document_title: Weddings in the United States

question_text: where did the tradition of walking down the aisle come from

text: Weddings in the United States

text: History[edit]

text: In ancient times, weddings were based out of commodity, rather than desire or love. In fact, the word "wedding" implies the security the groom's family provides to the family of the bride when the couple marries.[1] Additionally, brides were chosen based on their economic worth. The wedding had little to do with love. This trend lasted until the 19th Century, when couples started to marry for love.[2]

text: During the 19th Century in America, weddings were usually small family gatherings at the home of either the parents of the bride or the parents of the groom. The ceremonies were intimate and not elaborate. The announcement of the newly married couple took place at their church on the Sunday following the wedding. Weddings did not become elaborate until the 1820s and 1830s, when upper class couples would have wedding ceremonies similar to what is common today. The bride usually wore the best dress she owned, so her dress was not always white, as white dresses were impractical to own. Not until the middle of the 19th century did brides start buying a dress made specifically for their wedding day. At the same time, couples began to hire professionals to prepare floral arrangements and wedding cakes, rather than making them at home.[2]

text: Today, couples in the United States are waiting later in life to get married. The average age for males getting married in the United States is 27 years old, whereas, women's average age is 25.[3]

text: Cultural Traditions[edit]

text: Attire[edit]

text:
“
Something old, something new,
Something borrowed, something blue,
A silver sixpence in her shoe.
”

text: The saying, "Something old, something new, / Something borrowed, something blue, / A silver sixpence in her shoe," dates back to the Victorian era and requires the bride to accessorize her wedding attire in certain ways to promote good luck in her new marriage. Many brides in the U.S. do this for fun. The "old" is supposed to represent the past, particularly the bond between the bride and her family. The bride might choose to wear a piece of jewelry from one of her elders, or another accessory given to her from an older relative. The "new" represents the couple getting married and their future together. Usually, the bride's wedding gown or wedding ring is used as a new item. "Something borrowed" is something that is taken from the families and meant to be returned. By borrowing something, the bride is continuing the link between herself and her family to maintain loyalty and future comfort.[4] The borrowed item must come from a happily married woman in order to pass on marital happiness onto the new couple.[5] "Something blue" represents the bride's faithfulness and loyalty. Easy ways for the bride to incorporate the color blue include wearing blue flowers in her hair or a blue garter.[4] The silver sixpence is meant to be tucked into the bride's shoe and is supposed to bring the new couple wealth in money and love in their new life together.[5]

text: Many brides today choose to wear white bridal dresses at their weddings. However, brides before the 19th century just wore the best dress they owned. It wasn't until the 1840s, when Queen Victoria popularized white bridal dresses by choosing to wear white instead of the traditional royal silver dress.[6]

text: Brides often accompany their white wedding dresses with a veil. Sometimes seen as an accessory today, the veil has a history of symbolizing a bride's modesty and innocence, namely her virginity.[7]

text: Before the Wedding[edit]

text: Many brides have bridal showers before their wedding, during which she receives gifts from the guests. The bridal shower is usually thrown by the bride's chosen maid of honor and is humorous in nature.[8] Although it is often seen as a fun and relaxing time for the bride, it wasn't always seen that way. Bridal showers originated in Holland for brides who were refused dowry from their fathers. A woman's friends would give her several gifts to allow her to have the necessary dowry to marry whatever man she chose.[7]

text: Many couples will make precautions so that they will not be able to see each other until their wedding ceremony. Today, this is done merely to uphold tradition and superstition, but the idea stems from the early days when marriages were arranged. In these cases, the bride and groom would meet each other for the first time at their own wedding.[9]

text: Ceremony and Reception[edit]

text: During the ceremony, it is customary to include bridesmaids and groomsmen in the event. The members of the bridal party are chosen to share the happiness with the couple getting married. Including bridesmaids in the ceremony originated as a technique of confusing evil spirits as to who the actual bride was.[10] Groomsmen originated not for protection, but many centuries ago when men had to capture women in order to marry them. In order to steal the woman they chose to marry, men needed to pick the most capable man to help him, hence "best man".[7]

text: Today, "giving the bride away" has a very different meaning. The bride's father accompanies her on her walk down the aisle to show approval of the groom. Centuries ago, fathers actually did give their daughters away to their future husbands, since females were property of their fathers.[7]

text: The meaning and origin of the ceremonial kiss that traditionally concludes the ceremony has several different interpretations. In the Roman era, a kiss was used to seal legal bonds and contracts. A marriage, a type of lifelong contract between two people, is sealed with the ceremonial kiss. It is also believed that this kiss allows the couples' souls to mingle together. Today, the wedding kiss is usually just used as a form of love.[11]

text: Wedding cakes are widely seen as symbols of fertility.[12] While now they are an enjoyable snack for the wedding guests, wedding cakes have a more serious history. Sharing the first piece of wedding cake is still a ritual in weddings, but it originated as a way to ensure fertility for the bride in her attempts to have children. Superstition says that a bride cannot bake her own wedding cake or taste it before the wedding, or else risk losing her husband's love. If she keeps a piece of the cake after the wedding, she supposedly ensures that he will remain faithful.[13]

text: A way that guests at a wedding can participate in giving the bride and groom a lucky future is by the tradition of throwing rice. The superstition originated when guests would throw nuts and grains in the hope of bringing the couple a good harvest and many children to help with the harvest.[6]

text: As a symbol of luck, the newly married woman traditionally throws her bouquet to the unmarried women at the wedding. The one who catches the bouquet is supposedly the next to be married.[10]

text: Throwing the bride's garter to the single men at the wedding is a tradition similar to the bouquet toss. The groom must remove the garter from his new wife's leg and toss it to the single men at the wedding. It is commonly believed that this man will be the next one to marry.[14] An older custom in England involved guests raiding the bride's chamber for stockings. These stockings taken from her room would then be thrown at the groom. Whoever landed their stocking on the groom's nose would be the next one to marry.[9] Even earlier than these traditions, it was an ancient custom for the bride or groom to throw the bride's garter to the marriage witnesses to confirm that their marriage had been consummated.[7]

text: After the Wedding[edit]

text: After the wedding reception, the newlyweds usually leave for their honeymoon, a trip to the destination of their choice. During this trip, which lasts anywhere from a few days to a few weeks, the couple consummates their marriage.[8] The term "honeymoon" comes from ancient Germanic weddings, where the newly married couple would drink mead for thirty days after their wedding. Weddings were only held on a night where there was a full moon. They drank the honey wine for a month, thirty days, until the next full moon, hence the name "honey moon".[7]

text: The tradition of the groom carrying his new wife across the threshold has many different interpretations. The act today symbolizes luck and the bride giving the groom her virginity.[4] Similarly in older generation, brides had to appear unwilling to give in to their new husband. The husband would pretend to force his new wife into giving in to him by carrying her over the threshold. In the days when men captured their wives and actually did force women to marry them, she was also forced over the threshold because she was unwilling.[7]

text: American Traditions[edit]

text: Weddings in the United States are the most varied and flexible in the world. There are not many wedding traditions that are unique to the United States because most are derived from other cultures. Most of these customs stem from Europe. Indeed, it is considered an American tradition to follow the traditions of one's culture or religion.[8] That said, some wedding traditions remain as the default the U.S.

text: It is customary to give newlyweds gifts for their new home together at the wedding reception. To prevent duplicate gifts and having to return gifts that are not liked, many couples "register" at department stores. Couples pick out items they would like to receive as gifts, and their friends and family can choose to buy one of those items.[8]

text: Additionally, although most American weddings are typically elaborate and involve extensive professional planning,[8] some DIY home weddings in America (or including Americans) can be quite simple in terms of ceremony, albeit costly in terms of the sweat equity involved regarding the logistics.[15][16][17]

text: Religious Traditions[edit]

text: Jewish[edit]

text: In a Jewish wedding both the bride and the groom are walked down the aisle by both of their parents, which is different from other religions.[18]

text: Jewish couples are married under the chupah, which resembles a decorated tent like structure. This symbolizes that the bride and groom are coming together and creating a new home. This religious tradition comes from the Biblical wedding of Abraham and Sarah.[18]

text: The ketubah is a Jewish wedding contract. The rabbi reads it under the chupah after the ring ceremony. Many couples frame their ketubah and display it in their home. Traditionally, the ketubah was written in Aramaic, but today many Jews use Hebrew instead. Like most married couples have documents to show they are married. The rabbi reads this contract under the chupah after the ring exchange.[18]

text: Hindu[edit]

text: Hindu weddings have some unique traditions as well. These range from the exchanging of garlands (Jaimala), which represents the acknowledgement of acceptance and respect, to the lighting of a sacred fire (Havan), which represents the commitment the couple has to each other. Other traditions include taking seven steps together as a married couple, wearing Henna on the hands and feet, and the groom putting a dot of sindur on his bride's forehead.[19]

text: Christian[edit]

text: Christian weddings have many traditions that are commonly associated with weddings in general. The most important traditions for Christian weddings are the blessing and exchange of wedding bands and the bride and groom each offering his or her own wedding vows.[20]

text: Types of Weddings Ceremonies[edit]

text: Traditional/Formal[edit]

text: Traditional, formal, religious weddings are the most common type of wedding in the United States. Many couples opt to marry in the church of their faith, as it is common for couples to share the same religion. Whether the couple is Catholic, Jewish, Hindu, or any other religion, it is common practice to get married in the church of that faith. However, many couples today do not share the same faith. These inter-faith couples can also have a traditional wedding ceremony.[21] Religious officials have become increasingly cooperative with marrying couples that are not of the same faith.

