document_title: Coca-Cola

question_text: the first bottling agreement with coca-cola took place in which city

question_tokens: the first bottling agreement with coca-cola took place in which city

text: Coca-Cola

text: History

text: 19th-century historical origins

text: Confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug.[5] The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at Pemberton's Eagle Drug and Chemical House,[6] a drugstore in Columbus, Georgia, originally as a coca wine.[7][8] He may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine.[9] It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called "Kola Coca" was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, a year before the official birth of Coca-Cola. The rights for this Spanish drink were bought by Coca-Cola in 1953.[10]

text: In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic.[11] In 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca.[12] The first sales were at Jacob's Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 8, 1886.[13] It was initially sold as a patent medicine for five cents[14] a glass at soda fountains, which were popular in the United States at the time due to the belief that carbonated water was good for the health.[15] Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the same year in the Atlanta Journal.[16]

text: By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market. A co-partnership had been formed on January 14, 1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen: J.C. Mayfield, A.O. Murphey, C.O. Mullahy, and E.H. Bloodworth. Not codified by any signed document, a verbal statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pemberton's company as early as 1887.[17] John Pemberton declared that the name "Coca-Cola" belonged to his son, Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the formula.[18]

text: Charley Pemberton's record of control over the "Coca-Cola" name was the underlying factor that allowed for him to participate as a major shareholder in the March 1888 Coca-Cola Company incorporation filing made in his father's place.[19] Charley's exclusive control over the "Coca-Cola" name became a continual thorn in Asa Candler's side. Candler's oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University. In this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states: "..., on April 14, 1888, the young druggist [Asa Griggs Candler] purchased a one-third interest in the formula of an almost completely unknown proprietary elixir known as Coca-Cola."[20]

text: The deal was actually between John Pemberton's son Charley and Walker, Candler & Co. – with John Pemberton acting as cosigner for his son. For $50 down and $500 in 30 days, Walker, Candler & Co. obtained all of the one-third interest in the Coca-Cola Company that Charley held, all while Charley still held on to the name. After the April 14 deal, on April 17, 1888, one-half of the Walker/Dozier interest shares were acquired by Candler for an additional $750.[21]

text: The Coca-Cola Company

text: In 1892, Candler set out to incorporate a second company; "The Coca-Cola Company" (the current corporation). When Candler had the earliest records of the "Coca-Cola Company" burned in 1910, the action was claimed to have been made during a move to new corporation offices around this time.[22]

text: After Candler had gained a better foothold on Coca-Cola in April 1888, he nevertheless was forced to sell the beverage he produced with the recipe he had under the names "Yum Yum" and "Koke". This was while Charley Pemberton was selling the elixir, although a cruder mixture, under the name "Coca-Cola", all with his father's blessing. After both names failed to catch on for Candler, by the middle of 1888, the Atlanta pharmacist was quite anxious to establish a firmer legal claim to Coca-Cola, and hoped he could force his two competitors, Walker and Dozier, completely out of the business, as well.[23]

text: On August 16, 1888, Dr. John Stith Pemberton suddenly died; Asa G. Candler then sought to move swiftly forward to attain his vision of taking full control of the whole Coca-Cola operation.

text: Charley Pemberton, an alcoholic, was the one obstacle who unnerved Asa Candler more than anyone else. Candler is said to have quickly maneuvered to purchase the exclusive rights to the name "Coca-Cola" from Pemberton's son Charley right after Dr. Pemberton's death. One of several stories was that Candler bought the title to the name from Charley's mother for $300; approaching her at Dr. Pemberton's funeral. Eventually, Charley Pemberton was found on June 23, 1894, unconscious, with a stick of opium by his side. Ten days later, Charley died at Atlanta's Grady Hospital at the age of 40.[24]

text: In Charles Howard Candler's 1950 book about his father, he stated: "On August 30th [1888], he [Asa Candler] became sole proprietor of Coca-Cola, a fact which was stated on letterheads, invoice blanks and advertising copy."[25]

text: With this action on August 30, 1888, Candler's sole control became technically all true. Candler had negotiated with Margaret Dozier and her brother Woolfolk Walker a full payment amounting to $1,000, which all agreed Candler could pay off with a series of notes over a specified time span. By May 1, 1889, Candler was now claiming full ownership of the Coca-Cola beverage, with a total investment outlay by Candler for the drink enterprise over the years amounting to $2,300.[26]

text: In 1914, Margaret Dozier, as co-owner of the original Coca-Cola Company in 1888, came forward to claim that her signature on the 1888 Coca-Cola Company bill of sale had been forged. Subsequent analysis of certain similar transfer documents had also indicated John Pemberton's signature was most likely a forgery, as well, which some accounts claim was precipitated by his son Charley.[27]

text: On September 12, 1919, Coca-Cola Co. was purchased by a group of investors for $25 million and reincorporated. The company publicly offered 500,000 shares of the company for $40 a share.[28][29]

text: In 1986, The Coca-Cola Company merged with two of their bottling operators (owned by JTL Corporation and BCI Holding Corporation) to form Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE).[30]

text: In December 1991, Coca-Cola Enterprises merged with the Johnston Coca-Cola Bottling Group, Inc.[30]

text: Origins of bottling

text: The first bottling of Coca-Cola occurred in Vicksburg, Mississippi, at the Biedenharn Candy Company in 1891. The proprietor of the bottling works was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Biedenharn bottles, very different from the much later hobble-skirt design of 1915 now so familiar.

text: It was then a few years later that two entrepreneurs from Chattanooga, Tennessee, namely Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead, proposed the idea of bottling and were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure for only one dollar.[31] Candler never collected his dollar, but in 1899, Chattanooga became the site of the first Coca-Cola bottling company. Candler remained very content just selling his company's syrup.[32] The loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for The Coca-Cola Company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies, effectively becoming parent bottlers.[33] This contract specified that bottles would be sold at 5¢ each and had no fixed duration, leading to the fixed price of Coca-Cola from 1886 to 1959.

text: 20th century

text: The first outdoor wall advertisement that promoted the Coca-Cola drink was painted in 1894 in Cartersville, Georgia.[34] Cola syrup was sold as an over-the-counter dietary supplement for upset stomach.[35][36] By the time of its 50th anniversary, the soft drink had reached the status of a national icon in the USA. In 1935, it was certified kosher by Atlanta Rabbi Tobias Geffen, after the company made minor changes in the sourcing of some ingredients.[37]

text: The longest running commercial Coca-Cola soda fountain anywhere was Atlanta's Fleeman's Pharmacy, which first opened its doors in 1914.[38] Jack Fleeman took over the pharmacy from his father and ran it until 1995; closing it after 81 years.[39] On July 12, 1944, the one-billionth gallon of Coca-Cola syrup was manufactured by The Coca-Cola Company. Cans of Coke first appeared in 1955.[40]

text: New Coke

text: On April 23, 1985, Coca-Cola, amid much publicity, attempted to change the formula of the drink with "New Coke". Follow-up taste tests revealed most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi[41] but Coca-Cola management was unprepared for the public's nostalgia for the old drink, leading to a backlash. The company gave in to protests and returned to a variation of the old formula using high fructose corn syrup instead of cane sugar as the main sweetener, under the name Coca-Cola Classic, on July 10, 1985.

text: 21st century

text: On July 5, 2005, it was revealed that Coca-Cola would resume operations in Iraq for the first time since the Arab League boycotted the company in 1968.[42]

text: In April 2007, in Canada, the name "Coca-Cola Classic" was changed back to "Coca-Cola". The word "Classic" was removed because "New Coke" was no longer in production, eliminating the need to differentiate between the two.[43] The formula remained unchanged. In January 2009, Coca-Cola stopped printing the word "Classic" on the labels of 16-US-fluid-ounce (470 ml) bottles sold in parts of the southeastern United States.[44] The change is part of a larger strategy to rejuvenate the product's image.[44] The word "Classic" was removed from all Coca-Cola products by 2011.

