document_title: Chrysler Hemi engine

question_text: how many cubic inches is the dodge hellcat engine

question_tokens: how many cubic inches is the dodge hellcat engine

text: Chrysler Hemi engine

text: Concept[edit]

text: A hemispherical cylinder head ("hemi-head") gives an efficient combustion chamber with an excellent surface-to-volume ratio, with minimal heat loss to the head, and allows for two large valves. However, a hemi-head allows no more than two valves per cylinder, and these large valves are necessarily heavier than in a multi-valve engine. The intake and exhaust valves lie on opposite sides of the chamber and necessitate a "cross-flow" head design. Since the combustion chamber is a partial hemisphere, a flat-topped piston would yield too low a compression ratio unless a very long stroke is used, so to attain desired compression ratio the piston crown is domed to protrude into the head at top dead center, resulting in a combustion chamber in the shape of the thick peel of half an orange.

text: The hemi-head design places the spark plug at or near the center of the chamber to promote a strong flame front. However, if  the hemi-head hemisphere is of equal diameter to the piston, there is minimal squish for proper turbulence to mix  fuel and air thoroughly. Thus, hemi-heads, because of their lack of squish, are more sensitive to fuel octane rating; a given compression ratio will require a higher octane rating to avoid pre-detonation in a hemi engine than in some conventional engine designs such as the wedge and bathtub.

text: The hemi head always has intake and exhaust valve stems that point in different directions, requiring a large, wide cylinder head and complex rocker arm geometry in both cam-in-block and single overhead cam engines (dual overhead cam engines may not have rocker arms). This adds to the overall width of the engine, limiting the vehicles in which it can be installed.

text: Significant challenges in the commercialization of engine designs utilizing hemispherical chambers revolved around the valve actuation, specifically how to make it effective, efficient, and reliable at an acceptable cost.[citation needed] This complexity was referenced early in Chrysler's development of their 1950s hemi engine: the head was referred to in company advertising as the Double Rocker head.[2]

text: WWII[edit]

text: Chrysler developed their first experimental hemi engine for the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fighter aircraft. The XIV-2220 engine was an inverted V16 rated at 2,500 hp (1,860 kW). The P-47 was already in production with a Pratt & Whitney radial engine when the XIV-2220 flew successfully in trials in 1945 as a possible upgrade, but the war was winding down and it did not go into production. However, the exercise gave Chrysler engineers valuable research and development experience with two-valve hemi combustion chamber dynamics and parameters.

text: In addition to the aircraft engine, Chrysler and Continental worked together to develop the air-cooled AV-1790-5B V12 Hemi engine used in the M47 Patton tank.

text: First Generation: FirePower[edit]

text: Chrysler applied their military experience with the hemispherical combustion chamber to their first overhead-valve V8 engine, released under the name FirePower, not "Hemi," in 1950 for the 1951 model year. The first version of the FirePower engine had a displacement of 331 cu in (5.4 L) and produced 180 bhp (134.2 kW). Eventually, three of the four Chrysler divisions had its own versions of the FirePower engine, with different displacements and designations, and having almost no parts in common. This lack of commonality was due in part to the three engine versions using different bore pitches (the center-to-center distance between adjacent cylinders). Chrysler and Imperial called their versions the FirePower. DeSoto called theirs the FireDome. Dodge had a smaller version, known as the Red Ram. Only Plymouth didn't have a version, instead retaining the Dodge poly-head engines: there was no Plymouth hemi engine until the 1964 426.

text: Collectively, the 1951-'58 Hemi engines are now commonly referred to as first-generation Hemi engines,[citation needed] and the group can be identified by the rear-mounted distributor and the spark plugs in a row down the center of wide valve covers.

text: Briggs Cunningham used the Chrysler version in some of his race cars for international motor sports. A Chrysler-powered Cunningham C5-R won its class in 1953. Cunningham switched away from these designs in 1959 when Chrysler temporarily abandoned the hemispherical concept in favor of the wedge-head B engine until 1964.

text: Chrysler and Imperial[edit]

text: All Chrysler FirePower engines are oversquare; i.e their bore is larger than their stroke.[3]

text: This first FirePower engine, used from 1951 to 1955, has a bore of 3.8125 in and a stroke of 3.625 in for a piston displacement of 331 cu in (5.4 L), and a deck height of 10.32" ("low deck"). The bore pitch, shared by all Chrysler FirePower engines, was 4.5625", the largest of any 1st generation hemi engines. Most used a two-barrel carburetor and produced 180 bhp (134 kW), with the famous exception of the 1955 Chrysler C-300 equipped with dual Carter WCFB four-barrel carburetors and rated at 300 hp.

text: The 331 engine was used in the following applications:

text:
1951–1955 Chrysler New Yorker
1951–1954 Chrysler Imperial and 1955 Imperial[a]
1951 Chrysler Saratoga (optional)
1952 Chrysler Saratoga Club Coupe (optional)
1952 Chrysler Imperial Parade Phaeton
1955 Chrysler C-300
The Chrysler air raid siren. At 138 decibels, it is the loudest siren ever made.[4]

text:
The 354, released in 1956, had a bore of 3.9375 in and stroke of 3.625 in, and the same 10.32" low deck height. The 300B engine was rated at 340 bhp (254 kW), while the New Yorker and Imperial 354 engine configuration produced 280 bhp (209 kW). For the 300B an optional 355 hp (265 kW; 360 PS) version was available, making it the first American V-8 to be rated at one horsepower per cubic inch. Note that was before 1972, horsepower was SAE gross. After 1972, horsepower is SAE net.
The 354 was also modified. The hemi was optimized for heavy-duty truck service. These were available with one or two four-barrel carburetors, and were offered in Dodge's heaviest duty models as the 'Power Giant V-8' from 1957 through 1959; they were the largest of four hemi truck engines offered by Dodge in the 1950s. The 354 was also offered in certain models with polyspheric heads rather than hemi heads. The combustion chambers on these had similarities to both hemi and wedge heads, but were closer in weight to wedge heads. Thus, both 354 poly and 354 hemi V-8 engines were variously available in 1957.

text: The 354 engine was used in the following applications:

text:
1956 Chrysler New Yorker
1956 Chrysler 300B
1956 Imperial Custom & Crown[a]
1957 Dodge D-501
1957–1959 Dodge C Series Pickup

text: The 392 raised-deck engine released in 1957 had a 4.00 in (101.6 mm) bore and 3.906 in (99.21 mm) stroke. The deck height, at 10.87 in (276.1 mm), was 1⁄2 in (13 mm) taller than that of the previous blocks. Because its deck was taller, the heads were cast with wider intake ports so that earlier manifolds could be used with the new heads on the new taller block. For 1958, Chrysler offered the 392 in two configurations: 325 bhp (242 kW) with 9.25:1 compression and 345 bhp (257 kW) with 10:1 compression, both with a single four-barrel carburetor. A dual four-barrel version of the 392 available in the 1957-58 Chrysler 300C & 300D cars was rated at 375 bhp (280 kW); the 300D, and some marine and industrial engines, used a (now rare) adjustable rocker.[5] An extremely rare option available on the 1958 300D was Bendix "Electrojector" fuel injection, with which the 392 was rated at 390 bhp (291 kW). Due to reliability problems with the primitive onboard computer which controlled the injection system, however, 15 of the 16 300D cars built with the fuel injection option were recalled and retrofitted with carburetors.[6]

text: The 392 engine was used in the following applications:

text:
1957–1958 Chrysler New Yorker
1957–1958 Imperial Custom, Crown, and LeBaron[a]
1957 Chrysler 300C
1958 Chrysler 300D

text: In the late 1950s and early 1960s, drag racers found the 392 to be a formidable engine and continued to run them competitively into the 1970s. Usual color of the block was silver.[7]

text: DeSoto[edit]

text: DeSoto's Hemi engines were called Fire Dome.

text: In 1952, DeSoto introduced its version of the FirePower with a bore of 3.625 in (92.08 mm) and stroke of 3.344 in (84.94 mm), for a displacement of 276.1 cu in (4.5 L). The bore pitch, shared by all DeSoto FirePower engines, was 4.3125 in (109.54 mm).[8] Power output was 160 bhp (119 kW). It was a hot seller, with 50,000 vehicles using the engine until it was replaced in 1954.

text: An increase in displacement to 290.8 cu in (4.8 L) was made for 1955 by increasing the bore to 3.72 in (94.5 mm).[8]

text: The DeSoto engine was enlarged for 1956 to 329.9 cu in (5.4 L). Bore was the same as the 291 at 3.72 in (94.5 mm), but stroke was increased to 3.80 in (96.5 mm) and a taller (raised-deck) block was used.[8]

text:
Displacement was increased again for 1956 (DeSoto Adventurer only) and 1957 (Firedome and Fireflite models) to 341.1 cu in (5.6 L). Bore was now 3.78 in (96.0 mm) with stroke remaining at 3.80 in (96.5 mm).[8] The DeSoto Adventurer produced 343 bhp (256 kW) using dual Carter WCFB four-barrel carburetors—more than one horsepower per cubic inch.
The 1956 DeSoto Adventurer was the premiere named high-performance version—the DeSoto equivalent of the Chrysler 300—using dual Carter WCFB four-barrel carburetors.
The Adventurer engine for 1956 used a displacement of 341 CID (3.78" bore by 3.80" stroke) and had a compression ratio of 9.5:1, using a special hydraulic camshaft profile.

text: The largest DeSoto engine for 1957 was the DeSoto Adventurer offering 344.6 cu in (5.6 L) with square bore and stroke dimensions of 3.80 inches. The DeSoto Adventurer used dual Carter WCFB four-barrel carburetors for a rating of 345 bhp (257 kW), again producing one horsepower per cubic inch utilizing a similar intake manifold to the 1956 341 Adventurer and a similar camshaft. Compression ratio remained at 9.5:1.