text: It is common for traditional or formal weddings to follow certain norms. These common practices include designer dresses, groomsmen wearing tuxedos, elaborate invitations, beautiful flowers, limousine service, and fine dining and live music at a reception that follows the ceremony.[21]

text: Destination[edit]

text: Destination weddings are becoming increasingly popular in the United States. Destination weddings, or "wedding aways" and "weddingmoons", allow the couple to completely design their wedding ceremony to fit the location. From beach weddings to weddings in Las Vegas or New York City, many Americans are choosing to marry at a location far from home. The options for destinations are limitless.[22]

text: Destination weddings have several advantages. From getting to spend an extended time with family, to an easy transition to a honeymoon, destination weddings are very appealing. Additionally, while destination weddings can be very expensive, they are on average less expensive than weddings at home.[22]

text: Military[edit]

text: A couple whose bride and/or groom is a member of the Armed Forces may have a military wedding in which the bride and/or groom wears their uniform. A military wedding is considered a formal wedding and guests should dress formally. Often, the guests will also be in the armed forces and will wear their uniforms as well.[23]

text: The ushers who are in the armed forces traditionally form an "arch of steel" with their swords or sabers. However, only active duty servicemen participate, as they can only carry their sword or saber if they are active duty. The arch is usually formed at the conclusion of the ceremony, and the head usher signals the formation by yelling "center face." After the bride and groom pass through the arch, the ushers return to their bridesmaids to exit with them. Civilian ushers may or may not stand at the arch, a decision usually made by the bride and groom.[23]

text: Elopement[edit]

text: To marry by elopement means that the wedding ceremony is done in secret, usually with just witnesses. Even though eloping seems simple, the marriage's secrecy can complicate family relationships.[24]

text: Couples in the United States choose to elope for many varying reasons. 46% of couples eloping do so because of parental opposition to the marriage, 20% of couples elope to avoid attention, 12% because of financial reasons, 8% due to an unexpected pregnancy, and 14% for other reasons.[25]


document_title: List of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic characters

question_text: what is the name of the zebra in my little pony

root

text: Creation and conception[edit]

text: Hasbro initially hired Faust to create a pitch bible for the show, allowing her to get additional help with conceptualization.[1] Faust said she was "extremely skeptical" about taking the job at first because she had always found shows based on girls' toys to be boring and unrelatable.[2] She was disappointed that what she thought of the toys at the time was nothing like the animated shows, in which the characters, according to her, had "endless tea parties, giggled over nothing and defeated villains by either sharing with them or crying." With the chance to work on My Little Pony, one of her favorite childhood toys,[3]  she hoped to prove that "cartoons for girls don't have to be a puddle of smooshy, cutesy-wootsy, goody-two-shoeness."[2] To do this, she incorporated many elements into the show that subverted stereotypes of girls, such as diverse personalities, the message that friends can be different and can get into arguments but still be friends, and the idea that girls should not be limited by what others say they can or can not do.[2] Elements of the characters' personalities and the show's settings were based on her own childhood imagination of the ponies' adventures, in part inspired by the animated shows that her brothers would watch while growing up, such as Transformers and G.I. Joe.[4] Faust still aimed for the characters to be "relatable" characters, using stereotypical "icons of girliness" (such as the waif or the bookworm), as to broaden the appeal of the characters for the young female audience.[5]

tag: p

text: Main characters[edit]

text: My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic focuses on six core characters, also identified as the "Mane Six",[6] a group of friends who are brought together by the "Elements of Harmony", a set of six mystical jewels and an "unstoppable force of good"[7] that are used to defend Equestria against powerful threats. Each character was designed to represent a different element and positive aspect of friendship—honesty (Applejack), kindness (Fluttershy), laughter (Pinkie Pie), generosity (Rarity), and loyalty (Rainbow Dash)—which come together to form the sixth element of "magic" (Twilight Sparkle).[8]

text: Twilight Sparkle[edit]

text: Voiced by Tara Strong, singing voice by Rebecca Shoichet

tag: ul

text: Twilight Sparkle is the central character of the series, based on the first generation or "G1" unicorn toy Twilight.[9] She is depicted in the show's first three seasons as a purple unicorn with a pink-streaked indigo mane, and as a winged unicorn called an "alicorn" after the season three finale "Magical Mystery Cure". She leads the Mane Six during their adventures and helps resolve her friends' differences. She is an intelligent and dutiful scholar with an avid love of learning and skill in unicorn magic such as levitation, teleportation, and the creation of force fields. Director Jayson Thiessen describes her as "kind of a neurotic perfectionist" who has "a touch OCD",[10] prone to suffering from nervous breakdowns when confronted with a problem that goes against her understanding.

text: Twilight begins the story as the protégée of Princess Celestia, who tasks her with studying the magical properties of friendship in Ponyville and reporting her findings. Twilight resents her assignment in the two-parter series premier, owing her reclusiveness to her obsession with books, but comes to form strong friendships with the rest of the Mane Six, which she realizes is key to harnessing the Elements of Harmony. She resides with her assistant Spike and pet owl named Owlowiscious (pronounced "Aloysius") in Ponyville's Golden Oak Library, where she also serves as town librarian.[11] Her apprenticeship to Celestia ends in the season three finale "Magical Mystery Cure" when she reverses an ancient spell by creating new magic based on her studies of friendship, transforms into an alicorn, and is crowned a princess. Assuming the title of "Princess of Friendship", Twilight becomes responsible for spreading friendship across Equestria from the Castle of Friendship,[12] a mystical castle that replaces the library after its destruction in the season four finale "Twilight's Kingdom". After the season eight premiere "School Daze", Twilight runs the School of Friendship to teach other creatures the benefits of friendship and appoints her friends as teachers.

text: Rainbow Dash[edit]

text: Voiced by Ashleigh Ball

text: Rainbow Dash is a blue[13] pegasus with a rainbow-colored mane and tail who is based on the "G1" Firefly toy[14] and shares her name with the "G3" earth pony. She is obsessed with speed and adventure.[13] Her goal at the beginning of the series is to join her heroes, the elite Wonderbolts aerobatic team.[15] This is accomplished in the season six episode "Newbie Dash" after she impresses them with the multiple heroic feats she performs in the first five seasons. She helps other pegasi manage the weather around Ponyville and spends her time practicing flight maneuvers such as the "Sonic Rainboom", a rainbow-hued sonic boom; it is shown in the episode "The Cutie Mark Chronicles" that Rainbow Dash's first Sonic Rainboom as a filly caused an chain of events that produced the Mane Six's cutie marks. She lives with a propeller-fitted pet tortoise named Tank in a floating condominium of clouds called the Cloudominium,[16] which is sparingly seen in the show because she "doesn't sit still for very long", according to director Jim Miller.[13] Faust struggled to find a suitable aspect for Rainbow Dash's Element of Harmony, seeing the character as "self-absorbed and rather irresponsible." She eventually settled on "loyalty" because it "brought out [Rainbow Dash's] positive traits."[8]

text: Pinkie Pie[edit]

text: Voiced by Andrea Libman, singing voice by Shannon Chan-Kent[note 1]

text: Pinkie Pie (fully named Pinkamena Diane Pie) is a pink earth pony based on the "G3" toy of the same name. Her character, which Thiessen summarized as "a frenetic sugar rush",[17] was inspired by the "G1" pegasus toy Surprise.[18] She is a party planner at Sugarcube Corner, a bakery and confectionery store in Ponyville that resembles a gingerbread house,[19] where she also keeps a toothless baby alligator named Gummy. A comedic character who was raised on a "dreary rock farm", Pinkie is cheerful, energetic, and talkative. She is defined by her desire to entertain her friends by randomly throwing parties and acting as outlandish as possible;[20] but has a lack of confidence and a fear of being rejected by others.[21] Pinkie is a source of much of the series' humor,[20] and several of the show's "wacky gags" are kept exclusive to her.[21][22] Her running gags include breaking the fourth wall and "appearing suddenly in unexpected places",[23] as well as an ability to predict future events through various body reactions, which she calls the "Pinkie Sense". In early episodes, Faust worked to depict Pinkie as a "free spirit" to address concerns of the character being seen as too "hyper" and "ditzy". As the creative team grew more comfortable with Pinkie's character and humor, she became "really over-the-top strange and bordering on crazy, with a wacky cartoonish magic all her own."[23]

text: Rarity[edit]

text: Rarity is a white unicorn with a curled violet mane who was based on the "G1" ponies Glory and Sparkler[24] and named after the "G3" pony Rarity. She is a ladylike fashionista who speaks with a Mid-Atlantic accent and runs a haute couture salon in Ponyville called Carousel Boutique. Despite her vain and melodramatic tendencies, she has a generous spirit and strives to create dresses that capture their wearers' inner beauty.[25][26] She owns a pet Persian cat named Opalescence who is commonly nicknamed Opal. Faust's original idea for Rarity's Element of Harmony was "inspiration", but it was changed to "generosity" after the production team deemed the former "too much of a thinker, especially for kids." Faust was pleased with the change, saying it "really helped pull [Rarity] away from the stereotypical, unlikable debutante."[8] She cites Audrey Hepburn as her biggest influence for Rarity,[27] and also says that Tabitha St. Germain's performance "added a humor to Rarity that was unexpected and wonderful."[22]

text: Applejack[edit]

text: Voiced by Ashleigh Ball

text: Applejack is an orange, blonde-haired earth pony based on the "G1" character of the same name.[28] She is characterized as a "farm gal" who sports a cowboy hat and lasso, and speaks with a Southern accent.[29] She works as an apple farmer at the Sweet Apple Acres orchard in Ponyville, using her strength to "buck" apples out of trees. She lives with her grandmother Granny Smith, older brother Big McIntosh, younger sister Apple Bloom, and pet collie Winona. According to Faust, Applejack's parents – Bright Mac (voiced by Bill Newton) and Pear Butter (voiced by Felicia Day), first seen in the season seven episode "The Perfect Pear" – are deceased.[30] Applejack is honest, reliable, and the most "down-to-earth" of the Mane Six.[29] She also has a stubborn streak, with several episodes focusing on her taking up some sort of "herculean task".[31] Author Begin says that her apple-themed cutie mark "not only represents her name, but also is a symbol of the down-home simplicity found in a classic and common fruit."[32]

text: Fluttershy[edit]

text: Voiced by Andrea Libman

text: Fluttershy is a yellow pink-maned pegasus based on the "G1" earth pony Posey.[33] True to her name, she is "defined by her shy sweetness; soft, whispery voice; and tender, nurturing nature", as described by author Begin.[34] She possesses a unique affinity for animals that allows her to communicate with them. She lives in a secluded meadow cottage in Ponyville where she cares for multiple forest creatures such as her "conniving and willful" pet rabbit Angel Bunny.[35][36] In many episodes, Fluttershy exhibits an authoritative personality that emerges whenever a friend or animal is harmed, in contrast to her normally fearful and submissive self.[37] Her most prominent ability, "the Stare", causes any creature that meets her gaze to become "powerless and moved to meekness" while it is in effect.[38] Faust enjoyed writing for Fluttershy the most out of the show's characters due to her "relatable" struggles with fear, which Faust says brings potential "not just for great storytelling but [also for] great filmmaking".[23]

text: Spike[edit]

