document_title: AP Poll

question_text: when does college basketball ap poll come out

text: AP Poll

text: College football[edit]

text: The football poll is released Sundays at 2pm Eastern time during the football season, unless ranked teams have not finished their games.

text: History[edit]

text: The AP college football poll has a long history.  The news media began running their own polls of sports writers to determine who was, by popular opinion, the best football team in the country at the end of the season. One of the earliest such polls was the AP College Football Poll, first run in 1934.[3] In 1935, AP sports editor Alan J. Gould declared a three way tie for national champion in football between Minnesota, Princeton, and Southern Methodist. Minnesota fans protested, and a number of Gould's colleagues led by Charles "Cy" Sherman suggested he create a poll of sports editors instead of only using his own list, and the next year the poll was born.[4] It has run continuously from 1936.[5]

text: Due to the long-standing historical ties between individual college football conferences and high-paying bowl games like the Rose Bowl and Orange Bowl, the NCAA had not held a tournament or championship game to determine the champion of what is now the highest division, NCAA Division I, Football Bowl Subdivision (the Division I, Football Championship Subdivision and lower divisions do hold championship tournaments).  As a result, the public and the media began to acknowledge the leading vote-getter in the final AP Poll as the national champion for that season.

text: While the AP Poll currently lists the Top 25 teams in the nation, from 1936 to 1961 the wire service only ranked 20 teams. From 1962 to 1967 only 10 teams were recognized. From 1968 to 1988, the AP again resumed its Top 20 before expanding to the current 25 teams in 1989.

text: The AP began conducting a preseason poll starting in 1950.[6][7]

text: At the end of the 1947 season the AP released an unofficial post-bowl poll which differed from the regular season final poll.[8] Until the 1968 college football season, the final AP poll of the season was released following the end of the regular season, with the lone exception of the 1965 season. In 1964, Alabama was named the national champion in the final AP Poll following the completion of the regular season, but lost in the Orange Bowl to Texas, leaving Arkansas as the only undefeated, untied team after the Razorbacks defeated Nebraska in the Cotton Bowl Classic. In 1965, the AP's decision to wait to crown its champion paid handsomely, as top-ranked Michigan State lost to UCLA in the Rose Bowl, number two Arkansas lost to LSU in the Cotton Bowl Classic, and fourth-ranked Alabama defeated third-ranked Nebraska in the Orange Bowl, vaulting the Crimson Tide to the top of the AP's final poll (Michigan State was named national champion in the final UPI Coaches Poll, which did not conduct a post-bowl poll).

text: Beginning in the 1968 season, the post bowl game poll became permanent and the AP championship reflected the bowl game results. The UPI did not follow suit with the coaches' poll until the 1974 season.

text: No. 1 vs. No. 2[edit]

text: As of the completion of the 2015 season the number one ranked team has faced the number two ranked team 50 times since the inception of the AP Poll in 1936.[9] The number one team has a record of 28–20–2 against the number two team.[9]

text:
No. 1 vs. No. 2 games

Light blue indicates bowl game

Season
No. 1
Result
No. 2
Site
Event

1943
Notre Dame
35–12
Michigan
Michigan Stadium • Ann Arbor, MI
1943 Michigan–Notre Dame football rivalry game

1943
Notre Dame
14–13
Iowa Pre-Flight
Notre Dame Stadium • Notre Dame, IN

1944
Army
23–7
Navy
Baltimore Stadium • Baltimore, MD
1944 Army–Navy Game

1945
Army
48–0
Notre Dame
Yankee Stadium • New York, NY
1945 Army–Notre Dame football rivalry game

1945
Army
32-13
Navy
Philadelphia Municipal Stadium • Philadelphia, PA
1945 Army–Navy Game

1946
Army
0–0
Notre Dame
Yankee Stadium • New York, NY
1946 Army vs. Notre Dame football game

1962
USC
42–37
Wisconsin
Rose Bowl Stadium • Pasadena, CA
1963 Rose Bowl

1963
Oklahoma
7–28
Texas
Cotton Bowl • Dallas, TX
1963 Red River Shootout game

1963
Texas
28–6
Navy
Cotton Bowl • Dallas, TX
1964 Cotton Bowl Classic

1966
Notre Dame
10–10
Michigan State
Spartan Stadium • East Lansing, MI
1966 Notre Dame vs. Michigan State football game

1968
Purdue
37–22
Notre Dame
Notre Dame Stadium • Notre Dame, IN
1968 Shillelagh Trophy game

1968
Ohio State
27–16
USC
Rose Bowl Stadium • Pasadena, CA
1969 Rose Bowl

1969
Texas
15–14
Arkansas
Razorback Stadium • Fayetteville, AR
1969 Texas vs. Arkansas football game

1971
Nebraska
35–31
Oklahoma
Oklahoma Memorial Stadium •  Norman, OK
1971 Nebraska vs. Oklahoma football game

1971
Nebraska
38–6
Alabama
Miami Orange Bowl • Miami, FL
1972 Orange Bowl

1978
Penn State
7–14
Alabama
Louisiana Superdome • New Orleans, LA
1979 Sugar Bowl

1981
USC
28–24
Oklahoma
Los Angeles Coliseum • Los Angeles

1982
Georgia
23–27
Penn State
Louisiana Superdome • New Orleans, LA
1983 Sugar Bowl

1985
Iowa
12–10
Michigan
Kinnick Stadium • Iowa City, IA

1986
Oklahoma
16–28
Miami
Miami Orange Bowl • Miami, FL

1986
Miami
10–14
Penn State
Sun Devil Stadium • Tempe, AZ
1987 Fiesta Bowl

1987
Nebraska
7–17
Oklahoma
Memorial Stadium • Lincoln, NE
1987 Nebraska–Oklahoma football rivalry game

1987
Oklahoma
14–20
Miami
Miami Orange Bowl • Miami, FL
1988 Orange Bowl

1988
Notre Dame
27–10
USC
Los Angeles Coliseum • Los Angeles
1988 Jeweled Shillelagh game

1989
Notre Dame
24–19
Michigan
Michigan Stadium • Ann Arbor, MI
1989 Michigan–Notre Dame football rivalry game

1991
Florida State
16–17
Miami
Doak Campbell Stadium • Tallahassee, FL
1991 Miami vs. Florida State football game

1992
Miami
13–34
Alabama
Louisiana Superdome • New Orleans, LA
1993 Sugar Bowl

1993
Florida State
24–31
Notre Dame
Notre Dame Stadium • Notre Dame, IN
1993 Florida State vs. Notre Dame football game

1993
Florida State
18–16
Nebraska
Miami Orange Bowl • Miami, FL
1994 Orange Bowl

1995
Nebraska
62–24
Florida
Sun Devil Stadium • Tempe, AZ
1996 Fiesta Bowl

1996
Florida
21–24
Florida State
Doak Campbell Stadium • Tallahassee, FL
1996 Florida–Florida State football rivalry game