text: Dodge[edit]

text: Dodge's Hemi was introduced in 1953 as the Red Ram.[3] Dodge did not have a V8 engine until one was developed specifically for the line in 1953 based on the 1951 Chrysler hemi design, but down-sized for these smaller cars. They have the smallest bore center distance of any hemi engine at 4.1875 in (106.4 mm). They do not share any major dimensions or components with the larger Chrysler and DeSoto hemi engines, or the Plymouth A engines. From 1955 to 1958 lower performance versions of the Dodge hemi were introduced by substituting less complex poly (single rocker shaft) heads and valve train parts, including one variant only built as a poly (259"). These were used in low-line 1955-58 DeSotos and Dodges, and 1955-56 high-line Plymouths.

text: Dodge introduced the 241.3 cu in (4.0 L) engine in 1953.[3] Bore was 3.4375 in (87.3 mm) and stroke was 3.25 in (82.6 mm). With a low compression ratio of 7.0:1 (in 1953 and for the 1954 Meadowbrook), the 241 produced 140 bhp (104 kW).[9] For 1954, the more senior Dodges received 150 bhp (112 kW) thanks to a higher 7.5:1 compression ratio.[10] This engine is not the same as the Plymouth 241, which had polyspheric, not hemi heads. The 241 only lasted two years, being replaced by the 270 for 1955.[10]

text: The D553 1955/1956 Dodge Red Ram Hemi 270 displaced 270 cu in (4.4 L) and was used in premium 1955 and 1956 Dodge vehicles. Bore was 3.625 in (92.1 mm) and stroke was 3.25 in (82.6 mm). It was not the same as the 270 poly-head. In the Dodge Coronet, running 7.6:1 compression ratio, the 270 produced 183 bhp (136 kW). In higher trims like the Dodge Royal, the "Super Red Ram" ran the same compression ratio but with a four-barrel carburetor produced 193 bhp (144 kW).[11]

text: For 1956, Dodge increased the displacement to 315 cu in (5.2 L) with a longer 3.80 in (96.5 mm) stroke and a taller raised-deck block and now with a polyspheric heads—no longer a Hemi. But the optional high-performance D-500 version of this engine had a four-barrel carburetor and a larger valved Dodge hemispherical combustion chambered head. Also, a "race only" package called the D-500-1 or DASH 1 was available with a special aluminum dual four barrel intake that sported a pair of Carter WCFB carburetors similar to the ones on the Chrysler 300B and DeSoto Adventurer. This engine utilized the same cylinders heads as the base D-500 model.

text: The D-501 in 57 was the Chrysler 354 engine, not a Dodge-based engine.

text:
Dodge released a 325 cu in (5.3 L) engine for 1957. The engine used a 3.6875 in (93.7 mm) bore and 3.80 in (96.5 mm) stroke.
The base engine offering was now a polyspheric chambered head referenced as 'KDS', and a higher performance 325 was offered with hemi heads as the 'KD-500'. Again there was a low volume offering of a 'KD-500-1' with dual four barrel carburetors. All engines now, however, had hydraulic camshafts even though the hemi headed offerings sported "dimples" in the valve covers for mechanical adjuster clearance.

text: Second Generation: 426[edit]

text:
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text:
426
Polished and chromed 426 Hemi engine in a 1971 Hemi 'CudaOverviewManufacturer
ChryslerAlso called
Elephant engineProduction
1964–1971LayoutConfiguration
V8Displacement
426 cu in (7.0 l)Cylinder bore
4.25 in (108.0 mm)Piston stroke
3.75 in (95.3 mm)Cylinder block alloy
Cast ironCylinder head alloy
AluminumCast ironValvetrain
OHVCompression ratio
10.25:1CombustionFuel system
CarburetorFuel type
GasolineOil system
Wet sumpDry sumpCooling system
Water-cooledOutputPower output
425 bhp (317 kW) (Gross)350 bhp (261 kW) (Net)Torque output
490 lb⋅ft (664 N⋅m)ChronologyPredecessor
426 Wedge

text: The hemispherical head design was revived in 1964. These were the first engines officially designated Hemi, a name Chrysler had trademarked. Chrysler Hemi engines of this generation displaced 426 cu in (7.0 L). Just 11,000 Hemi engines were ultimately produced for consumer sale due to their relatively high cost and the sheer size of the engine bay required to fit it in. The 426 Hemi was nicknamed the "elephant engine"[12] at the time, a reference to its high power, heavy weight and large physical dimensions. Its 10.72 in (272.3 mm) deck height and 4.80 in (121.9 mm) bore spacing made it the biggest engine in racing at the time.

text: The 426 Hemi of the 1960s was an engine produced for use in NASCAR, used in a racing version of a Plymouth Belvedere in 1964. It was not initially available to the general buying public. The 426 Hemi was not allowed to compete in NASCAR's 1965 season due to its unavailability in production vehicles sold to the general public and because of complaints by Ford regarding its power. However several special production cars were produced and sold with the 426 Hemi. These were the Dodge Dart and Plymouth Fury later in 1965 included the Dodge Coronet and included aluminum fenders and bumpers and for drag racing. However they were sold to the general public. Chrysler introduced the "Street" Hemi in 1966 for its intermediate range of cars and sold the required number of Hemi engines to the public to legitimize its use for NASCAR in 1966. The "Street Hemi" was the same as the racing Hemi but with lower compression (10.25:1 from 12.5:1) a smaller camshaft, with iron headers instead of lighter steel long tube headers.

text: Although all manufacturers were familiar with multi-valve engines and hemispherical combustion chambers, adding more valves per cylinder, or designing the complex valve train needed for a hemispherical chamber were expensive ways of improving the high-RPM breathing of production vehicles. By canting the angle of the NASCAR-mandated two valves per cylinder, significantly larger valves could be used. The Chrysler 426 Hemi and all Chrysler RBs had oversquare bore and strokes.  Specifically, the 426 Hemi and 426 Wedge had a 4.25 in (108.0 mm) bore and 3.75 in (95.3 mm) stroke.

text: The 426 Hemi also was used in NHRA and AHRA drag racing. Its large casting allowed the engine to be overbored and stroked to displacements unattainable in the other engines of the day. Top-fuel racing organizers limited the bore spacing of engines until very recently, when under pressure from Ford and other manufacturers, the bore spacing allowed was increased to 4.90 in (124.5 mm)—this allows other engines such as the Ford 385 series to begin to compete. The engines based on the old Chrysler design predominate Top Fuel and Funny Car classes due to plentiful parts, large amount of research and development, as well as decades of experience with the problems of the engine's design. In drag racing today, the engine bears little resemblance to any engine produced by Chrysler; it is usually equipped with a large Roots type supercharger and short individual exhaust pipes, and fueled with nitromethane.  Yet, this variant is used in Top Fuel, Funny Car, and Pro Modified classes.

text: The 426 Hemi, in "street Hemi" form, was produced for consumer automobiles from 1965 through 1971. There were many differences between the Hemi and the Wedge-head big-block, including cross-bolted main bearing caps and a different head bolt pattern. There were also many differences between the racing Hemi's and the street Hemi, including but not limited to compression ratio, camshaft, intake manifold, exhaust manifold. Some 1960s NASCAR and NHRA Hemi engines featured magnesium cross-ram intake manifolds and magnesium oil pans in an attempt to reduce the massive weight of the overall engine, along with chain-driven internal dry-sump oil systems. Today, aftermarket blocks, heads, intakes, rods and pistons are usually made of aluminum.

text: The street Hemi version was rated at 425 bhp (431 PS; 317 kW) at 5000 rpm SAE gross and 490 lb⋅ft (664 N⋅m) at 4000 rpm of torque equipped with a pair of four-barrel Carter AFB carburetors.[13] In actual dynamometer testing, it produced 433.5 hp (323 kW; 440 PS) and 472 lb⋅ft (640 N⋅m) of torque in purely stock form.[14] Chrysler's sales literature[15] published both the gross 425 hp (317 kW; 431 PS) and net 350 hp (261 kW; 355 PS) ratings for 1971.

text: To avoid confusion with earlier (1951–58) and current Hemi engines, the 426 is sometimes called the "2G" or "Gen 2" Hemi.[16]

text: The street version of the 2G Hemi engine was used (optionally, in all but the last case) in the following vehicles:

text:
1966–1970 Dodge Coronet/Plymouth Belvedere
1966–1971 Plymouth Satellite
1966–1971 Dodge Charger
1967–1971 Plymouth GTX
1968 Dodge Dart SS (SuperStock)
1968 Plymouth Barracuda SS
1968–1971 Dodge Super Bee
1968–1971 Plymouth Road Runner
1969 Dodge Charger Daytona
1970 Plymouth Superbird
1970–1971 Plymouth Barracuda
1970–1971 Dodge Challenger
1970 Monteverdi Hai 450

text: As collectibles[edit]

text: Hemi-powered Dodge and Plymouth cars produced in the model years of 1965 through 1971 have become collector's items. For example, a 1971 Plymouth Barracuda Convertible equipped with the 426 Hemi engine sold at auction for US$3.5 million in 2014.[17]

text: Third Generation: trademarked[edit]

text:
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text:
Third Generation Chrysler Hemi
2003 5.7 HEMI, the first year of the third generation HEMIsOverviewManufacturer
ChryslerProduction
2003-presentLayoutConfiguration
V8Displacement
5,654 cc (345 cu in)6,058 cc (369.7 cu in)6,166 cc (376.3 cu in)6,407 cc (391 cu in)Cylinder bore
99.49 mm (3.917 in)103.00 mm (4.055 in)103.89 mm (4.090 in)Piston stroke
90.88 mm (3.578 in)94.59 mm (3.724 in)Cylinder block alloy
Cast ironCylinder head alloy
AluminumValvetrain
OHVCompression ratio
9.5:19.6:110.3:110.9:1CombustionFuel system
Sequential multiport fuel injectionFuel type
GasolineOil system
Wet sumpCooling system
Water-cooledChronologyPredecessor
Chrysler LA engineChrysler PowerTech engine

text: The current-production "HEMI" engine heads are flatter and more complex than the 1950s–'70s Hemi V8 chamber. The combustion chambers are no longer truly hemispherical. It uses a coil-on-plug distributorless ignition system and two spark plugs per cylinder to shorten flame travel leading to more consistent combustion and reduced emissions. Like most of Chrysler's past-model Hemi-head engines, the 5.7 version is rated at approximately one horsepower per cubic inch (the current engines are SAE net, whereas the old Hemi engines were rated SAE gross). For the 2009 model year power was increased to 357-395 horsepower (266-291 kW) and 389-410 lb·ft (527-556 N·m)  depending on application. It also achieved 4% better fuel economy. Variable valve timing (VVT) was also introduced.

