document_title: World Bank

question_text: where is the world bank located in the world

question_tokens: where is the world bank located in the world

text: World Bank

text: World Bank Group[edit]

text: The World Bank is different from the World Bank Group, an extended family of five international organizations:

text:
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Development Association (IDA)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

text: History[edit]

text: The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference along with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American.[8] The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.

text: Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.[9]:52–54 The intention behind the founding of the World Bank was to provide temporary loans to low-income countries which were unable to obtain loans commercially.[4] The Bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients.[4]

text: Before 1974, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank's staff were aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. Fiscal conservatism ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.[9]:56–60

text: The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Bank's president at the time, John McCloy, chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the United States State Department told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied and removed the Communist coalition government - the so-called tripartite. Within hours, the loan to France was approved.[10]:288, 290–291

text: When the Marshall Plan went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were earmarked for the construction of infrastructure works, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan. In 1960, the International Development Association was formed (as opposed to a UN fund named SUNFED), providing soft loans to developing countries.

text: From 1974 to 1980 the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.[11]

text: These changes can be attributed to Robert McNamara, who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by Lyndon B. Johnson.[9]:60–63 McNamara implored bank treasurer Eugene Rotberg to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank.[12] One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of third world debt. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.[13][14]

text: In 1980 the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.[15]

text: In 1980 McNamara was succeeded by US President Jimmy Carter's nominee, Alden W. Clausen.[16][17] Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and crafted a different mission emphasis. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, Hollis B. Chenery, with Anne Krueger was an example of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing Third World governments as "rent-seeking states."

text: During the 1980s the bank emphasized lending to service Third-World debt, and structural adjustment policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. UNICEF reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa".[18]

text: Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism.[9]:93–97 It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the Earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes", the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991 the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment.

text: In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable disease such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world and joining combat forces. In 2000 the bank announced a "war on AIDS" and in 2011 the Bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.[19]

text: Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the president of the World Bank has always been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated.

text: On 23 March 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama announced that the United States would nominate Jim Yong Kim as the next president of the Bank.[20] Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012.

text: Criteria[edit]

text: Various developments had brought the Millennium Development Goals targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more as well as better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.[21]

text:
Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger: From 1990 through 2004 the proportion of people living in extreme poverty fell from almost a third to less than a fifth. Although results vary widely within regions and countries, the trend indicates that the world as a whole can meet the goal of halving the percentage of people living in poverty. Africa's poverty, however, is expected to rise, and most of the 36 countries where 90% of the world's undernourished children live are in Africa. Less than a quarter of countries are on track for achieving the goal of halving under-nutrition.
Achieve Universal Primary Education: The percentage of children in school in developing countries increased from 80% in 1991 to 88% in 2005. Still, about 72 million children of primary school age, 57% of them girls, were not being educated as of 2005[update].
Promote Gender Equality: The tide is turning slowly for women in the labor market, yet far more women than men- worldwide more than 60% – are contributing but unpaid family workers. The World Bank Group Gender Action Plan was created to advance women's economic empowerment and promote shared growth.
Reduce Child Mortality: There is some improvement in survival rates globally; accelerated improvements are needed most urgently in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 10 million-plus children under five died in 2005; most of their deaths were from preventable causes.
Improve Maternal Health: Almost all of the half million women who die during pregnancy or childbirth every year live in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There are numerous causes of maternal death that require a variety of health care interventions to be made widely accessible.
Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases: Annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS deaths have fallen, but the number of people living with HIV continues to grow. In the eight worst-hit southern African countries, prevalence is above 15 percent. Treatment has increased globally, but still meets only 30 percent of needs (with wide variations across countries). AIDS remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa (1.6 million deaths in 2007). There are 300 to 500 million cases of malaria each year, leading to more than 1 million deaths. Nearly all the cases and more than 95 percent of the deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Ensure Environmental Sustainability: Deforestation remains a critical problem, particularly in regions of biological diversity, which continues to decline. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing faster than energy technology advancement.
Develop a Global Partnership for Development: Donor countries have renewed their commitment. Donors have to fulfill their pledges to match the current rate of core program development. Emphasis is being placed on the Bank Group's collaboration with multilateral and local partners to quicken progress toward the MDGs' realization.

tag: ol

text: To make sure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal safeguards were defined. However, these safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these safeguards has been initiated, which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.[22]

text: Leadership[edit]

text: The President of the Bank is the president of the entire World Bank Group. The president, currently Jim Yong Kim, is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the President of the Bank has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank (the managing director of the International Monetary Fund having always been a European). The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.[23][24]

text: The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two Executive Vice presidents, three Senior Vice presidents, and 24 Vice presidents.[25]

text: The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals cannot exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.[26]

text: Presidents[edit]

text:
Name
Dates
Nationality
Previous work

Eugene Meyer
1946–1946
United States
Newspaper publisher and Chairman of the Federal Reserve

John J. McCloy
1947–1949
United States
Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War

Eugene R. Black, Sr.
1949–1963
United States
Bank executive with Chase and executive director with the World Bank

George Woods
1963–1968
United States
Bank executive with First Boston Corporation

Robert McNamara
1968–1981
United States
President of the Ford Motor Company, US Defense Secretary under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson who escalated Vietnam War[27]

Alden W. Clausen
1981–1986
United States
Lawyer, bank executive with Bank of America

Barber Conable
1986–1991
United States
New York State Senator and US Congressman

Lewis T. Preston
1991–1995
United States
Bank executive with J.P. Morgan

Sir James Wolfensohn
1995–2005
United States
Australia (prev.)
Wolfensohn was a naturalised American citizen before taking office. Corporate lawyer and banker

Paul Wolfowitz
2005–2007
United States
US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dean of the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins University, prominent architect of 2003 invasion of Iraq, resigned World Bank post due to ethics scandal[28]

Robert Zoellick
2007–2012
United States
Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative

