document_title: Constitution of Japan

question_text: who was in charge of creating a consitution and a working democracy in japan

text: Constitution of Japan

text: Outline[edit]

text: The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms, the Emperor of Japan is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty.

text: The constitution, also known as the "Post-war Constitution" (戦後憲法, Sengo-Kenpō) or the "Peace Constitution" (平和憲法, Heiwa-Kenpō), is best known for its Article 9, by which Japan renounces its right to wage war; and to a lesser extent, the provision for de jure popular sovereignty in conjunction with the monarchy.

text: The constitution was drawn up during the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace Japan's previous militaristic and system of quasi-absolute monarchy with a form of liberal democracy. No amendment has been made to it since its adoption.[1]

text: Historical origins[edit]

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text: Meiji Constitution[edit]

text: The Meiji Constitution was the fundamental law of the Empire of Japan, propagated during the reign of Emperor Meiji (r. 1867–1912). It provided for a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy, based on the Prussian and British models. In theory, the Emperor of Japan was the supreme ruler, and the cabinet, whose prime minister was elected by a privy council, were his followers; in practice, the Emperor was head of state but the Prime Minister was the actual head of government. Under the Meiji Constitution, the prime minister and his cabinet were not necessarily chosen from the elected members of the Diet. Pursuing the regular amending procedure of the "Meiji Constitution", it was entirely revised to become the "Post-war Constitution" on 3 November 1946. The Post-war Constitution has been in force since 3 May 1947.

text: The Potsdam Declaration[edit]

text: On 26 July 1945, Allied leaders Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman, and Chiang Kai-shek issued the Potsdam Declaration, which demanded Japan's unconditional surrender. This declaration also defined the major goals of the post-surrender Allied occupation: "The Japanese government shall remove all obstacles to the revival and strengthening of democratic tendencies among the Japanese people. Freedom of speech, of religion, and of thought, as well as respect for the fundamental human rights shall be established" (Section 10).

text: In addition, the document stated: "The occupying forces of the Allies shall be withdrawn from Japan as soon as these objectives have been accomplished and there has been established in accordance with the freely expressed will of the Japanese people a peacefully inclined and responsible government" (Section 12). The Allies sought not merely punishment or reparations from a militaristic foe, but fundamental changes in the nature of its political system. In the words of political scientist Robert E. Ward: "The occupation was perhaps the single most exhaustively planned operation of massive and externally directed political change in world history."

text: Drafting process[edit]

text: The wording of the Potsdam Declaration—"The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles ..."—and the initial post-surrender measures taken by Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), suggest that neither he nor his superiors in Washington intended to impose a new political system on Japan unilaterally. Instead, they wished to encourage Japan's new leaders to initiate democratic reforms on their own. But by early 1946, MacArthur's staff and Japanese officials were at odds over the most fundamental issue, the writing of a new Constitution. Emperor Hirohito, Prime Minister Kijūrō Shidehara and most of the cabinet members were extremely reluctant to take the drastic step of replacing the 1889 Meiji Constitution with a more liberal document.[2]

text: In late 1945, Shidehara appointed Jōji Matsumoto, state minister without portfolio, head of a blue-ribbon committee of Constitutional scholars to suggest revisions. The Matsumoto Commission's recommendations (ja:松本試案), made public in February 1946, were quite conservative as "no more than a touching-up of the Meiji Constitution").[citation needed] MacArthur rejected them outright and ordered his staff to draft a completely new document. An additional reason for this was that on 24 January 1946, Prime Minister Shidehara had suggested to MacArthur that the new Constitution should contain an article renouncing war.

text: Much of the drafting was done by two senior army officers with law degrees: Milo Rowell and Courtney Whitney, although others chosen by MacArthur had a large say in the document. The articles about equality between men and women were written by Beate Sirota.[3][4]

text: Although the document's authors were non-Japanese, they took into account the Meiji Constitution, the demands of Japanese lawyers, the opinions of pacifist political leaders such as Shidehara and Shigeru Yoshida, and especially the draft presented by the Constitution Research Association (Kenpō Kenkyū-kai) under the chairmanship of Suzuki Yasuzō (ja:鈴木安蔵) (1904–1983), which had been translated into English in its entirety already by the end of December 1945. MacArthur gave the authors less than a week to complete the draft, which was presented to surprised Japanese officials on 13 February 1946. On 6 March 1946, the government publicly disclosed an outline of the pending Constitution. On 10 April, elections were held for the House of Representatives of the Ninetieth Imperial Diet, which would consider the proposed Constitution. The election law having been changed, this was the first general election in Japan in which women were permitted to vote.

text: The MacArthur draft, which proposed a unicameral legislature, was changed at the insistence of the Japanese to allow a bicameral one, with both houses being elected. In most other important respects, the government adopted the ideas embodied in the 13 February document in its own draft proposal of 6 March. These included the constitution's most distinctive features: the symbolic role of the Emperor, the prominence of guarantees of civil and human rights, and the renunciation of war.

text: In 1946, criticism of or reference to SCAP's role in drafting the constitution could be made subject to Civil Censorship Detachment (CCD) censorship (as was any reference to censorship itself).[5] Until late 1947, CCD exerted pre-publication censorship over about 70 daily newspapers, all books and magazines and many other publications.[6]

text: Adoption[edit]

text: It was decided that in adopting the new document the Meiji Constitution would not be violated, but rather legal continuity would be maintained. Thus the 1946 Constitution was adopted as an amendment to the Meiji Constitution in accordance with the provisions of Article 73 of that document. Under Article 73 the new constitution was formally submitted to the Imperial Diet by the Emperor, through an imperial rescript issued on 20 June. The draft constitution was submitted and deliberated upon as the Bill for Revision of the Imperial Constitution.

text: The old constitution required that the bill receive the support of a two-thirds majority in both houses of the Diet to become law. After both chambers had made amendments the House of Peers approved the document on 6 October; the House of Representatives adopted it in the same form the following day, with only five members voting against, and became law when it received the Emperor's assent on 3 November 1946. Under its own terms the constitution came into effect on 3 May 1947.

text: A government organisation, the Kenpō Fukyū Kai ("Constitution Popularisation Society"), was established to promote the acceptance of the new constitution among the populace.[7]

text: Early proposals for amendment[edit]

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text: The new constitution would not have been written the way it was had MacArthur and his staff allowed Japanese politicians and constitutional experts to resolve the issue as they wished.[citation needed] The document's foreign origins have, understandably, been a focus of controversy since Japan recovered its sovereignty in 1952.[citation needed] Yet in late 1945 and 1946, there was much public discussion on constitutional reform, and the MacArthur draft was apparently greatly influenced by the ideas of certain Japanese liberals. The MacArthur draft did not attempt to impose a United States-style presidential or federal system. Instead, the proposed constitution conformed to the British model of parliamentary government, which was seen by the liberals as the most viable alternative to the European absolutism of the Meiji Constitution.[citation needed]

text: After 1952 conservatives and nationalists attempted to revise the constitution to make it more "Japanese", but these attempts were frustrated for a number of reasons. One was the extreme difficulty of amending it. Amendments require approval by two-thirds of the members of both houses of the National Diet before they can be presented to the people in a referendum (Article 96). Also, opposition parties, occupying more than one-third of the Diet seats, were firm supporters of the constitutional status quo. Even for members of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), the constitution was advantageous. They had been able to fashion a policy-making process congenial to their interests within its framework. Yasuhiro Nakasone, a strong advocate of constitutional revision during much of his political career, for example, downplayed the issue while serving as prime minister between 1982 and 1987.

text: Provisions[edit]

text: The constitution has a length of approximately 5,000 words and consists of a preamble and 103 articles grouped into eleven chapters. These are:

text:
I. The Emperor (Articles 1–8)
II. Renunciation of War (Article 9)
III. Rights and Duties of the People (Articles 10–40)
IV. The Diet (Articles 41–64)
V. The Cabinet (Articles 65–75)
VI. Judiciary (Articles 76–82)
VII. Finance (Articles 83–91)
VIII. Local Self–Government (Articles 92–95)
IX. Amendments (Article 96)
X. Supreme Law (Articles 97–99)
XI. Supplementary Provisions (Articles 100–103)

text: Edict[edit]

text: The constitution starts with an imperial edict made by the Emperor. It contains the Emperor's Privy Seal and signature, and is countersigned by the Prime Minister and other Ministers of State as required by the previous constitution of the Empire of Japan. The edict states:

text: I rejoice that the foundation for the construction of a new Japan has been laid according to the will of the Japanese people, and hereby sanction and promulgate the amendments of the Imperial Japanese Constitution effected following the consultation with the Privy Council and the decision of the Imperial Diet made in accordance with Article 73 of the said Constitution.[8][9]

text: Preamble[edit]

text: The constitution contains a firm declaration of the principle of popular sovereignty in the preamble. This is proclaimed in the name of the "Japanese people" and declares that "sovereign power resides with the people" and that:

text: Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are enjoyed by the people.

