document_title: Easter egg

question_text: who made the first chocolate easter egg in england

text: Easter egg

text: History[edit]

text: The practice of decorating eggshells as part of spring rituals is ancient,[11] with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old.[12] In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago.[13] These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean.[10]

text: The Christian custom of Easter eggs, specifically, started among the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs with red colouring "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion".[7][14][6][8][9] The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce. The blessing is for consumption as a food, rather than decorated.[8][9]

text: Lord, let the grace of your blessing + come upon these eggs, that they be healthful food for your faithful who eat them in thanksgiving for the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, who lives and reigns with you forever and ever.[15]

text: Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that "use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe."[7] Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dying the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow.[6][7]

text: Influential 19th century folklorist and philologist Jacob Grimm speculates, in the second volume of his Deutsche Mythologie, that the folk custom of Easter eggs among the continental Germanic peoples may have stemmed from springtime festivities of a Germanic goddess known in Old English as Ēostre (namesake of modern English Easter) and possibly known in Old High German as *Ostara (and thus namesake of Modern German Ostern 'Easter'):

text: Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest.

text: Decoration and symbolism[edit]

text: Lenten tradition[edit]

text: The Easter egg tradition may also have merged into the celebration of the end of the privations of Lent in the West. Historically, it was traditional to use up all of the household's eggs before Lent began. Eggs were originally forbidden during Lent as well as on other traditional fast days in Western Christianity (this tradition still continues among the Eastern Christian Churches). Likewise, in Eastern Christianity, meat, eggs, and dairy are all prohibited during the Lenten fast.

text: This established the tradition of Pancake Day being celebrated on Shrove Tuesday. This day, the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday when Lent begins, is also known as Mardi Gras, a French phrase which translates as "Fat Tuesday" to mark the last consumption of eggs and dairy before Lent begins.

text: In the Orthodox Church, Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, rather than Wednesday, so the household's dairy products would be used up in the preceding week, called Cheesefare Week.

text: During Lent, since chickens would not stop producing eggs during this time, a larger than usual store might be available at the end of the fast. This surplus, if any, had to be eaten quickly to prevent spoiling. Then, with the coming of Easter, the eating of eggs resumes. Some families cook a special meatloaf with eggs in it to be eaten with the Easter dinner.

text: One would have been forced to hard boil the eggs that the chickens produced so as not to waste food, and for this reason the Spanish dish hornazo (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard-boiled eggs as a primary ingredient. In Hungary, eggs are used sliced in potato casseroles around the Easter period.

text: Symbolism and related customs[edit]

text: Some Christians symbolically link the cracking open of Easter eggs with the empty tomb of Jesus.[17]

text: In the Orthodox churches, Easter eggs are blessed by the priest at the end of the Paschal Vigil (which is equivalent to Holy Saturday), and distributed to the faithful. The egg is seen by followers of Christianity as a symbol of resurrection: while being dormant it contains a new life sealed within it.[3][4]

text: Similarly, in the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, the so-called święconka, i.e. blessing of decorative baskets with a sampling of Easter eggs and other symbolic foods, is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday.

text: During Paschaltide, in some traditions the Pascal greeting with the Easter egg is even extended to the deceased. On either the second Monday or Tuesday of Pascha, after a memorial service people bring blessed eggs to the cemetery and bring the joyous paschal greeting, "Christ has risen", to their beloved departed (see Radonitza).

text: In Greece, women traditionally dye the eggs with onion skins and vinegar on Thursday (also the day of Communion). These ceremonial eggs are known as kokkina avga. They also bake tsoureki for the Easter Sunday feast.[18] Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread).[19][20]

text: In Egypt, it's a tradition to decorate boiled eggs during Sham el-Nessim holiday, which falls every year after the Eastern Christian Easter.

text: Colouring[edit]

text: The dying of Easter eggs in different colours is commonplace, with colour being achieved through boiling the egg in natural substances (such as, onion peel (brown colour), oak or alder bark or walnut nutshell (black), beet juice (pink) etc.), or using artificial colourings.

text: A greater variety of colour was often provided by tying on the onion skin with different coloured woollen yarn. In the North of England these are called pace-eggs or paste-eggs, from a dialectal form of Middle English pasche. They were usually eaten after an egg-jarping (egg tapping) competition.

text: In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ — the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead.

text: Patterning[edit]

text: When boiling them with onion skins leaves can be attached prior to dying to create leaf patterns. The leaves are attached to the eggs before they are dyed with a transparent cloth to wrap the eggs with like inexpensive muslin or nylon stockings, leaving patterns once the leaves are removed after the dyeing process.[21][22] These eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.

text: Pysanky[23] are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb pysaty, "to write", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax.

text: Decorating eggs for Easter using wax resistant batik is a popular method in some other eastern European countries.

text: Use of Easter eggs in decorations[edit]

text: In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and/or painting and used as decoration around the house. Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying 'Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is', breaking and eating them. This also happens in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine. In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other's egg with their own. The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future.

text: In Germany, eggs decorate trees and bushes as Easter egg trees, and in several areas public wells as Osterbrunnen.

text: There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have krashanky on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the krashanky equalled the number of departed family members.[24]

text:
Ukrainian Easter eggs

Easter eggs from Sorbs

Easter eggs from Lithuania

Perforated egg from Germany, Sleeping Beauty

Norwegian Easter eggs

Easter eggs from Greece

Perforated eggs

Easter eggs from France

American Easter egg from the White House Washington, D.C.

Pace eggs boiled with onion skins and leaf patterns.

Easter eggs decorated with straw

Easter egg from Poland

text: Easter egg games[edit]

text: Egg hunts[edit]

text: An egg hunt is a game in which decorated eggs, which may be hard-boiled chicken eggs, chocolate eggs, or artificial eggs containing candies, are hidden for children to find. The eggs often vary in size, and may be hidden both indoors and outdoors.[25] When the hunt is over, prizes may be given for the largest number of eggs collected, or for the largest or the smallest egg.[25]

text: The central European Slavic nations (Czechs and Slovaks etc.) have a tradition of gathering eggs by gaining them from the females in return of whipping them with a pony-tail shaped whip made out of fresh willow branches and splashing them with water, by the Ruthenians called polivanja, which is supposed to give them health and beauty.

text: Cascarones, a Latin American tradition now shared by many US States with high Hispanic demographics, are emptied and dried chicken eggs stuffed with confetti and sealed with a piece of tissue paper. The eggs are hidden in a similar tradition to the American Easter egg hunt and when found the children (and adults) break them over each other's heads.

