document_title: Yahtzee

question_text: what is the highest possible score in yahtzee

question_tokens: what is the highest possible score in yahtzee

text: Yahtzee

text: History[edit]

text: The overall concept of Yahtzee traces its roots to a number of traditional dice games. Among these is the Puerto Rican game Generala, and the English games of Poker Dice and Cheerio. Another game, Yap, shows close similarities to Yahtzee; this game was copyrighted by Robert Cissne in 1952.

text: The most important predecessor of Yahtzee is the dice game named Yacht, which is an English cousin of Generala and dates back to at least 1938.[2] Wood[2] classifies Yacht, and a similar three-dice game called Crag, as sequence dice games. Yahtzee is similar to Yacht in both name and content. Although Yahtzee is clearly derived from Yacht, it differed from it in a number of significant ways:

text:
It introduced the upper section bonus.
It included the three-of-a-kind category.
In Yacht both straights are a sequence of five (Big Straight is 2-3-4-5-6, Little Straight is 1-2-3-4-5). Yahtzee introduced the sequence of four straight (the Small Straight).
It introduced Yahtzee bonuses and the Joker rule.
There were also a number of scoring differences.

text:
The present-day commercial Yahtzee began when toy and game entrepreneur Edwin S. Lowe filed Yahtzee as a trademark with the U.S.
Patent Office on April 19, 1956. The first commercial usage of the name Yahtzee was a few weeks earlier on April 3. Lowe classified his product as a Poker Dice Game.

text: According to Hasbro, the game was invented by an anonymous Canadian couple, who called it The Yacht Game because they played it on their yacht with their friends.[3] Later they asked Lowe if he would make up some sets to be given as gifts to their friends who enjoyed the game. Lowe perceived the possibility of marketing the game, and acquired the rights to the game from the couple in exchange for 1,000 gift sets. This story is expanded by Lowe in the 1973 book A Toy is Born by Marvin Kaye. According to Lowe, the game did not initially do well commercially, since the rules and appeal were not easily conveyed in an advertisement. Eventually, he had the idea of organizing Yahtzee parties at which people could play the game and thereby gain a first-hand appreciation of it. The idea was successful, and enthusiasts quickly popularized the game through word of mouth.

text: The E.S. Lowe Company sold Yahtzee from 1956 to 1973. During Lowe's ownership, a number of changes were made to the game's packaging, contents, and appearance. Between 1956 and 1961, the game's advertising slogan was changed from "The Game That Makes You Think While Having Fun" to "The Fun Game That Makes Thinking Fun!"

text: The game and its contents were copyrighted by Lowe in 1956, 1961, 1967, and 1972. In 1973, Milton Bradley purchased the E.S. Lowe Company and assumed the rights to produce and sell Yahtzee. During Lowe's ownership over 40 million Yahtzee games were sold in America and around the globe. The game has maintained its popularity. According to current owner Hasbro, 50 million Yahtzee games are sold each year.

text: Over time, the Yahtzee logo has taken several forms. The original version of the logo was used throughout the entire period that the game was produced solely by the Lowe company. After 1973, the logo changed various times. This logo is found on the scorecards and the game box(es).

text: Rules[edit]

text: The game consists of a number of rounds. In each round, a player gets three rolls of the dice, although they can choose to end their turn after one or two rolls. After the first roll the player can save any dice they want and re-roll the other dice. This procedure is repeated after the second roll. The player has complete choice as to which dice to roll. They can re-roll a die for the third roll that was not rolled on the second roll.[4]

text: The Yahtzee scorecard contains 13 different category boxes and in each round, after the third roll, the player must choose one of these categories. The score entered in the box depends on how well the five dice match the scoring rule for the category. Details of the scoring rules for each category are given below. As an example, one of the categories is called Three of a Kind. The scoring rule for this category means that a player only scores if at least three of the five dice are the same value. The game is completed after 13 rounds by each player, with each of the 13 boxes filled. The total score is calculated by summing all thirteen boxes, together with any bonuses.[4]

text: The Yahtzee scorecard contains 13 scoring boxes divided between two sections: the upper section and the lower section.[4]

text: Upper section[edit]

text: In the upper section there are six boxes. The score in each of these boxes is determined by adding the total number of dice matching that box.

text:
Categories

Descriptions

Scores

Examples

Aces

Any combination

The sum of dice with the number 1

 scores 3

Twos

Any combination

The sum of dice with the number 2

 scores 6

Threes

Any combination

The sum of dice with the number 3

 scores 12

Fours

Any combination

The sum of dice with the number 4

 scores 8

Fives

Any combination

The sum of dice with the number 5

 scores 5

Sixes

Any combination

The sum of dice with the number 6

 scores 18

text: If a player scores a total of 63 or more points in these six boxes, a bonus of 35 is added to the upper section score. Although 63 points corresponds to scoring exactly three-of-a-kind for each of the six boxes, a common way to get the bonus is by scoring four-of-a-kind for some numbers so that fewer of other numbers are needed. A player can earn the bonus even if they score a "0" in an upper section box.[4]

text: In order to gauge how well a player is doing in the upper section, they often refer to being "up" or "down" compared to the average of three required for each box. So that if a player scores four "sixes" they will be "6 up"; while if they then score just two "twos" they will then be only "4 up". Similarly, if a player starts with two "twos" they will be "2 down".[4]

text: Lower section[edit]

text: The lower section contains a number of poker-themed categories with specific point values:

text:
Categories

Descriptions

Scores

Examples

Three Of A Kind

At least three dice the same

Sum of all dice

 scores 17

Four Of A Kind

At least four dice the same

Sum of all dice

 scores 24

Full House

Three of one number and two of another

25

 scores 25

Small Straight

Four sequential dice(1-2-3-4, 2-3-4-5, or 3-4-5-6)

30

 scores 30

Large Straight

Five sequential dice(1-2-3-4-5 or 2-3-4-5-6)

40

 scores 40

Yahtzee

All five dice the same

50

 scores 50

Chance

Any combination

Sum of all dice

 scores 13

text: Some players count a Yahtzee as being a valid Full House. However the official rule is that a Full House is "three of one number and two of another".[4]

text: Small Straight and Large Straight are sometimes called by different names, either Low Straight and High Straight, Short Straight and Long Straight or Little Straight and Big Straight.[4]

text: If a category is chosen but the dice do not match the requirements of the category the player scores 0 in that category. Some combinations offer the player a choice as to which category to score them under; e.g., a full house could be scored in the Full House, the Three-Of-A-Kind, or the Chance categories. The Chance category is often used for a turn that will not score well in any other category.[4]

text: Yahtzee bonuses and Joker rules[edit]

text: A Yahtzee occurs when all five dice are the same. If a player throws a Yahtzee but the Yahtzee category has already been used, special rules apply.[4]

text: If the player throws a Yahtzee and has already filled the Yahtzee box with a score of 50, they score a Yahtzee bonus and get an extra 100 points. However, if they throw a Yahtzee and have filled the Yahtzee category with a score of 0, they do not get a Yahtzee bonus.[4]

text: In either case they then select a category, as usual. Scoring is the same as normal except that, if the Upper Section box corresponding to the Yahtzee has been used, the Full House, Small Straight and Large Straight categories can be used to score 25, 30 or 40 (respectively) even though the dice do not meet the normal requirement for those categories. In this case the Yahtzee is said to act as a "Joker".[4]

text: There are two alternative versions of the Joker rule used.[4]

text: Forced Joker rule[edit]

text: In the official rules[4] the player must act in the following way.

text:
If the corresponding Upper Section box is unused then that category must be used.
If the corresponding Upper Section box has been used already, a Lower Section box must be used. The Yahtzee acts as a Joker so that the Full House, Small Straight and Large Straight categories can be used to score 25, 30 or 40 (respectively).
If the corresponding Upper Section box and all Lower Section boxes have been used an unused Upper Section box must be used, scoring 0.

text: Free choice Joker rule[edit]

text: In the simpler, alternative version of the Joker rule[5][6] the player retains the free choice as to which category to use, but the Yahtzee can only be used as a Joker if the corresponding Upper Section box has been used. If the corresponding Upper Section box is unused the Yahtzee would score 0 if the Full House, Small Straight or Large Straight categories were chosen.[4]

text: Original Joker rule[edit]

text: The original game rules released in 1956 contain a difference from the above rules. The booklet stated that additional Yahtzees must be used as Jokers in the Lower Section and did not allow for their use in the Upper Section. This rule was changed when the game was re-copyrighted in 1961.[4]

text: The winner is the player with the highest total. The rules do not specify what happens in the event of a tie.[4]

text: Strategies[edit]

text: Completing a Yahtzee[edit]

text: It is important to understand the probability of completing a Yahtzee. This depends on whether a particular Yahtzee is required or any Yahtzee.

text: Specific Yahtzee[edit]

text: The probability of completing a specific Yahtzee is shown in the following table.

text:
Number ofSame Di(c)e
Before FirstRoll
Before SecondRoll
Before ThirdRoll

4
-
30.56%
16.67%

3
-
9.34%
2.78%

2
-
2.85%
0.46%

1
-
0.87%
0.08%

0
1.33%
0.27%
0.01%

text: Any Yahtzee[edit]

text: The probability of completing any Yahtzee is shown in the following table. The strategy is to keep any Yahtzee, four-of-a-kind, three-of-a-kind or pair that is thrown and re-roll the others. With two pairs, either can be chosen.

text:
Most AlreadyRolled
Before FirstRoll
Before SecondRoll
Before ThirdRoll

4
-
30.56%
16.67%

3
-
9.34%
2.78%

2
-
2.91%
0.46%

1
-
1.26%
0.08%

0
4.60%
-
-

text: So if a three-of-a-kind is thrown on the first roll, the chance of completing a Yahtzee increases from 4.60% to 9.34%.

text: Final round[edit]

text: This section describes the last round strategy where there is no possibility of a Yahtzee bonus (i.e. there is a score of 0 in the Yahtzee box). These are the simplest situations to analyse, although even at this late stage the strategy may vary depending on the game situation.

text: Upper Section box[edit]

text: If the final box is in the upper section, the strategy is to keep any of the number required and re-roll the others. On average 2.11 of the number required will be gotten, scoring from 2.11 (for 1s) to 12.64 (for 6s). The distribution is as follows:

text:
Total
Probability

At least 1
93.51%

At least 2
69.88%

At least 3
35.48%

At least 4
10.44%

5
1.33%

text: Three-Of-A-Kind[edit]

text: There are slightly different strategies depending on whether a player is simply just trying to get a three-of-a-kind or if they are trying to maximize their average score. Different strategies will also be required should a specific target be needed to achieve.

