document_title: Orchestra

question_text: the orchestra has how many primary instrument groups

text: Orchestra

text: Instrumentation[edit]

text: The typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings (violin, viola, cello and double bass). Other instruments such as the piano and celesta may sometimes be grouped into a fifth section such as a keyboard section or may stand alone, as may the concert harp and electric and electronic instruments. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the standard instruments in each group.

text: In the history of the orchestra, its instrumentation has been expanded over time, often agreed to have been standardized by the classical period[3] and Ludwig van Beethoven's influence on the classical model.[4] In the 20th century, new repertory demands expanded the instrumentation of the orchestra, resulting in a flexible use of the classical-model instruments and newly developed electric and electronic instruments in various combinations.

text: The terms symphony orchestra and philharmonic orchestra may be used to distinguish different ensembles from the same locality, such as the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. A symphony orchestra will usually have over eighty musicians on its roster, in some cases over a hundred, but the actual number of musicians employed in a particular performance may vary according to the work being played and the size of the venue.

text: Chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles; a major chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians; some are much smaller than that. The term concert orchestra may also be used, as in the BBC Concert Orchestra and the RTÉ Concert Orchestra.

text: Beethoven's influence[edit]

text: The so-called "standard complement" of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven.[citation needed] The composer's instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns and trumpets. The exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No. 4, which each specify a single flute. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral "palette" in Symphonies 3, 5, 6, and 9 for an innovative effect. The third horn in the "Eroica" Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of "choral" brass in the Trio movement. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the triumphal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the Sixth, also known as the Pastoral Symphony. The Ninth asks for a second pair of horns, for reasons similar to the "Eroica" (four horns has since become standard); Beethoven's use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion—plus chorus and vocal soloists—in his finale, are his earliest suggestion that the timbral boundaries of symphony might be expanded. For several decades after his death, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethoven's well-established model, with few exceptions.[citation needed]

text: Expanded instrumentation[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Apart from the core orchestral complement, various other instruments are called for occasionally.[5] These include the flugelhorn and cornet. Saxophones and classical guitars, for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's Boléro, Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2, Vaughan Williams' Symphonies No.6 and 9 and William Walton's Belshazzar's Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben. The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and several other works by Strauss, Béla Bartók, and others; it has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major.[6] Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussy's La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz. Unless these instruments are played by members "doubling" on another instrument (for example, a trombone player changing to euphonium or a bassoon player switching to contrabassoon for a certain passage), orchestras typically hire freelance musicians to augment their regular ensemble.

text: The 20th-century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors.[7] In Beethoven's and Felix Mendelssohn's time, the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard core of instruments, which was very rarely modified by composers. As time progressed, and as the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler; some composers used multiple harps and sound effect such as the wind machine. During the 20th century, the modern orchestra was generally standardized with the modern instrumentation listed below. Nevertheless, by the mid- to late 20th century, with the development of contemporary classical music, instrumentation could practically be hand-picked by the composer (e.g., to add electric instruments such as electric guitar, electronic instruments such as synthesizers, non-Western instruments, or other instruments not traditionally used in orchestra).

text: With this history in mind, the orchestra can be analyzed in five periods: the Baroque era, the Classical music period, early/mid-Romantic music era, late-Romantic/early 20th century music and 21st century era. The first is a Baroque orchestra (i.e., J.S. Bach, Handel, Vivaldi), which generally had a smaller number of performers, and in which one or more chord-playing instruments, the basso continuo group (e.g., harpsichord or pipe organ and assorted bass instruments to perform the bassline), played an important role; the second is a typical classical period orchestra (e.g., early Beethoven along with Mozart and Haydn), which used a smaller group of performers than a Romantic music orchestra and a fairly standardized instrumentation; the third is typical of an early/mid-Romantic era (e.g., Schubert, Berlioz, Schumann); the fourth is a late-Romantic/early 20th century orchestra (e.g., Wagner, Brahms, Mahler, Stravinsky), to the common complement of a 2010-era modern orchestra (e.g., Adams, Barber, Aaron Copland, Glass, Penderecki).

text: Baroque orchestra[edit]

text:
Woodwinds
2 flutes
2 oboes
2 bassoons

Brass
2 natural horns
2 natural trumpets

Percussion
timpani (e.g., Handel's Messiah)

Keyboards and other chord-playing instruments selected by the ensemble leader
harpsichord
pipe organ

Strings
violin I
violin II
viola
cello
double bass (and/or bass violones or other low-pitched bowed strings)
lute
theorbo

text: Classical orchestra[edit]

text:
Woodwinds
2 flutes
2 oboes
2 clarinets (B♭, C, or A)
2 bassoons

Brass
2 natural horns (valveless)
2 natural trumpets (valveless)
2 trombone (on occasion Gluck and Beethoven)

Percussion
2 timpani (performed by one timpanist)

Keyboards
harpsichord or pipe organ (until the late 18th century, by which time it was gradually phased out of the orchestra)

Strings
12 violins I
10 violins II
8 violas
8 cellos
6 double basses

text: Early Romantic orchestra[edit]

text:
Woodwinds
piccolo
2 flutes
2 oboes
2 soprano clarinets
2 bassoons
contrabassoon

Percussion
2 timpani (played by one timpanist)
snare drum
bass drum
cymbals
triangle
tambourine
glockenspiel

Brass
4 natural horn (valveless) or valved horns
2 natural trumpet or valved trumpets
3 trombones
tuba
Strings
14 violins 1
12 violins 2
10 violas
8 cellos
6 double basses
1 concert harp

text: Late Romantic orchestra[edit]

text:
Woodwinds
1–2 piccolo
3–4 flutes
3–4 oboes, of which some may double on
1 oboe d'amore
1 cor anglais
1 heckelphone
3–4 clarinets in  B♭ or A, of which some may double on
1–2 E♭ clarinet; D clarinet
1–2 basset horns
1 bass clarinet
3–4 bassoons
1 contrabassoon

Brass
4–8 French horns, German horns, or Vienna horns (more rarely natural horns)
3–6 cornets
3–6 trumpets in F, C, B♭
3–4 trombones
1–2 tubas
(0–4 Wagner tubas – 2 Tenors, 2 Bass, usually doubled by horn players)

Keyboards
piano
celesta

Percussion
4 or more timpani (played by a single timpanist)
snare drum
bass drum
cymbals
tam-tam
triangle
tambourine
glockenspiel
xylophone
tubular bells

Strings
16 violins 1 (sometimes more)
14 violins 2
12 violas
12 cellos
10 double basses
2 or more concert harps

text: Modern orchestra[edit]

text:
Woodwinds
2–4 flutes (1 doubling piccolo)
2–4 oboes (1 doubling heckelphone and/or cor anglais)
2–4 clarinets (1–2 doubling bass clarinet and/or E♭ Clarinet)
2–4 bassoons (1 doubling contrabassoon)
(1 or more saxophones of various types)

Brass
4–8 German (usually double) horns in F/B♭ (in France: French horns; in Vienna: Vienna horns)
3–6 trumpets in B♭, C
3–6 trombones (1–2 bass trombones)
1–2 tubas
(1 or more baritone horns/euphoniums)
(1 or more Wagner tubas)

Keyboards
1 piano
1 celesta

Strings
16 violins 1
14 violins 2
12 violas
10 cellos
8 double basses
(1 or more classical guitars of various types)
1–2 harps

Percussion
4–5 timpani (played by one timpanist)
snare drum
tenor drum
Bass drum
cymbals
tam-tam
triangle
wood block
tambourine
glockenspiel
xylophone
vibraphone
tubular bells
marimba
crotales
drum kit (in some works)
Other percussion instruments, including ethnic or world music instruments specified by composers

Other
As required by the compositions in the program, various electric instruments or electronic instruments may be used in the orchestra. These performers are not typically permanent orchestra members. They are typically freelancers hired on contract for one or more concerts. Instruments may include:

theremin
electric guitar
electric bass
synthesizer
Other electronic musical instruments
Non-musical instruments such as a typewriter or reel-to-reel tape player

text: Organization[edit]

text: Among the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy. Every instrumental group (or section) has a principal who is generally responsible for leading the group and playing orchestral solos. The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, with the second violins playing in lower registers than the first violins, playing an accompaniment part, or harmonizing the melody played by the first violins. The principal first violin is called the concertmaster (or "leader" in the UK) and is not only considered the leader of the string section, but the second-in-command of the entire orchestra, behind only the conductor. The concertmaster leads the pre-concert tuning and handles musical aspects of orchestra management, such as determining the bowings for the violins or for all of the string section. The concertmaster usually sits to the conductor's left, closest to the audience. There is also a principal second violin, a principal viola, a principal cello and a principal bass.