text: In order to enable children to take part in egg hunts despite visual impairment, eggs have been created that emit various clicks, beeps, noises, or music so that visually impaired children can easily hunt for Easter eggs.[26]

text: Egg rolling[edit]

text: Egg rolling is also a traditional Easter egg game played with eggs at Easter. In the United Kingdom, Germany, and other countries children traditionally rolled eggs down hillsides at Easter.[27] This tradition was taken to the New World by European settlers,[27][28] and continues to this day each Easter with an Easter egg roll on the White House lawn. Different nations have different versions of the game.

text: Egg tapping[edit]

text: In the North of England, during Eastertide, a traditional game is played where hard boiled pace eggs are distributed and each player hits the other player's egg with their own. This is known as "egg tapping", "egg dumping", or "egg jarping". The winner is the holder of the last intact egg. The annual egg jarping world championship is held every year over Easter in Peterlee Cricket Club.[29][citation needed]

text: It is also practiced in Italy (where is called scuccetta), Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Ukraine, Russia, and other countries. In parts of Austria, Bavaria and German-speaking Switzerland it is called Ostereiertitschen or Eierpecken. In parts of Europe it is also called epper, presumably from the German name Opfer, meaning "offering" and in Greece it is known as tsougrisma. In South Louisiana, this practice is called pocking eggs[30][31] and is slightly different. The Louisiana Creoles hold that the winner eats the eggs of the losers in each round.

text: In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings.

text: Egg dance[edit]

text: Egg dance is a traditional Easter game in which eggs are laid on the ground or floor and the goal is to dance among them without damaging any eggs[32] which originated in Germany. In the UK the dance is called the hop-egg.

text: Pace egg plays[edit]

text: The Pace Egg plays are traditional village plays, with a rebirth theme. The drama takes the form of a combat between the hero and villain, in which the hero is killed and brought back to life. The plays take place in England during Easter.

text: Variants[edit]

text: Chocolate eggs[edit]

text: In 1873 J.S. Fry & Sons of England introduced the first chocolate Easter egg in Britain.

text: In Western cultures, the giving of chocolate eggs is now commonplace, with 80 million Easter eggs sold in the UK alone. Formerly, the containers Easter eggs were sold in contained large amounts of plastic, although in the United Kingdom this has gradually been replaced with recyclable paper and cardboard. [33]

text:
Chocolate Easter egg

Chocolate Easter egg bunny

Easter egg with candy.

Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny with Easter eggs

Kinder Surprise egg, manufacted by Ferrero SpA

text: Marzipan eggs[edit]

text: In the Indian state of Goa, the Goan Catholic dish Marzipan is used to make easter eggs. In the Philippines, mazapán de pili (Spanish for "pili marzipan") is made from pili nuts.

text: Marzipan easter eggs

text: Artificial eggs[edit]

text: The jewelled Easter eggs made by the Fabergé firm for the two last Russian Tsars are regarded as masterpieces of decorative arts. Most of these creations themselves contained hidden surprises such as clock-work birds, or miniature ships.

text: In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries' folk traditions, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common.[34]:45

text: Easter eggs are frequently depicted in sculpture, including a 27-foot (9 m) sculpture of a pysanka standing in Vegreville, Alberta.

text:
Fabergé egg

Giant easter egg, Bariloche, Argentina

Giant pysanka from Vegreville, Alberta, Canada

Giant easter egg or pisanica in Zagreb, Croatia

Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin

text: Legends[edit]

text: Christian traditions[edit]

text: While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ.[35]

text: A different, but not necessarily conflicting legend concerns Mary Magdalene's efforts to spread the Gospel. According to this tradition, after the Ascension of Jesus, Mary went to the Emperor of Rome and greeted him with "Christ has risen," whereupon he pointed to an egg on his table and stated, "Christ has no more risen than that egg is red."

text: After making this statement it is said the egg immediately turned blood red.[36] Red Easter eggs', known as kokkina avga(κόκκινα αυγά) in Greece and krashanki in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples.[37][38][39][40] The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods. Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross.[41] The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia.[8][9] In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them.

text: Parallels in other faiths[edit]

text: The egg is widely used as a symbol of the start of new life, just as new life emerges from an egg when the chick hatches out.[2]

text: Painted eggs are used at the Iranian spring holidays, the Nowruz that marks the first day of spring or Equinox, and the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar. It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous/following day depending on where it is observed. The painted eggs symbolize fertility and are displayed on the Nowruz table, called Haft-Seen together with various other symbolic objects. There are sometimes one egg for each member of the family. The ancient Zoroastrians painted eggs for Nowruz, their New Year celebration, which falls on the Spring equinox. The tradition continues among Persians of Islamic, Zoroastrian, and other faiths today.[42] The Nowruz tradition has existed for at least 2,500 years. The sculptures on the walls of Persepolis show people carrying eggs for Nowruz to the king.[citation needed]

text: The Neo-Pagan holiday of Ostara occurs at roughly the same time as Easter. While it is often claimed that the use of painted eggs is an ancient, pre-Christian component of the celebration of Ostara there are no historical accounts that the celebration of Ostara included this practice, apart from the Old High German lullaby which is believed by most to be a modern fabrication. Rather, the use of painted eggs has been adopted under the assumption that it might be a pre-Christian survival.

text: There are good grounds for the association between hares (later termed Easter bunnies) and bird eggs, through folklore confusion between hares' forms (where they raise their young) and plovers' nests.[43]

text: In Judaism, a hard-boiled egg is an element of the Passover Seder, representing festival sacrifice. The children's game of hunting for the afikomen (a half-piece of matzo) has similarities to the Easter egg hunt tradition, by which the child who finds the hidden bread will be awarded a prize. In other homes, the children hide the afikoman and a parent must look for it; when the parents give up, the children demand a prize for revealing its location.


document_title: List of NHL records (team)

question_text: what nhl team has scored the most goals in a season

root

text: List of NHL records (team)

text: Season records[edit]

text: During the first eight years the NHL existed, teams played between 18 and 36 games in a season. Beginning in 1926, teams played 44–60 games. This would end in 1949 where teams now play 70 or more games. There have been two other instances when teams have only played 48 games in a season. Both the 1994–95 season and 2012–13 season were reduced to 48 games due to lockouts. For more information, check the History of the National Hockey League.