1998
Tennessee
23–16
Florida State
Sun Devil Stadium • Tempe, AZ
1999 Fiesta Bowl

1999
Florida State
46–29
Virginia Tech
Louisiana Superdome • New Orleans, LA
2000 Sugar Bowl

2002
Miami
24–31 2OT
Ohio State
Sun Devil Stadium • Tempe, AZ
2003 Fiesta Bowl

2004
USC
55–19
Oklahoma
Pro Player Stadium • Miami Gardens, FL
2005 Orange Bowl

2005
USC
38–41
Texas
Rose Bowl Stadium • Pasadena, CA
2006 Rose Bowl

2006
Ohio State
24–7
Texas
Darrell K Royal – Texas Memorial Stadium • Austin, TX

2006
Ohio State
42–39
Michigan
Ohio Stadium • Columbus, OH
2006 Michigan vs. Ohio State football game

2006
Ohio State
14–41
Florida
University of Phoenix Stadium • Glendale, AZ
2007 BCS National Championship Game

2007
Ohio State
24–38
LSU
Louisiana Superdome • New Orleans, LA
2008 BCS National Championship Game

2008
Alabama
20–31
Florida
Georgia Dome • Atlanta, GA
2008 SEC Championship Game

2008
Florida
24–14
Oklahoma
Sun Life Stadium • Miami Gardens, FL
2009 BCS National Championship Game

2009
Florida
13–32
Alabama
Georgia Dome • Atlanta, GA
2009 SEC Championship Game

2009
Alabama
37–21
Texas
Rose Bowl Stadium • Pasadena, CA
2010 BCS National Championship Game

2010
Auburn
22–19
Oregon
University of Phoenix Stadium • Glendale, AZ
2011 BCS National Championship Game

2011
LSU
9–6 OT
Alabama
Bryant–Denny Stadium • Tuscaloosa, AL
2011 LSU vs. Alabama football game

2011
LSU
0–21
Alabama
Mercedes-Benz Superdome • New Orleans, LA
2012 BCS National Championship Game

2012
Notre Dame
14–42
Alabama
Sun Life Stadium • Miami Gardens, FL
2013 BCS National Championship Game

2013
Florida State
34–31
Auburn
Rose Bowl · Pasadena, CA
2014 BCS National Championship Game

2015
Clemson
40–45
Alabama
University of Phoenix Stadium · Glendale, AZ
2016 College Football Playoff National Championship

text: AP Poll inclusion in the BCS[edit]

text: In 1997, the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) was developed to try to unify the poll results by picking two teams for a "real" national championship game. For the first several years the AP Poll factored in the determination of the BCS rankings, along with other factors including the Coaches Poll and computer-based polls. Because of a series of controversies surrounding the BCS, the AP demanded in December, 2004, that its poll no longer be used in the BCS rankings,[10] and so the 2004–2005 season was the last season that the AP Poll was used for this purpose.

text: In the 2003 season the BCS system broke down when the final BCS standings ranked the University of Southern California (USC) at No. 3 while the two human polls in the system had ranked USC at No. 1. As a result, USC did not play in the BCS' designated national championship game. After defeating another highly ranked team, Michigan, in its final game, the AP Poll kept USC at No. 1 while the Coaches Poll was contractually obligated to select the winner of the BCS game, Louisiana State University (LSU), as the No. 1 team.  The resulting split national title was the very problem that the BCS was created to solve, and has been widely considered an embarrassment.[11]

text: In 2004, a new controversy erupted at the end of the season when Auburn and Utah, who both finished the regular season 12–0, were left out of the BCS title game in favor of Oklahoma who also was 12–0 and had won decisively over Colorado in the Big 12 Championship game. USC went on to a win easily over Oklahoma in the Orange Bowl while Auburn and Utah both won their bowl games, leaving three undefeated teams at the end of the season.  Also, in that same year, Texas made up late ground on California (Cal) in the BCS standings and as a result grabbed a high-payout, at-large spot in the Rose Bowl.  Previous to that poll, Cal had been ranked ahead of Texas in both human polls and the BCS poll. Going into their final game, the Golden Bears were made aware that while margin of victory did not affect computer rankings, it did affect human polls and just eight voters changing their vote could affect the final standings.[12]  Both teams won their game that week, but the Texas coach, Mack Brown, had made a public effort to lobby for his team to be moved higher in the ranking.  When the human polls were released, Texas remained behind Cal, but it had closed the gap enough so that the BCS poll (which determines placement) placed Texas above Cal, angering both Cal and its conference, the Pac-10.[13] The final poll positions had been unchanged with Cal at No. 4 AP, No. 4 coaches, and No. 6 computers polls and Texas at No. 6 AP, No. 5 coaches, and No. 4 computer polls.[13]  The AP Poll voters were caught in the middle because their vote changes were automatically made public, while the votes of the Coaches poll were kept confidential.  Although there had been a more substantial shift in the votes of the Coaches Poll, the only clear targets for the ire of fanatical fans were the voters in the AP Poll.  While officials from both Cal and the Pac-10 called for the coaches' votes to be made public, the overtures were turned down and did little to solve the problem of AP voters. Cal went on to lose to Texas Tech in the Holiday Bowl.  Texas defeated Michigan in the Rose Bowl.

text: Many members of the press who voted in the AP Poll were upset by the controversy and, at the behest of its members, the AP asked that its poll no longer be used in the BCS rankings. The 2004 season was the last season that the AP Poll was used in the BCS rankings, it was replaced in the BCS equation by the newly created Harris Interactive College Football Poll.[14]

text: Final AP football polls[edit]

text: Other media football polls[edit]

text: The AP Poll is not the only college football poll. The other major poll is the Coaches Poll, which has been sponsored by several organizations: the United Press (1950–1957), the United Press International (1958–1990), USA Today (1991–present), CNN (1991–1996), and ESPN (1997–2005). Having two major polls has led to numerous "split" national titles, where the two polls disagreed on the No. 1 team. This has occurred on eleven different occasions (1954, 1957, 1965, 1970, 1973, 1974, 1978, 1990, 1991, 1997, 2003).

text: College basketball[edit]

text: In Division I men's and women's college basketball, the AP Poll is largely just a tool to compare schools throughout the season and spark debate, as it has no bearing on postseason play. Generally, all top 25 teams in the poll are invited to the men's and women's NCAA basketball tournament, also known as March Madness. The poll is usually released every Monday and voters' ballots are made public.[15]

text: Men's basketball[edit]

text: The AP began compiling a ranking of the top 20 college men's basketball teams during the 1948–1949 season. It has issued this poll continuously since the 1950–1951 season. As of January 2018, UCLA and Duke are tied for the most appearances atop the rankings at 134 times.[16]

text: Women's basketball[edit]

text: The women's basketball poll began during the 1976–1977 season, and was initially compiled by Mel Greenberg and published by The Philadelphia Inquirer. At first, it was a poll of coaches conducted via telephone, where coaches identified top teams and a list of the Top 20 team was produced. The initial list of coaches did not include Pat Summitt, who asked to join the group, not to improve her rankings, but because of the lack of media coverage, Summitt believed it would be a good way to stay on top of who the top teams were outside of her own schedule.[17] The contributors continued to be coaches until 1994, when the AP took over administration of the poll from Greenberg, and switched to a panel of writers.[18] In 1994, Tennessee started out as No. 1 in the polls with Connecticut at No. 4. After losses by the No. 2 and No. 3 teams, Tennessee and Connecticut were ranked No. 1 and No. 2, headed into a showdown, scheduled as a special event on Martin Luther King day, the only women's basketball game scheduled on that day. Because of the unusual circumstances, the decision was made to hold off the AP voting for one day, to ensure it would be after the game. Connecticut won the game, and moved into first place in the AP poll, published on Tuesday for the only time. (Connecticut went on to complete an undefeated season.)[19] Over the history of the poll, over 255 coaches have had a team represented in polls.[20]