text: The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low brass section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. While the oboe often provides the tuning note for the orchestra (due to 300-year-old convention), no principal is the leader of the woodwind section though in woodwind ensembles, often the flute is leader.[8] Instead, each principal confers with the others as equals in the case of musical differences of opinion. Most sections also have an assistant principal (or co-principal or associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an assistant concertmaster, who often plays a tutti part in addition to replacing the principal in his or her absence.

text: A section string player plays in unison with the rest of the section, except in the case of divided (divisi) parts, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" seated players. Where a solo part is called for in a string section, the section leader invariably plays that part. The section leader (or principal) of a string section is also responsible for determining the bowings, often based on the bowings set out by the concertmaster. In some cases, the principal of a string section may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing their instrument (e.g., the double-bass section). Principals of a string section will also lead entrances for their section, typically by lifting the bow before the entrance, to ensure the section plays together. Tutti wind and brass players generally play a unique but non-solo part. Section percussionists play parts assigned to them by the principal percussionist.

text: In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a conductor, although early orchestras did not have one, giving this role instead to the concertmaster or the harpsichordist playing the continuo. Some modern orchestras also do without conductors, particularly smaller orchestras and those specializing in historically accurate (so-called "period") performances of baroque and earlier music.

text: The most frequently performed repertoire for a symphony orchestra is Western classical music or opera. However, orchestras are used sometimes in popular music (e.g., to accompany a rock or pop band in a concert), extensively in film music, and increasingly often in video game music. Orchestras are also used in the symphonic metal genre. The term "orchestra" can also be applied to a jazz ensemble, for example in the performance of big-band music.

text: Selection and appointment of members[edit]

text: In the 2000s, all tenured members of a professional orchestra normally audition for positions in the ensemble. Performers typically play one or more solo pieces of the auditionee's choice, such as a movement of a concerto, a solo Bach movement, and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature that are advertised in the audition poster (so the auditionees can prepare). The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging parts and solos from the orchestral literature. Orchestral auditions are typically held in front of a panel that includes the conductor, the concertmaster, the principal player of the section for which the auditionee is applying and possibly other principal players and regular orchestra members.

text: The most promising candidates from the first round of auditions are invited to return for a second or third round of auditions, which allows the conductor and the panel to compare the best candidates. Performers may be asked to sight read orchestral music. The final stage of the audition process in some orchestras is a test week, in which the performer plays with the orchestra for a week or two, which allows the conductor and principal players to see if the individual can function well in an actual rehearsal and performance setting.

text: There are a range of different employment arrangements. The most sought-after positions are permanent, tenured positions in the orchestra. Orchestras also hire musicians on contracts, ranging in length from a single concert to a full season or more. Contract performers may be hired for individual concerts when the orchestra is doing an exceptionally large late-Romantic era orchestral work, or to substitute for a permanent member who is sick. A professional musician who is hired to perform for a single concert is sometimes called a "sub". Some contract musicians may be hired to replace permanent members for the period that the permanent member is on parental leave or disability leave.

text: Sex of ensembles[edit]

text: Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of male musicians. The first female members hired in professional orchestras have been harpists. The Vienna Philharmonic, for example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than comparable orchestras (the other orchestras ranked among the world’s top five by Gramophone in 2008).[9] The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was the Berlin Philharmonic.[10] In February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, Dieter Flury, told Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity (emotionelle Geschlossenheit) that this organism currently has".[11] In April 1996, the orchestra’s press secretary wrote that "compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of maternity leave would be a problem.[12]

text: In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the National Organization for Women and the International Alliance for Women in Music. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."[13] As of 2013, the orchestra has six female members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova, became one of the orchestra’s concertmasters in 2008, the first woman to hold that position.[14] In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely screened blind auditions.[15]

text: In 2013, an article in Mother Jones stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership—women outnumber men in the New York Philharmonic's violin section—and several renowned ensembles, including the National Symphony Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists", the double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male."[16] A 2014 BBC article stated that the "...introduction of ‘blind’ auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated symphony orchestras gradually shift."[17]

text: Amateur ensembles[edit]

text: There are also a variety of amateur orchestras:

text:
School orchestras: These orchestras consist of students from an elementary or secondary school. They may be students from a music class or program or they may be drawn from the entire school body. School orchestras are typically led by a music teacher.
University or conservatory orchestras: These orchestras consist of students from a university or music conservatory. In some cases, university orchestras are open to all students from a university, from all programs. Larger universities may have two or more university orchestras: one or more orchestras made up of music majors (or, for major music programs, several tiers of music major orchestras, ranked by skill level) and a second orchestra open to university students from all academic programs (e.g., science, business, etc.) who have previous classical music experience on an orchestral instrument. University and conservatory orchestras are led by a conductor who is typically a professor or instructor at the university or conservatory.
Youth orchestras: These orchestras consist of teens and young adults drawn from an entire city or region. The age range in youth orchestras varies between different ensembles. In some cases, youth orchestras may consist of teens or young adults from an entire country (e.g., Canada's National Youth Orchestra).
Community orchestras: These orchestras consist of amateur performers drawn from an entire city or region. Community orchestras typically consist mainly of adult amateur musicians. Community orchestras range in level from beginner-level orchestras which rehearse music without doing formal performances in front of an audience to intermediate-level ensembles to advanced amateur groups which play standard professional orchestra repertoire. In some cases, university or conservatory music students may also be members of community orchestras. While community orchestra members are mostly unpaid amateurs, in some orchestras, a small number of professionals may be hired to act as principal players and section leaders.

text: Repertoire and performances[edit]

text: Orchestras play a wide range of repertoire ranging from 17th-century dance suites, 18th century divertimentos to 20th century film scores and 21st-century symphonies. Orchestras have become synonymous with the symphony, an extended musical composition in Western classical music that typically contains multiple movements which provide contrasting keys and tempos. Symphonies are notated in a musical score, which contains all the instrument parts. The conductor uses the score to study the symphony before rehearsals and decide on their interpretation (e.g., tempos, articulation, phrasing, etc.), and to follow the music during rehearsals and concerts, while leading the ensemble. Orchestral musicians play from parts containing just the notated music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts (e.g., Beethoven's Ninth Symphony).

text: Orchestras also perform overtures, a term originally applied to the instrumental introduction to an opera.[18] During the early Romantic era, composers such as Beethoven and Mendelssohn began to use the term to refer to independent, self-existing instrumental, programmatic works that presaged genres such as the symphonic poem, a form devised by Franz Liszt in several works that began as dramatic overtures. These were "at first undoubtedly intended to be played at the head of a programme".[18] In the 1850s the concert overture began to be supplanted by the symphonic poem.

text: Orchestras also play with instrumental soloists in concertos. During concertos, the orchestra plays an accompaniment role to the soloist (e.g., a solo violinist or pianist) and, at times, introduces musical themes or interludes while the soloist is not playing. Orchestras also play during operas, ballets, some musical theatre works and some choral works (both sacred works such as Masses and secular works). In operas and ballets, the orchestra accompanies the singers and dancers, respectively, and plays overtures and interludes where the melodies played by the orchestra take centre stage.

text: Performances[edit]

text: In the Baroque era, orchestras performed in a range of venues, including at the fine houses of aristocrats, in opera halls and in churches. Some wealthy aristocrats had an orchestra in residence at their estate, to entertain them and their guests with performances. During the Classical era, as composers increasing sought out financial support from the general public, orchestra concerts were increasingly held in public concert halls, where music lovers could buy tickets to hear the orchestra. Of course, aristocratic patronage of orchestras continued during the Classical era, but this went on alongside public concerts. In the 20th and 21st century, orchestras found a new patron: governments. Many orchestras in North America and Europe receive part of their funding from national, regional level governments (e.g., state governments in the U.S.) or city governments. These government subsidies make up part of orchestra revenue, along with ticket sales, charitable donations (if the orchestra is a registered as a charity) and other fundraising activities. With the invention of successive technologies, including sound recording, radio broadcasting, television broadcasting and Internet-based streaming and downloading of concert videos, orchestras have been able to find new revenue sources.

