document_title: Electric current

question_text: what is the actual direction of electric current

text: Electric current

text: Symbol

text: The conventional symbol for current is I, which originates from the French phrase intensité de courant, (current intensity).[4][5] Current intensity is often referred to simply as current.[6] The I symbol was used by André-Marie Ampère, after whom the unit of electric current is named, in formulating Ampère's force law (1820).[7] The notation travelled from France to Great Britain, where it became standard, although at least one journal did not change from using C to I until 1896.[8]

text: Conventions

text: In a conductive material, the moving charged particles which constitute the electric current are called charge carriers. In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in most electrical circuits, the positively charged atomic nuclei are held in a fixed position, and the negatively charged electrons are free to move, carrying their charge from one place to another. In other materials, notably the semiconductors, the charge carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in an electrolyte in an electrochemical cell.

text: A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or both, a convention is needed for the direction of current that is independent of the type of charge carriers. The direction of conventional current is arbitrarily defined as the same direction as positive charges flow.

text: The consequence of this convention is that electrons, the charge carriers in metal wires and most other parts of electric circuits, flow in the opposite direction of conventional current flow in an electrical circuit.

text: Reference direction

text: Since the current in a wire or component can flow in either direction, when a variable I is defined to represent that current, the direction representing positive current must be specified, usually by an arrow on the circuit schematic diagram. This is called the reference direction of current I. If the current flows in the opposite direction, the variable I has a negative value.

text: When analyzing electrical circuits, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit element is usually unknown. Consequently, the reference directions of currents are often assigned arbitrarily. When the circuit is solved, a negative value for the variable means that the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the chosen reference direction. In electronic circuits, the reference current directions are often chosen so that all currents are toward ground. This often corresponds to the actual current direction, because in many circuits the power supply voltage is positive with respect to ground.

text: Ohm's law

text: Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance,[9] one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:[10]

text: where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current.[11]

text: Alternating and direct current

text: In alternating current (AC) systems, the movement of electric charge periodically reverses direction. AC is the form of electric power most commonly delivered to businesses and residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. Certain applications use different waveforms, such as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of alternating current. An important goal in these applications is recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

text: In contrast, direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge, or a system in which the movement of electric charge is in one direction only. Direct current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. An old name for direct current was galvanic current.[12]

text: Occurrences

text: Natural observable examples of electrical current include lightning, static electric discharge, and the solar wind, the source of the polar auroras.

text: Man-made occurrences of electric current include the flow of conduction electrons in metal wires such as the overhead power lines that deliver electrical energy across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic equipment. Eddy currents are electric currents that occur in conductors exposed to changing magnetic fields. Similarly, electric currents occur, particularly in the surface, of conductors exposed to electromagnetic waves. When oscillating electric currents flow at the correct voltages within radio antennas, radio waves are generated.

text: In electronics, other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through resistors or through the vacuum in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions inside a battery or a neuron, and the flow of holes within a semiconductor.

text: Current measurement

text: Current can be measured using an ammeter.

text: At the circuit level, there are various techniques that can be used to measure current:

text:
Shunt resistors[13]
Hall effect current sensor transducers
Transformers (however DC cannot be measured)
Magnetoresistive field sensors[14]

text: Resistive heating

text: Joule heating, also known as ohmic heating and resistive heating, is the process by which the passage of an electric current through a conductor releases heat. It was first studied by James Prescott Joule in 1841. Joule immersed a length of wire in a fixed mass of water and measured the temperature rise due to a known current through the wire for a 30 minute period. By varying the current and the length of the wire he deduced that the heat produced was proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the electrical resistance of the wire.

text: This relationship is known as Joule's First Law. The SI unit of energy was subsequently named the joule and given the symbol J. The commonly known unit of power, the watt, is equivalent to one joule per second.

text: Electromagnetism

text: Electromagnet

text: In an electromagnet a coil, of a large number of circular turns of insulated wire, wrapped on a cylindrical core, behaves like a magnet when an electric current flows through it. When the current is switched off, the coil loses its magnetism immediately. We call such a device as an electromagnet.[15][16]

text: Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire that persists as long as there is current.

text: Magnetism can also produce electric currents. When a changing magnetic field is applied to a conductor, an Electromotive force (EMF) is produced, and when there is a suitable path, this causes current.

text: Electric current can be directly measured with a galvanometer, but this method involves breaking the electrical circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current. Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current clamps, current transformers, and Rogowski coils.

text: Radio waves

text: When an electric current flows in a suitably shaped conductor at radio frequencies radio waves can be generated. These travel at the speed of light and can cause electric currents in distant conductors.

text: Conduction mechanisms in various media

text: In metallic solids, electric charge flows by means of electrons, from lower to higher electrical potential. In other media, any stream of charged objects (ions, for example) may constitute an electric current. To provide a definition of current independent of the type of charge carriers, conventional current is defined as moving in the same direction as the positive charge flow. So, in metals where the charge carriers (electrons) are negative, conventional current is in the opposite direction as the electrons. In conductors where the charge carriers are positive, conventional current is in the same direction as the charge carriers.

text: In a vacuum, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed. In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of both positively and negatively charged particles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely due to positive charge flow. For example, the electric currents in electrolytes are flows of positively and negatively charged ions. In a common lead-acid electrochemical cell, electric currents are composed of positive hydrogen ions (protons) flowing in one direction, and negative sulfate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in sparks or plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions.

text: Metals

text: In a metal, some of the outer electrons in each atom are not bound to the individual atom as they are in insulating materials, but are free to move within the metal lattice. These conduction electrons can serve as charge carriers, carrying a current. Metals are particularly conductive because there are a large number of these free electrons, typically one per atom in the lattice. With no external electric field applied, these electrons move about randomly due to thermal energy but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. At room temperature, the average speed of these random motions is 106 metres per second.[17] Given a surface through which a metal wire passes, electrons move in both directions across the surface at an equal rate. As George Gamow wrote in his popular science book, One, Two, Three...Infinity (1947), "The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus forming what we call an electric current."

text: When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage source such as a battery, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the charge carrier in a typical solid conductor.

text: For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the current I (in amperes) can be calculated with the following equation:

text: where Q is the electric charge transferred through the surface over a time t. If Q and t are measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, I is in amperes.

text: More generally, electric current can be represented as the rate at which charge flows through a given surface as:

text: Electrolytes

text: Electric currents in electrolytes are flows of electrically charged particles (ions). For example, if an electric field is placed across a solution of Na+ and Cl− (and conditions are right) the sodium ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode), while the chloride ions move towards the positive electrode (anode). Reactions take place at both electrode surfaces, absorbing each ion.

text: Water-ice and certain solid electrolytes called proton conductors contain positive hydrogen ions ("protons") that are mobile. In these materials, electric currents are composed of moving protons, as opposed to the moving electrons in metals.

text: In certain electrolyte mixtures, brightly coloured ions are the moving electric charges. The slow progress of the colour makes the current visible.[18]

text: Gases and plasmas

text: In air and other ordinary gases below the breakdown field, the dominant source of electrical conduction is via relatively few mobile ions produced by radioactive gases, ultraviolet light, or cosmic rays. Since the electrical conductivity is low, gases are dielectrics or insulators. However, once the applied electric field approaches the breakdown value, free electrons become sufficiently accelerated by the electric field to create additional free electrons by colliding, and ionizing, neutral gas atoms or molecules in a process called avalanche breakdown. The breakdown process forms a plasma that contains enough mobile electrons and positive ions to make it an electrical conductor. In the process, it forms a light emitting conductive path, such as a spark, arc or lightning.

text: Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or "ionized" from their molecules or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen [O2 → 2O], which then recombine creating ozone [O3]).[19]

text: Vacuum

text: Since a "perfect vacuum" contains no charged particles, it normally behaves as a perfect insulator. However, metal electrode surfaces can cause a region of the vacuum to become conductive by injecting free electrons or ions through either field electron emission or thermionic emission. Thermionic emission occurs when the thermal energy exceeds the metal's work function, while field electron emission occurs when the electric field at the surface of the metal is high enough to cause tunneling, which results in the ejection of free electrons from the metal into the vacuum. Externally heated electrodes are often used to generate an electron cloud as in the filament or indirectly heated cathode of vacuum tubes. Cold electrodes can also spontaneously produce electron clouds via thermionic emission when small incandescent regions (called cathode spots or anode spots) are formed. These are incandescent regions of the electrode surface that are created by a localized high current. These regions may be initiated by field electron emission, but are then sustained by localized thermionic emission once a vacuum arc forms. These small electron-emitting regions can form quite rapidly, even explosively, on a metal surface subjected to a high electrical field. Vacuum tubes and sprytrons are some of the electronic switching and amplifying devices based on vacuum conductivity.

text: Superconductivity

text: Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.

text: Semiconductor

text: In a semiconductor it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "holes" (the mobile positive charge carriers that are places where the semiconductor crystal is missing a valence electron). This is the case in a p-type semiconductor. A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and an insulator. This means a conductivity roughly in the range of 10−2 to 104 siemens per centimeter (S⋅cm−1).

text: In the classic crystalline semiconductors, electrons can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of levels of energy). Energetically, these bands are located between the energy of the ground state, the state in which electrons are tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, the latter describing the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material. The energy bands each correspond to a large number of discrete quantum states of the electrons, and most of the states with low energy (closer to the nucleus) are occupied, up to a particular band called the valence band. Semiconductors and insulators are distinguished from metals because the valence band in any given metal is nearly filled with electrons under usual operating conditions, while very few (semiconductor) or virtually none (insulator) of them are available in the conduction band, the band immediately above the valence band.

text: The ease of exciting electrons in the semiconductor from the valence band to the conduction band depends on the band gap between the bands. The size of this energy band gap serves as an arbitrary dividing line (roughly 4 eV) between semiconductors and insulators.

text: With covalent bonds, an electron moves by hopping to a neighboring bond. The Pauli exclusion principle requires that the electron be lifted into the higher anti-bonding state of that bond. For delocalized states, for example in one dimension – that is in a nanowire, for every energy there is a state with electrons flowing in one direction and another state with the electrons flowing in the other. For a net current to flow, more states for one direction than for the other direction must be occupied. For this to occur, energy is required, as in the semiconductor the next higher states lie above the band gap. Often this is stated as: full bands do not contribute to the electrical conductivity. However, as a semiconductor's temperature rises above absolute zero, there is more energy in the semiconductor to spend on lattice vibration and on exciting electrons into the conduction band. The current-carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as free electrons, though they are often simply called electrons if that is clear in context.