text: NFL football[edit]

text: Beginning in 2012, the AP began issuing a weekly pro football ranking, the AP Pro32 rankings.[21]


document_title: An Officer and a Gentleman

question_text: who did david caruso play in an officer and a gentleman

root

text: An Officer and a Gentleman

text: Plot[edit]

text: Zachary "Zack" Mayo is preparing to report to Aviation Officer Candidate School (AOCS). As he is doing so, he has brief flashbacks of his childhood. After the death of his mother, who committed suicide, an adolescent Zack was sent to live with his only living relative, his father Byron Mayo, who is stationed in US Naval Base Subic Bay in the Philippines. The elder Mayo, a Navy Chief Petty Officer/Chief Boatswain's Mate, made no attempt to hide his heavy drinking and hiring of prostitutes from a young Zack. When Zack said he needed help, Byron said he did not ask to get married nor be a father, because he is always out on sea all the time. But seeing the look on his face, he decides to let him stay with him. Mostly Zack became a Navy brat and travelled with his father.

tag: p

text: The flashbacks advance to the present, where Zack has just graduated from college and informs his father he will be going to AOCS. Byron, who hates officers, tells Zack that his dream of becoming an officer is as unrealistic as hoping to become president. Despite his father's discouragement, Zack is determined to go through with his childhood dreams of becoming a Navy pilot as well as prove to him that he can make it and in the end Byron would have to "salute" Zack. Upon arrival at AOCS, Zack and his fellow AOCs are shocked by the harsh treatment they receive from their head drill instructor, Marine Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley. Foley makes it clear that the 13-week program is designed to eliminate OCs who are found to be mentally or physically unfit for commission as an ensign in the U.S. Navy, which will earn them flight training worth over $1,000,000. Foley warns the male candidates about the "Puget Sound Debs"—young women in the area who dream of marrying a Naval Aviator to escape their dull, local lives. Foley claims they scout the regiment for OCs, and will feign pregnancy or even stop using birth control to become pregnant to trap the men.

text: Zack becomes friends with fellow candidates Topper Daniels, Sid Worley, Emiliano Santos Della Serra, Lionel Perryman, and Casey Seeger. Zack and Sid meet two local young women—factory workers—at a Navy Ball. Zack begins a romantic relationship with Paula Pokrifki, and Sid with Lynette Pomeroy. Meanwhile, Daniels drops out of the program after he almost drowns in the dunker crash-escape exercise.

text: Foley rides Zack mercilessly, believing he lacks motivation and is not a team player, though Foley also sees potential in Zack. When Zack's side business of selling pre-shined shoes and belt buckles is discovered, Foley hazes him for an entire weekend in an attempt to make him DOR ("Drop on Request", AOCS term for requesting termination of one's training), but Zack refuses to give in. Foley then tells Zack that he will simply have him thrown out. Upon hearing this, Zack is frightened and breaks down and tells Foley that he has no options in civilian life. Satisfied that Zack has come to a crucial self-realization, Foley lets up on him.

text: Zack and Paula spend the next weekend together, and she takes him home for dinner to meet her family. Her stepfather behaves strangely, and when Zack asks why, Paula shows him an old picture of her biological father. He was an AOC who had an affair with her mother but deserted her following his commissioning and refused to marry her when she became pregnant with Paula.

text: Zack is close to breaking the record time for negotiating the obstacle course, but Casey faces disqualification when she cannot negotiate the 12-foot-high wall (3.7 m). Zack abandons his attempt to break the course record in order to coach Casey over the wall, and she makes it.

text: Zack attends dinner with Sid and his parents and learns that Sid has a long-time girlfriend back home. Sid plans to marry her after he receives his commission. Meanwhile, Lynette has been dropping hints to Sid that she may be pregnant. Sid agonizes over this possibility, especially when Lynette tells him she will not have an abortion. After having a severe anxiety attack during a high-altitude simulation in a pressure chamber, Sid realizes he joined the officer training program out of a sense of obligation to his family, especially to the older brother who died as a Naval officer, and he Drops On Request, "DOR"s meaning he voluntarily resigns. He leaves the base without saying goodbye, so Zack and Paula go out to look for him.

text: Sid goes to Lynette's house and proposes marriage. She is elated until he tells her he DORed, and she would not be marrying a Naval Aviator after all. Disgusted, Lynette turns him down and admits she was never pregnant with his child. She says she thought he understood she wants to marry an aviator, escape from her small town, and live an exciting life overseas with the status of an aviator's wife. She berates him for dropping out and gives back the engagement ring he bought her. Crushed, Sid goes to the motel where he and Lynette spent his free weekends, asks for their old room, and begins drinking.

text: Zack and Paula arrive at Lynette's shortly after Sid leaves, and ask about Sid's whereabouts. Zack curses Lynette for trying to trick Sid, and he and Paula rush off to search for him. Zack goes to the motel and is heartbroken when he finds Sid has committed suicide out of grief. Paula tries to comfort Zack, admitting she loved him from day one and her guilt over failing to stop Lynette's scheme, but he rejects her and heads back to base with the intent to DOR himself. Foley will not let him quit so close to graduation and feels bad about what happened to Sid. Zack challenges Foley to an unofficial martial arts bout. Although Zack eventually appears to take control of the fight, Foley wins by kicking Zack in the groin and then tells him he can quit now if he still wishes to do so.

text: Zack shows up for graduation and is sworn into the Navy with his class. Following naval tradition, he receives his first salute from Foley in exchange for a US silver dollar. While tradition calls for the drill instructor to place the coin in his left shirt pocket, Foley places the coin in his right pocket, acknowledging that Zack was a special candidate. Zack thanks him for not giving up on him and tells him he would never have made it without the hardships Foley delivered. While leaving the base, he sees Foley initiating a set of new AOCs who are in the same position he was 13 weeks prior.

text: Zack, now Ensign Mayo with orders to undertake flight training, seeks out Paula at the factory where she works and declares his love to her. He picks her up and walks out with her in his arms to the applause of her co-workers, including Lynette.

text: Cast[edit]

text: (in credits order)

text:
Richard Gere as Aviation Officer Candidate Zack Mayo
Debra Winger as Paula Pokrifki
David Keith as AOC Sid Worley
Robert Loggia as Chief Petty Officer Byron Mayo (Zack's father)
Lisa Blount as Lynette Pomeroy
Lisa Eilbacher as AOC Casey Seeger
Louis Gossett Jr. as Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley, USMC
Tony Plana as AOC Emiliano Della Serra
Harold Sylvester as AOC Lionel Perryman
David Caruso as AOC Topper Daniels
Victor French as Joe Pokrifki (Paula's stepfather)
Grace Zabriskie as Esther Pokrifki (Paula's mother)
Tommy Petersen as Young Zack
Elizabeth Rogers as Betty Worley
John Laughlin as Troy
Ed Begley Jr. as Altitude Chamber Instructor (voice)