Jim Yong Kim
2012–present
United States
South Korea (prev.)
Former Chair of the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard, president of Dartmouth College, naturalized American citizen[29]

text: Chief Economists[edit]

text:
Name
Dates
Nationality

Hollis B. Chenery
1972–1982
United States

Anne Osborn Krueger
1982–1986
United States

Stanley Fischer
1988–1990
United States

Lawrence Summers
1991–1993
United States

Michael Bruno
1993–1996
Israel

Joseph E. Stiglitz
1997–2000
United States

Nicholas Stern
2000–2003
United Kingdom

François Bourguignon
2003–2007
France

Justin Yifu Lin
2008–2012
China

Kaushik Basu
2012–2016
India

Paul Romer
2016–present
United States

text: Members[edit]

text: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) has 189 member countries, while the International Development Association (IDA) has 173 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).[1]

text: Voting power[edit]

text: In 2010 voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), China (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), India (2.91%),[31] Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and Italy (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Singapore, Greece, Brazil, India, and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few developing countries such as Nigeria. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and Saudi Arabia were unchanged.[32][33]

text: The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model", backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.[34]

text: List of 20 largest countries by voting power in each World Bank institution[edit]

text: The following table shows the subscriptions of the top 20 member countries of the World Bank by voting power in the following World Bank institutions as of December 2014 or March 2015: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Development Association (IDA), and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). Member countries are allocated votes at the time of membership and subsequently for additional subscriptions to capital (one vote for each share of capital stock held by the member).[35][36][37][38]

text:
The 20 Largest Countries by voting power (Number of Votes)

Rank
Country
IBRD
Country
IFC
Country
IDA
Country
MIGA

World
2,201,754
World
2,653,476
World
24,682,951
World
218,237

1
United States
358,498
United States
570,179
United States
2,546,503
United States
32,790

2
Japan
166,094
Japan
163,334
Japan
2,112,243
Japan
9,205

3
China
107,244
Germany
129,708
United Kingdom
1,510,934
Germany
9,162

4
Germany
97,224
France
121,815
Germany
1,368,001
France
8,791

5
France
87,241
United Kingdom
121,815
France
908,843
United Kingdom
8,791

6
United Kingdom
87,241
India
103,747
Saudi Arabia
810,293
China
5,756

7
India
67,690
Russia
103,653
India
661,909
Russia
5,754

8
Saudi Arabia
67,155
Canada
82,142
Canada
629,658
Saudi Arabia
5,754

9
Canada
59,004
Italy
82,142
Italy
573,858
India
5,597

10
Italy
54,877
China
62,392
China
521,830
Canada
5,451

11
Russia
54,651
Netherlands
56,931
Poland
498,102
Italy
5,196

12
Spain
42,948
Belgium
51,410
Sweden
494,360
Netherlands
4,048

13
Brazil
42,613
Australia
48,129
Netherlands
488,209
Belgium
3,803

14
Netherlands
42,348
Switzerland
44,863
Brazil
412,322
Australia
3,245

15
Korea
36,591
Brazil
40,279
Australia
312,566
Switzerland
2,869

16
Belgium
36,463
Mexico
38,929
Switzerland
275,755
Brazil
2,832

17
Iran
34,718
Spain
37,826
Belgium
275,474
Spain
2,491

18
Switzerland
33,296
Indonesia
32,402
Norway
258,209
Argentina
2,436

19
Australia
30,910
Saudi Arabia
30,862
Denmark
231,685
Indonesia
2,075

20
Turkey
26,293
Korea
28,895
Pakistan
218,506
Sweden
2,075

text: Poverty reduction strategies[edit]

text: For the poorest developing countries in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on poverty reduction strategies; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.

text: Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 billion in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank International Development Association (IDA), which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".[39]

text: World Bank organizes Development Marketplace Awards, a competitive grant program that surfaces and funds innovative, development projects with high potential for development impact that are scalable and/or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver a range of social and public services to the most underserved low-income groups.

text: Global partnerships and initiatives[edit]

text: The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the Clean Technology Fund (CTF), focused on making renewable energy cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in coal-fired power plants.[40]

text: Together with the World Health Organization, the World Bank administers the International Health Partnership (IHP+). IHP+ is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for aid effectiveness and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way.

text: Climate change[edit]

text: World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said in 2012 that:

text: The World Bank doubled its aid for climate change adaptation from $2.3bn (£1.47bn) in 2011 to $4.6bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 °C warmer than in pre-industrial times. It says that 2 °C warming will be reached in 20 to 30 years.[43][44]

text: Food security[edit]

text:
Global Food Security Program: Launched in April 2010, six countries alongside the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged $925 million for food security. To date, the program has helped 8 countries, promoting agriculture, research, trade in agriculture, etc.
Launched Global Food Crisis Response Program: Given grants to approximately 40 nations for seeds, etc. for improving productivity.
In process of increasing its yearly spending for agriculture to $6 billion–$8 billion from earlier $4 billion.
Runs several nutrition program across the world, e.g., vitamin A doses for children, school meals, etc.[citation needed]

text: Training wings[edit]

text: World Bank Institute[edit]

text: The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.

text: The World Bank Institute (WBI) can be defined as a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aims to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results. WBI has four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning. World Bank Institute(WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on 11 March 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to serve as provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the Institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute. Currently Sanjay Pradhan is the Vice President of the World Bank Institute.[45]

text: Global Development Learning Network[edit]

text: The Global Development Learning Network (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.

text: GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.

text: GDLN Asia Pacific[edit]

text: The GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

text: GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.

text: The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.

text: The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation". The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.

text: GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.

text: The JUSTPAL Network[edit]

text: A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank's Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice and service delivery to citizens and businesses.

text: The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies and other justice-related entities from across the globe. The Network currently has active members from more than 50 countries.

text: To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, the JUSTPAL Network has organized its activities under (currently) five Communities of Practice (COPs): (i) Budgeting for the Justice Sector; (ii) Information Systems for Justice Services; (iii) Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; (iv) Court Management and Administration; and (v) Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies.

text: Country assistance strategies[edit]

text: As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.

text: Clean Air Initiative[edit]

text: Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes electric vehicles.[46] Initiatives like this help address and tackle pollution-related diseases.