text: Issues in performance[edit]

text: Faking[edit]

text: One of the "great unmentionable [topics] of orchestral playing" is "faking", the process by which an orchestral musician gives the "...impression of playing every note as written", typically for a very challenging passage that is very high or very fast, while not actually playing the notes that are in the printed music part.[19] An article in The Strad states that all orchestral musicians, even those in the top orchestras, occasionally "fake" certain passages.[19] One reason that musicians "fake" is because there are not enough rehearsals.[19] Another factor is the extreme challenges in 20th century and 21st century contemporary pieces; professionals interviewed by the magazine said "faking" was "...necessary in anything from ten to almost ninety per cent of some modern works.[19] Professional players who were interviewed were of a consensus that faking may be acceptable when a part is not written well for the instrument, but faking "just because you haven’t practised" the music is not acceptable.[19]

text: History[edit]

text: Instrumental technology[edit]

text: The invention of the piston and rotary valve by Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blühmel, both Silesians, in 1815, was the first in a series of innovations which impacted the orchestra, including the development of modern keywork for the flute by Theobald Boehm and the innovations of Adolphe Sax in the woodwinds, notably the invention of the saxophone. These advances would lead Hector Berlioz to write a landmark book on instrumentation, which was the first systematic treatise on the use of instrumental sound as an expressive element of music.[20]

text: Wagner's influence[edit]

text: The next major expansion of symphonic practice came from Richard Wagner's Bayreuth orchestra, founded to accompany his musical dramas. Wagner's works for the stage were scored with unprecedented scope and complexity: indeed, his score to Das Rheingold calls for six harps. Thus, Wagner envisioned an ever-more-demanding role for the conductor of the theatre orchestra, as he elaborated in his influential work On Conducting.[21] This brought about a revolution in orchestral composition, and set the style for orchestral performance for the next eighty years. Wagner's theories re-examined the importance of tempo, dynamics, bowing of string instruments and the role of principals in the orchestra. Conductors who studied his methods would go on to be influential themselves.[vague]

text: 20th century orchestra[edit]

text: As the early 20th century dawned, symphony orchestras were larger, better funded, and better trained than ever before; consequently, composers could compose larger and more ambitious works. The influence of Gustav Mahler was particularly innovational; in his later symphonies, such as the mammoth Symphony No. 8, Mahler pushes the furthest boundaries of orchestral size, employing huge forces. By the late Romantic era, orchestras could support the most enormous forms of symphonic expression, with huge string sections, massive brass sections and an expanded range of percussion instruments. With the recording era beginning, the standards of performance were pushed to a new level, because a recorded symphony could be listened to closely and even minor errors in intonation or ensemble, which might not be noticeable in a live performance, could be heard by critics. As recording technologies improved over the 20th and 21st centuries, eventually small errors in a recording could be "fixed" by audio editing or overdubbing. Some older conductors and composers could remember a time when simply "getting through" the music as best as possible was the standard. Combined with the wider audience made possible by recording, this led to a renewed focus on particular star conductors and on a high standard of orchestral execution.[22]

text: Counter-revolution[edit]

text: With the advent of the early music movement, smaller orchestras where players worked on execution of works in styles derived from the study of older treatises on playing became common. These include the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, the London Classical Players under the direction of Sir Roger Norrington and the Academy of Ancient Music under Christopher Hogwood, among others.[citation needed]

text: Recent trends in the United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the late 20th century saw a crisis of funding and support for orchestras. The size and cost of a symphony orchestra, compared to the size of the base of supporters, became an issue that struck at the core of the institution. Few orchestras could fill auditoriums, and the time-honored season-subscription system became increasingly anachronistic, as more and more listeners would buy tickets on an ad hoc basis for individual events. Orchestral endowments and—more centrally to the daily operation of American orchestras—orchestral donors have seen investment portfolios shrink or produce lower yields, reducing the ability of donors to contribute; further, there has been a trend toward donors finding other social causes more compelling. Also, while government funding is less central to American than European orchestras, cuts in such funding are still significant for American ensembles. Finally, the drastic falling-off of revenues from recording, tied to no small extent to changes in the recording industry itself, began a period of change that has yet to reach its conclusion.

text: U.S. orchestras that have gone into Chapter 11 bankruptcy include the Philadelphia Orchestra (in April 2011), and the Louisville Orchestra, in December 2010; orchestras that have gone into Chapter 7 bankruptcy and have ceased operations include the Northwest Chamber Orchestra in 2006, the Honolulu Orchestra in March 2011, the New Mexico Symphony Orchestra in April 2011, and the Syracuse Symphony in June 2011. The Festival of Orchestras in Orlando, Florida ceased operations at the end of March, 2011.

text: One source of financial difficulties that received notice and criticism was high salaries for music directors of US orchestras,[23] which led several high-profile conductors to take pay cuts in recent years.[24][25][26] Music administrators such as Michael Tilson Thomas and Esa-Pekka Salonen argued that new music, new means of presenting it, and a renewed relationship with the community could revitalize the symphony orchestra. The American critic Greg Sandow has argued in detail that orchestras must revise their approach to music, performance, the concert experience, marketing, public relations, community involvement, and presentation to bring them in line with the expectations of 21st-century audiences immersed in popular culture.

text: It is not uncommon for contemporary composers to use unconventional instruments, including various synthesizers, to achieve desired effects. Many, however, find more conventional orchestral configuration to provide better possibilities for color and depth. Composers like John Adams often employ Romantic-size orchestras, as in Adams' opera Nixon in China; Philip Glass and others may be more free, yet still identify size-boundaries. Glass in particular has recently turned to conventional orchestras in works like the Concerto for Cello and Orchestra and the Violin Concerto No. 2.

text: Along with a decrease in funding, some U.S. orchestras have reduced their overall personnel, as well as the number of players appearing in performances. The reduced numbers in performance are usually confined to the string section, since the numbers here have traditionally been flexible (as multiple players typically play from the same part).

text: Role of conductor[edit]

text: Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as an orchestral or choral concert. The primary duties of the conductor are to set the tempo, ensure correct entries by various members of the ensemble, and to "shape" the phrasing where appropriate.[27] To convey their ideas and interpretation, a conductor communicates with their musicians primarily through hand gestures, typically though not invariably with the aid of a baton, and may use other gestures or signals, such as eye contact with relevant performers.[28] A conductor's directions will almost invariably be supplemented or reinforced by verbal instructions or suggestions to their musicians in rehearsal prior to a performance.[28]

text: The conductor typically stands on a raised podium with a large music stand for the full score, which contains the musical notation for all the instruments and/or voices. Since the mid-18th century, most conductors have not played an instrument when conducting,[citation needed] although in earlier periods of classical music history, leading an ensemble while playing an instrument was common. In Baroque music from the 1600s to the 1750s, the group would typically be led by the harpsichordist or first violinist (see concertmaster), an approach that in modern times has been revived by several music directors for music from this period. Conducting while playing a piano or synthesizer may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance (this is strictly the case in art music, but in jazz big bands or large pop ensembles, there may be occasional spoken instructions, such as a "count in"). However, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be played or sung.

text: Conductors act as guides to the orchestras and/or choirs they conduct. They choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make certain adjustments (e.g., regarding tempo, articulation, phrasing, repetitions of sections, and so on), work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the performers. They may also attend to organizational matters, such as scheduling rehearsals,[29] planning a concert season, hearing auditions and selecting members, and promoting their ensemble in the media. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands and other sizable musical ensembles such as big bands are usually led by conductors.

text: Conductorless orchestras[edit]

text: In the Baroque music era (1600–1750), most orchestras were led by one of the musicians, typically the principal first violin, called the concertmaster. The concertmaster would lead the tempo of pieces by lifting his or her bow in a rhythmic manner. Leadership might also be provided by one of the chord-playing instrumentalists playing the basso continuo part which was the core of most Baroque instrumental ensemble pieces. Typically, this would be a harpsichord player, a pipe organist or a luteist or theorbo player. A keyboard player could lead the ensemble with his or her head, or by taking one of the hands off the keyboard to lead a more difficult tempo change. A lutenist or theorbo player could lead by lifting the instrument neck up and down to indicate the tempo of a piece, or to lead a ritard during a cadence or ending. In some works which combined choirs and instrumental ensembles, two leaders were sometimes used: a concertmaster to lead the instrumentalists and a chord-playing performer to lead the singers. During the Classical music period (ca. 1720–1800), the practice of using chordal instruments to play basso continuo was gradually phased out, and it disappeared completely by 1800. Instead, ensembles began to use conductors to lead the orchestra's tempos and playing style, while the concertmaster played an additional leadership role for the musicians, especially the string players, who imitate the bowstroke and playing style of the concertmaster, to the degree that is feasible for the different stringed instruments.