text: Current density and Ohm's law

text: Current density is a measure of the density of an electric current. It is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area. In SI units, the current density is measured in amperes per square metre.

text:
where

I

{\displaystyle I}

 is current in the conductor,

J
→

{\displaystyle {\vec {J}}}

 is the current density, and

d

A
→

{\displaystyle d{\vec {A}}}

 is the differential cross-sectional area vector.

text:
The current density (current per unit area)

J
→

{\displaystyle {\vec {J}}}

 in materials with finite resistance is directly proportional to the electric field

E
→

{\displaystyle {\vec {E}}}

 in the medium. The proportionality constant is called the conductivity

σ

{\displaystyle \sigma }

 of the material, whose value depends on the material concerned and, in general, is dependent on the temperature of the material:

text:
The reciprocal of the conductivity

σ

{\displaystyle \sigma }

 of the material is called the resistivity

ρ

{\displaystyle \rho }

 of the material and the above equation, when written in terms of resistivity becomes:

text:
Conduction in semiconductor devices may occur by a combination of drift and diffusion, which is proportional to diffusion constant

D

{\displaystyle D}

 and charge density

α

q

{\displaystyle \alpha _{q}}

. The current density is then:

text:
with

q

{\displaystyle q}

 being the elementary charge and

n

{\displaystyle n}

 the electron density. The carriers move in the direction of decreasing concentration, so for electrons a positive current results for a positive density gradient. If the carriers are holes, replace electron density

n

{\displaystyle n}

 by the negative of the hole density

p

{\displaystyle p}

.

text: In linear anisotropic materials, σ, ρ and D are tensors.

text: In linear materials such as metals, and under low frequencies, the current density across the conductor surface is uniform. In such conditions, Ohm's law states that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference between two ends (across) of that metal (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device):

text:
where

I

{\displaystyle I}

 is the current, measured in amperes;

V

{\displaystyle V}

 is the potential difference, measured in volts; and

R

{\displaystyle R}

 is the resistance, measured in ohms. For alternating currents, especially at higher frequencies, skin effect causes the current to spread unevenly across the conductor cross-section, with higher density near the surface, thus increasing the apparent resistance.

text: Drift speed

text: The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions, like the particles of a gas. (More accurately, a Fermi gas.) To create a net flow of charge, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in metals and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the opposite direction of the electric field. The speed they drift at can be calculated from the equation:

text: where

text: Typically, electric charges in solids flow slowly. For example, in a copper wire of cross-section 0.5 mm2, carrying a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is on the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in near-straight lines at about a tenth of the speed of light.

text: Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to an electromagnetic wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from Maxwell's Equations, and is therefore many times faster than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant load, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance.

text: The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the speed of light in free space is called the velocity factor, and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the conductor and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on their shape and size.

text: The magnitudes (not the natures) of these three velocities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three similar velocities associated with gases. (See also hydraulic analogy.)

text:
The low drift velocity of charge carriers is analogous to air motion; in other words, winds.
The high speed of electromagnetic waves is roughly analogous to the speed of sound in a gas (these waves move through the medium much faster than any individual particles do)
The random motion of charges is analogous to heat – the thermal velocity of randomly vibrating gas particles.


document_title: The Wedding Singer

question_text: who wrote i wanna grow old with you

question_tokens: who wrote i wan na grow old with you

root

text: The Wedding Singer

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1985, Robbie Hart is a nice, charming and entertaining wedding singer from Ridgefield, New Jersey. He is engaged to his long-time girlfriend, Linda, who fell in love with him when he dreamed of becoming a rock star. He meets and befriends a waitress, Julia Sullivan, at the reception hall where she is newly employed. She is engaged to businessman Glenn Gulia and he promises to sing at their wedding.

tag: p

text: On their wedding day, Robbie's sister, Kate, tells him that Linda has changed her mind about the wedding, leaving him emotionally devastated and humiliated. Later that day, Linda visits Robbie and she reveals that she stopped loving him when she found out that he lost his ambitions of being a rock star and instead became a wedding singer. She tells him that after talking to her friends, she realizes she can't continue lying to herself and ends their relationship. He tries to move on with his life, but despair hinders his performances. Julia tries to cheer him up and later asks him to help her plan her own wedding. He eventually agrees and their friendship blossoms. Meanwhile, as Robbie spends more time with Julia, he begins to realize just how shallow Linda is. During a double date between Julia and Glenn, and Julia's cousin, Holly, Robbie learns that Glenn frequently cheats on Julia and does not plan to stop after they get married.

text: Julia and Robbie are increasingly confused by their deepening feelings for each other. He tells her he has plans to retire from singing and pursue a more conventional career, thinking that will impress her. She becomes angry with him when he accuses her of marrying Glenn for his money. Dismayed, he meets his friend Sammy at a bar and says he's just going to have fun with women from now on, but Sammy says he's not really happy and those kinds of guys are doomed, so Robbie goes to tell Julia how he feels. When he sees her through her bedroom window in her wedding dress, she is happily looking in a mirror and pretending she has just married Robbie, but he assumes she is thinking of Glenn.

text: Heartbroken, Robbie leaves to get drunk and finds Glenn in the midst of his pre-bachelor party. After a heated exchange, he punches Robbie and proceeds to mock him. An intoxicated Robbie goes home and finds Linda waiting for him and wanting to reconcile. He passes out, but the following morning, she answers the door and introduces herself as his fiancée to a crestfallen Julia. She runs to Glenn, wanting to be married immediately. He happily offers to take her to Las Vegas.

text: Robbie awakens and after shaking off his hangover from the previous night, tells Linda that it's over and kicks her out. Then he attends the 50th wedding anniversary party of his grandmother Rosie (to whom he has been giving singing lessons). Realizing he wants to grow old with Julia, with Rosie's encouragement, he decides to pursue Julia. Just then, Holly arrives and asks him if he is still with Linda. He reveals he ended it with her and learns of Julia's plans to marry Glenn. He, Sammy, and Holly rush to the airport, where he gets a first class ticket to Las Vegas. After telling his story to an empathetic audience in first class, which includes Billy Idol, he learns that Glenn and Julia are on the same flight after a female flight attendant informs him that Glenn said the same terms he said about Julia while trying to seduce her. With the help of Billy and the flight crew, over the loudspeaker, he sings a song he has written called "Grow Old With You," dedicated to Julia. As Robbie approaches Julia singing, Glenn tries to attack him, but he is blocked by Billy Idol and a flight attendant. When Glenn threatens Billy, a burly fan forces Glenn down the aisle and a female flight attendant he tried seducing earlier pushes him into the lavatory. Robbie and Julia admit their love for each other, and kiss after Billy tells him he liked the song and plans to tell the record company execs about him.

text: The film ends as the scene fades to Robbie and Julia kissing at their wedding, with the drunken best man from the wedding where they met singing for them.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text:
Adam Sandler as Robbie Hart
Drew Barrymore as Julia Sullivan
Christine Taylor as Holly Sullivan
Jodi Thelen as Kate Hart
Allen Covert as Sammy
Angela Featherstone as Linda
Matthew Glave as Glenn Gulia
Ellen Albertini Dow as Rosie
Alexis Arquette as George Stitzer (reprised as Georgina in Blended)
Christina Pickles as Angie Sullivan
Frank Sivero as Andy
Billy Idol as Himself
Kevin Nealon as Mr. Simms
Steven Brill as Glenn's buddy
Steve Buscemi (uncredited) as David Veltri
Peter Dante as David's friend
Jon Lovitz (uncredited) as Jimmie Moore
Brian Posehn (uncredited) as Man at Dining Table #9
Michael Shuman as The Bar Mitzvah Boy
Robert Smigel as Andre
Chauntal Lewis (uncredited) as Stuck-Up Girl at Bar Mitzvah

tag: ul

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film had a budget of $18 million and received $123,306,987 worldwide[1] in ticket sales. It opened at the #2 spot in the US with $18,865,080[2] in the United States, behind Titanic.

text: The film received generally positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 71% based on reviews from 61 critics, with an average rating of 6.1/10, saying that "It's decidedly uneven -- and surprisingly sappy for an early Adam Sandler comedy -- but The Wedding Singer is also sweet, funny, and beguiling. [3]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Two soundtrack albums for the film, called The Wedding Singer and The Wedding Singer Volume 2, were released, both in 1998. It contained many scenes of singing at weddings, with songs performed by its cast. The soundtrack albums, for the most part, contained the original versions of these songs instead, as well as songs that were in the background during it and original songs and dialogue from it. Only for "Rapper's Delight" was its rendition (by Ellen Dow), used, in combination with the original recording.

text: The track listing of the first album is:

text:
"Video Killed the Radio Star" (originally performed by The Buggles), performed by The Presidents of the United States of America
"Do You Really Want to Hurt Me", performed by Culture Club
"Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic", performed by The Police
"How Soon Is Now?", performed by The Smiths
"Love My Way", performed by The Psychedelic Furs
"Hold Me Now", performed by Thompson Twins
"Everyday I Write the Book", performed by Elvis Costello
"White Wedding", performed by Billy Idol
"China Girl", performed by David Bowie
"Blue Monday", performed by New Order
"Pass the Dutchie", performed by Musical Youth
"Have You Written Anything Lately?"
"Somebody Kill Me", written by Adam Sandler and Tim Herlihy, performed by Adam Sandler
"Rapper's Delight" (medley), performed by Sugarhill Gang and Ellen Dow

tag: ol

text: The track listing of the second album is:

text:
"Too Shy", performed by Kajagoogoo
"It's All I Can Do", performed by The Cars
"True", performed by Spandau Ballet
"Space Age Love Song", performed by A Flock of Seagulls
"Private Idaho", performed by The B-52's
"Money (That's What I Want)", performed by Flying Lizards
"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)", performed by Dead or Alive
"Just Can't Get Enough", performed by Depeche Mode
"Love Stinks", performed by The J. Geils Band
"You Make My Dreams", performed by Hall & Oates
"Holiday", performed by Madonna
"Grow Old With You", written by Adam Sandler and Tim Herlihy, performed by Adam Sandler

text: Songs and renditions that appeared in the movie, but were not included in the soundtrack albums, were:

text:
"Der Kommissar", performed by After the Fire
"99 Luftballons", performed by Nena
"Till There Was You", written by Meredith Willson, performed by Ellen Dow
"Don't Stop Believin'" (originally performed by Journey)
"Boys Don't Cry", performed by The Cure
"All Night Long (All Night)", performed by Lionel Richie
"That's All", written by Alan Brandt & Bob Haymes, performed by Adam Sandler
"Ladies' Night" (originally performed by Kool & the Gang), performed by Jon Lovitz
"Do You Believe in Love", performed by Huey Lewis and the News
"Jam on It", Newcleus
"Miami Vice Theme", performed by Jan Hammer
"Hungry Heart", performed by Bruce Springsteen
"The Goofball Brothers Show", written and performed by Sourcerer
"Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go", performed by Wham!