text: Part of the purpose of this language is to refute the previous constitutional theory that sovereignty resided in the Emperor. The constitution asserts that the Emperor is merely a symbol of the state, and that he derives "his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power" (Article 1). The text of the constitution also asserts the liberal doctrine of fundamental human rights. In particular Article 97 states that:

text: the fundamental human rights by this constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate.

text: The Emperor (Articles 1–8)[edit]

text: Under the constitution, the Emperor is "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people". The Emperor carries out most functions of a head of state, formally appointing the Prime Minister and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, convoking the National Diet and dissolving the House of Representatives, under the advice of the Cabinet, and also promulgating statutes and treaties and exercising other enumerated functions.

text: In contrast with the Meiji Constitution, the Emperor's role is almost entirely ceremonial, and he does not have powers related to government. Unlike other constitutional monarchies, he is not even the nominal chief executive or even the nominal commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF). The constitution explicitly limits the Emperor's role to matters of state delineated in the constitution. The constitution also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law.

text: Succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne is regulated by the Imperial Household Law and is managed by a ten-member body called the Imperial Household Council. The budget for the maintenance of the Imperial House is managed by resolution of the Diet.

text: Renunciation of war (Article 9)[edit]

text: Under Article 9, the "Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes". To this end the article provides that "land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained". The necessity and practical extent of Article 9 has been debated in Japan since its enactment, particularly following the establishment of the Japan Self-Defence Forces (JSDF), a de facto post-war Japanese military force that substitute for the pre-war Armed Forces, since 1 July 1954. Various political groups have called for either revising or abolishing the restrictions of Article 9 to permit collective defence efforts and strengthen Japan's military capabilities.

text: Individual rights (Articles 10–40)[edit]

text: "The rights and duties of the people" are featured prominently in the post-war constitution. Thirty-one of its 103 articles are devoted to describing them in detail, reflecting the commitment to "respect for the fundamental human rights" of the Potsdam Declaration. Although the Meiji Constitution had a section devoted to the "rights and duties of subjects" which guaranteed "liberty of speech, writing, publication, public meetings, and associations", these rights were granted "within the limits of law". Freedom of religious belief was allowed "insofar as it does not interfere with the duties of subjects" (all Japanese were required to acknowledge the Emperor's divinity, and those, such as Christians, who refused to do so out of religious conviction were accused of lèse-majesté). Such freedoms are delineated in the post-war constitution without qualification.

text: Individual rights under the Japanese constitution are rooted in Article 13 where the constitution asserts the right of the people "to be respected as individuals" and, subject to "the public welfare", to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". This article's core notion is jinkaku, which represents "the elements of character and personality that come together to define each person as an individual", and which represents the aspects of each individual's life that the government is obligated to respect in the exercise of its power.[10] Article 13 has been used as the basis to establish constitutional rights to privacy, self-determination and the control of an individual's own image, rights which are not explicitly stated in the constitution.

text: Subsequent provisions provide for:

text:
Equality before the law: The constitution guarantees equality before the law and outlaws discrimination against Japanese citizens based on "political, economic or social relations" or "race, creed, sex, social status or family origin" (Article 14). The right to vote cannot be denied on the grounds of "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income" (Article 44). Equality between the sexes is explicitly guaranteed in relation to marriage (Article 24) and childhood education (Article 26).
Prohibition of peerage: Article 14 forbids the state from recognising peerage. Honours may be conferred but they must not be hereditary or grant special privileges.
Democratic elections: Article 15 provides that "the people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them". It guarantees universal adult (in Japan, persons age 20 and older) suffrage and the secret ballot.
Prohibition of slavery: Guaranteed by Article 18. Involuntary servitude is permitted only as punishment for a crime.
Separation of Religion and State: The state is prohibited from granting privileges or political authority to a religion, or conducting religious education (Article 20).
Freedom of assembly, association, speech, and secrecy of communications: All guaranteed without qualification by Article 21, which forbids censorship.
Workers' rights: Work is declared both a right and obligation by Article 27 which also states that "standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law" and that children shall not be exploited. Workers have the right to participate in a trade union (Article 28).
Right to property: Guaranteed subject to the "public welfare". The state may take property for public use if it pays just compensation (Article 29). The state also has the right to levy taxes (Article 30).
Right to due process: Article 31 provides that no one may be punished "except according to procedure established by law". Article 32, which provides that "No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts", originally drafted to recognize criminal due process rights, is now understood as source of due process rights for civil and administrative law cases.[11]
Protection against unlawful detention: Article 33 provides that no one may be apprehended without an arrest warrant, save where caught in flagrante delicto. Article 34 guarantees habeas corpus, right to counsel, and right to be informed of charges. Article 40 enshrines the right to sue the state for wrongful detention.
Right to a fair trial: Article 37 guarantees the right to a public trial before an impartial tribunal with counsel for one's defence and compulsory access to witnesses.
Protection against self-incrimination: Article 38 provides that no one may be compelled to testify against themselves, that confessions obtained under duress are not admissible and that no one may be convicted solely on the basis of their own confession.
Other guarantees:
Right to petition government (Article 16)
Right to sue the state (Article 17)
Freedom of thought and conscience (Article 19)
Freedom of expression (Article 19)
Freedom of religion (Article 20)
Rights to change residence, choose employment, move abroad and relinquish nationality (Article 22)
Academic freedom (Article 23)
Prohibition of forced marriage (Article 24)
Compulsory education (Article 26)
Protection against entries, search and seizures (Article 35)
Prohibition of torture and cruel punishments (Article 36)
Prohibition of ex post facto laws (Article 39)
Prohibition of double jeopardy (Article 39)

text: Under Japanese case law, constitutional human rights apply to corporations to the extent possible given their corporate nature. Constitutional human rights also apply to foreign nationals to the extent that such rights are not by their nature only applicable to citizens (for example, foreigners have no right to enter Japan under Article 22 and no right to vote under Article 15, and their other political rights may be restricted to the extent that they interfere with the state's decision making).

text: Organs of government (Articles 41–95)[edit]

text: The constitution establishes a parliamentary system of government in which legislative authority is vested in a bicameral National Diet. Although a bicameral Diet existed under the existing constitution, the new constitution abolished the upper House of Peers, which consisted of members of the nobility (similar to the British House of Lords). The new constitution provides that both chambers be directly elected, with a lower House of Representatives and an upper House of Councillors. The House of Representatives has the sole ability to pass a vote of no confidence in the Cabinet, can override the House of Councillors' veto on any bill, and has priority in determining the national budget, approving treaties and nominating the prime minister when the two houses disagree.

text: Executive authority is vested in a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. The prime minister and a majority of the cabinet members must be members of the Diet, and have the right and obligation to attend sessions of the Diet. The Cabinet may also advise the Emperor to dissolve the House of Representatives and call for a general election to be held.

text: The judiciary consists of several lower courts headed by a Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is nominated by the Cabinet and appointed by the Emperor, while other justices are nominated and appointed by the Cabinet and attested by the Emperor. Lower court judges are nominated by the Supreme Court, appointed by the Cabinet and attested by the Emperor. All courts have the power of judicial review and may interpret the constitution to overrule statutes and other government acts, but only in the event that such interpretation is relevant to an actual dispute.

text: The constitution also provides a framework for local government, requiring that local entities have elected heads and assemblies, and providing that government acts applicable to particular local areas must be approved by the residents of those areas. These provisions formed the framework of the Local Autonomy Law of 1947, which established the modern system of prefectures, municipalities and other local government entities.

text: Amendments (Article 96)[edit]

text: Under Article 96, amendments to the constitution "shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification, which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at a special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify". The constitution has not been amended since its implementation in 1947, although there have been movements led by the Liberal Democratic Party to make various amendments to it.

text: Other provisions (Articles 97–103)[edit]

text: Article 97 provides for the inviolability of fundamental human rights. Article 98 provides that the constitution takes precedence over any "law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government" that offends against its provisions, and that "the treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed". In most nations it is for the legislature to determine to what extent, if at all, treaties concluded by the state will be reflected in its domestic law; under Article 98, however, international law and the treaties Japan has ratified automatically form a part of domestic law. Article 99 binds the Emperor and public officials to observe the constitution.