text: United Nations Development Business[edit]

text: Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, Development Business became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.[47]

text: In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, Development Business is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in Development Business a mandatory requirement.[47]

text: The World Bank or the World Bank Group is also a sitting observer in the United Nations Development Group.[48]

text: Open data initiative[edit]

text: The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse,[49] whereas the recent publications describing them are available as open access under a Creative Commons Attribution License, for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.[50]

text: The World Bank also endorses the Principles for Digital Development.[51]

text: Grants table[edit]

text: The following table lists the top 15 DAC 5 Digit Sectors[52] to which the World Bank has committed funding, as recorded by it in its International Aid Transparency Initiative (IATI) publications. The World Bank states on the IATI Registry website that the amounts "will cover 100% of IBRD and IDA development flows" but will not cover other development flows.[53]

text:
Committed funding (US$ millions)

Sector
Before 2007
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Sum

Road transport
4,654.2
1,993.5
1,501.8
5,550.3
4,032.3
2,603.7
3,852.5
2,883.6
3,081.7
3,922.6
723.7
34,799.8

Social/ welfare services
613.1
208.1
185.5
2,878.4
1,477.4
1,493.2
1,498.5
2,592.6
2,745.4
1,537.7
73.6
15,303.5

Electrical transmission/ distribution
1,292.5
862.1
1,740.2
2,435.4
1,465.1
907.7
1,614.9
395.7
2,457.1
1,632.2
374.8
15,177.8

Public finance management
334.2
223.1
499.7
129.0
455.3
346.6
3,156.8
2,724.0
3,160.5
2,438.9
690.5
14,158.6

Rail transport
279.3
284.4
1,289.0
912.2
892.5
1,487.4
841.8
740.6
1,964.9
1,172.2
−1.6
9,862.5

Rural development
335.4
237.5
382.8
616.7
2,317.4
972.0
944.0
177.8
380.9
1,090.3
−2.5
7,452.4

Urban development and management
261.2
375.9
733.3
739.6
542.1
1,308.1
914.3
258.9
747.3
1,122.1
212.2
7,214.9

Business support services and institutions
113.3
20.8
721.7
181.4
363.3
514.0
310.0
760.1
1,281.9
1,996.0
491.3
6,753.7

Energy policy and administrative management
102.5
243.0
324.9
234.2
762.0
654.9
902.1
480.5
1,594.2
1,001.8
347.9
6,648.0

Agricultural water resources
733.2
749.5
84.6
251.8
780.6
819.5
618.3
1,040.3
1,214.8
824.0
−105.8
7,011.0

Decentralisation and support to subnational government
904.5
107.9
176.1
206.7
331.2
852.8
880.6
466.8
1,417.0
432.5
821.3
6,597.3

Disaster prevention and preparedness
66.9
2.7
260.0
9.0
417.2
609.5
852.9
373.5
1,267.8
1,759.7
114.2
5,733.5

Sanitation - large systems
441.9
679.7
521.6
422.0
613.1
1,209.4
268.0
55.4
890.6
900.8
93.9
6,096.3

Water supply - large systems
646.5
438.1
298.3
486.5
845.1
640.2
469.0
250.5
1,332.4
609.9
224.7
6,241.3

Health policy and administrative management
661.3
54.8
285.8
673.8
1,581.4
799.3
251.5
426.3
154.8
368.1
496.0
5,753.1

Other
13,162.7
6,588.3
8,707.1
11,425.7
17,099.5
11,096.6
16,873.4
13,967.1
20,057.6
21,096.5
3,070.3
140,074.5

Total
24,602.6
13,069.4
17,712.6
27,152.6
33,975.6
26,314.8
34,248.6
27,593.9
43,748.8
41,905.2
7,624.5
297,948.5

text: Open Knowledge Repository[edit]

text:
The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR)[54] as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products.
The World Bank's repository is listed in the Registry of Research Data Repositories re3data.org.[55]

text: Criticisms & Controversy[edit]

text: The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group Survival International, and academics, including its former Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz, Henry Hazlitt and Ludwig Von Mises.[56][57][58] Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated.[59] Stiglitz argued that the so-called free market reform policies that the Bank advocates are often harmful to economic development if implemented badly, too quickly ("shock therapy"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.[57][60] Similarly, Carmine Guerriero notices that these reforms have introduced in developing countries regulatory institutions typical of the common law legal tradition because allegedly more efficient according to the legal origins theory. The latter however has been fiercely criticized since it does not take into account that the legal institutions transplanted during the European colonization have been then reformed.[61] This issue makes the legal origins theory's inference unreliable and the World Bank reforms detrimental.[62]

text: One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and their interests dominate the bank.[63]:190 Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.[64]:133–141

text: In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the Washington Consensus, policies that included deregulation and liberalization of markets, privatization and the downscaling of government. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.[58]:17

text: The United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".[65]

text: James Ferguson has argued that the main effect of many development projects carried out by the World Bank and similar organizations is not the alleviation of poverty. Instead the projects often serve to expand the exercise of bureaucratic state power. Through his case-studies of development projects in Thaba-Tseka he shows that the World Bank's characterization of the economic conditions in Lesotho was flawed, and the Bank ignored the political and cultural character of the state in crafting their projects. As a result, the projects failed to help the poor, but succeeded in expanding the government bureaucracy.[66]

text: Criticism of the World Bank and other organizations often takes the form of protesting as seen in recent events such as the World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests,[67] the October Rebellion,[68] and the Battle of Seattle.[69] Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even among the Brazilian Kayapo people.[70]

text: Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice", observed The Economist in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject cronyism and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."[71] Jim Yong Kim, a Korean-American, is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.[72]

text: Structural adjustment[edit]

text: The effect of structural adjustment policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank.[73] The 1979 energy crisis plunged many countries into economic crisis.[74]:68 The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans, which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging production, investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real exchange rates and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.[74]:69

text: By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.[74]:70 In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.[75]:147 The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities. Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.[75]:152

text: Fairness of assistance conditions[edit]