text: The strategy to maximize the chance of getting a three-of-a-kind involves keeping any three-of-a-kind that is rolled. If a three-of-a-kind is rolled then after the first throw the player should keep any other 5s and 6s, while after the second throw the player should keep any other 4s, 5s, and 6s. An example is with 22225 the player keeps 2225 and throws the other 2. If a three-of-a-kind is not rolled the player should keep any pair that is rolled and re-roll the other dice, with two pairs the player should keep the higher pair, and with no pair the player should keep the highest die. Following this strategy gives a 74.32% chance of getting a three-of-a-kind.

text: This strategy does not maximize the average score since there are a few situations after the first throw, where it is better to keep other combinations. For instance after throwing 11166, keeping 11166 maximizes the chance of getting a three-of-a-kind (a guaranteed score of 15) but keeping 66 maximizes the expected average score (17.54), although it introduces a 1/3 chance of scoring nothing. The situations where the strategy to maximize the average score differs are all after the first throw and are as follows: keep 33, 44, 55, 66 rather than 111 (or 11155, 11166), keep 4, 5 or 6 rather than 11, keep 5 or 6 rather than 22, keep 336 rather than 33. For example, with 22456 the player should keep 6 rather than 22 and with 33456 they should keep 336 not 33. If they follow the strategy to maximize the average score they will get a three-of-a-kind 71.51% of the time and score an average of 15.19.

text: Four-Of-A-Kind[edit]

text: As with three-of-a-kind there are slightly different strategies depending on whether a player is simply trying to get a four-of-a-kind or he is trying to maximize his average score. Different strategies will also be required should he need to achieve a specific target.

text: The strategy to maximize his chance of getting a four-of-a-kind involves keeping any four-of-a-kind that he has. If he has a four-of-a-kind then after the first throw he will keep the other if it is a 5 and 6, while after the second throw he will keep it if it is a 4, 5 or 6. So that with 22223 he keeps 2222 and  will throw the 3. If he does not have a four-of-a-kind, the player should keep any three-of-a-kind or pair that he has and re-roll the other dice. With two pairs he will keep the higher pair. With no pair he will keep the highest die. Following this strategy gives him a 29.08% chance of getting a four-of-a-kind.

text: As with three-of-a-kind this strategy does not maximize the average score since there are a few situations after the first throw, where it is better to keep other combinations. For instance, after throwing 11166, keeping 111 maximizes the chance of getting a four-of-a-kind but keeping 66 maximizes the expected average score (6.20 rather than 4.18). The situations where the strategy to maximize the average score differs are all after the first throw and are as follows: keep 44, 55, 66 rather than 111, keep 4, 5 or 6 rather than 11, keep 6 rather than 22. Following the strategy to maximize the average score he will get a four-of-a-kind 27.74% of the time and score an average of 5.61.

text: Full House[edit]

text: A player will keep a Yahtzee or Full House. A Yahtzee will score 25 under the Joker rule, even though it is not strictly a full house. He will keep any four-of-a-kind, three-of-a-kind or pairs that are thrown and re-roll the others. With two pairs he will keep both. On average he will succeed 36.61% of the time and score an average of 9.15.

text: Small Straight[edit]

text: The strategy is complicated by the fact that, because of the Joker rule, the player will score 30 if he gets a Yahtzee. Clearly he keeps any Small Straight or Yahtzee that he throws. After the first throw he will keep a run of 3 or 3 out of 4 (e.g. 124) if he has one. Otherwise, he will keep a 3 or 4 (or both) and a 2 or 5 if he also has a 3 or 4 (e.g. with 11245 he will keep 24 but with 11255 he will keep nothing). He will not keep just 2, 5 or 25. The only difference after the second throw is that he keeps 1111, 2222, 5555 and 6666 and will try to throw a Yahtzee unless the other die is a 3 or 4.

text: On average he will succeed 61.60% of the time and score an average of 18.48.

text: Large Straight[edit]

text: Again the strategy is complicated by the fact that, because of the Joker rule, he will score 40 if he gets a Yahtzee. Clearly he will keep any Large Straight or Yahtzee that he throws. The best strategy is also to keep a four-of-a-kind and try to throw a Yahtzee, even after the first throw.The player should not keep a three-of-a-kind. Keep a small straight or 4 out of 5 (e.g. 1235) if he has one. Otherwise he should simply keep any 2, 3, 4 or 5 (just one of each), so that with 12256 he would keep 25.

text: On average he will succeed 26.53% of the time and score an average of 10.61.

text: Yahtzee[edit]

text: A player should keep any Yahtzee, four-of-a-kind, three-of-a-kind or pair that is thrown and re-roll the others. On average he will succeed 4.60% of the time and score an average of 2.30.

text: Chance[edit]

text: To get the maximum average score the strategy is straightforward. After the first throw the player will keep any 5s and 6s. After the second throw he will keep any 4s, 5s, and 6s. On average he will score 23.33. Different strategies will be required when he needs to achieve a specific target.

text: Optimal strategy[edit]

text: The strategy for maximizing the expected score has been determined.[5] The average score when using this strategy is 254.59.[6] This average is based on calculations using the "free choice Joker rule".

text: It is important to note that the "Optimal" strategy simply maximises the average score. It does not maximise the chances of winning a game. There are two main reasons for this.

text: Firstly, the Optimal strategy takes no account of any opponents. In normal gameplay a player will adjust their strategy depending on the scores of the other player or players.

text: Secondly, the Optimal strategy tends to give undue importance to Yahtzee bonuses. It is rare for a player without a Yahtzee bonus to beat a player with one. So, in normal gameplay, a players' strategy is not significantly influenced by the value given for a Yahtzee bonus. Consider the situation where the Yahtzee bonus was worth a million rather than a hundred. It would not influence normal gameplay where the objective is to score more than the opponent. It would, however, affect the "Optimal" strategy since scoring a million would have a dramatic effect on the average score. The "Optimal" strategy would be dominated by the prospect of a Yahtzee bonus. Even with a Yahtzee bonus worth 100 the "Optimal" strategy tends to give too much importance to Yahtzee bonuses.

text: Despite these limitations the "Optimal" strategy does provide a useful guide as to the best strategy, especially in the early rounds. The "Optimal" strategy for the first round is described in the next section. After the first round, the number of different games rapidly makes detailed analysis difficult but, in the early rounds, players generally simply adapt the first round strategy based on the boxes used. For instance if a player throws 15566 in the first round they will keep 66 but if the 6s box was used in the first round and they throw 15566 in the second round they will naturally keep 55 instead.

text: The following table shows the average score obtained using the Optimal strategy and the proportion of the time that zero is scored in a particular category:[6]

text:
Category
Averagescore
Zeroscore

Aces
1.88
10.84%

Twos
5.28
1.80%

Threes
8.57
0.95%

Fours
12.16
0.60%

Fives
15.69
0.50%

Sixes
19.19
0.53%

Bonus
23.84
31.88%

Three-of-a-Kind
21.66
3.26%

Four-of-a-Kind
13.10
36.34%

Full House
22.59
9.63%

Small Straight
29.46
1.80%

Large Straight
32.71
18.22%

Yahtzee
16.87
66.26%

Chance
22.01
-

Yahtzee Bonus
9.58
91.76%

TOTAL
254.59
-

text: The bonus is made in 68% of games but in only 1% of games does the player get exactly 3-of-a-kind of each Upper Section category. In a further 5% of games the player gets at least 3-of-a-kind in each of these categories and 4-of-a-kind in one or more of them. In the remaining 62% of games, there is at least one category which scores a pair or less but the bonus is achieved by scoring one or more 4-of-a-kind in the Upper Section. It is possible to calculate the maximum average score with different rules. When the rules are changed so that there is no Upper Section bonus the average score drops from 254.59 to 237.84, a reduction of 16.75. This compares with an average bonus score of 23.84 and shows that changes to the strategy to improve the chance of getting the bonus are to the detriment of the other scores; the average score in the other boxes drops by 7.09.

text: A Yahtzee is scored in about 34% of games while a Yahtzee bonus is scored in about 8% of games. A second Yahtzee bonus occurs about 1% of the time while a third one is scored in about 0.1% of games. The average number of Yahtzees thrown in a game is 0.46.[6] This includes about 3% of games where a Yahtzee is thrown after 0 has been scored in the Yahtzee box and although it does score something, it is not scored as a Yahtzee or Yahtzee bonus.

text: In about 3.7% of games a Yahtzee is used as a Joker and scored on Full House, Small Straight or Large Straight.[6] In most of these cases the Yahtzee box has a score of 50 and so the Yahtzee also counts as a Yahtzee bonus. In about a quarter of these cases the Yahtzee box has a score 0 and so there is no Yahtzee bonus.

text: Although the average score is 254.59 the Median score is 248[6] The Mode is 266 which occurs 1.26% of the time. The 1st Percentile is 151 (i.e. 1% of scores are 151 or less) while the 99th Percentile is 473 (i.e. 99% of scores are 473 or less).

text: First round[edit]

text: The strategy for the first round described here is based on that used by the "Optimal" strategy. Sometimes there are two possible plays which are almost equally good. In these cases the simplest option is given, i.e. the one that follows the general rules.

text: Although there are 7776 different ways of throwing 5 dice, because the order of the dice is not important there are only 252 different combinations. To use the strategy described therefore requires knowing 756 different situations.

text: Second and third roll choices[edit]

text: The general principle after the first and second throws is to keep the largest number of similar dice and rethrow the rest. When a player has a full house he will keep the three-of-a-kind. With two pairs, keep the higher pair and rethrow the other three dice. If a large straight is rolled, keep it. If a small straight is rolled, keep it and re-roll the fifth die. If all the dice are different and there is no straight, keep only the 5. There are a number of exceptions to these rules. These exceptions are different for the second and third rolls.

text: Exceptions before the second roll:

text:
with a full house containing three 1s, he will keep all the dice and put in the Full House box.
with 12344 he will keep the pair not the small straight.
with a 3456 and a pair he will keep the pair not the small straight.
with a pair of 1s he will keep, in order of preference, 345, 5, 4 or 6, not the pair of 1s.

text: So, before the second roll he will never keep two pairs, he will never keep a pair of 1s and he will never throw all the dice again.

text: Exceptions before the third roll:

text:
with a full house containing three 1s, three 2s or three 3s, he will keep all the dice and put in the Full House box.
with a pair of 1s and a pair of 2s or with a pair of 1s and a pair of 3s, he will keep both pairs.
with 11345 he will keep 345 not the pair.
with 12456 he will keep 456 not just the 5.