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Locations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The film was shot in late 1981 on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington, at Port Townsend and Fort Worden.  The U.S. Navy did not permit filming at NAS Pensacola in the  Florida panhandle, the site of the actual Aviation Officer Candidate School[4] in 1981.  Deactivated U.S. Army base Fort Worden stood in for the location of the school, an actual Naval Air Station in the Puget Sound area, NAS Whidbey Island.  However, that installation, which is still an operating air station today, was and is a "fleet" base for operational combat aircraft and squadrons under the cognizance of Naval Air Force Pacific, not a Naval Air Training Command installation.

text: A motel room in Port Townsend, The Tides Inn on Water Street (48°06′38″N 122°45′54″W / 48.1105°N 122.765°W / 48.1105; -122.765), was used for the film.[5] Today, there is a plaque outside the room commemorating this (although the room has been extensively refurbished in the interim). Some early scenes of the movie were filmed in Bremerton, with ships of the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in the background.

text: The "Dilbert Dunker" scenes were filmed in the swimming pool at what is now Mountain View Elementary School (Port Townsend Jr High School during filming).[5]  According to the director's commentary on the DVD, the dunking machine was constructed specifically for the film and was an exact duplicate of the actual one used by the Navy.  As of 2010, Mountain View Elementary is closed and is now home to the Mountain View Commons, which holds the police station, food bank and the YMCA, the latter of which holds the pool.

text: The filming location of Paula Pokrifiki's house was 1003 Tremont in Port Townsend.[5]  As of 2009, the house was shrouded by a large hedge, and the front porch had been remodeled.  The neighboring homes and landscape look identical to their appearance in the film, including the 'crooked oak tree' across the street from the Pokrifiki home.  This oak tree is visible in the scene near the end of the film in which Richard Gere returns to the home to request Paula's help in finding his friend Sid.  In the film, the plot has Paula living a ferry ride away from the naval base.  In reality, Paula's home is located approximately 8 blocks from Fort Worden.

text: Lynette Pomeroy's house was located on Mill Road, just west of the main entrance of the Port Townsend Paper Corp. mill. The house no longer exists, but the concrete driveway pad is still visible.

text: The interior of the USO building at Fort Worden State Park was used for the reception scene near the beginning of the film.

text: The concrete structure used during the famous Richard Gere line "I got nowhere else to go!" is the Battery Kinzie located at Fort Worden State Park.  The scene was filmed on the southwest corner of the upper level of the battery.  The 'obstacle course' was constructed specifically for the film and was located in the grassy areas just south and southeast of Battery Kinzie.

text: The decompression chamber was one of the only sets constructed for the film and as of 2013, it is still intact in the basement of building number 225 of the Fort Worden State Park. It can be seen through the windows of the building's basement.

text: Building 204 of Fort Worden State Park was used as the dormitory and its porch was used for the film's closing 'silver dollar' scene.

text: The blimp hangar used for the famous fight scene between Louis Gossett Jr. and Richard Gere is located at Fort Worden State Park and as of 2013 is still intact, but has been converted into a 1200-seat performing arts center called the McCurdy Pavilion.

text: The filming location for the exterior of 'TJ's Restaurant' is located at the Point Hudson marina in Port Townsend. The space is now occupied by a company that makes sails. The fictional "TJ's" is an homage to the Trader Jon's bar in Pensacola, Florida, as a naval aviator hangout until it closed later in November 2003. For years, it was traditional for graduating Aviation Officer Candidate School classes to celebrate their commissioning at "Trader's."[citation needed]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Originally, folk music singer and occasional actor John Denver was signed to play Zack Mayo. But a casting process eventually involved Jeff Bridges, Harry Hamlin, Christopher Reeve, John Travolta, and Richard Gere.[6][7] Gere eventually beat all the other actors for the part. John Travolta had turned down the role, as he did with American Gigolo (another Richard Gere hit).[7][8]

text: The role of Paula was originally given to Sigourney Weaver,[9] then to Anjelica Huston[9] and later to Jennifer Jason Leigh, who dropped out to do the film Fast Times at Ridgemont High instead.[10]  Eventually, Debra Winger replaced Leigh for the role of Paula. Rebecca De Mornay,[10] Meg Ryan,[9] and Geena Davis[9] auditioned for the role of Paula.

text: In spite of the strong on-screen chemistry between Gere and Winger, the actors didn't get along during filming.  Publicly, she called him a "brick wall" while he admitted there was "tension" between them. Thirty years later, Gere was complimentary towards Winger when he said that she was much more open to the camera than he was, and he appreciated the fact that she presented him with an award at the Rome Film Festival.[11]

text: Taylor Hackford kept Louis Gossett Jr. in separate living quarters from other actors during production so Gossett could intimidate them more during his scenes as drill instructor.[12] In addition, Gossett was advised by US Marine Corps Gunnery Sergeant Buck Welscher.[12]

text: Props[edit]

text: Richard Gere rides a 750cc T140E Triumph Bonneville. Two T140E Bonnevilles were supplied by Dewey's Cycle Shop in Seattle. One had Receipt no.16787 dated April 8, 1981, as sold to Paramount Pictures. In the United Kingdom, Paramount successfully linked with Triumph Motorcycles (Meriden) Ltd to do a mutual promotion. Triumph's then-chairman, John Rosamond, in his book Save The Triumph Bonneville! (Veloce 2009), states it was agreed cinemas showing the film would be promoted at their local Triumph dealer, and T140E Triumph Bonnevilles supplied by the dealer would be displayed in the cinema's foyers.

text: Ending[edit]

text: Richard Gere balked at shooting the ending of the film, in which Zack arrives at Paula's factory wearing his naval dress whites and carries her off the factory floor. Gere thought the ending would not work because it was too sentimental. Director Taylor Hackford agreed with Gere until, during a rehearsal, the extras playing the workers began to cheer and cry. When Gere saw the scene later, with a portion of the score (that was used to write "Up Where We Belong") played at the right tempo, he said it gave him chills. Gere is now convinced Hackford made the right decision.[13] Screenwriter Michael Hauge, in his book Writing Screenplays That Sell, echoed this opinion: "I don't believe that those who criticized this Cinderella-style ending were paying very close attention to who exactly is rescuing whom."

text: Release[edit]

text: Two versions of the film exist. The original, an uncensored R-rated cut and edited-for-broadcast television cut (which first aired on NBC in 1986) are nearly identical. The main difference is that the nudity and a majority of the foul language are edited out when the film airs on regular television.  However, the group marching song near the beginning of the film and Mayo's solo marching song are not voiceover edits; they are reshoots of those scenes for television.  Also, the sex scene between Mayo and Paula is cut in half, and the scene where Mayo finds Sid's naked body hanging in the shower is also edited.

text: Reaction[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: An Officer and a Gentleman was an enormous box office success and went on to become the third-highest-grossing film of 1982, after E.T.: The Extra Terrestrial and Tootsie.[14] It grossed $3,304,679 in its opening weekend[15] and $129,795,554 overall at the domestic box office.[16] It sold an estimated 44 million tickets in the US.