text: Some critics,[76] most prominently the author Naomi Klein, are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the Washington Consensus) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are most influential within it. Among other allegations, Klein says the Group's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour 'flexibility' in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq".[77]

text: Sovereign immunity[edit]

text: The World Bank requires sovereign immunity from countries it deals with.[78][79][80] Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which The World Bank wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people."[78] As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.[78]

text: PricewaterhouseCoopers (1998)[edit]

text: World Bank favored PricewaterhouseCoopers as a consultant in a bid for privatizing the water distribution in Delhi, India[81]


document_title: List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel

question_text: who has the fourth largest standing military on planet earth

root

text: Guide to the list

text: The list consists of columns that can be sorted by clicking on the appropriate title:

tag: p

text:
The names of the states, accompanied by their respective national flags.
The number of military personnel on active duty that are currently serving full-time in their military capacity.
The number of military personnel in the reserve forces that are not normally kept under arms, whose role is to be available to mobilize when necessary.
The number of personnel in paramilitary forces: armed units that are not considered part of a nation's formal military forces.
The total number of active, reserve, and paramilitary personnel.
The ratio per thousand inhabitants of total military (active, reserve, and paramilitary).
The ratio per thousand inhabitants of active military only.

tag: ul

text: As military forces around the world are constantly changing in size, no definitive list can ever be compiled.

text: Many of the 171 countries listed here, especially those with the highest number of total soldiers such as the two Koreas and Vietnam, include a large number of paramilitaries, civilians and policemen in their reserve personnel. Some countries, such as Italy and Japan, have only volunteers in their armed forces. Other countries, such as Mauritius and Panama, have no national armies, but only a paramilitary force.

text: List

text: The following list is sourced from the 2017 edition of "The Military Balance" published annually by the International Institute for Strategic Studies.

text:
Flag
Country
Active military
Reserve military
Paramilitary
Total
Per 1000 capita
(total)
Per 1000 capita
(active)