text: The final four articles set forth a six-month transitional period between adoption and implementation of the Constitution. This transitional period took place from November 3, 1946, to May 3, 1947. Pursuant to Article 100, the first House of Councillors election was held during this period in April 1947, and pursuant to Article 102, half of the elected Councillors were given three-year terms. A general election was also held during this period, as a result of which several former House of Peers members moved to the House of Representatives. Article 103 provided that public officials currently in office would not be removed as a direct result of the adoption or implementation of the new Constitution.

text: Amendments and revisions[edit]

text: The Constitution has not been amended since its enactment in 1947. Article 96 provides that amendments can be made to the Constitution if approved by super majority of two-thirds of both houses of the Diet, and by simple majority in a referendum. The Emperor promulgates the successful amendment in the name of the people, and cannot veto it.

text: Some commentators have suggested that the Constitution's American authors favoured the difficulty of the amendment process from a desire that the fundamentals of the regime they had imposed would be resistant to change. Among the Japanese themselves, any change to the document and to the post-war settlement it embodies is highly controversial. From the 1960s to the 1980s, Constitutional revision was rarely debated.[12] In the 1990s, right-leaning and conservative voices broke some taboos,[12] for example, when the newspaper Yomiuri Shimbun published a suggestion for Constitutional revision in 1994.[12] This period saw a number of right-leaning groups pushing aggressively for Constitutional revision and a significant number of organizations and individuals speaking out against revision[13] and in support of "the peace Constitution".

text: The debate has been highly polarised. The most controversial issues are proposed changes to Article 9—the "peace article"—and provisions relating to the role of the Emperor. Progressive, left, centre-left and peace movement-related individuals and organizations, as well as the opposition parties,[14] labor[15] and youth groups advocate keeping or strengthening the existing Constitution in these areas, while right-leaning, nationalist and conservative groups and individuals advocate changes to increase the prestige of the Emperor (though not granting him political powers) and to allow a more aggressive stance of the JSDF by turning it officially into a military. Others areas of the Constitution and connected laws discussed for potential revision related to the status of women, the education system and the system of public corporations (including social welfare, non-profit and religious organizations as well as foundations), and structural reform of the election process, e.g. to allow for direct election of the prime minister.[12] Numerous grassroots groups, associations, NGOs, think tanks, scholars, and politicians speak out on either side of the issue.[16]

text: Amendment Drafts by the LDP[edit]

text: The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), one of the most influential political parties in Japan that has been in majority in the Diet for the most of the time since its 1955 establishment, adopts several party platforms every of which lists "revision of the current constitution" as a political motive. One of the earliest platforms, "The Duties of the Party" in 1955, points out as follows:[17]

text: Although democracy and liberalism emphasized under the control of the Allied occupation should be respected and upheld as a new principle for Japan, the initial objective of the occupying forces of the Allies was mainly to demoralize the State; therefore, many of the reforms implemented by the forces including those of the constitution, education and other governmental systems have been unjustly suppressing the notion of the State and patriotism of the people and excessively disuniting the national sovereignty.

text: In recent years the LDP has committed itself more to constitutional revision, following its victory in the September 2005 general election of the representatives. Currently, the party has released two versions of amendment drafts, each in 2005 and 2012.

text: 2005 Draft[edit]

text: In August 2005, the then Japanese Prime Minister, Jun'ichirō Koizumi, proposed an amendment to the constitution to increase Japan's Defence Forces' roles in international affairs. A draft of the proposed constitution was released by the LDP on 22 November 2005 as part of the fiftieth anniversary of the party's founding. The proposed changes included:

text:
New wording for the Preamble.
First paragraph of Article 9, renouncing war, is retained. The second paragraph, forbidding the maintenance of "land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential" is replaced by an Article 9-2 which permits a "defence force", under control of the Prime Minister, to defend the nation and which may participate in international activities. This new section uses the term "軍" (gun, "army" or "military"), which has been avoided in the current constitution. It also adds an Article 76 about military courts; members of the JSDF are currently tried as civilians by civilian courts.
Modified wording in Article 13, regarding respect for individual rights.
Changes in Article 20, which gives the state limited permission within "the scope of socially acceptable protocol" for "ethno-cultural practices". Changes Article 89 to permit corresponding state funding of religious institutions.
Changes to Articles 92 and 95, concerning local self-government and relations between local and national governments.
Changes to Article 96, reducing the vote requirement for constitutional amendments in the Diet from two thirds to a simple majority. A national referendum would still be required.

text: This draft prompted debate, with strong opposition coming even from non-governmental organisations of other countries, as well as established and newly formed grassroots Japanese organisations, such as Save Article 9. Per the current constitution, a proposal for constitutional changes must be passed by a two-thirds vote in the Diet, then be put to a national referendum. However, there was in 2005 no legislation in place for such a referendum.

text: Koizumi's successor Shinzō Abe vowed to push aggressively for Constitutional revision. A major step toward this was getting legislation passed to allow for a national referendum in April 2007.[18] By that time there was little public support for changing the Constitution, with a survey showing 34.5% of Japanese not wanting any changes, 44.5% wanting no changes to Article 9, and 54.6% supporting the current interpretation on self-defense.[18] On the 60th anniversary of the Constitution, on 3 May 2007, thousands took to the streets in support of Article 9.[18] The Chief Cabinet secretary and other top government officials interpreted the survey to mean that the public wanted a pacifist Constitution that renounces war, and may need to be better informed about the details of the revision debate.[19] The legislation passed by parliament specifies that a referendum on Constitutional reform could take place at the earliest in 2010, and would need approval from a majority of voters.

text: 2012 Draft[edit]

text: On 27 April 2012, the LDP drafted a new version of amendment[20] with an explanatory booklet[21] for general readers. The booklet states that the spirit of the amendment is to "make the Constitution more suitable for Japan" by "drastically revising the translationese wording and the provisions based on the theory of natural human rights currently adopted in the Constitution".[22] The proposed changes includes:

text:
Preamble: In the LDP draft, the Preamble declares that Japan is reigned by the Emperor and adopts the popular sovereignty and trias politica principles. The current Preamble refers to the government as a trust of the people (implying the "natural rights codified into the constitution by the social contract" model) and ensures people "the right to live in peace, free from fear and want", but both mentions are deleted in the LDP draft.
Emperor: Overall, the LDP draft adopts a wording that sounds as though the Emperor has greater power than under the current Constitution.[23] The draft defines him as "the head of the State" (Article 1).[24] Compared to the current Constitution, he is exempted from "the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution" (Article 102). The draft defines Nisshōki as the national flag and Kimigayo the national anthem (Article 3).
Human rights: The LDP draft, as the accompanying booklet states, revises many of the human right provisions currently adopted in the Constitution. The booklet describes the reason of these changes as: "Human rights should have ground on the State's history, culture and tradition" and "Several of the current Constitutional provisions are based on the Western-European theory of natural human rights; such provisions therefore require to be changed."[25] The draft lists every instance of the basic rights as something that is entitled by the State –  as opposed to something that human beings inherently possess –  as seen in the draft provisions of "new human rights" (see below).

text: The current Constitution has the phrase "public welfare" in four articles (Articles 12, 13, 22 and 29) and states that any human right is subject to restriction when it "interferes with the public welfare". The majority of legal professionals argue that the spirit of such restriction against rights based on "public welfare" is to protect other people's rights from infringement.[26] In the LDP draft, every instance of the phrase "public welfare" is replaced with a new phrase: "public interest and public order". The booklet describes the reason for this change as "to enable the State to restrict human rights for the sake of purposes other than protecting people's rights from infringement",[25] but it remains unclear under what conditions the State can restrict human rights. It also explains that what "public order" means is "order of society" and its intention is not to prohibit the people from making an objection to the government,[27] but it explains nothing about "public interest".