document_title: California grizzly bear

question_text: where was the last grizzly bear killed in california

text: California grizzly bear

text: Nomenclature[edit]

text: A 1953 researcher stated, "The specific status of North American brown bears (or grizzly bears) is one of the most complex problems of mammalian taxonomy. The difficulty stems directly from the work of Merriam (1918), who concluded that there are 86 forms of grizzlies (and brown bears) in North America."[5]

text: North American grizzlies were taxonomically grouped as a species apart from other bear species, until DNA testing revealed that they should properly be grouped in the same species as the other brown bears.[3] Grizzlies living in California had been classified by Merriam into many subspecies, but the only genetically anomalous grouping in North America is the ABC Islands bears.[6]

text: Symbolism[edit]

text: The California grizzly is one of the state's most visible and enduring symbols,[peacock term] adorning both the state flag and seal. The Bear Flag first flew in 1846 as a symbol of the short-lived California Republic. A second version was adopted as the state flag by the state legislature in 1911.[7] The bear symbol became a permanent part of the state seal in 1849. The California Grizzly was designated the official state animal in 1953.[8][9] The bear is celebrated in name and as mascot of the sports teams of the University of California, Berkeley (the California Golden Bears), and of the University of California, Los Angeles (the UCLA Bruins) and in the mascot of University of California, Riverside (Scottie the Bear, dressed in a Highland kilt). The California Maritime Academy operates a training ship named "Golden Bear".[citation needed]

text: History and extinction[edit]

text: The first recorded encounters of California grizzlies by the Europeans are in the diaries kept by several members of the 1769 Portola expedition, first exploration by land of what is now the state of California. Several place names that include the Spanish word for bear (oso) trace their origins back to that first expedition (e.g. Los Osos).

text: As the settled frontier of New Spain was extended northward, settlers began to populate California and establish large cattle herds as the main industry. The grizzly bears killed livestock and so became enemies of the rancheros. Vaqueros hunted the grizzlies, sometimes roping and capturing them to be displayed in public battles with bulls.[10] This popular spectator sport inspired betting as to whether the bear or the bull would win.

text: One popular, though false[11] account is that Horace Greeley, after seeing such a fight, gave the modern stock market its "bear" and "bull" nicknames — based on the fighting styles of the two animals: the bear swipes downward while the bull hooks upward.

text: In 1866, a grizzly described as weighing as much as 2,200 pounds (1,000 kg) was killed in Valley Center, California, the biggest bear ever found in California, as recalled in 1932 by Catherine E. Lovett Smith, who had been six years old at the time and on whose family's ranch the bear had been found; Lovett Smith stated that this was where Valley Center got its original name of "Bear Valley" (other sources concurred as to the story of the bear, but differed on its size).[12]

text: Less than 75 years after the discovery of gold in 1848, almost every grizzly bear in California had been tracked down and killed. One prospector in Southern California, William F. Holcomb (nicknamed "Grizzly Bill" Holcomb), was particularly well known for hunting grizzly bears in what is now San Bernardino County. The last hunted California grizzly was shot in Tulare County, California, in August 1922, although no body, skeleton or pelt was ever produced. Two years later in 1924, what was thought to be a grizzly was spotted in Sequoia National Park for the last time, and thereafter, grizzlies were never seen again in California.[12][13][14]

text: Baiting[edit]

text: Californian grizzlies had been pitted against other animals, such as bulls.[15]

text: Reintroduction[edit]

text: California still has habitat for about 500 grizzlies.[16] In 2014, the US Fish and Wildlife Service received and rejected a petition to reintroduce grizzly bears to California.[17][18] In 2015 the Center for Biological Diversity launched a petition aimed at the California state legislature to reintroduce the grizzly bear to the state.[19][20][21] The California grizzly bear has been considered as a possible candidate for attempts at deextinction, through the proposed use of back-breeding, cloning and genetic engineering to recreate extinct species.[22]


document_title: Failure to Launch

question_text: who plays the dad in failure to launch

question_tokens: who plays the dad in failure to launch

text: Failure to Launch

text: Plot[edit]

text: Tripp (Matthew McConaughey), a 35-year-old man, is still living with his parents Al (Terry Bradshaw) and Sue (Kathy Bates) in Baltimore. Tripp's best friends Demo (Bradley Cooper) and Ace (Justin Bartha) are also still living in their parents' homes and seem proud of it. Tripp has a number of meaningless romances; when he gets sick of the women, he scares them off by inviting them to “his place,” and after seeing he lives at home, they promptly dump him, leaving him free again. Al and Sue are fascinated when their friends, whose adult son recently moved away from home, reveal that they hired an expert to get their son to move out.

text:
The expert is Paula (Sarah Jessica Parker), who believes that men continue to live at home because they have low self-esteem. Her approach is to establish a relationship with the man to build his confidence and transfer his attachment from his parents to her. However, upon meeting Tripp, she finds that he does not fit any of her previous profiles, having normal social skills and no problems with self-esteem.
He also has a good job which he enjoys. After an awkward encounter with his parents, Paula thwarts his attempt to dump her and has sex with him, all the while developing real feelings for him. She and Tripp find themselves sailing unfamiliar waters and confide in their friends.

text: Paula's vocation exasperates her roommate Kit (Zooey Deschanel), who believes that Paula took the job because she once had her heart broken by a man who lived with his parents. Paula, on the other hand, is shocked when she finds out why Tripp lives at home: his life collapsed when his fiancée suddenly died, and his family has been his source of solace ever since.

text: Ace discovers what is going on and blackmails Paula for a date with Kit; although Kit is more attracted to Demo, she and Ace wind up falling in love. Ace then outs Paula to Demo, who in turn reveals all to Tripp. Tripp angrily confronts his parents and breaks up with Paula. Wracked with guilt, Paula refunds Al's and Sue's money. After an awkward confrontation, Tripp manages to forgive his parents, but he cannot forgive Paula for manipulating him.

text: Tripp's parents and friends devise a plan to reconcile the two lovers. They tie up and gag Tripp and lock him and Paula together in a room. Paula pours her heart out to him, and he finally forgives her. The film ends with Al and Sue in their empty nest, happily singing "Hit the Road, Tripp," fading into the closing credits playing the Ray Charles song, and Tripp sailing away with Paula on his newly purchased boat.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Matthew McConaughey as Tripp
Sarah Jessica Parker as Paula
Zooey Deschanel as Katherine "Kit"
Justin Bartha as Philip "Ace"
Bradley Cooper as Demo
Terry Bradshaw as Al
Kathy Bates as Sue
Adam Alexi-Malle as Mr. Axelrod
Tyrel Jackson Williams as Jeffrey
Katheryn Winnick as Melissa
Rob Corddry as Gun Salesman
Patton Oswalt as Techie Guy
Mageina Tovah as Barista
Stephen Tobolowsky as Bud

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $24.6 million, ranking first in the United States box office results for that weekend. The film grossed a total of around $90 million in the United States box office and made $128,406,887 worldwide.[1]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received negative reviews from critics, gaining only 24% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 143 reviews.[2] Film critic Richard Roeper stated the film was "completely unbelievable". Some otherwise negative reviews singled out Zooey Deschanel's performance as the film's highlight.[3][4][5] Stephanie Zacharek of Salon wrote that "Even with a relatively small role, she blows the whole movie to smithereens".[3]


document_title: List of countries by level of military equipment

question_text: who has the largest submarine fleet in the world

text: List[edit]

text:
Country[note 1]
Military budget (US$ BN)[note 2]
Main battle tanks
Aircraft carriers
AWS
Cruisers
Destroyers
Frigates
Corvettes
Nuclear submarines
Non-nuclear Submarines
Military aircraft[note 3]
Attack helicopters[note 4]
Nuclear weapons[1]
Military satellites

Total
1,778.5
104,476
23
77
29
215
363
260
148
363
20,089
9,641
15,913
320

 Afghanistan[2]
3.29
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
83
0
0

 Albania[3]
0.163
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Algeria[4]
12.0
1,195
0
1
0
0
5
6
0
6
120
77
0
1

 Angola[5]
6.83l
300
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
83
70
0
0

 Antigua and Barbuda[6]
0.027
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Argentina[7]
4.26
213
0
0
0
5
6
3
0
3
123
44
0
0

 Armenia[8]
0.47
109
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
17
0
0

 Australia[9]
22.5
59
2
3
0
0
12
0
0
6
146
39
0
1

 Austria[10]
3.32
56
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
37
24
0
0

 Azerbaijan[11]
2.11
433
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
44
50
0
0

 Bahamas[12]
0.087
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Bahrain[13]
1.33
180
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
39
30
0
0

 Bangladesh[14]
3
534[15]
0
0
0
0
6
4
0
2[16]
166[17]
70
0
0

 Barbados[18]
0.033
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Belarus[19]
0.681
515
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72
49
0
0

 Belgium[20]
5.04
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
88
8
NATO shared
0

 Belize[21]
0.018
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Benin[22]
0.086
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Bolivia[23]
0.405
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
7
0
0

 Bosnia and Herzegovina[24]
0.227
45
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
0
0

 Botswana[25]
0.346
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
33
7
0
0

 Brazil[26]
31.9
393
1
1
0
3
11
4
0
5
292
78
TC
0

 Brunei[27]
0.573
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Bulgaria[28]
0.736
80
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
42
15
0
0

 Burkina Faso[29]
0.164
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
4
0
0

 Burundi[30]
0.061
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0

 Cambodia[31]
0.446
200
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
14
0
0

 Cameroon[32]
0.41
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
8
0
0

 Canada[33]
15.9
120
0
0
0
1
12
0
0
4
95
115
0
1

 Cape Verde[34]
0.012
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Central African Republic[35]
N/A
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Chad[36]
0.209
60
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
14
0
0

 Chile[37]
3.88
245
0
1
0
1
7
0
0
4
96
25
0
1

 People's Republic of China[38]
216.4
9,151
1
4
0
29
49
34
14
60
3,720
579
260[1]
68