text: Reception[edit]

text: An Officer and a Gentleman was well received by critics and is widely considered one of the best films of 1982.[17][18][19] The film holds an 81% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 27 reviews, with the consensus: "Old-fashioned without sacrificing its characters to simplicity, An Officer and a Gentleman successfully walks the fine line between sweeping romance and melodrama".[20] It received rave reviews from critics, most notably from Roger Ebert, who gave it four stars. Ebert described An Officer and a Gentleman as "a wonderful movie precisely because it's so willing to deal with matters of the heart...it takes chances, takes the time to know and develop its characters, and by the time this movie's wonderful last scene comes along, we know exactly what's happening, and why, and it makes us very happy."[21]

text: Rex Reed gave a glowing review where he commented: "This movie will make you feel ten feet tall!" The British film critic Mark Kermode, an admirer of Taylor Hackford observed, "It's a much tougher film than people remember it being; it's not a romantic movie, it's actually a movie about blue-collar, down-trodden people."

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions—#29[22]
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
"Up Where We Belong"—#75[23]
2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers—#68[24]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Film Award wins:

text:
Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor—Louis Gossett Jr.
Best Music, Original Song—"Up Where We Belong", Jack Nitzsche and Buffy Sainte-Marie (music), Will Jennings (lyrics). Producer Don Simpson complained, "The song is no good. It isn't a hit," and unsuccessfully demanded it be cut from the film. "Up Where We Belong" later became the number one song on the Billboard charts.
BAFTA Film Award for Best Original Song—"Up Where We Belong", Jack Nitzsche and Buffy Sainte-Marie (music), Will Jennings (lyrics)
Award of the Japanese Academy for Best Foreign Language Film
NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Motion Picture

text: Academy Award nominations:

text:
Best Actress—Debra Winger
Best Music, Original Score
Best Film Editing
Best Writing, Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen.

text: Other Award wins:

text: "Up Where We Belong" vocalists Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes earned a Grammy Award for  Best Pop Vocal Performance, Duo or Group [25]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The soundtrack was released on August 13, 1982 and reached #38 on the Billboard 200, it stayed on the chart for 23 weeks and top 50 for one week.[26][27] The CD version doesn't include some of the instrumental selections that were available on the original record.[28]

text: "Up Where We Belong" was released as a single and became a global hit peaking at number one in the US, Canada, and Australia, and reaching the top 10 in many other countries.

text: Track Listing (Original Record)[edit]

text:
Song
Lyrics by
Performed by

"Up Where We Belong"
Will Jennings
Joe Cocker and Jennifer Warnes

"Theme from 'An Officer and a Gentleman"
Jack Nitzsche and Buffy Sainte-Marie
Lee Ritenour

"Treat Me Right"
D. Lubahn and Pat Benatar
Pat Benatar

"Hungry for Your Love"
Van Morrison
Van Morrison

"Be Real"
D. Sahm
Sir Douglas Quintet

"Tush"
B. Gibbons, D. Hill and F. Beard
ZZ Top

"Tunnel of Love"
M. Knopfler
Dire Straits

"Feelings"
Morris Albert
Morris Albert

"Tie a Yellow Ribbon Round the Ole Oak Tree"
Irwin Levine and L. Russell Brown
Greg Pecknold

"Anchors Aweigh"
Charles A. Zimmerman, George D. Lottman and Alfred Hart Miles

"Moon River"
Henry Mancini and Johnny Mercer

"Big Money Dollars"
John Thomas Lenox

"Gamelan Gong: Barong Dance"
David Lewiston

"The Plains of Mindanao"
Bayanihan 7

"Galan Kangin"
Gong Kebyar, Sebatu

"Love Theme From 'An Officer And A Gentleman"
Lee Ritenour
Lee Ritenour

"The Morning After Love Theme"
Jack Nitzsche
Jack Nitzsche

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
The Takarazuka Revue adapted the movie as a musical in 2010 in Japan (Takarazuka Grand Theater; Tokyo Takarazuka Theater). The production was performed by Star Troupe and the cast included Reon Yuzuki as Zack Mayo, Nene Yumesaki as Paula Pokrifki and Kaname Ouki as Gunnery Sergeant Emil Foley.[29]
A stage musical, with book by Douglas Day Stewart and Sharleen Cooper Cohen and songs by Ken Hirsch and Robin Lerner, directed by Simon Phillips, opened on May 18, 2012 at the Lyric Theatre in Sydney, Australia.[30] The production received mixed reviews[31] and closed after six weeks.[32]


document_title: Treasurer of the United States

question_text: who was the first treasurer of the united states

text: Treasurer of the United States

text: List of Treasurers[edit]

text:
No.
Name
Term of Office
President(s) served under

1

Michael Hillegas
July 29, 1775 –
September 11, 1789 (14 years, 44 days)
George Washington
(also served under Confederation Congress)

Hillegas served jointly with George Clymer until August 6, 1776.
The title of the office was "Treasurer of the United Colonies" until May 1777.[3]

2
Samuel Meredith
September 11, 1789 –
December 1, 1801 (12 years, 81 days)
George Washington
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson

3

Thomas T. Tucker
December 1, 1801 –
May 2, 1828 (26 years, 153 days)
(served the longest term)
Thomas Jefferson
James Madison
James Monroe
John Quincy Adams

33 days vacant

4

William Clark
June 4, 1828 –
May 26, 1829 (356 days)
John Quincy Adams
Andrew Jackson

5
John Campbell
May 26, 1829 –
July 20, 1839 (10 years, 55 days)
Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Buren

2 days vacant

6
William Selden
July 22, 1839 –
November 23, 1850 (11 years, 124 days)
Martin Van Buren
William Henry Harrison
John Tyler
James K. Polk
Zachary Taylor
Millard Fillmore

4 days vacant

7

John Sloane
November 27, 1850 –
April 1, 1853
(2 years, 125 days)
Millard Fillmore
Franklin Pierce

3 days vacant

8
Samuel L. Casey
April 4, 1853 –
December 22, 1859 (6 years, 262 days)
Franklin Pierce
James Buchanan

68 days vacant

9

William C. Price
February 28, 1860 –
March 21, 1861 (1 year, 21 days)
James Buchanan
Abraham Lincoln

10

Francis E. Spinner
March 16, 1861 –
July 30, 1875 (14 years, 136 days)
Abraham Lincoln
Andrew Johnson
Ulysses S. Grant

11

John C. New
June 30, 1875 –
July 1, 1876
(1 year, 1 day)
Ulysses S. Grant

12

A. U. Wyman
July 1, 1876 –
June 30, 1877 (364 days)
Ulysses S. Grant
Rutherford B. Hayes

13

James Gilfillan
July 1, 1877 –
March 31, 1883 (5 years, 273 days)
Rutherford B. Hayes
James A. Garfield
Chester A. Arthur

14

A. U. Wyman
April 1, 1883 –
April 30, 1885 (2 years, 29 days)
Chester A. Arthur
Grover Cleveland

15

Conrad N. Jordan
May 1, 1885 –
March 23, 1887 (1 year, 326 days)
Grover Cleveland

