document_title: A Very Murray Christmas

question_text: who plays elliot in a very murray christmas

root

text: A Very Murray Christmas

text: Plot[edit]

text: On Christmas Eve, Bill Murray waits in his suite at the Carlyle Hotel, gradually realizing that a massive snowstorm has caused most of the guests for his live Christmas special to cancel. As time runs out, his two producers, Liz (Amy Poehler), and Bev (Julie White), coerce him into going on with the show, as he is financially on the hook if he cancels. With minimal crew, Murray goes live; but in the middle of singing a song, he begins to weep and then flees the studio. While trying to leave the hotel, he sees Chris Rock, whom he forces into performing "Do You Hear What I Hear?" with him. During a power outage, Rock flees, and the producers inform Murray that as the power outage is considered an Act of God the special can now be cancelled.

tag: p

text: Filled with relief, Murray goes to the Carlyle bar, where he sings a song with an anonymous waitress (Jenny Lewis). After they hear the chefs shouting, they go to investigate, and realize that the French chefs (Phoenix) are overwhelmed, as the fridges have stopped working and the food is about to go bad. Murray encourages them to bring the food to the bar, so that the few patrons can eat it all. On his way back to the bar, he passes a weeping bride (Rashida Jones), who informs him that her wedding was called off due to the cold, and who is also upset because she has fought with her fiancé, Elliot (Jason Schwartzman).

text: The French chefs sing "Alone on Christmas Day", followed by the lounge singer (Maya Rudolph) performing "Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)". Afterwards, the bride comes out wheeling a cake, and asks Murray about his theory of love. He asks Elliot and the bride to look at one another and think of the exact instant they knew they were in love with each other. The couple sing "I Saw the Light", and become re-engaged. At 12:01 the remaining guests at the hotel wish each other a merry Christmas, and then sing "Fairytale of New York" together. At the end of the song, Murray, who had been drinking heavily, passes out.

text: While unconscious, Murray dreams that he awakens on a beautiful set in the middle of his Christmas special. In his dream, he is joined by George Clooney and Miley Cyrus. As Clooney prepares martinis, Cyrus and Murray sing "Sleigh Ride" together. After a few more musical numbers between himself, Cyrus and Clooney, Murray reawakens in his suite at the Carlyle, where he realizes it is still Christmas.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Bill Murray as himself
Michael Cera as Jackie the Talent Agent
George Clooney as himself
Miley Cyrus as herself
Dimitri Dimitrov as himself
David Johansen as the Bartender
Jenny Lewis as The Waitress
Rashida Jones as The Bride
Amy Poehler as Liz
Chris Rock as himself
Maya Rudolph as Lounge Singer
Jason Schwartzman as Elliott
Paul Shaffer as himself
Julie White as Bev
Phoenix as The Chefs

text: Songs[edit]

text:
"The Christmas Blues" - Bill Murray
"Let It Snow, Let It Snow, Let It Snow" - Murray, Amy Poehler and Julie White
"Jingle Bells" - Murray
"Do You Hear What I Hear?" - Murray and Chris Rock
"Baby, It's Cold Outside" - Jenny Lewis and Murray
"The Twelve Days of Christmas" - Dmitri Dimitrov
"O Tannenbaum" - David Johansen
"Good King Wenceslas" - Lewis
"Alone on Christmas Day" -Phoenix, Jason Schwartzman, Murray, and Johansen
"Christmas (Baby Please Come Home)" - Maya Rudolph
"I Saw the Light" - Schwartzman, Rashida Jones, Rudolph, Johansen, and Murray
"Fairytale of New York" - The cast
"Sleigh Ride" - Murray and Miley Cyrus
"Silent Night" - Cyrus
"Santa Claus Wants Some Lovin'" - Murray and George Clooney
"Let It Snow, Let It Snow, Let It Snow" (reprise) - Murray, Cyrus and Clooney
"We Wish You a Merry Christmas" - Murray

text: Production[edit]

text: In October 2014, the film was announced as a Christmas special with Bill Murray to star and Sofia Coppola set to write and direct.[2]

text: In May 2015, the film was picked up by Netflix and was announced as a homage to classic variety shows and would be written by Murray, Mitch Glazer, and Coppola, and directed by Coppola. It was executive produced by Coppola, Glazer, Roman Coppola, and Tony Hernandez with Shaffer as the special's musical director and onscreen accompanist.[3]