 Colombia[39]
13.4
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
0
4
86
49
0
0

 Costa Rica[40]
0.42
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0

 Croatia[41]
0.774
75
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
11
0
0

 Cuba[42]
N/A
900
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
17
0
0

 Cyprus[43]
0.432
482
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
0
0

 Czech Republic[44]
2.09
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
47
32
0
0

 Ivory Coast[45]
0.812
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

 Democratic Republic of the Congo[46]
0.456
149
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
9
0
0

 Denmark[47]
4.81
55
0
0
0
3
4
0
0
0
45
15
0
0

 Djibouti[48]
0.01
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0

 Dominican Republic[49]
0.397
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0

 Ecuador[50]
1.7
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
0
2
42
34
0
0

 Egypt[51]
5.45
2,540
0
0
0
0
8
2
0
4
569
132
0
0

 El Salvador[52]
0.15
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
16
0
0

 Equatorial Guinea[53]
0.008
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
6
0
0

 Eritrea[54]
0.078
270
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
8
0
0

 Estonia[55]
0.52
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Ethiopia[56]
0.375
446
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
26
25
0
0

 Fiji[57]
0.05
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Finland[58]
3.72
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
107
12
0
0

 France[59]
53.1
200
1
4
0
11
11
0
10
0
395
293
300[1]
8

 Gabon[60]
0.183
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
2
0
0

 Gambia[61]
0.005
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Georgia[62]
0.393
123
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
6
0
0

 Germany[63]
43.9
410
0
0
0
0
11
5
0
5
245
43
NATO shared
7

 Ghana[64]
0.277
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
6
0
0

 Greece[65]
5.64
1,354
0
0
0
0
13
4
0
8
244
48
0
0

 Guatemala[66]
0.264
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
2
0
0

 Guinea[67]
0.04
38
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0

 Guinea-Bissau[68]
0.026
10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

 Guyana[69]
0.037
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0

 Haiti[70]
N/A
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Honduras[71]
0.216
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
17
7
0
0

 Hungary[72]
1.0
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
18
0
0

 Iceland[73]
0.039
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 India[74]
53.2
6,464
2
1
0
11
14
26
2[75][76]
14
2,086
809
110[1]
7

 Indonesia[77]
7.09
378
0
5
0
0
11
18
0
2
97
45
0
0

 Iran[78]
14.8
1,663
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
21
337
62
0
0

 Iraq[79]
18.9
270
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
17
0
0

 Ireland[80]
1.22
14
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
24
6
0
0

 Israel[81]
20.1
1,560
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
3
440
84
80[note 5][1]
8

 Italy[82]
24.3
160
2
3
0
4
10
5
0
6
258
211
NATO shared
6

 Jamaica[83]
0.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

 Japan[84]
47.7
688
0
3
0
34
9
0
0
18
777
207
TC
4

 Jordan[85]
2.5
1,323
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
134
126
0
0

 Kazakhstan[86]
2.03
300
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
122
60
0
0

 Kenya[87]
1.04
78
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
37
0
0

 Democratic People's Republic of Korea[88]
N/A
3,500
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
72
563
100
8[1]
0

 Republic of Korea[89]
34.4
2,514
0
1
0
12
14
36
0
23
587
273
TC
0

 Kuwait[90]
4.84
293
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
66
29
0
0

 Kyrgyzstan[91]
0.095
150
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
33
2
0
0

 Laos[92]
0.024
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0

 Latvia[93]
0.21
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0

 Lebanon[94]
1.2
324
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
9
0
0

 Lesotho[95]
0.054
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0

 Liberia[96]
0.024
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Libya[97]
4.66
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
8
3
0
0

 Lithuania[98]
0.436
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Luxembourg[99]
0.255
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Macedonia[100]
0.131
31
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
0
0

 Madagascar[101]
0.074
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0

 Malawi[102]
0.042
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

 Malaysia[103]
5.03
48
0
0
0
0
10
4
0
2
67
32
0
0

 Mali[104]
0.365
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
3
0
0

 Malta[105]
0.061
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0

 Mauritania[106]
0.149
35
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
3
0
0

 Mauritius[107]
0.084
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
5
0
0

 Mexico[108]
6.55
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
81
65
TC
1

 Moldova[109]
0.025
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0

 Mongolia[110]
0.108
420
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Montenegro[111]
0.08
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0

 Morocco[112]
3.86
434
0
0
0
1
5
1
0
0
92
33
0
0

 Mozambique[113]
0.035
60
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

 Myanmar[114]
2.43
185
0
0
0
0
4
2
0
0
155
27
TC
0

 Namibia[115]
0.41
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
7
0
0

   Nepal[116]
0.312
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0

 Netherlands[117]
10.7
16
0
2
0
4
2
0
0
4
74
48
NATO shared
0

 New Zealand[118]
3.19
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
6
5
0
0

 Nicaragua[119]
0.083
62
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0

 Niger[120]
0.072
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
5
0
0

 Nigeria[121]
2.25
276
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
53
16
0
0

 Norway[122]
6.98
52
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
6
63
26
0
0

 Oman[123]
9.62
117
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
44
15
0
0

 Pakistan[124]
8.31
3,010
0
0
0
1
10
0
0
5
923
394
120[1]
0

 Panama[125]
0.717
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0

 Papua New Guinea[126]
0.099
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Paraguay[127]
0.313
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0

 Peru[128]
2.59
165
0
0
1
0
7
6
0
6
78
264
0
0

 Philippines[129]
2.09
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
22
27
0
0

 Poland[130]
10.4
926
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
5
113
106
TC
0

 Portugal[131]
2.63
56
0
0
0
0
5
5
0
2
42
18
0
0

 Qatar[132]
4.35
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
34
0
0

 Republic of the Congo[133]
0.72
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

 Romania[134]
2.88
437
0
0
0
3
0
4
0
0
94
22
0

 Russia[135][136][137]
70.0
15,398
1
0
6
18
13
48
45
22
3,547
1,438
7,700[1]
74

 Rwanda[138]
0.081
34
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
0
0

 Saudi Arabia[139]
80.8
600
0
0
0
3
4
4
0
0
313
85
TC
0

 Senegal[140]
0.254
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0

 Serbia[141]
0.711
212
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
83
53
0
0

 Seychelles[142]
0.013
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Sierra Leone[143]
0.015
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Singapore[144]
10.0
96
0
4
0
0
6
6
0
6
126
25
0
0

 Slovakia[145]
1.06
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
29
0
0

 Slovenia[146]
0.455
46
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
9
0
0

 Somalia[147]
N/A
33
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 South Africa[148]
4.01
34
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
3
50
15
0
0

 South Sudan[149]
1.04
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0

 Spain[150]
15.1
343
1
3
0
5
6
0
0
3
166
81
0
2

 Sri Lanka[151]
1.79
62
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
29
0
0

 Sudan[152]
1.89
465
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
63
45
0
0

 Suriname[153]
0.041
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0

 Sweden[154]
7.05
132
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
5
134
0
0
0

  Switzerland[155]
5.26
134
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
86
0
0
0

 Syria[156]
N/A
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
277
91
0
0

 Republic of China[note 6][157]
10.1
566
0
1
0
4
22
0
0
4
485
154
0
1

 Tajikistan[158]
0.186
37
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0

 Tanzania[159]
0.396
45
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
1
0
0

 Thailand[160]
5.69
288
1
1
0
0
10
7
0
0
143
47
0
0

 Timor-Leste[161]
0.072
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

 Togo[162]
0.089
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
4
0
0

 Trinidad and Tobago[163]
0.436
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

 Tunisia[164]
0.911
84
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
24
18
0
0

 Turkey[165]
10.0
2,504
0
0
0
0
18
6
0
14
335
339
NATO shared
2 [166]

 Turkmenistan[167]
0.612
680
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
94
10
0
0

 Uganda[168]
0.405
239
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
16
6
0
0

 Ukraine[169]
3.59
700
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
203
137
0
0

 United Arab Emirates[170]
13.9
471
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
175
89
0
2

 United Kingdom[171]
61.8
227
1
6
0
6
13
0
11
0
278
285
225[1]
7

 United States[172]
615.5
8,850
10[173]
33[174]
22
62
6[note 7][175][176]
0
72[177]
0
3,680
1,830
7,100[1]
123

 Uruguay[178]
0.427
15
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
17
8
0
0

 Uzbekistan[179]
1.59
340
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
135
29
0
0

 Venezuela[180]
4.65
173
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
2
98
293
0
0

 Vietnam[181]
6.2
1,800
0
0
0
0
2
6
0
6
97
47
0
0

 Yemen[182]
1.89
880
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
75
19
0
0

 Zambia[183]
0.422
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
5
0
0

 Zimbabwe[184]
0.389
40
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
46
16
0
0

tag: table

text: States marked 'TC' are widely considered technologically capable of wielding, operating or developing nuclear weapons, however are signatories of the NPT and are not known to possess any at the current moment. Japan, South Korea and Poland are generally considered de facto nuclear states due to their believed ability to wield nuclear weapons within 1 to 3 years.[185][186][187]


document_title: I Feel Pretty (film)

question_text: who plays averys brother in i feel pretty

text: I Feel Pretty (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Renee Bennett is a young woman of average physical attractiveness and fitness, who struggles with insecurity over her appearance. Out of a Chinatown basement office, she manages the website for cosmetics firm Lily LeClaire while aspiring to work in their Fifth Avenue headquarters. But she declines to apply for a receptionist position there after reading the job description's emphasis on being the beautiful "face" of LeClaire. One night, inspired by the movie, Big, Renee wishes at a fountain to be beautiful, but nothing happens. The next day, Renee falls off her SoulCycle bike, hitting her head, and losing consciousness. When she wakes, she has not changed physically, but she believes herself to be astonishingly beautiful.

text: Renee approaches the world with newfound confidence. When a man named Ethan speaks to her innocuously at the dry cleaner, she assumes that he is hitting on her, and insists that they exchange numbers. She applies for the receptionist position; impressed by Renee's attitude and idealistic admiration for the brand, CEO Avery LeClaire hires her. Renee quickly excels, impressing Avery's brother, Grant. Renee asks Ethan out, and on their date, she participates in a "bikini body" contest against women with idealized figures. She wins over the crowd, but loses the competition, and tells Ethan that she doesn't need external validation to know she's beautiful. Ethan praises her self-knowledge, and she appreciates his openness over not yet knowing himself. She brings him to her apartment, and they have sex.