text: Voiced by Cathy Weseluck

text: Spike the Dragon[39] is a purple baby dragon with green spines based on the "G1" and "G3" character of the same name. Hatched from an egg by a young Twilight Sparkle as part of her entrance exam for Celestia's academy, he fulfills the role of Twilight's "number one assistant", named so for his loyalty and skill at helping Twilight solve problems and learn lessons.[39][40] He is also described as having an incurable crush on Rarity, an insatiable appetite for sparkly gems, and the ability to send letters via his fiery dragon breath."[39] He gained wings in the season eight episode "Molt Down". Author Begin calls Spike a foil to the Mane Six in terms of personality, size, and shape, which "provides plenty of opportunity for exploring this difference in story lines."[40] He adopts a newborn phoenix named Peewee as a pet in the second-season episode "Dragon Quest" and returned Peewee to his family in the season three episode "Just for Sidekicks". Faust envisioned the character as "the sensitive little boy who has a lot of sisters and just seems to get along better with girls."[41] On Spike's role as a dragon outsider living among ponies, Meghan McCarthy says, "He's trying to figure out who he is. What beyond being Twilight's assistant is his role in this world? I think he really reflects how everybody feels at some point in their life."[39]

text: Secondary characters[edit]

text: Princess Celestia[edit]

text: Voiced by Nicole Oliver

text: Princess Celestia, based on the "G1" unicorn Majesty,[42] is a white alicorn and Equestria's benevolent ruler. She has a flowing, multicolored mane and tail.[43] As detailed in The Journal of the Two Sisters, Celestia has ruled Equestria for over one thousand years due to the slowed aging of alicorns. Her status as an alicorn is seen as a symbol of harmony between unicorns, pegasi and earth ponies.[44] She is responsible for magically raising the sun each day from her castle in Canterlot and lowering it to make way for the night She also acts as a mentor and, as described by Faust, "a bit of a surrogate parent" to Twilight Sparkle,[2] guiding her throughout the series' first three seasons to her eventual destiny as a princess of Equestria. She owns a mischievous pet phoenix named Philomena, who appears to be a "squaking old bird" before bursting into flames and renewing herself.[45] Faust's original concept for Celestia was a queen rather than a princess, reflecting her status as the "highest authority" in the series' setting. The change was made at Hasbro's statement that "girls assume that Queens are evil [...] and Princesses are good," and that "the perceived youth of a Princess is preferable to consumers."[46]

text: Princess Luna[edit]

text: Voiced by Tabitha St. Germain, singing voice by Kazumi Evans ("Twilight's Kingdom") and Aloma Steele ("A Hearth's Warming Tail")

text: Princess Luna, also named "Selena" in earlier drafts, is a dark blue alicorn and Princess Celestia's younger sister, designed and developed by Lynne Naylor.[47] She serves as co-ruler of Equestria alongside Celestia, using her magic to maintain the moon and safeguard her subjects' dreams during nighttime. Luna is introduced in the two opening episodes as Nightmare Moon, a malevolent black mare who was transformed by bitterness and jealousy towards her more beloved sister; as expounded in the comic series, her alter ego is a creation of the Nightmare Forces, a dark lunar miasma that preys on Luna's insecurities to convince her to become their host.[48] Banished to the moon by the reluctant Celestia in the series' past, Nightmare Moon returns from a thousand-year exile to create eternal night. The Mane Six use the Elements of Harmony to purify and reform Luna, who reconciles with her sister and resumes her royal duties. She sports a different design in later episodes with a darker coloration and starry mane.[49] Several episodes depict Luna's "difficulty living in her older sister's shadow", such as adapting to modern Equestrian customs and repairing her public image.[47] Outside the television series, Luna owns a pet opossum named Tiberius that appears in several comics and chapter books.

text: Cutie Mark Crusaders[edit]

text: The Cutie Mark Crusaders are a trio of fillies bonded by their desire to earn their "cutie marks", symbols that appear on a pony's flank once they discover their special talents in life.[50] They are each depicted as younger sibling figures to the main cast except Scootaloo.[51] Several episodes of the series focus on the Crusaders' misadventures in trying to earn their marks in "the most unorthodox and sometimes less-than-productive ways."[51] This goal is achieved in the season five episode "Crusaders of the Lost Mark", where the members gain similarly-themed cutie marks when they recognize their true purpose in life is helping other ponies discover or interpret their own cutie marks.

text:
Apple Bloom (voiced by Michelle Creber) – Apple Bloom is a yellow earth pony filly with a red mane and a pink mane bow, and is named for being "full of potential" and having "a lot of growing to do". She is the sassy younger sister of Applejack and Big McIntosh who formulates and spearheads most of the Cutie Mark Crusaders' "missions".[52]
Scootaloo (voiced by Madeleine Peters) – Scootaloo is an orange pegasus filly with a purple mane, based on the "G3" pony of the same name. She suffers from an inability to fly, and instead uses her wings to propel her specially fashioned scooter. She idolizes Rainbow Dash as an older sister figure, often trying to imitate Rainbow Dash's "too cool" attitude and athletic skill.[52]
Sweetie Belle (voiced by Claire Corlett, singing voice for seasons 1–3 by Michelle Creber)[53] – Sweetie Belle is a "sweet-natured and sometimes spacey" unicorn filly with a white coat and a lavender and pink-striped mane, based on the "G3" pony of the same name. She has "a blossoming talent for singing", and strives to become a fashion designer and gain the approval of her older sister, Rarity.[52]

text: In addition to the main trio, there are others who are accepted into the Cutie Mark Crusaders across the series:

text:
Babs Seed (voiced by Brynna Drummond) – Babs is an earth pony filly and "tough-talkin' Apple cousin from Manehattan",[52] debuting in the third-season episode "One Bad Apple". The character was created as a "blank flank" bully of the Cutie Mark Crusaders "whose behavior was the result of an insecurity that the Crusaders could relate to and ultimately help her overcome." She joins the Crusaders and forms her own branch of the club in Manehattan because, according to McCarthy, "We've got our three Crusaders in Ponyville and didn't want to add a permanent fourth."[52] Babs earns her cutie mark as a hairstylist in the season five episode "Bloom & Gloom".
Gabby (voiced by Erin Mathews) – Gabby is a friendly and enthusiastic female griffon featured in the show's sixth season. Introduced as a social outcast from the griffon city of Griffonstone, she joins the Crusaders at the end of her debut episode, "The Fault in Our Cutie Marks", following her failed attempts to obtain her own cutie mark.

text: Discord[edit]

text: Voiced by John de Lancie

text: Discord is a spirit of chaos who first appeared in "The Return of Harmony". Primarily characterized as a nonsensical trickster,[54] he is a Greek mythology-inspired creature called a "draconequus" (/drəˈkɒnɛkwʌs/, from the Latin words meaning "dragon horse"), a serpentine being with a pony's head and numerous different animal parts.[55][56] Celestia and Luna opposed him in the past for tormenting ponies with his reality-bending powers, and he similarly faces the Mane Six during the premiere; both times, the ponies use the Elements of Harmony to turn him into stone. In the season three episode "Keep Calm and Flutter On", Discord is released under Celestia's decree to reform himself, which he does after Fluttershy treats him like a friend. He appears in later episodes as a reluctant ally of the Mane Six, occasionally causing mischief while struggling to become a better friend to them.[55]

text: Faust based Discord's character on Q, an omnipotent trickster played by John de Lancie on the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation. The production team considered casting a soundalike of de Lancie to voice the character, and were surprised to learn that de Lancie himself was available.[57] The creative team developed Discord as "the one character who could break all of the rules of the show" by including more modern or contemporary references than usual in the series' "fantasy storybook" setting.[58][59] He was not intended to have a recurring role;[58] according to McCarthy, "'reforming' him allows us to tell new stories with his character. He gets to be the not-always-reliable ally instead of the known enemy."[55] Author Begin commented on the "chaotic" settings that accompany the character, such as his home dimension called Chaosville, likening them to "dream-inspired Salvador Dalí paintings."[60]

text: Princess Cadance and Shining Armor[edit]

text: Voiced by Britt McKillip (Princess Cadance) and Andrew Francis (Shining Armor)

text: Princess Cadance and Prince Shining Armor are Twilight Sparkle's older sister-in-law and brother, respectively, who debuted in the season two finale "A Canterlot Wedding". Cadance, a kind alicorn whose full name is Princess Mi Amore Cadenza, is Princess Celestia's adopted niece and Twilight's childhood "foal-sitter" (babysitter);[61] according to the chapter book Twilight Sparkle and the Crystal Heart Spell, Cadance was a pegasus who became an alicorn after reversing an evil sorceress's love-stealing spell.[62] She married the unicorn Shining Armor, the captain of Canterlot's royal guard who has a close relationship with his sister and is nicknamed her "Big Brother Best Friend Forever" (B.B.B.F.F.).[61] In the third-season premiere, Celestia appoints Shining Armor and Cadance to rule the Crystal Empire, an "ancient city" that Cadance protects using the power of love so the shimmering crystal ponies may project hope and love across Equestria.[63] In the season six premiere "The Crystalling", Cadance gives birth to an alicorn filly named Flurry Heart (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain).[64]

text: Starlight Glimmer[edit]

text: Voiced by Kelly Sheridan

text: Starlight Glimmer is a unicorn who debuted in the season five premiere "The Cutie Map". Initially appearing as a "perfectly pleasant-looking unicorn", Starlight is a sinister figure who wishes to build a "perfectly equal society" by magically removing other ponies' cutie marks because she believed that differing degrees of ability cause disharmony between friends.[65] This stemmed from her anger at her childhood friend Sunburst (voiced by Ian Hanlin) after he earned his cutie mark before her. She later appears in the season five finale "The Cutie Re-Mark" to take revenge against the Mane Six by traveling to the past and preventing their friendship before it starts by stopping Rainbow Dash from performing the Sonic Rainboom. After realizing the catastrophic changes this causes in the present, Starlight is convinced to change her ways and make new friends. She appears in season six as Twilight's pupil, a role she graduates from in the season seven episode "Celestial Advice". In season eight, she is made a guidance counselor for the School of Friendship. According to Miller, Starlight's design was chosen to parallel her role as a "proto-Twilight character".[65] Her original name during production was "Aurora Glimmer", which was changed due to the Walt Disney Company's trademark of the character name "Aurora".[66]

text: Recurring characters[edit]

text: Ponyville characters[edit]