text: Provisions regarding the people's rights modified or added in the LDP draft include:

text:
[Individualism]: The LDP draft replaces the word "individuals" with "persons" (Article 13). This change reflects the draft authors' view that "excessive individualism" is an ethically unacceptable thought.[citation needed][28]
Human rights and the supremacy of the constitution: The current constitution has Article 97 at the beginning of the "Supreme Law" chapter, which stipulates that the constitution guarantees the basic human rights to the people. The current, prevalent interpretation of Article 97 is that this article describes the essential reason why this constitution is the supreme law, which is the fact that the constitution's spirit is to guarantee human rights.[29] In the LDP draft, this article is deleted and the booklet does not explain any reason for the deletion.
Freedom of assembly, association, speech and all other forms of expression: The LDP draft adds a new paragraph on Article 21, which enables the State to prohibit the people from performing expressions "for the purpose of interfering with public interest and public order". The LDP explain that this change makes it easy for the State to take countermeasures against criminal organizations like Aum Shinrikyo.[30]
Right to property: The LDP draft adds a new paragraph stating that the State shall define intellectual property rights "for the sake of promotion of the people's intellectual creativity" (Article 29).
Workers' rights: Workers have the right to participate in a labour union, but currently there is a dispute on whether public officials should be entitled to this right. The LDP draft add a new paragraph to make it clear that public officials shall not enjoy this right or part thereof (Article 28).
Freedom from torture and cruel punishments: Under the current constitution, torture and cruel punishments are "absolutely forbidden", but the LDP draft deletes the word "absolutely" (Article 36). The reason for this change is not presented in the booklet.
"New human rights": The LDP draft adds four provisions regarding the concept collectively called "new human rights":[31] protection of privacy (Article 19-2), accountability of the State (Article 21-2), environmental protection (Article 25-2), and rights of crime victims (Article 25-4). However, the draft only requires the State to make a good faith effort to meet the stated goals and does not entitle the people to these "rights", as the booklet points out.[32]
Obligations of the people: The LDP draft can be characterized by its obligation clauses imposed on the people. The current constitution lists three obligations: to work (Article 27), to pay taxes as provided for by law (Article 30), and to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary education as provided for by law (Article 26). The LDP draft adds six more:
The people must respect the national anthem and flag (Article 3).
The people must be conscious of the fact that there are responsibilities and obligations in compensation for freedom and rights (Article 12).
The people must comply with the public interest and public order (Article 12).
The people must help one another among the members of a household (Article 24).
The people must obey commands from the State or the subordinate offices thereof in a state of emergency (Article 99).
The people must uphold the constitution (Article 102).

text: Additionally, although defence of the national territory (Article 9-3) and environmental protection (Article 25-2) are literally listed under the LDP draft as obligations of the State, these provisions let the State call for the "cooperation with the people" to meet the goals provided, effectively functioning as obligation clauses on the people's side.

text:
Equality: The current constitution guarantees equality to citizens, prohibiting any discrimination based on "race, creed, sex, social status or family origin". The LDP draft adds "handicaps" (Articles 14 and 44) between "sex" and "social status", improving the equality under the law. On the other hand, the sentence "No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction" in the current paragraph (2) of Article 14 is deleted in the LDP draft, which means that the State shall be allowed to grant "privilege" as part of national awards. The reason for this change is not presented in the booklet.
National security: The LDP draft deletes the current provision declaring that armed forces and other war potential shall never be maintained, and adds new Articles 9-2 and 9-3 stating that the "National Defense Force" shall be set up and the Prime Minister shall be its commander-in-chief. According to the paragraph (3) of the new Article 9-2, the National Defense Force not only can defend the territory from a foreign attack and can participate in international peacekeeping operations, but also can operate to either maintain domestic public order or to protect individual rights.
State of emergency: The LDP draft grants the Prime Minister the authority to declare a "state of emergency" in a national emergency including foreign invasions, domestic rebellions and natural disasters (Article 98). When in a state of emergency, the Cabinet can enact orders that have the effect of the laws passed by the [National Diet] (Article 99).
Relaxation of separation of religion and the State: The LDP draft deletes the current clause that prohibits the State from granting "political authority" to a religious organization, and enables the State to perform religious acts itself within the scope of "social protocol or ethno-cultural practices" (Article 20).
Political control over the courts: Unlike the current constitution, which guarantees that the Supreme Court judges shall not be dismissed unless the "review" procedure stipulated by the constitution, the LDP draft enables the Diet to define this review procedure through a Diet-enacted law, not the constitution (Article 79). The draft also states that salary of a judge –  of both the Supreme Court and inferior courts –  could be decreased in the same manner as any other kinds of public officials (Articles 79 and 80) by the subordinate offices of the State (namely, the National Personnel Authority).
Further amendments: The LDP draft states that a simple majority in the two Houses shall be adequate for a motion for constitutional amendment (Article 96). An actual amendment shall still require a national referendum, but a simple majority in "the number of valid votes actually cast", as opposed to "the number of a qualified voters" or "the number of votes", shall enact the amendment (Article 96).

text: Controversy[edit]

text: On 15 August 2016, during his campaign rally speech for Hillary Clinton, U.S. Vice President Joe Biden remarked that America had written Japan's Constitution following World War II. These comments were seen as insensitive and arrogant by a column in Japan's Asahi newspaper.[33]

text: On 7 December 2016, a CNN article stated that the Japanese constitution was "imposed by the United States after World War II".[34][further explanation needed]


document_title: Implied powers

question_text: what part of the constitution is the basis for the implied powers of congress

root

text: Implied powers

text: Implied powers, in the United States, are powers authorized by the Constitution that, while not stated, seem implied by powers that are expressly stated. When George Washington asked Alexander Hamilton to defend the constitutionality of the First Bank of the United States against the protests[1] of Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Attorney General Edmund Randolph, Hamilton produced what has now become the classic statement for implied powers.[2] Hamilton argued that the sovereign duties of a government implied the right to use means adequate to its ends. Although the United States government was sovereign only as to certain objects, it was impossible to define all the means it should use, because it was impossible for the founders to anticipate all future exigencies. Hamilton noted that the "general welfare clause" and the "necessary and proper clause" gave elasticity to the Constitution. Hamilton won the argument with Washington, who signed the bank bill into law.

tag: p

text: Later, directly borrowing from Hamilton, Chief Justice John Marshall invoked the implied powers of government in the United States Supreme Court case, McCulloch v. Maryland. In 1816, the United States Congress passed legislation creating the Second Bank of the United States. The state of Maryland attempted to tax the bank. The state argued the United States Constitution did not explicitly grant Congress the power to establish banks. In 1819, the Court decided against the state of Maryland. Chief Justice Marshall argued that Congress had the right to establish the bank, as the Constitution grants to Congress certain implied powers beyond those explicitly stated.

text: In the case of the United States Government, implied powers are powers Congress exercises that the Constitution does not explicitly define, but are necessary and proper to execute the powers.

text: Notes[edit]

text: Implied powers are those that can reasonably be assumed to flow from express powers, though not explicitly mentioned. The legitimacy of these powers is derived from the Taxing and Spending Clause, the Necessary and Proper Clause, and the Commerce Clause.

text:
Jump up ^ they implied powers into the united states.......Against the Constitutionality of the Bank of the United States, Thomas Jefferson.
Jump up ^ For the Constitutionality of the Bank of the United States, Alexander Hamilton.

tag: ol

text: Constitutional lawLegal doctrines and principles

tag: ul


document_title: New York City water supply system

question_text: where does the majority of new york city's drinking water come from

question_tokens: where does the majority of new york city 's drinking water come from

text: New York City water supply system

text: Responsibility for water supply, sewerage and wastewater treatment[edit]

text: Responsibility for the city water supply is shared among three institutions: the New York City Department of Environmental Protection ("DEP"), which operates and maintains the system and is responsible for investment planning; the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority ("NYW"), which raises debt financing in the market to underwrite the system's costs; and the Water Board, which sets rates and collects user payments.

text: New York City Department of Environmental Protection[edit]

text: The DEP has a workforce of over 6,000 employees. It includes three bureaus in charge of, respectively, the upstate water supply system, New York City's water and sewer operations, and wastewater treatment:

text:
The Bureau of Water Supply manages, operates and protects New York City's upstate water supply system to ensure the delivery of a sufficient quantity of high quality drinking water. The Bureau is also responsible for the overall management and implementation of the provisions of the city's $1.5 billion Watershed Protection Program.
In addition to operating and maintaining the water supply and sewerage system, the Bureau of Water and Sewer Operations is also responsible for the operation of the Staten Island Bluebelt, an ecologically sound, cost-effective natural alternative to storm sewers, which occupies approximately 15 square miles (39 km2) of land in the South Richmond area of Staten Island. This project preserves streams, ponds and other wetland ("bluebelt") areas, allowing them to perform their natural function of conveying, storing and filtering storm water.
The Bureau of Wastewater Treatment operates 14 water pollution control plants treating an average of 1.5 billion US gallons (5,700,000 m3) of wastewater a day; 95 wastewater pump stations; eight dewatering facilities; 490 sewer regulators; and 7,000 miles (11,000 km) of intercepting sewers.[3]

text: New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority[edit]