Afghanistan[1]
171,200
0
148,200
319,400
9.6
5.1

Albania[2]
8,000
0
500
8,500
2.8
2.6

Algeria[3]
130,000
150,000
187,200
467,200
11.6
3.2

Angola[4]
107,000
0
10,000
117,000
5.8
5.3

Antigua and Barbuda[5]
180
80
0
260
2.8
1.9

Argentina[6]
74,200
0
31,250
105,450
2.4
1.7

Armenia[7][Note 1][Note 2]
44,800
210,000
4,300
259,100
84.9
14.7

Australia[8]
57,800
21,100
0
78,900
3.4
2.5

Austria[9]
21,350
146,000
0
167,350
19.2
2.5

Azerbaijan[10]
66,950
300,000
15,000
381,950
38.7
6.8

Bahamas[11]
1,300
0
0
1,300
4
4

Bahrain[12]
8,200
0
11,260
19,460
14.1
5.9

Bangladesh[13]
157,050
0
63,900
220,950
1.4
1

Barbados[14]
610
430
0
1,040
3.6
2.1

Belarus[15]
62,000
344,750
150,000
556,750
58.2
6.5

Belgium[16]
29,600
6,750
0
36,350
3.2
2.6

Belize[17]
1,500
700
0
2,200
6.2
4.2

Benin[18]
7,250
0
2,500
9,750
0.9
0.7

Bolivia[19]
34,100
0
37,100
71,200
6.5
3.1

Bosnia and Herzegovina[20]
10,500
0
0
10,500
2.7
2.7

Botswana[21]
9,000
0
0
9,000
4.1
4.1

Brazil[22]
334,500
1,340,000
395,000
2,069,500
10.1
1.6

Brunei[23]
7,000
700
2,250
9,950
22.8
16

Bulgaria[24]
31,300
3,000
16,000
50,300
7
4.4

Burkina Faso[25]
11,200
0
250
11,450
0.6
0.6

Burundi[26]
30,000
0
21,000
51,000
4.6
2.7

Cambodia[27]
124,300
0
67,000
191,300
12
7.8

Cameroon[28]
14,400
0
9,000
23,400
1
0.6

Canada[29]
63,000
30,000
4,500
97,500
2.8
1.8

Cape Verde[30]
1,200
0
0
1,200
2.2
2.2

Central African Republic[31]
7,150
0
1,000
8,150
1.5
1.3

Chad[32]
30,350
0
9,500
39,850
3.4
2.6

Chile[33]
64,750
40,000
44,700
149,450
8.5
3.7

China[34]
2,183,000
510,000
660,000
3,353,000
2.4
1.6

Colombia[35]
293,200
34,950
187,900
516,050
10.9
6.2

Costa Rica[36]
0
0
9,800
9,800
2
0

Côte d'Ivoire[37]
25,400
0
0
25,400
1.1
1.1

Croatia[38]
15,550
0
3,000
18,550
4.3
3.6

Cuba[39][Note 3]
49,000
1,159,000
26,500
1,234,500
110.4
4.4

Cyprus[40]
12,000
75,000
750
87,750
72.8
10

Czech Republic[41]
21,950
0
3,100
25,050
2.3
2.1

Democratic Republic of the Congo[42]
134,250
0
0
134,250
1.7
1.7

Denmark[43]
16,600
45,700
0
62,300
11.1
3

Djibouti[44]
10,450
0
2,500
12,950
15.3
12.3

Dominican Republic[45]
56,050
0
15,000
71,050
6.7
5.3

Ecuador[46]
40,250
118,000
500
158,750
9.9
2.5

Egypt[47]
438,500
479,000
397,000
1,314,500
13.9
4.6

El Salvador[48]
24,500
9,900
17,000
51,400
8.3
4

Equatorial Guinea[49]
1,450
0
0
1,450
1.9
1.9

Eritrea[50]
201,750
120,000
0
321,750
54.8
34.4

Estonia[51]
6,400
12,000
15,800
34,200
27.2
5.1

Ethiopia[52]
138,000
0
0
138,000
1.3
1.3

Fiji[53]
3,500
6,000
0
9,500
10.4
3.8

Finland[54][55][Note 4]
22,200
900,000
2,700
924,900
168.2
4

France[56]
202,950
68,100
103,400
374,450
5.6
3

Gabon[57]
4,700
0
2,000
6,700
3.9
2.7

Gambia[58]
800
0
0
800
0.4
0.4

Georgia[59]
20,650
0
5,400
26,050
5.3
4.2

Germany[60]
176,800
27,600
500
204,900
2.5
2.2

Ghana[61]
15,500
0
0
15,500
0.6
0.6

Greece[62]
142,950
220,500
4,000
367,450
34.1
13.3

Guatemala[63]
18,050
63,850
25,000
106,900
7
1.2

Guinea[64]
9,700
0
2,600
12,300
1
0.8

Guinea-Bissau[65]
4,450
0
0
4,450
2.5
2.5

Guyana[66]
3,400
670
0
4,070
5.5
4.6

Haiti[67]
70
0
50
120
0
0

Honduras[68]
10,700
60,000
8,000
78,700
8.8
1.2

Hungary[69]
26,500
44,000
12,000
82,500
8.4
2.7

Iceland[70]
0
0
250
250
0.7
0

India[71]
1,395,100
2,142,800
1,403,700
4,941,600
3.9
1.1

Indonesia[72]
395,500
400,000
280,000
1,075,500
4.2
1.5

Iran[73][Note 5]
523,000
350,000
40,000
913,000
11
6.3

Iraq[74]
64,000
0
145,000
209,000
5.5
1.7

Ireland[75]
9,100
2,630
0
11,730
2.4
1.8

Israel[76]
176,500
465,000
8,000
649,500
79.5
21.6

Italy[77][Note 6]
174,500
18,300
182,350
375,150
6.1
2.8

Jamaica[78]
3,450
980
0
4,430
1.5
1.2

Japan[79]
247,150
56,000
12,650
315,800
2.5
2

Jordan[80]
100,500
65,000
15,000
180,500
22.1
12.3

Kazakhstan[81]
39,000
0
31,500
70,500
3.8
2.1

Kenya[82]
24,100
0
5,000
29,100
0.6
0.5

Kosovo[83]
2,500
800
0
3,300
1.8
1.3

Kuwait[84]
15,500
23,700
7,100
46,300
16.3
5.5

Kyrgyzstan[85]
10,900
0
9,500
20,400
3.6
1.9

Laos[86]
29,100
0
100,000
129,100
18.4
4.1

Latvia[87]
5,310
7,850
0
13,160
6.7
2.7

Lebanon[88]
60,000
0
20,000
80,000
12.8
9.6

Lesotho[89]
2,000
0
0
2,000
1
1

Liberia[90]
2,050
0
0
2,050
0.5
0.5

Libya[91][Note 7]
0
0
0
0
0
0

Lithuania[92]
17,030
6,700
11,300
35,030
12.3
6

Luxembourg[93]
900
0
600
1,500
2.6
1.5

Madagascar[94]
13,500
0
8,100
21,600
0.9
0.6

Malawi[95]
5,300
0
1,500
6,800
0.4
0.3

Malaysia[96][Note 8]
109,000
51,600
269,300
429,900
13.9
3.5

Mali[97]
8,000
0
7,800
15,800
0.9
0.5

Malta[98]
1,950
180
0
2,130
5.1
4.7

Mauritania[99]
15,850
0
5,000
20,850
5.7
4.3

Mauritius[100]
0
0
2,550
2,550
1.9
0

Mexico[101]
277,150
81,500
58,900
417,550
3.4
2.3

Moldova[102]
5,150
58,000
2,400
65,550
18.7
1.5

Mongolia[103]
20,000
250,000
15,000
285,000
89.3
6.3

Montenegro[104]
1,950
0
10,100
12,050
18.7
3

Morocco[105]
195,800
150,000
50,000
395,800
11.8
5.8

Mozambique[106]
11,200
0
0
11,200
0.4
0.4

Myanmar[107]
406,000
0
107,250
513,250
9
7.1

Namibia[108]
9,900
0
6,000
15,900
6.8
4.2

Nepal[109]
96,600
0
62,000
158,600
5.5
3.3

Netherlands[110]
35,410
4,500
6,060
45,970
2.7
2.1

New Zealand[111]
8,950
2,200
0
11,150
2.5
2

Nicaragua[112]
12,000
0
0
12,000
2
2

Niger[113]
5,300
0
5,400
10,700
0.6
0.3

Nigeria[114]
118,000
0
82,000
200,000
1.1
0.6

North Korea[115][Note 9]
1,190,000
6,300,000
189,000
7,679,000
305.7
47.4

Norway[116]
24,950
45,590
0
70,540
13.4
4.7

Oman[117]
42,600
0
4,400
47,000
14
12.7

Pakistan[118]
653,800
0
282,000
935,800
4.6
3.2

Palestine[119][Note 10]