text: Ponyville is the primary setting of the television series and home of the show's main characters. The town's unique locales were designed to reflect their characters, while the overall style of the town was largely influenced by Pennsylvania Dutch design, steampunk artwork, and European and Bavarian folklore.[67] The town also incorporates pony design elements such as horseshoes, hay bales, and troughs.[68]

text:
Big McIntosh (voiced by Peter New) – Big McIntosh, commonly called Big Mac, is a large earth pony stallion who is Applejack and Apple Bloom's older brother. He "generally doesn't have much to say", and often speaks only by replying "eeyup" and "nope".[69]
Granny Smith (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain) – Granny Smith is an earth pony who is the paternal grandmother of Applejack, Apple Bloom, and Big McIntosh. She is depicted as a "wise matriarch" who has sharp wit and a "fuzzy" memory, and she is stated to be one of Ponyville's first settlers.[69]
Mayor Mare (voiced by Cathy Weseluck) – Mayor Mare is an earth pony who is the mayor of Ponyville.[70]
Cake family – Mr. Carrot Cake (voiced by Brian Drummond) and Mrs. Cup Cake (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain), both earth ponies, are the owners of the Sugarcube Corner bakery. In the season two episode "Baby Cakes", Mrs. Cake gives birth to twin foals, a pegasus colt named Pound (voiced by St. Germain), and a unicorn filly named Pumpkin (voiced by Andrea Libman).[70]
Cheerilee (voiced by Nicole Oliver) – Cheerilee is an earth pony based on the "G3" toy of the same name, appearing as a school-teacher at the Ponyville Schoolhouse.[70]
Snips and Snails (voiced by Lee Tockar and Richard Ian Cox) – Snips and Snails are a pair of dimwitted unicorn colts who creates mischief in Ponyville. The short and pudgy Snips is "known for his enthusiasm", while the taller Snails is "slightly more relaxed".[71]
Diamond Tiara and Silver Spoon (voiced by Chantal Strand and Shannon Chan-Kent) – Diamond Tiara and her cohort Silver Spoon are two wealthy, snobbish earth pony fillies who tease the Cutie Mark Crusaders for not having their cutie marks, calling them "blank flanks".[71] It is shown in "Crusaders of the Lost Mark" that Diamond Tiara's behavior stems from her stress about meeting the expectations of her father Filthy Rich (voiced by Brian Drummond) and mother Spoiled Rich (voiced by Strand). By the episode's end, she and Silver Spoon make peace with the Crusaders.
Pipsqueak (voiced by William Lawrenson in "Luna Eclipsed" and Graham Verchere in all other appearances) – Pipsqueak, also named Pip, is a pinto earth pony colt who hails from Trottingham, a location outside of Ponyville.[71] He speaks with a Cockney accent in most of his appearances.
Cranky Doodle and Matilda (voiced by Richard Newman and Brenda Crichlow) – Cranky Doodle Donkey is a donkey and "crotchety old grouch" who rejects Pinkie Pie's friendship until she re-unites him with his long-lost "special friend" Matilda, a female donkey.[72] The two marry in the one-hundredth episode "Slice of Life".
Bulk Biceps (voiced by Jayson Thiessen/Michael Dobson) – Bulk Biceps is a muscular pegasus stallion with small wings. His design was partially based on John Kricfalusi's animation style.[73] He first appears as a nameless gag character in the season two episode "Hurricane Fluttershy", where his shouts of "Yeah!" (attributed to "pony walla") are recorded by Thiessen.[74] Dobson performs the character in full speaking appearances starting with season four's "Rainbow Falls".

text: Canterlot characters[edit]

text: Canterlot is the mountainside capital of Equestria, named after the castle Camelot of Arthurian legend. The city is home to the country's upper-class elite, including Princess Celestia and Princess Luna, who reside in the local castle. Canterlot was designed to give the sense of its residents' royalty and nobility.[75]

text:
Prince Blueblood (voiced by Vincent Tong) – Blueblood is a unicorn who is Princess Celestia's distant nephew and an object of Rarity's affections in the first season until he proves to be "quite vain" and "a pompous fool".[76][77]
Hoity Toity (voiced by Trevor Devall) – Hoity Toity is an earth pony "fashion guru" who gives make-or-break critiques to designers.[78]
Photo Finish (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain) – Photo Finish is a famed earth pony fashion photographer who speaks with an Austrian accent.[78]
Sapphire Shores (voiced by Rena Anakwe) – Sapphire is an earth pony singer known as the "Pony of Pop", based on the "G3" toy of the same name.[78]
Fancy Pants (voiced by Trevor Devall) – Fancy Pants is a good-natured unicorn socialite with the highest position in elite Canterlot society, often appearing with a readily agreeable entourage.[78]
Sassy Saddles (voiced by Kelly Sheridan) – Sassy is a unicorn who is the manager of "Canterlot Carousel", Rarity's boutique in Canterlot that opens in the season five episode "Canterlot Boutique". Her design was inspired by Emily Blunt's character Emily Charlton in The Devil Wears Prada.[79]

text: Cloudsdale characters[edit]

text: Cloudsdale is the home and birthplace of several pegasus characters such as Rainbow Dash and Fluttershy. It is depicted as a floating city of clouds where pegasi produce Equestria's clouds, weather and rainbows inside a specialized "weather factory".[80] The city's design was influenced by Greek and Roman architecture, which author Begin states "harks back to the original Olympic Games, [...] a fitting reference for Rainbow Dash."[81]

text:
The Wonderbolts – The Wonderbolts are a squad of pegasi that perform "aerial feats of wonder", based on the Blue Angels.[82] They are captained by Spitfire (voiced by Nicole Oliver in the episode "Sonic Rainboom" and Kelly Metzger in all other appearances), a "spirited competitor" and "no-nonsense instructor" at the Wonderbolts' training academy,[83][84] and her second-in-command Soarin (voiced by Matt Hill). Their costumes were designed by Craig McCracken.[85] According to writer Amy Keating Rogers, the name of the Wonderbolts' founder, General Firefly, is a tribute to Faust's online username "fyre-flye", in turn named after the "G1" toy Firefly.[86]
Boy Bullies[87] – A trio of pegasus stallions introduced in "Sonic Rainboom" serve as Rainbow Dash's childhood bullies. They consist of Hoops (voiced by Kathleen Barr in "Sonic Rainboom" and Terry Klassen in all other appearances)[88][89] and two nameless ponies nicknamed "Billy/Dumb-Bell" (voiced by Richard Ian Cox in "Sonic Rainboom" and Brian Drummond in "The Cutie Mark Chronicles")[88][89] and the unvoiced "Score".

text: Major antagonists[edit]

text:
Nightmare Moon (see Princess Luna)
Discord (see above)
Queen Chrysalis (voiced by Kathleen Barr) – Chrysalis is the leader of the changelings, a race of "grotesque shape-shifting ponies" that feed off of ponies' love for each other.[90] She first appears in "A Canterlot Wedding", where she leads an invasion of Canterlot by impersonating Princess Cadance to control her fiancé Shining Armor, only for the changelings to be driven off by the couple's combined magic. She also appears in "To Where and Back Again", where she is deposed by Thorax (voiced by Kyle Rideout), a benevolent changeling who persuades the rest of their kind to share love rather than steal it. Chrysalis makes additional appearances in the comic series, seeking revenge against the ponies responsible for her defeat from the television series. Character designer Rebecca Dart drew Chrysalis and the other changelings with an insect-like design after reading the character's name in the script, drawing inspiration from manga artists Junko Mizuno and Hideshi Hino.[91]
King Sombra (voiced by Jim Miller) – Sombra is a tyrant unicorn king who first appears in "The Crystal Empire". Described as a "snarling black-hearted monster", he enslaved the crystal ponies in the past until Celestia and Luna banished him.[90] His efforts to reclaim the Crystal Empire in the present are thwarted when the magical Crystal Heart that protects the city destroys him. In the comics, Sombra is depicted as an "umbrum", a shadow pony who embraced his kind's monstrous nature after being rejected by the crystal ponies, only to be restored to life and redeemed by Radiant Hope, his childhood friend. Miller based his performance on the vocals of Mastodon song "Crystal Skull".[92]
Lord Tirek (voiced by Mark Acheson) – Tirek is a red-skinned, bull-like centaur who first appears in "Twilight's Kingdom". Based on the character of the same name from the animated My Little Pony special Rescue at Midnight Castle, he is depicted in Friendship Is Magic as an ancient diabolical tyrant who escapes from the prison realm of Tartarus, manipulating Discord to help him steal magic from Equestria's ponies. The Mane Six eventually defeat and reimprison him with "Rainbow Power", a powerful magic acquired from the Tree of Harmony. Character designer Phil Caesar strove to make Tirek appear as intimidating as he could without being deemed "too scary" for younger audiences, giving him design elements such as a black upper body to "tone down the intensity".[93]
Starlight Glimmer (see above)
Pony of Shadows (voiced by Bill Newton) – First mentioned in "Castle Mane-ia" as the subject of a ghost story, the Pony of Shadows first appears in "Shadow Play". He is the alter ego of Stygian, a resentful unicorn who is mistaken for a traitor and shunned by his allies, the Pillars of Old Equestria, and bonded with an evil entity that takes the form of a shadowy alicorn-like monster. The Mane Six inadvertently free him alongside the Pillars, thwarting the Pillars' millennium-long effort to contain him in limbo. The Pillars eventually recognize Stygian's innocence and work with the Mane Six to separate him from the shadow creature, which is returned to limbo in the Pillars' place.
Chancellor Neighsay (voiced by Maurice LaMarche) – Neighsay is the unicorn head of the Equestria Education Association (EEA) that strictly regulates the schools in Equestria; he first appeared in "School Daze". He disapproves of the Mane Six's School of Friendship for teaching non-pony creatures that he considers threatening to the kingdom.