text: So there are specific differences compared to the second roll. Now he will keep the Full House if the three-of-a-kind is 2 or 3 and keep two pairs when they are 1 and 2 or 1 and 3.He will Keep all large and small straights.He will Normally keep a pair of 1s (although 345 is still better) and keep 456 rather than 5 when all the dice are different.

text: Category choice[edit]

text: In about 80% of games a player will either have at least a 3-of-a-kind or a straight. If he has any of the following he will put it in the appropriate Lower Section box: Yahtzee, full house, large straight, small straight. With a 4-of-a-kind or 3-of-a-kind he will put it in the appropriate Upper Section box. The only exception is that when he has a 3-of-a-kind where the sum of the dice is 25 or more he should use the 3-of-a-kind box. The 4-of-a-kind box is never used in the first round.

text: In the remaining 20% of cases he will have a poor hand: two pairs, one pair or all dice different. In these situations there is no appealing option, the choice being between using an Upper Section box and using Chance. With two pairs follow the rule for the lower of the two pairs he has. The rule depends on whether his pair (or smaller pair) is low (1, 2 or 3) or high (4, 5 or 6):

text:
with a low pair he will use the appropriate Upper Section box (1s, 2s or 3s) unless the sum of the dice is 22 or more in which case use the Chance box.
with a high pair he will use the 1s box unless the sum of the dice is 20 or more in which case use the Chance box. The only exception is that with 23446 he should use the Chance box even though it only scores 19.
with all dice different he will use the 1s box.

text: Best and worst outcome[edit]

text: The best outcome in the first round is to throw a Yahtzee and put it in the Yahtzee box. This increases the final expected score from 254.59 to 320.84.[6] Putting a Yahtzee of 6s in the 6s box results in an expected score of just 279.48. The second best outcome is to score 24 in the 6s box. This has a value of 268.23.[6] Putting 56666 in the 4-of-a-kind box has a value of 264.54.

text: The worst first roll is 11236 which has a value of 249.83.[6] After the second roll the worst position is 12356 which then has a value of 244.91. The worst third roll is 23446 which has a value of 238.96 when put in the Chance box.[6]

text: Extreme scores[edit]

text: Maximum score[edit]

text: The highest possible score is 1,575 and involves throwing 13 Yahtzees, scoring 12 Yahtzee bonuses of 100 points each, as well as 375 in the other categories.

text: The 375 is achieved by scoring five aces (5), five twos (10), five threes (15), five fours (20), five fives (25), five sixes (30), the Upper Section bonus (35), five sixes scored as Three-of-a-kind (30), five sixes scored as a four-of-a-kind (30), a full house (25), a small straight (30), a large straight (40), a Yahtzee (50), and five sixes scored as chance (30). The score of 1,575 requires using the "Joker" rules for the full house, small straight, and large straight categories.

text: In order to score 1,575 the player must throw 13 successive Yahtzees. The probability of getting a Yahtzee, if that is the sole objective, is 4.60% and so the probability of a player rolling 13 Yahtzees in a row (if that was their sole objective) is 4.60% raised to the 13th power or 6982416000000000000♠4.16×10−18. The probability of scoring 1,575 (if that was the sole objective) is less than this since to score the maximum one would need at least one of each number (after the first round) to fill the Upper Section and a further three 6 Yahtzees to score 30 in the three-of-a-kind, four-of-a-kind and chance categories. In about 18% of Yahtzees the player has some choice over the dice to keep. This most frequently happens when a player rolls two pairs. This means that a player can slightly increase the chance of getting a 6 Yahtzee without reducing the chance of getting a Yahtzee.

text: In normal gameplay the probability of scoring 1,575 is considerably less. Using the strategy that maximizes the average score, the probability of scoring 1,575 is 6980137999999999999♠1.38×10−20.

text: Other high scores[edit]

text: For a player following the strategy which maximises the chance of getting a Yahtzee, the probability of scoring a particular number of Yahtzees follows a binomial distribution and is shown in the following table.

text:
YahtzeesRolled
Probability
Chance

1 or more
45.80%
1 in 2.18

2 or more
11.81%
1 in 8.47

3 or more
1.97%
1 in 50.7

4 or more
0.210%
1 in 436

5 or more
6996182000000000000♠1.82×10−4
1 in 5,140

6 or more
6995117000000000000♠1.17×10−5
1 in 81,200

7 or more
6993566000000000000♠5.66×10−7
1 in 1,700,000

8 or more
6992204999999999999♠2.05×10−8
1 in 47,500,000

text: A player must throw at least 8 Yahtzees in order to score 1000. Throwing 8 Yahtzees will score 750 for the Yahtzee and Yahtzee bonuses. The 7 Yahtzees after the first throw will generally score highly, including the opportunity of using the Joker rule to score in, for instance, the Large Straight category. This means that a player throwing 8 Yahtzees will often be able to score 1,000.

text: In normal gameplay the probability of scoring this number of Yahtzees is considerably less. The following table shows the probability of getting certain scores using the "Optimal" strategy.

text:
Score
Probability
Chance

400 or more
3.84%
1 in 25.5

500 or more
0.719%
1 in 139

600 or more
6996896000000000000♠8.96×10−4
1 in 1,120

700 or more
6995750000000000000♠7.50×10−5
1 in 13,300

800 or more
6994436000000000000♠4.36×10−6
1 in 229,000

900 or more
6993183000000000000♠1.83×10−7
1 in 5,480,000

1000 or more
6991558000000000000♠5.58×10−9
1 in 179,000,000

text: Minimum score[edit]

text: The lowest possible score is 5. The Chance box always scores the sum of the dice, so that a minimum of 5 must be scored in that category.

text: The strategy that works to maximize the average expected score will under worst case conditions score a minimum of 12 points, but cautious play will guarantee a minimum score of 18.[8]

text: A score of 18 will be achieved if 11223 is thrown each round and then, whatever is re-thrown, getting 11223 again after the second and third throws, scoring 2 in the 1s box, 4 in the 2s box, 3 in the 3s box and 9 for the Chance category.

text: Scoring the minimum of 12, when attempting to maximise the average score, is less likely than scoring the maximum of 1,575 but is theoretically possible. Suppose that in the first two rounds 12355 after each roll. This would happen if a 12355 is thrown on the first roll and then, whatever dice are re-thrown, getting the same combination again; for instance, keeping 55, rethrowing the 123, and still getting 12355. The optimal strategy uses the 1s box in the first round, scoring 1, and the 2s box in the second round, scoring 2. Now suppose that for the next 3 rounds 11226 results after each roll. Again this is possible since 11226 may be thrown on the first roll and the same may be gotten when some of dice are re-thrown. The optimal strategy uses the four-of-a-kind and Yahtzees boxes in the third and fourth rounds and then the 3s box in the fifth round, scoring 0 each time. For the last 8 rounds suppose 11223 is rolled each time. 0 is scored in all the remaining categories, except chance where 9 is scored, giving a total of 12.

text: Commercial versions[edit]

text: Deluxe and collector editions[edit]

text: Deluxe edition games have been sold alongside the regular issue games since the early 1960s. They all contain components that are more luxurious than standard game parts. In recent years, a number of collector issue Yahtzees have been sold as well. Some of these collector issues have dice that replace the pips with certain symbols connected to a theme, but still correspond to the numbers one to six.

text: Travel Yahtzee[edit]

text: Since the 1970s, Travel Yahtzee has been sold in various forms as part of Milton Bradley's line of travel games.

text:
In the past, the travel form of Yahtzee was composed of the five dice contained in a special apparatus (see image at the right). "Rolling" the dice is initiated by turning the apparatus over, running it on one hand and turning the apparatus upright to see the faces of the dice. Dice to be saved for the next roll are locked by snapping the reverse of the apparatus.
Currently, a zip-up cloth deluxe folio edition is sold. It consists of the set of dice, the cup, the scorecards, and a tray for the dice to roll on, which includes a holder for the dice to be saved for the next roll. The cup has an oblong lip for easy storage.
In addition to the game folio, Hasbro also released Yahtzee to Go. It comes with a dice cup that stores the dice & contents. This is similar to the original Travel Yahtzee only without the apparatus. This is sold in tandem with the game folio.
There also exists a red circular travel edition, which includes the dice and scorecards, as well as a collapsible cup and detachable dice holder. The bottom half of the case acts as a dice tray. It should be noted that this one uses a different logo from the standard one (the name of the game in uppercase with an exclamation point in front of a green oval) and it is sold outside of the United States.[9]
There are also miniature versions of the game, sold in sets contained either in cups that act as keychains (by the company Basic Fun) [10] or in specially shaped pens (by the company Stylus).[11]

text: Electronic versions[edit]

text: Various Yahtzee console games have been sold over the years including an early version on the TI-99 4A computer. In 1996, the game was first released to PC and Mac users by Atari. The Ultimate Yahtzee CD-ROM game contained standard Yahtzee as well as other varieties. Later, GameHouse also released an authorized special version of the game for Windows users. It was re-released by Hasbro Interactive in 2001 with 700 free hours of AOL.

text: There are also several electronic versions of the game such as a handheld LCD version, and a cell phone version called Yahtzee Deluxe, which feature the original rules along with Duplicate and Rainbow modes, as well as independently produced versions for the Palm OS and Pocket PC and several cellphone models. The version for the Nintendo Game Boy was licensed from Hasbro and was produced by DSI Games and Black Lantern Studios Inc. It was sold in a three pack that included Life, Payday, and Yahtzee. The game has also been released for the iPod, iPod touch and the iPhone, to be purchased through the iTunes Store,[12][13]  as well as Google Play. Both the iOS App and the Android App are published by Scopely. Yahtzee is available on the Xbox 360 in the Family Game Night game by Hasbro. Pogo.com released a version in 2009, and the game is also available on the Pogo Facebook site as well.

text: Related games[edit]

text: A number of related games under the Yahtzee brand have been produced. They all commonly use dice as the primary tool for gameplay, but all differ generally. The first was Triple Yahtzee, developed in 1972. The game has inspired two short-lived television game shows: 1975's Spin-Off on CBS and 1988's syndicated Yahtzee.

text: Online versions[edit]

text: There are a large number of versions of Yahtzee which can be played online or are available to download.