text: At LeClaire, Renee earns her coworkers' respect with her insight into the company's new diffusion line when she explains how the creative team's luxury sensibilities don't resonate with the new clientele of Target shoppers. Avery admits to Renee that she is insecure over her questionable voice. Avery invites Renee and Ethan to a dinner meeting with Grant, and company founder Lilly LeClaire, Avery and Grant's grandmother. Renee quickly builds a rapport with Lilly; to curry favor with Lilly, Avery invites Renee to an important business meeting in Boston.

text: Renee becomes less respectful of LeClaire visitors, who aren't fashionable or glamorous. She alienates her best friends, Vivian and Jane, by ditching them to attend an exclusive party with her coworkers, and by dismissing their attempts at conversation during a group date in an effort to make them seem sexier. She storms out after they criticize her. In Boston, she nearly gives into Grant's romantic overtures, but avoids a near kiss when she receives a message from Ethan. She locks herself in the hotel bathroom. Questioning her sense of self, she suffers a new head injury in a fall in the shower. When she awakens, she perceives her real physical appearance.

text: Devastated and believing a magical transformation has been reversed, she immediately returns to New York alone. Vivian and Jane reject Renee's apology. Assuming that Ethan will no longer be attracted to her, she breaks up with him over the phone, moments after speaking to him in person while believing he does not recognize her. Ethan is brokenhearted and confused. Renee tries to recreate her original injury at SoulCycle, but completes the workout without incident. She encounters her beautiful acquaintance, Mallory, devastated in the locker room over being dumped. She tells Renee that she suffers from low self-esteem, and feels like people assume any beautiful woman is unintelligent.

text: When Renee hears that Mallory is auditioning to model for the LeClaire diffusion line, she realizes that LeClaire is again out of touch with everyday women. She crashes the product launch and, in the course of displaying her own before-and-after photos, realizes that she was never transformed. She gives an impassioned speech about women accepting themselves as they are. She presents a collage of diverse women, featuring Vivian and Jane, who appreciate the gesture. Grant praises Avery for having the insight to hire Renee. The latter reconciles with Ethan, who tells her that she is the most beautiful woman in the world. She continues to attend SoulCycle.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Amy Schumer as Renee Bennett, an ordinary woman who struggles with feelings of insecurity and inadequacy on a daily basis. She wakes up from a fall believing she is beautiful and capable, despite looking and being the same as always.[5]
Michelle Williams as Avery LeClaire, Renee's stunning cosmetics company boss, Grant’s sister and Lilly’s granddaughter.[6]
Emily Ratajkowski as Mallory, a woman who Renee looks up to because of her good looks.
Rory Scovel as Ethan, Renee's love interest[7]
Aidy Bryant[8] as Vivian, one of Renee’s two best friends
Busy Philipps[8] as Jane, one of Renee’s two best friends
Naomi Campbell as Helen, CFO of Lily LeClaire
Lauren Hutton[8] as Lilly LeClaire, Grant and Avery's grandmother
Tom Hopper[8] as Grant LeClaire, Avery’s brother and Lilly’s grandson
Sasheer Zamata[8] as Tasha
Dave Attell[8] as Really Tan Dude
Adrian Martinez[8] as Mason
Olivia Culpo as Hope

text: Production[edit]

text: On April 17, 2017, it was announced that Amy Schumer was signed on to star in I Feel Pretty, written and directed by Abby Kohn and Marc Silverstein, and set to commence principal production on the East Coast, particularly in Boston, Massachusetts, in July 2017.[9]

text: In May 2017, STX Entertainment acquired domestic distribution rights for approximately $15 million at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival.[10] By May 31, 2017, Michelle Williams had joined the cast.[11] In June 2017, Emily Ratajkowski and Rafe Spall also joined.[12][13] By July 28, 2017, Rory Scovel had replaced Spall, due to a "travel issue" that couldn't be resolved before the shoot, and the film had commenced principal production, with New York City added to the scheduled locations.[14] On August 30, 2017, the supporting cast was announced.[8]

text: Release[edit]

text: I Feel Pretty was initially scheduled to be released on June 29, 2018, by STX Entertainment, but in February 2018 was moved up to April 27, 2018, due to strong test screening results.[15][16] The release date was later changed again to April 20, 2018, a week earlier, to avoid competition with Avengers: Infinity War, which after I Feel Pretty's initial move, had itself moved from its May 4, 2018 date to April 27.[17]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of  June 24, 2018[update], I Feel Pretty has grossed $48.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $39.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $88.4 million, against a production budget of $32 million.[2]

text: In the United States and Canada, I Feel Pretty was released alongside Traffik and Super Troopers 2, and was projected to gross $13–15 million from 3,440 theaters in its opening weekend.[18] It made $6.3 million on its first day, including $1 million from Thursday night previews which was better than the $650,000 made by Schumer's Snatched the year before. It went on to open to $16 million, finishing third behind A Quiet Place and Rampage. The opening was lower than both of Schumer's previous two films, Trainwreck ($30 million) and Snatched ($19.5 million).[19] In its second weekend the film dropped 49% to $8.1 million, remaining in third.[20] It dropped another 40% in its third week, making $4.9 million and coming in 4th.[21]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 34% based on 183 reviews, and an average rating of 5.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "I Feel Pretty has a charming star and the outline of a worthwhile comedy — but unlike its suddenly confident central character, it suffers from a fundamental lack of conviction."[22] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews."[23]

text: Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, with females under 18 giving it an "A+" and females under 25 grading it an "A." [19]

text: David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "B–", saying: "Schumer's latest comedy could have used a few more polishes — it's a little flabby towards the backend, even if its star is totally fine just as she is — but it never slackens in its conviction that the world reflects how you feel about yourself, or in how empowering that can be if you come at it from the right angle."[24] Variety's Peter Debruge gave the film a moderately positive review, saying, "What sets I Feel Pretty apart is the inspired premise that Renee’s transformation takes place entirely in her head, while those around her are left befuddled by her sudden change of attitude — a concept that begs the question of why our society encourages women to second-guess their self-image in the first place."[25]

text: J.R. Kinnard of PopMatters wrote, "The only people who won't be bored by I Feel Pretty are those whom it offends. It's a gross miscalculation that might mean well, but fails to balance the sharpness and delicacy necessary to tackle the emotional carnage wrought by self-hatred. That it forgets to make us laugh is the final insult."[26]

text: Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, and criticized what he termed the hypocrisy of the filmmakers, saying, "...still: Is it really OK to get off making plus-size jokes just because you tack on a moralizing ending that teaches a lesson about body positivity? Can you have it both ways?"[27] Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune also gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, and said, "I Feel Pretty [succumbs to all the wrong Hollywood contrivances]. It's just not funny or fresh enough, and that has everything to do with the material and how it's handled visually, and nothing to do with the people on the screen."[28]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Nominee

Result

2018

MTV Movie & TV Awards

Best Comedic Performance

Amy Schumer

Nominated

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Movie: Comedy

I Feel Pretty

Pending

Choice Movie Actress: Comedy

Amy Schumer

Pending

text: Controversies[edit]

text: After the release of the trailer, Jeffrey Wells of Hollywood Elsewhere pointed out that elements of I Feel Pretty appeared to resemble the plot of the 1945 film The Enchanted Cottage, without crediting it as an inspiration.[29] Others accused the film of apparently body shaming, with Cosmopolitan writing, "[it's] insulting to anyone and everyone — from Amy herself all the way to women that are larger, less able-bodied...AKA, all the things that are promoted in society to be 'better.'"[30][18]

text: Comedian Bill Maher vehemently defended the film against its allegations of body shaming, knocking Schumer's critics on his HBO television show Real Time with Bill Maher, stating, "Tonight I'd like to examine the reaction to Amy Schumer's new film I Feel Pretty, which the professionally offended have decided that even though it's a film by women filmmakers presenting an entirely pro-woman message, it does it the wrong way!"[31]

text: Singer Selena Gomez praised the film's message on Twitter writing, "This movie is so important to watch. I encourage all my ladies out there to go with your girls and watch! It’s our modern day 13 going on 30!!! #notgettingpaidtosaythis #truth." Oprah Winfrey, on her show Super Soul Conversation, stated the film is "Right on the mark” adding, “You know, you really walk out of that film and you feel what the definition of empowerment is, what the embodiment of empowerment is. You feel good about you, and you just can’t do better than that as an artist. You walk out and you feel good about you and less judgmental about other people."[citation needed]

text: In April 2018, Cineplex pulled the film's trailer after it screened before a showing of The Miracle Season. The trailer was pulled due to a complaint from a father, who argued that the trailer was not suitable for audiences at the screening given that it featured a scene in which Schumer appeared to be nude.[citation needed]


document_title: List of National Basketball Association single-game playoff scoring leaders

question_text: most points scored by a player in nba finals history

text: This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 50 or more points in a playoff game.

text: It has occurred 35 times in playoff history by 23 players. Only four players have scored 50 or more points on more than one occasion: Michael Jordan (eight times), Wilt Chamberlain (four times), Allen Iverson (three times) and Jerry West (twice).

text:
^

Active NBA player

*

Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Player's team lost the game

MP
Minutes played
FGM
Field goals made
FGA
Field goal attempts

FG%
Field goal percentage
3PM
3-point field goals made
3PA
3-point field goal attempts

3P%
3-point field goal percentage
FTM
Free throws made
FTA
Free throw attempts

FT%
Free throw percentage

text:
Points

Player

Team

Date

Opponent

Series

Score

MP

FGM

FGA

3PM

3PA

FTM

FTA

Notes

63

Michael Jordan*

Chicago Bulls

April 20, 1986

Boston Celtics

1986 Eastern Conference First Round

131–135

53

22

41

0

0

19

21

[a]

61

Elgin Baylor*

Los Angeles Lakers

April 14, 1962

Boston Celtics

1962 NBA Finals

126–121

48

22

46

–

–

17

19

[b]

56

Wilt Chamberlain*

Philadelphia Warriors

March 22, 1962

Syracuse Nationals

1962 Eastern Division Semifinals

121–104

48

22

48

–

–

12

22

[c]

56

Michael Jordan* (2)

Chicago Bulls

April 29, 1992

Miami Heat

1992 Eastern Conference First Round

119–114

43

20

30

0

0

16

18

[d]

56

Charles Barkley*

Phoenix Suns

May 4, 1994

Golden State Warriors

1994 Western Conference First Round

140–133

41

23

31

3

4

7

9

[e]