text: In 1922, the idea of a conductor-less orchestra was revived in post-revolutionary Soviet Union. The symphony orchestra Persimfans was formed without a conductor, because the founders believed that the ensemble should be modeled on the ideal Marxist state, in which all people are equal. As such, its members felt that there was no need to be led by the dictatorial baton of a conductor; instead they were led by a committee, which determined tempos and playing styles. Although it was a partial success within the Soviet Union, the principal difficulty with the concept was in changing tempo during performances, because even if the committee had issued a decree about where a tempo change should take place, there was no leader in the ensemble to guide this tempo change. The orchestra survived for ten years before Stalin's cultural politics disbanded it by taking away its funding.[30]

text: In Western nations, some ensembles, such as the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, based in New York City, have had more success with conductorless orchestras, although decisions are likely to be deferred to some sense of leadership within the ensemble (for example, the principal wind and string players, notably the concertmaster). Others have returned to the tradition of a principal player, usually a violinist, being the artistic director and running rehearsal and leading concerts. Examples include the Australian Chamber Orchestra, Amsterdam Sinfonietta & Candida Thompson and the New Century Chamber Orchestra. As well, as part of the early music movement, some 20th and 21st century orchestras have revived the Baroque practice of having no conductor on the podium for Baroque pieces, using the concertmaster or a chord-playing basso continuo performer (e.g., harpsichord or organ) to lead the group.

text: Multiple conductors[edit]

text: Offstage instruments[edit]

text: Some orchestral works specify that an offstage trumpet should be used or that other instruments from the orchestra should be positioned off-stage or behind the stage, to create a haunted, mystical effect. To ensure that the offstage instrumentalist(s) play in time, sometimes a sub-conductor will be stationed offstage with a clear view of the principal conductor. Examples include the ending of "Neptune" from Gustav Holst's The Planets. The principal conductor leads the large orchestra, and the sub-conductor relays the principal conductor's tempo and gestures to the offstage musician (or musicians). One of the challenges with using two conductors is that the second conductor may get out of synchronization with the main conductor, or may mis-convey (or misunderstand) the principal conductor's gestures, which can lead to the offstage instruments being out of time. In the late 20th century and early 21st century, some orchestras use a video camera pointed at the principal conductor and a closed-circuit TV set in front of the offstage performer(s), instead of using two conductors.

text: Contemporary music[edit]

text: The techniques of polystylism and polytempo[31] music have led a few 20th and 21st century composers to write music where multiple orchestras or ensembles perform simultaneously. These trends have brought about the phenomenon of polyconductor music, wherein separate sub-conductors conduct each group of musicians. Usually, one principal conductor conducts the sub-conductors, thereby shaping the overall performance. In Percy Grainger's "The Warriors" which includes three conductors: the primary conductor of the orchestra, a secondary conductor directing an off-stage brass ensemble, and a tertiary conductor directing percussion and harp. One example in the late century orchestral music is Karlheinz Stockhausen's Gruppen, for three orchestras, which are placed around the audience. This way, the "sound masses" could be spacialized, as in an electroacoustic work. Gruppen was premiered in Cologne, in 1958, conducted by Stockhausen, Bruno Maderna and Pierre Boulez. It has been[when?] performed by Simon Rattle, John Carewe and Daniel Harding.


document_title: Mantle (geology)

question_text: the upper mantle below the earth's crust is known as the

question_tokens: the upper mantle below the earth 's crust is known as the

root

text: Mantle (geology)

text: Earth's mantle

text: The interior of Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers of different composition. The mantle is a layer between the crust and the outer core. Earth's mantle is a silicate rocky shell with an average thickness of 2,886 kilometres (1,793 mi).[13] The mantle makes up about 84% of Earth's volume.[14] It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a very viscous fluid. The mantle encloses the hot core rich in iron and nickel, which makes up about 15% of Earth's volume.[14] Past episodes of melting and volcanism at the shallower levels of the mantle have produced a thin crust of crystallized melt products near the surface.[15] Information about the structure and composition of the mantle has been obtained from geophysical investigation and from direct geoscientific analyses of Earth mantle-derived xenoliths and mantle that has been exposed by mid-oceanic ridge spreading.

tag: p

text: Two main zones are distinguished in the upper mantle: the inner asthenosphere composed of plastic flowing rock of varying thickness, on average about 200 km (120 mi) thick,[16] and the lowermost part of the lithosphere composed of rigid rock about 50 to 120 km (31 to 75 mi) thick.[17] A thin crust, the upper part of the lithosphere, surrounds the mantle and is about 5 to 75 km (3.1 to 46.6 mi) thick.[18] Recent analysis of hydrous ringwoodite from the mantle suggests that there is between one[19] and three[20] times as much water in the transition zone between the lower and upper mantle than in all the world's oceans combined.[21]

text: In some places under the ocean the mantle is actually exposed on the surface of Earth.[22] There are also a few places on land where mantle rock has been pushed to the surface by tectonic activity, most notably the Tablelands region of Gros Morne National Park in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador and Zabargad Island (St. John's Island) in the Red Sea. (Also Macquarie Island, Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Troodos Ophiolite, Lizard Complex, Semail Ophiolite, and other ophiolites)

text: Structure

text: The mantle is divided into sections which are based upon results from seismology. These layers (and their thicknesses/depths) are the following: the upper mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust around 7 to 35 km (4.3 to 21.7 mi) downward to 410 km (250 mi)),[23] the transition zone (410–660 km or 250–410 mi), the lower mantle (660–2,891 km or 410–1,796 mi), and anomalous core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness (on average ~200 km (120 mi) thick).[15][24][25][26]

text: The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in seismic velocity, which was first noted by Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or "Moho".[24][27] The uppermost mantle plus overlying crust are relatively rigid and form the lithosphere, an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of perhaps 200 km (120 mi). Below the lithosphere the upper mantle becomes notably more plastic. In some regions below the lithosphere, the seismic shear velocity is reduced; this so-called low-velocity zone (LVZ) extends down to a depth of several hundred km. Inge Lehmann discovered a seismic discontinuity at about 220 km (140 mi) depth;[28] although this discontinuity has been found in other studies, it is not known whether the discontinuity is ubiquitous. The transition zone is an area of great complexity; it physically separates the upper and lower mantle.[26] Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous. The D" layer at the core–mantle boundary separates the mantle from the core.[15][24] In 2015, research using gravitational data from GRACE satellites and the long wavelength nonhydrostatic geoid indicated viscosity[29] increases by a factor of ten to 150 about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) below earth's surface; separate research also indicates sinking tectonic plates stall at this depth, leading Robert van der Hilst to speculate "In term's of structure and dynamics, 1,000 kilometers could be more important" (than the currently accepted 660 km depth upper—lower division).[30] The lower mantle also contains some discontinueous zones, called "thermochemical piles" which have been interpreted as either thermally differentiated, upwellings bringing warmer material towards the surface, or as chemically differentiated material.[31] A principal source of the heat that drives plate tectonics is the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.[32]

text: Characteristics

text: The mantle differs substantially from the crust in its mechanical properties as the direct consequence of the difference in composition (expressed as different mineralogy). The distinction between crust and mantle is based on chemistry, rock types, rheology and seismic characteristics. The crust is a solidification product of mantle derived melts, expressed as various degrees of partial melting products during geologic time. Partial melting of mantle material is believed to cause incompatible elements to separate from the mantle, with less dense material floating upward through pore spaces, cracks, or fissures, that would subsequently cool and solidify at the surface. Typical mantle rocks have a higher magnesium to iron ratio and a smaller proportion of silicon and aluminium than the crust. This behavior is also predicted by experiments that partly melt rocks thought to be representative of Earth's mantle.

text: Mantle rocks shallower than about 410 km (250 mi) depth consist mostly of olivine, pyroxenes, spinel-structure minerals, and garnet;[26] typical rock types are thought to be peridotite,[26] dunite (olivine-rich peridotite), and eclogite. Between about 400 km (250 mi) and 650 km (400 mi) depth, olivine is not stable and is replaced by high pressure polymorphs with approximately the same composition: one polymorph is wadsleyite (also called beta-spinel type), and the other is ringwoodite (a mineral with the gamma-spinel structure). Below about 650 km (400 mi), all of the minerals of the upper mantle begin to become unstable. The most abundant minerals present, the silicate perovskites, have structures (but not compositions) like that of the mineral perovskite followed by the magnesium/iron oxide ferropericlase.[33] The changes in mineralogy at about 400 and 650 km (250 and 400 mi) yield distinctive signatures in seismic records of the Earth's interior, and like the moho, are readily detected using seismic waves. These changes in mineralogy may influence mantle convection, as they result in density changes and they may absorb or release latent heat as well as depress or elevate the depth of the polymorphic phase transitions for regions of different temperatures. The changes in mineralogy with depth have been investigated by laboratory experiments that duplicate high mantle pressures, such as those using the diamond anvil.[34]

text:
Composition of Earth's mantle in weight percent[35] [36]