text: A new variable displacement technology called Multi-Displacement System (MDS) is used in some versions which can shut off two cylinders on each bank under light load to improve fuel economy.

text: The 5.7 L Hemi was released for model year 2003 on the Dodge Ram 1500, 2500, and 3500 pickup trucks to complement the Magnum 5.9 engine. As of  2004[update] it was the only available gasoline engine in the Ram Heavy Duty. Chrysler later made the 5.7 L Hemi available in all models of the 2004 Dodge Ram, Dodge Durango, the 2005 Chrysler 300C, Dodge Magnum R/T, Jeep Grand Cherokee, the 2006 Dodge Charger R/T, and the 2009 Dodge Challenger R/T. For the Challenger, the 6-speed version does not feature MDS. The 2014 5.7 Liter Hemi does have the MDS with 395HP.

text: The 5.7 L (345 cu in) Hemi in the Ram delivered 345 hp (257.3 kW) and 398 lb⋅ft (540 N⋅m), but 340 hp (253.5 kW) and 390 lb⋅ft (529 N⋅m) for the 300C and Magnum R/T, which is exactly 100 hp (74.6 kW) more than the old 5.9 engine. It is a 90-degree V8, 2-valve pushrod design like the past MB engines, displacing 5,654 cc (345 cu in), with a bore of 3.917 in (99.49 mm) and a stroke of 3.578 in (90.88 mm).[18]

text: The 5.7 L Hemi is made at Chrysler's Saltillo Engine plant in Ramos Arizpe, Mexico.

text: The Hemi was on the Ward's 10 Best Engines list for 2003 through 2007, and again in 2009.

text: This engine is used in the following vehicles:

text:
2003–present Ram Pickup
2004–2009, 2011–present Dodge Durango
2005–present Chrysler 300 300C
2005–2008 Dodge Magnum R/T
2005–present Dodge Charger R/T
2005–present Jeep Grand Cherokee
2006–2010 Jeep Commander
2007–2009 Chrysler Aspen
2009–present Dodge Challenger

text: 2009 Revisions, 5.7 Eagle[edit]

text: Chrysler has made various revisions to the 5.7 L for the 2009 model year. The first for all applications is what Chrysler calls Variable Camshaft Timing or VCT. VCT (which is essentially variable valve timing) uses an oil control valve which controls oil flow to a unique camshaft sprocket which contains a phasing device, which depending on the operation of the oil control valve either advances or retards camshaft timing.

text: Cylinder heads have been revised to increase flow. Though the intake manifold has also been changed on all applications, it is however model specific. Dodge Ram, non-Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) Chrysler Aspens, and non-HEV Dodge Durango utilize an active intake manifold with a short runner valve to optimize torque and horsepower. At lower engine rpm the valve is closed, resulting in improved low-end torque from the longer runners. At higher engine rpm the valve is opened, diverting the incoming air into the center of the manifold. The shorter runners results in improved horsepower. Passenger cars, Jeep vehicles, as well as HEV Chrysler Aspen and HEV Dodge Durango do not use this manifold; instead, these vehicles utilize a passive intake manifold, which does not have a short runner valve.

text: Six-speed manual transmission and all Heavy Duty truck applications will differ by not having the Multi-Displacement System (MDS). The new version of the 5.7L has five different camshaft profiles. All will have VCT.

text:
Active intake with MDS
Active intake without MDS
Passive intake with MDS
Passive intake without MDS
HEV Application (modified version of passive intake with MDS)

text: Power Numbers [19][20][21][22]

text:
300C: 363 hp (271 kW), 394 lb⋅ft (534 N⋅m)
Charger R/T: 370 hp (276 kW), 395 lb⋅ft (536 N⋅m)
Challenger R/T Automatic: 372 hp (277 kW), 400 lb⋅ft (542 N⋅m)
Challenger R/T 6 Speed Manual: 375 hp (280 kW), 410 lb⋅ft (556 N⋅m)
2009-2012 Ram 1500 Truck: 390 hp (291 kW), 407 lb⋅ft (552 N⋅m)
2013+ Ram 1500 Truck: 395 hp (295 kW), 410 lb⋅ft (556 N⋅m)
Ram 2500/3500 Truck: 383 hp (286 kW), 400 lb⋅ft (542 N⋅m)
Jeep Grand Cherokee and Jeep Commander: 360 hp (268 kW), 390 lb⋅ft (529 N⋅m)
2011+ Dodge Durango: 360 hp (268 kW), 390 lb⋅ft (529 N⋅m)
2009 Chrysler Aspen and Dodge Durango non-HEV: 376 hp (280 kW), 401 lb⋅ft (544 N⋅m)
2009 Chrylser Aspen and Dodge Durango HEV: 399 hp (298 kW), 390 lb⋅ft (529 N⋅m)

text: The Hemi is also available in a 6,059 cc (6.1 L; 369.7 cu in) version.[23] The engine's bore x stroke is 103 mm × 90.9 mm (4.055 in × 3.579 in), and many other changes were made to allow it to produce 425 bhp (317 kW; 431 PS) @ 6200 rpm and 420 lb⋅ft (569 N⋅m) of torque @ 4800 rpm. The engine block is different from the 5.7, with revised coolant channels and oil jets to cool the pistons. A forged crankshaft, lighter pistons, and strengthened connecting rods aid durability. A cast aluminum intake manifold is tuned for high-RPM power and does not include variable-length technology. Chrysler's Multi-Displacement System is not used on the 6.1.

text: Applications:

text:
2005–2010 Chrysler 300C SRT–8
2005–2008 Dodge Magnum SRT-8
2006–2010 Dodge Charger SRT-8
2006–2010 Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT-8
2008–2010 Dodge Challenger SRT-8

text: 6.2 Hellcat[edit]

text: For 2015, Chrysler introduced an all-new high performance supercharged variant of the Hemi engine, called the Hellcat (named after the Grumman F6F Hellcat).[24] It features the same 4.09 in (103.9 mm) bore as the 6.4 L Hemi and the same 3.578 in (90.9 mm) stroke as the 5.7 L, giving it a total displacement of 6,166 cc (6.2 L; 376.3 cu in).[24] The supercharger is a 2,380 cc (145 cu in) twin-screw IHI unit with integrated charge coolers, capable of producing 11.6 psi (80 kPa; 0.80 bar) of boost.[25] This engine is rated at 707 bhp (717 PS; 527 kW) @ 6,000 rpm and 650 lb⋅ft (881 N⋅m) @ 4,000 rpm of torque[24] and has a compression ratio of 9.5:1.[24] This engine was the most powerful engine produced by Chrysler as well as the most powerful production engine ever in a muscle car until the Dodge Demon was introduced.[25] This engine is not equipped with Chrysler's Multi-Displacement System.[25] In 2017, Mopar announced that it would sell it as a crate engine under the name Hellcrate.[26]

text: Applications:

text:
2015–present Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat
2015–present Dodge Charger SRT Hellcat
2018–present Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT Trackhawk
2018-present  Hellcat Crate Engine

text: 6.2 Demon[edit]

text: The Demon version of the Hemi V8 features a number of improvements over the Hellcat variant. It is fitted with a larger, 2.7 litre twin-screw supercharger, as well as reinforced reciprocating components, a new camshaft, and several other valvetrain upgrades. With these improvements, the Challenger SRT Demon is rated at 808 horsepower on 91-octane pump gasoline, and 840 horsepower when running on 100-octane unleaded racing gasoline. Cooling is aided by a functional Air-Grabber hood scoop, as well as a unique charge cooling system which makes use of the air-conditioning coolant to lower the intake charge air temperature. High-speed launches are assisted by a factory line-lock system, which allows the car to perform a burnout to warm the rear tires, the first transmission brake to be installed in a production car, and the Torque Reserve Launch System.

text: Applications:

text: 2018–present Dodge Challenger SRT Demon

text: 6.4 / 392 Apache [edit]

text: Chrysler displayed a larger and more powerful 392-cubic-inch (6.4 L) Hemi in 2005 with a conservative factory-rated output of 525 hp (391 kW; 532 PS) and 510 lb⋅ft (691 N⋅m) torque. It is equipped with high-strength forged aluminium alloy pistons. This engine has been available since 2007, as a crate under the name 392 Hemi.[27]

text:
The production version of the 392 Hemi was launched in the 2011 Dodge Challenger SRT8 with variable camshaft timing as well as MDS in cars with automatic transmissions.[28] The new 392 Hemi, codenamed "Apache," is based on the third-generation 5.7L Hemi, codenamed "Eagle," and shares few parts with the 392 crate engine. In late 2009 Chrysler has said the new engine will be available in the next generation SRT8 Dodge Charger, Chrysler 300C, and Jeep Grand Cherokee. Special-edition Challengers equipped with this engine, and the engines themselves, will bear "392 HEMI" badging in commemorative reference to the first-generation Hemi engine of the same piston displacement.[29][30][31] In other applications, the engine is badged as "6.4L HEMI".[citation needed] It is much more similar to the revised 5.7L V8 Hemi that was released in 2009 and is a completely different block and build than the 392 crate engine.
Output is 470 hp (350 kW) and 470 lb⋅ft (637 N⋅m);[27][31] for the 2015 model year, horsepower was increased by 15, to 485 hp (362 kW) and 475 lb⋅ft (644 N⋅m), in the Charger and Challenger; the Grand Cherokee SRT only saw a 5 bhp increase. The engine is available in the Chrysler 300 SRT8, Dodge Charger SRT8 [32] (and Charger R/T Scat Pack for 2015), the Challenger R/T Scat Pack (2015-up) and SRT, and the Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT8.