55

Rick Barry*

San Francisco Warriors

April 18, 1967

Philadelphia 76ers

1967 NBA Finals

130–124

22

48

–

–

11

19

[f]

55

Michael Jordan* (3)

Chicago Bulls

May 1, 1988

Cleveland Cavaliers

1988 Eastern Conference First Round

106–101

44

24

45

0

0

7

7

[g]

55

Michael Jordan* (4)

Chicago Bulls

June 16, 1993

Phoenix Suns

1993 NBA Finals

111–105

46

21

37

0

1

13

18

[h]

55

Michael Jordan* (5)

Chicago Bulls

April 27, 1997

Washington Bullets

1997 Eastern Conference First Round

109–104

44:13

22

35

1

2

10

10

55

Allen Iverson*

Philadelphia 76ers

April 20, 2003

New Orleans Hornets

2003 Eastern Conference First Round

98–90

46:40

21

32

3

5

10

11

54

John Havlicek*

Boston Celtics

April 1, 1973

Atlanta Hawks

1973 Eastern Conference Semifinals

134–109

48

24

36

–

–

6

6

[i]

54

Michael Jordan* (6)

Chicago Bulls

May 31, 1993

New York Knicks

1993 Eastern Conference Finals

105–95

39

18

30

6

9

12

14

[j]

54

Allen Iverson* (2)

Philadelphia 76ers

May 9, 2001

Toronto Raptors

2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals

97–92

47:46

21

39

3

5

9

9

53

Wilt Chamberlain* (2)

Philadelphia Warriors

March 14, 1960

Syracuse Nationals

1960 Eastern Division Semifinals

132–112

47

24

42

–

–

5

16

[k]

53

Jerry West*

Los Angeles Lakers

April 23, 1969

Boston Celtics

1969 NBA Finals

120–118

21

41

–

–

11

13

[l]

53

Isaiah Thomas^

Boston Celtics

May 2, 2017

Washington Wizards

2017 Eastern Conference Semifinals

129-119

45

18

33

5

12

12

13

[1]

52

Jerry West* (2)

Los Angeles Lakers

April 5, 1965

Baltimore Bullets

1965 Western Division Finals

118–115

16

38

–

–

20

21

[m]

52

Allen Iverson* (3)

Philadelphia 76ers

May 16, 2001

Toronto Raptors

2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals

121–88

43:29

21

32

8

14

2

2

51

Sam Jones*

Boston Celtics

March 28, 1967

New York Knicks

1967 Eastern Division Semifinals

118–109

43

19

30

–

–

13

17

51

Eric "Sleepy" Floyd

Golden State Warriors

May 10, 1987

Los Angeles Lakers

1987 Western Conference Semifinals

129–121

44

18

26

2

3

13

14

[n]

51

Ray Allen*

Boston Celtics

April 30, 2009

Chicago Bulls

2009 Eastern Conference First Round

127–128

58:45

18

32

9

18

6

7

[o]

51

Russell Westbrook^

Oklahoma City Thunder

April 19, 2017

Houston Rockets

2017 Western Conference Quarterfinals

111–115

41:22

17

43

1

7

15

18

51

LeBron James^

Cleveland Cavaliers

May 31, 2018

Golden State Warriors

2018 NBA Finals

114–124

51

19

32

3

7

10

11

50

Bob Cousy*

Boston Celtics

March 21, 1953

Syracuse Nationals

1953 Eastern Division Semifinals

111–105

66

10

22

–

–

30

32

[p]

50

Bob Pettit*

St. Louis Hawks

April 12, 1958

Boston Celtics

1958 NBA Finals

110–109

19

34

–

–

12

15

[q]

50

Wilt Chamberlain* (3)

Philadelphia Warriors

March 22, 1960

Boston Celtics

1960 Eastern Division Finals

128–107

45

22

42

–

–

6

18

50

Wilt Chamberlain* (4)

San Francisco Warriors

April 10, 1964

St. Louis Hawks

1964 Western Division Finals

121–97

22

32

–

–

6

10

50

Billy Cunningham*

Philadelphia 76ers

April 1, 1970

Milwaukee Bucks

1970 Eastern Division Semifinals

111–118

48

22

39

–

–

6

8

50

Bob McAdoo*

Buffalo Braves

April 18, 1975

Washington Bullets

1975 Eastern Conference Semifinals

108–102

45

20

32

–

–

10

14

[r]

50

Dominique Wilkins*

Atlanta Hawks

April 19, 1986

Detroit Pistons

1986 Eastern Conference First Round

137–125

33

19

28

0

0

12

15

50

Michael Jordan* (7)

Chicago Bulls

April 28, 1988

Cleveland Cavaliers

1988 Eastern Conference First Round

104–93

44

19

35

0

0

12

12

[s]

50

Michael Jordan* (8)

Chicago Bulls

May 5, 1989

Cleveland Cavaliers

1989 Eastern Conference First Round

105–108

43

14

28

0

1

22

27

[t]

50

Karl Malone*

Utah Jazz

April 22, 2000

Seattle SuperSonics

2000 Western Conference First Round

104–93

43:16

18

32

1

1

13

14

[u]

50

Vince Carter^

Toronto Raptors

May 11, 2001

Philadelphia 76ers

2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals

102–78

44:44

19

29

9

13

3

3

[v]

50

Kobe Bryant

Los Angeles Lakers

May 4, 2006

Phoenix Suns

2006 Western Conference First Round

118–126

52:06

20

35

5

8

5

6

[w]

50

Dirk Nowitzki^

Dallas Mavericks

June 1, 2006

Phoenix Suns

2006 Western Conference Finals

117–101

43:29

14

26

5

6

17

18


document_title: True Blood (season 7)

question_text: who does sookie end up with in true blood season 7

text: True Blood (season 7)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Anna Paquin as Sookie Stackhouse
Stephen Moyer as Bill Compton
Sam Trammell as Sam Merlotte
Ryan Kwanten as Jason Stackhouse
Rutina Wesley as Tara Thornton
Alexander Skarsgård as Eric Northman
Chris Bauer as Andy Bellefleur
Kristin Bauer van Straten as Pam Swynford De Beaufort
Amelia Rose Blaire as Willa Burrell
Lauren Bowles as Holly Cleary
Tara Buck as Ginger
Anna Camp as Sarah Newlin
Gregg Daniel as Reverend Daniels
Nelsan Ellis as Lafayette Reynolds
Aaron Christian Howles as Rocky Cleary
Joe Manganiello as Alcide Herveaux
Noah Matthews as Wade Cleary
Bailey Noble as Adilyn Bellefleur
Jim Parrack as Hoyt Fortenberry
Nathan Parsons as James Kent
Adina Porter as Lettie Mae Daniels
Carrie Preston as Arlene Fowler Bellefleur
Jurnee Smollett-Bell as Nicole Wright
Deborah Ann Woll as Jessica Hamby
Karolina Wydra as Violet Mazurski

text: Special guest cast[edit]

text:
Robert Patrick as Jackson Herveaux
Michael McMillian as Steve Newlin
Jessica Tuck as Nan Flanagan
Todd Lowe as Terry Bellefleur
Rutger Hauer as Niall Brigant
Lois Smith as Adele Stackhouse

text: Guest cast[edit]

text:
Patricia Bethune as Jane Bodehouse
Tanya Wright as Deputy Kenya Jones
Riley Smith as Keith[6]
Will Yun Lee as Mr. Gus[7]
John Rezig as Deputy Kevin Ellis
Tess Alexandra Parker as Rosie
Brett Rickaby as Vince McNeil
Paula Jai Parker as Karen
Dustin Ingram as Ronnie
Shannon Lucio as Caroline Compton
Ashley Hinshaw as Brigette
Isabella Rice as Sarah Compton
Dale Raoul as Maxine Fortenberry
Robert Baker as Mack
Lucas Adams as Lou
Eugene Byrd as Jerome
Brianne Davis as Belinda
Chelsea Ricketts as Lucinda
Natalie Hall as Amber Mills
John W. Godley as Big John Dickson
Brian Poth as Matt
Stacy Haiduk as Jenny
Louis Ozawa Changchien as Hiroki
Shishir Kurup as Guru Sanbir Dutta
Gilbert Uwuor as Minus
Matthew Holmes as Charles Dupont
Paul Rae as Dark Figure
Maz Jobrani as Moroccan Proprietor
David Bickford as Reverend Skinner
Arthur Darbinyan as Najat
Massi Furlan as Nizar
Lily Knight as Betty Harris
Gabriella Wright as Sylvie
Drew Rausch as Julian Fortenberry
Željko Ivanek as The Magister
Christian Pitre as Victoria
Jamie Luner as Amanda
Bess Armstrong as Nancy Mills
Brett Rice as Paul Mills
Kathleen York as Madeline Kapnek
Michael Rothhaar as William Compton Sr.
Marcia de Rousse as Dr. Ludwig
Malcolm Goodwin as Joe Thornton

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

71
1
"Jesus Gonna Be Here"
Stephen Moyer
Angela Robinson
June 22, 2014 (2014-06-22)
4.03[8]

Picking up immediately where Season 6 left off, a large group of Hep V vampires attack Bon Temps in full force, leaving many casualties, but they are called off by an unseen person. They abduct Arlene, Holly, a heavily pregnant Nicole and several other people. Tara dies in the attack, leaving an injured and manic Lettie Mae crying for her daughter. Willa feeds her some vampire blood to heal her; this causes Lettie Mae V-induced hallucinations to take on the form of Tara. Meanwhile, Jason finally mans up to Violet and has sex with her. Elsewhere in Morocco, Pam is still looking for Eric, placing her own life in danger for information. Back in Bon Temps, Jessica tries her best to gain Adilyn and Andy's trust, while James keeps Lafayette company at his house. A local named Vince spots Sam shifting. Despite being able to hear all the hateful thoughts from the redneck townspeople, Sookie pleads with them to let her help.

72
2
"I Found You"
Howard Deutch
Kate Barnow
June 29, 2014 (2014-06-29)
3.06[9]

Jason has a sexy gay dream about Eric. At Fangtasia, Arlene and Holly come up with a plan to escape, but things don't go as expected as their captor Betty is reluctant to help. The insane Lettie Mae's obsession to see and talk to Tara's ghost causes her to take extreme actions by burning herself and asking Willa to feed some of her blood again to heal her. Meanwhile, Sookie, Andy, Alcide, Jason and Sam go to the small town of Saint Alice to find out if anybody survived. They find a mass grave and a ghost town. With their mayor and sheriff gone, the people of Bon Temps take matters into their own hands when Vince forms a vigilante group to kill all supernatural entities. Jessica tries frantically to help Adilyn, who has been captured by the rowdy townsfolk and is imprisoned in the town jail. Sookie seeks Bill's help. At the end, Pam finally finds Eric residing in France, but their reunion isn't a happy one as he has become infected by Hep V.