0
0

Panama[120]
0
0
22,050
22,050
6
0

Papua New Guinea[121]
1,900
0
0
1,900
0.3
0.3

Paraguay[122]
10,650
164,500
14,800
189,950
27.7
1.6

Peru[123]
81,000
188,000
77,000
346,000
11.3
2.6

Philippines[124]
125,000
131,000
90,500
346,500
3.4
1.2

Poland[125]
99,300
0
73,400
172,700
4.5
2.6

Portugal[126]
29,600
211,950
44,000
285,550
26.4
2.7

Qatar[127]
11,800
0
0
11,800
5.2
5.2

Republic of Macedonia[128]
8,000
4,850
0
12,850
6.1
3.8

Republic of the Congo[129]
10,000
0
2,000
12,000
2.5
2.1

Romania[130]
70,500
50,000
79,900
200,400
9.3
3.3

Russia[131][Note 11]
1,013,000
2,500,000
710,000
4,223,000
29.7
7.1

Rwanda[132]
33,000
0
2,000
35,000
2.7
2.5

Saudi Arabia[133]
227,000
0
24,500
251,500
8.9
8.1

Senegal[134]
13,600
0
5,000
18,600
1.3
0.9

Serbia[135]
28,150
50,150
0
78,300
11
3.9

Seychelles[136]
420
0
0
420
4.5
4.5

Sierra Leone[137]
8,500
0
0
8,500
1.4
1.4

Singapore[138]
72,500
312,500
119,100
504,100
87.2
12.5

Slovakia[139]
15,850
0
0
15,850
2.9
2.9

Slovenia[140]
7,250
1,760
5,950
14,960
7.6
3.7

Somalia[141]
19,800
0
0
19,800
1.8
1.8

South Africa[142]
67,100
15,050
0
82,150
1.5
1.2

South Korea[143]
630,000
7,500,000
4,500
8,134,500
159.7
12.4

Spain[144]
123,200
8,200
76,750
208,150
4.3
2.5

Sri Lanka[145]
243,000
35,900
62,200
341,100
15.3
10.9

South Sudan[146]
185,000
0
0
185,000
14.8
14.8

Sudan[147]
244,300
85,000
20,000
349,300
9.5
6.7

Suriname[148]
1,840
0
100
1,940
3.3
3.1

Sweden[149]
29,750
0
21,950
51,700
5.2
3

Switzerland[150]
20,950
144,270
74,000
239,220
29.2
2.6

Syria[151]
127,500
0
150,000
277,500
16.1
7.4

Taiwan[152]
215,000
1,657,000
17,000
1,889,000
80.5
9.2

Tajikistan[153]
8,800
0
7,500
16,300
2
1.1

Tanzania[154]
27,000
80,000
1,400
108,400
2.1
0.5

Thailand[155]
360,850
245,000
93,700
699,550
10.3
5.3

Timor Leste[156]
1,330
0
0
1,330
1.1
1.1

Togo[157]
8,550
0
750
9,300
1.2
1.1

Trinidad and Tobago[158]
4,050
0
0
4,050
3.3
3.3

Tunisia[159]
35,800
0
12,000
47,800
4.3
3.2

Turkey[160]
355,200
378,700
156,800
890,700
11.1
4.4

Turkmenistan[161]
36,500
0
0
36,500
6.9
6.9

Uganda[162]
45,000
10,000
1,400
56,400
1.5
1.2

Ukraine[163]
204,000
900,000
88,000
1,192,000
27
4.6

United Arab Emirates[164]
63,000
0
0
63,000
10.6
10.6

United Kingdom[165]
152,350
81,350
0
233,700
3.6
2.4

United States[166]
1,347,300
865,050
14,850
2,227,200
6.9
4.2

Uruguay[167]
24,650
0
800
25,450
7.6
7.4

Uzbekistan[168]
48,000
0
20,000
68,000
2.3
1.6

Venezuela[169]
115,000
8,000
0
123,000
4
3.7

Vietnam[170]
482,000
5,000,000
40,000
5,522,000
58
5.1

Yemen[171]
20,000
0
0
20,000
0.7
0.7

Zambia[172]
15,100
3,000
1,400
19,500
1.3
1

Zimbabwe[173]
29,000
0
21,800
50,800
3.5
2

tag: table

text: Not included in the list are the militaries of Abkhazia, Andorra, Bhutan, Northern Cyprus, Maldives, Monaco, Artsakh, San Marino, Saint Kitts and Nevis, São Tomé and Príncipe, Somaliland, Swaziland, Tonga and Vanuatu.


document_title: Proper motion

question_text: who discovered the first known instance of proper motion

text: Proper motion

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Over the course of centuries, stars appear to maintain nearly fixed positions with respect to each other, so that they form the same constellations over historical time. Ursa Major or Crux, for example, looks nearly the same now as they did hundreds of years ago. However, precise long-term observations show that the constellations change shape, albeit very slowly, and that each star has an independent motion.

text: This motion is caused by the movement of the stars relative to the Sun and Solar System. The Sun travels in a nearly circular orbit (the solar circle) about the center of the Milky Way at a speed of about 220 km/s at a radius of 7000800000000000000♠8±0.65 kPc from the center,[6][7] which can be taken as the rate of rotation of the Milky Way itself at this radius.[8][9]

text: The proper motion is a two-dimensional vector (because it excludes the component in the direction of the line of sight) and is thus defined by two quantities: its position angle and its magnitude. The first quantity indicates the direction of the proper motion on the celestial sphere (with 0 degrees meaning the motion is due north, 90 degrees meaning the motion is due east, and so on), and the second quantity is the motion's magnitude, expressed in seconds of arc per year.

text: Proper motion may alternatively be defined by the angular changes per year in the star's right ascension (μα) and declination (μδ), using a constant epoch in defining these.

text: The components of proper motion by convention are arrived at as follows. Suppose in a year an object moves from coordinates (α, δ) to coordinates (α1, δ1), with angles measured in seconds of arc. Then the changes of angle in seconds of arc per year are:[10]

text:
μ

α

=

α

1

−
α

{\displaystyle \ \mu _{\alpha }=\alpha _{1}-\alpha \ }

μ

δ

=

δ

1

−
δ

.

{\displaystyle \ \mu _{\delta }=\delta _{1}-\delta \ .}

text: The magnitude of the proper motion μ is given by vector addition of its components:[11]

text:
μ

2

{\displaystyle \ \mu ^{2}}

=

μ

δ

2

+

μ

α

2

⋅

cos

2

δ

{\displaystyle ={\mu _{\delta }}^{2}+{\mu _{\alpha }}^{2}\cdot \cos ^{2}\delta \ }

