver would deactivate the medication, but it can be taken under the tongue or transdermally (through the skin) and thus is absorbed in a way that bypasses the portal venous system. Inversely, dextromethorphan, a cough suppressor, is best taken orally because it needs to be metabolised by the liver into dextrorphan in order to be effective. This latter principle is that of most prodrugs. The use of suppositories is a way to bypass partially the portal vein: the upper 1/3 of the rectum is drained into the portal vein while the lower 2/3 are drained into the internal iliac vein that goes directly in the inferior vena cava (thus bypassing the liver).

text: Blood flow to the liver is unique in that it receives both oxygenated and (partially) deoxygenated blood. As a result, the partial gas pressure of oxygen (pO2) and perfusion pressure of portal blood are lower than in other organs of the body. Blood passes from branches of the portal vein through cavities between "plates" of hepatocytes called sinusoids. Blood also flows from branches of the hepatic artery and mixes in the sinusoids to supply the hepatocytes with oxygen. This mixture percolates through the sinusoids and collects in a central vein which drains into the hepatic vein. The hepatic vein subsequently drains into the inferior vena cava. The hepatic artery provides 30 to 40% of the oxygen to the liver, while only accounting for 25% of the total liver blood flow. The rest comes from the partially deoxygenated blood from the portal vein. The liver consumes about 20% of the total body oxygen when at rest. That is why the total liver blood flow is quite high, at about 1 litre a minute and up to two litres a minute. That is on average one fourth of the average cardiac output at rest.

text: Large veins that are considered part of the portal venous system are the:

text:
Hepatic portal vein
Splenic vein
Superior mesenteric vein
Inferior mesenteric vein

text: The superior mesenteric vein and the splenic vein come together to form the actual hepatic portal vein. The inferior mesenteric vein connects in the majority of people on the splenic vein, but in some people, it is known to connect on the portal vein or the superior mesenteric vein.

text: Roughly, the portal venous system corresponds to areas supplied by the celiac trunk, the superior mesenteric artery, and the inferior mesenteric artery.

text: Clinical relevance[edit]

text: Portal hypertension is a condition in which the blood pressure of the portal venous system is too high. It is often the result of cirrhosis of the liver.