text: Other characters[edit]

text:
Gilda (voiced by Maryke Hendrikse) – Gilda is a female griffon featured in the season one episode "Griffon the Brush Off". She is introduced as a childhood friend of Rainbow Dash, who later ends their friendship when Gilda tries to assert herself over Rainbow Dash's pony friends by bullying them.[94] The two later reconnect in the season five episode "The Lost Treasure of Griffonstone".
Trixie (voiced by Kathleen Barr) – Trixie is a traveling unicorn magician and braggart who exaggerates her magical abilities, calling herself "The Great and Powerful Trixie". She makes appearances in the show and various spin-offs as an anti-hero and a villain,[95] beginning as a rival to Twilight Sparkle in the season one episode "Boast Busters", but becoming more apologetic after seeing the error of her vengeful actions in season three's "Magic Duel".[94] She makes recurring appears beginning in season six's "No Second Prances", where she becomes a friend of Starlight Glimmer, another reformed unicorn.
Dragons – The dragons that appear throughout the series are generally depicted as selfish and reclusive creatures, and their level of greed determines their physical size.[96] They are governed by a Dragon Lord, the gargantuan Torch (voiced by Matt Cowlrick), who is succeeded by his moody yet compassionate daughter, Princess Ember (voiced by Ali Milner), in the season six episode "Gauntlet of Fire". A teenage dragon, Garble (voiced by Vincent Tong), leads a gang of "bad-natured bullies" and becomes an adversary of Spike.[97] Begin describes the dragon designs used in the show as "traditional", while finding that their "exaggerated noses and large heads resting on exceptionally skinny necks" is evocative of the show's humor.[98]
Zecora (voiced by Brenda Crichlow) – Zecora is a zebra shaman and herbalist who always speaks in rhyme and lives in the Everfree Forest, a "mysterious" forest on the edge of Ponyville.[99] The townsfolk misjudge her as an "evil enchantress" until the Mane Six befriend her in the episode "Bridle Gossip", often turning to her for her wisdom afterwards.[100] Her appearance and mannerisms are influenced by African tribal cultures.[101]
Apple family – The Apples are Applejack's extended family of earth ponies that live throughout Equestria. Family members include Braeburn (voiced by Michael Daingerfield), Applejack's cousin from Appleloosa, a "Wild West" town;[69][102] her "high-society" Aunt and Uncle Orange (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain and Brian Drummond) from the "bustling city" of Manehattan;[102] Hayseed Turnip Truck (voiced by Trevor Devall), a yokel-type odd-job worker; Babs Seed (see Cutie Mark Crusaders); Auntie Applesauce and Apple Rose (voiced by St. Germain and Ashleigh Ball in "Apple Family Reunion", and Marcy Goldberg and Shirley Millner in "Grannies Gone Wild"), two older relatives and friends of Granny Smith; Goldie Delicious (voiced by Peter New), an old cat lady who hoards family heirlooms; and Grand Pear (voiced by William Shatner), Applejack's maternal grandfather and patriarch of the rival Pear family. A possible distant relationship between the Apple and Pie families is uncovered in the season four episode "Pinkie Apple Pie", but is never confirmed.
Pie family – The Pies are Pinkie Pie's family who live on a rock farm outside of Ponyville. They are depicted as a clan of dour, drably colored earth ponies in contrast to Pinkie's bright appearance and personality.[52] They consist of Pinkie's father Igneous Rock (voiced by Terry Klassen in "The Cutie Mark Chronicles" and Peter New in "Hearthbreakers"), mother Cloudy Quartz (voiced by Andrea Libman in "Hearthbreakers"), and three sisters (all voiced by Ingrid Nilson): Limestone Pie, the surly oldest sister; Marble Pie, Pinkie's withdrawn, younger twin; and Maud Pie, an older sister who rarely expresses emotion and is obsessed with rocks, introduced in the show's fourth season.
Starswirl the Bearded (voiced by Christopher Britton) – Starswirl is a unicorn and historical figure in the series, originally envisioned as an archetypal wizard character with a prominent beard, similar to Merlin.[103] As detailed in the series and various tie-in media, he mentored Equestria's co-founder Clover the Clever and served as Celestia and Luna's royal adviser.[44] Starswirl's spellbook is a key figure in "Magical Mystery Cure", where Twilight is directed by Princess Celestia to finish Starswirl's "unfinished masterpiece" written within, resulting in her ascension as an alicorn princess of Equestria. He is depicted in the seventh season finale "Shadow Play" and the accompanying Legends of Magic comic series as the leader of the Pillars of Old Equestria, six legendary ponies responsible for creating the Elements of Harmony. He is brought into the present era with the other Pillars after the Mane Six release them from a millennial imprisonment in limbo alongside the Pony of Shadows, forming a tense alliance with them to defeat and ultimately rekindle the Pillars' friendship with the villain.
Flim Flam Brothers (voiced by Samuel Vincent and Scott McNeil) – Flim and his mustachioed brother Flam are two traveling unicorn "salesponies" and con artists who use song and dance to enthrall ponies into buying their usually faulty wares.[104] Writer M.A. Larson said he "particularly enjoyed" writing for Flim and Flam, saying that "their energy and optimism infuses the actual writing".[104]
Daring Do (voiced by Chiara Zanni) – Daring Do is a pegasus and main character of the fictional Daring Do adventure novel series parodying Indiana Jones.[105] Author Begin describes her as "essentially a different-colored Rainbow Dash in a hat".[106] In the season four episode "Daring Don't", the books' author A.K. Yearling (a parody of J.K. Rowling)[107] is discovered to be Daring Do herself, who writes her books after her real adventures, such as her encounters with the Aztec mythology-inspired villain Ahuizotl (voiced by Brian Drummond) and criminal pony Dr. Caballeron (voiced by Michael Dobson).[108]
Coco Pommel (voiced by Cathy Weseluck) – Coco is an earth pony fashion designer who works in Manehattan. She is introduced in the season four episode "Rarity Takes Manehattan" as the assistant to Suri Polomare (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain), Rarity's chief rival in a fashion competition, and quits after observing Suri's unscrupulous tactics for winning. Her name is a reference to fashion designer Coco Chanel; it was later changed to "Miss Pommel" prior to the show's sixth season for "legal reasons".[109]
Young Six[110] – The "Young Six" are six adolescent creatures who attend the School of Friendship run by the Mane Six in season eight. They consist of Smolder (voiced by Shannon Chan-Kent), a cocky and competitive dragon; Ocellus (voiced by Devyn Dalton), a timid changeling who prefers to assume other creatures' forms; Silverstream (voiced by Lauren Jackson), Queen Novo's hyperactive niece who can alternate between the forms of a hippogriff and seapony; Yona (voiced by Katrina Salisbury), a friendly and clumsy yak; Gallus (voiced by Gavin Langelo), a sarcastic griffon; and Sandbar (voiced by Vincent Tong), a laid-back earth pony.

text: Background characters[edit]

text: The show features an extensive cast of over 200 minor characters, also designated as "background ponies",[111] that are used to fill out crowd scenes and serve as visual gags in episodes.[3] Several background ponies have been well received by the show's brony fanbase, who have assigned names and more detailed personalities to them.[3] As a response to fan interest, the series' creative team have given these characters expanded roles in later episodes and media,[111] such as the show's one-hundredth episode "Slice of Life", which presents the characters' daily lives as the episode's central focus.[112]

text:
Derpy/Muffins[113][114] (voiced by Tabitha St. Germain) – "Derpy" is the name assigned to a cross-eyed pegasus who makes several background appearances in the show. Originally the subject of an overlooked animator's joke in the first episode, the character was dubbed "Derpy Hooves" (based on the Internet slang word "derp") and characterized as a well-meaning klutz by 4chan board users.[3] The creators have since recognized "Derpy" as the fandom's mascot and included her in scripted easter eggs throughout the show.[3][115] She was addressed by name and given lines during the initial broadcast of the second-season episode "The Last Roundup" as a direct call-out to the fandom. Following complaints from viewers who felt her appearance and actions negatively reflected those of mentally handicapped people, the scene was modified to remove the character's name, alter her voice, and reduce the degree to which her eyes are crossed.[116] Amidst concerns that Derpy would be removed from the series due to these responses, the character was re-introduced in the fourth season as a "surprise" for fans after having been reduced to background cameos in previous episodes.[117] According to Miller, the character was renamed "Muffins" for "legal reasons that I don't understand" prior to her credited appearance in "Slice of Life".[118]
DJ Pon-3/Vinyl Scratch – DJ Pon-3 (/poʊnˈθriː/) is a silent unicorn disc jockey rarely seen without headphones and sunglasses, first seen in "Suited for Success".[76] The names "DJ Pon-3" and "Vinyl Scratch" were created by the fan community, with the former being used in official products, such as the "Equestria Girls" music video parodying Katy Perry's song "California Gurls".[119]
Dr. Hooves/Time Turner (voiced by Peter New) – An earth pony background character, his name was coined as "Doctor Whooves" by fans for his purported resemblance to David Tennant's portrayal of the Tenth Doctor in the British television series Doctor Who.[120] He appears in later episodes as Ponyville's eccentric timekeeper, and he exhibits similarities to his namesake in episodes such as "Slice of Life". He is voiced by various actors besides New, who performs him in his major speaking appearance in "Slice of Life".
Lyra Heartstrings and Bon Bon/Sweetie Drops (voiced by Ashleigh Ball and Andrea Libman) – The unicorn Lyra and earth pony Sweetie Drops (also named Bon Bon after the "G1" pony) are two incidental characters who appear together as best friends in several scenes; one such scene in "Slice of Life" outs Sweetie Drops as a disavowed secret agent living in Ponyville under the assumed identity "Bon Bon". They are voiced by various actresses, with Ball voicing Lyra and Libman as Sweetie Drops in "Slice of Life" and the Friendship Games film and shorts.
Minuette, Twinkleshine, and Lemon Hearts (voiced by Rebecca Husain, Tabitha St. Germain and Ashleigh Ball) – Often appearing separately as incidental characters, these three unicorns are given focus in the series premiere and season five episode "Amending Fences" as Twilight Sparkle's often neglected friends from before her move to Ponyville, while Minuette and Twinkleshine appear alongside Lyra Heartstrings as Princess Cadance's bridesmaids in "A Canterlot Wedding". Among various other actresses, they are voiced by Husain (Minuette), St. Germain (Twinkleshine), and Ball (Lemon Hearts) in "Amending Fences".
Octavia Melody (voiced by Kazumi Evans) – Octavia is an earth pony who plays the cello, originally seen in "The Best Night Ever".[76] She is featured in a scene in "Slice of Life" where she rehearses an "electric cello dubstep" number with fellow musician DJ Pon-3 for Cranky and Matilda's wedding; Octavia's portion of the song was performed by Tina Guo.[121]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The characters of My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic have received praise, and are cited as one of the reasons the series' older fans, called "bronies", became attracted to the show.[122] In his review of the show, Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club complimented the characters' stylized appearance and defined personalities, while favorably noting that "the show uses them well to come up with fun stories and bounce solid jokes off of each other."[50] Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media, an organization focusing on the parenting aspect of children's media, felt the characters posed a positive influence on children with themes tolerance and respect for one another, and that they "don't let their diverse personalities keep them from forging relationships." However, she advised parents to be wary of the "influence the characters might have on their kids' desires, since it's rooted in a well-known product line of books, toys, and just about everything in between."[123] Los Angeles Times critic Robert Lloyd praised the show's diverse female characterization, but noted the smaller male cast by comparison, calling them "largely beside the point".[124]

text: Kathleen Richter of Ms. was dismissive of the characters in her critique of the show in comparison to other girls' shows, which she considered "so sexist and racist and heteronormative". For example, she suggested that the character of Rainbow Dash was used to promote the stereotype that "all feminists are angry, tomboyish lesbians." She also considered that the only darker-colored ponies shown at the time were in positions of servitude towards the "white pony overlord".[125] Lauren Faust responded to these claims by stating that while Rainbow Dash was a tomboy, "nowhere in the show is her sexual orientation ever referenced" and "assuming [tomboys] are lesbians is extremely unfair to both straight and lesbian tomboys", and further stating that "Color has never, ever been depicted as a race indicator for the ponies."[2] The portrayal of the character Derpy in the second season episode "The Last Roundup" received a negative response from some viewers, who felt her crossed eyes and klutzy mannerisms were insulting to mentally handicapped persons;[116] Hasbro's subsequent modifications to the scene to reduce such character traits were also received poorly.[116]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Libman provides Pinkie Pie's singing voice for some songs.