text: The film is set at the Carlyle Hotel and its Bemelmans Bar.[4]

text: Initially, rapper Rick Ross was scheduled to sing "Santa Claus Wants Some Lovin'" with Murray, but when Ross became unavailable, George Clooney filled in. Also, Cyrus' acoustic version of "Silent Night" was a last-minute addition.[5][6]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The special received positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 73% rating based on 45 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's consensus states: "A Very Murray Christmas preaches effectively to the converted with a parade of superstar guests and hummable songs that - combined with the host's trademark presence - adds up to a unique holiday experience."[7] Metacritic reports a 68 out of 100 rating based on 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[8]

text: The special was nominated for Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Television Movie, and Paul Shaffer was nominated for Outstanding Music Direction.[9]


document_title: Fight-or-flight response

question_text: where does blood go during fight or flight

text: Fight-or-flight response

text: Physiology[edit]

text: Autonomic nervous system[edit]

text: The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and its role is mediated by two different components: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.[7]

text: Sympathetic nervous system[edit]

text: The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilises and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.[8]

text: Parasympathetic nervous system[edit]

text: The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the sacral spinal cord and medulla, physically surrounding the sympathetic origin, and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilises and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.[8]

text: Reaction[edit]

text: The reaction begins in the amygdala, which triggers a neural response in the hypothalamus. The initial reaction is followed by activation of the pituitary gland and secretion of the hormone ACTH.[9] The adrenal gland is activated almost simultaneously, via the sympathetic nervous system, and releases the hormone epinephrine. The release of chemical messengers results in the production of the hormone cortisol, which increases blood pressure, blood sugar, and suppresses the immune system.[10] The initial response and subsequent reactions are triggered in an effort to create a boost of energy. This boost of energy is activated by epinephrine binding to liver cells and the subsequent production of glucose.[11] Additionally, the circulation of cortisol functions to turn fatty acids into available energy, which prepares muscles throughout the body for response.[12] Catecholamine hormones, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) or noradrenaline (norepinephrine), facilitate immediate physical reactions associated with a preparation for violent muscular action and:[13]

text:
Acceleration of heart and lung action
Paling or flushing, or alternating between both
Inhibition of stomach and upper-intestinal action to the point where digestion slows down or stops
General effect on the sphincters of the body
Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body
Liberation of metabolic energy sources (particularly fat and glycogen) for muscular action
Dilation of blood vessels for muscles
Inhibition of the lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation
Dilation of pupil (mydriasis)
Relaxation of bladder
Inhibition of erection
Auditory exclusion (loss of hearing)
Tunnel vision (loss of peripheral vision)
Disinhibition of spinal reflexes
Shaking.

tag: ul

text: Function of physiological changes[edit]

text: The physiological changes that occur during the fight or flight response are activated in order to give the body increased strength and speed in anticipation of fighting or running. Some of the specific physiological changes and their functions include:[14][15]

text:
Increased blood flow to the muscles activated by diverting blood flow from other parts of the body.
Increased blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugars, and fats in order to supply the body with extra energy.
The blood clotting function of the body speeds up in order to prevent excessive blood loss in the event of an injury sustained during the response.
Increased muscle tension in order to provide the body with extra speed and strength.

text: Emotional components[edit]

text: Emotion regulation[edit]

text: In the context of the fight or flight response, emotional regulation is used proactively to avoid threats of stress or to control the level of emotional arousal.[16][17]

text: Emotional reactivity[edit]

text: During the reaction, the intensity of emotion that is brought on by the stimulus will also determine the nature and intensity of the behavioral response.[18] Individuals with higher levels of emotional reactivity may be prone to anxiety and aggression, which illustrates the implications of appropriate emotional reaction in the fight or flight response.[19][20]

text: Cognitive components[edit]

text: Content specificity[edit]

text: The specific components of cognitions in the fight or flight response seem to be largely negative. These negative cognitions may be characterised by: attention to negative stimuli, the perception of ambiguous situations as negative, and the recurrence of recalling negative words.[21] There also may be specific negative thoughts associated with emotions commonly seen in the reaction.[22]

text: Perception of control[edit]