text:
"Open Yahtzee" is a cross-platform open-source (free) version of Yahtzee for one player.[14]
"YachtC" is a commercially available free app on the Google Play Store. It has 3 variations: The traditional version, a "7-sided" dice version called "Lucky7", and a "TriColor" version similar to Kismet[citation needed]

text: Similar games[edit]

text: There are a large number of related games. Yatzy is one of the most popular. Yatzy rules and scoring categories are somewhat different from Yahtzee:[15]

text:
The bonus for reaching 63 or more points in the Upper Section is normally 50 points.
There are two extra boxes for the "One Pair" and "Two Pair" categories. These score the total of the pair(s) involved. For instance, 5-5-4-4-1 will score 10 points in the One Pair box and 18 in the Two Pair box. In the Two Pair category, the pairs must be different.
The Three-of-a-Kind and Four-of-a-Kind categories are scored using the total of the needed number of same-faced dice. For instance, 5-5-5-5-6 will score 20 points in Four-of-a-Kind and 15 points in Three-of-a-Kind. This scoring rule is the same as the Four-of-a-Kind scoring used in Yacht.
Full House scores the total of all dice, as in Yacht.
Small Straight and Large Straight have the same definitions as in Yacht. A Small Straight is 1-2-3-4-5 and scores 15 points (the total of the dice faces); the Large Straight is 2-3-4-5-6 and scores 20 points (again the combined value of the dice).
There are no Yahtzee bonuses or Joker rule. Yahtzees can be scored in other categories under the normal scoring rules. For example, a Yahtzee of sixes will score 12 in the One Pair box, 18 in Three-of-a-Kind, 24 in Four-of-a-Kind, 30 in Sixes or Chance and 0 in Two Pair, Full House, Small Straight and Large Straight boxes.

text: Other related games include:

text:
Balut is the name of a Danish dice game played by expatriates in many countries all over the world. The name of the game is taken from balut eggs.
Kismet has dice with multiple colors. Both numbers and colors are taken into account when scoring.
Yamb has several (usually 4) columns filled with special restrictions and MINIMAX categories with the bigger score if the higher is difference between min and max.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018)

text:
Ben "Yahtzee" Croshaw is a British video games critic who takes his pseudonym from the game.[16]
Yahtzee has been cited as a precipitating factor in a case of domestic violence[17] and as the motive for at least one murder.[18]
The word "Yahtzee" has been used to exclaim excitement when a University of Kentucky football recruit commits to attending the school.[19]


document_title: Northeast India

question_text: aizawl is the capital of which north eastern state

question_tokens: aizawl is the capital of which north eastern state

root

text: Northeast India

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest settlers may have been Austro-Asiatic speakers from Southeast Asia, followed by Tibeto-Burmese from China and by 500 B.C. Indo-Aryans speakers from Gangetic Plains.[5] Due to the bio- and crop diversity of the region, archaeological researchers believe that early settlers of Northeast India had domesticated several important plants.[6] Writers believe that the 100 BC writings of Chinese explorer, Zhang Qian indicate an early trade route via Northeast India.[7] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention a people called Sêsatai in the region,[8] who produced malabathron, so prized in the old world.[9]

tag: p

text: In the early historical period (most of first millennium), Kamarupa straddled most of present-day Northeast India, besides Bhutan and Sylhet in Bangladesh. Xuanzang, a travelling Chinese Buddhist monk, visited Kamarupa in the 7th century. He described the people as "short in stature and black-looking", whose speech differed a little from mid-India and who were of simple but violent disposition. He wrote that the people in Kamarupa knew of Sichuan, which lay to the kingdom's east beyond a treacherous mountain.[10] For many of the tribal peoples, their primary identification is with subtribes and villages, which have distinct dialects and cultures.

text: The northeastern states were established during the British Raj of the 19th and early 20th centuries, when they became relatively isolated from traditional trading partners such as Bhutan and Myanmar.[11] Many of the peoples in present-day Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland converted to Christianity under the influence of British (Welsh) missionaries.

text: Formation of North Eastern states[edit]

text: In the early 19th century, both the Ahom and the Manipur kingdoms fell to a Burmese invasion. The ensuing First Anglo-Burmese War resulted in the entire region coming under British control. In the colonial period (1826–1947), North East India was made a part of Bengal Province from 1839 to 1873, when Assam became its own province.[12]

text: After Indian Independence from British Rule in 1947, the Northeastern region of British India consisted of Assam and the princely states of Manipur and Tripura. Subsequently, Nagaland in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972, Arunachal Pradesh in 1975 (capital changed to Itanagar) (formed on 20 February 1987) and Mizoram in 1987 were formed out of the large territory of Assam.[13] Manipur and Tripura remained as Union Territories of India between 1956 until 1972, when they attained fully-fledged statehood. Sikkim was integrated as the eighth North Eastern Council state in 2002.[3]

text: The city of Shillong served as the capital of the Assam province created during British Rule. It remained as the capital of undivided Assam until formation of the state of Meghalaya in 1972.[14] The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a part of Guwahati, and Shillong was designated as the capital of Meghalaya.

text:
State
Historic Name
Capital(s)
Statehood

Arunachal Pradesh
North-East Frontier Agency
Itanagar
1987 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1971)[15]

Assam
Pragjyotisha, Kamarupa
Shillong (till 1969), Dispur
1947

Manipur
Kangleipak[16]
Imphal
1971 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1956)[15]

Meghalaya
Khasi hills, Jaintia hills and Garo hills
Shillong
1971[15]

Mizoram
Lushai hills
Aizawl
1987 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1971)[15] [17]

Nagaland
Naga hills
Kohima
1963

Sikkim
Sukhim
Gangtok
1975

Tripura
Tipperah [18]
Agartala
1971 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1956)[15]

tag: table

text: World War II[edit]

text: In 1944, the Japanese planned a daring attack on India. Traveling through Burma, its forces were stopped at Kohima and Imphal by British and Indian troops. This marked the furthest western expansion of the Japanese Empire; its defeat in this area presaged Allied victory .

text: Sino-Indian War (1962)[edit]

text: Arunachal Pradesh, a state in the Northeastern tip of India, is claimed by China as South Tibet.[citation needed] Sino-Indian relations degraded, resulting in the Sino-Indian War of 1962. The cause of the escalation into war is still disputed by both Chinese and Indian sources. During the war in 1962, the PRC (China) captured much of the NEFA (North-East Frontier Agency) created by India in 1954. But on 21 November 1962, China declared a unilateral ceasefire, and withdrew its troops 20 kilometres (12 mi) behind the McMahon Line. It returned Indian prisoners of war in 1963.[19]

text: Seven Sister States[edit]

text: The Seven Sister States[20] is a popular term for the contiguous states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura prior to inclusion of the state of Sikkim into the North Eastern Region of India. The sobriquet 'Land of the Seven Sisters' was coined to coincide with the inauguration of the new states in January 1972 by Jyoti Prasad Saikia,[21] a journalist in Tripura, in the course of a radio talk show. He later compiled a book on the interdependence and commonness of the Seven Sister States, and named it the Land of Seven Sisters. It has been primarily because of this publication that the nickname has caught on.

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Northeast region can be physiographically categorised into the Eastern Himalaya, the Patkai and the Brahmaputra and the Barak valley plains. Northeast India (at the confluence of Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese, and Indian biogeographical realms) has a predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with hot, humid summers, severe monsoons, and mild winters. Along with the west coast of India, this region has some of the Indian sub-continent's last remaining rain forests, which support diverse flora and fauna and several crop species. Reserves of petroleum and natural gas in the region are estimated to constitute a fifth of India's total potential.

text: The region is covered by the mighty Brahmaputra-Barak river systems and their tributaries. Geographically, apart from the Brahmaputra, Barak and Imphal valleys and some flat lands in between the hills of Meghalaya and Tripura, the remaining two-thirds of the area is hilly terrain interspersed with valleys and plains; the altitude varies from almost sea-level to over 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) above MSL. The region's high rainfall, averaging around 10,000 millimetres (390 in) and above, creates problems of ecosystem, high seismic activity, and floods. The states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim have a montane climate with cold, snowy winters and mild summers.

text:
Ropeway, Gangtok

Aizawl, Mizoram

Aerial view of Shillong

Dzükou Valley (Borders of Manipur and Nagaland)

Sela Pass, Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh)

Bhalukpong, Arunachal Pradesh

Loktak lake, Manipur

Majuli Island, Assam

Nohkalikai Falls, Cherrapunji

tag: ul

text: Topography[edit]

text: Highest peaks[edit]

text: Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain peak in the world rising to an altitude of 8,586 m (28,169 ft), lies in-between the state Sikkim and adjacent country Nepal.

text:
Mountains and hills by state

Peak
State
Range/Region
Height (m)
Height (ft)
Coordinates

Kangchenjunga (shared with Nepal)
Sikkim
Eastern Himalaya
8,586
28,169
27°42′11″N 88°08′53″E / 27.703°N 88.148°E / 27.703; 88.148

Kangto (shared with Tibet)
Arunachal Pradesh
Eastern Himalaya
7,090
23,261
27°51′54″N 92°31′59″E / 27.865°N 92.533°E / 27.865; 92.533

Mount Saramati (Shared with Myanmar)
Nagaland
Naga Hills
3,841
12,602
25°44′31″N 95°01′59″E / 25.742°N 95.033°E / 25.742; 95.033

Mount Iso (also known as Tenipu)
Manipur
Senapati District
2,994
9,823
25°31′52″N 94°05′06″E / 25.531°N 94.085°E / 25.531; 94.085

Phawngpui (Blue Mountain)
Mizoram
Saiha District
2,165
7,103
22°37′55″N 93°02′20″E / 22.632°N 93.039°E / 22.632; 93.039

Shillong Peak
Meghalaya
Khasi Hills
1,965
6,447
25°31′55″N 91°51′04″E / 25.532°N 91.851°E / 25.532; 91.851

Unnamed peak near Laike
Assam
Dima Hasao District
1,960
6,430
25°19′16″N 93°27′11″E / 25.321°N 93.453°E / 25.321; 93.453