tag: ol


document_title: Endoscopy

question_text: when was the first fiber optic endoscope introduced

text: Endoscopy

text: History[edit]

text: The self-illuminated endoscope was developed at Glasgow Royal Infirmary in Scotland (one of the first hospitals to have mains electricity) in 1894/5 by Dr John Macintyre as part of his specialization in investigation of the larynx.[3]

text: Medical uses[edit]

text: A health care provider may use endoscopy for any of the following:

text:
investigation of symptoms, such as symptoms in the digestive system including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, difficulty swallowing, and gastrointestinal bleeding.[4]
confirmation of a diagnosis, most commonly by performing a biopsy to check for conditions such as anemia, bleeding, inflammation, and cancers of the digestive system.[4]
giving treatment, such as cauterization of a bleeding vessel, widening a narrow esophagus, clipping off a polyp or removing a foreign object.[4]

text: Specialty professional organizations which specialize in digestive problems advise that many patients with Barrett's esophagus are too frequently receiving endoscopies.[5] Such societies recommend that patients with Barrett's esophagus and no cancer symptoms after two biopsies receive biopsies as indicated and no more often than the recommended rate.[6][7]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Health care providers can use endoscopy to review any of the following body parts:

text:
The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract):

Esophageal Bougie Dilator

oesophagus, stomach and duodenum (esophagogastroduodenoscopy)
small intestine (enteroscopy)
large intestine/colon (colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy)
Magnification endoscopy
bile duct

endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), duodenoscope-assisted cholangiopancreatoscopy, intraoperative cholangioscopy

rectum (rectoscopy) and anus (anoscopy), both also referred to as (proctoscopy)

The respiratory tract

The nose (rhinoscopy)
The lower respiratory tract (bronchoscopy)

The ear (otoscope)
The urinary tract (cystoscopy)
The female reproductive system (gynoscopy)

The cervix (colposcopy)
The uterus (hysteroscopy)
The fallopian tubes (falloposcopy)

Normally closed body cavities (through a small incision):

The abdominal or pelvic cavity (laparoscopy)
The interior of a joint (arthroscopy)
Organs of the chest (thoracoscopy and mediastinoscopy)

text: Endoscopy is used for many procedures:

text:
During pregnancy

The amnion (amnioscopy)
The fetus (fetoscopy)

Plastic surgery
Panendoscopy (or triple endoscopy)

Combines laryngoscopy, esophagoscopy, and bronchoscopy

Orthopedic surgery

Hand surgery, such as endoscopic carpal tunnel release
Knee surgery, such as anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction
Epidural space (Epiduroscopy)
Bursae (Bursectomy)

Endodontic surgery

Maxillary sinus surgery
Apicoectomy

Endoscopic endonasal surgery
Endoscopic spinal surgery

text: An Endoscopy is a simple procedure which allows a doctor to look inside human bodies using an instrument called an endoscope. A cutting tool can be attached to the end of the endoscope, and the apparatus can then be used to perform surgery. This type of surgery is called Key hole surgery, and usually leaves only a tiny scar externally.

text: Application in other fields[edit]

text:
The planning and architectural community use architectural endoscopy for pre-visualization of scale models of proposed buildings and cities
Internal inspection of complex technical systems (borescope)
Endoscopes are also a tool helpful in the examination of improvised explosive devices by bomb disposal personnel.
The FBI uses endoscopes for conducting surveillance via tight spaces.

text: Risks[edit]

text: The main risks are infection, over-sedation, perforation, or a tear of the stomach or esophagus lining and bleeding.[8] Although perforation generally requires surgery, certain cases may be treated with antibiotics and intravenous fluids. Bleeding may occur at the site of a biopsy or polyp removal. Such typically minor bleeding may simply stop on its own or be controlled by cauterisation. Seldom does surgery become necessary. Perforation and bleeding are rare during gastroscopy. Other minor risks include drug reactions and complications related to other diseases the patient may have. Consequently, patients should inform their doctor of all allergic tendencies and medical problems. Occasionally, the site of the sedative injection may become inflamed and tender for a short time. This is usually not serious and warm compresses for a few days are usually helpful. While any of these complications may possibly occur, it is good to remember that each of them occurs quite infrequently. A doctor can further discuss risks with the patient with regard to the particular need for gastroscopy.

text: After the endoscopy[edit]

text: After the procedure, the patient will be observed and monitored by a qualified individual in the endoscopy room, or a recovery area, until a significant portion of the medication has worn off. Occasionally the patient is left with a mild sore throat, which may respond to saline gargles, or chamomile tea. It may last for weeks or not happen at all. The patient may have a feeling of distention from the insufflated air that was used during the procedure. Both problems are mild and fleeting. When fully recovered, the patient will be instructed when to resume their usual diet (probably within a few hours) and will be allowed to be taken home. Where sedation has been used, most facilities mandate that the patient be taken home by another person and that he or she not drive or handle machinery for the remainder of the day. Patients who have had an endoscopy without sedation are able to leave unassisted.

text: Endoscope[edit]

text: An endoscope can consist of:

text:
a rigid or flexible tube.
a light delivery system to illuminate the organ or object under inspection. The light source is normally outside the body and the light is typically directed via an optical fiber system.
a lens system transmitting the image from the objective lens to the viewer, typically a relay lens system in the case of rigid endoscopes or a bundle of fiberoptics in the case of a fiberscope.
an eyepiece. Modern instruments may be videoscopes, with no eyepiece. A camera transmits image to a screen for image capture.
an additional channel to allow entry of medical instruments or manipulators.

text: Patients undergoing the procedure may be offered sedation, which includes its own risks.

text: History[edit]

text: The first endoscope was developed in 1806 by Philipp Bozzini in Mainz with his introduction of a "Lichtleiter" (light conductor) "for the examinations of the canals and cavities of the human body".[9] However, the Vienna Medical Society disapproved of such curiosity.[10] The first to use an endoscope in a successful operation was Antonin Jean Desormeaux whose invention was the state of the art before the invention of electricity.[citation needed]

text: The use of electric light was a major step in the improvement of endoscopy. The first such lights were external although sufficiently capable of illumination to allow cystoscopy, hysteroscopy and sigmoidoscopy as well as examination of the nasal (and later thoracic) cavities as was being performed routinely in human patients by Sir Francis Cruise (using his own commercially available endoscope) by 1865 in the Mater Misericordiae Hospital in Dublin, Ireland.[11] Later, smaller bulbs became available making internal light possible, for instance in a hysteroscope by Charles David in 1908.[12]

text: Hans Christian Jacobaeus has been given credit for the first large published series of endoscopic explorations of the abdomen and the thorax with laparoscopy (1912) and thoracoscopy (1910)[13] although the first reported thoracoscopic examination in a human was also by Cruise.[14]

text: Laparoscopy was used in the diagnosis of liver and gallbladder disease by Heinz Kalk in the 1930s.[15] Hope reported in 1937 on the use of laparoscopy to diagnose ectopic pregnancy.[16] In 1944, Raoul Palmer placed his patients in the Trendelenburg position after gaseous distention of the abdomen and thus was able to reliably perform gynecologic laparoscopy.[17]

text: Wolf and Storz[edit]

text: Georg Wolf (1873–1938) a Berlin manufacturer of rigid endoscopes, established in 1906, produced the Sussmann flexible gastroscope in 1911 (Modlin, Farhadi-Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, 2000).[18] Karl Storz began producing instruments for ENT specialists in 1945 through his company, Karl Storz GmbH.[19]

text: Fiber optics[edit]

text: Basil Hirschowitz and Larry Curtiss invented the first fiber optic endoscope in 1957.[20] Earlier in the 1950s Harold Hopkins had designed a "fibroscope" consisting of a bundle of flexible glass fibres able to coherently transmit an image. This proved useful both medically and industrially, and subsequent research led to further improvements in image quality. Further innovations included using additional fibres to channel light to the objective end from a powerful external source, thereby achieving the high level of full spectrum illumination that was needed for detailed viewing, and colour photography.[citation needed]

text: The previous practice of a small filament lamp on the tip of the endoscope had left the choice of either viewing in a dim red light or increasing the light output - which carried the risk of burning the inside of the patient. Alongside the advances to the optics, the ability to 'steer' the tip was developed, as well as innovations in remotely operated surgical instruments contained within the body of the endoscope itself. This was the beginning of "key-hole surgery" as we know it today.[citation needed]

text: Rod-lens endoscopes[edit]

text: There were physical limits to the image quality of a fibroscope. A bundle of say 50,000 fibers gives effectively only a 50,000-pixel image, and continued flexing from use breaks fibers and so progressively loses pixels. Eventually so many are lost that the whole bundle must be replaced (at considerable expense). Harold Hopkins realised that any further optical improvement would require a different approach. Previous rigid endoscopes suffered from low light transmittance and poor image quality. The surgical requirement of passing surgical tools as well as the illumination system within the endoscope's tube - which itself is limited in dimensions by the human body - left very little room for the imaging optics. The tiny lenses of a conventional system required supporting rings that would obscure the bulk of the lens area; they were difficult to manufacture and assemble and optically nearly useless.[citation needed]

text: The elegant solution that Hopkins invented was to fill the air-spaces between the 'little lenses' with rods of glass. These fitted exactly the endoscope's tube, making them self-aligning, and required no other support. This allowed the little lenses to be dispensed with altogether. The rod-lenses were much easier to handle and used the maximum possible diameter available.[citation needed]

text: With the appropriate curvature and coatings to the rod ends and optimal choices of glass-types, all calculated and specified by Hopkins, the image quality was transformed - even with tubes of only 1mm in diameter. With a high quality 'telescope' of such small diameter the tools and illumination system could be comfortably housed within an outer tube. Once again it was Karl Storz who produced the first of these new endoscopes as part of a long and productive partnership between the two men.[21]

text: Whilst there are regions of the body that will always require flexible endoscopes (principally the gastrointestinal tract), the rigid rod-lens endoscopes have such exceptional performance that they are still the preferred instrument and have enabled modern key-hole surgery. (Harold Hopkins was recognized and honoured for his advancement of medical-optic by the medical community worldwide. It formed a major part of the citation when he was awarded the Rumford Medal by the Royal Society in 1984.)