62 days vacant

16

James W. Hyatt
May 24, 1887 –
May 10, 1889 (1 year, 351 days)
Grover Cleveland
Benjamin Harrison

17

James N. Huston
May 11, 1889 –
April 24, 1891 (1 year, 348 days)
Benjamin Harrison

18

Enos H. Nebecker
April 25, 1891 –
May 31, 1893 (2 years, 36 days)
Benjamin Harrison
Grover Cleveland

19

Daniel N. Morgan
June 1, 1893 –
June 30, 1897 (4 years, 29 days)
Grover Cleveland
William McKinley

20

Ellis H. Roberts
July 1, 1897 –
June 30, 1905 (7 years, 364 days)
William McKinley
Theodore Roosevelt

21

Charles H. Treat
July 1, 1905 –
October 30, 1909 (4 years, 121 days)
Theodore Roosevelt
William Howard Taft

22

Lee McClung
November 1, 1909 –
November 21, 1912 (3 years, 20 days)
William Howard Taft

23

Carmi A. Thompson
November 22, 1912 –
March 31, 1913 (129 days)
(served the shortest term)
William Howard Taft
Woodrow Wilson

24

John Burke
April 1, 1913 –
January 5, 1921 (7 years, 279 days)
Woodrow Wilson

117 days vacant

25

Frank White
May 2, 1921 –
May 1, 1928
(6 years, 365 days)
Warren G. Harding
Calvin Coolidge

30 days vacant

26

Harold Theodore Tate
May 31, 1928 –
January 17, 1929 (231 days)
Calvin Coolidge

27

W. O. Woods
January 18, 1929 –
May 31, 1933 (4 years, 133 days)
Calvin Coolidge
Herbert Hoover
Franklin Delano Roosevelt

28

William Alexander Julian
June 1, 1933 –
May 29, 1949 (15 years, 362 days)
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Harry S. Truman

23 days vacant

29

Georgia Neese Clark
June 21, 1949 –
January 27, 1953 (3 years, 220 days)
Harry S. Truman
Dwight D. Eisenhower

30

Ivy Baker Priest
January 28, 1953 –
January 29, 1961 (8 years, 1 day)
Dwight D. Eisenhower
John F. Kennedy

31

Elizabeth Rudel Smith
January 30, 1961 –
April 13, 1962 (1 year, 73 days)
John F. Kennedy

265 days vacant

32

Kathryn O'Hay Granahan
January 3, 1963 –
November 22, 1966 (3 years, 323 days)
John F. Kennedy
Lyndon B. Johnson

898 days vacant

33
Dorothy Andrews Elston Kabis
May 8, 1969 –
July 3, 1971
(2 years, 56 days)
Richard Nixon

167 days vacant

34

Romana Acosta Bañuelos
December 17, 1971 –
February 14, 1974 (2 years, 59 days)
Richard Nixon

127 days vacant

35

Francine Irving Neff
June 21, 1974 –
January 19, 1977 (2 years, 212 days)
Richard Nixon
Gerald Ford

236 days vacant

36

Azie Taylor Morton
September 12, 1977 –
January 20, 1981 (3 years, 130 days)
Jimmy Carter

56 days vacant

37

Angela Marie Buchanan
March 17, 1981 –
July 5, 1983
(2 years, 110 days)
Ronald Reagan

79 days vacant

38

Katherine D. Ortega
September 22, 1983 –
July 1, 1989
(5 years, 282 days)
Ronald Reagan
George H. W. Bush

163 days vacant

39

Catalina Vasquez Villalpando
December 11, 1989 –
January 20, 1993 (3 years, 40 days)
George H. W. Bush

405 days vacant

40

Mary Ellen Withrow
March 1, 1994 –
January 20, 2001 (6 years, 325 days)
Bill Clinton

208 days vacant

41

Rosario Marin
August 16, 2001 –
June 30, 2003 (1 year, 318 days)
George W. Bush

569 days vacant

42

Anna Escobedo Cabral
January 19, 2005 –
January 20, 2009 (4 years, 1 day)
George W. Bush

198 days vacant

43

Rosa Gumataotao Rios
August 6, 2009 –
July 8, 2016
(6 years, 337 days)
Barack Obama

346 days vacant

44

Jovita Carranza[4]
June 19, 2017 – present
(297 days)
Donald Trump

text: Since 1949, the length of time the office has been vacant totals 3,688 days, more than 10 years.


document_title: Attack on Pearl Harbor

question_text: how many american lives lost at pearl harbor

question_tokens: how many american lives lost at pearl harbor

text: Attack on Pearl Harbor

text: Background to conflict

text: Diplomatic background

text: War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility that each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the "Southern Operation" was designed to assist these efforts.[23]

text: From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre (the International Military Tribunal of the Far East concluded that more than 200,000 Chinese non-combatants were killed in indiscriminate massacres, though other estimates have ranged from 40,000 to more than 300,000) swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion,[24] the United States, the United Kingdom, and France provided loan assistance for war supply contracts to China.

text: In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act.[nb 5] The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step that Japan would likely consider a provocation, given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil.[26][27]

text: Early in 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii from its previous base in San Diego and ordered a military buildup in the Philippines in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was (mistakenly) certain that any attack on the UK's Southeast Asian colonies, including Singapore,[28] would bring the U.S. into war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to avoid U.S. naval interference.[29] An invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The U.S. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40,000-man elite force. This was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented.[30] By 1941, U.S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 to Admiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet.[31]

text: The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the Fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.[32] This in turn caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil-rich territory.[nb 6] On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that the U.S. was prepared to take steps against Japan if it attacked "neighboring countries".[34] The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of Southeast Asia.

text: Japan and the U.S. engaged in negotiations during the course of 1941 in an effort to improve relations. During these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina when peace was made with the Nationalist government, adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact, and not to discriminate in trade provided all other countries reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister Konoye then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on coming to an agreement before any meeting.[35] The U.S. ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoye government and peace in the Pacific.[36] His recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoye government collapsed the following month when the Japanese military refused to agree to the withdrawal of all troops from China.[37]

text: Japan's final proposal, on November 20, offered to withdraw their forces from southern Indochina and not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia provided that the U.S., the UK, and the Netherlands ceased aiding China and lifted their sanctions against Japan.[37] The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan) (the Hull note) required Japan to evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. However the day before the Hull Note was delivered, on November 26 in Japan, the main Japanese attack fleet left port for Pearl Harbor.

text: Military planning

text: Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area" (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun very early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan's Combined Fleet.[38] He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command.[39] Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka, with assistance from Captain Minoru Genda and Yamamoto's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima.[40] The planners studied the 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively.[nb 7][nb 8]

text: Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter.[43] Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note" would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea."[44]

text: By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the U.S. and Japan were imminent. A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52% of Americans expected war with Japan, 27% did not, and 21% had no opinion.[45] While U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target; instead, they expected the Philippines would be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south.[46] They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.[47]

text: Objectives

text: The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and to enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 Vinson-Walsh Act erased any chance of victory.[48][49] Third, to deliver a blow to America's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time.[48] Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale such that the U.S. government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests, and would seek a compromise peace with Japan.[50][51]

text: Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor carried two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them; and most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage—this of timing, and known to the Japanese—was the absence from Pearl Harbor of all three of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga). IJN top command was so imbued with Admiral Mahan's "Decisive battle" doctrine—especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships—that, despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.[52][page needed]

text: Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms, and submarine base, were ignored, since—by their thinking—the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.[53]

text: Approach and attack

text: On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers—Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku—departed northern Japan en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.