Element
Amount

Compound
Amount

O
44.8

Mg
22.8
SiO2
46

Si
21.5
MgO
37.8

Fe
5.8
FeO
7.5

Ca
2.3
Al2O3
4.2

Al
2.2
CaO
3.2

Na
0.3
Na2O
0.4

K
0.03
K2O
0.04

Sum
99.7
Sum
99.1

tag: table

text: The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid, and the mantle solid/plastic. This is because of the relative melting points of the different layers (nickel–iron core, silicate crust and mantle) and the increase in temperature and pressure as depth increases. At the surface both nickel–iron alloys and silicates are sufficiently cool to be solid. In the upper mantle, the silicates are generally solid (localised regions with small amounts of melt exist); however, as the upper mantle is both hot and under relatively little pressure, the rock in the upper mantle has a relatively low viscosity. In contrast, the lower mantle is under tremendous pressure and therefore has a higher viscosity than the upper mantle. The metallic nickel–iron outer core is liquid because of the high temperature, despite the high pressure. As the pressure increases, the nickel–iron inner core becomes solid because the melting point of iron increases dramatically at these high pressures.[37]

text: Temperature

text: In the mantle, temperatures range between 500 to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F) at the upper boundary with the crust; to over 4,000 °C (7,230 °F) at the boundary with the core.[37] Although the higher temperatures far exceed the melting points of the mantle rocks at the surface (about 1200 °C for representative peridotite), the mantle is almost exclusively solid.[37] The enormous lithostatic pressure exerted on the mantle prevents melting, because the temperature at which melting begins (the solidus) increases with pressure.

text: Movement

text: Because of the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle.[24] Hot material upwells, while cooler (and heavier) material sinks downward. Downward motion of material occurs at convergent plate boundaries called subduction zones. Locations on the surface that lie over plumes are predicted to have high elevation (because of the buoyancy of the hotter, less-dense plume beneath) and to exhibit hot spot volcanism. The volcanism often attributed to deep mantle plumes is alternatively explained by passive extension of the crust, permitting magma to leak to the surface (the "Plate" hypothesis).[38]

text: The convection of the Earth's mantle is a chaotic process (in the sense of fluid dynamics), which is thought to be an integral part of the motion of plates. Plate motion should not be confused with continental drift which applies purely to the movement of the crustal components of the continents. The movements of the lithosphere and the underlying mantle are coupled since descending lithosphere is an essential component of convection in the mantle. The observed continental drift is a complicated relationship between the forces causing oceanic lithosphere to sink and the movements within Earth's mantle.

text: Although there is a tendency to larger viscosity at greater depth, this relation is far from linear and shows layers with dramatically decreased viscosity, in particular in the upper mantle and at the boundary with the core.[39] The mantle within about 200 km (120 mi) above the core–mantle boundary appears to have distinctly different seismic properties than the mantle at slightly shallower depths; this unusual mantle region just above the core is called D″ ("D double-prime"), a nomenclature introduced over 50 years ago by the geophysicist Keith Bullen.[40] D″ may consist of material from subducted slabs that descended and came to rest at the core–mantle boundary and/or from a new mineral polymorph discovered in perovskite called post-perovskite.

text: Earthquakes at shallow depths are a result of stick-slip faulting; however, below about 50 km (31 mi) the hot, high pressure conditions ought to inhibit further seismicity. The mantle is considered to be viscous and incapable of brittle faulting. However, in subduction zones, earthquakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi). A number of mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon, including dehydration, thermal runaway, and phase change. The geothermal gradient can be lowered where cool material from the surface sinks downward, increasing the strength of the surrounding mantle, and allowing earthquakes to occur down to a depth of 400 km (250 mi) and 670 km (420 mi).

text: The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ~136 GPa (1.4 million atm).[26] Pressure increases as depth increases, since the material beneath has to support the weight of all the material above it. The entire mantle, however, is thought to deform like a fluid on long timescales, with permanent plastic deformation accommodated by the movement of point, line, and/or planar defects through the solid crystals comprising the mantle. Estimates for the viscosity of the upper mantle range between 1019 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth,[39] temperature, composition, state of stress, and numerous other factors. Thus, the upper mantle can only flow very slowly. However, when large forces are applied to the uppermost mantle it can become weaker, and this effect is thought to be important in allowing the formation of tectonic plate boundaries.

text: Exploration

text: Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land because of the relative thinness of the oceanic crust as compared to the significantly thicker continental crust.

text: The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as Project Mohole, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures and cost over-runs. The deepest penetration was approximately 180 m (590 ft). In 2005 an oceanic borehole reached 1,416 metres (4,646 ft) below the sea floor from the ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution.

text: On 5 March 2007, a team of scientists on board the RRS James Cook embarked on a voyage to an area of the Atlantic seafloor where the mantle lies exposed without any crust covering, midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Caribbean Sea. The exposed site lies approximately three kilometres beneath the ocean surface and covers thousands of square kilometres.[41][42] A relatively difficult attempt to retrieve samples from the Earth's mantle was scheduled for later in 2007.[43] The Chikyu Hakken mission attempted to use the Japanese vessel Chikyū to drill up to 7,000 m (23,000 ft) below the seabed. This is nearly three times as deep as preceding oceanic drillings.

text: A novel method of exploring the uppermost few hundred kilometres of the Earth was recently proposed, consisting of a small, dense, heat-generating probe which melts its way down through the crust and mantle while its position and progress are tracked by acoustic signals generated in the rocks.[44] The probe consists of an outer sphere of tungsten about one metre in diameter with a cobalt-60 interior acting as a radioactive heat source. It was calculated that such a probe will reach the oceanic Moho in less than 6 months and attain minimum depths of well over 100 km (62 mi) in a few decades beneath both oceanic and continental lithosphere.[45]

text: Exploration can also be aided through computer simulations of the evolution of the mantle. In 2009, a supercomputer application provided new insight into the distribution of mineral deposits, especially isotopes of iron, from when the mantle developed 4.5 billion years ago.[46]


document_title: KK (singer)

question_text: who is the singer of tadap tadap ke

question_tokens: who is the singer of tadap tadap ke

text: KK (singer)

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Born in Delhi to Hindu Malayali parents C. S. Nair and Kunnath Kanakavalli,[4] Krishnakumar Kunnath was brought up in New Delhi.[5] KK sang 3,500 jingles before breaking into Bollywood.[6] He is an alumnus of Delhi's Mount St Mary's School[6] and graduated from Kirori Mal College,[7] Delhi University. He sang in the "Josh of India" song for the support of Indian Cricket Team during Cricket World Cup of 1999.[8]

text: KK married his childhood sweetheart Jyothy in 1991.[9] His son Nakul Krishna Kunnath sang a song "Masti" from his latest album Humsafar with him.[10] KK also has a daughter named Tamara Kunnath who, according to KK, loves playing piano. KK says that his family is his source of energy.

text: Vocals and musical style[edit]

text: KK has been greatly influenced by the singer Kishore Kumar and music director R. D. Burman.[citation needed] Michael Jackson, Billy Joel, Bryan Adams are also favourite international singers of KK.[citation needed] KK has said that it is not important for a singer's face to be prominently seen – saying he believes the important thing is that "a singer must be heard."[11] KK has never undergone any formal training in music.[citation needed]

text: Career[edit]

text: After graduating from Kirori Mal College, Delhi University in commerce, KK had a brief stint of eight months as marketing executive in the hotel industry. After few years, in 1994, he moved to Mumbai.[9]

text: Playback singing[edit]

text: In 1994, he gave his demo tape to Louis Banks, Ranjit Barot and Lesle Lewis to get a break in the music arena. He was called by UTV and he sang a jingle for Santogen Suiting ad.[10] In a span of four years, he has sung more than 3,500 jingles in 11 Indian languages. He got the first break in Mumbai from UTV to sing jingles. He considers Lesle Lewis as his mentor for giving him his first jingle to sing in Mumbai.[9] KK was introduced as a playback singer with A. R. Rahman's hit song "College Styley" and "Hello Dr." from Kadir's Kadhal Desam and then "Strawberry Kannae" from AVM Productions's musical film Minsara Kanavu (1997).[12] Pritam Chakraborty is also a fan of him.[citation needed] He got his Bollywood break with "Tadap Tadap" from Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999). He has also won a National Award for "Tu Aashiqui Hai" from movie Jhankar Beats in 2004.[12] However, prior to this song he had sung a small portion of the song "Chhod Aaye Hum" from Gulzar's Maachis. Till now, KK has sung more than 500 songs in Hindi and more than 200 songs in Telugu, Bengali, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam languages.[13] He has worked with almost every music director of Hindi film industry active from 1999. He has lent his voice to the biggest hit song of the year 2014 "Tune Maari Entriyaan" among several others in Gunday. KK's new song from the movie Bajrangi Bhaijaan called "Tu Jo Mila" has become popular, many times remained No.1 on iTunes.[citation needed] Popular singer Arijit Singh said he has been inspired by KK in singing, and is a big fan of KK.[citation needed] Another popular Bollywood singer, Ankit Tiwari also said he has been greatly influenced by KK and he takes KK as his idol and inspiration.[14] Other singers like Javed Ali, Dev Negi, Armaan Malik, Mohammed Irfan, Anupam Roy, and the composer duo Sachin-Jigar have also said they are big fans of KK.[citation needed]