73
3
"Fire in the Hole"
Lee Rose
Brian Buckner
July 6, 2014 (2014-07-06)
3.20[10]

In France, Pam tries fruitlessly to convince the world-weary Eric to not give up on life despite that he is Hep-V positive and will die soon. Eric flashes back to 1986 France and remembers his involvement with the human daughter of a winery owner, and his choice to make when Nan Flannigan and Vampire Authority showed up. In the present, Pam finally gets a reaction from Eric when she tells him that Sarah Newlin is still alive. Meanwhile, Sarah has settled into a new life as the lover of a guru, but she is forced to flee from a team of ninja assassins who come hunting for her. In Bon Temps, Sookie and Bill set their plan into motion to use her as bait for the Hep-V vampires. Meanwhile, Lafayette and James spend the night bonding and getting high once again. A shootout ends in tragedy when the Hep V vampires find Sookie- and Alcide is killed in the crossfire, while Maxine Fortenberry and several townsfolk are killed when Hep-V vampires attack the vigilante mob. A traumatized Holly is used as bait by the Hep-V vampires, but is rescued.

74
4
"Death Is Not the End"
Gregg Fienberg
Daniel Kenneth
July 13, 2014 (2014-07-13)
3.23[11]

Sookie and Jason each make phone calls to Jackson and Hoyt to inform them of the death of their family members. Meanwhile, Eric decides to make a detour to Bon Temps to see Willa (and Sookie), dragging a reluctant Pam along. Meanwhile, James stages an intervention for Jessica, who hasn't fed since she accidentally killed Adilyn's three sisters. Also, the origins how Eric became Vampire Sheriff are revealed which involves him and Pam forced by the Magistrate to operate a local video store in 1986, how Ginger came into their lives 10 years later, and how another 10 years later in 2006 that Ginger suggested opening up the Fangtasia nightclub for vampires. Sookie probes Holly's mind and finds out that Arlene and Nicole are being kept in the basement at Fangtasia. She rounds up her friends, including Eric, to go and save them, but their attempted rescue coincides with an attack by the anti-vampire mob from Bon Temps.

75
5
"Lost Cause"
Howard Deutch
Craig Chester
July 20, 2014 (2014-07-20)
3.57[12]

Lafayette and James throw a 'celebration of life' party at Sookie's in the wake of Alcide's death and convince her to get dressed and look appropriate. In Dallas, Texas Eric and Pam pay Sarah Newlin's vampire sister, Amber Mills, a visit; they learn Sarah's in Dallas and will be at a gala party. Bill reminisces his past before going to war with the Yankees during the Civil War. Meanwhile, Lettie Mae drugs her husband so she can be present at the town party. Andy forgives Jessica for killing his half-faeie daughters, telling her he can't move on if she tortures herself and he gets help proposing to an ecstatic Holly. Arlene gives Sookie tips on getting over the loss of a loved one. Meanwhile Lafayette and James get really intimate much to Jessica's chagrin. While getting dressed, Pam and Eric discover his illness has worsened. Arlene gets noticed by 500-year-old vampire Keith, who saved her life in Fangtasia. Lafayette confronts Jessica telling her she doesn't deserve James because she doesn't care about him. Lettie Mae's obsession to talk with Tara causes her to take a violent action which in turn gets her thrown out of the party. Nicole gives the townsfolk a piece of her honest mind and leaves with Sam. Jason and Jessica have sex while Violet listens through the door unbeknownst to them. In Dallas, the Yakuza disrupts the gala party and leave many casualties. Sarah Newlin and her mother Nancy try to escape but Nancy ends up dead. At the end, Bill suddenly discovers he is Hep-V positive - due to drinking from Sookie, who had unknowingly become a carrier due to exposure through a cut on her wrist.

76
6
"Karma"
Angela Robinson
Angela Robinson
July 27, 2014 (2014-07-27)
3.38[13]

In Dallas, Eric briefly captures Sarah Newlin to torture and kill her, but he ends up fighting the Yakuza; he and Pam are captured, and Sarah escapes yet again. In Bon Temps, Lafayette indulges Lettie Mae with vampire blood and realizes she may not just be hallucinating about Tara's ghost. Meanwhile, Violet retaliates following Jason's infidelity by luring away Andy and Holly's children after Andy finds Wade in bed with Adilyn. Jessica makes a shocking discovery about Bill after she overhears him on the phone talking about his being Hep-V positive, and Sookie receives some bad news. Bill attempts to will his property to Jessica, but is confronted by multiple obstacles (including the unusually rapid progression of his illness) and vents his frustration before returning home, to find Sookie and Jessica waiting for him. Also, Nicole tells Sam that she wants to leave Bon Temps and return to her home in California, but Sam doesn't want to leave the only home he knows. Elsewhere, Sarah seeks shelter with her estranged vampire sister Amber (who is also dying of Hep V), where she reveals something about herself that might change everything.

77
7
"May Be the Last Time"
Simon Jayes
Craig Chester
August 3, 2014 (2014-08-03)
3.39[14]

Hoyt arrives in Bon Temps with his girlfriend Brigette to identify his mother's body. Violet invites Adilyn and Wade to her house to give them privacy, but her motives for doing so are soon revealed. Meanwhile, Eric and Pam agree to cooperate with Mr. Gus and the Yakanomo corporation in the search for Sarah who want to take her to Japan to put her on trial for the murder of their rep (back in Season 6), but Eric only has one real interest; to kill Sarah in the most violent way for everything she has done. Sarah, meanwhile, is hiding out in the former headquarters of the Fellowship of the Sun, hallucinating about her former husband Steve. Sookie attempts to get help for Bill first from Dr. Ludwig and then from Niall Brigand; the latter tells her even his magic cannot save Bill, and she must accept his oncoming death. Sarah faces the demons from her past. Also, Bill continues to reminisce about his life in the 1860s before he was turned. Nicole tells Sam she doesn't want to raise their unborn daughter in a place as dangerous as Bon Temps and gives him a choice: Bon Temps or her. At the end, Sookie returns to Bill, determined to be with him again before he dies.

78
8
"Almost Home"
Jesse Warn
Kate Barnow
August 10, 2014 (2014-08-10)
3.34[15]

Sarah is found and captured by Eric, Pam and Mr. Gus; upon drinking from her, Eric is almost instantly cured of his Hep V. Meanwhile, Lettie Mae and Lafayette convince Reverend Daniels to join them in their search for Tara's spirit. Jason steps into a trap in an effort to save Jessica, Adilyn and Wade from Violet, but help comes from an unexpected source: Hoyt who suddenly appears, kills Violet and saves everyone. Sarah is kept prisoner by Eric, Pam and the Yakanomo corporation in the basement of Fangtasia, but neither the vampires nor the Yakuza trust one another. Jessica and Hoyt get reacquainted. Also, Eric reveals the existence of the Hep-V cure to Sookie and offers to heal Bill, but when Bill is pressured to drink from Sarah by Sookie, Eric and Jessica, he unexpectedly refuses.

79
9
"Love Is to Die"
Howard Deutch
Brian Buckner
August 17, 2014 (2014-08-17)
3.56[16]

Sookie and Jessica are left devastated after Bill decides not to drink the antidote; as a result Jessica asks Bill to release her from his maker bond. Jessica visits Hoyt to tell him of their history together, causing Brigette and Hoyt to break up. Sookie and Jessica discover that Sam has left town with Nicole to start a new life. Afterwards, Jason looks after a heartbroken Brigette and they bond in an unexpected way, while at the same time Jessica and Hoyt reconcile. Bill asks Eric to help persuade Sookie to hear him out. Meanwhile, the Yakanomo corporation finds out that Eric and Pam have revealed the Hep V antidote to Sookie.

80
10
"Thank You"
Scott Winant
Brian Buckner
August 24, 2014 (2014-08-24)
4.04[17]

In the series final, Eric and Pam slaughter the entire Yakanomo members as well as and Mr. Gus (saving Sookie one last time in the process) and take Sarah Newlin hostage. Bill finally convinces Sookie to accept his passing and his choice to die, but she balks at his request to kill him with her Fae powers (which would reduce her to human and, in his eyes, give her the 'normal life' that he believes she deserves). Bill meets with Jessica and Hoyt and requests that he be allowed to give Jessica away in marriage before his death; the wedding proceeds, with Jason, Andy, Arlene, Holly and Sookie attending. Bill makes his final peace with Andy (his last living descendant), by leaving him his house and land, with the condition that Jessica and Hoyt be allowed to live there for $1 a month rent. Seeing Jason's real connection with Brigette, Sookie gives him her approval. After getting some advice from Reverend Daniels, she meets Bill at nighttime in the Bon Temps cemetery. Sookie ultimately refuses to give up her Fae powers, saying that, like Bill, they are a part of her. After expressing her love for him one more time, she helps Bill stake himself as he lies in the coffin in his own grave from the Civil War, then fills in the grave with dirt and walks home in tears.
Four years later. Eric and Pam are running a multi-billion dollar corporation called New Blood; having claimed that they found a 'sample' of Sarah Newlin's blood after she escaped them, they have synthesized a cure for Hep V and a new food source for vampires. Pam, however, is shown to secretly keep Sarah hidden in Fangtasia's basement, charging vampires a fortune to feed on her, while Eric sits on his throne on the Fangtasia stage. Sarah is haunted by the spirit of her former husband, Steve. Meanwhile, Sookie (now married to an unnamed man and expecting a child) and Jason (married to Brigette, with three kids) host a Thanksgiving party in Bon Temps which includes new and old faces (Sam and his family arrive for the party), and vampire and human couples alike. The series ends with the Led Zeppelin song, "Thank you", playing over the end credits.