text: The NYW finances the capital needs of the water and sewer system of the city through the issuance of bonds, commercial paper, and other debt instruments. It is a public-benefit corporation created in 1985 pursuant to the New York City Municipal Water Finance Authority Act. The Authority is administered by a seven-member Board of Directors. Four of the members are ex officio members: the Commissioner of Environmental Protection of the City, the Director of Management and Budget of the City, the Commissioner of Finance of the City, and the Commissioner of Environmental Conservation of the State. The remaining three members are public appointments: two by the Mayor, and one by the Governor.[4]

text: New York City Water Board[edit]

text: The New York City Water Board sets water and sewer rates for New York City sufficient to pay the costs of operating and financing the system, and collects user payments from customers for services provided by the water and wastewater utility systems of the City of New York. The five Board members are appointed to two-year terms by the Mayor.[5]

text: Overview of infrastructure[edit]

text: New York City's water system consists of aqueducts, distribution pipes, reservoirs, and water tunnels that channel drinking water to residents and visitors. A comprehensive raised-relief map of the system is on display at the Queens Museum of Art. Until the early 21st century, some places in southeastern Queens received their water from local wells of the former Jamaica Water Supply Company.[6]

text: Reservoirs and aqueducts[edit]

text: The water system has a storage capacity of 550 billion US gallons (2.1×109 m3) and provides over 1.2 billion US gallons (4,500,000 m3) per day of drinking water to more than eight million city residents, another one million users in four upstate counties bordering on the water supply system, and visitors to the region. Three separate sub-systems, each consisting of aqueducts and reservoirs, bring water from Upstate New York to the New York City:

text:
The New Croton Aqueduct, completed in 1890, brings water from the New Croton Reservoir in Westchester and Putnam counties.
The Catskill Aqueduct, completed in 1916, is significantly larger than New Croton and brings water from two reservoirs in the eastern Catskill Mountains.
The Delaware Aqueduct, completed in 1945, taps tributaries of the Delaware River in the western Catskill Mountains and provides approximately half of New York City's water supply.[7]

text: The latter two aqueducts provide 90% of New York City's drinking water. Water from both aqueducts is stored first in the large Kensico Reservoir and subsequently in the much smaller Hillview Reservoir closer to the city.

text: Brooklyn Reservoirs[edit]

text: Brooklyn has had many water reservoirs; they can be seen on an 1864 map of Brooklyn Waterworks.[8] They are listed below, from east to west:

text:
Hempstead Reservoir
Smith's Pond
Rockville Reservoir
Valley Stream Pond
Watts Pond
Clear Stream Reservoir
Brookfield Reservoir
Conselyea Pond
P. Cornells Pond
Springfield Pond
One Mile Pond
Jamaica Reservoir
Ridgewood Reservoir
Mount Prospect Reservoir

text: Tunnels and distribution system[edit]

text: From the Hillview reservoir water flows by gravity through three tunnels under New York City, where water rises again to the surface under natural pressure, through a number of shafts. The three tunnels are:

text:
New York City Water Tunnel No.1, completed in 1917. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central Bronx, Harlem River, West Side, Midtown, and Lower East Side of Manhattan, and under the East River to Brooklyn where it connects to Tunnel 2. It is expected to undergo extensive repairs upon completion of Tunnel No. 3, in 2020.
New York City Water Tunnel No. 2, completed in 1935. It runs from the Hillview Reservoir under the central Bronx, East River, and western Queens to Brooklyn, where it connects to Tunnel 1 and the Richmond Tunnel to Staten Island. When completed, it was the longest large diameter water tunnel in the world.[9]
The uncompleted New York City Water Tunnel No. 3, the largest capital construction project in New York City's history (see below).[10]

text: The distribution system is made up of an extensive grid of water mains stretching approximately 6,500 miles (10,500 km).

text: Ongoing repairs and upgrades[edit]

text: The Croton Water Filtration Plant Project[edit]

text: In order to comply with federal and state laws regarding the filtration and disinfection of drinking water, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the New York State Department of Health called on the city to create a treatment plan to serve the Croton System. The underground filtration plant is under construction in Van Cortlandt Park. While the Bloomberg administration originally budgeted the project at $992 million in 2003, an audit by the city's comptroller placed the actual costs at $2.1 billion in August 2009.[11]

text: Delaware Aqueduct repair[edit]

text: The New York City water supply system leaks at a rate of up to 36 million US gallons (140,000 m3) per day.[12] A complex five-year project with an estimated $240 million construction cost was initiated in November 2008, to correct some of this leakage.

text: Water tunnel No. 3[edit]

text: The construction of Water tunnel No. 3 is intended to provide the city with a critical third connection to its Upstate New York water supply system, allowing the city to close tunnels No. 1 and No. 2 for repair for the first time of their history. The tunnel will eventually be more than 60 miles (97 km) long. Construction on the tunnel began in 1970, and its first and second phases are completed. The latter opened with a ceremony under Central Park, in 2013. Completion of all phases is not expected until at least 2020.[13]


document_title: Harry and the Hendersons

question_text: where did harry and the hendersons take place

text: Harry and the Hendersons

text: Plot[edit]

text: George Henderson (John Lithgow) is returning to his suburban Seattle home with his family from a camping trip in the nearby Cascade mountains when they hit something with the family Ford Country Squire. George investigates, and discovers to his horror and awe, that they have hit a Sasquatch. Thinking they have killed it, they decide to take the creature home, strapping it to the roof of their car. Meanwhile, a mysterious hunter has been tracking the creature and discovers the Hendersons' license plate, which fell off when they hit the creature.

text: Later that night, George goes out to the garage to examine the creature and discovers that it is not dead, and has escaped. He hears noises from his kitchen and sees the creature, which has knocked over the fridge looking for food. The family realizes that the creature is friendly and kind. George has a change of heart; at first he wished to make money from the creature, but now decides to take him back to the wild. Naming the creature "Harry," George tries to lure him into the station wagon, but Harry believes that the Hendersons mean him harm and instead he disappears.

text: Saddened, the family resume their normal lives, but sightings of Harry become more frequent and the media fervor heightens. George tries to find Harry in order to keep him safe. George visits the "North American Museum of Anthropology" to speak with Dr. Wallace Wrightwood, an expert on Bigfoot, but is disheartened when he realizes its ramshackle state. Giving his number to the clerk (Don Ameche) inside the Museum, George resumes his search for Harry. The hunter from the woods is Jacques LaFleur (David Suchet), a legendary hunter who became obsessed with Bigfoot and has hunted for one ever since becoming a laughingstock. LaFleur tracks down the Hendersons and is closer to finding Harry.

text: After a Harry sighting, George goes into the city to search for him. Meanwhile, the police are dealing with the "Bigfoot Mania" by apprehending several local enthusiasts that are hunting Bigfoot, in case the Bigfoot in question is someone dressed in a costume. Following a car chase, George is able to save Harry from LaFleur, and LaFleur is arrested by police officers. When George brings Harry home, he and the Hendersons bury the hunting trophies and pay their respects to the dead animals that were converted into hunting trophies.

text: The next morning, the neighbors notice hair in the Hendersons pool, and Harry is seen being dried off while watching The Addams Family. In jail, LaFleur calls someone and tells him to secure his immediate release because he has a lead on Bigfoot. George calls Dr. Wrightwood from the museum and invites him to dinner to speak about Bigfoot. At dinner, the museum clerk is revealed to be Dr. Wrightwood, having also become a laughingstock. Dr. Wrightwood tells George and the family to give up on Bigfoot, as it has destroyed his life and will destroy theirs, but then he meets Harry, and instantly agrees to take him to safety, away from the city. By this time, LaFleur has been bailed of jail and heads to the Henderson house. George and Harry escape the house with Dr. Wrightwood in his old truck. LaFleur gives chase and eventually catches up with the Henderson family.

text: Fleeing back to the mountains, George tries to make Harry leave, going so far as to hit Harry. Confused and upset, Harry does not leave. LaFleur catches up to them and attacks the Hendersons dog. Harry attacks LaFleur, but George intervenes. Through George's faith and Harry's kindness, LaFleur changes his mind and decides that Harry deserves to live peacefully. As the family says goodbye, George thanks Harry for all he has done for the family and tells him to take care of himself. to which Harry replies "Okay" (his first spoken word). As Harry leaves, several other Sasquatches appear from their hiding places and also disappear into the wilderness with him, to the amazement of the Hendersons. When Dr. Wrightwood asks LaFleur what he's going to do next, LaFleur replies, "I don't know. There's always Loch Ness." As the two of them laugh at that comment, the Hendersons keep waving goodbye to Harry.