text: In November 2009, due to a dispute over wholesale prices of Coca-Cola products, Costco stopped restocking its shelves with Coke and Diet Coke for two months; a separate pouring rights deal in 2013 saw Coke products removed from Costco food courts in favor of Pepsi.[45] Some Costco locations (such as the ones in Tucson, Arizona) additionally sell imported Coca-Cola from Mexico with cane sugar instead of corn syrup from separate distributors.[46] Coca-Cola introduced the 7.5-ounce mini-can in 2009, and on September 22, 2011, the company announced price reductions, asking retailers to sell eight-packs for $2.99. That same day, Coca-Cola announced the 12.5-ounce bottle, to sell for 89 cents. A 16-ounce bottle has sold well at 99 cents since being re-introduced, but the price was going up to $1.19.[47]

text: In 2012, Coca-Cola resumed business in Myanmar after 60 years of absence due to U.S.-imposed investment sanctions against the country.[48][49] Coca-Cola's bottling plant will be located in Yangon and is part of the company's five-year plan and $200 million investment in Myanmar.[50] Coca-Cola with its partners is to invest USD 5 billion in its operations in India by 2020.[51] In 2013, it was announced that Coca-Cola Life would be introduced in Argentina that would contain stevia and sugar.[52]

text: In August 2014 the company announced it was forming a long-term partnership with Monster Beverage, with the two forging a strategic marketing and distribution alliance, and product line swap. As part of the deal Coca-Cola was to acquire a 16.7% stake in Monster for $2.15 billion, with an option to increase it to 25%.[53]

text: In December 2016, Coca-Cola bought many of the former SABMiller's Coca-Cola operations.[54]

text: Production

text: Ingredients

text:
Carbonated water
Sugar (sucrose or high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) depending on country of origin)
Caffeine
Phosphoric acid
Caramel color (E150d)
Natural flavorings[55]

text: A typical can of Coca-Cola (12 fl ounces/355 ml) contains 38 grams of sugar (usually in the form of HFCS),[56] 50 mg of sodium, 0 grams fat, 0 grams potassium, and 140 calories.[57] On May 5, 2014, Coca-Cola said it is working to remove a controversial ingredient, brominated vegetable oil, from all of its drinks.[58]

text: Formula of natural flavorings

text: The exact formula of Coca-Cola's natural flavorings (but not its other ingredients, which are listed on the side of the bottle or can) is a trade secret. The original copy of the formula was held in SunTrust Bank's main vault in Atlanta for 86 years. Its predecessor, the Trust Company, was the underwriter for the Coca-Cola Company's initial public offering in 1919. On December 8, 2011, the original secret formula was moved from the vault at SunTrust Banks to a new vault containing the formula which will be on display for visitors to its World of Coca-Cola museum in downtown Atlanta.[59]

text: According to Snopes, a popular myth states that only two executives have access to the formula, with each executive having only half the formula.[60] However, several sources state that while Coca-Cola does have a rule restricting access to only two executives, each knows the entire formula and others, in addition to the prescribed duo, have known the formulation process.[61]

text: On February 11, 2011, Ira Glass said on his PRI radio show, This American Life, that TAL staffers had found a recipe in "Everett Beal's Recipe Book", reproduced in the February 28, 1979, issue of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, that they believed was either Pemberton's original formula for Coca-Cola, or a version that he made either before or after the product hit the market in 1886. The formula basically matched the one found in Pemberton's diary.[62][63][64] Coca-Cola archivist Phil Mooney acknowledged that the recipe "could ... be a precursor" to the formula used in the original 1886 product, but emphasized that Pemberton's original formula is not the same as the one used in the current product.[65]

text: Use of stimulants in formula

text: When launched, Coca-Cola's two key ingredients were cocaine and caffeine. The cocaine was derived from the coca leaf and the caffeine from kola nut, leading to the name Coca-Cola (the "K" in Kola was replaced with a "C" for marketing purposes).[66][67]

text: Coca – cocaine

text: Pemberton called for five ounces of coca leaf per gallon of syrup, a significant dose; in 1891, Candler claimed his formula (altered extensively from Pemberton's original) contained only a tenth of this amount. Coca-Cola once contained an estimated nine milligrams of cocaine per glass. (For comparison, a typical dose or "line" of cocaine is 50–75 mg.[68]) In 1903, it was removed.[69]

text: After 1904, instead of using fresh leaves, Coca-Cola started using "spent" leaves – the leftovers of the cocaine-extraction process with trace levels of cocaine.[70] Since then, Coca-Cola uses a cocaine-free coca leaf extract prepared at a Stepan Company plant in Maywood, New Jersey.[71]

text: In the United States, the Stepan Company is the only manufacturing plant authorized by the Federal Government to import and process the coca plant,[71] which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca-Cola, the Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt, a St. Louis, Missouri, pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use.[72]

text: Long after the syrup had ceased to contain any significant amount of cocaine, in the southeastern U.S., "dope" remained a common colloquialism for Coca-Cola, and "dope-wagons" were trucks that transported it.[73]

text: Kola nuts – caffeine

text: Kola nuts act as a flavoring and the source of caffeine in Coca-Cola. In Britain, for example, the ingredient label states "Flavourings (Including Caffeine)."[74] Kola nuts contain about 2.0 to 3.5% caffeine, are of bitter flavor, and are commonly used in cola soft drinks. In 1911, the U.S. government initiated United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, hoping to force Coca-Cola to remove caffeine from its formula. The case was decided in favor of Coca-Cola. Subsequently, in 1912, the U.S. Pure Food and Drug Act was amended, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances which must be listed on a product's label.

text: Coca-Cola contains 34 mg of caffeine per 12 fluid ounces (9.8 mg per 100 ml).[75]

text: Franchised production model

text: The actual production and distribution of Coca-Cola follows a franchising model. The Coca-Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to bottlers throughout the world, who hold Coca-Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and sweeteners, and then carbonate it before putting it in cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants, and food service distributors.[76]

text: The Coca-Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchises, such as Coca-Cola Enterprises, Coca-Cola Amatil, Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company, and Coca-Cola FEMSA, but fully independent bottlers produce almost half of the volume sold in the world. Independent bottlers are allowed to sweeten the drink according to local tastes.[77]

text: The bottling plant in Skopje, Macedonia, received the 2009 award for "Best Bottling Company".[78]

text: Geographic spread

text: Since it announced its intention to begin distribution in Myanmar in June 2012, Coca-Cola has been officially available in every country in the world except Cuba and North Korea.[79] However, it is reported to be available in both countries as a grey import.[80][81]

text: Coca-Cola has been a point of legal discussion in the Middle East. In the early 20th century, a fatwa was created in Egypt to discuss the question of "whether Muslims were permitted to drink Coca-Cola and Pepsi cola."[82] The fatwa states: "According to the Muslim Hanefite, Shafi'ite, etc., the rule in Islamic law of forbidding or allowing foods and beverages is based on the presumption that such things are permitted unless it can be shown that they are forbidden on the basis of the Qur'an."[82] The Muslim jurists stated that, unless the Qu'ran specifically prohibits the consumption of a particular product, it is permissible to consume. Another clause was discussed, whereby the same rules apply if a person is unaware of the condition or ingredients of the item in question.

text: Brand portfolio

text: This is a list of variants of Coca-Cola introduced around the world. In addition to the caffeine-free version of the original, additional fruit flavors have been included over the years. Not included here are versions of Diet Coke and Coca-Cola Zero; variant versions of those no-calorie colas can be found at their respective articles.

text:
Caffeine-Free Coca-Cola (1983–present) – Coca-Cola without the caffeine.
Coca-Cola Cherry (1985–present) – Coca-Cola with a cherry flavor. Was available in Canada starting in 1996. Originally called Cherry Coke (Cherry Coca-Cola) in North America until 2006.
New Coke / Coca-Cola II (1985–2002) - An unpopular formula change, remained after the original formula quickly returned and was later rebranded as Coca-Cola II.
Golden Coca-Cola (2001) was a limited edition produced by Beijing Coca-Cola company to celebrate Beijing's successful bid to host the Olympics.
Coca-Cola with Lemon (2001–05) – Coca-Cola with a lemon flavor. Available in: Australia, American Samoa, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, China, Denmark, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Iceland, Korea, Luxembourg, Macau, Malaysia, Mongolia, Netherlands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Réunion, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tunisia, United Kingdom, United States, and West Bank-Gaza
Coca-Cola Vanilla (2002–05; 2007–present) – Coca-Cola with a vanilla flavor. Available in: Austria, Australia, China, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Malaysia, Slovakia, South-Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States. It was reintroduced in June 2007 by popular demand.
Coca-Cola with Lime (2005–present) – Coca-Cola with a lime flavor. Available in Belgium, Netherlands, Singapore, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Coca-Cola Raspberry (2005) – Coca-Cola with a raspberry flavor. Was only available in New Zealand. Currently available in the United States and the United Kingdom in Coca-Cola Freestyle fountain since 2009.
Coca-Cola Black Cherry Vanilla (2006–07) – Coca-Cola with a combination of black cherry and vanilla flavor. It replaced and was replaced by Vanilla Coke in June 2007.
Coca-Cola Blāk (2006–08) – Coca-Cola with a rich coffee flavor, formula depends on country. Only available in the United States, France, Canada, Czech Republic, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, and Lithuania
Coca-Cola Citra (2005–present) – Coca-Cola with a citrus flavor. Only available in Bosnia and Herzegovina, New Zealand, and Japan.
Coca-Cola Orange (2007) – Coca-Cola with an orange flavor. Was available in the United Kingdom and Gibraltar for a limited time. In Germany, Austria, and Switzerland it is sold under the label Mezzo Mix. Currently available in Coca-Cola Freestyle fountain outlets in the United States since 2009 and in the United Kingdom since 2014.
Coca-Cola Life (2013–present) – A version of Coca-Cola with stevia and sugar as sweeteners rather than just simply sugar.
Coca-Cola Ginger (2016–present) – A version that mixes in the taste of ginger beer. Only available in Australia and New Zealand.