Betalongchhip
Tripura
Jampui Hills
930
3,051
23°48′36″N 92°15′40″E / 23.810°N 92.261°E / 23.810; 92.261

text: Brahmaputra River Basin[edit]

text: Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in Northeast India:

text:
Beki River
Bhogdoi River
Dhansiri River
Dibang River
Dihing River
Kameng River
Kolong
Kopili River
Lohit River
Manas River
Sankosh River
Subansiri River
Teesta River

text: Climate[edit]

text: Northeast India has a subtropical climate that is influenced by its relief and influences from the southwest and northeast monsoons.[22][23] The Himalayas to the north, the Meghalaya plateau to the south and the hills of Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur to the east influences the climate.[24] Since monsoon winds originating from the Bay of Bengal move northeast, these mountains force the moist winds upwards, causing them to cool adiabatically and condense into clouds, releasing heavy precipitation on these slopes.[24] It is the rainiest region in the country, with many places receiving an average annual precipitation of 2,000 mm (79 in), which is mostly concentrated in summer during the monsoon season.[24] Cherrapunji, located on the Meghalaya plateau is one of the rainiest place in the world with an annual precipitation of 11,777 mm (463.7 in).[24] Temperatures are moderate in the Brahmaputra and Barak valley river plains which decreases with altitude in the hilly areas.[24] At the highest altitudes, there is permanent snow cover.[24]

text:
Temperature
Temperatures vary by altitude with the warmest places being in the Brahmaputra and Barak River plains and the coldest at the highest altitudes.[25] It is also influenced by proximity to the sea with the valleys and western areas being close to the sea, which moderates temperatures.[25] Generally, temperatures in the hilly and mountainous areas are generally lower than the plains which lie at a lower altitude.[26] Summer temperatures tend to be more uniform than winter temperatures due to high cloud cover and humidity.[27]

text: In the Brahmaputra and Barak valley river plains, mean winter temperatures vary between 16 to 17 °C (61 to 63 °F) while mean summer temperatures are around 28 °C (82 °F).[25] The highest summer temperatures occur in the West Tripura plain with Agartala, the capital of Tripura having mean maximum summer temperatures ranging between 33 to 35 °C (91 to 95 °F) in April.[28] The highest temperatures in summer occur before the arrival of monsoons and thus eastern areas have the highest temperatures in June and July where the monsoon arrives later than western areas.[28] In the Cachar Plain, located south of the Brahmaputra plain, temperatures are higher than the Brahmaputra plain although the temperature range is smaller owing to higher cloud cover and the monsoons that moderate night temperatures year round.[28][26]

text: In the mountainous areas of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayan ranges in the northern border with India and China experience the lowest temperatures with heavy snow during winter and temperatures that drop below freezing.[26] Areas with altitudes exceeding 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) receive snowfall during winters and have cool summers.[26] Below 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) above sea level, winter temperatures reach up to 15 °C (59 °F) during the day with nights dropping to zero while summers are cool, with a mean maximum of 25 °C (77 °F) and a mean minimum of 15 °C (59 °F).[26] In the hilly areas of Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, winters are cold while summers are cool.[27]

text: The plains in Manipur has colder winter minimums than what is warranted by its elevation owing to being surrounded by hills on all sides.[29] This is due to temperature inversions during winter nights when cold air descends from the hills into the valleys below and its geographic location which prevents winds that bring hot temperatures and humidity from coming into the Manipur plain.[29]

text:
Rainfall
The southwest monsoon is responsible for bringing 90% of the annual rainfall to the region.[30] April to late October are the months where most of the rainfall in Northeast India occurs with June and July being the rainiest months.[30] Southern areas are the first to receive the monsoon (May or June) with the Brahmaputra valley and the mountainous north receiving later (later May or June).[30] In the hilly parts of Mizoram, the closer proximity to the Bay of Bengal causes it to experience early monsoons with June being the wettest season.[30]

text: High risk seismic zone[edit]

text: The North Eastern Region of India is a mega-earthquake prone zone caused by active fault planes beneath formed by the convergence of three tectonic plates viz. India Plate, Eurasian Plate and Burma Plate. Historically the region has suffered from two great earthquakes (M > 8.0) – 1897 Assam earthquake and 1950 Assam-Tibet earthquake – and about 20 large earthquakes (8.0 > M > 7.0) since 1897.[31][32] The 1950 Assam-Tibet earthquake is still the largest earthquake in India.

text: Wildlife[edit]

text: Flora[edit]

text: WWF has identified the entire Eastern Himalayas as a priority Global 200 Ecoregion. Conservation International has upscaled the Eastern Himalaya hotspot to include all the eight states of Northeast India, along with the neighbouring countries of Bhutan, southern China and Myanmar.

text: The region has been identified by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research as a centre of rice germplasm. The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), India, has highlighted the region as being rich in wild relatives of crop plants. It is the centre of origin of citrus fruits. Two primitive variety of maize, Sikkim Primitive 1 and 2, have been reported from Sikkim (Dhawan, 1964). Although jhum cultivation, a traditional system of agriculture, is often cited as a reason for the loss of forest cover of the region, this primary agricultural economic activity practised by local tribes supported the cultivation of 35 varieties of crops. The region is rich in medicinal plants and many other rare and endangered taxa. Its high endemism in both higher plants, vertebrates, and avian diversity has qualified it as a biodiversity hotspot.

text: The following figures highlight the biodiversity significance of the region:[33]

text:
51 forest types are found in the region, broadly classified into six major types — tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical semi evergreen forests, tropical wet evergreen forests, subtropical forests, temperate forests and alpine forests.
Out of the nine important vegetation types of India, six are found in the North Eastern Region.
These forests harbour 8,000 out of 15,000 species of flowering plants. In floral species richness, the highest diversity is reported from the states of Arunachal Pradesh (5000 species) and Sikkim (4500 species) amongst the North Eastern states.
According to the Indian Red Data Book, published by the Botanical Survey of India, 10 percent of the flowering plants in the country are endangered. Of the 1500 endangered floral species, 800 are reported from Northeast India.
Most of the North Eastern states have more than 60% of their area under forest cover, a minimum suggested coverage for the hill states in the country in order to protect from erosion.
Northeast India is a part of Indo-Burma hotspot. This hotspot is the second largest in the word, next only to the Mediterranean Basin, with an area 2,206,000 square kilometres (852,000 sq mi) among the 25 identified.[citation needed]

text: Fauna[edit]

text: The International Council for Bird Preservation, UK identified the Assam plains and the Eastern Himalaya as an Endemic Bird Area (EBA). The EBA has an area of 220,000 km2 following the Himalayan range in the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, Nepal, Myanmar and the Indian states of Sikkim, northern West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, southern Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram. Because of a southward occurrence of this mountain range in comparison to other Himalayan ranges, this region has a distinctly different climate, with warmer mean temperatures and fewer days with frost, and much higher rainfall. This has resulted in the occurrence of a rich array of restricted-range bird species. More than two critically endangered species, three endangered species, and 14 vulnerable species of birds are in this EBA. Stattersfield et al. (1998) identified 22 restricted range species, out of which 19 are confined to this region and the remaining three are present in other endemic and secondary areas. Eleven of the 22 restricted-range species found in this region are considered as threatened (Birdlife International 2001), a number greater than in any other EBA of India.[citation needed]

text: WWF has identified the following priority ecoregions in North-East India:

text: National Parks[edit]

text:
National park
Location
State
Area (km2)
Importance
Vegetation

Namdapha National Park
Changlang district
Arunachal Pradesh
1,985
Largest protected area in Eastern Himalaya
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, montane forests

Manas National Park
Barpeta district
Assam
950
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

Kaziranga National Park
Golaghat and Nagaon districts
Assam
[34] 882
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests, Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands

Khangchendzonga National Park
North Sikkim district
Sikkim
850
UNESCO Mixed World Heritage Site and highest altitude wildlife protected area in India
Sub-tropical to Alpine, Krummholz (stunted forest)[35]

Mouling National Park
Upper Siang, West Siang and East Siang districts
Arunachal Pradesh
483

Tropical to Temperate forests

Dibru-Saikhowa National Park
Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts
Assam
350

Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests|

Balphakram National Park
South Garo Hills district
Meghalaya
220

Sub-tropical evergreen deciduous forests

Intangki National Park
Peren district
Nagaland
202

Temperate evergreen forests

Nameri National Park
Sonitpur district
Assam
200

Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests

Murlen National Park
Champhai district
Mizoram
100

Montane sub-tropical semi-evergreen forest[36]

Orang National Park
Darrang and Sonitpur
Assam
79

Eastern seasonal swamp forests, Eastern Himalayan moist mixed deciduous forests, eastern wet alluvial grasslands[37]

Phawngpui National Park
Lawngtlai district
Mizoram
50

Temperate forests[38]

Nokrek National Park
West Garo Hills district
Meghalaya
48

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

Sirohi National Park
Ukhrul district
Manipur
41

Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rainforest

Keibul Lamjao National Park
Bishnupur district
Manipur
40
World's only floating National park
Phumdi (floating marshes)

Bison (Rajbari) National Park
South Tripura district
Tripura
32

Tropical semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests

Clouded Leopard National Park
Sepahijala district
Tripura
5

Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

text: State Symbols[edit]

text:
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Manipur
Meghalaya

Animal
Mithun (Bos frontalis)

Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

Sangai (Rucervus eldii eldii)

Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)

Bird
Hornbill (Buceros bicornis)

White-winged duck (Asarcornis scutulata)

Mrs. Hume's pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae)

Hill myna (Gracula religiosa)

Flower
Foxtail orchid (Rhynchostylis retusa)

Foxtail orchid (Rhynchostylis retusa)

Siroi lily (Lilium mackliniae)

Lady’s Slipper Orchid (Paphiopedilum insigne)

Tree
Hollong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus)

Hollong (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus)

Uningthou (Phoebe hainesiana)

Gamhar (Gmelina arborea)

Mizoram
Nagaland
Sikkim
Tripura

Animal
Himalayan serow (Capricornis thar)

Mithun (Bos frontalis)

Red panda (Ailurus fulgens)

Phayre's leaf monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei)

Bird
Mrs. Hume's pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae)

Blyth's tragopan (Tragopan blythii)

Blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus)

Green imperial pigeon (Ducula aenea)

Flower
Red Vanda (Renanthera imschootiana)

Tree rhododendron (Rhododendron arboreum)

Noble dendrobium (Dendrobium nobile)

Indian rose chestnut (Mesua ferrea)

Tree
Indian rose chestnut (Mesua ferrea)

Alder (Alnus nepalensis)

Rhododendron (Rhododendron niveum)

Agarwood (Aquillaria agallocha)

text: Demographics[edit]

text: The total population of Northeast India is 46 million. 68 percent of the total population live in Assam alone.

text:
State
Population
Males
Females
Sex Ratio
Literacy %
Rural Population
Urban Population
Area (km²)
Density (/km²)