text: The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target.[54] The first wave carried most of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water.[55] The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if these were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First wave dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over U.S. airfields.[citation needed]

text: Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers Chikuma and Tone were sent to scout over Oahu and Maui and report on U.S. fleet composition and location. Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting the U.S.,[56] and were not necessary. U.S. fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor was already known due to the reports of the Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa. A report of the absence of the U.S. fleet in Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the fleet submarine I-72.[57] Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the Kidō Butai) and Niihau, to detect any counterattack.[58]

text: Submarines

text: Fleet submarines I-16, I-18, I-20, I-22, and I-24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu.[59] The five I-boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941.[60] On December 6, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of the mouth of Pearl Harbor[61] and launched their midget subs at about 01:00[clarification needed] on December 7.[62] At 03:42[63] Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward.[64] The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06:37[64][nb 9] in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08:43.[64]

text: A third midget submarine, Ha-19, grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8.[66] Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured by Hawaii National Guard Corporal David Akui, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war.[nb 10] A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes.[67] Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00:41 on December 8 claiming damage to one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor.[68]

text: In 1992, 2000, and 2001, Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory's submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus U.S. equipment was dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at the light cruiser St. Louis at 10:04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer Helm at 08:21.[69]

text: Japanese declaration of war

text: The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end.[citation needed] However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000-word notification (commonly called the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it on schedule; in the event, it was not presented until more than an hour after the attack began. (In fact, U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before he was scheduled to deliver it.)[70] The final part is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior U.S government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated[71] and that war might break out at any moment,[72] it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8,[73] but not delivered to the U.S. government until the day after the attack.

text: For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "[O]ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success." Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations ... and they clearly prevailed."[74][75]

text: In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14-Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war. The final two paragraphs of the message read:

text: Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese-American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost.

text: First wave composition

text: The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida.[77] Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties.[58] It included:[nb 11]

text:
1st Group (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)[79]

49 Nakajima B5N Kate bombers armed with 800 kg (1760 lb) armor-piercing bombs, organized in four sections (1 failed to launch)
40 B5N bombers armed with Type 91 torpedoes, also in four sections

2nd Group – (targets: Ford Island and Wheeler Field)

51 Aichi D3A Val dive bombers armed with 550 lb (249 kg) general-purpose bombs (3 failed to launch)

3rd Group – (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber's Point, Kaneohe)

43 Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" fighters for air control and strafing[78] (2 failed to launch)

text: As the first wave approached Oahu, it was detected by the U.S. Army SCR-270 radar at Opana Point near the island's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational.[80] The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard, reported a target.[81] But Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers,[82] and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size.[83] Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell the operators of the six B-17s that were due (even though it was widely known).[83]

text: As the first wave planes approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several U.S. aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked Pearl Harbor.

text: The air portion of the attack began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian Time[14] (3:18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai),[84][nb 12] with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353[15] Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Army Air Forces' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P-36 Hawks, P-40 Warhawks, and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier Enterprise.[nb 13]

text: In the first wave attack, about eight of the forty-nine 800 kg (1760 lb) armor-piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, and four torpedoes hit other ships.[85] Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting bleary-eyed men to dress as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill.",[nb 14] was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage,[86] guns unmanned (none of the Navy's 5"/38s, only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action).[86] Despite this low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack.[nb 15] Ensign Joe Taussig Jr., aboard Nevada, commanded the ship's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded, but continued to be on post. Lt. Commander F. J. Thomas commanded Nevada in the captain's absence and got her under way until the ship was grounded at 9:10 a.m.[87] One of the destroyers, Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard.[88] Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding West Virginia, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit Tennessee, moored alongside.

text: Second wave composition

text: The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki.[78] Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties.[58] This wave and its targets comprised:[78]

text:
1st Group – 54 B5Ns armed with 550 lb (249 kg) and 132 lb (60 kg) general-purpose bombs[79]

27 B5Ns – aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point
27 B5Ns – hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field

2nd Group (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers)

78 D3As armed with 550 lb (249 kg) general-purpose bombs, in four sections (3 aborted)

3rd Group – (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber's Point, Kaneohe)

35 A6Ms for defense and strafing (1 aborted)

text: The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāneʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.

text: American casualties and damage

text: Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,008 sailors were killed and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army until the independent U.S. Air Force was formed in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans died and 1,178 were wounded.[89] Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships.[4][5] All of the Americans killed or wounded during the attack were non-combatants, given the fact there was no state of war when the attack occurred.[21][22][90]

text: Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of Arizona's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 16-inch (410 mm) shell.[nb 16]

text: Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.

text: California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. Maryland was hit by two of the converted 16" shells, but neither caused serious damage.

text: Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock, Cassin and Downes were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes. The light cruiser Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged, but remained in service. The repair vessel Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.[91]

text: Of the 402[15] American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged,[15] 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack[92] and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lt. Lewis M. Sanders, 2nd Lt. Philip M. Rasmussen, 2nd Lt. Kenneth M. Taylor, 2nd Lt. George S. Welch, 2nd Lt. Harry W. Brown, and 2nd Lt. Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Sterling was shot down by Lt. Fujita over Kaneohe Bay and is listed as Body Not Recovered (not Missing In Action). Lt. John L. Dains was killed by friendly fire returning from a victory over Kaawa.[93][94] Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.

text: At the time of the attack, nine civilian aircraft were flying in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor. Of these, three were shot down.[89]

text: Japanese losses

text: Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the attack, and one was captured. Of Japan's 414[78] available planes, 29 were lost during the battle (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second),[95][nb 17] with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.

text: Possible third wave

text: Several Japanese junior officers including Fuchida and Genda urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor's fuel and torpedo[nb 18] storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible.[96] Genda, who had unsuccessfully advocated for invading Hawaii after the air attack, believed that without an invasion three strikes were necessary to disable the base as much as possible.[97] The captains of the other five carriers in the task force reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike.[98] Military historians have suggested the destruction of these shore facilities would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than the loss of its battleships.[99] If they had been wiped out, "serious [American] operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year";[100] according to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years."[101] Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:

text:
American anti-aircraft performance had improved considerably during the second strike, and two thirds of Japan's losses were incurred during the second wave.[102]
Nagumo felt if he launched a third strike, he would be risking three quarters of the Combined Fleet's strength to wipe out the remaining targets (which included the facilities) while suffering higher aircraft losses.[102]
The location of the American carriers remained unknown. In addition, the admiral was concerned his force was now within range of American land-based bombers.[102] Nagumo was uncertain whether the U.S. had enough surviving planes remaining on Hawaii to launch an attack against his carriers.[103]
A third wave would have required substantial preparation and turnaround time, and would have meant returning planes would have had to land at night. At the time, only the Royal Navy had developed night carrier techniques, so this was a substantial risk.[104]
The task force's fuel situation did not permit him to remain in waters north of Pearl Harbor much longer, since he was at the very limit of logistical support. To do so risked running unacceptably low on fuel, perhaps even having to abandon destroyers en route home.[105]
He believed the second strike had essentially satisfied the main objective of his mission—the neutralization of the Pacific Fleet—and did not wish to risk further losses.[106] Moreover, it was Japanese Navy practice to prefer the conservation of strength over the total destruction of the enemy.[107]