text: In 2014, Chrysler chose to change the SRT8 moniker to SRT, removing the 8 which was a cylinder quantity nomenclature. From thereon, this was put into effect for all SRT models from all of Chrysler's divisions.

text: HD Truck and Cab Chassis Version[edit]

text: Starting in model year 2014, the Ram 2500 and 3500 trucks, and Ram 3500, 4500, and 5500 Cab Chassis offered a revised version of the 6.4L, being re-tuned for better fuel economy and a power band more suitable for hauling and towing than the all-out power of the SRT Version. In 2016 it replaced the 5.7L as the standard gas engine in the Cab Chassis models.

text: Power Numbers [22]

text:
2500 and 3500 Pickup, 3500 SRW Cab Chassis with RFE transmission: 410 hp (306 kW), 429 lb⋅ft (582 N⋅m)
3500 Mega Cab, 3500 DRW Cab Chassis with RFE transmission, 3500 SRW/DRW with Aisin Transmission: 370 hp (276 kW), 429 lb⋅ft (582 N⋅m)
4500 and 5500 Cab Chassis: 366 hp (273 kW), 429 lb⋅ft (582 N⋅m)

text: Mopar 426 HEMI (2012-)[edit]

text: At the 2012 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Dodge debuted a Mopar Customized Dodge Charger "Redline" that featured a modern 426-cubic-inch (7.0 L) HEMI V8 engine rated at 590 hp (440 kW; 598 PS).[33][34][35]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: During February to April 2005, DaimlerChrysler hosted a "What Can You HEMI?" contest promoting alternative uses of the HEMI engines. The top five finalists include HEMI Snowblower, HEMI-Go-Round carousel, HEMI on Ice ice resurfacer, HEMI-Shredder, HEMI Big Wheel, i.e. the child's tricycle of the 1970s.[36][37][38] The winner was the HEMI Big Wheel, which had a 5.7 L HEMI in the back that was installed backwards, thus reverse became the only forward gear. Plate steel was the predominant material, while a rolled tube of steel had to be utilized for the front tire as there were no such tires 4-foot (122 cm) in diameter that were as narrow as needed for this project.[39]

text: Notes[edit]

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c Imperial became a separate make and division unto itself, starting in 1955, and no longer bore the "Chrysler" name.

tag: ol


document_title: Andrews Liver Salts

question_text: what are the ingredients in andrews liver salts

root

text: Andrews Liver Salts

text: Andrews Liver Salts is a laxative and antacid for mild stomach complaints. It is sold as a powder which is added to water and mixed, creating effervescence, before being swallowed. The powder contains sugar; two antacids, sodium bicarbonate and citric acid; and a laxative, magnesium sulphate. The product is similar to Eno's salts and Kruschen salts, and a mild form of Epsom salts. The term "liver salts" or "health salts" is typically used for a laxative.

tag: p

text: Andrews Liver Salts was first sold from 1894, by William Henry Scott and William Murdoch Turner. Their business in the north-east of England originally imported margarine in the 1870s and 1880s. Their offices were in Gallowgate, Newcastle upon Tyne, and the product was named after St Andrew's church nearby. The trademark "Andrews Liver Salt" was registered in 1909. From the 1930s, promotional materials recommended taking the salts for "inner cleanliness".

text: Scott and Turner's company merged with Charles Phillips, manufacturers of milk of magnesia, to become Phillips, Scott & Turner. The merged company was acquired by Frederick Stearns & Co, a subsidiary of Sterling Drug, in 1923, and later acquired by SmithKline Beecham. Andrews and Eno's salts are both now made by GlaxoSmithKline.


document_title: The Dragon Prince

question_text: who killed the king in the dragon prince

text: The Dragon Prince

text: Setting and synopsis[edit]

text: The series is set in a fantasy world where humans and elves are in conflict. Long ago, the humans used dark magic, and were driven off by the dragons and elves to one end of the continent. Now, after humans killed the dragon king and his egg, war is imminent. As forces gather, the elves attempt to assassinate the human king Harrow and his heir, the young prince Ezran. One among the elves, the young Rayla, along with Ezran and his brother Callum, discover that the dragon king's egg wasn't in fact destroyed, but stolen. Together they undertake to return the egg to the dragons to prevent war. But the mage Viren, King Harrow's advisor, is intent on war. He seizes power after the king dies in the assassination attempt, and sends his children Claudia and Soren after the fugitives.

text: Voice cast and characters[edit]

text:
Jack De Sena as Callum, the artistic older half-brother[3] of Ezran and the king's stepson.
Paula Burrows as Rayla, a young moonshadow elf assassin who hesitates during her first mission.
Sasha Rojen as Ezran, crown prince of Katolis, the cheerful younger half-brother of Callum.
Bait, Ezran's pet glow toad.
Racquel Belmonte as Claudia, Viren's daughter, a friendly and bookish dark mage.
Jesse Inocalla as Soren, Viren's son, a dim but talented Crownsguard.
Jason Simpson as Viren, King Harrow's advisor, a pragmatic dark mage.
Jonathan Holmes as Runaan, the zealous leader of the moonshadow elf assassins.
Luc Roderique as King Harrow of Katolis, Ezran's father and Callum's stepfather.
Pip, Harrow's pet bird.
Erik Todd Dellums as Aaravos, the prologue's narrator
General Amaya, the deaf[4] aunt of Callum and Ezran, a skilled warrior and commander who guards the breach between the human and elf nations whilst grieving her fallen sister.
Adrian Petriw as Gren, Amaya's deputy and interpreter who remains upbeat and focused even under the harshest conditions.
Omari Newton as Corvus, Amaya's tracker who is the lone member of her squad sent to hunt down the fugitives.
Nahanni Mitchell as Ellis, a young girl with a fierce bond to her animal.
Ava, Ellis' wolf companion.
Ellie King as Lujanne, an elven illusionist
Azymondias ("Zym"), an infant dragon, the Dragon Prince

tag: ul

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2018)[edit]

text:
Season 1 ("Book 1: Moon")No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date1"Echoes of Thunder"Villads SpangsbergAaron Ehasz
Justin RichmondSeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
A prologue explains the setting: Long ago, humans used dark magic and were driven off by dragons and elves. Now, after humans killed the dragon king and his egg, war is imminent. Elven assassins assemble to kill the human king Harrow and his heir Ezran. The youngest among them, Rayla, is disavowed after she shows mercy to a guard.
2"What Is Done"Villads SpangsbergAaron Ehasz
Justin RichmondSeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
Harrow rejects his advisor Viren's plan to foil the assassins by swapping the king's soul into another body. Rayla infiltrates the castle on her own, intent on killing Harrow and Ezran, but relents after Ezran shows her the dragon king's egg that was believed destroyed.
3"Moonrise"Villads SpangsbergDevon Giehl
Iain HendrySeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
Rayla, Ezran and Callum decide to return the egg to the dragons to prevent war, but they can convince neither Viren's daughter, the mage Claudia, nor the leader of the assassins, Runaan, of their plan. They are forced to flee with the egg as the other assassins begin their assault. They are defeated and Runaan is captured.
4"Bloodthirsty"Villads SpangsbergDevon Giehl
Iain HendrySeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
King Harrow is buried and Viren, appointing himself Lord Protector, declares war on the Elves. Callum discovers his magic talents, and that he carries a rare primal stone of sky magic. The three fugitives arrive at the royal winter lodge, where General Amaya, their aunt, catches up with them. Rayla's presence incites conflict, and the three flee again.
5"An Empty Throne"Villads SpangsbergAaron Ehasz
Justin RichmondSeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
The fugitives continue their journey to the elven lands. Beset by a river monster, Callum electrocutes it with magic. Rayla admits she's trying to redeem her parents, who fled instead of protecting the dragon king. Amaya visits the grave of her sister, the queen. After she leaves for the border garrison, Viren imprisons her deputy Gren.
6"Through the Ice"Villads SpangsbergAaron Ehasz
Justin RichmondSeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
Rayla fights off a human searching for the boys. As the fugitives cross the mountains, she reveals that her ritual armband will eventually cut off her hand if Ezran doesn't die. The egg falls into icy water and loses its luster. Viren orders his son Soren to find and kill the princes, so that Viren can seize the throne.
7"The Dagger and the Wolf"Villads SpangsbergDevon Giehl
Iain HendrySeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
Disguised as a human, Rayla tries to cut off her armband with a human's magic blade, but fails. The boys seek help for the egg, and the young girl Ellis tells them of a healer who saved Ellis's wolf companion Ava. Soren and Claudia set out to find the princes.
8"Cursed Caldera"Villads SpangsbergAaron Ehasz
Justin RichmondSeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
Chased out of town, the fugitives and Ellis seek out the healer atop the Cursed Caldera. A monster leech chases them up a rock, but working together, they manage to defeat it. Viren fails to extract information about his magic mirror from the captive Runaan, and traps him in a coin with dark magic.
9"Wonderstorm"Villads SpangsbergAaron Ehasz
Justin RichmondSeptember 14, 2018 (2018-09-14)
The fugitives are set upon by a giant spider, but Ezran recognizes it as an illusion. The "healer" is revealed as Lujanne, an elven illusionist. Callum sacrifices his primal stone to save the egg by hatching it. The baby dragon Azymondias emerges, chewing off Rayla's constricting armband. Using magic, Claudia and Soren locate the fugitives' position.