tag: p

text: 1949–50 to Present[edit]

text:
Most Points: 132, by the 1976–77 Montreal Canadiens
Fewest Points: 21, by the 1974–75 Washington Capitals
Most Wins: 62, by the 1995–96 Detroit Red Wings
Fewest Wins: 8, by the 1974–75 Washington Capitals
Most Ties: 24, by the 1969–70 Philadelphia Flyers
Fewest Ties: 2, by the 1992–93 San Jose Sharks
Most Shootout Wins: 15, by the 2007–08 Edmonton Oilers
Most Shootout Losses: 13, by the 2013–14 New Jersey Devils
Most Losses: 71, by the 1992–93 San Jose Sharks
Fewest Losses: 8, by the 1976–77 Montreal Canadiens
Most Goals For: 446, by the 1983–84 Edmonton Oilers
Fewest Goals For: 133, by the 1953–54 Chicago Blackhawks
Most Goals Against: 446, by the 1974–75 Washington Capitals
Fewest Goals Against: 131, by the 1953–54 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1955–56 Montreal Canadiens

tag: ul

text: 1926–27 to 1948–49[edit]

text:
Most Points: 83, by the 1943–44 Montreal Canadiens
Fewest Points: 12, by the 1930–31 Philadelphia Quakers
Most Wins: 38, by the 1943–44 Montreal Canadiens and 1944–45 Montreal Canadiens
Fewest Wins: 4, by the 1930–31 Philadelphia Quakers
Most Ties: 15, by the 1928–29 Montreal Canadiens and 1942–43 Chicago Blackhawks
Fewest Ties: 1, by the 1929–30 Boston Bruins
Most Losses: 39, by the 1943–44 New York Rangers
Fewest Losses: 5, by the 1943–44 Montreal Canadiens and 1929–30 Boston Bruins
Most Goals For: 234, by the 1943–44 Montreal Canadiens
Fewest Goals For: 33, by the 1928–29 Chicago Blackhawks
Most Goals Against: 310, by the 1943–44 New York Rangers
Fewest Goals Against: 43, by the 1928–29 Montreal Canadiens

text: 1917–18 to 1925–26[edit]

text:
Most Points: 52, by the 1925–26 Ottawa Senators
Fewest Points: 8, by the 1919–20 Quebec Bulldogs
Most Wins: 24, by the 1925–26 Ottawa Senators
Fewest Wins: 4, by the 1919–20 Quebec Bulldogs
Most Ties: 5, by the 1925–26 Montreal Maroons
Most Losses: 24, by the 1924–25 Boston Bruins
Fewest Losses: 5 by the 1919–20 Ottawa Senators
Most Goals For: 129, by the 1919–20 Montreal Canadiens
Fewest Goals For: 45, by the 1924–25 Montreal Canadiens
Most Goals Against: 177, by the 1919–20 Quebec Bulldogs
Fewest Goals Against: 42, by the 1925–26 Ottawa Senators

text: Other Season Records[edit]

text:
Greatest Goal Differential: +216, by the 1976–77 Montreal Canadiens
Lowest Goal Differential: -265, by the 1974–75 Washington Capitals
Best Power Play Percentage in a Season: 31.88%, by the 1977–78 Montreal Canadiens
Worst Power Play Percentage in a Season: 9.35%, by the 1997–98 Tampa Bay Lightning
Best Penalty Kill Percentage in a Season: 89.58%, by the 2011–12 New Jersey Devils
Worst Penalty Kill Percentage in a Season: 67.70%, by the 1979–80 Los Angeles Kings
Best Home Record: 36–2–2 by the 1975–76 Philadelphia Flyers
Worst Home Record: 7–28–5 by the 1974–75 Washington Capitals
Best Away Record: 31–7–3 by the 2005–06 Detroit Red Wings
Worst Away Record: 1–41–0, by the 1992–93 Ottawa Senators
Most Shutout Wins in a Season: 22 of 44 games played (50.0%), by the 1928–29 Montreal Canadiens
Most Shutout Losses in a Season: 20 of 44 games played (45.5%), by the 1928–29 Chicago Blackhawks

text: Notes: Ties were only recorded until 2003–04. In 1983, the NHL added a five-minute overtime, and ties would only occur after 65 minutes. Starting in 1999, teams played with only four skaters (unless they were on a two-man advantage, when they would be awarded an extra skater until the next stoppage). Starting in 2015 the NHL began 3-on-3 overtime periods. Starting with the 1999-2000 season, the NHL credited one point to the team that lost in overtime[1], leading to a system in which teams could potentially earn three points between them in a single game, rather than a fixed number of two previously. In 2005, the league eliminated ties meaning that any game which went to overtime would be a three-point game. Games that didn't end in overtime would end in a shootout between the two teams. These changes in points awarded therefore make strict comparisons in wins, losses, and ties (after overtime, 1983–99, and in regulation, 1999–present) before and after these dates slightly problematic.

text: Postseason Records[edit]

text:
Longest Playoff Game: Detroit Red Wings vs Montreal Maroons on March 24, 1936 (60 minutes of regulation, 116 minutes, 30 seconds of overtime for a total of 176 minutes and 30 seconds. This game had 6 20-minute overtime periods).
Most Playoff Games Played (All Teams): 93, during the 2014 Stanley Cup Playoffs
Most Playoff Games Played (One Team): 26, by 1986–87 Philadelphia Flyers, 2003–04 Calgary Flames, 2013–14 Los Angeles Kings, and 2014–15 Tampa Bay Lightning
Most Home Playoff Games Won (One Season): 12, by 2002–03 New Jersey Devils
Most Away Playoff Games Won (One Season): 10, by 1994–95 New Jersey Devils, 1999–00 New Jersey Devils, 2003–04 Calgary Flames, and 2011–12 Los Angeles Kings
Most Playoff Overtime Games Won (One Season): 10, by 1992–93 Montreal Canadiens
Most Stanley Cup-clinching overtime wins: 4, by the Montreal Canadiens (1944, 1953, 1966, 1977)
Most Stanley Cup-clinching overtime losses: 2, by the Toronto Maple Leafs (1933, 1940), Montreal Canadiens (1951, 1954), Detroit Red Wings (1934, 1966), Boston Bruins (1953, 1977), Philadelphia Flyers (1980, 2010), and New York Rangers (1950, 2014)
Most Consecutive Playoff Games Won: 14, by Pittsburgh Penguins (Streak started on May 9, 1992 with 3 straight wins against the New York Rangers, 4 wins against Boston, 4 against Chicago in the Final, then 3 straight against New Jersey the next year. The streak would end on April 25, 1993 with a 4–1 loss to New Jersey.)[2]
Most Consecutive Playoff Games Won in a Single Season: 11, by 1991–92 Chicago Blackhawks, 1991–92 Pittsburgh Penguins, and 1992–93 Montreal Canadiens
Most Consecutive Playoff Games Lost: 16, by Chicago Blackhawks from April 20, 1975 to April 8, 1980.