text: Logo design

text: The Coca-Cola logo was created by John Pemberton's bookkeeper, Frank Mason Robinson, in 1885.[83] Robinson came up with the name and chose the logo's distinctive cursive script. The writing style used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid-19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period.

text: Robinson also played a significant role in early Coca-Cola advertising. His promotional suggestions to Pemberton included giving away thousands of free drink coupons and plastering the city of Atlanta with publicity banners and streetcar signs.[84]

text: Contour bottle design

text: The Coca-Cola bottle, called the "contour bottle" within the company, was created by bottle designer Earl R. Dean and Coca-Cola's general counsel, Harold Hirsch. In 1915, The Coca-Cola Company was represented by their general counsel to launch a competition among its bottle suppliers as well as any competition entrants to create a new bottle for their beverage that would distinguish it from other beverage bottles, "a bottle which a person could recognize even if they felt it in the dark, and so shaped that, even if broken, a person could tell at a glance what it was."[85][86][87][88]

text: Chapman J. Root, president of the Root Glass Company of Terre Haute, Indiana, turned the project over to members of his supervisory staff, including company auditor T. Clyde Edwards, plant superintendent Alexander Samuelsson, and Earl R. Dean, bottle designer and supervisor of the bottle molding room. Root and his subordinates decided to base the bottle's design on one of the soda's two ingredients, the coca leaf or the kola nut, but were unaware of what either ingredient looked like. Dean and Edwards went to the Emeline Fairbanks Memorial Library and were unable to find any information about coca or kola. Instead, Dean was inspired by a picture of the gourd-shaped cocoa pod in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Dean made a rough sketch of the pod and returned to the plant to show Root. He explained to Root how he could transform the shape of the pod into a bottle. Root gave Dean his approval.[85]

text: Faced with the upcoming scheduled maintenance of the mold-making machinery, over the next 24 hours Dean sketched out a concept drawing which was approved by Root the next morning. Dean then proceeded to create a bottle mold and produced a small number of bottles before the glass-molding machinery was turned off.[89]

text: Chapman Root approved the prototype bottle and a design patent was issued on the bottle in November 1915. The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts. Dean resolved this issue by decreasing the bottle's middle diameter. During the 1916 bottler's convention, Dean's contour bottle was chosen over other entries and was on the market the same year. By 1920, the contour bottle became the standard for The Coca-Cola Company. A revised version was also patented in 1923. Because the Patent Office releases the Patent Gazette on Tuesday, the bottle was patented on December 25, 1923, and was nicknamed the "Christmas bottle." Today, the contour Coca-Cola bottle is one of the most recognized packages on the planet..."even in the dark!".[33]

text: As a reward for his efforts, Dean was offered a choice between a $500 bonus or a lifetime job at the Root Glass Company. He chose the lifetime job and kept it until the Owens-Illinois Glass Company bought out the Root Glass Company in the mid-1930s. Dean went on to work in other Midwestern glass factories.[citation needed]

text: One alternative depiction has Raymond Loewy as the inventor of the unique design, but, while Loewy did serve as a designer of Coke cans and bottles in later years, he was in the French Army the year the bottle was invented and did not emigrate to the United States until 1919. Others have attributed inspiration for the design not to the cocoa pod, but to a Victorian hooped dress.[90]

text: In 1944, Associate Justice Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California took advantage of a case involving a waitress injured by an exploding Coca-Cola bottle to articulate the doctrine of strict liability for defective products. Traynor's concurring opinion in Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. is widely recognized as a landmark case in U.S. law today.[91]

text: Types

text:
Earl R. Dean's original 1915 concept drawing of the contour Coca-Cola bottle

The prototype never made it to production since its middle diameter was larger than its base, making it unstable on conveyor belts.

Final production version with slimmer middle section.

text: Designer bottles

text: Karl Lagerfeld is the latest designer to have created a collection of aluminum bottles for Coca-Cola. Lagerfeld is not the first fashion designer to create a special version of the famous Coca-Cola Contour bottle. A number of other limited edition bottles by fashion designers for Coca-Cola Light soda have been created in the last few years.

text: In 2009, in Italy, Coca-Cola Light had a Tribute to Fashion to celebrate 100 years of the recognizable contour bottle. Well known Italian designers Alberta Ferretti, Blumarine, Etro, Fendi, Marni, Missoni, Moschino, and Versace each designed limited edition bottles.[92]

text: Competitors

text: Pepsi, the flagship product of PepsiCo, The Coca-Cola Company's main rival in the soft drink industry, is usually second to Coke in sales, and outsells Coca-Cola in some markets. RC Cola, now owned by the Dr Pepper Snapple Group, the third largest soft drink manufacturer, is also widely available.[citation needed]

text: Around the world, many local brands compete with Coke. In South and Central America Kola Real, known as Big Cola in Mexico, is a growing competitor to Coca-Cola.[93] On the French island of Corsica, Corsica Cola, made by brewers of the local Pietra beer, is a growing competitor to Coca-Cola. In the French region of Brittany, Breizh Cola is available. In Peru, Inca Kola outsells Coca-Cola, which led The Coca-Cola Company to purchase the brand in 1999. In Sweden, Julmust outsells Coca-Cola during the Christmas season.[94] In Scotland, the locally produced Irn-Bru was more popular than Coca-Cola until 2005, when Coca-Cola and Diet Coke began to outpace its sales.[95] In the former East Germany, Vita Cola, invented during Communist rule, is gaining popularity.

text: In India, Coca-Cola ranked third behind the leader, Pepsi-Cola, and local drink Thums Up. The Coca-Cola Company purchased Thums Up in 1993.[96] As of 2004[update], Coca-Cola held a 60.9% market-share in India.[97] Tropicola, a domestic drink, is served in Cuba instead of Coca-Cola, due to a United States embargo. French brand Mecca Cola and British brand Qibla Cola are competitors to Coca-Cola in the Middle East.[citation needed]

text: In Turkey, Cola Turka, in Iran and the Middle East, Zamzam Cola and Parsi Cola, in some parts of China, China Cola, in Slovenia, Cockta, and the inexpensive Mercator Cola, sold only in the country's biggest supermarket chain, Mercator, are some of the brand's competitors. Classiko Cola, made by Tiko Group, the largest manufacturing company in Madagascar, is a serious competitor to Coca-Cola in many regions. Laranjada is the top-selling soft drink on Madeira.[citation needed]

text: Advertising

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Coca-Cola's advertising has significantly affected American culture, and it is frequently credited with inventing the modern image of Santa Claus as an old man in a red-and-white suit. Although the company did start using the red-and-white Santa image in the 1930s, with its winter advertising campaigns illustrated by Haddon Sundblom, the motif was already common.[98][99] Coca-Cola was not even the first soft drink company to use the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising: White Rock Beverages used Santa in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923, after first using him to sell mineral water in 1915.[100][101] Before Santa Claus, Coca-Cola relied on images of smartly dressed young women to sell its beverages. Coca-Cola's first such advertisement appeared in 1895, featuring the young Bostonian actress Hilda Clark as its spokeswoman.

text: 1941 saw the first use of the nickname "Coke" as an official trademark for the product, with a series of advertisements informing consumers that "Coke means Coca-Cola".[102] In 1971 a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing", produced by Billy Davis, became a hit single.

text: Coke's advertising is pervasive, as one of Woodruff's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca-Cola as their preferred beverage. This is especially true in southern areas of the United States, such as Atlanta, where Coke was born.