 ,

μ

2

{\displaystyle \ \mu ^{2}}

=

μ

δ

2

+

μ

α
∗

2

{\displaystyle ={\mu _{\delta }}^{2}+{\mu _{\alpha \ast }}^{2}}

text: where δ is the declination. The factor in cos δ accounts for the fact that the radius from the axis of the sphere to its surface varies as cos δ, becoming, for example, zero at the pole. Thus, the component of velocity parallel to the equator corresponding to a given angular change in α is smaller the further north the object's location. The change μα , which must be multiplied by cos δ to become a component of the proper motion, is sometimes called the "proper motion in right ascension", and μδ the "proper motion in declination".[12]

text: If the proper motion in right ascension has been converted by cos δ into either arcsecond or milliarcsecond, the result is expressed as μα* ('mu alpha asterisk'), i.e. the proper motion results in right ascension within the Hipparcos Catalogue (HIP) are expressed in the right ascension mas/yr, and therefore have already been converted.[13] Hence, the individual proper motions in right ascension and declination are made equivalent for straightforward calculations of various other stellar motions.

text: Position angle θ is related to these components by:[2][14]

text:
μ

δ

{\displaystyle \ \mu _{\delta }}

=
μ
cos

θ

{\displaystyle =\mu \cos \theta \ }

μ

α

cos

δ

{\displaystyle \ \mu _{\alpha }\cos \delta }

=
μ
sin

θ

{\displaystyle =\mu \sin \theta \ }

μ

α
∗

{\displaystyle \ \mu _{\alpha \ast }}

=
μ
sin

θ

{\displaystyle =\mu \sin \theta \ }

text: Motions in equatorial coordinates can be converted to motions in galactic coordinates.[15]

text: Examples[edit]

text: For the majority of stars seen in the sky, the observed proper motions are usually small and unremarkable. Such stars are often either faint or are significantly distant, have changes of below 10 milliarcseconds per year, and do not appear to move appreciably over many millennia. A few do have significant motions, and are usually called high-proper motion stars. Motions can also be in almost seemingly random directions. Two or more stars, double stars or open star clusters, which are moving in similar directions, exhibit so-called shared or common proper motion (or cpm.), suggesting they may be gravitationally attached or share similar motion in space.

text: Barnard's star has the largest proper motion of all stars, moving at 10.3 seconds of arc per year. Large proper motion is usually a strong indication that a star is relatively close to the Sun. This is indeed the case for Barnard's Star, located at a distance of about 6 light-years. After the Sun and the Alpha Centauri system, it is the nearest known star to Earth. Because it is a red dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 9.54, it is too faint to see without a telescope or powerful binoculars.

text: A proper motion of 1 arcsec per year at a distance of 1 light-year corresponds to a relative transverse speed of 1.45 km/s. Barnard's star's transverse speed is 90 km/s and its radial velocity is 111 km/s (which is at right angles to the transverse velocity), which gives a true motion of 142 km/s. True or absolute motion is more difficult to measure than the proper motion, because the true transverse velocity involves the product of the proper motion times the distance. As shown by this formula, true velocity measurements depend on distance measurements, which are difficult in general. Currently, the nearby star with the largest true velocity (relative to the Sun) is Wolf 424, which moves at 555 km/s or 1/540 of the speed of light.

text: In 1992, Rho Aquilae became the first star to have its Bayer designation invalidated by moving to a neighbouring constellation – it is now a star of the constellation Delphinus.[16]

text: Usefulness in astronomy[edit]

text: Stars with large proper motions tend to be nearby; most stars are far enough away that their proper motions are very small, on the order of a few thousandths of an arcsecond per year. It is possible to construct nearly complete samples of high proper motion stars by comparing photographic sky survey images taken many years apart. The Palomar Sky Survey is one source of such images. In the past, searches for high proper motion objects were undertaken using blink comparators to examine the images by eye, but modern efforts use techniques such as image differencing to automatically search through digitized image data. Because the selection biases of the resulting high proper motion samples are well understood and well quantified, it is possible to use them to construct an unbiased census of the nearby stellar population — how many stars exist of each true brightness, for example. Studies of this kind show that the local population of stars consists largely of intrinsically faint, inconspicuous stars such as red dwarfs.

text: Measurement of the proper motions of a large sample of stars in a distant stellar system, like a globular cluster, can be used to compute the cluster's total mass via the Leonard-Merritt mass estimator. Coupled with measurements of the stars' radial velocities, proper motions can be used to compute the distance to the cluster.

text: Stellar proper motions have been used to infer the presence of a super-massive black hole at the center of the Milky Way.[17] This black hole is suspected to be Sgr A*, with a mass of 4.2 × 106 M☉, where M☉ is the solar mass.

text: Proper motions of the galaxies in the Local Group are discussed in detail in Röser.[18] In 2005, the first measurement was made of the proper motion of the Triangulum Galaxy M33, the third largest and only ordinary spiral galaxy in the Local Group, located 0.860 ± 0.028 Mpc beyond the Milky Way.[19] The motion of the Andromeda Galaxy was measured in 2012, and an Andromeda–Milky Way collision is predicted in about 4 milliard years.[20] Proper motion of the NGC 4258 (M106) galaxy in the M106 group of galaxies was used in 1999 to find an accurate distance to this object.[21] Measurements were made of the radial motion of objects in that galaxy moving directly toward and away from us, and assuming this same motion to apply to objects with only a proper motion, the observed proper motion predicts a distance to the galaxy of 7023222168785865637♠7.2±0.5 Mpc.[22]

text: History[edit]

text: Proper motion was suspected by early astronomers (according to Macrobius, AD 400) but a proof was not provided until 1718 by Edmund Halley, who noticed that Sirius, Arcturus and Aldebaran were over half a degree away from the positions charted by the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus roughly 1850 years earlier.[23]

text: The term "proper motion" derives from the historical use of "proper" to mean "belonging to" (cf, propre in French and the common English word property). "Improper motion" would refer to "motion" common to all stars, such as due to axial precession.

text: Stars with high proper motion[edit]

text: The following are the stars with highest proper motion from the Hipparcos catalog.[24] It does not include stars such as Teegarden's star, which are too faint for that catalog. A more complete list of stellar objects can be made by doing a criteria query at the SIMBAD astronomical database.

text:
Highest proper motion stars[25]

#
Star
Proper motion
Radial
velocity
(km/s)
Parallax
(mas)

μα · cos δ
(mas/yr)
μδ
(mas/yr)