text: By measuring absorption of light by the blood (by passing the light through one fibre and collecting the light through another fibre) a doctor can estimate the proportion of haemoglobin in the blood and diagnose ulceration in the stomach.[citation needed]

text: Endoscope reprocessing[edit]

text: High level disinfection of flexible endoscopes is required by all national guideline issuing bodies.[22] The high level disinfection of endoscopes occurs during a multi-step process called reprocessing. Reprocessing endoscopes involves over 100 individuals steps.[23] These steps can be broken down into broad categories of pre-cleaning, leak testing, manual cleaning, cleaning verification, visual inspection, high level disinfection, rinsing, drying, and storage.[24] Failure to perform all of these steps correctly can lead to residual contamination remaining on endoscopes.

text: In the UK, stringent guidelines exist regarding the decontamination and disinfection of flexible endoscopes, the most recent being CfPP 01–06, released in 2013[25]

text: Rigid endoscopes, such as an Arthroscope, can be sterilized in the same way as surgical instruments, whereas heat labile flexible endoscopes cannot.[26]

text: Recent developments[edit]

text: With the application of robotic systems, telesurgery was introduced as the surgeon could be at a site far removed from the patient. The first transatlantic surgery has been called the Lindbergh Operation.[citation needed]

text: Wireless oesophageal pH measuring devices can now be placed endoscopically, to record ph trends in an area remotely.[citation needed]

text: Endoscopy VR simulators[edit]

text: Virtual reality simulators are being developed for training doctors on various endoscopy skills.[27]

text: Disposable endoscopy[edit]

text: Disposable endoscopy is an emerging category of endoscopic instruments. Recent developments[28] have allowed the manufacture of endoscopes inexpensive enough to be used on a single patient only. It is meeting a growing demand to lessen the risk of cross contamination and hospital acquired diseases. A European consortium of the SME are working on the DUET (disposable use of endoscopy tool) project to build a disposable endoscope.[29]

text: Capsule endoscopy[edit]

text: A new endoscopy technology uses a Magnetically Guided Capsule Endoscope (MGCE) for wireless control, monitor and imaging.[30]

text: Augmented reality[edit]

text: The endoscopic image can be combined with other image sources to provide the surgeon with additional information. For instance, the position of an anatomical structure or tumor might be shown in the endoscopic video.[31]

text: Measuring endoscopy[edit]

text: Current research works on the endoscopic collection of dimensional 3D-data, such as using laser triangulation or the approach of structured light projection. Depending on the optics used, inner geometries can be measured with accuracies in the low µm region. Other emerging endoscope technologies are emerging that measure additional optical properties of light, such as optical polarization,[32] optical phase,[33] and hyperspectral endoscopy, which records images at many different wavelengths.[34]


document_title: Supercontinent

question_text: the last super continent that broke apart to form today 's landmasses is known by what name

text: Supercontinent

text: Supercontinents throughout geologic history[edit]

text: The following table displays historical supercontinents, using a general definition.[which?]

text:
Supercontinent name
Age (Ma: millions of years ago)

Ur (Vaalbara)
~3,636–2,803

Kenorland
~2,720–2,114

Protopangea-Paleopangea
~2,720–573

Columbia (Nuna)
~1,820–1,350

Rodinia
~1,130–750

Pannotia
~633-573

Pangaea
~336-173

tag: table

text: General chronology[edit]

text: There are two contrasting models for supercontinent evolution through geological time. The first model theorizes that at least two separate supercontinents existed comprising Vaalbara (from ~3636 to 2803 Ma) and Kenorland (from ~2720 to 2450 Ma). The Neoarchean supercontinent consisted of Superia and Sclavia. These parts of Neoarchean age broke off at ~2480 and 2312 Ma and portions of them later collided to form Nuna (Northern Europe North America) (~1820 Ma). Nuna continued to develop during the Mesoproterozoic, primarily by lateral accretion of juvenile arcs, and in ~1000 Ma Nuna collided with other land masses, forming Rodinia.[4] Between ~825 and 750 Ma Rodinia broke apart.[6] However, before completely breaking up, some fragments of Rodinia had already come together to form Gondwana (also known as Gondwanaland) by ~608 Ma. Pangaea formed by ~336 Ma through the collision of Gondwana, Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia.

text: The second model (Protopangea-Paleopangea) is based on both palaeomagnetic and geological evidence and proposes that the continental crust comprised a single supercontinent from ~2.72 Ga until break-up during the Ediacaran Period after ~0.573 Ga. The reconstruction[7] is derived from the observation that palaeomagnetic poles converge to quasi-static positions for long intervals between ~2.72–2.115, 1.35–1.13, and 0.75–0.573 Ga with only small peripheral modifications to the reconstruction.[8] During the intervening periods, the poles conform to a unified apparent polar wander path. Because this model shows that exceptional demands on the paleomagnetic data are satisfied by prolonged quasi-integrity, it must be regarded as superseding the first model proposing multiple diverse continents, although the first phase (Protopangea) essentially incorporates Vaalbara and Kenorland of the first model. The explanation for the prolonged duration of the Protopangea-Paleopangea supercontinent appears to be that Lid Tectonics (comparable to the tectonics operating on Mars and Venus) prevailed during Precambrian times. Plate Tectonics as seen on the contemporary Earth became dominant only during the latter part of geological times.[8]

text: The Phanerozoic supercontinent Pangaea began to break up 215 Ma and is still doing so today. Because Pangaea is the most recent of Earth's supercontinents, it is the most well known and understood. Contributing to Pangaea's popularity in the classroom is the fact that its reconstruction is almost as simple as fitting the present continents bordering the Atlantic-type oceans like puzzle pieces.[4]

text: Supercontinent cycles[edit]

text: A supercontinent cycle is the break-up of one supercontinent and the development of another, which takes place on a global scale.[4] Supercontinent cycles are not the same as the Wilson cycle, which is the opening and closing of an individual oceanic basin. The Wilson cycle rarely synchronizes with the timing of a supercontinent cycle.[2] However, supercontinent cycles and Wilson cycles were both involved in the creation of Pangaea and Rodinia.[5]

text: Secular trends such as carbonatites, granulites, eclogites, and greenstone belt deformation events are all possible indicators of Precambrian supercontinent cyclicity, although the Protopangea-Paleopangea solution implies that Phanerozoic style of supercontinent cycles did not operate during these times. Also there are instances where these secular trends have a weak, uneven or lack of imprint on the supercontinent cycle; secular methods for supercontinent reconstruction will produce results that have only one explanation and each explanation for a trend must fit in with the rest.[4]

text: Supercontinents and volcanism[edit]

text: The causes of supercontinent assembly and dispersal are thought to be driven by processes in the mantle.[2] Approximately 660 km into the mantle, a discontinuity occurs, affecting the surface crust through processes like plumes and "superplumes". When a slab of crust that is subducted is denser than the surrounding mantle, it sinks to the discontinuity. Once the slabs build up, they will sink through to the lower mantle in what is known as a "slab avalanche". This displacement at the discontinuity will cause the lower mantle to compensate and rise elsewhere. The rising mantle can form a plume or superplume.

text: Besides having compositional effects on the upper mantle by replenishing the large-ion lithophile elements, volcanism affects the plate movement.[2] The plates will be moved towards a geoidal low perhaps where the slab avalanche occurred and pushed away from the geoidal high that can be caused by the plumes or superplumes. This causes the continents to push together to form supercontinents and was evidently the process that operated to cause the early continental crust to aggregate into Protopangea.[9] Dispersal of supercontinents is caused by the accumulation of heat underneath the crust due to the rising of very large convection cells or plumes, and a massive heat release resulted in the final break-up of Paleopangea.[10] Accretion occurs over geoidal lows that can be caused by avalanche slabs or the downgoing limbs of convection cells. Evidence of the accretion and dispersion of supercontinents is seen in the geological rock record.

text: The influence of known volcanic eruptions does not compare to that of flood basalts. The timing of flood basalts has corresponded with large-scale continental break-up. However, due to a lack of data on the time required to produce flood basalts, the climatic impact is difficult to quantify. The timing of a single lava flow is also undetermined. These are important factors on how flood basalts influenced paleoclimate.[5]

text: Supercontinents and plate tectonics[edit]

text: Global paleogeography and plate interactions as far back as Pangaea are relatively well understood today. However, the evidence becomes more sparse further back in geologic history. Marine magnetic anomalies, passive margin match-ups, geologic interpretation of orogenic belts, paleomagnetism, paleobiogeography of fossils, and distribution of climatically sensitive strata are all methods to obtain evidence for continent locality and indicators of environment throughout time.[4]

text: Phanerozoic (541 Ma to present) and Precambrian (4.6 Ga to 541 Ma) had primarily passive margins and detrital zircons (and orogenic granites), whereas the tenure of Pangaea contained few.[4] Matching edges of continents are where passive margins form. The edges of these continents may rift. At this point, seafloor spreading becomes the driving force. Passive margins are therefore born during the break-up of supercontinents and die during supercontinent assembly. Pangaea's supercontinent cycle is a good example for the efficiency of using the presence, or lack of, these entities to record the development, tenure, and break-up of supercontinents. There is a sharp decrease in passive margins between 500 and 350 Ma during the timing of Pangaea's assembly. The tenure of Pangaea is marked by a low number of passive margins during 336 to 275 Ma, and its break-up is indicated accurately by an increase in passive margins.[4]

text: Orogenic belts can form during the assembly of continents and supercontinents. The orogenic belts present on continental blocks are classified into three different categories and have implications of interpreting geologic bodies.[2] Intercratonic orogenic belts are characteristic of ocean basin closure. Clear indicators of intercratonic activity contain ophiolites and other oceanic materials that are present in the suture zone. Intracratonic orogenic belts occur as thrust belts and do not contain any oceanic material. However, the absence of ophiolites is not strong evidence for intracratonic belts, because the oceanic material can be squeezed out and eroded away in an intercratonic environment. The third kind of orogenic belt is a confined orogenic belt which is the closure of small basins. The assembly of a supercontinent would have to show intercratonic orogenic belts.[2] However, interpretation of orogenic belts can be difficult.