text: Some Coca-Cola television commercials between 1960 through 1986 were written and produced by former Atlanta radio veteran Don Naylor (WGST 1936–1950, WAGA 1951–1959) during his career as a producer for the McCann Erickson advertising agency. Many of these early television commercials for Coca-Cola featured movie stars, sports heroes, and popular singers.

text: During the 1980s, Pepsi-Cola ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests demonstrating that, according to the commercials, "fifty percent of the participants who said they preferred Coke actually chose the Pepsi." Statisticians pointed out the problematic nature of a 50/50 result: most likely, the taste tests showed that in blind tests, most people cannot tell the difference between Pepsi and Coke. Coca-Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the cola wars; one of Coke's ads compared the so-called Pepsi challenge to two chimpanzees deciding which tennis ball was furrier. Thereafter, Coca-Cola regained its leadership in the market.

text: Selena was a spokesperson for Coca-Cola from 1989 until the time of her death. She filmed three commercials for the company. During 1994, to commemorate her five years with the company, Coca-Cola issued special Selena coke bottles.[103]

text: The Coca-Cola Company purchased Columbia Pictures in 1982, and began inserting Coke-product images into many of its films. After a few early successes during Coca-Cola's ownership, Columbia began to under-perform, and the studio was sold to Sony in 1989.

text: Coca-Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including "The pause that refreshes", "I'd like to buy the world a Coke", and "Coke is it".

text: In 2006, Coca-Cola introduced My Coke Rewards, a customer loyalty campaign where consumers earn points by entering codes from specially marked packages of Coca-Cola products into a website. These points can be redeemed for various prizes or sweepstakes entries.[104]

text: In Australia in 2011, Coca-Cola began the "share a Coke" campaign, where the Coca-Cola logo was replaced on the bottles and replaced with first names. Coca-Cola used the 150 most popular names in Australia to print on the bottles.[105][106][107] The campaign was paired with a website page, Facebook page, and an online "share a virtual Coke". The same campaign was introduced to Coca-Cola, Diet Coke & Coke Zero bottles and cans in the UK in 2013.[108][109]

text: Coca-Cola has also advertised its product to be consumed as a breakfast beverage, instead of coffee or tea for the morning caffeine.[110][111]

text: 5 cents

text: From 1886 to 1959, the price of Coca-Cola was fixed at five cents, in part due to an advertising campaign.

text: Holiday campaigns

text: Throughout the years, Coca-Cola has released limited time collector bottles for Christmas.

text: The "Holidays are coming!" advertisement features a train of red delivery trucks, emblazoned with the Coca-Cola name and decorated with Christmas lights, driving through a snowy landscape and causing everything that they pass to light up and people to watch as they pass through.[112]

text: The advertisement fell into disuse in 2001, as the Coca-Cola company restructured its advertising campaigns so that advertising around the world was produced locally in each country, rather than centrally in the company's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia.[113] In 2007, the company brought back the campaign after, according to the company, many consumers telephoned its information center saying that they considered it to mark the beginning of Christmas.[112] The advertisement was created by U.S. advertising agency Doner, and has been part of the company's global advertising campaign for many years.[114]

text: Keith Law, a producer and writer of commercials for Belfast CityBeat, was not convinced by Coca-Cola's reintroduction of the advertisement in 2007, saying that "I don't think there's anything Christmassy about HGVs and the commercial is too generic."[115]

text: In 2001, singer Melanie Thornton recorded the campaign's advertising jingle as a single, Wonderful Dream (Holidays are Coming), which entered the pop-music charts in Germany at no. 9.[116][117] In 2005, Coca-Cola expanded the advertising campaign to radio, employing several variations of the jingle.[118]

text: In 2011, Coca-Cola launched a campaign for the Indian holiday Diwali. The campaign included commercials, a song, and an integration with Shah Rukh Khan's film Ra.One.[119][120][121]

text: Sports sponsorship

text: Coca-Cola was the first commercial sponsor of the Olympic games, at the 1928 games in Amsterdam, and has been an Olympics sponsor ever since.[122] This corporate sponsorship included the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted in Atlanta, which allowed Coca-Cola to spotlight its hometown. Most recently, Coca-Cola has released localized commercials for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver; one Canadian commercial referred to Canada's hockey heritage and was modified after Canada won the gold medal game on February 28, 2010 by changing the ending line of the commercial to say "Now they know whose game they're playing".[123]

text: Since 1978, Coca-Cola has sponsored the FIFA World Cup, and other competitions organized by FIFA.[124] One FIFA tournament trophy, the FIFA World Youth Championship from Tunisia in 1977 to Malaysia in 1997, was called "FIFA — Coca-Cola Cup". In addition, Coca-Cola sponsors the annual Coca-Cola 600 and Coke Zero 400 for the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series at Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord, North Carolina and Daytona International Speedway in Daytona, Florida.

text: Coca-Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. Coca-Cola has had a longtime relationship with the NFL's Pittsburgh Steelers, due in part to the now-famous 1979 television commercial featuring "Mean Joe" Greene, leading to the two opening the Coca-Cola Great Hall at Heinz Field in 2001 and a more recent Coca-Cola Zero commercial featuring Troy Polamalu.

text: Coca-Cola is the official soft drink of many collegiate football teams throughout the nation, partly due to Coca-Cola providing those schools with upgraded athletic facilities in exchange for Coca-Cola's sponsorship. This is especially prevalent at the high school level, which is more dependent on such contracts due to tighter budgets.

text: Coca-Cola was one of the official sponsors of the 1996 Cricket World Cup held on the Indian subcontinent. Coca-Cola is also one of the associate sponsors of Delhi Daredevils in the Indian Premier League.

text: In England, Coca-Cola was the main sponsor of The Football League between 2004 and 2010, a name given to the three professional divisions below the Premier League in soccer (football). In 2005, Coca-Cola launched a competition for the 72 clubs of The Football League — it was called "Win a Player". This allowed fans to place one vote per day for their favorite club, with one entry being chosen at random earning £250,000 for the club; this was repeated in 2006. The "Win A Player" competition was very controversial, as at the end of the 2 competitions, Leeds United A.F.C. had the most votes by more than double, yet they did not win any money to spend on a new player for the club. In 2007, the competition changed to "Buy a Player". This competition allowed fans to buy a bottle of Coca-Cola or Coca-Cola Zero and submit the code on the wrapper on the Coca-Cola website. This code could then earn anything from 50p to £100,000 for a club of their choice. This competition was favored over the old "Win a Player" competition, as it allowed all clubs to win some money. Between 1992 and 1998, Coca-Cola was the title sponsor of the Football League Cup (Coca-Cola Cup), the secondary cup tournament of England.

text: Between 1994 and 1997, Coca-Cola was also the title sponsor of the Scottish League Cup, renaming it the Coca-Cola Cup like its English counterpart. From 1998 to 2001, the company were the title sponsor of the Irish League Cup in Northern Ireland, where it was named the Coca-Cola League Cup.

text: Coca-Cola is the presenting sponsor of the Tour Championship, the final event of the PGA Tour held each year at East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, GA.[125]

text: Introduced March 1, 2010, in Canada, to celebrate the 2010 Winter Olympics, Coca-Cola sold gold colored cans in packs of 12 355 mL (12 imp fl oz; 12 US fl oz) each, in select stores.[126]

text: In 2012, Coca-Cola (Philippines) hosted/sponsored the Coca-Cola PBA Youngstars in the Philippines.

text: In mass media

text: Coca-Cola has been prominently featured in countless films and television programs. Since its creation, it remains as one of the most prominent elements of the popular culture.[citation needed] It was a major plot element in films such as One, Two, Three, The Coca-Cola Kid, and The Gods Must Be Crazy, among many others. It provides a setting for comical corporate shenanigans in the novel Syrup by Maxx Barry. In music, in the Beatles' song, "Come Together", the lyrics say, "He shoot Coca-Cola, he say...". The Beach Boys also referenced Coca-Cola in their 1964 song "All Summer Long" (i.e. "'Member when you spilled Coke all over your blouse?")[127]

text: The best selling artist of all time and worldwide cultural icon,[128] Elvis Presley, promoted Coca-Cola during his last tour of 1977.[129] The Coca-Cola Company used Elvis' image to promote the product.[130] For example, the company used a song performed by Presley, A Little Less Conversation, in a Japanese Coca-Cola commercial.[131]

text: Other artists that promoted Coca-Cola include the Beatles, David Bowie,[132] George Michael,[133] Elton John,[134] and Whitney Houston,[135] who appeared in the Diet Coca-Cola commercial, among many others.