1
Barnard's star
−798.58
10328.12
−110.51
548.31

2
Kapteyn's star
6505.08
−5730.84
+245.19
255.66

3
Groombridge 1830
4003.98
−5813.62
−98.35
109.99

4
Lacaille 9352
6768.20
1327.52
+8.81
305.26

5
Gliese 1 (CD −37 15492) (GJ 1)
5634.68
−2337.71
+25.38
230.42

6
HIP 67593
2118.73[26]
5397.57[26]
-4.4
187.76

7
61 Cygni A & B
4133.05
3201.78
−65.74
286

8
Lalande 21185
−580.27
−4765.85
−84.69
392.64

9
Epsilon Indi
3960.93
−2539.23
−40.00
276.06

text: Software[edit]

text: There are a number of software products that allow a person to view the proper motion of stars over differing time scales. Free ones include:

text:
HippLiner Windows, Moderately sophisticated, with some pretty displays. Still under development, needs some more navigation and configuration features.
XEphem Linux and Apple OS X – complete astrometry package, can view a region of the sky, set a time step, and watch stars move over time.
Proper Motion Simulator Website - Runs in your browser. Watch the positions of the stars change with time. Fly through the constellations to get a sense of their volume.


document_title: Cheesesteak

question_text: what is the traditional cheese on a philly cheese steak

text: Cheesesteak

text: History[edit]

text: The cheesesteak was developed in the early 20th century "by combining frizzled beef, onions, and cheese in a small loaf of bread", according to a 1987 exhibition catalog published by the Library Company of Philadelphia and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.[4]

text: Philadelphians Pat and Harry Olivieri are often credited with inventing the sandwich by serving chopped steak on an Italian roll in the early 1930s.[5][6][7] The exact story behind its creation is debated, but in some accounts, Pat and Harry Olivieri originally owned a hot dog stand, and on one occasion, decided to make a new sandwich using chopped beef and grilled onions. While Pat was eating the sandwich, a cab driver stopped by and was interested in it, so he requested one for himself. After eating it, the cab driver suggested that Olivieri quit making hot dogs and instead focus on the new sandwich.[6][8] They began selling this variation of steak sandwiches at their hot dog stand near South Philadelphia's Italian Market. They became so popular that Pat opened up his own restaurant which still operates today as Pat's King of Steaks.[9] The sandwich was originally prepared without cheese; Olivieri said provolone cheese was first added by Joe "Cocky Joe" Lorenza, a manager at the Ridge Avenue location.[10]

text: Cheesesteaks have become popular at restaurants and food carts throughout the city with many locations being independently owned, family-run businesses.[11][12] Variations of cheesesteaks are now common in several fast food chains.[13] Versions of the sandwich can also be found at high-end restaurants.[14] Many establishments outside of Philadelphia refer to the sandwich as a "Philly cheesesteak."[8]

text: Description[edit]

text: Meat[edit]

text: The meat traditionally used is thinly sliced rib-eye or top round, although other cuts of beef are also used.[15] On a lightly oiled griddle at medium temperature, the steak slices are quickly browned and then scrambled into smaller pieces with a flat spatula. Slices of cheese are then placed over the meat, letting it melt, and then the roll is placed on top of the cheese. The mixture is then scooped up with a spatula and pressed into the roll, which is then cut in half.[16]

text: Common additions include sautéed onions, bell peppers, mushrooms, mayonnaise, hot sauce, salt, pepper.

text: Bread[edit]

text: In Philadelphia, most cheesesteak places use Amoroso rolls; these rolls are long, soft, and slightly salted.[17] One source writes that "a proper cheesesteak consists of provolone or Cheez Whiz slathered on an Amoroso roll and stuffed with thinly shaved grilled meat,"[18] while a reader's letter to an Indianapolis magazine, lamenting the unavailability of good cheesesteaks, wrote that "the mention of the Amoroso roll brought tears to my eyes."[19] After commenting on the debates over types of cheese and "chopped steak or sliced," Risk and Insurance magazine declared "The only thing nearly everybody can agree on is that it all has to be piled onto a fresh, locally baked Amoroso roll."[20]

text: Cheese[edit]

text: American cheese, Cheez Whiz, and provolone are the most commonly used cheeses or cheese products put on to the Philly cheesesteak.[21]

text: White American cheese, along with provolone cheese, are the favorites due to their mild flavor and medium consistency. Some establishments melt the American cheese to achieve the creamy consistency, while others place slices over the meat, letting them melt slightly under the heat. Philadelphia Inquirer restaurant critic Craig LaBan says "Provolone is for aficionados, extra-sharp for the most discriminating among them." Geno's owner, Joey Vento, said, "We always recommend the provolone. That's the real cheese."[21]

text: Cheez Whiz, first marketed in 1952, was not yet available for the original 1930 version, but has spread in popularity.[22] A 1986 New York Times article called Cheez Whiz "the sine qua non of cheesesteak connoisseurs."[23] In a 1985 interview, Pat Olivieri's nephew Frank Olivieri said that he uses "the processed cheese spread familiar to millions of parents who prize speed and ease in fixing the children's lunch for the same reason, because it is fast."[24] Cheez Whiz is "overwhelmingly the favorite" at Pat's, outselling runner-up American by a ratio of eight or ten to one, while Geno's claims to go through eight to ten cases of Cheez Whiz a day.[21]

text: In 2003, while running for President of the United States, John Kerry made what was considered a major faux pas when campaigning in Philadelphia and went to Pat's King of Steaks and ordered a cheesesteak with Swiss.[25]

text: Variations[edit]

text:
A chicken cheesesteak is made with chicken instead of beef, sometimes referred to as a chicken Philly[26]
A pizza steak is a cheesesteak topped with marinara sauce and mozzarella cheese and may be toasted in a broiler[27]
A cheesesteak hoagie contains lettuce and tomato in addition to the ingredients found in the traditional steak sandwich, and may contain other elements often served in a hoagie.[28]
A vegan cheesesteak is a sandwich that replaces steak and cheese with vegan ingredients, such as seitan or mushrooms for the steak, and soy-based cheese.[29][30][31][32]