Arunachal Pradesh
1,383,727
713,912
669,815
938
65.38
870,087
227,881
83,743
17

Assam
31,205,576
15,939,443
15,266,133
958
72.19
23,216,288
3,439,240
78,438
397

Manipur
2,570,390
1,290,171
1,280,219
992
79.21
1,590,820
575,968
22,327
122

Meghalaya
2,966,889
1,491,832
1,475,057
989
74.43
1,864,711
454,111
22,429
132

Mizoram
1,097,206
555,339
541,867
976
91.33
447,567
441,006
21,081
52

Nagaland
1,978,502
1,024,649
953,853
931
79.55
1,647,249
342,787
16,579
119

Sikkim
610,577
323,070
287,507
890
81.42
480,981
59,870
7,096
86

Tripura
3,673,917
1,874,376
1,799,541
960
87.22
2,653,453
545,750
10,486
350

text: Largest cities[edit]

text: According to 2011 Census of India, the largest cities in Northeast India are

text:
Rank
City
Type
State
Population
Rank
City
Type
State
Population

1
Guwahati
UA
Assam
1,260,419
9
Jorhat
UA
Assam
153,249

2
Agartala
City
Tripura
522,613
10
Nagaon
UA
Assam
147,137

3
Imphal
UA
Manipur
414,288
11
Tinsukia
UA
Assam
125,637

4
Dimapur
City
Nagaland
379,769
12
Dhubri
UA
Assam
109,234

5
Shillong
UA
Meghalaya
354,325
13
Tezpur
UA
Assam
100,477

6
Aizawl
City
Mizoram
291,822
14
Kohima
UA
Nagaland
100,000

7
Silchar
UA
Assam
228,985
15
Gangtok
City
Sikkim
98,658

8
Dibrugarh
UA
Assam
154,019
16
Itanagar
City
Arunachal Pradesh
95,650

UA: Urban Agglomeration[39]

text: Languages[edit]

text: Northeast India constitutes a single linguistic region with about 220 languages in multiple language families (Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, Austroasiatic)[40] that share common structural features.[41][42] Assamese, an Indo-Aryan language spoken mostly in the Brahmaputra Valley, developed as a lingua franca for many speech communities. Assamese-based pidgin/creoles have developed in Nagaland (Nagamese) and Arunachal (Nefamese),[43] though their use has been on a decline in recent times. The Austro-Asiatic family is represented by the Khasi, Jaintia and War languages of Meghalaya. A small number of Tai–Kadai languages (Ahom, Tai Phake, Khamti, etc.) are also spoken. Sino-Tibetan is represented by a number of languages that differ significantly from each other,[44] some of which are: Bodo, Rabha, Karbi, Mising, Tiwa, Deori, Biate etc. (Assam); Garo, Biate (Meghalaya) Ao, Angami, Sema, Lotha, Konyak etc.(Nagaland); Mizo, Hmar, Chakma (Mizoram); Hrusso, Tanee, Nisi, Adi, Abor, Nocte, Apatani, Misimi etc. (Arunachal). Meitei is the official language in Manipur, the dominant language of the Imphal Valley; while Naga languages such as Poumai, Mao, Maram, Rongmei (Kabui) and Tangkul, and Kuki languages such as Thadou, Hmar, Simte and Paite predominate in individual hill areas of the state.

text: Among other Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali is spoken in South Assam in the Barak Valley. Besides the Sino-Tibetan Tripuri language, Bengali is a majority language in Tripura. Nepali, an Indo-Aryan language, is dominant in Sikkim, besides the Sino-Tibetan languages Limbu, Bhutia and Lepcha. Bengali was the official language of Colonial Assam for about forty years from the 1830s.

text: Official languages[edit]

text:
State
Official Languages[45]

Arunachal Pradesh
Hindi, English

Assam
Assamese, Bengali (in the Barak Valley), Bodo (in Bodoland)

Manipur
Meiteilon

Meghalaya
Khasi, Garo, English

Mizoram
Mizo, English

Nagaland
English[46]

Sikkim
Nepali, English

Tripura
Bengali, Kokborok

text: Etymology of state names[edit]

text:
Name of state
Origin
Literal meaning

Arunachal Pradesh
Sanskrit
Land of the rising sun

Assam
Native
Terrain/Ahom people[47]

Manipur
Sanskrit
Land abundant with jewels, adopted in the 18th century

Meghalaya
Sanskrit
Abode of the clouds, coined by Shiba P. Chatterjee

Mizoram
Native Mizo language
Land of the Mizo people

Nagaland
English
Land of the Naga people

Sikkim
Limbu Language
New House – Derived from the word "Sukhim", "Su" meaning new and "Khim" meaning house

Tripura
Native Kokborok
Sanskrit version of native names: Tripra, Tuipura, Twipra, Tippera etc.

text: Endangered languages[edit]

text: Given the diverse population in the region with only a few widely spoken ones recognised as the official languages by both the state and central governments, a large number of languages from the North Eastern Region of India have become vulnerable. Without proper teaching and preservation efforts, the already underdeveloped literature of the endangered languages are on the verge of extinction. Additionally, the younger generation are rapidly adopting the widely spoken languages to secure employment and livelihood.[48]

text: Religions[edit]

text: Religion in Northeast India (2011)

text:
Religious population in North Eastern Region, according to 2011 Census of India[49]

State
Hinduism
Islam
Christianity
Buddhism
Jainism
Sikhism
Other Religions
Religion Not Stated

Arunachal Pradesh
401,876
27,045
418,732
162,815
771
3,287
362,553
6,648

Assam
19,180,759
10,679,345
1,165,867
54,993
25,949
20,672
27,118
50,873

Manipur
1,181,876
239,836
1,179,043
7,084
1,692
1,527
233,767
10,969

Meghalaya
342,078
130,399
2,213,027
9,864
627
3,045
258,271
9,578

Mizoram
30,136
14,832
956,331
93,411
376
286
808
1,026

Nagaland
173,054
48,963
1,739,651
6,759
2,655
1,890
3,214
2,316

Sikkim
352,662
9,867
60,522
167,216
314
1,868
16,300
1,828

Tripura
3,063,903
316,042
159,882
125,385
860
1,070
1,514
5,261

Total
24,726,344
11,466,329
7,893,055
627,527
33,244
33,645
903,545
88,499

text: Ethnic Groups[edit]

text: Northeast India has over 220 ethnic groups and equal number of dialects in which Bodo form the largest indegenous ethnic group[citation needed]. The hills states in the region like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland are predominantly inhabited by tribal people with a degree of diversity even within the tribal groups. The region's population results from ancient and continuous flows of migrations from Tibet, Indo-Gangetic India, the Himalayas, present Bangladesh and Myanmar.[50]

text: Major Communities[edit]

text:
Adivasi
Anāl Naga
Assamese
Bahun
Bhutia
Bishnupriya
Biate
Bodo
Chakma
Chhetri
Chorei
Deori
Dimasa
Garo
Gurung
Hajong
Hmar
Jamatia
Karbi
Khasi
Khampti
Koch
Kom
Kuki
Lepcha
Limbu
Mao
Maram
Meitei
Mishing
Mizo
Monsang
Mishmi
Naga
Nepali
Noatia
Paite
Pnar
Poumai
Purvottar maithili
Rabha
Ranglong (Langrong)
Reang
Rongmei
Singpho
Sylheti
Tamang
Tangkhul
Tiwa
Tripuri
Zeme Naga
Zomi people (Paite, Vaiphei, Zou, Teddim, Simte, Gangte)

text:
British India map of Northeast India by ethnicity, 1891

A Naga warrior in 1960

Bishnupuriya Bride

Shad suk Mynsiem, a Khasi festival

Aka tribe, Arunachal Pradesh

Mizo school girls

Women selling fruits in Senapati, Manipur

Princess of Sikkim in traditional royal dress

text: Culture[edit]

text: Northeast India cuisines[edit]

text:
State
Staple diet
Popular dishes
Related article

Arunachal Pradesh
Rice, fish, meat, leaf vegetables
Thukpa, momo, apong (rice beer)
Cuisine of Arunachal Pradesh

Assam
Rice, fish, meat, green leafy vegetables
Assam tea, khar, tenga, pura, pitha, tamul (betel nut) – paan, rice beer
Assamese cuisine

Manipur
Rice, fish, local vegetables
Eromba, u-morok, singju, ngari (fermented fish), kangshoi
Cuisine of Manipur

Meghalaya
Rice, spiced meat, fish
Jadoh, ki kpu, minil, nakham (dried fish), momo, bamboo shoot
Cuisine of Meghalaya

Mizoram
Rice, fish, meat
Bai, bekang (fermented soya beans), sa-um (fermented pork), sawhchiar

Nagaland
Rice, meat, stewed or steamed vegetables
fermented bamboo shoot, smoked pork and beef, axone, bhut jolokia
Naga cuisine

Sikkim
Rice, meat, dairy products
Thukpa, momo, sha Phaley, gundruk, sinki, sel roti
Sikkimese cuisine

Tripura
Rice, fish, meat
Fish stew, bamboo shoot, fermented fish
Tripuri cuisine

text:
Nagamese meal

Bhangui - ethnic food of Tripura

Paknam (Manipur)

Smoked freshwater fish (Manipur)

Thukpa - a popular Northeast India cuisine

North Sikkim meal

Assamese thali

Red rice with pork (Arunachal Pradesh)

text: Arts[edit]

text: Sattriya (from Assam) and Manipuri dance (from Manipur) have been listed as classical dances of India. Besides these, all tribes in the Northeast India have their own folk dances associated with their religion and festivals. The tribal heritage in the region is rich with the practice of hunting, land cultivation and indigenous crafts. The rich culture is vibrant and visible with the traditional attires of each community.[citation needed]

text: All states in Northeast India share the handicrafts of bamboo and cane, wood carving, making traditional weapons and musical instruments, pottery and handloom weaving. Traditional tribal attires are made of thick fabrics primarily with cotton.[51] Assam silk is a famous industry in the region.

text:
State
Traditional Performing Arts
Traditional Visual Arts
Traditional Crafts

Arunachal Pradesh
Wancho dances, Idu Mishmi dance, Digaru Mishmi Buiya dance, Khampti dance, Ponung dance, Sadinuktso[52]

Cane and bamboo, cotton and wool weaving, wood carving, blacksmithy (hand tools, weapons, ornaments, dishes, sacred bells and smoking pipes)[52][53]

Assam
Sattriya, Bagurumba, Bihu dance, Bhaona (For more see Music of Assam)
Hastividyarnava (For more see Fine Arts of Assam)
Cane and bamboo, bell metal and brass, silk, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta, jewellery, musical instruments making, boat making, paints

Manipur
Manipuri dance (Ras Lila), Kartal Cholam, Manjira Cholom, Khuba Kishei, Pung Cholam, Lai-Haraoba

Cotton textile, bamboo crafts (hats, baskets), pottery[53][51]

Meghalaya
Nongkrem, Shad suk, Behdienkhlam, Wangala, Lahoo dance [54][53] (For more see Music of Meghalaya)

Making hand tools and weapons, musical instruments (drums), cane and bamboo work, weaving traditional attires, jewellery making (gold, coral, glass), wall engravings, wood carving[53][55]