text: Albums and television[edit]

text: In 1999, Sony Music had just been launched in India and they were looking to launch a new artiste. KK was selected as the new artiste and he came out with a solo album titled Pal with Lesle Lewis composing the music. The album was arranged, composed and produced by Lesle Lewis of Colonial Cousins. The lyrics have been penned by Mehboob. The songs "Aap Ki Dua", "Yaaron" and the title track "Pal" in no time ruled the lips of youngsters & also the music chart. "Pal" became an anthem & "Yaaron" became friendship anthem. The album just created history. Pal was the first album released by KK under Sony Music for which he got the prestigious Screen award as best singer. He is very good friend of Jeevan Deep Prakash—Only resource of OCMC in India )

text: On 22 January 2008, KK released his second album Humsafar after a gap of eight years.[15] The songs "Aasman Ke", "Dekho Na", "Yeh Kahan Mil Gaye Hum" and "Rain Bhai Kaari (Maajhi)" are famous songs from this album. Besides, KK had also sung an English Rock Ballad "Cineraria". The title track, "Humsafar" is a mix of English and Hindi lyrics. The album Humsafar has 10 songs, out of which eight have been composed by KK. The other two songs were taken from his previous album Pal.

text: KK has also sung many television serial songs like Just Mohabbat, Shaka Laka Boom Boom, Kuch Jhuki Si Palkein, Hip Hip Hurray, kavyanjali, Just Dance . He has also sung the theme song for Star Parivaar Awards 2010 with Shreya Ghoshal. KK appeared on television too. He was invited as jury member for a talent hunt show Fame Gurukul.[16]

text: KK also has sung a song named "Tanha Chala" for the Pakistani TV show The Ghost which was aired on Hum TV in 2008. The song was composed by Farrukh Abid and Shoiab Farrukh, and Momina Duraid penned the lyrics.[citation needed]

text: KK participated in the latest musical venture of MTV India Coke Studio. There he sang one qawwali "Chadta Suraj" along with Sabri Brothers and a recomposed version of his exquisite track "Tu Aashiqui Hai" from movie Jhankaar Beats. He also came in 'Surili Baat' in Aaj Tak Chanel. He has also performed in Sony Mix TV Show and MTV Unplugged Season 3, aired on MTV 11 January 2014. KK was in Dubai for his concert 'Salaam Dubai 2014' in April. He also did concerts in Goa, Dubai & Chennai, and Hong kong.[citation needed]

text: On 29 August 2015, KK appeared in the television singing reality show Indian Idol Junior Season 2 to cheer up the emerging singers of India where he performed "Khuda Jaane", "Mera Pehla Pehla Pyaar", "Make Some Noise For The Desi Boyz", "Ajab Si", "Sach Kehraha Hai Deewana" and many more songs with the junior idols and "Tu Aashiqui Hai" with Vishal Dadlani, "Aashaayen" with Salim Merchant and "Tadap Tadap" with Sonakshi Sinha. After 10 years, He appeared in a singing reality show as a judge and guest jury member.

text: On 13 September 2015, KK came in "Baaton Baaton Mein" on Sony Mix.

text: Other projects[edit]

text: In 2013, KK sang for an international album, Rise Up – Colors of Peace, which consists of songs written by Turkish poet Fetullah Gulen and sung by artists from 12 countries. KK recorded a song named "Rose of My Heart" for the album.

text: In 2010, the Indi Band "Bandish" produced their second self-titled album. The album has a high energy track in the album Tere Bin – a rock ballad sung by KK.

text: Albums[edit]

text: His debut album Pal was released in April 1999. His performance on the album received a Star Screen Award from Screen India for Best Male Singer.[17]

text: His second album, Humsafar, was released nine years later, in January 2008. It belongs to the pop-rock genre and has a total of 10 songs. Humsafar has two songs that are repeated from his earlier album Pal – "Din Ho Ya Raat" and "Mehki Hawa". The video for a romantic song on the album, "Aasman Ke", features the singer and south Indian model Suhasi Goradia Dhami. "Humsafar", the title track, has an interplay of English and Hindi lyrics and is about one's conscience and how it is a constant companion in the journey of life. One of the songs, "Yeh Kahan Mil Gaye Hum", was penned seven years before the release. "Dekho Na", a rock number, was written six years prior. The remaining six songs were developed in the last two years before the release. Other songs in the album include "Rain Bhai Kaari (Maajhi)", a mix of Bengali Baul with rock with a tinge of S D Burman, and "Cineraria", a fun-filled English ballad. KK himself wrote the lyrics of "Cineraria" and the English part of "Humsafar", the title track, while the remaining tracks were written by others.

text:
Year
Album(s)
Music Director(s)

Solo Albums

1999
Pal
Lesle Lewis

2008
Humsafar
KK

Compilations

2002
Humraaz
Himesh Reshammiya

2010
Kavalan
KK, Rita[clarification needed]

2011
Soulful Voice KK
Various

2014
#Now Playing: KK Hits
Various

2013
KK: Best Of Me
Various

2015
Musical Bond: Pritam & KK
Pritam Chakraborty

text: Discography[edit]

text: Chartbusters[edit]

text:
Saanson Ke (Raees)
Pal (Pal)
Yaaron (Pal)
Tadap Tadap Ke Is Dil SE (Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam)
Koi Kahe Kehta Rahe (Dil Chahta Hai)
Bardaast (Humraaz)
Maine Dil Se Kaha (Rog)
Awarapan Banjarapan (Jism)
Ding Dong (Kucch To Hai)
Kabhi Khusboo (Saaya)
Tu Aashiqui Hai (Jhankaar Beats)
Hai Re Hai Re (Khushi)
Dus Bahane (Dus)
Bas Ek Pal (Bas Ek Pal)
Soniye (Aksar)
Teri Yaadon Mein (The Killer)
O Sanam (The Killer)
Dilnashin Dilnashin (Aashiq Banaya Aapne)
Aashaayen (Iqbal)
Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai (Gangster)
Mera Pehla Pehla Pyaar (MP3 – Mera Pehla Pehla Pyaar)
Alvida (Life In A... Metro)
O Meri Jaan (Life In A... Metro)
Labon Ko (Bhool Bhulaiyaa)
Zara Sa (Jannat)
Haan Tu Hai (Jannat)
Tu Mujhe Soch Kabhi (Zindagi Tere Naam)
Ajab Si (Om Shanti Om)
Beetein Lamhein (The Train)
Khuda Jaane (Bachna Ae Haseeno)
Dil Ibadat (Tum Mile)
Tujhe Sochta Hoon (Jannat 2)
Zindagi Do Pal Ki (Kites)
Dil Kyun Yeh Mera (Kites)
Abhi Abhi (Jism 2)
Tum Ho Mera Pyaar (Haunted – 3D)
Kya Mujhe Pyaar Hai (Woh Lamhe)
Main Tera Dhadkan Teri (Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani)
Golmaal (Golmaal 3)
Mujhko Pehchaanlo (Don 2)
Kaise Bataaoon (3G)
Mat Aazma Re (Murder 3)
I Am In Love (Once Upon A Time In Mumbai)
Sajde (Khatta Meetha)
Tujhi Mein (Crook)
Humko Pyaar Hua (Chal Chale) (Ready)
Make Some Noise For The Desi Boyz (Desi Boyz)
Mere Brother Ki Dulhan (Mere Brother Ki Dulhan)
Tu Jo Mila (Bajrangi Bhaijaan)
Tu Bhoola Jise (Airlift)
Jannatein Kahan (Jannat 2)
O meri Jaan (Raaz Reboot)
O meri Jaan (Tum Mile)
Waqt Gaya Tham (Fredrick)
Afreen Afreen (1920 London)
O Meri Jaan (Raaz Reboot)
Jeetne ke liye ( Azhar)
Haa tu hai"{Jannat}
Zindagi do pal ki{Kites}
Dil kyun ye mere{kites}

tag: ul

text: Awards and honours[edit]

text: South[edit]

text:
Year
Award(s)
Language
Category
Result

2005
Hub Awards
Tamil
Best Playback Singer- Male
Won

2010
Filmfare Awards South
Kannada
Best Playback Singer- Male
Nominated

2012
Eenam-Swaralaya Singer Of The Year Award
Malayalam
Singer Of The Year
Nominated

text: Hindi[edit]

text:
Filmfare Awards

2000
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tadap Tadap" (Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam)
Nominated