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: Aaron Ehasz was the head writer and co-executive producer of the animated series Avatar: The Last Airbender, and a longtime writer and story editor for Futurama. Richmond co-directed the video game Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception.[5] The two co-founded the multimedia production studio Wonderstorm in 2017, along with Justin Santistevan, to work both on The Dragon Prince and a related video game. Ehasz and Richmond are co-creators and writers on the series, while Giancarlo Volpe, a former director for Avatar, is an executive producer.[5]

text: The Dragon Prince is created using three-dimensional computer animation. A reduced frame rate is applied to offset "floatiness".[6]

text: Release[edit]

text: The series was announced on July 10, 2018.[5] A trailer was released in July 2018 at the San Diego Comic-Con.[1] The first season of The Dragon Prince was released on Netflix on September 14, 2018.[1] In October 2018, a second season was confirmed for a 2019 release.[7]

text: Reception[edit]

text: An advance review of the first episode by IGN concluded that the series "surprises by comfortably exploring dark story elements while giving audiences an assortment of lovable characters to engage with. In short, it's a worthwhile animated series for audiences of all ages."[8] On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has a score of 100% based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10.[9]


document_title: Great white shark

question_text: when did the great white shark first appear

text: Great white shark

text: Taxonomy

text: The great white shark was one of the many amphibia originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae,[19] its first scientific name, Squalus carcharias. Later, Sir Andrew Smith gave it Carcharodon as its generic name in 1833, and also in 1873. The generic name was identified with Linnaeus' specific name and the current scientific name, Carcharodon carcharias, was finalized. Carcharodon comes from the Ancient Greek words karcharos, which means sharp or jagged, and odous, which means tooth.[20]

text: Ancestry and fossil record

text: The earliest known fossils of the great white shark are about 16 million years old, during the mid-Miocene epoch.[1] However, the phylogeny of the great white is still in dispute. The original hypothesis for the great white's origins is that it shares a common ancestor with a prehistoric shark, such as the C. megalodon. C. megalodon had teeth that were superficially not too dissimilar with those of great white sharks, but its teeth were far larger. Although cartilaginous skeletons do not fossilize, C. megalodon is estimated to have been considerably larger than the great white shark, estimated at up to 17 m (56 ft) and 59,413 kg (130,983 lb).[21] Similarities among the physical remains and the extreme size of both the great white and C. megalodon led many scientists to believe these sharks were closely related, and the name Carcharodon megalodon was applied to the latter. However, a new hypothesis proposes that the C. megalodon and the great white are distant relatives (albeit sharing the family Lamnidae). The great white is also more closely related to an ancient mako shark, Isurus hastalis, than to the C. megalodon, a theory that seems to be supported with the discovery of a complete set of jaws with 222 teeth and 45 vertebrae of the extinct transitional species Carcharodon hubbelli in 1988 and published on 14 November 2012.[22] In addition, the new hypothesis assigns C. megalodon to the genus Carcharocles, which also comprises the other megatoothed sharks; Otodus obliquus is the ancient representative of the extinct Carcharocles lineage.[23]

text: Distribution and habitat

text: Great white sharks live in almost all coastal and offshore waters which have water temperature between 12 and 24 °C (54 and 75 °F), with greater concentrations in the United States (Northeast and California), South Africa, Japan, Oceania, Chile, and the Mediterranean including Sea of Marmara and Bosphorus.[24][25] One of the densest known populations is found around Dyer Island, South Africa.[26]

text: The great white is an epipelagic fish, observed mostly in the presence of rich game, such as fur seals (Arctocephalus ssp.), sea lions, cetaceans, other sharks, and large bony fish species. In the open ocean, it has been recorded at depths as great as 1,200 m (3,900 ft).[11] These findings challenge the traditional notion that the great white is a coastal species.[11]

text: According to a recent study, California great whites have migrated to an area between Baja California Peninsula and Hawaii known as the White Shark Café to spend at least 100 days before migrating back to Baja. On the journey out, they swim slowly and dive down to around 900 m (3,000 ft). After they arrive, they change behavior and do short dives to about 300 m (1,000 ft) for up to ten minutes. Another white shark that was tagged off of the South African coast swam to the southern coast of Australia and back within the year. A similar study tracked a different great white shark from South Africa swimming to Australia's northwestern coast and back, a journey of 20,000 km (12,000 mi; 11,000 nmi) in under nine months.[27] These observations argue against traditional theories that white sharks are coastal territorial predators, and open up the possibility of interaction between shark populations that were previously thought to have been discrete. The reasons for their migration and what they do at their destination is still unknown. Possibilities include seasonal feeding or mating.[28]

text: Anatomy and appearance

text: The great white shark has a robust, large, conical snout. The upper and lower lobes on the tail fin are approximately the same size which is similar to some mackerel sharks. A great white displays countershading, by having a white underside and a grey dorsal area (sometimes in a brown or blue shade) that gives an overall mottled appearance. The coloration makes it difficult for prey to spot the shark because it breaks up the shark's outline when seen from the side. From above, the darker shade blends with the sea and from below it exposes a minimal silhouette against the sunlight. Great white sharks, like many other sharks, have rows of serrated teeth behind the main ones, ready to replace any that break off. When the shark bites, it shakes its head side-to-side, helping the teeth saw off large chunks of flesh.[29]

text: Size

text: In great white sharks, sexual dimorphism is present, and females are generally larger than males. Male great whites on average measure 3.4 to 4.0 m (11 to 13 ft) long, while females at 4.6 to 4.9 m (15 to 16 ft).[6] Adults of this species weigh 522–771 kg (1,151–1,700 lb) on average,[31] however mature females can have an average mass of 680–1,110 kg (1,500–2,450 lb).[5] The largest females have been verified up to 6.1 m (20 ft) in length and an estimated 1,905 kg (4,200 lb) in weight,[3][4][5] perhaps up to 2,268 kg (5,000 lb).[32] The maximum size is subject to debate because some reports are rough estimations or speculations performed under questionable circumstances.[33] Among living cartilaginous fish, only the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), the basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) and the giant manta ray (Manta birostris), in that order, average larger and heavier. These three species are generally quite docile in disposition and given to passively filter-feeding on very small organisms.[31] This makes the great white shark the largest extant macropredatory fish. Great white sharks are at around 1.2 m (3.9 ft) when born, and grow about 25 cm (9.8 in) each year.[34]

text: According to J. E. Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a 6.0 m (19.7 ft) individual reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987.[35] Another great white specimen of similar size has been verified by the Canadian Shark Research Center: A female caught by David McKendrick of Alberton, Prince Edward Island, in August 1988 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off Prince Edward Island. This female great white was 6.1 m (20 ft) long.[5] However, there was a report considered reliable by some experts in the past, of a larger great white shark specimen from Cuba in 1945.[36][37][38][39] This specimen was 6.4 m (21 ft) long and had a body mass estimated at 3,324 kg (7,328 lb).[36][38] However, later studies also revealed that this particular specimen was actually around 4.9 m (16 ft) in length, a specimen in the average maximum size range.[5]

text: The largest great white recognized by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) is one caught by Alf Dean in the south Australian waters in 1959, weighing 1,208 kg (2,663 lb).[33] Several larger great whites caught by anglers have since been verified, but were later disallowed from formal recognition by IGFA monitors for rules violations.

text: Examples of large unconfirmed great whites

text: A number of very large unconfirmed great white shark specimens have been recorded.[40] For decades, many ichthyological works, as well as the Guinness Book of World Records, listed two great white sharks as the largest individuals: In the 1870s, a 10.9 m (36 ft) great white captured in southern Australian waters, near Port Fairy, and an 11.3 m (37 ft) shark trapped in a herring weir in New Brunswick, Canada, in the 1930s. However these measurements are not scientific and researchers have questioned the reliability of these measurements for a long time, noting they were much larger than any other accurately reported sighting. Later studies proved these theories correct. This New Brunswick shark may have been a misidentified basking shark, as the two have similar body shapes. The question of the Port Fairy shark was settled in the 1970s when J. E. Randall examined the shark's jaws and "found that the Port Fairy shark was of the order of 5 m (17 ft) in length and suggested that a mistake had been made in the original record, in 1870, of the shark's length".[35] These wrong measurements would make the alleged shark more than five times heavier than it really was.

text: Several unconfirmed reports of great white sharks caught in modern times with have been estimated to be more than 7 m (23 ft) long,[41] but these claims have received some criticism.[33][41] However, J. E. Randall believed that great white shark may have exceeded 6.1 m (20 ft) in length.[35] A great white shark was captured near Kangaroo Island in Australia on 1 April 1987. This shark was estimated to be more than 6.9 m (23 ft) long by Peter Resiley,[35][42] and has been designated as KANGA.[41] Another great white shark was caught in Malta by Alfredo Cutajar on 16 April 1987. This shark was also estimated to be around 7.13 m (23.4 ft) long by John Abela and has been designated as MALTA.[41] However, Cappo drew criticism because he used shark size estimation methods proposed by J. E. Randall to suggest that the KANGA specimen was 5.8–6.4 m (19–21 ft) long.[41] In a similar fashion, I. K. Fergusson also used shark size estimation methods proposed by J. E. Randall to suggest that the MALTA specimen was 5.3–5.7 m (17–19 ft) long.[41] However, photographic evidence suggested that these specimens were larger than the size estimations yielded through Randall's methods.[41] Thus, a team of scientists—H. F. Mollet, G. M. Cailliet, A. P. Klimley, D. A. Ebert, A. D. Testi, and L. J. V. Compagno—reviewed the cases of the KANGA and MALTA specimens in 1996 to resolve the dispute by conducting a comprehensive morphometric analysis of the remains of these sharks and re-examination of photographic evidence in an attempt to validate the original size estimations and their findings were consistent with them. The findings indicated that estimations by P. Resiley and J. Abela are reasonable and could not be ruled out.[41] A particularly large female great white nicknamed "Deep Blue", estimated measuring at 6.1 m (20 ft) was filmed off Guadalupe during shooting for the 2014 episode of Shark Week "Jaws Strikes Back". Deep Blue would also later gain significant attention when she was filmed interacting with researcher Mauricio Hoyas Pallida in a viral video that Mauricio posted on Facebook on 11 June 2015.[43] A particularly infamous great white shark, supposedly of record proportions, once patrolled the area that comprises False Bay, South Africa, was said to be well over 7 metres (23 ft) during the early 1980s. This shark, known locally as the "Submarine", had a legendary reputation that was supposedly well founded. Though rumors have stated this shark was exaggerated in size or non-existent altogether, witness accounts by the then young Craig Anthony Ferreira, a notable shark expert in South Africa, and his father indicate an unusually large animal of considerable size and power (though it remains uncertain just how massive the shark was as it escaped capture each time it was hooked). Ferreira describes the four encounters with the giant shark he participated in with great detail in his book "Great White Sharks On Their Best Behavior".[44]

text: One contender in maximum size among the predatory sharks is the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier). While tiger sharks which are typically both a few feet smaller and have a leaner, less heavy body structure than white sharks, have been confirmed to reach at least 5.5 metres (18 ft) in the length, an unverified specimen was reported to have measured 7.4 metres (24 ft) in length and weighed 3,110 kilograms (6,860 lb), more than two times heavier than the largest confirmed specimen at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb).[31][45][46] Some other macropredatory sharks such as the Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) and the Pacific sleeper shark (S. pacificus) are also reported to rival these sharks in length (but probably weigh a bit less since they are more slender in build than a great white) in exceptional cases.[47][48] The question of maximum weight is complicated by the unresolved question of whether or not to include the shark's stomach contents when weighing the shark. With a single bite a great white can take in up to 14 kg (31 lb) of flesh, and can also consume several hundred kilograms of food.