text: At a conference aboard Yamato the following morning, Yamamoto initially supported Nagumo.[106] In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and oil depots meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.[108]

text: Ships lost or damaged

text: Seventeen ships were damaged or lost in the attack, of which fourteen were repaired and returned to service.[109]

text: Battleships

text:
Arizona (RADM Kidd's flagship of Battleship Division One): hit by four armor-piercing bombs, exploded; total loss. 1,177 dead.
Oklahoma: hit by five torpedoes, capsized; total loss. 429 dead.
West Virginia: hit by two bombs, seven torpedoes, sunk; returned to service July 1944. 106 dead.
California: hit by two bombs, two torpedoes, sunk; returned to service January 1944. 100 dead.
Nevada: hit by six bombs, one torpedo, beached; returned to service October 1942. 60 dead.
Pennsylvania (ADM Kimmel's flagship of the United States Pacific Fleet):[110] in drydock with Cassin and Downes, hit by one bomb and debris from USS Cassin; remained in service. 9 dead.
Tennessee: hit by two bombs; returned to service February 1942. 5 dead.
Maryland: hit by two bombs; returned to service February 1942. 4 dead (including floatplane pilot shot down).

text: Ex-battleship (target/AA training ship)

text: Utah: hit by two torpedoes, capsized; total loss. 64 dead.

text: Cruisers

text:
Helena: hit by one torpedo; returned to service January 1942. 20 dead.
Raleigh: hit by one torpedo; returned to service February 1942.
Honolulu: Near miss, light damage; remained in service.

text: Destroyers

text:
Cassin: in drydock with Downes and Pennsylvania, hit by one bomb, burned; returned to service February 1944.
Downes: in drydock with Cassin and Pennsylvania, caught fire from Cassin, burned; returned to service November 1943.
Shaw: hit by three bombs; returned to service June 1942.

text: Auxiliaries

text:
Oglala (minelayer): Damaged by torpedo hit on Helena, capsized; returned to service (as engine-repair ship) February 1944.
Vestal (repair ship): hit by two bombs, blast and fire from Arizona, beached; returned to service by August 1942.
Curtiss (seaplane tender): hit by one bomb, one crashed Japanese aircraft; returned to service January 1942. 19 dead.
Sotoyomo (harbor tug): damaged by explosion and fires in Shaw; sunk; returned to service August 1942.

text: Salvage

text: After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately ordered to lead salvage operations. "Within a short time I was relieved of all other duties and ordered to full time work as Fleet Salvage Officer."[111][nb 19]

text: Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair.

text: Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man-hours under water.[113] Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired, and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk,[114] with Arizona becoming a war memorial.

text: Aftermath

text: In the wake of the attack, 15 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Stars, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medals were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor.[115] Additionally, a special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.

text: The day after the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous Infamy Speech to a Joint Session of Congress, calling for a formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, even though the Tripartite Pact did not require it.[nb 20] Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day. The UK actually declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did, partially due to Japanese attacks on Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and partially due to Winston Churchill's promise to declare war "within the hour" of a Japanese attack on the United States.[116]

text: The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan attacked the Philippines hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked".[117]

text: Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in American propaganda.[118]

text: One further consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the Niihau incident) was that Japanese American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby Japanese-American internment camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese American leaders were rounded up and brought to high-security camps such as Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and Kilauea Military Camp on the island of Hawaii.[119][120] Eventually, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in Hawaii, where the 150,000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.[121][122][123]

text: The attack also had international consequences. The Canadian province of British Columbia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, had long had a large population of Japanese immigrants and their Japanese Canadian descendants. Pre-war tensions were exacerbated by the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to a reaction from the Government of Canada. On February 24, 1942, Order-in-Council P.C. no. 1486 was passed under the War Measures Act allowing for the forced removal of any and all Canadians of Japanese descent from British Columbia, as well as the prohibiting from them returning to the province. On 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to evacuate Japanese-Canadians.[124] As a result, 12,000 were interned in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps and another 2,000 were forced to work in the prairies at sugar beet farms.[125]

text: Niihau Incident

text: The Japanese planners had determined that some means was required for rescuing fliers whose aircraft were too badly damaged to return to the carriers. The island of Niihau, only 30 minutes flying time from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point.

text: The Zero flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of Hiryu was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, so he flew to the rescue point on Niihau. The aircraft was further damaged on landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the native Hawaiians, who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot's maps and other documents. The island's residents had no telephones or radio and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of three Japanese-American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed and a Hawaiian civilian was wounded; one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife and the third collaborator were sent to prison.

text: The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents had apparently gone to the assistance of Nishikaichi was a source of concern for many, and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted.[126]

text: Strategic implications

text: Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war."[127] To a similar effect, see Isoroku Yamamoto's alleged "sleeping giant" quote.

text: While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon 'charging' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange).[29] The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog" in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia, while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.[128]

text: Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack; otherwise the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or more (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines—the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively low speed and high fuel consumption limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles (their only major action being the Battle of Surigao Strait in October 1944). A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened.[129]

text: The Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war meant that they neglected Pearl Harbor's navy repair yards, oil tank farms, submarine base, and old headquarters building.[53] All of these targets were omitted from Genda's list, yet they proved more important than any battleship to the American war efforts in the Pacific. The survival of the repair shops and fuel depots allowed Pearl Harbor to maintain logistical support to the U.S. Navy's operations,[130][131] such as the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy's heavy ships and brought Japan's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials: by the end of 1942, import of raw materials was cut to half of what it had been, "to a disastrous ten million tons", while oil import "was almost completely stopped".[nb 21] Lastly, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force's success.[132]

text: Retrospective debate on American intelligence

text: Ever since the Japanese attack, there has been debate as to how and why the United States had been caught unaware, and how much and when American officials knew of Japanese plans and related topics. Military officers including Gen. Billy Mitchell had pointed out the vulnerability of Pearl to air attack. At least two Naval War games, one in 1932 and another in 1936, proved that Pearl was vulnerable to such an attack. Admiral James Richardson was removed from command shortly after protesting President Roosevelt's decision to move the bulk of the Pacific fleet to Pearl Harbor.[133] [134]The decisions of military and political leadership to ignore these warnings has contributed to conspiracy theories. Several writers, including journalist Robert Stinnett and former United States rear admiral Robert Alfred Theobald, have argued that various parties high in the U.S. and British governments knew of the attack in advance and may even have let it happen or encouraged it in order to force the U.S. into war via the so-called "back door". However, this conspiracy theory is rejected by mainstream historians.[135][136][137][138][nb 22]

text: In popular culture