text: Postseason Goals Scored[edit]

text:
Most Playoff Goals Scored in a Series by One Team: 44, by the Edmonton Oilers against the Chicago Blackhawks during the 1985 Stanley Cup playoffs
Most Playoff Goals Scored in a Series by Both Teams: 69, (44 by the Edmonton Oilers and 25 by the Chicago Blackhawks)
Fewest Playoff Goals Scored in a Series by One Team 1, by the Minnesota Wild against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim
Fewest Playoff Goals Scored in a Series by Both Teams: 16, (10 by the Carolina Hurricanes and 6 by the Toronto Maple Leafs)
Most Playoff Goals Scored by One Team in One Game: 13, by the Edmonton Oilers on April 9, 1987
Most Playoff Goals Scored by One Team in One Period: 7, by the Montreal Canadiens on March 30, 1944
Most Playoff Goals Scored by Both Teams in One Game: 18, (Los Angeles Kings had 10 and the Edmonton Oilers 8) on April 7, 1982
Most Playoff Goals Scored by Both Teams in One Period: 9, by the New York Rangers (6) and the Philadelphia Flyers (3) on April 24, 1979 and the Los Angeles Kings (5) and the Calgary Flames (4) on April 10, 1990
Most Consecutive Playoff Games Played Without a Power Play Goal: 10, by the 2013–14 New York Rangers
Most Consecutive Playoff Power Play Chances Without a Goal: 36, by 2013–14 New York Rangers

text: Season Streaks[edit]

text: Longest Winning Streak

text:
Overall: 17 games, by 1992–93 Pittsburgh Penguins
Home: 23 games, by 2011–12 Detroit Red Wings
Away: 12 games, by 2005–06 Detroit Red Wings and 2014–15 Minnesota Wild

text: Longest Winning Streak to Start the Season

text:
Overall: 10 games, by 1993–94 Toronto Maple Leafs and 2006–07 Buffalo Sabres
Home: 11 games, by 1963–64 Chicago Blackhawks
Away: 10 games, by 2006–07 Buffalo Sabres

text: Longest Winning Streak to End the Season

text: Overall: 11 games, by 2005–06 New Jersey Devils

text: Longest Undefeated Streak

text:
Overall: 35 games, by 1979–80 Philadelphia Flyers (25 wins, 10 ties)
Home: 34 games, by 1976–77 Montreal Canadiens
Away: 23 games, by 1974–75 Montreal Canadiens

text: Longest Undefeated Streak to End the Season

text: Overall: 18 games, by 1992–93 Pittsburgh Penguins (17 wins, one tie)

text: Longest Points Streak to Start the Season

text: Overall: 24 games, by 2012–13 Chicago Blackhawks [3] (21 wins, 3 shootout losses)

text: Longest Shootout Winning Streak

text: Overall: 11 games, by 2005–06 Dallas Stars

text: Longest Shootout Losing Streak

text: Overall: 18 games, by 2013–14 and 2014–15 New Jersey Devils (March 15, 2013 to October 24, 2014)

text: Longest Losing Streak

text:
Overall: 17 games, by 1974–75 Washington Capitals and 1992–1993 San Jose Sharks
Home: 14 games, by 2003–04 Pittsburgh Penguins
Away: 38 games, by 1992–93 Ottawa Senators

text: Longest Losing Streak to Start the Season

text: Overall: 11 games, by 1943–44 New York Rangers and 2017–18 Arizona Coyotes

text: Longest Winless Streak

text:
Overall: 30 games, by 1980–81 Winnipeg Jets (23 losses, 7 ties)
Home: 17 games, by 1995–96 Ottawa Senators and 1999–2000 Atlanta Thrashers
Away: 38 games, by 1992–93 Ottawa Senators

text: Longest Winless Streak to Start the Season

text: Overall: 15 games, by 1943–44 New York Rangers (14 losses, 1 tie)

text: Longest Consecutive Attendance Sellout:

text: 525 games, by the Pittsburgh Penguins as of April 9, 2018 (February 14, 2007 - present) (this record includes regular season and playoff games)[4][5]

text: Notes: An undefeated streak includes wins and ties. A winless streak includes losses in regulation, overtime, shootouts, or ties. After the 2003–04 season, the league eliminated ties meaning any game that wasn't finished in overtime would go to a shootout, so any undefeated streak can only include wins after this time. Overtime and shootout losses count as one point in the standings.

text: Regular Season Miscellaneous[edit]

text:
Most Penalty Minutes in a Season: 2713, by the 1991–92 Buffalo Sabres
Most Combined Penalty Minutes in a Game: 419 (67 penalties), Ottawa Senators at Philadelphia Flyers on March 5, 2004
Most Consecutive Penalties Killed: 53, by the 1999–2000 Washington Capitals
Most Shorthanded Goals in a Season: 36, by the 1983–84 Edmonton Oilers
Fewest Shorthanded Goals allowed in a Season: 0, by the 2013–14 Nashville Predators
Most Shorthanded Goals in One Penalty: 3, by the 2009–10 Boston Bruins vs the Carolina Hurricanes
Most Combined Goals in a Game: 21, Toronto St. Patricks vs. Montreal Canadiens on January 10, 1920 (Montreal won 14–7);[6] Edmonton Oilers vs. Chicago Blackhawks on December 11, 1985 (Edmonton won 12–9).
Largest Goal Differential: Detroit Red Wings 15, New York Rangers 0 on January 23, 1944.
Most Games Going Past Regulation in a Single Day: 8 on February 22, 2007 and November 27, 2015.[7]
Most Games Decided in a Shootout: 21, by the 2013–14 Washington Capitals (10 wins, 11 losses)
Most Shootout Goals in a Single Game: 11, Florida Panthers 6, Washington Capitals 5, on December 16, 2014.[8]
Most Shootout Goals on Consecutive Attempts: 9, Florida Panthers 5, New York Islanders 4, on November 27, 2015.
Most Rounds in a Shootout: 20, by the Washington Capitals vs the Florida Panthers on December 16, 2014.
Most Points Without Reaching Playoffs: 96, by the 2014–15 Boston Bruins and 2017–18 Florida Panthers
Most Presidents' Trophies since Introduction During the 1985–86 season: 6, by the Detroit Red Wings
Fewest Points in an 80 or More Game Season to Win the Presidents' Trophy: 101, by the 1989–90 Boston Bruins
Most Seasons With the Best Regular Season Record: 20, by the Montreal Canadiens
Most Conference Titles During the Regular Season: 9, by the Philadelphia Flyers, Montreal Canadiens, and Detroit Red Wings
Most Division Titles: 25, by the Boston Bruins
Most Consecutive Division Titles: 9 by the Quebec Nordiques/Colorado Avalanche (1 with final season in Quebec, 8 with Colorado)