text: Adaptations

text: Great white sharks, like all other sharks, have an extra sense given by the ampullae of Lorenzini which enables them to detect the electromagnetic field emitted by the movement of living animals. Great whites are so sensitive they can detect variations of half a billionth of a volt. At close range, this allows the shark to locate even immobile animals by detecting their heartbeat. Most fish have a less-developed but similar sense using their body's lateral line.[49]

text: To more successfully hunt fast and agile prey such as sea lions, the great white has adapted to maintain a body temperature warmer than the surrounding water. One of these adaptations is a "rete mirabile" (Latin for "wonderful net"). This close web-like structure of veins and arteries, located along each lateral side of the shark, conserves heat by warming the cooler arterial blood with the venous blood that has been warmed by the working muscles. This keeps certain parts of the body (particularly the stomach) at temperatures up to 14 °C (25 °F)[50] above that of the surrounding water, while the heart and gills remain at sea temperature. When conserving energy the core body temperature can drop to match the surroundings. A great white shark's success in raising its core temperature is an example of gigantothermy. Therefore, the great white shark can be considered an endothermic poikilotherm because its body temperature is not constant but is internally regulated.[29] Great whites also rely on the fat and oils stored within their livers for long-distance migrations across nutrient-poor areas of the oceans.[51] Studies by Stanford University and the Monterey Bay Aquarium published on 17 July 2013 revealed that In addition to controlling the sharks' buoyancy, the liver of great whites is essential in migration patterns. Sharks that sink faster during drift dives were revealed to use up their internal stores of energy quicker than those which sink in a dive at more leisurely rates.[52]

text: Bite force

text: A 2007 study from the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, used CT scans of a shark's skull and computer models to measure the shark's maximum bite force. The study reveals the forces and behaviors its skull is adapted to handle and resolves competing theories about its feeding behavior.[53] In 2008, a team of scientists led by Stephen Wroe conducted an experiment to determine the great white shark's jaw power and findings indicated that a specimen massing 3,324 kg (7,328 lb) could exert a bite force of 18,216 newtons (4,095 lbf).[38]

text: Ecology and behavior

text: This shark's behavior and social structure is not well understood. In South Africa, white sharks have a dominance hierarchy depending on the size, sex and squatter's rights: Females dominate males, larger sharks dominate smaller sharks, and residents dominate newcomers. When hunting, great whites tend to separate and resolve conflicts with rituals and displays. White sharks rarely resort to combat although some individuals have been found with bite marks that match those of other white sharks. This suggests that when a great white approaches too closely to another, they react with a warning bite. Another possibility is that white sharks bite to show their dominance.

text: The great white shark is one of only a few sharks known to regularly lift its head above the sea surface to gaze at other objects such as prey. This is known as spy-hopping. This behavior has also been seen in at least one group of blacktip reef sharks, but this might be learned from interaction with humans (it is theorized that the shark may also be able to smell better this way because smell travels through air faster than through water). White sharks are generally very curious animals, display intelligence and may also turn to socializing if the situation demands it. At Seal Island, white sharks have been observed arriving and departing in stable "clans" of two to six individuals on a yearly basis. Whether clan members are related is unknown but they get along peacefully enough. In fact, the social structure of a clan is probably most aptly compared to that of a wolf pack; in that each member has a clearly established rank and each clan has an alpha leader. When members of different clans meet, they establish social rank nonviolently through any of a variety of interactions.[54]

text: Diet

text: Great white sharks are carnivorous and prey upon fish (e.g. tuna, rays,[54] other sharks[54]), cetaceans (i.e., dolphins, porpoises, whales), pinnipeds (e.g. seals, fur seals,[54] and sea lions), sea turtles,[54] sea otters (Enhydra lutris) and seabirds.[55] Great whites have also been known to eat objects that they are unable to digest. Juvenile white sharks predominantly prey on fish including other elasmobranchs, as their jaws are not strong enough to withstand the forces required to attack larger prey such as pinnipeds and cetaceans until they reach a length of 3 meters (9.8 ft) or more, at which point their jaw cartilage mineralizes enough to withstand the impact of biting into larger prey species.[56] Upon approaching a length of nearly 4 meters (13 ft), great white sharks begin to target predominately marine mammals for food, though individual sharks seem to specialize in different types of prey depending on their preferences.[57][58] They seem to be highly opportunistic.[59][60] These sharks prefer prey with a high content of energy-rich fat. Shark expert Peter Klimley used a rod-and-reel rig and trolled carcasses of a seal, a pig, and a sheep from his boat in the South Farallons. The sharks attacked all three baits but rejected the sheep carcass.[61]

text: Off California, sharks immobilize northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with a large bite to the hindquarters (which is the main source of the seal's mobility) and wait for the seal to bleed to death. This technique is especially used on adult male elephant seals, which are typically larger than the shark, ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 kg (3,300 and 4,400 lb), and are potentially dangerous adversaries.[62][63] Most commonly though, juvenile elephant seals are the most frequently eaten at elephant seal colonies.[64] Prey is normally attacked sub-surface. Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) are taken from the surface and dragged down until they stop struggling. They are then eaten near the bottom. California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) are ambushed from below and struck mid-body before being dragged and eaten.[65]

text: White sharks also attack dolphins and porpoises from above, behind or below to avoid being detected by their echolocation. Targeted species include dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus),[41] Risso's dolphins (Grampus griseus),[41] bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops ssp.),[41][66] Humpback dolphins (Sousa ssp.),[66] harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena),[41] and Dall's porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli).[41] Groups of dolphins have occasionally been observed defending themselves from sharks with mobbing behaviour.[66] White shark predation on other species of small cetacean has also been observed. In August 1989, a 1.8-meter (5.9 ft) juvenile male pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) was found stranded in central California with a bite mark on its caudal peduncle from a great white shark.[67] In addition, white sharks attack and prey upon beaked whales.[41][66] Cases where an adult Stejneger's beaked whale (Mesoplodon stejnegeri), with a mean mass of around 1,100 kg (2,400 lb),[68] and a juvenile Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), an individual estimated at 3 m (9.8 ft), were hunted and killed by great white sharks have also been observed.[69] When hunting sea turtles, they appear to simply bite through the carapace around a flipper, immobilizing the turtle. The heaviest species of bony fish, the oceanic sunfish (Mola mola), has been found in great white shark stomachs.[59]

text: Off Seal Island, False Bay in South Africa, the sharks ambush brown fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus) from below at high speeds, hitting the seal mid-body. They can go so fast that they completely leave the water. The peak burst speed is estimated to be above 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph).[70] They have also been observed chasing prey after a missed attack. Prey is usually attacked at the surface.[71] Shark attacks most often occur in the morning, within 2 hours of sunrise, when visibility is poor. Their success rate is 55% in the first 2 hours, falling to 40% in late morning after which hunting stops.[54]

text: Whale carcasses comprise an important part of the diet of white sharks. However, this has rarely been observed due to whales dying in remote areas. It has been estimated that 30 kg (66 lb) of whale blubber could feed a 4.5 m (15 ft) white shark for 1.5 months. Detailed observations were made of four whale carcasses in False Bay between 2000 and 2010. Sharks were drawn to the carcass by chemical and odour detection, spread by strong winds. After initially feeding on the whale caudal peduncle and fluke, the sharks would investigate the carcass by slowly swimming around it and mouthing several parts before selecting a blubber-rich area. During feeding bouts of 15–20 seconds the sharks removed flesh with lateral headshakes, without the protective ocular rotation they employ when attacking live prey. The sharks were frequently observed regurgitating chunks of blubber and immediately returning to feed, possibly in order to replace low energy yield pieces with high energy yield pieces, using their teeth as mechanoreceptors to distinguish them. After feeding for several hours, the sharks appeared to become lethargic, no longer swimming to the surface; they were observed mouthing the carcass but apparently unable to bite hard enough to remove flesh, they would instead bounce off and slowly sink. Up to eight sharks were observed feeding simultaneously, bumping into each other without showing any signs of aggression; on one occasion a shark accidentally bit the head of a neighbouring shark, leaving two teeth embedded, but both continued to feed unperturbed. Smaller individuals hovered around the carcass eating chunks that drifted away. Unusually for the area, large numbers of sharks over five metres long were observed, suggesting that the largest sharks change their behaviour to search for whales as they lose the maneuverability required to hunt seals. The investigating team concluded that the importance of whale carcasses, particularly for the largest white sharks, has been underestimated.[72] In another documented incident, white sharks were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside tiger sharks.[73]

text: Stomach contents of great whites also indicates that whale sharks both juvenile and adult may also be included on the animal's menu, though whether this is active hunting or scavenging is not known at present.[74][75]