Mizoram
Cheraw, Khuallam, Chheih-Lam, Chai, Rallu-Lam, Solakia, Sarlamkai, Par-lam, Sakei Lu Lam[56] (For more see Music of Mizoram)

Traditional hand tools, weapons and textile work, bamboo and cane handicrafts[57][53]

Nagaland
Zeliang dance, war dance, Nruirolians (cock dance) (For more see Music of Nagaland)

Cane and bamboo crafts, traditional hand tools, weapons and textile work, wood carving, pottery, ornaments for traditional attire, musical instruments (drum and trumpet)[53]

Sikkim
Chu Faat dance, Lu Khangthamo, Gha To Kito, Rechungma, Maruni, Tamang Selo, Singhi Chaam, Yak Chaam, Khukuri dance, Rumtek Chaam (mask dance)[58][59][60] (See also Music of Sikkim)
Thangka (showcasing Buddhist teachings on cotton canvas using vegetable dyes)[59]
Handmade paper, carpet making, woollen textile, wood carving[59]

Tripura
Goria dance, Jhum dance, Lebang dance, Mamita dance, Mosak sulmani dance, Hojagiri dance, Bizhu dance, Wangala, Hai-hak dance, Sangrai dance, Owa dance

Cane and bamboo, weaving and handloom, sitalpati (mat making), wood carving,[53] string and wind musical instruments

text:
Sattriya dance (Assam)

Nyokum festival of Nyishi tribe (Arunachal Pradesh)

Manipuri dance

Bagurumba dance of Bodo tribe (Assam)

Wangala dance of Garo tribe (Meghalaya)

Dance of Angami tribe (Nagaland)

Hojagiri dancers (Tripura)

Students performing traditional dance at Jorethang (Sikkim)

text: Administration[edit]

text: International borders management[edit]

text:
McMahon Line and manned by Indo-Tibetan Border Police and Special Frontier Force with China along Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
India-Bangladesh border and crossings manned by Border Security Force along Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
India–Myanmar barrier, crossings and Look-East connectivity manned by Assam Rifles and Indian Army along Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram
India-Bhutan borders manned by Sashastra Seema Bal along Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
India-Nepal border manned by Sashastra Seema Bal along Sikkim

text: Pan-states development authorities[edit]

text:
Ministry for Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER)
North Eastern Council

text: Development and connectivity projects[edit]

text:
NE road, rail, air services, water, power and tourism projects
Look-East connectivity projects with ASEAN and SAARC

text: States and sub-divisions[edit]

text:
State
Code
Capital
Districts
Sub-division Type
Number of Subdivisions

Arunachal Pradesh
AR
Itanagar
20
Circle
149

Assam
AS
Dispur
33
Sub-division
78

Manipur
MN
Imphal
9
Sub-division
38

Meghalaya
ML
Shillong
11
Community Development Block
39

Mizoram
MZ
Aizawl
8
Community Development Block
22

Nagaland
NL
Kohima
11
Circle
33

Sikkim
SK
Gangtok
4
Sub-division
9

Tripura
TR
Agartala
8
Mahakuma
23

text:
Autonomous Administrative Divisions in North Eastern States

State
Autonomous Division
Establishment

Assam
Bodoland Territorial Council
February 2003

Dima Hasao district
February 1970

Karbi Anglong district

Mising Autonomous Council
1995

Rabha Hasong Autonomous Council
1995

Manipur
Sadar Hills Autonomous District Council

Meghalaya
Garo Hills Autonomous District Council

Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council
July 2012

Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council

Mizoram
Chakma Autonomous District Council
April 1972

Lai Autonomous District Council
April 1972

Mara Autonomous District Council
May 1971

Tripura
Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council
January 1982

Main article: Autonomous administrative divisions of India

text: Government[edit]

text: The northeastern states, having 3.8% of India's total population, are allotted 25 out of a total of 543 seats in the Lok Sabha. This is 4.6% of the total number of seats.[citation needed]

text:
State
Chief Minister (2015 – )[61]
Governor (2015 – )[62]
High Court
Chief Justice

Arunachal Pradesh
Pema Khandu
Shri Padmanabha Balakrishna Acharya
Guwahati High Court (Itanagar Bench)
Justice Ajit Singh

Assam
Sarbananda Sonowal
Professor Jagdish Mukhi
Guwahati High Court
Justice Ajit Singh

Manipur
Nongthombam Biren Singh
Najma Heptulla
Manipur High Court
Justice N. Kotiswar Singh

Meghalaya
Mukul Sangma
Banwarilal Purohit
Meghalaya High Court
Justice Dinesh Maheshwari

Mizoram
Lal Thanhawla
Lt. General (Retd.) Nirbhay Sharma
Guwahati High Court (Aizawl Bench)
Justice Ajit Singh

Nagaland
T. R. Zeliang
Shri Padmanabha Balakrishna Acharya
Guwahati High Court (Kohima Bench)
Justice Ajit Singh

Sikkim
Pawan Kumar Chamling
Shri Shriniwas Dadasaheb Patil
Sikkim High Court
Justice Satish K. Agnihotri

Tripura
Manik Sarkar
Shri Tathagata Roy
Tripura High Court
Justice Tinlianthang Vaiphei

text: 21st century separatist unrest[edit]

text: In 1947 Indian independence and partition resulted in the North East becoming a landlocked region. This exacerbated the isolation that has been recognised, but not studied. East Pakistan controlled access to the Indian Ocean.[63] The mountainous terrain has hampered the construction of road and railways connections in the region.[citation needed]

text: The militant groups have formed an alliance to fight against the governments of India, Bhutan, and Myanmar, and now use the term "Western Southeast Asia" (WESEA) to refer to the region.[64] The separatist groups include the Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP), Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup (KYKL), People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak-Pro (PREPAK-Pro), Revolutionary People's Front (RPF) and United National Liberation Front (UNLF) of Manipur, Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council (HNLC) of Meghalaya, Kamatapur Liberation Organization (KLO), which operates in Assam and North Bengal, National Democratic Front of Bodoland and ULFA of Assam and the National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT).[65]

text: Malom Massacre[edit]

text: Some political groups have argued for creating states independent of India. On 2 November 2000, in Malom, a town in the Imphal Valley of Manipur, ten civilians were shot and killed while waiting at a bus stop. The incident, known as the "Malom Massacre",[66][67] was allegedly committed by the Assam Rifles, one of the Indian Paramilitary forces operating in the state.[68][69] This incident resulted in continuing unrest in the area.

text: Economy[edit]

text: The Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (MDoNER) is the deciding body under Government of India for socio-economic development in the region. The North Eastern Council under MDoNER serves as the regional governing body for Northeast India. The North Eastern Development Finance Corporation Ltd. (NEDFi) is a Public Limited Company providing assistance to micro, small, medium and large enterprises within the north eastern region (NER). Other organisations under MDoNER include North Eastern Regional Agricultural Marketing Corporation Limited (NERAMAC), Sikkim Mining Corporation Limited (SMC) and North Eastern Handlooms and Handicrafts Development Corporation (NEHHDC).

text: Industries[edit]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: The economy is agrarian. Little land is available for settled agriculture. Along with settled agriculture, jhum (slash-and-burn) cultivation is still practised by a few indigenous groups of people. The inaccessible terrain and internal disturbances has made rapid industrialisation difficult in the region.[citation needed]

text:
Jhum cultivation

Tea garden in Darrang, Assam

Paddy fields in Manipur

Oil palm plantation in Mizoram

Terrace farming in Nagaland

Local vegetables in Assam

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Living Root Bridges

text: Northeast India is also the home of many Living root bridges. In Meghalaya, these can be found in the southern Khasi and Jaintia Hills.[70][71][72] They are still widespread in the region, though as a practice they are fading out, with many examples having been destroyed in floods or replaced by more standard structures in recent years.[73] Living root bridges have also been observed in the state of Nagaland, near the Indo-Myanmar border.[74]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Air[edit]

text: States in the North Eastern Region are well connected by air-transport conducting regular flights to all major cities in the country. The states also own several small airstrips for military and private purposes which may be accessed using Pawan Hans helicopter services. The region currently has two international airpots viz. Lokapriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport and Bir Tikendrajit International Airport conducting flights to Thailand, Myanmar, Nepal and Bhutan. While the airport in Sikkim is under-construction, Bagdogra Airport (IATA: IXB, ICAO: VEBD) remains the closest domestic airport to the state.

text:
Public airports operational in Northeast India

State
Airport
City
IATA Code

Arunachal Pradesh
Itanagar Airport (Under construction)
Itanagar

Assam
Dibrugarh Airport
Dibrugarh
DIB

Jorhat Airport
Jorhat
JRH

Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport
Guwahati
GAU

Lilabari Airport
Lakhimpur
IXI

Rupsi Airport
Dhubri
RUP

Silchar Airport
Silchar
IXS

Tezpur Airport
Tezpur
TEZ

Manipur
Bir Tikendrajit International Airport
Imphal
IMF

Meghalaya
Baljek Airport
Tura
VETU (ICAO)

Shillong Airport
Shillong
SHL

Mizoram
Lengpui Airport
Aizawl
AJL

Nagaland
Dimapur Airport
Dimapur
DMU

Sikkim
Pakyong Airport (Under construction)
Gangtok
VEPY (ICAO)

Tripura
Agartala Airport
Agartala
IXA

text: Railway[edit]

text: The northeast India railway network is managed by the Northeast Frontier Railway zone of Indian Railways. The railway network in the region is poor with the states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim remaining almost disconnected till date (11 June 2017). Projects are underway to extend the network and connect all the capital cities in the region.[75]

text: Look East Policy[edit]

text: In the 21st century, there has been recognition among policy makers and economists of the region that the main stumbling block for economic development of the Northeastern region is the disadvantageous geographical location.[76] It was argued that globalisation propagates deterritorialisation and a borderless world which is often associated with economic integration. With 98 percent of its borders with China, Myanmar, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal, Northeast India appears to have a better scope for development in the era of globalisation.[77] As a result, a new policy developed among intellectuals and politicians that one direction the Northeastern region must be looking to as a new way of development lies with political integration with the rest of India and economic integration with the rest of Asia, with East and Southeast Asia in particular, as the policy of economic integration with the rest of India did not yield much dividends. With the development of this new policy the Government of India directed its Look East policy towards developing the Northeastern region. This policy is reflected in the Year End Review 2004 of the Ministry of External Affairs, which stated that: "India’s Look East Policy has now been given a new dimension by the UPA Government. India is now looking towards a partnership with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN countries, both within BIMSTEC and the India-ASEAN Summit dialogue as integrally linked to economic and security interests, particularly for India’s East and North East region."[78]


document_title: Wireless telegraphy

question_text: who is credited with discovering how to transmit sound without the use of wires

text: Wireless telegraphy

text: Overview[edit]

text: Wireless telegraphy or radiotelegraph, commonly called CW (continuous wave) telegraphy is a radio transmission system where the operator opens and closes a switch to interrupt a continuously transmitted wave. This results “dots” and “dashes” that can be used to transmit Morse code.