2003
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Bardaasht" (Humraaz)

2005
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Dus Bahane" (Dus)

2006
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai" (Gangster)

2008
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab Si" (Om Shanti Om)

2009
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Zara Sa" (Jannat)

Best Playback Singer – Male
"Khuda Jane" (Bachna Ae Haseeno)

Screen Awards

1999
Best Playback Singer – Male (Non-Film Music)[17]
"Pal" (Pal)
Won

2004
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Awarapan Banjarapan" (Jism)
Nominated

Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tu Aashiqui Hai" (Jhankaar Beats)

2006
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Dus Bahane" (Dus)

2007
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai" (Gangster)

2008
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab Si" (Om Shanti Om)
Nominated

2009
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Khuda Jaane" (Bachna Ae Haseeno)
Won

Zee Cine Awards

2005
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Dus Bahane" (Dus)
Nominated

2007
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai" (Gangster)

2008
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab Si" (Om Shanti Om)

2011
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Zindagi Do Pal Ki" (Kites)

IIFA Awards

2004
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tu Aashiqui Hai" (Jhankaar Beats)
Nominated

2006
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Dus Bahane" (Dus)

2007
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tu Hi Meri Shab Hai" (Gangster)

2008
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab Si" (Om Shanti Om)

2009
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Khuda Jaane" (Bachna Ae Haseeno)

Apsara Awards

2008
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab Si" (Om Shanti Om)
Nominated

2009
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Khuda Jane" (Bachna Ae Haseeno)

2011
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Sajde" (Khatta Meetha)

Gima Awards

2011
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Zindgi Do Pal Ki" (Kites)
Nominated

2013
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tujhe Sochta Hoon" (Jannat 2)

Goldie Film Awards, US

2012
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Chalte Jaana Hain" (Life! Camera Action...)
Won

BIG Star Entertainment Awards

2011
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Zindgi Do Pal Ki" (Kites)
Nominated

Stardust Awards

2014
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Tune Maari Entriyaan " (Gunday)
Nominated

Annual Central European Bollywood Awards

2011
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Jaane Ye Kya Hua" (Karthik Calling Karthik)
Nominated

2007
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab si" (Om Shanti Om)
Nominated

Star Guild Awards

2008
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Ajab Si" (Om Shanti Om)
Nominated

2009
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Khuda Jaane" (Bachna Ae Haseeno)
Nominated

2011
Best Playback Singer – Male
"Sajde kiye" (Khatta Meetha)
Nominated

BAMA Music Awards

2015
Best Playback Singer – Male

Nominated

Source: Bollywood Hungama.[18]


document_title: Survivorship curve

question_text: which type of survivorship curve describes populations whose mortality is highest at young ages

text: Survivorship curve

text: A survivorship curve is a graph showing the number or proportion of individuals surviving to each age for a given species or group (e.g. males or females). Survivorship curves can be constructed for a given cohort (a group of individuals of roughly the same age) based on a life table.

text: There are three generalized types of survivorship curves:[1]

text:
Type I or convex curves are characterized by high age-specific survival probability in early and middle life, followed by a rapid decline in survival in later life. They are typical of species that produce few offspring but care for them well, including humans and many other large mammals.
Type II or diagonal curves are an intermediate between Types I and III, where roughly constant mortality rate/survival probability is experienced regardless of age. Some birds and some lizards follow this pattern.
Type III or concave curves have the greatest mortality (lowest age-specific survival) early in life, with relatively low rates of death (high probability of survival) for those surviving this bottleneck. This type of curve is characteristic of species that produce a large number of offspring (see r/K selection theory). This includes most marine invertebrates. For example, oysters produce millions of eggs, but most larvae die from predation or other causes; those that survive long enough to produce a hard shell live relatively long.

text: The number or proportion of organisms surviving to any age is plotted on the y-axis (generally with a logarithmic scale starting with 1000 individuals), while their age (often as a proportion of maximum life span) is plotted on the x-axis.

text: In mathematical statistics, the survival function is one specific form of survivorship curve and plays a basic part in survival analysis.

text: There are various reasons that a species exhibits their particular survivorship curve, but one contributor can be environmental factors that decrease survival. For example, an outside element that is nondiscriminatory in the ages that it affects (of a particular species) is likely to yield a Type II survivorship curve, in which the young and old are equally likely to be affected. On the other hand, an outside element that preferentially reduces the survival of young individuals is likely to yield a Type III curve. Finally, if an outside element only reduces the survival of organisms later in life, this is likely to yield a Type I curve.[2]


document_title: Indianapolis 500 firsts

question_text: who became the first driver to win four indianapolis 500 races

text: Indianapolis 500 firsts

text: Wins, Leaders and Race Competition[edit]

text:
Year

First

Achiever(s)

Notes

1911
Winning driver
 Ray Harroun
Retired from racing competition upon victory

Winning owner
 Nordyke & Marmon Company
Withdrew from racing competition upon victory

Rear-view mirror mounted,and winning, car
 Marmon Wasp
First entry with rear-view mirror, all international motorsports competition

1913
Rookie winner (excluding first race)
 Jules Goux
First to win in first career start, excluding first race

Non-American winner

European winner

 French winner

1915
 Italian winner
 Ralph DePalma
De Palma obtained his American citizenship in 1920

1916
Multiple-winning owner(s)
 Peugeot
Winning owners, 1913, 1916

1922
Winner from pole position
 Jimmy Murphy

Winner leading first lap

Driver-Owner winner

Race and Grand Prix winning car
 Duesenberg 1921 GP
Won 1921 French Grand Prix

1923
Two-time winner
 Tommy Milton
Winner, 1921, 1923

1924
Co-winners
 Lora L. Corum Joe Boyer
Corum starting, Boyer finishing

1924
Repeat-winning owner(s)
 Duesenberg

1925

1926
Rain-shortened race winner
 Frank Lockhart
Race concluded by rain at 160 laps, 400 miles (640 km), with Lockhart holding a two lap lead

1936
Three-time winner
 Louis Meyer
Winner, 1928, 1933, 1936

1939
Repeat-winning driverRepeat-winning car
 Wilbur Shaw Maserati 8CTF

1940

1947
First-and-second-place finish by teammates
 Mauri Rose
Rose victorious

 Bill Holland
Holland second

Three consecutive-winning owner
 Lou Moore

1948

1949

1952
Rookie of the Year award winner
 Art Cross
First awarded in 36th running of the race

Youngest winner
 Troy Ruttman
Winner with 22 years and 80 days

1965
Race and World Championship winner, and in same year
 Jim Clark

 British winner
 Dario Resta, 1916 winning driver, was Italian-born;  George Robson, 1946 winning driver, was a British-born American national

 Scottish winner
Drivers originating from countries within the United Kingdom traditionally operate under British classification

Rear-engined winning car
 Lotus 38
 Team Lotus, entrant

1966
Race and Monaco Grand Prix winner
 Graham Hill
Winner, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1968, and 1969 Monaco Grand Prix

 English winner

1967
Race and 24 Hours of Le Mans winner, and in same year
 A. J. Foyt
 Dan Gurney, Le Mans teammate and co-driver

1969
Race and Daytona 500 winner
 Mario Andretti
Winner, 1967 Daytona 500

Race and 12 Hours of Sebring winner
Winner, 1967, 1970, and 1972 12 Hours of Sebring

1972
Race and 24 Hours of Daytona winner
 Mario Andretti
Winner, 1969 and 1978 World ChampionshipsFirst year competed after winning 1972 24 Hours of Daytona

Wing-mounted winning car
 McLaren M16
Entered by  Roger Penske, driven by  Mark Donohue

1977
Four-time winner
 A. J. Foyt
Winner, 1961, 1964, 1967, 1977

Female qualifier
 Janet Guthrie
Qualified 26th

1987
Oldest winner
 Al Unser
Winner with 47 years and 360 days, Winner, 1970, 1971, 1978, 1987

1989
South American winner
 Emerson Fittipaldi

 Brazilian winner

1990
 Dutch winner
 Arie Luyendyk

1991
African-American qualifier
 Willy T. Ribbs
Qualified 29th

1992
Female Rookie of the Year
 Lyn St. James
Finished 13th

1993
Two-time Race and two-time World Championship winner
 Emerson Fittipaldi
Winner, 1989;Winner, 1972 and 1974 World Championships

1995
 Canadian winner
 Jacques Villeneuve
Winner, 1997 World Championships

1999
 Swedish winner
 Kenny Bräck

2000
 Colombian winner
 Juan Pablo Montoya
Winner, 2000, 2015, Won 2003 Monaco Grand Prix and Winning 24 Hours of Daytona in 2007, 2008 and 2013

2001
Rookie and sophomore winner
 Hélio Castroneves
First to win in first two career starts

2002

2005
Female leader
 Danica Patrick
Led 19 laps; Lap 192, latest

2008
 New Zealand winner
 Scott Dixon

2009
Three females both starting and finishing Race
 Danica Patrick Sarah Fisher Milka Duno
Danica Patrick finished 3rd, becoming the highest finishing female in race history.