text: The collision of Gondwana and Laurasia occurred in the late Palaeozoic. By this collision, the Variscan mountain range was created, along the equator.[5] This 6000-km-long mountain range is usually referred to in two parts: the Hercynian mountain range of the late Carboniferous makes up the eastern part, and the western part is called the Appalachians, uplifted in the early Permian. (The existence of a flat elevated plateau like the Tibetan Plateau is under much debate.) The locality of the Variscan range made it influential to both the northern and southern hemispheres. The elevation of the Appalachians would greatly influence global atmospheric circulation.[5]

text: Supercontinental climate[edit]

text: Continents, in particular large or supercontinents, will affect the climate of the planet drastically. In general the interaction of supercontinents and climate is similar to the interaction between present-day continents and climate, just on a different scale. Supercontinents have a larger effect on climate than do continents. The configuration and placement of the continents has a larger influence on climate. Continents modify global wind patterns, control ocean current paths and have a higher albedo than the oceans.[2] Because continents are higher in the elevation, the temperature decreases with altitude. The wind is redirected by mountains. The albedo difference causes a shift in climate by onshore winds. "Continentality" occurs because the center of large continents are generally higher in elevations and are therefore cooler and drier. This is seen today with Eurasia, and evidence is present in the rock record that this is true for the middle of Pangaea.[2]

text: Glacial[edit]

text: The term glacio-epoch refers to a long episode of glaciation on Earth over millions of years.[11] Glaciers have major implications on the climate particularly through sea level change. Changes in the position and elevation of the continents, the paleolatitude and ocean circulation affect the glacio-epochs. There is an association between the rifting and breakup of continents and supercontinents and glacio-epochs.[11] According to the first model for Precambrian supercontinents described above the breakup of Kenorland and Rodinia were associated with the Paleoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic glacio-epochs, respectively. In contrast, the second solution described above shows that these glaciations correlated with periods of low continental velocity and it is concluded that a fall in tectonic and corresponding volcanic activity was responsible for these intervals of global frigidity.[8] During the accumulation of supercontinents with times of regional uplift, glacio-epochs seem to be rare with little supporting evidence. However, the lack of evidence does not allow for the conclusion that glacio-epochs are not associated with collisional assembly of supercontinents.[11] This could just represent a preservation bias.

text: During the late Ordovician (~458.4 Ma), the particular configuration of Gondwana may have allowed for glaciation and high CO2 levels to occur at the same time.[12] However, some geologists disagree and think that there was a temperature increase at this time. This increase may have been strongly influenced by the movement of Gondwana across the South Pole, which may have prevented lengthy snow accumulation. Although late Ordovician temperatures at the South Pole may have reached freezing, there were no ice sheets during the early Silurian (~443.8 Ma) through the late Mississippian (~330.9 Ma).[5] Agreement can be met with the theory that continental snow can occur when the edge of a continent is near the pole. Therefore, Gondwana, although located tangent to the South Pole, may have experienced glaciation along its coast.[12]

text: Precipitation[edit]

text: Though precipitation rates during monsoonal circulations are difficult to predict, there is evidence for a large orographic barrier within the interior of Pangaea during the late Paleozoic (~251.902 Ma). The possibility of the SW-NE trending Appalachian-Hercynian Mountains makes the region's monsoonal circulations potentially relatable to present day monsoonal circulations surrounding the Tibetan Plateau, which is known to positively influence the magnitude of monsoonal periods within Eurasia. It is therefore somewhat expected that lower topography in other regions of the supercontinent during the Jurassic would negatively influence precipitation variations. The breakup of supercontinents may have affected local precipitation.[13] When any supercontinent breaks up, there will be an increase in precipitation runoff over the surface of the continental land masses, increasing silicate weathering and the consumption of CO2.[6]

text: Temperature[edit]

text: Even though during the Archaean solar radiation was reduced by 30 percent and the Cambrian-Precambrian boundary by six percent, the Earth has only experienced three ice ages throughout the Precambrian.[5] It must be noted that erroneous conclusions are more likely to be made when models are limited to one climatic configuration (which is usually present day).[13]

text: Cold winters in continental interiors are due to rate ratios of radiative cooling (greater) and heat transport from continental rims. To raise winter temperatures within continental interiors, the rate of heat transport must increase to become greater than the rate of radiative cooling. Through climate models, alterations in atmospheric CO2 content and ocean heat transport are not comparatively effective.[13]

text: CO2 models suggest that values were low in the late Cenozoic and Carboniferous-Permian glaciations. Although early Paleozoic values are much larger (more than ten percent higher than that of today). This may be due to high seafloor spreading rates after the breakup of Precambrian supercontinents and the lack of land plants as a carbon sink.[12]

text: During the late Permian, it is expected that seasonal Pangaean temperatures varied drastically. Subtropic summer temperatures were warmer than that of today by as much as 6–10 degrees and mid-latitudes in the winter were less than −30 degrees Celsius. These seasonal changes within the supercontinent were influenced by the large size of Pangaea. And, just like today, coastal regions experienced much less variation.[5]

text: During the Jurassic, summer temperatures did not rise above zero degrees Celsius along the northern rim of Laurasia, which was the northernmost part of Pangaea (the southernmost portion of Pangaea was Gondwana). Ice-rafted dropstones sourced from Russia are indicators of this northern boundary. The Jurassic is thought to have been approximately 10 degrees Celsius warmer along 90 degrees East paleolongitude compared to the present temperature of today's central Eurasia.[13]

text: Milankovitch cycles[edit]

text: Many studies of the Milankovitch fluctuations during supercontinent time periods have focused on the Mid-Cretaceous. Present amplitudes of Milankovitch cycles over present day Eurasia may be mirrored in both the southern and northern hemispheres of the supercontinent Pangaea. Climate modeling shows that summer fluctuations varied 14–16 degrees Celsius on Pangaea, which is similar or slightly higher than summer temperatures of Eurasia during the Pleistocene. The largest-amplitude Milankovitch cycles are expected to have been at mid- to high-latitudes during the Triassic and Jurassic.[13]

text: Proxies[edit]

text: Granites and detrital zircons have notably similar and episodic appearances in the rock record. Their fluctuations correlate with Precambrian supercontinent cycles. The U–Pb zircon dates from orogenic granites are among the most reliable aging determinants. Some issues exist with relying on granite sourced zircons, such as a lack of evenly globally sourced data and the loss of granite zircons by sedimentary coverage or plutonic consumption. Where granite zircons are less adequate, detrital zircons from sandstones appear and make up for the gaps. These detrital zircons are taken from the sands of major modern rivers and their drainage basins.[4] Oceanic magnetic anomalies and paleomagnetic data are the primary resources used for reconstructing continent and supercontinent locations back to roughly 150 Ma.[5]

text: Supercontinents and atmospheric gases[edit]

text: Plate tectonics and the chemical composition of the atmosphere (specifically greenhouse gases) are the two most prevailing factors present within the geologic time scale. Continental drift influences both cold and warm climatic episodes. Atmospheric circulation and climate are strongly influenced by the location and formation of continents and megacontinents. Therefore, continental drift influences mean global temperature.[5]

text: Oxygen levels of the Archaean Eon were negligible and today they are roughly 21 percent. It is thought that the Earth's oxygen content has risen in stages: six or seven steps that are timed very closely to the development of Earth's supercontinents.[14]

text:
Continents collide
Supermountains form
Erosion of supermountains
Large quantities of minerals and nutrients wash out to open ocean
Explosion of marine algae life (partly sourced from noted nutrients)
Mass amounts of oxygen produced during photosynthesis

text: The process of Earth's increase in atmospheric oxygen content is theorized to have started with continent-continent collision of huge land masses forming supercontinents, and therefore possibly supercontinent mountain ranges (supermountains). These supermountains would have eroded, and the mass amounts of nutrients, including iron and phosphorus, would have washed into oceans, just as we see happening today. The oceans would then be rich in nutrients essential to photosynthetic organisms, which would then be able to respire mass amounts of oxygen. There is an apparent direct relationship between orogeny and the atmospheric oxygen content). There is also evidence for increased sedimentation concurrent with the timing of these mass oxygenation events, meaning that the organic carbon and pyrite at these times were more likely to be buried beneath sediment and therefore unable to react with the free oxygen. This sustained the atmospheric oxygen increases.[14]

text: During this time, 2.65 Ga there was an increase in molybdenum isotope fractionation. It was temporary, but supports the increase in atmospheric oxygen because molybdenum isotopes require free oxygen to fractionate. Between 2.45 and 2.32 Ga, the second period of oxygenation occurred, it has been called the 'great oxygenation event.' There are many pieces of evidence that support the existence of this event, including red beds appearance 2.3 Ga (meaning that Fe3+ was being produced and became an important component in soils). The third oxygenation stage approximately 1.8 Ga is indicated by the disappearance of iron formations. Neodymium isotopic studies suggest that iron formations are usually from continental sources, meaning that dissolved Fe and Fe2+ had to be transported during continental erosion. A rise in atmospheric oxygen prevents Fe transport, so the lack of iron formations may have been due to an increase in oxygen. The fourth oxygenation event, roughly 0.6 Ga, is based on modeled rates of sulfur isotopes from marine carbonate-associated sulfates. An increase (near doubled concentration) of sulfur isotopes, which is suggested by these models, would require an increase in oxygen content of the deep oceans. Between 650 and 550 Ma there were three increases in ocean oxygen levels, this period is the fifth oxygenation stage. One of the reasons indicating this period to be an oxygenation event is the increase in redox-sensitive molybdenum in black shales. The sixth event occurred between 360 and 260 Ma and was identified by models suggesting shifts in the balance of 34S in sulfates and 13C in carbonates, which were strongly influenced by an increase in atmospheric oxygen.[14]