text: Playoffs Miscellaneous[edit]

text:
Most Stanley Cups: 23, by the Montreal Canadiens (The Canadiens have won 24. Their first Stanley Cup championship came in 1916, before the formation of the NHL)
Oldest Franchise Without a Stanley Cup: St. Louis Blues 49 seasons since inception in 1967–68 season
Most Consecutive Stanley Cup Wins: 5, by the Montreal Canadiens (1956–1960)
Longest Stanley Cup Drought: 53 seasons by the New York Rangers (1941–1993) (Won Stanley Cup in 1994)
Most Stanley Cup Finals Appearance: 32, by the Montreal Canadiens (The Canadiens reached the final in 1916 but this was before the formation of the NHL in 1917)
Oldest Franchise(s) to have never reached the Stanley Cup Final: 34 seasons, by the Original Winnipeg Jets/Phoenix/Arizona Coyotes since inception in 1979–80 season
Most Consecutive Stanley Cup Finals Appearances: 10, by the Montreal Canadiens (1951–1960)
Longest Stanley Cup Final Drought: 49 seasons by Toronto Maple Leafs (last won cup in 1967)
Most consecutive victories in the Stanley Cup Final: 10, by the Montreal Canadiens (1976–1978)
Most consecutive defeats in the Stanley Cup Final: 12, by the St. Louis Blues (1968–1970)
Most sweeps in the Stanley Cup Final since the best-of-seven format was introduced in 1939: 6, by the Montreal Canadiens (1944, 1960, 1968, 1969, 1976, 1977)
Longest Playoff Appearance Streak: 29 years, by the Boston Bruins (1968–1996)
Longest Postseason Drought: 10 seasons by the Florida Panthers (2001–2011) (does not include 2004–05 lockout) and Edmonton Oilers (2007–2016)
Most Consecutive Playoff Series Victories: 19, by the 1980–1984 New York Islanders, spanning four consecutive Stanley Cup titles and five playoff seasons. This is a record for all North American professional sports franchises.
Most Consecutive Playoff Series Defeats: 12, by the Winnipeg Jets/Phoenix Coyotes from 1988–2011
Most Comebacks from a 3–1 Playoff Series Deficit: 3, by the Vancouver Canucks
Most Comebacks from a 3–1 Playoff Series Deficit in One Season: 2, by the 2002–03 Minnesota Wild
Most Consecutive seasons in the Stanley Cup Playoffs where a team has rebounded from a 3–1 deficit in a series: 2, by the New York Rangers
Most 3–1 Leads in a Series to Lose the Last Three Games: 5 by the Washington Capitals
Teams to Come Back from a 3–0 Series Deficit: Toronto Maple Leafs (1942 over the Detroit Red Wings), New York Islanders (1975 over the Pittsburgh Penguins), Philadelphia Flyers (2010 over the Boston Bruins), Los Angeles Kings (2014 over the San Jose Sharks)

text: Notes: The 2004–05 season was cancelled due to a lockout. The Phoenix Coyotes changed their name to the Arizona Coyotes prior to the 2014–15 season


document_title: Forensic science

question_text: who wrote a book on investigation introduced the word criminalistics

text: Forensic science

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning "of or before the forum."[3] The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a criminal charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story. The case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two modern usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of forensic science can be considered correct, as the term forensic is effectively a synonym for legal or related to courts. However, the term is now so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science.

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Origins of forensic science and early methods[edit]

text: The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment. Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in forensic science that were developed centuries later.[4]

text: The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu (translated as Washing Away of Wrongs[5][6]), written in China by Song Ci (宋慈, 1186–1249) in 1248, who was a director of justice, jail and supervision,[7] during the Song Dynasty.

text: Song Ci ruled regulation about autopsy report for court,[8] how to protect the evidence in the examining process, the reason why workers must show examination to public impartiality.[9] He concluded methods that how to make antiseptic and to reappear the hidden injure from dead bodies and bones, (using sunlight under red-oil umbrella and vinegar);[10] how to calculate the death time (according to weather and insects);[11] how to wash dead body for examining the different reasons of death.[12] At that time, the book had given methods to distinguish suicide or pretending suicide.[13]

text: In one of Song Ci's accounts (Washing Away of Wrongs), the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location. (He realized it was a sickle by testing various blades on an animal carcass and comparing the wound.) Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. For example, in the book also described that how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage), along with other evidence from examining corpses on determining if a death was caused by murder, suicide or an accident.[citation needed]

text: Methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India,[14] some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice and spit it back out. Similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths.[15] In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly. It is thought that these tests had some validity[citation needed] since a guilty person would produce less saliva and thus have a drier mouth; the accused would be considered guilty if rice was sticking to their mouths in abundance or if their tongues were severely burned due to lack of shielding from saliva.[citation needed]

text: Development of forensic science[edit]

text: In 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs.[16][17] Two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease.[18] In the late 18th century, writings on these topics began to appear. These included A Treatise on Forensic Medicine and Public Health by the French physician Francois Immanuele Fodéré[19] and The Complete System of Police Medicine by the German medical expert Johann Peter Frank.[20]

text: As the rational values of the Enlightenment era increasingly permeated society in the 18th century, criminal investigation became a more evidence-based, rational procedure − the use of torture to force confessions was curtailed, and belief in witchcraft and other powers of the occult largely ceased to influence the court's decisions. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the increasing use of logic and procedure in criminal investigations at the time. In 1784, in Lancaster, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms's pocket, leading to the conviction.[21]

text: In Warwick 1816, a farm laborer was tried and convicted of the murder of a young maidservant. She had been drowned in a shallow pool and bore the marks of violent assault. The police found footprints and an impression from corduroy cloth with a sewn patch in the damp earth near the pool. There were also scattered grains of wheat and chaff. The breeches of a farm labourer who had been threshing wheat nearby were examined and corresponded exactly to the impression in the earth near the pool.[22]

text: Toxicology and ballistics[edit]

text: A method for detecting arsenious oxide, simple arsenic, in corpses was devised in 1773 by the Swedish chemist, Carl Wilhelm Scheele.[23] His work was expanded, in 1806, by German chemist Valentin Ross, who learned to detect the poison in the walls of a victim's stomach.[24]

text: James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics. He was called by the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832. The defendant, John Bodle, was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee. Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid. While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it was shown to the jury it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt.[25]

text: Annoyed by that, Marsh developed a much better test. He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic, which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery-black deposit.[26] So sensitive was the test, known formally as the Marsh test, that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836.[27]