text: Not all musical references to Coca-Cola went well. A line in "Lola" by the Kinks was originally recorded as "You drink champagne and it tastes just like Coca-Cola." When the British Broadcasting Corporation refused to play the song because of the commercial reference, lead singer Ray Davies re-recorded the lyric as "it tastes just like cherry cola" to get airplay for the song.[136]

text: Political cartoonist Michel Kichka satirized a famous Coca-Cola billboard in his 1982 poster "And I Love New York." On the billboard, the Coca-Cola wave is accompanied by the words "Enjoy Coke." In Kichka's poster, the lettering and script above the Coca-Cola wave instead read "Enjoy Cocaine."[137]

text: Medicinal application

text: Coca-Cola is sometimes used for the treatment of gastric phytobezoars. In about 50% of cases studied, Coca-Cola alone was found to be effective in gastric phytobezoar dissolution. Unfortunately, this treatment can result in the potential of developing small bowel obstruction in a minority of cases, necessitating surgical intervention.[138][139]

text: Criticism

text: Criticism of Coca-Cola has arisen from various groups, concerning a variety of issues, including health effects, environmental issues, and business practices. The drink's coca flavoring, and the nickname "Coke", remain a common theme of criticism due to the relationship with the illegal drug cocaine. In 1911 the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health", leading to amended food safety legislation.[140]

text: The Coca-Cola Company, its subsidiaries and products have been subject to sustained criticism by both consumer groups, leftist activists, and watchdogs, particularly since the early 2000s.[citation needed]

text: Coca-Cola is rich in sugar, especially sucrose, which causes dental caries when consumed regularly. Besides this, the high caloric value contributes to obesity. Both are major health issues in the developed world[141][142]

text: Colombian death-squad allegations

text: In July 2001, the Coca-Cola company was sued over its alleged use of political far-right wing death squads (the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia) to kidnap, torture, and kill Colombian bottler workers that were linked with trade union activity. Coca-Cola was sued in a US federal court in Miami by the Colombian food and drink union Sinaltrainal. The suit alleged that Coca-Cola was indirectly responsible for having "contracted with or otherwise directed paramilitary security forces that utilized extreme violence and murdered, tortured, unlawfully detained or otherwise silenced trade union leaders". This sparked campaigns to boycott Coca-Cola in the UK, US, Germany, Italy, and Australia.[143][144] Javier Correa, the president of Sinaltrainal, said the campaign aimed to put pressure on Coca-Cola "to mitigate the pain and suffering" that union members had suffered.[144]

text: Speaking from the Coca-Cola company's headquarters in Atlanta, company spokesperson Rafael Fernandez Quiros said "Coca-Cola denies any connection to any human-rights violation of this type" and added "We do not own or operate the plants".[145]

text: A documentary on the controversy, titled The Coca-Cola Case, was released in 2010.[146]

text: Use as political and corporate symbol

text: Coca-Cola has a high degree of identification with the United States, being considered by some an "American Brand" or as an item representing America. During World War II, this gave rise to brief production of the White Coke as a neutral brand.[147] The drink is also often a metonym for the Coca-Cola Company.

text: Coca-Cola was introduced to China in 1927, and was very popular until 1949. When the Cultural Revolution began in 1949, the beverage was no longer imported into China, as it was perceived to be a symbol of decadent Western culture and the capitalist lifestyle. Importation and sales of the beverage resumed in 1979, after diplomatic relations between the United States and China were restored.[148]

text: There are some consumer boycotts of Coca-Cola in Arab countries due to Coke's early investment in Israel during the Arab League boycott of Israel (its competitor Pepsi stayed out of Israel).[149] Mecca Cola and Pepsi have been successful[vague] alternatives in the Middle East.[150]

text: A Coca-Cola fountain dispenser (officially a Fluids Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus or FGBA) was developed for use on the Space Shuttle as a test bed to determine if carbonated beverages can be produced from separately stored carbon dioxide, water, and flavored syrups and determine if the resulting fluids can be made available for consumption without bubble nucleation and resulting foam formation. FGBA-1 flew on STS-63 in 1995 and dispensed pre-mixed beverages, followed by FGBA-2 on STS-77 the next year. The latter mixed CO₂, water, and syrup to make beverages. It supplied 1.65 liters each of Coca-Cola and Diet Coke.[151][152]


document_title: Cell cycle

question_text: what regulates the timing of the cell cycle in eukaryotes

root

text: Cell cycle

text: Phases[edit]

text: The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis or meiosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: karyokinesis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase.

tag: p

text:
State

Phase

Abbreviation

Description

Resting

Gap 0

G0

A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.

Interphase

Gap 1

G1

Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

Synthesis

S

DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Gap 2

G2

During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.

Cell division

Mitosis

M

Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division.

tag: table

text: After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.

text: G0 phase (quiescence)[edit]

text: G0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.  The cell cycle starts with this phase.  The word "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G1. Some cells enter the G0 phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g., epithelial cells.

text: Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.

text: Interphase (intermitosis)[edit]

text: Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division.Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.

text: Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase but may continue till G2 in case of heterochromatin.

text: G1 phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase)[edit]

text:
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G1 (G indicating gap). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species.[3] In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G1 phase, a cell has three options.
(1) To continue cell cycle and enter S phase
(2) Stop cell cycle and enter G0 phase for undergoing differentiation.
(3) Get arrested in G1 phase hence it may enter G0 phase or re-enter cell cycle.
The deciding factor is availability of nutrients and storage of energy rich compounds at the deciding point called check point (Restriction point). This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G1/S cyclins, which cause transition from G1 to S phase. Passage through the  G1 check point commits the cell to division.

text: S phase (DNA replication)[edit]

text: The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.[4][5][6]

text: G2 phase (growth)[edit]

text:
G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis.
During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle.

text: Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)[edit]

text: The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis). It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:

text:
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase,
telophase

tag: ul

text: Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei.[7] During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.[8]

text: Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.[9] Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.

text: Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components)[edit]

text: Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define  the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.

text: Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "M phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.[10] Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.

text: The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells.[8]

text: Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle[edit]

text: Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle.

text: Role of cyclins and CDKs[edit]

text:
Nobel LaureatePaul Nurse

Nobel LaureateTim Hunt

text: Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle.[11] Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules.[12] Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae;[13] genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle") followed by an identifying number, e.g. cdc25 or cdc20.

text: Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.[14]

text: General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction[edit]

text: Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G1 cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G1 cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.[15]

text: Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G1 phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.

text: Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G2 phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.[16]

text: Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes[edit]

text:
Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb). The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively "blocking" them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G1 to S phase (G1/S, which initiates the G2/M transition).[17] Cyclin B-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis.[14]
A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin-CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.[15]

text: Inhibitors[edit]

text: Two families of genes, the cip/kip (CDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein) family and the INK4a/ARF (Inhibitor of Kinase 4/Alternative Reading Frame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.

text: The cip/kip family includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt cell cycle in G1 phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin-CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor of β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.

text: The INK4a/ARF family includes p16INK4a, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G1 phase, and p14ARF which prevents p53 degradation.

text: Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.[18]

text: Transcriptional regulatory network[edit]

text: Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800–1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle.[13][19][20] They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the  cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.[21]

text: Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects.[22] Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression.[19][23] The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).[20][24]

text: Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (clb1,2,3,4,5,6). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between G1 and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events.[20] Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.[22][25][26]

text: While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.[27]

text: DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity[edit]

text: Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes.[28] This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression,[29][30][31] and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.

text: Checkpoints[edit]

text: Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle.[32] Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met.  Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.

text: There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G1/S checkpoint, the G2/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.

text: G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point.[14] This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.

text: The G2/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G2/M checkpoint.

text: The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that's not to say it isn't important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.[33]

text: While these are the three "main" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G0 until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.

text: Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G0, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.

text: p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.

text: Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle[edit]

text: Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle.  Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO2) was fused to hCdt1(30/120).  Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins.  The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G2, or M phase and degraded during the G0 or G1 phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G0 or G1 phase and destroyed during the S, G2, or M phase.[34] A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria-derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome-derived fluorescent protein (movie found at this link).[35]

text: Role in tumor formation[edit]

text: A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation.[36] As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G0 phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue.[citation needed] Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.

text: The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G0 to G1 phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.[14]

text: The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G1, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.

text: In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G2 phases and most resistant in late S phase.

text: For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G1 phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G1.

text: The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.


document_title: Scout leader

question_text: us female leader of a club scout group

question_tokens: us female leader of a club scout group

text: Scout leader

text: Roles[edit]

text: There are many different roles a leader can fulfill depending on the type of unit. Positions are usually voluntary and are often divided between 'uniform' and 'lay' roles. For many, this volunteerism is an avocation.