text: Although this type of communication has been mostly replaced since its introduction over 100 years ago by other means of communication it is still used by amateur radio operators as well as some military services[3]. A CW coastal station, KSM, still exists in California, run primarily as a museum by volunteers,[4] and occasional contacts with ships are made. Radio beacons, particularly in the aviation service, but also as "placeholders" for commercial ship-to-shore systems, also transmit Morse but at very slow speeds. The US Federal Communications Commission issues a lifetime commercial Radiotelegraph Operator License. This requires passing a simple written test on regulations, a more complex written exam on technology, and demonstrating Morse reception at 20 words per minute plain language and 16 wpm code groups. (Credit is given for amateur extra class licenses earned under the old 20 wpm requirement.)[5] Wireless telegraphy is still used widely today by amateur radio hobbyists where it is commonly referred to as radio telegraphy, continuous wave, or just CW. However, its knowledge is not required to obtain any class of amateur license.

text: Continuous wave (CW) radiotelegraphy is regulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as emission type A1A.

text: History of development[edit]

text: This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (January 2016)

text: Ground, water, and air conduction[edit]

text: A number of wireless electrical signaling schemes based on the (sometimes erroneous) idea that electric currents could be conducted long range through water, ground, and air were investigated for telegraphy before practical radio systems became available.

text: The original telegraph used two wires between two stations to form a complete electrical circuit or "loop." In 1837, however, Carl August von Steinheil of Munich, Germany, found that by connecting one leg of the apparatus at each station to metal plates buried in the ground, he could eliminate one wire and use a single wire for telegraphic communication. This led to speculation that it might be possible to eliminate both wires and therefore transmit telegraph signals through the ground without any wires connecting the stations. Other attempts were made to send the electric current through bodies of water, in order to span rivers, for example. Prominent experimenters along these lines included Samuel F. B. Morse in the United States and James Bowman Lindsay in Great Britain, who in August 1854, was able to demonstrate transmission across a mill dam at a distance of 500 yards (457 metres).[6]

text: US inventors William Henry Ward (1871) and Mahlon Loomis (1872) developed an electrical conduction systems based on the erroneous belief that there was an electrified atmospheric stratum accessible at low altitude.[7][8] They thought atmosphere current, connected with a return path using "Earth currents"' would allow for wireless telegraphy as well as supply power for the telegraph, doing away with artificial batteries.[9][10] A more practical demonstration of wireless transmission via conduction came in Amos Dolbear's 1879 magneto electric telephone that used ground conduction to transmit over a distance of a quarter of a mile.[11]

text: In the 1890s inventor Nikola Tesla's worked on an air and ground conduction wireless electric power transmission system, similar to Loomis',[12][13][14] which he planned to include wireless telegraphy. Tesla's experiments had led him to incorrectly conclude that he could use the entire globe of the Earth to conduct electrical energy[15][11] and his 1901 large scale application of his ideas, a high-voltage wireless power station, now called Wardenclyffe Tower, lost funding and was abandoned after a few years.

text: Telegraphic communication using earth conductivity was eventually found to be limited to impractically short distances, as was communication conducted through water, or between trenches during World War I.

text: Electrostatic and electromagnetic induction[edit]

text: Both electrostatic and electromagnetic induction were used to develop wireless telegraph systems that saw limited commercial application. In the United States, Thomas Edison, in the mid-1880s, patented an electromagnetic induction system he called "grasshopper telegraphy", which allowed telegraphic signals to jump the short distance between a running train and telegraph wires running parallel to the tracks.[16] This system was successful technically but not economically, as there turned out to be little interest by train travelers in the use of an on-board telegraph service. During the Great Blizzard of 1888, this system was used to send and receive wireless messages from trains buried in snowdrifts. The disabled trains were able to maintain communications via their Edison induction wireless telegraph systems,[17] perhaps the first successful use of wireless telegraphy to send distress calls. Edison would also help to patent a ship-to-shore communication system based on electrostatic induction.[18]

text: The most successful creator of an electromagnetic induction telegraph system was William Preece in the United Kingdom. Beginning with tests across the Bristol Channel in 1892, Preece was able to telegraph across gaps of about 5 kilometres (3.1 miles). However, his induction system required extensive lengths of antenna wires, many kilometers long, at both the sending and receiving ends. The length of those sending and receiving wires needed to be about the same length as the width of the water or land to be spanned. For example, for Preece's station to span the English Channel from Dover, England, to the coast of France would require sending and receiving wires of about 30 miles (48 kilometres) along the two coasts. These facts made the system impractical on ships, boats, and ordinary islands, which are much smaller than Great Britain or Greenland. In addition, the relatively short distances that a practical Preece system could span meant that it had few advantages over underwater telegraph cables.

text: Electromagnetic wave (radio)[edit]

text: Over several years starting in 1894, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi worked on adapting the newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves to communication, turning what was essentially a laboratory experiment up to that point into a useful communication system,[19][20] building the first wireless telegraphy system using them.[21] After Marconi sent wireless telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901, the system began being used for regular communication including ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship comuntication[22]

text: With this development wireless telegraphy came to mean Morse code transmitted by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, primitive spark gap transmitters used until World War 1, could not transmit voice (audio signals). Instead, the operator would tap out the text message on a telegraph key, which turned the transmitter on and off, producing short ("dot") and long ("dash") pulses of radio waves, groups of which comprised the letters and other symbols of the Morse code. At the receiver, the signals could be heard as musical "beeps" in the earphones by the receiving operator, who would translate the code back into text. By 1910, communication by what had been called "Hertzian waves" was being universally referred to as "radio",[23] and the term wireless telegraphy has been largely replaced by the more modern term "radiotelegraphy".

text: The International Radiotelegraph Union was unofficially established at first International Radiotelegraph Convention in 1906, and was merged into the International Telecommunication Union in 1932.[24] When the United States entered World War I, private radiotelegraphy stations were prohibited, which put an end to several pioneers' work in this field. By the 1920s, there was a worldwide network of commercial and government radiotelegraphic stations, plus extensive use of radiotelegraphy by ships for both commercial purposes and passenger messages. The transmission of sound (radiotelephony) began to displace wireless telegraphy by the 1920s for many applications, making possible radio broadcasting. Wireless telegraphy continued to be used for private person-to-person business, governmental, and military communication, such as telegrams and diplomatic communications, and evolved into radioteletype networks. The ultimate implementation of wireless telegraphy was telex, using radio signals, which was developed in the 1930s and was for many years the only reliable form of communication between many distant countries. The most advanced standard, CCITT R.44, automated both routing and encoding of messages by short wave transmissions.

text: Today, due to more modern text transmission methods, Morse code radiotelegraphy for commercial use has become obsolete. On shipboard the computer and satellite linked GMDSS system has largely replaced Morse as a means of communication.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Guglielmo Marconi, the father of radio based wireless telegraphy, in 1901, with one of his first wireless transmitters (right) and receivers (left)

German troops erecting a wireless field telegraph station during World War I

German officers and troops manning a wireless field telegraph station during World War I


document_title: Intervening cause

question_text: when may an intervening cause absolve a defendant of criminal responsibility

text: Intervening cause

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text:
Part of the common law seriesTort law
Intentional torts
Assault
Battery
False imprisonment
Intentional infliction of emotional distress
Transferred intent

Property torts
Trespass
land
chattels
Conversion
Detinue
Replevin
Trover

Defenses
Assumption of risk
Comparative negligence
Contributory negligence
Consent
Necessity
Statute of limitations
Self-defense
Defense of others
Defense of property
Shopkeeper's privilege

Negligence
Duty of / standard of care
Proximate cause
Res ipsa loquitur
Calculus of negligence
Rescue doctrine
Duty to rescue
Negligent infliction of emotional distress
Employment-related
Entrustment
Malpractice
legal
medical

Liability torts
Product liability
Quasi-tort
Ultrahazardous activity

Nuisance
Public nuisance
Rylands v Fletcher

Dignitary torts
Defamation
Invasion of privacy
False light
Breach of confidence
Abuse of process
Malicious prosecution
Alienation of affections
Criminal conversation
Seduction
Breach of promise

Economic torts
Fraud
Tortious interference
Conspiracy
Restraint of trade

Liability and remedies
Last clear chance
Eggshell skull
Vicarious liability
Volenti non fit injuria
Ex turpi causa non oritur actio
Neutral reportage
Damages
Injunction
Conflict of tort laws
Joint and several liability
Comparative responsibility
Market share liability

Duty to visitors
Trespassers
Licensees
Invitees
Attractive nuisance

Other common law areas
Contracts
Criminal law
Evidence
Property
Wills, trusts, and estates

 Law portalvte

text: An intervening cause is an event that occurs after a tortfeasor's initial act of negligence and causes injury/harm to a victim.  An intervening cause will generally absolve the tortfeasor of liability for the victim's injury only if the event is deemed a superseding cause.  A superseding cause is an unforeseeable intervening cause.  By contrast, a foreseeable intervening cause typically does not break the chain of causality, meaning that the tortfeasor is still responsible for the victim's injury—unless the event leads to an unforeseeable result.

text: For example, if a defendant had carelessly spilled gasoline near a pile of cigarette butts in an alley behind a bar, the fact that a bar patron later carelessly threw a cigarette butt into the gasoline would be deemed a foreseeable intervening cause, and would not absolve the defendant of tort liability. However, if the bar patron intentionally threw the cigarette butt into the gasoline because he wanted to see it ignite, this intentional act would likely be deemed unforeseeable, and therefore superseding.

text: In order for the intervening cause to be deemed superseding and relieve the tortfeasor of liability, both the act/event and the injury must be unforeseeable.  For example, assume that contractor A was responsible for fencing or marking a hole in the ground and negligently fails to do so while contractor B is working in the hole. Then, a driver—who negligently failed to take his medication before driving and therefore does not see clearly—drives into the unmarked hole and injures contractor B. Contractor A will still be liable for the damage to contractor B despite the driver's negligence in not taking medication. This is because, even though the negligent act of the driver is not foreseeable, the fact of injury by a driver is foreseeable (i.e., a car falling in because there is no guard).[1]