text: Reproduction

text: Great white sharks were previously thought to reach sexual maturity at around 15 years of age, but are now believed to take far longer; male great white sharks reach sexual maturity at age 26, while females take 33 years to reach sexual maturity.[9][76][77] Maximum life span was originally believed to be more than 30 years, but a study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution placed it at upwards of 70 years. Examinations of vertebral growth ring count gave a maximum male age of 73 years and a maximum female age of 40 years for the specimens studied. The shark's late sexual maturity, low reproductive rate and slow growth make it vulnerable to pressures such as overfishing and environmental change.[8]

text: Little is known about the great white shark's mating habits. It is possible that whale carcasses are an important location for sexually mature sharks to meet for mating.[72] Birth has never been observed, but pregnant females have been examined. Great white sharks are ovoviviparous, which means eggs develop and hatch in the uterus and continue to develop until birth.[78] The great white has an 11-month gestation period. The shark pup's powerful jaws begin to develop in the first month. The unborn sharks participate in oophagy, in which they feed on ova produced by the mother. Delivery is in spring and summer.[79] The Northern Pacific population of great whites is suspected to breed off of the Sea of Cortez, as evidenced by local fisherman who have said to have caught them and evidenced by teeth found at dump sites for discarded parts from their catches.[citation needed]

text: Breaching behavior

text: A breach is the result of a high speed approach to the surface with the resulting momentum taking the shark partially or completely clear of the water. This is a hunting technique employed by great white sharks whilst hunting seals. This technique is often used on cape fur seals at Seal Island in False Bay, South Africa. Because the behavior is unpredictable, it is very hard to document. It was first photographed by Chris Fallows and Rob Lawrence who developed the technique of towing a slow-moving seal decoy to trick the sharks to breach.[80] Between April and September, scientists may observe around 600 breaches. The seals swim on the surface and the great white sharks launch their predatory attack from the deeper water below. They can reach speeds of up to 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph) and can at times launch themselves more than 3.0 metres (10 ft) into the air. Just under half of observed breach attacks are successful.[81] In 2011, a 3-meter (9.8 ft) long shark jumped onto a seven-person research vessel off Seal Island in Mossel Bay. The crew were undertaking a population study using sardines as bait, and the incident was judged not to be an attack on the boat but an accident.[82]

text: Natural threats

text: Interspecific competition between the great white shark and the orca is probable in regions where dietary preferences of both species may overlap.[66] An incident was documented on 4 October 1997, in the Farallon Islands off California in the United States. An estimated 4.7–5.3-meter (15–17 ft) female orca immobilized an estimated 3–4-meter (9.8–13.1 ft) great white shark.[83] The orca held the shark upside down to induce tonic immobility and kept the shark still for fifteen minutes, causing it to suffocate. The orca then proceeded to eat the dead shark's liver.[66][83][84] It is believed that the scent of the slain shark's carcass caused all the great whites in the region to flee, forfeiting an opportunity for a great seasonal feed.[85] Another similar attack apparently occurred there in 2000, but its outcome is not clear.[86] After both attacks, the local population of about 100 great whites vanished.[84][86] Following the 2000 incident, a great white with a satellite tag was found to have immediately submerged to a depth of 500 m (1,600 ft) and swum to Hawaii.[86] In 2015, a pod of orcas was recorded to have killed a great white shark off South Australia.[87] In 2017, along the South African coast, four great whites were found washed ashore with their livers removed with what was described as 'surgical precision'. Local scientists claim that pods of orcas in the area were to blame for the attacks.[88]

text: Conservation status

text: It is unclear how much of a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate global population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered vulnerable.[2] Sharks taken during the long interval between birth and sexual maturity never reproduce, making population recovery and growth difficult.

text: The IUCN notes that very little is known about the actual status of the great white shark, but as it appears uncommon compared to other widely distributed species, it is considered vulnerable.[2] It is included in Appendix II of CITES,[15] meaning that international trade in the species requires a permit.[89] As of March 2010, it has also been included in Annex I of the CMS Migratory Sharks MoU, which strives for increased international understanding and coordination for the protection of certain migratory sharks.[90] A February 2010 study by Barbara Block of Stanford University estimated the world population of great white sharks to be lower than 3,500 individuals, making the species more vulnerable to extinction than the tiger, whose population is in the same range.[91] According to another study from 2014 by George H. Burgess, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, there are about 2,000 great white sharks near the California coast, which is 10 times higher than the previous estimate of 219 by Barbara Block.[92][93]

text: Fishermen target many sharks for their jaws, teeth, and fins, and as game fish in general. The great white shark, however, is rarely an object of commercial fishing, although its flesh is considered valuable. If casually captured (it happens for example in some tonnare in the Mediterranean), it is misleadingly sold as smooth-hound shark.[94]

text: In Australia

text: The great white shark was declared Vulnerable by the Australian Government in 1999 because of significant population decline and is currently protected under the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act.[95] The causes of decline prior to protection included mortality from sport fishing harvests as well as being caught in beach protection netting.[96]

text: The national conservation status of the great white shark is reflected by all Australian states under their respective laws, granting the species full protection throughout Australia regardless of jurisdiction.[95] Many states had prohibited the killing or possession of great white sharks prior to national legislation coming into effect. The great white shark is further listed as Threatened in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, and as rare or likely to become extinct under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife Conservation Act in Western Australia.[95]

text: In 2002, the Australian government created the White Shark Recovery Plan, implementing government-mandated conservation research and monitoring for conservation in addition to federal protection and stronger regulation of shark-related trade and tourism activities.[96] An updated recovery plan was published in 2013 to review progress, research findings, and to implement further conservation actions.[16] A study in 2012 revealed that Australia's White Shark population was separated by Bass Strait into genetically distinct eastern and western populations, indicating a need for the development of regional conservation strategies.[97]

text: Presently, human-caused shark mortality is continuing, primarily from accidental and illegal catching in commercial and recreational fishing as well as from being caught in beach protection netting, and the populations of great white shark in Australia are yet to recover.[16]

text: The Australasian population of great white sharks is believed to be in excess of 8,000-10,000 individuals according to genetic research studies done by CSIRO, with an adult population estimated to be around 2,210 individuals in both Eastern and Western Australia. The annual survival rate for juveniles in these two separate populations was estimated in the same study to be close to 73 percent, while adult sharks had a 93 percent annual survival rate. Whether or not mortality rates in great white sharks have declined, or the population has increased as a result of the protection of this species in Australian waters is as yet unknown due to the slow growth rates of this species.[98]

text: In New Zealand

text: As of April 2007, great white sharks were fully protected within 370 kilometers (230 mi) of New Zealand and additionally from fishing by New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. The maximum penalty is a $250,000 fine and up to six months in prison.[99]

text: In North America

text: In 2013, great white sharks were added to California's Endangered Species Act. From data collected, the population of great whites in the North Pacific was estimated to be fewer than 340 individuals. Research also reveals these sharks are genetically distinct from other members of their species elsewhere in Africa, Australia, and the east coast of North America, having been isolated from other populations.[100]

text: A 2014 study estimated the population of great white sharks along the California coastline to be approximately 2,400.[101][102]

text: In 2015 Massachusetts banned catching, cage diving, feeding, towing decoys, or baiting and chumming for its significant and highly predictable migratory great white population without an appropriate research permit. The goal of these restrictions is to both protect the sharks and public health.[103]

text: Relationship with humans

text: Shark bite incidents

text: While the term "shark attack" is in common use for instances of humans being wounded by sharks, it has been suggested that this is based largely on the misconception that white sharks and other large predatory sharks (such as bull and tiger sharks) seek out humans as prey. A recent review recommends that only in the very rare instances where a shark clearly predated on a human should the bite incident be termed an "attack," which implies predation, and that otherwise it is more accurate to class bite incidents as "sighting", "encounter", "bite incident", or "fatal bite incident". Sightings do not include physical interaction, encounters include physical interaction without harm, shark bites include minor and major shark bite incidents, including those that do and do not require medical attention, and fatal shark bite incidents are those that result in death. The study suggests that only in a case where an expert validates the predatory intent of a shark would it be appropriate to term a bite incident an attack.[104]

text: Of all shark species, the great white shark is responsible for by far the largest number of recorded shark bite incidents on humans, with 272 documented unprovoked bite incidents on humans as of 2012.[18]

text: More than any documented bite incident, Peter Benchley's best-selling novel Jaws and the subsequent 1975 film adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg provided the great white shark with the image of being a "man eater" in the public mind.[105] While great white sharks have killed humans in at least 74 documented unprovoked bite incidents, they typically do not target them: for example, in the Mediterranean Sea there have been 31 confirmed bite incidents against humans in the last two centuries, most of which were non-fatal. Many of the incidents seemed to be "test-bites". Great white sharks also test-bite buoys, flotsam, and other unfamiliar objects, and they might grab a human or a surfboard to identify what it is.