text: Henry Goddard at Scotland Yard pioneered the use of bullet comparison in 1835. He noticed a flaw in the bullet that killed the victim and was able to trace this back to the mold that was used in the manufacturing process.[28]

text: Anthropometry[edit]

text: The French police officer Alphonse Bertillon was the first to apply the anthropological technique of anthropometry to law enforcement, thereby creating an identification system based on physical measurements. Before that time, criminals could only be identified by name or photograph.[29][30] Dissatisfied with the ad hoc methods used to identify captured criminals in France in the 1870s, he began his work on developing a reliable system of anthropometrics for human classification.[31]

text: Bertillon created many other forensics techniques, including forensic document examination, the use of galvanoplastic compounds to preserve footprints, ballistics, and the dynamometer, used to determine the degree of force used in breaking and entering. Although his central methods were soon to be supplanted by fingerprinting, "his other contributions like the mug shot and the systematization of crime-scene photography remain in place to this day."[30]

text: Fingerprints[edit]

text: Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use thumbprints on documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858.[32]

text: In 1877 at Hooghly (near Kolkata), Herschel instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds, and he registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner's death.[33]

text: In 1880, Dr. Henry Faulds, a Scottish surgeon in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the scientific journal Nature, discussing the usefulness of fingerprints for identification and proposing a method to record them with printing ink. He established their first classification and was also the first to identify fingerprints left on a vial.[34] Returning to the UK in 1886, he offered the concept to the Metropolitan Police in London, but it was dismissed at that time.[35]

text: Faulds wrote to Charles Darwin with a description of his method, but, too old and ill to work on it, Darwin gave the information to his cousin, Francis Galton, who was interested in anthropology. Having been thus inspired to study fingerprints for ten years, Galton published a detailed statistical model of fingerprint analysis and identification and encouraged its use in forensic science in his book Finger Prints. He had calculated that the chance of a "false positive" (two different individuals having the same fingerprints) was about 1 in 64 billion.[36]

text: Juan Vucetich, an Argentine chief police officer, created the first method of recording the fingerprints of individuals on file. In 1892, after studying Galton's pattern types, Vucetich set up the world's first fingerprint bureau. In that same year, Francisca Rojas of Necochea was found in a house with neck injuries whilst her two sons were found dead with their throats cut. Rojas accused a neighbour, but despite brutal interrogation, this neighbour would not confess to the crimes. Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, went to the scene and found a bloody thumb mark on a door. When it was compared with Rojas' prints, it was found to be identical with her right thumb. She then confessed to the murder of her sons.

text: A Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (Kolkata), India, in 1897, after the Council of the Governor General approved a committee report that fingerprints should be used for the classification of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint Bureau, were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor, Sir Edward Richard Henry.[37][38] The Henry Classification System, co-devised by Haque and Bose, was accepted in England and Wales when the first United Kingdom Fingerprint Bureau was founded in Scotland Yard, the Metropolitan Police headquarters, London, in 1901. Sir Edward Richard Henry subsequently achieved improvements in dactyloscopy.[citation needed]

text: In the United States, Dr. Henry P. DeForrest used fingerprinting in the New York Civil Service in 1902, and by December 1905, New York City Police Department Deputy Commissioner Joseph A. Faurot, an expert in the Bertillon system and a fingerprint advocate at Police Headquarters, introduced the fingerprinting of criminals to the United States.[39]

text: Uhlenhuth test[edit]

text: The Uhlenhuth test, or the antigen–antibody precipitin test for species, was invented by Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science.[40] The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the 1960s.[41]

text: DNA[edit]

text: Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jefferys, who realized that variation in the genetic code could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jefferys in a double murder mystery in a small England town called Narborough, Leicestershire in 1985. A 15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample.

text: In 1986, Dawn Ashworth, 15 years old, was also raped and strangled in a nearby village of Enderby. Forensic evidence showed that both killers had the same blood type. Richard Buckland became the suspect because he worked at Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital, had been spotted near Dawn Ashworth's murder scene and knew unreleased details about the body. He later confessed to Dawn's murder but not Lynda's. Jefferys was brought into the case to analyze the semen samples. He concluded that there was no match between the samples and Buckland, who became the first person to be exonerated using DNA. Jefferys confirmed that the DNA profiles were identical for the two murder semen samples. To find the perpetrator, DNA samples from the entire male population, more than 4,000 aged from 17 to 34, of the town were collected. They all were compared to semen samples from the crime. A friend of Colin Pitchfork was heard saying that he had given his sample to the police claiming to be Colin. Colin Pitchfork was arrested in 1987 and it was found that his DNA profile matched the semen samples from the murder.

text: Because of this case, DNA databases were developed. There is the national (FBI) and international databases as well as the European countries (ENFSI : European Network of Forensic Science Institutes). These searchable databases are used to match crime scene DNA profiles to those already in a database.[42]

text: Maturation[edit]

text: By the turn of the 20th century, the science of forensics had become largely established in the sphere of criminal investigation. Scientific and surgical investigation was widely employed by the Metropolitan Police during their pursuit of the mysterious Jack the Ripper, who had killed a number of prostitutes in the 1880s. This case is a watershed in the application of forensic science. Large teams of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries throughout Whitechapel. Forensic material was collected and examined. Suspects were identified, traced and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry. Police work follows the same pattern today.[43] Over 2000 people were interviewed, "upwards of 300" people were investigated, and 80 people were detained.[44]

text: The investigation was initially conducted by the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid. Later, Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline, Henry Moore, and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist. Initially, butchers, surgeons and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations. The alibis of local butchers and slaughterers were investigated, with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry.[45] Some contemporary figures thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe. Whitechapel was close to the London Docks,[46] and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday.[47] The cattle boats were examined, but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat's movements, and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out.[48]

text: At the end of October, Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer's surgical skill and knowledge.[49] The opinion offered by Bond on the character of the "Whitechapel murderer" is the earliest surviving offender profile.[50] Bond's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders.[51] In his opinion the killer must have been a man of solitary habits, subject to "periodical attacks of homicidal and erotic mania", with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating "satyriasis".[51] Bond also stated that "the homicidal impulse may have developed from a revengeful or brooding condition of the mind, or that religious mania may have been the original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely".[51]

text: Handbook for Coroners, police officials, military policemen was written by the Austrian criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893, and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of criminalistics. The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been previously integrated, such as psychology and physical science, and which could be successfully used against crime. Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal investigation, such as crime scene photography. He went on to found the Institute of Criminalistics in 1912, as part of the University of Graz' Law School. This Institute was followed by many similar institutes all over the world.[52]