text: During the credits, there is rotoscoping of different scenes of the movie.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
John Lithgow as George Henderson
Melinda Dillon as Nancy Henderson
Margaret Langrick as Sarah Henderson
Joshua Rudoy as Ernie Henderson
Kevin Peter Hall as Harry (in-suit performer)

Rick Baker as Harry (puppeteer)
Tom Hester as Harry (puppeteer)
Tim Lawrence as Harry (puppeteer)
Fred Newman as Harry (voice)

Lainie Kazan as Irene Moffat
Don Ameche as Dr. Wallace Wrightwood
David Suchet as Jacques LaFleur
M. Emmet Walsh as George Henderson Sr.
William Dear as Sighting Man

text: Reception[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2016)

tag: table

text: Box office[edit]

text: Harry and the Hendersons opened third behind Beverly Hills Cop II and The Untouchables.[2] It went on to gross $29.7 million at the North American domestic box office and $20.2 million internationally for a total of $49.9 million worldwide.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The response from critics was mixed. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 44% based on reviews from 18 critics.[3][4] [5]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Academy Awards[6]

Best Makeup (Won)

text: Music[edit]

text: Bruce Broughton composed the film's original score, and co-wrote "Love Lives On" with Barry Mann (music), Cynthia Weil (lyrics) and Will Jennings (lyrics), performed by Joe Cocker over the end credits (in place of Broughton's planned end title cue), the soundtrack version of "Love Lives On" which has a saxophone solo on a single and later released as a single. MCA Records released a soundtrack album on record and cassette; in 2007 Intrada Records issued an expanded album, marking the music's premiere CD release.

text: 1987 MCA soundtrack album[edit]

text: Side 1:

text:
Love Lives On - Joe Cocker [3:49]
Main Title [3:05]
Some Dumb Thing [2:28]
Irene! [1:26]
Harry In The House [4:20]
Harry Takes Off [3:20]

text: Side 2:

text:
Your Feet's Too Big - Jimmy Walker; arr. Chris Boardman [3:15]
Drawing Harry [1:49]
Taking Harry Home [2:57]
Foot Prints [4:19]
Goodbyes [4:07]
"Harry And The Hendersons" [3:28]

text: 2007 Intrada album[edit]

text: The album begins with the film version of "Love Lives On," which has a flute solo rather than the guitar heard on the single and on the 1987 soundtrack album.

text:
Love Lives On - Joe Cocker [3:51]
Main Title [5:41]
Taking Harry Home [4:33]
Harry in the House [6:22]
Night Prowler [1:01]
Some Dumb Thing [3:16]
Irene! [1:26]
Eye To Eye [0:54]
Our Little Pet [1:36]
Tracking Harry [1:37]
Harry Takes Off [3:19]
Big Freeway [1:39]
Sasquatch [1:01]
The Great Outdoors [1:55]
Bigfoot Museum [0:59]
Planning the Hunt [2:03]
Drawing Harry [1:48]
Night Pursuit [9:52]
First Things First [1:41]
Wrightwood Meets Harry [1:29]
Bed Pals [0:43]
Traffic Jam! [7:14]
Footprints [4:19]
Goodbyes [4:06]
Harry and the Hendersons [3:27]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released in January 2011 on DVD entitled Harry and The Hendersons Special Edition.[7] A single-disc Blu-ray of the film was released on March 4, 2014.

text: TV spin-off[edit]

text: The film had a TV series spin-off, also called Harry and the Hendersons. Kevin Peter Hall reprised Harry until his death in 1991. After that, Harry was performed by Dawan Scott in 1991-1992 and by Brian Steele in 1992-1993. Harry's vocal effects were provided by Patrick Pinney.


document_title: The Santa Clause

question_text: who busts santa out of jail in the santa claus

text: The Santa Clause

text: Plot[edit]

text: Scott Calvin (Tim Allen) is a successful executive at a toy company. However, he spends less and less time with his son Charlie (Eric Lloyd), to the point where Charlie is not too happy to spend Christmas with Scott. After Charlie is dropped off by Scott's ex-wife, Laura (Wendy Crewson) and her new husband Neil (Judge Reinhold), the two are left alone at Scott's residence. However, he burns their turkey meal and the two are forced to go to Denny's for dinner. After reading Charlie the book 'Twas the night before Christmas, Charlie wakes Scott up after hearing noises on the roof.

text: Rushing outside, Scott startles a man dressed as Santa on the roof, causing him to slip and fall. Attempting to help the man, Scott finds a card on him that states "If something should happen to me, put on my suit, the Reindeer will know what to do," after which the body disappears. Charlie comes outside and discovers reindeer and a sleigh on the roof. Pushed by his son, Scott puts on the Santa suit and delivers a few gifts before the reindeer take them to the North Pole. Bernard (David Krumholtz), the head elf, explains to Scott that, because he put on the suit, he is now Santa, and gives him one year to get his affairs in order before taking over Santa's duties. Overwhelmed, Scott changes into pajamas and falls asleep. Eventually waking up in his own bed, Scott believes he had an elaborate dream, until Charlie begins telling him events of the previous night.

text: Over the course of the next year, strange things begin to occur. Scott begins gaining a significant amount of weight, hitting 192 pounds, including forty-five pounds in a week. His facial hair regrows quickly after shaving and his hair turns stark white. As if he was pregnant, Scott begins craving sweets, adopting a diet consisting mainly of milk and cookies. Scott's rapid weight gain causes his clothes to stop fitting, requiring him to wear sweatpants and t-shirts that reveal his jiggly, swollen, and massive gut. This eventually leads to Laura and Neil visiting a judge and arranging to suspend Scott's visitation rights, thinking he is losing touch with reality. Scott eventually visits Charlie anyway, and is convinced that he is Santa. Bernard appears, and whisks both to the North Pole to begin preparations for Christmas.

text: Laura and Neil believe Scott has kidnapped Charlie and contact the police. At the North Pole, Scott sets out for Christmas with Charlie in tow. However, upon arriving at his old home, Scott is arrested. The elves eventually send a crack team of extraction elves to rescue him. Scott returns to Laura's house and reveals that he is Santa to them. Initially unbelieving, eventually both come around and believe that Scott is now Santa. After a very public departure, Scott travels the world delivering gifts. Using a magic snow globe given to him by Bernard, Charlie summons Scott back home. Laura agrees to let Charlie go with Scott to deliver the gifts and to the two head off into the night.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tim Allen as Scott Calvin / Santa Claus
Eric Lloyd as Charlie Calvin
Wendy Crewson as Laura Miller
Judge Reinhold as Dr. Neil Miller
David Krumholtz as Bernard the Head Elf
Paige Tamada as Judy the Elf
Peter Boyle as Mr. Whittle
Larry Brandenburg as Detective Nunzio
Jayne Eastwood as Judy the Waitress
Kenny Vadas as the E.L.F.S. Leader
Chris Benson as Fireman O'Hara
Mary Gross as Mrs. Daniels

text: Production[edit]

text: This film was entirely shot in the Greater Toronto Area. Oakville served as the city of Lakeside, Illinois.[2] It was originally going to be released under the Hollywood Pictures banner, but was moved to Walt Disney Pictures after positive test screenings among children (despite Hollywood Pictures received a marquee credit—placement of the studio's production logo on marketing materials with the film's opening titles). Prior to filming, Tim Allen took up Santa's diet of milk and cookies to help him gain forty-five pounds for his role as Santa.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Santa Clause grossed over USD $144 million in the United States and Canada, and over $189 million worldwide, making it a box-office hit. The film has since gone on to become a Christmas classic. Freeform and AMC have played the film during the holiday season with record ratings.[3]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The film received generally positive reviews from the critics. The film currently holds a "Certified Fresh" rating of 75% on Rotten Tomatoes, with 39 positive reviews from 52 counted and an average rating of 6/10. The consensus from the site is "The Santa Clause is utterly undemanding, but it's firmly rooted in the sort of good old-fashioned holiday spirit missing from too many modern yuletide films."[4]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Note that songs listed here (and in the movie credits) cannot always be found on CD soundtracks.[5]

text:
"Oh Christmas Tree (O Tannenbaum)"; Arranged by John Neufeld
"Carol of the Bells"; Written by Peter Wilhousky
"White Christmas"; Written by Irving Berlin; Performed by The Drifters
"Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town"; Written by J. Fred Coots And Haven Gillespie; Performed by Alvin and the Chipmunks
"Think!" (Theme from Jeopardy!); Written by Merv Griffin
"Jingle Bell Ride"; Written and Performed by Johnny Hawksworth
"Gimme All Your Lovin'"; Written by Billy Gibbons, Dusty Hill, and Frank Beard; Performed by ZZ Top
"Jingle Bells"; Arranged by John Neufeld
"Christmas Will Return"; Written by Jimmy Webb; Performed by Brenda Russell and Howard Hewett
"The Bells of Christmas"; Written and Performed by Loreena McKennitt

text: The film's soundtrack was released on October 10, 1994 in the United States.