text: Contrary to popular belief, great white sharks do not mistake humans for seals.[106] Many bite incidents occur in waters with low visibility or other situations which impair the shark's senses. The species appears to not like the taste of humans, or at least finds the taste unfamiliar. Further research shows that they can tell in one bite whether or not the object is worth predating upon. Humans, for the most part, are too bony for their liking. They much prefer a fat, protein-rich seal.[107]

text: Humans are not appropriate prey because the shark's digestion is too slow to cope with a human's high ratio of bone to muscle and fat. Accordingly, in most recorded shark bite incidents, great whites broke off contact after the first bite. Fatalities are usually caused by blood loss from the initial bite rather than from critical organ loss or from whole consumption. From 1990 to 2011 there have been a total of 139 unprovoked great white shark bite incidents, 29 fatal.[108]

text: However, some researchers have hypothesized that the reason the proportion of fatalities is low is not because sharks do not like human flesh, but because humans are often able to escape after the first bite. In the 1980s, John McCosker, Chair of Aquatic Biology at the California Academy of Sciences, noted that divers who dove solo and were bitten by great whites were generally at least partially consumed, while divers who followed the buddy system were generally rescued by their companion. McCosker and Timothy C. Tricas, an author and professor at the University of Hawaii, suggest that a standard pattern for great whites is to make an initial devastating attack and then wait for the prey to weaken before consuming the wounded animal. Humans' ability to move out of reach with the help of others, thus foiling the attack, is unusual for a great white's prey.[109]

text: In 2014 the state government of Western Australia led by Premier Colin Barnett implemented a policy of killing large sharks. The policy, colloquially referred to as the Western Australian shark cull, was intended to protect users of the marine environment from shark bite incidents, following the deaths of seven people on the Western Australian coastline in the years 2010–2013.[110] Baited drum lines were deployed near popular beaches using hooks designed to catch great white sharks, as well as bull and tiger sharks. Large sharks found hooked but still alive were shot and their bodies discarded at sea.[111] The government claimed they were not culling the sharks, but were using a "targeted, localised, hazard mitigation strategy".[112] Barnett described opposition as "ludicrous" and "extreme", and said that nothing could change his mind.[113] This policy was met with widespread condemnation from the scientific community, which showed that species responsible for bite incidents were notoriously hard to identify, that the drum lines failed to capture white sharks, as intended, and that the government also failed to show any correlation between their drum line policy and a decrease in shark bite incidents in the region.[114]

text: Attacks on boats

text: Great white sharks infrequently bite and sometimes even sink boats. Only five of the 108 authenticated unprovoked shark bite incidents reported from the Pacific Coast during the 20th century involved kayakers.[115] In a few cases they have bitten boats up to 10 meters (33 ft) in length. They have bumped or knocked people overboard, usually biting the boat from the stern. In one case in 1936, a large shark leapt completely into the South African fishing boat Lucky Jim, knocking a crewman into the sea. Tricas and McCosker's underwater observations suggest that sharks are attracted to boats by the electrical fields they generate, which are picked up by the ampullae of Lorenzini and confuse the shark about whether or not wounded prey might be near-by.[116]

text: In captivity

text: Prior to August 1981, no great white shark in captivity lived longer than 11 days. In August 1981, a great white survived for 16 days at SeaWorld San Diego before being released.[117] The idea of containing a live great white at SeaWorld Orlando was used in the 1983 film Jaws 3-D.

text: Monterey Bay Aquarium first attempted to display a great white in 1984, but the shark died after 11 days because it did not eat.[118] In July 2003, Monterey researchers captured a small female and kept it in a large netted pen near Malibu for five days. They had the rare success of getting the shark to feed in captivity before its release.[119] Not until September 2004 was the aquarium able to place a great white on long-term exhibit. A young female, which was caught off the coast of Ventura, was kept in the aquarium's 3,800,000-liter (1,000,000 U.S. gal) Outer Bay exhibit for 198 days before she was released in March 2005. She was tracked for 30 days after release.[120] On the evening of 31 August 2006, the aquarium introduced a juvenile male caught outside Santa Monica Bay.[121] His first meal as a captive was a large salmon steak on 8 September 2006, and as of that date, he was estimated to be 1.72 meters (68 in) in length and to weigh approximately 47 kilograms (104 lb). He was released on 16 January 2007, after 137 days in captivity.

text: Monterey Bay Aquarium housed a third great white, a juvenile male, for 162 days between 27 August 2007, and 5 February 2008. On arrival, he was 1.4 m (4.6 ft) long and weighed 30.6 kg (67 lb). He grew to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) and 64 kg (141 lb) before release. A juvenile female came to the Outer Bay Exhibit on 27 August 2008. While she did swim well, the shark fed only one time during her stay and was tagged and released on 7 September 2008. Another juvenile female was captured near Malibu on 12 August 2009, introduced to the Outer Bay exhibit on 26 August 2009, and was successfully released into the wild on 4 November 2009.[122] The Monterey Bay Aquarium added a 1.4-meter (4.6 ft) long male into their redesigned "Open Sea" exhibit on 31 August 2011. The animal was captured in the waters off of Malibu.

text: One of the largest adult great whites ever exhibited was at Japan's Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in 2016, where a 3.5 meters (11 ft) male was exhibited for three days before dying.[123][124] Probably the most famous captive was a 2.4 m (7.9 ft) female named Sandy, which in August 1980 became the only great white to be housed at the California Academy of Sciences' Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco, California. She was released because she would not eat and constantly bumped against the walls.[125]

text: Shark tourism

text: Cage diving is most common at sites where great whites are frequent including the coast of South Africa, the Neptune Islands in South Australia,[126] and Guadalupe Island in Baja California. The popularity of cage diving and swimming with sharks is at the focus of a booming tourist industry.[127][128] A common practice is to chum the water with pieces of fish to attract the sharks. These practices may make sharks more accustomed to people in their environment and to associate human activity with food; a potentially dangerous situation. By drawing bait on a wire towards the cage, tour operators lure the shark to the cage, possibly striking it, exacerbating this problem. Other operators draw the bait away from the cage, causing the shark to swim past the divers.

text: At present, hang baits are illegal off Isla Guadalupe and reputable dive operators do not use them. Operators in South Africa and Australia continue to use hang baits and pinniped decoys.[129] In South Australia, playing rock music recordings underwater, including the AC/DC album Back in Black has also been used experimentally to attract sharks.[130]

text: Companies object to being blamed for shark bite incidents, pointing out that lightning tends to strike humans more often than sharks bite humans.[131] Their position is that further research needs to be done before banning practices such as chumming, which may alter natural behavior.[132] One compromise is to only use chum in areas where whites actively patrol anyway, well away from human leisure areas. Also, responsible dive operators do not feed sharks. Only sharks that are willing to scavenge follow the chum trail and if they find no food at the end then the shark soon swims off and does not associate chum with a meal. It has been suggested that government licensing strategies may help enforce these responsible tourism.[129]

text: The shark tourist industry has some financial leverage in conserving this animal. A single set of great white jaws can fetch up to £20,000. That is a fraction of the tourism value of a live shark; tourism is a more sustainable economic activity than shark fishing. For example, the dive industry in Gansbaai, South Africa consists of six boat operators with each boat guiding 30 people each day. With fees between £50 and £150 per person, a single live shark that visits each boat can create anywhere between £9,000 and £27,000 of revenue daily.[133]

text:
Putting chum in the water

A great white shark approaches divers in a cage off Dyer Island, Western Cape, South Africa.

Play media

A great white shark approaches a cage


document_title: Dracula's Dog

question_text: what breed of dog was zoltan hound of dracula

text: Dracula's Dog

text: Plot[edit]

text: A Romanian road crew accidentally blasts open a subterranean crypt, and the captain of the road crew, fearing looters and criminals, stations a guard near the site. Late in the night, an earthquake shakes loose one of the coffins, which slides down and lands at the feet of the confused guard. Curious as to what has fallen before him, the guard opens the coffin and discovers the body of a dog, impaled by a stake. He removes the stake, which revives the vampiric Doberman pinscher Zoltan.

text: After slaying the guard, Zoltan opens another coffin shaken loose from the crypt, this one holding the body of his master, an innkeeper named Veidt Smit (Reggie Nalder), who once owned the crypt. Zoltan removes the stake from the innkeeper's chest, reanimating the innkeeper. The movie cuts to a flashback of a village in Romania in 1670, over 300 years ago.

text: The dog of an innkeeper saves a woman from being bitten by Count Igor Dracula. Furious over losing his meal to a dog, Dracula, in bat form, bites the woman's savior, turning the dog into a vampire. Then Dracula, with the dog by his side, turns on his owner, turning the innkeeper into a creature called a "fractional lamia" (a undead creature that is only part vampire, able to function in the daytime and having no need to drink blood) and thus turns him into a slave of the Dracula family.

text: Back in the present (1977), it appears that the Dracula family has only one surviving descendant, Michael Drake, a mild-mannered psychiatrist, played by Michael Pataki, who decides to take his wife, Marla and their two children, Linda and Steve (who are, technically, also descendants of the Draculas), as well as their two German shepherds, Samson and Annie, and their two puppies, on a vacation in his Winnebago, hoping to spend some quality time with his family and their pets out in a national forest.

text: Still loyal to the Draculas, the vampire dog and his master travel to the United States, shipping themselves via boat to California in order to make Michael their new master. Eventually, Zoltan and Smit find themselves in the same forest as Michael, his family and their dogs.

text: Other campers, vacationing with their dogs, discover that their pets are being killed by a strange beast. The deceased animals soon reanimate into vampiric dogs, the minions of Zoltan. Zoltan is killed in the final scene, but a vampire puppy escapes destruction.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Michael Pataki as Michael Drake/Count Igor Dracula
José Ferrer as Inspector Vaclav Branco
Reggie Nalder as Veidt Smit
Jan Shutan as Marla Drake
Libby Chase as Linda Drake
John Levin as Steve Drake
Cleo Harington as Pat Parks
Arlene Martel as Major Hessel
Tom Gerrard as Maslow, the guard
Al Ferrara as Al, the deputy
Roger Pancake as Sheriff
Dimitri Logothetis as Corporal

text: Release[edit]

text: Thorn EMI/HBO and United Home Video both released it on VHS as Zoltan...Hound of Dracula and Dracula's Dog, respectively.[3] Anchor Bay Entertainment released it on DVD as Zoltan...Hound of Dracula on August 20, 2002.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports 17% of six surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 3.6/10.[5] Michael Wilmington of the Los Angeles Times called it the nadir of vampire films.[6] TV Guide rated it 1/5 stars and called the film's premise "ludicrous".[7] Adam Tyner of DVD Talk rated it 2/5 stars and wrote that the film is too inept to be scary, though it is fun to mock.[4] Writing in The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, John Clute and John Grant call it "surprising dull" but complimented the dogs.[8] Welch Everman wrote in Cult Horror Movies that the film "could have been a pretty effective and frightening movie" but failed to live up to its potential.[3]