text: Uniformed Scout Leaders are primarily responsible for organizing the activities of the group, and training the youth members through the Scout program. Other roles include liaison with parents, districts, or other parties such as the unit's sponsoring (chartered) organization.

text: Lay supporters are not always termed Scout Leaders; although they may assist with activities and training, they do not always hold a formal position and may not have received training. Beyond the Scout programme, lay supporters may take responsibility for administrative tasks such as budgets, managing properties, recruitment, equipment, transport, and many other roles.

text: The roles of leaders in senior units like Venture Scout, Explorer Scout and Rover Scout sections tend to be consultative, with much of the administration and activity planning in the hand of older Scouts, while in junior units like Cub Scout and Scout sections, the adult leaders need to take a more central role.

text: Beyond the group are further uniformed positions (sometimes called Commissioners) at levels such as district, county, council or province, depending on the structure of the national organisation. They also work along with lay teams and professionals. Training teams and other related functions are often formed at these levels. Some countries appoint a Chief Scout or Chief Commissioner as the most senior uniformed member.

text: Training, screening and appointment of leaders[edit]

text: Scout Leaders participate in a series of training courses, typically aiming for the Wood Badge as the main qualification of an adult leader in Scouting.[1] In most countries, Wood Badge holders can wear a Gilwell scarf, Turk's head knot woggle, and Wood Badge beads.[2]

text: Scout Leaders are given a formal appointment (called a warrant in many countries). Before appointing an adult leader, most associations perform background checks on candidates to ensure their suitability for working with children.[3][4]

text: Terminology[edit]

text: Robert Baden-Powell initially used the terms Scoutmaster and Cubmaster for adult leaders (coming from the English usage of the word "master" as a synonym for "teacher"), and these terms are still used in some countries and units, including the United States. As the word master picked up old-fashioned connotations, it was replaced by other terms such as Scout Leader or Scouter in many Commonwealth countries, following The Scout Association in the United Kingdom.

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Scouts Australia, all five sections have a Leader, although a Joey Leader has a much more driving role than a Venturer Leader, who should be standing back and assisting the elected Unit Chair. Rover Leaders stepped back during the 1970s, becoming Rover Advisors, the responsibility for the Crew passing to the elected Crew Leader.

text: There are several different types of Leader in Australia, all of them (and all members of the Rover Section) have the opportunity to complete the Wood Badge training scheme

text: Run a Troop, Pack, Unit or Mob each week. They are the ones who go away every weekend with the Scouts and sign off badgework each week.

text: Run the Group as a whole, liaising between the Committee, who see to the needs of the Group, hall, power, gear, etc. and the Sectional Leaders.

text: Have qualifications in activities from Water Activities to Abseilling to Radio and Four Wheel Driving and First Aid, who put these skills at the disposal of a Region or Branch. These leaders often have another role in Scouting at the same time.

text: Provide the Training to other Leaders and usually have been in Scouting for several years. Training is not usually their only role in Scouting.

text: Provide help and assistance to local groups. Most Districts try to have at least one District Leader for each Section, as well as Public Relations, Adult Training & Development and Water Activities.

text: are responsible for the management of an aspect of Scouting and/or the leadership of other adults, as opposed to sectional leaders who run the youth program.

text: Is a group of former Leaders who no longer have the time or desire to be a part of Scouting every week. They have the opportunity to help out occasionally when leaders are needed temporarily because of hospital or travel, at large camps such as Jamborees and are still covered by Scout Insurance.

text: All Leader positions are appointments for three years, when the appointment is reviewed and the Leader is renewed, reassigned or resigns. When a new Probationary Leader begins, they are presented with a Certificate of Adult Membership and complete a three-hour seminar called Intro to Scouting (or Rovering) which outlines the basic structure and procedures. After this comes the Basic Sectional Techniques course, which gives the Leader the right to wear the two-strand Turks Head or "Gilwell" Woggle. After the 2007 review of the Venturer Section, Venturer Scouts will soon be allowed to complete Venturer Basic. Leaders are then presented with a Certificate of Adult Leadership, and this is where most people stop their training, but after at least six months, Leaders then are eligible to complete the Advanced Sectional Techniques Course, which allows them to conduct more advanced activities, network with other experienced Leaders and then after successful completion of the Course be presented with the Wood Badge.

text: Scouts Australia is an Enterprise Registered Training Organisation (RTO:5443) and Leaders can apply to be granted a Certificate III in Business after completing the Basic Course, and a Certificate IV in Leadership and Management after the Advanced Course. Later they can also complete a Diploma of Leadership and Management or Certificate Qualifications in Outdoor Recreation through the Scouts Australia Institute of Training.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: A uniformed adult member of Scouting Ireland who commits to the Scout Promise and Law is known as a "Scouter".[5] Rover Scouts can also be adults, and an eligible member can be a Scouter or Rover or both. Adult members are subject to police vetting (in either jurisdiction). Scouters who provide Youth Programme are known as "Programme Scouters". Various Group, County, Provincial and National appointment holders in general need to be Scouters. Associate members are adult members who do not take the Scout Promise, and may include supporting Officers such as Group Secretary or County Treasurer.

text: Philippines[edit]

text: In the Boy Scouts of the Philippines, all uniformed adults, including office employees, are "Scouters." Not all Scouters are Unit Leaders, but all Unit Leaders are Scouters. The generic term for an adult in charge of a Scout unit is "Unit Leader." There are five types:

text: Langkay Leaders and Kawan Leaders are women. Troop Leaders, Outfit Advisors, and Circle Managers may be men or women, and are often informally called "Scoutmasters."[6]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: The South African Scout Association decided in the early 90s to change the name of a Scoutmaster to Scouter. The reason for this change was due to negative connotations of the word master. The terms Troop Scouter and Pack Scouter are used for adult leaders of Scout Troops and Cub Packs.[7] Rover Crews are mentored by a Rover Scouter.[8]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The Scout Association[edit]

text: The Scout Association used the term Scoutmaster originally, but the term Scout Leader is now used. Other adult leaders in the Scout Troop are called Assistant Scout Leaders. Terms used in other sections are Beaver Scout Leader, Assistant Beaver Scout Leader, Cub Scout Leader, Assistant Cub Scout Leader, Explorer Scout Leader, Assistant Explorer Scout Leader, and so on. The Scout Group is led by a Group Scout Leader and who may be assisted by an appointed Assistant Group Scout Leader. When Rover Scouts existed, there were Rover Scout Leaders and Assistant Rover Scout Leaders. Collectively all adult leaders are called Scouters. One of the leaders may take on the role of Quartermaster, although this role can also be taken on by a parent or other member of the Group Committee.[9] At District level a District Commissioner may appoint a District Beaver Scout Leader, District Cub Scout Leader and a District Scout Leader to assist the Assistant District Commissioners for Beavers, Cubs and Scouts. A District Explorer Scout Leader may also be appointed to assist a District Explorer Scout Commissioner. A District Scout Network Leader may be appointed to lead a District Scout Network. At County Level a County Commissioner may appoint a County Beaver Scout Leader, County Cub Scout Leader and a County Scout Leader to assist the Assistant County Commissioners for Beavers, Cubs and Scouts. A County Explorer Scout Leader may also be appointed to assist an Assistant County Commissioner for Explorers. A County Scout Network Leader may be appointed to assist a County Scout Network Commissioner.

text: Explorer Scouts can help out at younger sections as a Young Leader.

text: Baden-Powell Scouts' Association[edit]

text: The Baden-Powell Scouts' Association continue to use the traditional title of Scoutmaster. Other adult leaders in the Scout Troop are called Assistant Scout Masters. Other titles include Cub Scout Master, Assistant Cub Scout Master and so on. The Group is led by a Group Scout Master. In common with The Scout Association, adult leaders are sometimes referred to as Scouters.[10]

text: In the Scout and Senior Scout sections, youth leaders include Senior Troop Leader, Senior Patrol Leader, Assistant Senior Patrol Leader, Patrol Leaders, Assistant Patrol Leaders, Quartermaster, and Instructor.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the Boy Scouts of America, in all Scouting units above the Cub Scout pack, units serving adolescent Scouts, leadership of the unit comprises both adult leaders (Scouters) and youth leaders (Scouts). In fact, this is a critical component of the program. In order to learn leadership, the youth must actually serve in leadership roles. Adult leaders may be either men or women in all positions.