text:
Let's Go
Believing Is Seeing
Sash Completes the Ensemble
Flight
Weightless
Away to the Window
Bells of Christmas
Listen
Goodnight, Goodnight, Don’t Forget the Fire Extinguisher
Visitation
Rose Suchak Ladder
List
Elves with Attitude
Someone in Wrapping
Near Capture
Comfort and Joy
Not Over Any Oceans
Christmas Will Return

text: Home media[edit]

text: This film was first released on Home Video (VHS) on October 20, 1995. The first DVD was released in October 29, 2002. The Santa Clause along with its sequels were released in a three movie DVD collection in 2007. All three movies were released as a Blu-ray set on October 16, 2012.

text: Towards the beginning of the film a brief exchange between Scott and Laura takes place in which Laura hands Scott a piece of paper with Neil's mother's phone number on it. Scott then says "1-800-SPANK-ME. I know that number." In the United States, the exchange was removed from the 1999 DVD release as well as the 2002 Special Edition DVD and VHS releases and the 2012 Blu-ray release after a 1996 incident in which a child from Steilacoom, Washington called the number and racked up a $400 phone bill.[6] On television airings, the phone number is changed to "1-800-POUND". The line remains intact on the 1995 VHS release.

text: VHS, Laserdisc, DVD and Blu-ray history[edit]

text: Walt Disney Home Video (October 20, 1995 – present)


document_title: Civil aviation in India

question_text: who piloted the first commercial civil aviation flight that took place in india

text: Civil aviation in India

text: History[edit]

text: Civil Aviation in India traces back to 18 February 1911, when the first commercial civil aviation flight took off from Allahabad for Naini over a distance of 6 miles (9.7 km). During the Allahabad Exhibition, Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500 pieces of mail on a Humber biplane from the exhibition to the receiving office at Allahabad. This is the world's first official airmail service.[7] On 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport. His airline later became Air India.[8]

text: In March 1953, the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act. India's airline industry was nationalised and the eight domestic airlines operating independently at that time, Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Kalinga Airlines, Indian National Airways, Air India and Air Services of India were merged into two government owned entities. Indian Airlines focussed on domestic routes and Air India International on international services.[9] The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI) was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986. The Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the tragic crash of Air India Flight 182. Pushpaka Aviation operated scheduled international passenger flights from Bombay to Sharjah, as an associate carrier of Air India from 1979 to 1983.

text: East-West Airlines was the first national level private airline to operate in the country after the government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991. The government allowed private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the ‘Air Taxi’ Scheme until 1994, when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate scheduled services. Private airlines like Jet Airways, Air Sahara, Modiluft, Damania Airways and NEPC Airlines among others commenced domestic operations during this period.[9]

text: Air India placed orders for more than 68 jets from Boeing for US$7.5 billion in 2006 while Indian placed orders for 43 jets from Airbus for US$2.5 billion in 2005.[10][11] Jet Airways invested millions of dollars to increase its fleet,[12] but was later put on hold due to the recent economic slowdown.[13] IndiGo announced orders for 100 Airbus A320s worth US$6 billion during the Paris Air Show, the highest by any Asian domestic carrier.[14] Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth US$3 billion.[15][16]

text: More than half a dozen low-cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004–05. Major new entrants included Air Deccan, Air Sahara, Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir, Paramount Airways and IndiGo. But Indian aviation industry struggled due to economic slowdown, rising fuel and operation costs. This led to consolidation, buy outs and discontinuations in the Indian airline industry. In 2007, Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways and Kingfisher Airlines respectively. Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and Kingfisher shut down in 2012. Etihad Airways agreed to acquire 24% stake in Jet in 2013. AirAsia India, a low cost carrier operating as a joint venture between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014. Vistara, another carrier was established as a joint venture between Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines. As of 2013–14, only IndiGo and GoAir were generating profits.[17]

text: Market[edit]

text: India is the fourth largest civil aviation market in the world having a potential of becoming third largest aviation market by 2020. It recorded an air traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016, of which 100 million were domestic passengers.[18] The market is also estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020.[19]

text: In 2015, Boeing projected India's demand for aircraft to touch 1,740, valued at $240 billion, over the next 20 years in India. This would account for 4.3 per cent of global volumes. According to Airbus, India will be one of the top three aviation markets globally in the next 20 years. Airbus is expecting an annual growth rate of over 11 per cent for the domestic market in India over the next ten years, while the combined growth rate for domestic and international routes would also be more than 10 per cent.[20]

text: Regulations[edit]

text: The industry is governed by the provisions of Aircraft Act.[21][22] According to the ‘5/20 rule,’ all airlines in India need five years of domestic flying experience and at least 20 aircraft in its fleet in order to fly abroad.[23] The proposal to review or scrap the 5/20 rule had come up during the tenure of former aviation minister Ajit Singh and around the same time when Tata Group evinced interest in investing in airline sector.[24]

text: Regulations requiring hand baggage tags to be stamped by security personnel at all airports was introduced from 1992.[25] Between 15–21 December 2016, the CISF conducted a week-long trial at 6 airports during which all domestic passengers would be exempted from the stamping requirement.[26] Civil aviation security regulator Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS) announced on 23 February 2017, that stamping baggage tags was no longer required at 7 airports - Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Cochin.[27] The Ministry of Civil Aviation intends to gradually eliminate the requirement from all airports.[28]

text: Organizations[edit]

text: Ministry of Civil Aviation[edit]

text: The Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) of Government of India is the nodal Ministry responsible for the formulation of national policies and programmes for development and regulation of civilian aviation, and for devising and implementing schemes for the orderly growth and expansion of civilian air transport. Its functions extend to overseeing airport facilities, air traffic services and carriage of passengers and goods by air. The Ministry also administers implementation of the 1934 Aircraft Act and is administratively responsible for the Commission of Railways Safety.

text: The ministry also controls aviation related autonomous organisations like the Airports Authority of India (AAI), Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi and Public Sector Undertakings including Air India, Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.[29]

text: DGCA[edit]

text: The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the national regulatory body for civil aviation under the Ministry of Civil Aviation. This directorate investigates aviation accidents and incidents.[30] The government of India is planning to replace the organisation with a Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), modelled on the lines of the American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).[31]

text: Airports Authority of India[edit]

text: AAI's implementation of Automatic Dependence Surveillance System (ADSS), using indigenous technology at Kolkata and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres, made India the first country to use this technology in the Southeast Asian region, thus enabling air traffic control over oceanic areas using a satellite mode of communication. Performance-based navigation (PBN) procedures have already been implemented at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports, and are likely to be implemented at other airports in a phased manner. AAI is implementing the GAGAN project in technological collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), where the satellite-based system will be used for navigation. The navigation signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to meet the navigational requirements of aircraft. The first phase of the technology's demonstration system was completed in February 2008.[citation needed]

text: AAI has four training establishments: the Civil Aviation Training College (CATC) at Allahabad; the National Institute of Aviation Management and Research (NIAMAR) at Delhi; and the Fire Training Centres (FTC) at Delhi and Kolkata. An Aerodrome Visual Simulator (AVS) has been provided at CATC, and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. AAI has a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) with a fleet of three aircraft fitted with flight inspection systems to inspect Instrument Landing Systems up to Cat-III, VORs, DMEs, NDBs, VGSI (PAPI, VASI) and RADAR (ASR/MSSR). In addition to in-house flight calibration of its navigational aids, AAI undertakes flight calibration of navigational aids for the Indian Air Force, Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guard and other private airfields in the country.

text: AAI has entered into joint ventures at the Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Nagpur airports to upgrade these airports.

text: Establishments[edit]

text: Airports[edit]

text: There are three modern airports in India in the sense with parallel runways in Hyderabad, Bengaluru and Delhi.[32]

text: While there are 346[33] civilian airfields in India - 253 with paved runways and 93 with unpaved runways, only 132 were classified as "airports" as of November 2014.[34] Of these, the airports in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad handle most of the traffic. The operations of the major airports in India have been privatised over the past 5 years and this has resulted in better equipped and cleaner airports. The terminals have either been refurbished or expanded.

text: India also has 33 "ghost airports," which were built in an effort to make air travel more accessible for those in remote regions but are now non-operational due to a lack of demand. The Jaisalmer Airport in Rajasthan, for example, was completed in 2013 and was expected to host 300,000 passengers a year but has yet to see any commercial flights take off. Despite the number of non-operational airports, India is currently planning on constructing another 200 "low-cost" airports over the next 20 years.[35]

text:
Length of runways
Airports
with paved
runways[33]
Airports
with unpaved
runways[33]