2011
Winner leading only final lap
 Dan Wheldon
Took lead from  J.R. Hildebrand on the final lap.

2017
 Japanese winner
 Takuma Sato

2018
 Australian winner
 Will Power

text: Race Average Finishing Speeds[edit]

text:
Year

SpeedBarrier

Race Winner

Time

Average Speed

Notes

(mph)

(km/h)

1911
70 mph
 Ray Harroun
6:42:08.92
74.602
129.060
First race

1914
80 mph
 René Thomas
6:03:46.12
82.47
132.72

1922
90 mph
 Jimmy Murphy
5:17:30.79
94.48
152.05
Victory in 1921 French Grand Prix winning car

1925
100 mph
 Peter DePaolo
4:56:39.45
101.127
162.748
First race completed in under 5 hours

1937
110 mph
 Wilbur Shaw
4:24:07.08
113.580
182.789
Last two-seat winning car

1949
120 mph
 Bill Holland
4:07:14.97
121.327
195.257

1954
130 mph
 Bill Vukovich
3:49:17.27
130.840
210.567

1962
140 mph
 Rodger Ward
3:33:50.33
140.293
225.780

1965
150 mph
 Jim Clark
3:19:05.34
150.686
242.506

1972
160 mph
 Mark Donohue
3:04:05.54
162.962
262.262

1986
170 mph
 Bobby Rahal
2:55:43.470
170.722
274.750
First race completed in under 3 hours

1990
180 mph
 Arie Luyendyk
2:41:18.404
185.981
299.307
Currently third-fastest time for 500 miles

text: Qualifications[edit]

text: Pole Position[edit]

text:
Year

SpeedBarrier

Driver

Speed

Notes

(mph)

(km/h)

1911
N/A
 Lewis Strang
No full lap
First race; grid determined by entry date

1915
90 mph
 Howdy Wilcox
98.90
159.16
First year, grid position determined by qualification speed

1919
100 mph
 René Thomas
104.780
168.627

1925
110 mph
 Leon Duray
113.196
182.171

1927
120 mph
 Frank Lockhart
120.100
193.282

1939
130 mph
 Jimmy Snyder
130.138
209.437

1954
140 mph
 Jack McGrath
141.033
226.971
Engine augmented with nitromethane additive, then legal

1962
150 mph
 Parnelli Jones
150.370
241.997

1965
160 mph
 A. J. Foyt
161.233
259.479

1968
170 mph
 Joe Leonard
171.559
276.097
Turbine-engined car

1972
180 mph
 Bobby Unser†
195.940
315.335
17 mph (27 km/h) increase in pole record speed, largest margin to date

190 mph

1978
200 mph
 Tom Sneva
202.156
325.339
Broke one-lap 200 mph qualifying barrier in 1977

1984
210 mph
210.029
338.009

1989
220 mph
 Rick Mears
223.885
360.308

1992
230 mph
 Roberto Guerrero
232.482
374.144

text: †- During time trials, Bill Vukovich II turned his first lap at 185.797 mph (299.011 km/h), to set the one-lap track record, and was the first driver to officially break the 180 mph (290 km/h) barrier. He, however, crashed on his second lap, and did not complete the four-lap qualifying run. Later in the afternoon, Joe Leonard qualified a four-lap average of 185.223 mph (298.088 km/h) to break the four-lap 180 mph (290 km/h) barrier. Later in the day, however, Bobby Unser qualified even faster, over 190 mph (310 km/h), and became the first pole position winner to break 180 mph (290 km/h) and 190 mph (310 km/h) for his four-lap average.

text: Miscellenia[edit]

text:
1913: Jules Goux is the first winner to go the full race distance without a relief driver, and is both the first French and European victor. Goux's Peugeot entry is the first to win using wire wheels instead of wooden-spoke wheels.
1915: Ralph DePalma is the first Italian-born victor.
1919: Victory by state native Howdy Wilcox prompts crowd to sing Back Home Again in Indiana for the first time, immediately after conclusion of the race. Wilcox's Peugeot is owned and entered by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the first winning entry to be directly affiliated with the facility itself.
1920: Gaston Chevrolet is killed in a race at Beverly Hills and is the first '500' winner to die.
1921: Howdy Wilcox is the first driver to finish in first and last place (1919 & 1921).
1923: Jimmy Murphy is the first defending winner to lead the first lap.
1929: Cliff Woodbury is the first pole winner to finish last (crash on lap 3).
1936: Louis Meyer becomes the first driver to drink milk in victory lane. He also becomes the first driver to receive the pace car for his winning effort. The Borg-Warner Trophy makes its first appearance.
1946: George Robson is the first English-born victor.
1948: The Speedway institutes its own 'Safety Patrol' to replace the Indiana National Guard as policing force for the event, which had served in such capacity since the inaugural race.
1949: Local station WTTV provides television coverage of the race during competition for the first time.
1950: Walt Faulkner becomes the first rookie to qualify for the pole position.
1952: Art Cross becomes the first Rookie of the Year. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network broadcasts flag-to-flag coverage of the race for the first time.
1958: The front row drivers (Dick Rathmann, Ed Elisian and Jimmy Reece) fail to lead a lap, the only time this has occurred to date.
1965: Jim Clark is the first former World Drivers' Champion to win the race, the first driver to win the race en route to winning the Formula 1 World Championship, and the first Scottish victor.
1966: Rookie Graham Hill, the first English-born victor, wins the race but not the Rookie of the Year award (instead awarded to teammate Jackie Stewart), the only time this has occurred to date.  Jim Clark is the first driver to spin and recover twice in the same race.
1971: Bettie Cadou becomes the first female  reporter to be given a silver credential badge that permits access to the pit and garage areas.
1974: The Speedway rescinds its "never on a Sunday" policy, altering a tradition dating to 1911; the race is scheduled to be run, for the first time, on the Sunday before the national observance of Memorial Day, the last Monday of May.
1978: The timing and scoring computer system designed by Arthur W Graham III (Indianapolis 500 Director) was first used to accurately track drivers times and simultaneously display race leaders and laps.
1983: Al Unser and son Al Unser, Jr. are the first father and son to compete together in the same race.
1984: Michael Andretti becomes the first son of a previous Rookie of the Year award winner (Mario Andretti, 1965) to win the award himself, shared with Colombian Roberto Guerrero.
1986: ABC Sports provides flag-to-flag television coverage for the first time.
1988: Bill Vukovich III becomes the first third-generation driver to qualify and drive in the race, following his two-time winning grandfather and once second-place finishing father.
1992: Al Unser, Jr. becomes the first second-generation winner of the race, following his four-time winning father.
2002: Hélio Castroneves becomes the first rookie winner to become a multiple-race winner.
2005: Danica Patrick becomes the first female driver to lead the race, for a total of 19 laps.
2006: Marco Andretti becomes the first third-generation winner of the Rookie of the Year award (Mario Andretti, 1965; Michael Andretti, co-1984).
2007: First Indy 500 race with three women competing in the field (Duno, Fisher, Patrick); also the first race where two women were running at the completion of the event (Fisher, Patrick).
2009: First Indy 500 race where three females finished the race, (Duno, Fisher, Patrick). Also the highest finish for a woman, 3rd(Patrick).
2010: First Indy 500 race with four women competing in the field (Fisher, Patrick, Silvestro, Beatriz); The Rookie of the year it was for the Swiss dirver (Silvestro).
2017: Takuma Sato of Japan becomes the first Asian-born victor.