text: A properly run Boy Scout troop is run by the Senior Patrol Leader, who is elected by the troop, and his assistant, who may either be elected or appointed. These and the other youth leaders are advised and supported by the adult leaders.

text: Among the volunteers who provide troop level adult leadership and support (in the United States, collectively called Scouters), there are Scoutmasters and their uniformed adult leadership (including assistant Scoutmasters and unit chaplain), and committee members. All positions require adults to join the troop by registration. The registration process for adult leaders includes a personal reference and criminal background check, nomination by the committee chairman, followed by appointment by the chartering organization and concluding with acceptance by the district executive (a professional Scouter who is an employee of the local Scout council). A Scouter may be a registered member of more than one unit. Example: a Webelos den leader in a Cub Scout pack also volunteers as an advancement committee member in an older son's Boy Scout troop.

text: Both Scoutmasters and committee members are encouraged at specific events to wear their uniforms. Scoutmasters are normally required to be at least twenty-one years of age, although there have been some notable exceptions. E. Urner Goodman (the founder of the Order of the Arrow) was appointed as a Scoutmaster when he was still nineteen.[citation needed] Assistant Scoutmasters are often older Scouts who have turned 18 and can no longer serve in a youth capacity.

text: There is a training continuum for both Scoutmasters and committee members. The training continuum for both positions includes "Youth Protection", "Fast Start" and "New Leader's Essentials". At this point the two continuums divide. In order to be "trained" (and entitled to wear the "Trained" patch on their uniform) Committee Members must complete a fourth course "The Troop Committee Challenge." In order for Scoutmasters/Assistant Scoutmasters to wear the "Trained" patch they must complete "Scoutmaster/Assistant Scoutmaster Leader Specific Training" and "Introduction to Outdoor Leadership." Within 12–18 months of obtaining the status of "Trained", both Committee Members and Scoutmasters are encouraged to enroll in "21st Century Wood Badge" training.

text: Scoutmasters are responsible for developing and delivering the "program" or the training of youth leadership in how to plan and run a Scout troop's activities. The members of the committee are responsible for "service" or provisioning the troop with the necessary goods and services that allow the Scoutmasters to focus solely on the program.

text: Committee members may interact with Scouts. For example, they may be assisted by youth leaders (see quartermaster) or they may provide technical training to the Scouts as merit badge counselors. Committee members most important direct interaction with Scouts occurs during boards of review. Committee members assemble in groups of 3 to 6 in order to constitute boards of review. After a Scoutmaster has conducted a Scoutmaster conference with the Scout and determined he is ready for advancement, a Scout must meet with a board of review. An important function of the board of review is to allow the committee to collect data from the individual Scouts about the success of the Program and deliver that feedback to the Scoutmasters. In this role, a board of review may also meet with a Scout whose advancement progress has stalled.

text: The Scoutmaster for a troop is first nominated by the committee, then appointed by the chartering organization and then finally accepted by the district executive. The committee members elect a committee chairman. In the event that the Scoutmaster is unavailable, the committee chairman steps in until a new Scoutmaster is obtained. The committee also accepts the troop schedule and budget as developed each year by the patrol leader's council advised by the Scoutmaster.

text: While it is true that in some troops, the Scoutmaster may be the person with the most tenure and committee membership may be transitory and in other cases the opposite may be true, effective troops work to ensure there is balance of experienced adults working together as a team to deliver both the best possible service and program to the troop.

text: There are similar service and program splits for adult leadership in Cub Scouts, Venturing and Varsity. While there is only limited opportunity for youth leadership in Cub Scouting (see den chief), youth leadership takes an even stronger role in providing both service and program in Venturing.

text: The leader of a Cub Scout pack is referred to as Cubmaster and he or she may be assisted by assistant Cubmasters. Since almost all program leadership at the Cub Scouting level is adult, the Cubmaster is also assisted by any number of den leaders.

text: Varsity Scout teams have a Coach, Venturing crews have an Advisor, and Sea Scouting ships have a Skipper. All of these terms are used for the men or women who fill the role as the adults responsible for maintaining the program by advising the unit's youth leaders on how to plan and lead the unit's activities.

text: In the Boy Scout troop, youth leaders include Junior Assistant Scoutmaster, Senior Patrol Leader, Assistant Senior Patrol Leader, Patrol Leaders, Assistant Patrol Leaders, scribe, quartermaster, librarian, chaplain aide, bugler, historian, den chief, Troop Guide, Order of the Arrow representative and instructor or animator. There have even been cases of co Senior Patrol Leaders in the case of a tie during an election, or on purpose to manage a large troop. In an ideal setting, the Scoutmaster will give a command to the Junior Assistant Scoutmaster, or the Senior Patrol Leader(s). The Senior Patrol Leader gives the command then to Assistant Senior Patrol Leaders, who give it to the Troop Guides. The Troop Guides in turn go to the Patrol Leaders, who finally give the command to their patrols. The Senior Patrol Leader can serve a half to full year term, depending on the troop.

text: Other countries[edit]

text: In other countries, Scouter refers to any adult leader, professional Scout employee, or any Scout alumnus.


document_title: African Footballer of the Year

question_text: who won the africa best player of the year 2017

text: African Footballer of the Year

text: Winners[edit]

text: France Football award (1970–1994)[edit]

text: The award by France Football magazine was awarded to the best African footballer between 1970 and 1994. The award was discontinued in 1995 after the European Footballer of the Year (Ballon d'Or) was opened to players of non-European nationality, the award being given to George Weah that year. It had already been replaced by an official award given out by the Confederation of African Football since 1992.