3,047 m (10,000 ft) or more
21
1

2,438 to 3,047 m (8,000 to 10,000 ft)
59
3

1,524 to 2,438 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft)
76
6

914 to 1,524 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft)
82
38

Under 914 m (3,000 ft)
14
45

Total
253
93

text: Heliports[edit]

text: As of 2013, there are 45 heliports in India.[33] India also has the world's highest helipad at the Siachen Glacier a height of 6400 metre (21,000 ft) above mean sea level.[36]

text: Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited is a public sector company that provides helicopter services to ONGC to its off-shore locations, and also to various State Governments in India, particularly in North-east India.[37]

text: Civil Aviation Park[edit]

text: The Gujarat government is planning to set up India's first civil aviation park in the state. The aviation park will have facilities such as air strips, training school, helipad and a flight simulator. The park will provide a platform for human resources and manufacturing activities related to the industry. It would be a one-stop destination for aerospace training, research and manufacturing.[38]

text: Security[edit]

text: The security of Indian Airports is ensured by the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF).[39]

text: Three Indian aircraft have been hijacked - 1971 Indian Airlines hijacking (1971), Indian Airlines Flight 427 (1993) and Indian Airlines Flight 814 (1999).

text: Partnerships[edit]

text: India’s aviation regulator, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), and United States Technical Development Agency (USTDA) signed the Grant Agreement for India Aviation Safety Technical Assistance Phase II on 9 February 2016. Under the agreement, USTDA will partially fund improving systems at the DGCA. While USTDA’s assistance will be of $808,327, contractor firm The Wicks Group (TWG) would share the cost of assistance at $75,000.[40]

text: Future[edit]

text: The civil aviation sector in India, which till now was dependent on foreign countries for maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) services, is planning to have indigenous facilities.[41] The Government of India is planning to develop a sustainable air network in over 400 tier-2 cities across India with an estimated expenditure of ₹50 crore (US$7.9 million).[42] With a view to aid in modernization of the existing airports to establish a high standard and help ease the pressure on the existing airports, 100% FDI under automatic route has now been allowed in Brownfield Airport projects. This move would also serve in further developing the domestic aviation infrastructure. Further, FDI limit for Scheduled Air Transport Service/ Domestic Scheduled Passenger Airline and regional Air Transport Service has been raised from 49% to 100%, with FDI up to 49% permitted under automatic route and FDI beyond 49% through Government approval. For Non-Resident Indians (NRI's), 100% FDI will continue to be allowed under automatic route. However, foreign airlines would continue to be allowed to invest in capital of Indian companies operating scheduled and non-scheduled air transport services up to the limit of 49% of their paid up capital and subject to the laid down conditions in the existing policy. Increasing the FDI limit for these aviation services shall not only encourage competition by lowering prices but shall also accord choice to consumers.


document_title: Breyers

question_text: where are the dairies that make breyers ice cream located

text: Breyers

text: History[edit]

text: In 1866, William A. Breyer began to produce and sell iced cream in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, first from his home, and later via horse and wagon on the streets. Breyer's son Henry, incorporated the business in 1908. The formerly independent Breyer Ice Cream Company was sold to the National Dairy Products Corporation in 1926. National Dairy then changed its name to Kraftco in 1969, and Kraft by 1975. Kraft sold its ice cream brands to Unilever in 1993, while retaining the rights to the name for yogurt products.[2]

text: Cost-cutting[edit]

text: Prior to 2006,[3] Breyers was known for producing ice cream with a small number of all-natural ingredients.

text: In recent years, as part of cost-cutting measures since their move from Green Bay, Wisconsin, to Unilever's U.S. headquarters in Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,[4] Unilever has reformulated many of its flavors with nontraditional, additive ingredients, significantly changing the taste and texture of their desserts as a result.[3] Following similar practices by several of their competitors, and to the consternation of many former customers,[3] Breyers' list of ingredients has expanded to include thickeners, low-cost sweeteners, food coloring and low-cost additives — including natural additives such as tara gum[5] and carob bean gum;[6] artificial additives such as maltodextrin and propylene glycol;[7] and common artificially separated and extracted ingredients such as corn syrup, whey, and others.[6][7] An ingredient list for Breyers Frozen Dairy Dessert may now include up to forty ingredients:

text: Ingredients: milk, skim milk, sugar, corn syrup, cream, maltodextrin, whey, cellulose gel, mono & diglycerides, guar gum, cellulose gum, natural flavor, carob bean gum, carrageenan. caramel swirl: sugar, water, corn syrup, high fructose corn syrup, non fat milk solids, butter, salt, molasses, pectin, soy lecithin, sodium citrate, natural flavor, lactic acid, potassium sorbate. waffle cone pieces: fudge coating (sugar, coconut oil, cocoa powder, nonfat milk powder, whole milk powder, anhydrous milkfat, soy lecithin, vanilla), waffle cones (unenriched wheat flour, sugar, corn starch, palm and/or soybean oil, bamboo fiber, soy lecithin, natural flavor, soy flour, salt), natural flavor.

text: One result of these cost-cutting practices has been that many of Breyers' products no longer contain enough milk and cream to meet labeling requirements for ice cream, and are now labeled "Frozen Dairy Dessert" in the United States[8] and "Frozen Dessert" in Canada.[9][10]

text: For several decades over 30% of Breyers products, including most of its products sold in the northeastern U.S., were produced in a large plant outside Boston, in Framingham, Massachusetts. As part of cost-cutting by Unilever, the plant was closed in March 2011.[11]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: In the 1990s, when Breyers produced all-natural ice cream, the company ran a television advertising campaign in North America featuring a child who attempted to read an ingredients list from another ice cream brand and experienced extreme difficulty pronouncing several listed artificial additives. The child then turned to the Breyers list and quickly rattled off the four ingredients on the label of their vanilla ice cream: milk, cream, sugar, and vanilla.[12]

text: Confusion with Dreyer's[edit]

text: In the Western U.S. and Texas,[13] Breyers ice cream is sometimes confused with Dreyer's ice cream.[citation needed] While Henry Breyer founded Breyers in 1908 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, William Dreyer and Joseph Edy co-founded their ice cream company, Edy's Grand Ice Cream, in 1928 in Oakland, California. However, the roots of this confusion date to 1953, when "Edy's Grand Ice Cream" changed its name to "Dreyer's Grand Ice Cream". Seeking to eliminate confusion between the two, Dreyer's changed the brand name of its products sold in the home market of Breyers from "Dreyer's Grand" to "Edy's Grand" in 1981.[14] Around that same time Breyers had begun an expansion towards the west coast - the home market of Dreyer's - and by the mid-1980s was distributing ice cream throughout the western U.S. and Texas.[15] Unlike Dreyer's, Breyers kept its brand name nationally, and as a result, both Breyers and Dreyer's can be found on store shelves in the western U.S. and Texas.[13][15]

text: Products[edit]

text: In the U.S., Breyers products are available in two sizes: 1.5 quart (1.41 liter), and 1 pint (0.47 liter).[16] In Canada it is sold in 1.66 liter containers.

text: Breyers product lines include:

text:
Standard (previously All Natural) - Uses ingredients derived mostly from natural sources.
Smooth & Dreamy - Uses mostly all-natural ingredients with half the fat and fewer calories than regular ice cream.
Double Churn Fat Free - "Creamy" fat-free ice cream.
Double Churn No Sugar Added - "Creamy" ice cream with no sugar added.
CarbSmart - A low-carb ice cream product with 4 grams of net carbohydrates per 1/2-cup serving.
Delights - A low-calorie high protein ice cream product with 260-330 calories and 20 grams of protein per pint.

text: Yogurt[edit]

text: Breyers Yogurt was a brand of yogurt, owned by Kraft Foods then by CoolBrands International, a former Canadian frozen foods manufacturer. After CoolBrands ran into financial trouble, it was sold in 2007 to Healthy Food Holdings, an affiliate of Catterton Partners, a private equity firm based in Greenwich, Connecticut.[17]

text: The yogurt was manufactured under license from Unilever at an upstate New York facility until the licensing agreement was terminated and the Breyers Yogurt line was discontinued in April 2011.[18] Catterton continued to produce YoCrunch yogurt but without the Breyers co-branding until it sold the company in August 2013 to Group Danone.[19][20]

text: Discontinued flavors and products[edit]

text:
Breyers Vienetta
Breyers Ice Milk