text: In 1909, Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police scientifique of the University of Lausanne (UNIL), the first school of forensic science in the world. Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace", which became known as Locard's exchange principle. In 1910, he founded what may have been the first criminal laboratory in the world, after persuading the Police Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants.[53]

text: Symbolic of the new found prestige of forensics and the use of reasoning in detective work was the popularity of the fictional character Sherlock Holmes, written by Arthur Conan Doyle in the late 19th century. He remains a great inspiration for forensic science, especially for the way his acute study of a crime scene yielded small clues as to the precise sequence of events. He made great use of trace evidence such as shoe and tire impressions, as well as fingerprints, ballistics and handwriting analysis, now known as questioned document examination.[54] Such evidence is used to test theories conceived by the police, for example, or by the investigator himself.[55] All of the techniques advocated by Holmes later became reality, but were generally in their infancy at the time Conan Doyle was writing. In many of his reported cases, Holmes frequently complains of the way the crime scene has been contaminated by others, especially by the police, emphasising the critical importance of maintaining its integrity, a now well-known feature of crime scene examination. He used analytical chemistry for blood residue analysis as well as toxicology examination and determination for poisons. He used ballistics by measuring bullet calibres and matching them with a suspected murder weapon.[56]

text: Late 19th–early 20th centuries figures[edit]

text: Hans Gross applied scientific methods to crime scenes and was responsible for the birth of criminalistics.

text: Edmond Locard expanded on Gross' work with Locard's Exchange Principle which stated "whenever two objects come into contact with one another, materials are exchanged between them". This means that every contact by a criminal leaves a trace. Locard was also known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France".

text: Alexander Lacassagne, who taught Locard, produced autopsy standards on actual forensic cases.

text: Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist and founder of Anthropometry (scientific study of measurements and proportions of the human body). He used anthropometry for identification, saying each individual is unique and by measuring aspect of physical difference, there could be a personal identification system. He created the Bertillon System around 1879, which was a way to identify criminals and citizens by measuring 20 parts of the body. In 1884, there was over 240 repeat offenders caught through the Bertillon system. Fingerprinting became more reliable than the Bertillon system.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Later in the 20th century several British pathologists, Mikey Rochman, Francis Camps, Sydney Smith and Keith Simpson pioneered new forensic science methods. Alec Jeffreys pioneered the use of DNA profiling in forensic science in 1984. He realized the scope of DNA fingerprinting, which uses variations in the genetic code to identify individuals. The method has since become important in forensic science to assist police detective work, and it has also proved useful in resolving paternity and immigration disputes.[57] DNA fingerprinting was first used as a police forensic test to identify the rapist and killer of two teenagers, Lynda Mann and Dawn Ashworth, who were both murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1983 and 1986 respectively. Colin Pitchfork was identified and convicted of murder after samples taken from him matched semen samples taken from the two dead girls.

text: Forensic science has been fostered by a number of national forensic science learned bodies including the Chartered Society of Forensic Sciences,[58] (founded in 1959), then known as the Forensic Science Society, publisher of Science & Justice;.[59] American Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1948), publishers of the Journal of Forensic Sciences;[60] the Canadian Society of Forensic Science (founded 1953), publishers of the Journal of the Canadian Society of Forensic Science; the British Academy of Forensic Sciences[61] (founded 1960), publishers of Medicine, science and the law,[62] and the Australian Academy of Forensic Sciences (founded 1967), publishers of the Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences.[63]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: In the past decade, documenting forensics scenes has become more efficient. People started using laser scanners, drones and photogrammetry to obtain 3D point clouds of accidents or crime scenes. Reconstruction of an accident scene on a highway using drones involves data acquisition time of only 10–20 minutes and can be performed without shutting down traffic.The results are not just accurate, in centimeters, for measurement to be presented in court but also easy to digitally preserve in the long term.[64]

text: Subdivisions[edit]

text:
Art forensics concerns the art authentication cases to help research the work's authenticity. Art authentication methods are used to detect and identify forgery, faking and copying of art works, e.g. paintings.
Computational forensics concerns the development of algorithms and software to assist forensic examination.
Criminalistics is the application of various sciences to answer questions relating to examination and comparison of biological evidence, trace evidence, impression evidence (such as fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire tracks), controlled substances, ballistics, firearm and toolmark examination, and other evidence in criminal investigations. In typical circumstances evidence is processed in a crime lab.
Digital forensics is the application of proven scientific methods and techniques in order to recover data from electronic / digital media. Digital Forensic specialists work in the field as well as in the lab.
Ear print analysis is used as a means of forensic identification intended as an identification tool similar to fingerprinting. An earprint is a two-dimensional reproduction of the parts of the outer ear that have touched a specific surface (most commonly the helix, antihelix, tragus and antitragus).
Forensic accounting is the study and interpretation of accounting evidence.
Forensic aerial photography is the study and interpretation of aerial photographic evidence.
Forensic anthropology is the application of physical anthropology in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains.
Forensic archaeology is the application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement.
Forensic astronomy uses methods from astronomy to determine past celestial constellations for forensic purposes.
Forensic botany is the study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes.
Forensic chemistry is the study of detection and identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue.
Forensic dactyloscopy is the study of fingerprints.
Forensic document examination or questioned document examination answers questions about a disputed document using a variety of scientific processes and methods. Many examinations involve a comparison of the questioned document, or components of the document, with a set of known standards. The most common type of examination involves handwriting, whereby the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship.
Forensic DNA analysis takes advantage of the uniqueness of an individual's DNA to answer forensic questions such as paternity/maternity testing and placing a suspect at a crime scene, e.g. in a rape investigation.
Forensic engineering is the scientific examination and analysis of structures and products relating to their failure or cause of damage.
Forensic entomology deals with the examination of insects in, on and around human remains to assist in determination of time or location of death. It is also possible to determine if the body was moved after death using entomology.
Forensic geology deals with trace evidence in the form of soils, minerals and petroleum.
Forensic geomorphology is the study of the ground surface to look for potential location(s) of buried object(s).[65]
Forensic geophysics is the application of geophysical techniques such as radar for detecting objects hidden underground[66] or underwater.[67]
Forensic intelligence process starts with the collection of data and ends with the integration of results within into the analysis of crimes under investigation.[68]
Forensic Interviews are conducted using the science of professionally using expertise to conduct a variety of investigative interviews with victims, witnesses, suspects or other sources to determine the facts regarding suspicions, allegations or specific incidents in either public or private sector settings.
Forensic limnology is the analysis of evidence collected from crime scenes in or around fresh-water sources. Examination of biological organisms, in particular diatoms, can be useful in connecting suspects with victims.
Forensic linguistics deals with issues in the legal system that requires linguistic expertise.
Forensic meteorology is a site-specific analysis of past weather conditions for a point of loss.
Forensic odontology is the study of the uniqueness of dentition, better known as the study of teeth.
Forensic optometry is the study of glasses and other eyewear relating to crime scenes and criminal investigations.
Forensic pathology is a field in which the principles of medicine and pathology are applied to determine a cause of death or injury in the context of a legal inquiry.
Forensic podiatry is an application of the study of feet footprint or footwear and their traces to analyze scene of crime and to establish personal identity in forensic examinations.
Forensic psychiatry is a specialized branch of psychiatry as applied to and based on scientific criminology.
Forensic psychology is the study of the mind of an individual, using forensic methods. Usually it determines the circumstances behind a criminal's behavior.
Forensic seismology is the study of techniques to distinguish the seismic signals generated by underground nuclear explosions from those generated by earthquakes.
Forensic serology is the study of the body fluids.[69]
Forensic social work is the specialist study of social work theories and their applications to a clinical, criminal justice or psychiatric setting. Practitioners of forensic social work connected with the criminal justice system are often termed Social Supervisors, whilst the remaining use the interchangeable titles forensic social worker, approved mental health professional or forensic practitioner and they conduct specialist assessments of risk, care planning and act as an officer of the court.
Forensic toxicology is the study of the effect of drugs and poisons on/in the human body.
Forensic video analysis is the scientific examination, comparison and evaluation of video in legal matters.
Mobile device forensics is the scientific examination and evaluation of evidence found in mobile phones, e.g. Call History and Deleted SMS, and includes SIM Card Forensics.
Trace evidence analysis is the analysis and comparison of trace evidence including glass, paint, fibres and hair (e.g., using micro-spectrophotometry).
Wildlife forensic science applies a range of scientific disciplines to legal cases involving non-human biological evidence, to solve crimes such as poaching, animal abuse, and trade in endangered species.
Bloodstain pattern analysis is the scientific examination of blood spatter patterns found at a crime scene to reconstruct the events of the crime.