text:
Year
Rank
Player
Team
Points

1970
1st
 Salif Keïta
 Saint-Étienne
54

2nd
 Laurent Pokou
 ASEC Abidjan
28

 Ali Abo Greisha
 Ismaily

1971
1st
 Ibrahim Sunday
 Asante Kotoko
29

2nd
 Robert Mensah
 Asante Kotoko
15

3rd
 François Ndoumbé
 Canon Yaoundé
13

1972
1st
 Chérif Souleymane
 Hafia
21

2nd
 Bwanga Tshimen
 TP Mazembe
16

3rd
 Petit Sory
 Hafia
14

1973
1st
 Bwanga Tshimen
 TP Mazembe
49

2nd
 Kazadi Mwamba
 TP Mazembe
44

3rd
 Laurent Pokou
 ASEC Abidjan
41

1974
1st
 Paul Moukila
 CARA Brazzaville
57

2nd
 Lobilo Boba
 Vita Club
32

3rd
 Hassan Shehata
 Zamalek
28

1975
1st
 Ahmed Faras
 Mohammédia
28

2nd
 Roger Milla
 Tonnerre Yaoundé
24

 Mamadou Aliou Kéïta
 Hafia

1976
1st
 Roger Milla
 Tonnerre Yaoundé
33

2nd
 Papa Camara
 Hafia
32

3rd
 Ali Bencheikh
 MC Alger
27

1977
1st
 Tarak Dhiab
 Espérance Tunis
45

2nd
 Papa Camara
 Hafia
33

3rd
 Segun Odegbami
 Shooting Stars
29

1978
1st
 Karim Abdul Razak
 Asante Kotoko
58

2nd
 Ali Bencheikh
 MC Alger
33

3rd
 Thomas N'Kono
 Canon Yaoundé
29

1979
1st
 Thomas N'Kono
 Canon Yaoundé
55

2nd
 Adolf Armah
 Hearts of Oak
23

3rd
 Kerfalla Bangoura
 Horoya
15

1980
1st
 Jean Manga-Onguéné
 Canon Yaoundé
64

2nd
 Segun Odegbami
 Shooting Stars
41

3rd
 Théophile Abega
 Canon Yaoundé
18

1981
1st
 Lakhdar Belloumi
 GC Mascara
78

2nd
 Thomas N'Kono
 Canon Yaoundé
54

3rd
 Ali Fergani
 JS Kabylie
26

1982
1st
 Thomas N'Kono
 Espanyol
83

2nd
 Salah Assad
 Mulhouse
54

3rd
 Lakhdar Belloumi
 GC Mascara
36

1983
1st
 Mahmoud El Khatib
 Al Ahly
98

2nd
 Opoku Nti
 Asante Kotoko
89

3rd
 Rafiou Moutairou
 OC Agaza
19

1984
1st
 Théophile Abega
 Toulouse
124

2nd
 Joseph-Antoine Bell
 El Mokawloon
65

 Ibrahim Youssef
 Zamalek

1985
1st
 Mohamed Timoumi
 AS FAR
113

2nd
 Rabah Madjer
 Porto
45

3rd
 Ibrahim Youssef
 Zamalek
39

1986
1st
 Ezzaki Badou
 Mallorca
125

2nd
 Aziz Bouderbala
 Sion
88

3rd
 Roger Milla
 Montpellier
80

1987
1st
 Rabah Madjer
 Porto
130

2nd
 Youssouf Falikou Fofana
 Monaco
63

3rd
 François Omam-Biyik
 Laval
52

1988
1st
 Kalusha Bwalya
 Cercle Brugge
111

2nd
 Roger Milla
 Montpellier
68

3rd
 Youssouf Falikou Fofana
 Monaco
40

1989
1st
 George Weah
 Monaco
133

2nd
 Joseph-Antoine Bell
 Bordeaux
105

3rd
 Kalusha Bwalya
 PSV
49

1990
1st
 Roger Milla
 Saint-Pierroise
209

2nd
 Tahar Chérif El-Ouazzani
 Aydınspor
64

3rd
 Rabah Madjer
 Porto
60

 François Omam-Biyik
 Rennes

1991
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
152

2nd
 George Weah
 Monaco
106

3rd
 François Omam-Biyik
 Cannes
52

1992
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
198

2nd
 George Weah
 Paris Saint-Germain
161

3rd
 Tony Yeboah
 Eintracht Frankfurt
64

1993
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
119

2nd
 Tony Yeboah
 Eintracht Frankfurt
117

3rd
 Rashidi Yekini
 Vitória de Setúbal
104

1994
1st
 George Weah
 Paris Saint-Germain
148

2nd
 Emmanuel Amunike
 Sporting CP
133

3rd
 Daniel Amokachi
 Everton
99

text: CAF award (1992–present)[edit]

text:
Year
Rank
Player
Team
Points

1992
1st
 Abedi Pele
 Marseille
–

1993
1st
 Rashidi Yekini
 Vitória de Setúbal
–

1994
1st
 Emmanuel Amunike
 Sporting CP
48

2nd
 George Weah
 Paris Saint-Germain
44

 Rashidi Yekini
 Olympiacos

1995
1st
 George Weah
 Milan
–

2nd
 Emmanuel Amunike
 Sporting CP
–

3rd
 Daniel Amokachi
 Everton
–

1996
1st
 Nwankwo Kanu
 Internazionale
–

2nd
 George Weah
 Milan
–

3rd
 Daniel Amokachi
 Beşiktaş
–

1997
1st
 Victor Ikpeba
 Monaco
56

2nd
 Japhet N'Doram
 Monaco
40

3rd
 Taribo West
 Internazionale
35

1998
1st
 Mustapha Hadji
 Deportivo La Coruña
76

2nd
 Jay-Jay Okocha
 Paris Saint-Germain
74

3rd
 Sunday Oliseh
 Ajax
58

1999
1st
 Nwankwo Kanu
 Arsenal
46

2nd
 Samuel Kuffour
 Bayern Munich
44

3rd
 Ibrahima Bakayoko
 Marseille
42

2000
1st
 Patrick M'Boma
 Parma
123

2nd
 Lauren
 Mallorca
36

3rd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Mallorca
29

2001
1st
 El Hadji Diouf
 Lens
93

2nd
 Samuel Kuffour
 Bayern Munich
66

3rd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Mallorca
34

2002
1st
 El Hadji Diouf
 Liverpool
93

2nd
 Papa Bouba Diop
 Lens
46

3rd
 Mido
 Ajax
42

2003
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Mallorca
–

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Marseille
–

3rd
 Jay-Jay Okocha
 Bolton Wanderers
–

2004
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Barcelona
116

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
90

3rd
 Jay-Jay Okocha
 Bolton Wanderers
68

2005
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Barcelona
108

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
106

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
50

2006
1st
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
79

2nd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Barcelona
76

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
36

2007
1st
 Frédéric Kanouté
 Sevilla
–

2nd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
–

3rd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
–

2008
1st
 Emmanuel Adebayor
 Arsenal
74

2nd
 Mohamed Aboutrika
 Al-Ahly
53

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
36

2009
1st
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
92

2nd
 Samuel Eto'o
 Internazionale
69

3rd
 Michael Essien
 Chelsea
43

2010
1st
 Samuel Eto'o
 Internazionale
–

2nd
 Asamoah Gyan
 Sunderland
–

3rd
 Didier Drogba
 Chelsea
–

2011
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
–

2nd
 Seydou Keita
 Barcelona
–

3rd
 André Ayew
 Marseille
–

2012
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
–

2nd
 Didier Drogba
 Shanghai Shenhua
–

3rd
 Alex Song
 Barcelona
–

2013
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
373

2nd
 John Obi Mikel
 Chelsea
265

3rd
 Didier Drogba
 Galatasaray
236

2014
1st
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
175

2nd
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
120

3rd
 Vincent Enyeama
 Lille
105

2015
1st
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
143

2nd
 Yaya Touré
 Manchester City
136

3rd
 André Ayew
 Swansea City
112

2016
1st
 Riyad Mahrez
 Leicester City
361

2nd
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
313

3rd
 Sadio Mané
 Liverpool
186

2017
1st
 Mohamed Salah
 Liverpool
625

2nd
 Sadio Mané
 Liverpool
507

3rd
 Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang
 Borussia Dortmund
311

text: Wins By Country[edit]

text:
Nation
Winners
Runners-up
Third places

 Cameroon
11
8
11

 Ivory Coast
8
6
7

 Ghana
6
7
7

 Nigeria
5
6
7

 Morocco
4
1
0

 Algeria
3
4
5

 Liberia
3
4
–

 Egypt
2
2
4

 Mali
2
2
–

 Senegal
2
1
1

 Guinea
1
3
2

 DR Congo
1
3
–

 Gabon
1
2
1

 Zambia
1
–
1

 Togo
1
–
1

 Tunisia
1
–
–

 Congo
1
–
–

 Chad
–
1
–

text: Wins By Club[edit]

text:
Club
Winners
Runners-up
Third places

 Olympique Marseille
4
1
2

 Manchester City
4
1
–

 Chelsea
2
4
6

 AS Monaco
2
3
1

 Barcelona
2
2
1

 Asante Kotoko
2
2
–

 Canon Yaoundé
2
1
3

 RCD Mallorca
2
1
2

 Inter Milan
2
1
1

 Liverpool
2
1
1

 Arsenal
2
–
–

 Paris SG
1
3
–

 Hafia Conacry
1
2
2

 TP Mazembe
1
2
–

 Borussia Dortmund
1
2
–

 Sporting CP
1
2
–

 Al Ahly
1
1
1

 FC Porto
1
1
1

 Tonnerre Yaoundé
1
1
–

 RC Lens
1
1
–

 Milan
1
1
–

 Sporting CP
1
1
–

 GC Mascara
1
–
1

 Vitória de Setúbal
1
–
1

 Cercle Brugge
1
–
–

 CARA Brazzaville
1
–
–

 Leicester City
1
–
–

 AS Saint-Étienne
1
–
–

 Toulouse FC
1
–
–

 Parma
1
–
–

 FAR Rabat
1
–
–

 SCC Mohammédia
1
–
–

 JS Saint-Pierroise
1
–
–

 Deportivo de La Coruña
1
–
–

 Espanyol
1
–
–

 Sevilla
1
–
–

 Espérance ST
1
–
–

 Bayern Munich
–
2
–

 MC Alger
–
1
1

 ASEC Mimosas
–
1
1

 Montpellier
–
1
1

 Eintracht Frankfurt
–
1
1

 Shooting Stars
–
1
1

 Shanghai Shenhua
–
1
–

 Vita Club
–
1
–

 El Mokawloon
–
1
–

 Sunderland
–
1
–

 Girondins Bordeaux
–
1
–

 FC Mulhouse
–
1
–

 Hearts of Oak
–
1
–

 FC Sion
–
1
–

 Aydınspor
–
1
–

 JS Kabylie
–
–
2

 Bolton Wanderers
–
–
2

 Everton FC
–
–
2

 Ajax Amsterdam
–
–
2

 Ismaily SC
–
–
1

 Zamalek SC
–
1
2

 AS Cannes
–
–
1

 Stade Lavallois
–
–
1

 Lille OSC
–
–
1

 Stade Rennais
–
–
1

 Olympiacos
–
–
1

 Horoya AC
–
–
1

 PSV Eindhoven
–
–
1

 OC Agaza
–
–
1

 Beşiktaş
–
–
1

 Galatasaray
–
–
1

 Swansea City
–
–
1