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Episode number
(Production number)
Title
Original air date
Ratings share
(Adults 18–49)
Viewers
(in millions)
Rank per week
on Cable

71 (7.01)
"Jesus Gonna Be Here"
June 22, 2014 (2014-06-22)
2.2[8]
4.03[8]
#10[18]

72 (7.02)
"I Found You"
June 29, 2014 (2014-06-29)
1.6[9]
3.06[9]
#23[19]

73 (7.03)
"Fire in the Hole"
July 6, 2014 (2014-07-06)
1.7[10]
3.20[10]
#22[20]

74 (7.04)
"Death Is Not the End"
July 13, 2014 (2014-07-13)
1.7[11]
3.23[11]
#19[21]

75 (7.05)
"Lost Cause"
July 20, 2014 (2014-07-20)
1.9[12]
3.57[12]
#13[22]

76 (7.06)
"Karma"
July 27, 2014 (2014-07-27)
1.8[13]
3.38[13]
#11[23]

77 (7.07)
"May Be the Last Time"
August 3, 2014 (2014-08-03)
1.7[14]
3.39[14]
#14[24]

78 (7.08)
"Almost Home"
August 10, 2014 (2014-08-10)
1.8[15]
3.34[15]
#13[25]

79 (7.09)
"Love Is to Die"
August 17, 2014 (2014-08-17)
1.8[16]
3.56[16]
#14[26]

80 (7.10)
"Thank You"
August 24, 2014 (2014-08-24)
2.1[17]
4.04[17]
#8[27]

text: Production[edit]

text: A seventh season was ordered on July 15, 2013, and was later announced to be the final season.[2][4] Brian Buckner continued as executive producer and showrunner.[4]

text: At the end of December 2013, actor Luke Grimes, who had portrayed the vampire James in the sixth season, asked to be released from his contract over creative differences (according to cast and crew Grimes didn't want to play the role once he found out his character was going to be bisexual in season seven).[28][29] Australian actor Nathan Parsons was later announced as his replacement.[30] After having recurring roles as Ginger and Lettie Mae Thornton since the first season, both Tara Buck and Adina Porter were promoted to series regulars.[31][32]

text: Filming on the final episode wrapped in the early hours of July 10, 2014.[33][34] Charlaine Harris, author of the series of novels on which the show is based, filmed a cameo for the series finale (she was director for Eric and Pam's commercial).[35]


document_title: Cell junction

question_text: three types of cell junctions found in animal tissues

text: Cell junction

text: Types[edit]

text: In vertebrates, there are three major types of cell junction:

text:
Adherens junctions, desmosomes and hemidesmosomes (anchoring junctions)
Gap junctions[2] (communicating junction)
Tight junctions (occluding junctions)

text: Invertebrates have several other types of specific junctions, for example septate junctions or the C. elegans apical junction.

text: In multicellular plants, the structural functions of cell junctions are instead provided for by cell walls. The analogues of communicative cell junctions in plants are called plasmodesmata.

text: Anchoring junctions[edit]

text: Cells within tissues and organs must be anchored to one another and attached to components of the extracellular matrix. Cells have developed several types of junctional complexes to serve these functions, and in each case, anchoring proteins extend through the plasma membrane to link cytoskeletal proteins in one cell to cytoskeletal proteins in neighboring cells as well as to proteins in the extracellular matrix .[3]

text: Three types of anchoring junctions are observed, and differ from one another in the cytoskeletal protein anchor as well as the transmembrane linker protein that extends through the membrane:

text:
Junction
Cytoskeletal anchor
Transmembrane linker
Ties cell to:

Desmosomes
Intermediate filaments
Cadherin
Other cells

Hemidesmosomes
Intermediate filaments
Integrins
EC matrix

Adherens junctions
Actin filaments
Cadherin / Integrins
Other cells / EC matrix

text: Anchoring-type junctions not only hold cells together but provide tissues with structural cohesion. These junctions are most abundant in tissues that are subject to constant mechanical stress such as skin and heart.[3]

text: Desmosomes[edit]

text: Desmosomes, also termed as maculae adherentes, can be visualized as rivets through the plasma membrane of adjacent cells. Intermediate filaments composed of keratin or desmin are attached to membrane-associated attachment proteins that form a dense plaque on the cytoplasmic face of the membrane. Cadherin molecules form the actual anchor by attaching to the cytoplasmic plaque, extending through the membrane and binding strongly to cadherins coming through the membrane of the adjacent cell.[4]

text: Hemidesmosomes[edit]

text: Hemidesmosomes form rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix components such as the basal laminae that underlie epithelia. Like desmosomes, they tie to intermediate filaments in the cytoplasm, but in contrast to desmosomes, their transmembrane anchors are integrins rather than cadherins.[5]

text: Adherens Junctions[edit]

text: Adherens junctions share the characteristic of anchoring cells through their cytoplasmic actin filaments. Similarly to desmosomes and hemidesmosomes, their transmembrane anchors are composed of cadherins in those that anchor to other cells and integrins in those that anchor to extracellular matrix. There is considerable morphologic diversity among adherens junctions. Those that tie cells to one another are seen as isolated streaks or spots, or as bands that completely encircle the cell. The band-type of adherens junctions is associated with bundles of actin filaments that also encircle the cell just below the plasma membrane. Spot-like adherens junctions help cells adhere to extracellular matrix both in vivo and in vitro where they are called focal adhesions. The cytoskeletal actin filaments that tie into adherens junctions are contractile proteins and in addition to providing an anchoring function, adherens junctions are thought to participate in folding and bending of epithelial cell sheets. Thinking of the bands of actin filaments as being similar to 'drawstrings' allows one to envision how contraction of the bands within a group of cells would distort the sheet into interesting patterns[3]

text: Communicating (GAP) junctions[edit]

text: Communicating junctions, or gap junctions allow for direct chemical communication between adjacent cellular cytoplasm through diffusion without contact with the extracellular fluid.[6] This is possible due to six connexin proteins interacting to form a cylinder with a pore in the centre called a connexon.[7] The connexon complexes stretches across the cell membrane and when two adjacent cell connexons interact, they form a complete gap junction channel.[6][7] Connexon pores vary in size, polarity and therefore can be specific depending on the connexin proteins that constitute each individual connexon.[6][7] Whilst variation in gap junction channels do occur, their structure remains relatively standard, and this interaction ensures efficient communication without the escape of molecules or ions to the extracellular fluid.[7]

text: Gap junctions play vital roles in the human body,[8] including their role in the uniform contractile of the heart muscle.[8] They are also relevant in signal transfers in the brain, and their absence shows a decreased cell density in the brain.[9] Retinal and skin cells are also dependent on gap junctions in cell differentiation and proliferation.[8][9]

text: Tight junctions[edit]

text: Found in vertebrate epithelia, tight junctions act as barriers that regulate the movement of water and solutes between epithelial layers. Tight junctions are classified as a paracellular barrier which is defined as not having directional discrimination; however, movement of the solute is largely dependent upon size and charge. There is evidence to suggest that the structures in which solutes pass through are somewhat like pores.

text: Physiological pH plays a part in the selectivity of solutes passing through tight junctions with most tight junctions being slightly selective for cations. Tight junctions present in different types of epithelia are selective for solutes of differing size, charge, and polarity.

text: Proteins[edit]

text: There have been approximately 40 proteins identified to be involved in tight junctions. These proteins can be classified into four major categories; scaffolding proteins, signalling proteins, regulation proteins, and transmembrane proteins.

text: Roles[edit]

text: Scaffolding Proteins – organise the transmembrane proteins, couple transmembrane proteins to other cytoplasmic proteins as well as to actin filaments.

text: Signaling Proteins – involved in junctions assembly, barrier regulation, and gene transcription.

text: Regulation Proteins – regulate membrane vesicle targeting.

text: Transmembrane Proteins – including junctional adhesion molecule (JAM), occludin, and claudin. It is believed that claudin is the protein molecule responsible for the selective permeability between epithelial layers.

text: A three-dimensional image is still yet to be achieved and as such specific information about the function of tight junctions is yet to be determined.

text: Tricellular junctions (TCJ)[edit]

text: Tricellular junctions (TCJ) seal epithelia at the corners of three cells. Due to the geometry of three-cell vertices, the sealing of the cells at these sites requires a specific junctional organization, different from bicellular junctions. In vertebrates, TCJs components are Tricellulin and lipolysis-stimulated lipoprotein receptors. In invertebrates TCJs components are Gliotactin and Anakonda.[10]

text: Additionally to the barrier functions, TCJ are also implicated in the regulation of cytoskeletal organization and cell divisions. In particular they ensure that cells divide according to the Hertwig rule. In Drosophila epithelium during cell divisions TCJs establish physical contact with spindle apparatus through astral microtubules. TJCs excert pulling force on the spindle apparatus and serve as a geomentrical clues to determine orientation of cell divisions.[11]

text: Cell junction molecules[edit]

text: The molecules responsible for creating cell junctions include various cell adhesion molecules. There are four main types: selectins, cadherins, integrins, and the immunoglobulin superfamily.[12]

text: Selectins are cell adhesion molecules that play an important role in the initiation of inflammatory processes.[13] The functional capacity of selectin is limited to leukocyte collaborations with vascular endothelium. There are three types of selectins found in humans; L-selectin, P-selectin and E-selectin. L-selectin deals with lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophils, P-selectin deals with platelets and endothelium and E-selectin deals only with endothelium. They have extracellular regions made up of an amino-terminal lectin domain, attached to a carbohydrate ligand, growth factor-like domain (EGF) and short repeat units (numbered circles) that match the complimentary binding protein domains.[14]

text: Cadherins are calcium-dependent adhesion molecules. Cadherins are extremely important in the process of morphogenesis – fetal development. Together with an alpha-beta catenin complex, the cadherin can bind to the microfilaments of the cytoskeleton of the cell. This allows for homophilic cell–cell adhesion.[15] The β-catenin–α-catenin linked complex at the adherens junctions allows for the formation of a dynamic link to the actin cytoskeleton.[16]

text: Integrins act as adhesion receptors, transporting signals across the plasma membrane in multiple directions. These molecules are an invaluable part of cellular communication, as a single ligand can be used for many integrins. Unfortunately these molecules still have a long way to go in the ways of research.[17]

text: Immunoglobulin superfamily are a group of calcium independent proteins capable of homophilic and heterophilic adhesion. Homophilic adhesion involves the immunoglobulin-like domains on the cell surface binding to the immunoglobulin-like domains on an opposing cell’s surface while heterophilic adhesion refers to the binding of the immunoglobulin-like domains to integrins and carbohydrates instead.[18]

text: Cell adhesion is a vital component of the body. Loss of this adhesion effects cell structure, cellular functioning and communication with other cells and the extracellular matrix and can lead to severe health issues and diseases.