text: Questionable techniques[edit]

text: Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none.[70] Some such techniques include:

text:
Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The theory was that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable due to improper interpretation, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005.[71]
Forensic dentistry has come under fire: in at least two cases bite-mark evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites.[72][73] The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting.[74]
By the late 2000s, scientists were able to show that it is possible to fabricate DNA evidence, thus "undermining the credibility of what has been considered the gold standard of proof in criminal cases".[75]

text: Litigation science[edit]

text: Litigation science describes analysis or data developed or produced expressly for use in a trial versus those produced in the course of independent research. This distinction was made by the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals when evaluating the admissibility of experts.[76]

text: This uses demonstrative evidence, which is evidence created in preparation of trial by attorneys or paralegals.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: In the United States there are over 14,500 forensic science technicians, as of 2014.[77]

text: Media impact[edit]

text: Real-life crime scene investigators and forensic scientists warn that popular television shows do not give a realistic picture of the work and often wildlly distorting the nature of the work, and exaggerating the ease, speed, effectiveness, drama, glamour, influence and comfort level of their jobs—which they describe as far more mundane, tedious and boring.[78][79]

text: Some claim these modern TV shows have changed individuals' expectations of forensic science, sometimes unrealistically—an influence termed the "CSI effect".[80][81]

text: Further, research has suggested that public misperceptions about criminal forensics can create, in the mind of a juror, unrealistic expectations of forensic evidence—which they expect to see before convicting—implicitly biasing the juror towards the defendant. Citing the "CSI Effect," at least one researcher has suggested screening jurors for their level of influence from such TV programs[81]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Questions about certain areas of forensic science, such as fingerprint evidence and the assumptions behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications[82][83] including the New York Post.[84] The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique."[84] The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned – and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors."[84] Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science "lacks the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we find, usually, in science."[85]

text: In America, on 25 June 2009, the Supreme Court issued a 5-to-4 decision in Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts stating that crime laboratory reports may not be used against criminal defendants at trial unless the analysts responsible for creating them give testimony and subject themselves to cross-examination. The Supreme Court cited the National Academies report Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States[86] in their decision. Writing for the majority, Justice Antonin Scalia referred to the National Research Council report in his assertion that "Forensic evidence is not uniquely immune from the risk of manipulation."

text: In 2009, scientists indicated that it is possible to fabricate DNA evidence, therefore suggesting it is possible to falsely accuse or acquit a person or persons using forged evidence.[75]

text: In America, another area of forensic science that has come under question in recent years is the lack of laws requiring the accreditation of forensic labs. Some states require accreditation, but some states do not. Because of this, many labs have been caught performing very poor work resulting in false convictions or acquittals. For example, it was discovered after an audit of the Houston Police Department in 2002 that the lab had fabricated evidence which led George Rodriguez being convicted of raping a fourteen-year-old girl.[87] The former director of the lab, when asked, said that the total number of cases that could have been contaminated by improper work could be in the range of 5,000 to 10,000.[87] This could have been avoided if the lab had been accredited by organizations such as ASCLD/Lab, which require crime labs to undergo rigorous assessments to show that they are able to perform multiple tests accurately. Once they become accredited, they are periodically re-evaluated to ensure that the lab is still functioning at its best.[88] Periodic evaluations of a lab's performance by an independent organization will help to prevent scandals from occurring in forensic science laboratories.

text: Although forensic science has greatly enhanced the investigator's ability to solve crimes, it has limitations and must be scrutinized in and out of the courtroom to avoid the occurrence of wrongful convictions.[89]

text: Forensic science and humanitarian work[edit]

text: The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) uses forensic science for humanitarian purposes to clarify the fate of missing persons after armed conflict, disasters or migration,[90] and is one of the services related to Restoring Family Links and Missing Persons. Knowing what has happened to a missing relative can often make it easier to proceed with the grieving process and move on with life for families of missing persons.

text: Forensic science is used by various other organizations to clarify the fate and whereabouts of persons who have gone missing. Examples include the NGO Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team, working to clarify the fate of people who disappeared during the period of the 1976–1983 military dictatorship. The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) uses forensic science to find missing persons,[91] for example after the conflicts in the Balkans.[92]

text: Recognising the role of forensic science for humanitarian purposes, as well as the importance of forensic investigations in fulfilling the state's responsibilities to investigate human rights violations, a group of experts in the late-1980s devised a UN Manual on the Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions, which became known as the Minnesota Protocol. This document was revised and re-published by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2016.[93]