text: Perceived control relates to an individual's thoughts about control over situations and events.[23] Perceived control should be differentiated from actual control because an individual's beliefs about their abilities may not reflect their actual abilities. Therefore, overestimation or underestimation of perceived control can lead to anxiety and aggression.[24]

text: Social information processing[edit]

text: The social information processing model proposes a variety of factors that determine behavior in the context of social situations and preexisting thoughts.[25] The attribution of hostility, especially in ambiguous situations, seems to be one of the most important cognitive factors associated with the fight or flight response because of its implications towards aggression.[26]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Evolutionary perspective[edit]

text: An evolutionary psychology explanation is that early animals had to react to threatening stimuli quickly and did not have time to psychologically and physically prepare themselves. The fight or flight response provided them with the mechanisms to rapidly respond to threats against survival.[27][28]

text: Examples[edit]

text: A typical example of the stress response is a grazing zebra. If the zebra sees a lion closing in for the kill, the stress response is activated as a means to escape its predator. The escape requires intense muscular effort, supported by all of the body’s systems. The sympathetic nervous system’s activation  provides for these needs. A similar example involving fight is of a cat about to be attacked by a dog. The cat shows accelerated heartbeat, piloerection (hair standing on end, normally to dissipate heat), and pupil dilation, all signs of sympathetic arousal.[13] Note that the zebra and cat still maintain homeostasis in all states.

text: Varieties of responses[edit]

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Animals respond to threats in many complex ways. Rats, for instance, try to escape when threatened, but will fight when cornered. Some animals stand perfectly still so that predators will not see them. Many animals freeze or play dead when touched in the hope that the predator will lose interest.

text: Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves.[29] These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.

text: The fight or flight actions also have polarity – the individual can either fight or flee against something that is threatening, such as a hungry lion, or fight for or fly towards something that is needed, such as the safety of the shore from a raging river.

text: A threat from another animal does not always result in immediate fight or flight. There may be a period of heightened awareness, during which each animal interprets behavioral signals from the other. Signs such as paling, piloerection, immobility, sounds, and body language communicate the status and intentions of each animal. There may be a sort of negotiation, after which fight or flight may ensue, but which might also result in playing, mating, or nothing at all. An example of this is kittens playing: each kitten shows the signs of sympathetic arousal, but they never inflict real damage.


document_title: Musical analysis

question_text: a person who analyzes musical compositions and musical systems is a

text: Musical analysis

text: Analyses[edit]

text: Some analysts, such as Donald Francis Tovey (whose Essays in Musical Analysis are among the most accessible musical analyses) have presented their analyses in prose. Others, such as Hans Keller (who devised a technique he called Functional Analysis) used no prose commentary at all in some of their work.[citation needed]

text: There have been many notable analysts other than Tovey and Keller. One of the best known and most influential was Heinrich Schenker, who developed Schenkerian analysis, a method that seeks to describe all tonal classical works as elaborations ("prolongations") of a simple contrapuntal sequence. Ernst Kurth coined the term of "developmental motif"[citation needed]. Rudolph Réti is notable for tracing the development of small melodic motifs through a work,[citation needed] while Nicolas Ruwet's analysis amounts to a kind of musical semiology.[citation needed]

text: Musicologists associated with the new musicology often use musical analysis (traditional or not) along with or to support their examinations of the performance practice and social situations in which music is produced and that produce music, and vice versa. Insights from the social considerations may then yield insight into analysis methods.

text: Edward Cone (1989,[page needed]) argues that musical analysis lies in between description and prescription. Description consists of simple non-analytical activities such as labeling chords with Roman numerals or tone-rows with integers or row-form, while the other extreme, prescription, consists of "the insistence upon the validity of relationships not supported by the text." Analysis must, rather, provide insight into listening without forcing a description of a piece that cannot be heard.

text: Techniques[edit]

text: Many techniques are used to analyze music. Metaphor and figurative description may be a part of analysis, and a metaphor used to describe pieces, "reifies their features and relations in a particularly pungent and insightful way: it makes sense of them in ways not formerly possible." (Guck 1994, 71) Even absolute music may be viewed as a, "metaphor for the universe," or nature as, "perfect form" (Dahlhaus 1989, 8, 29 cited in Bauer 2004, 131).

text: Discretization[edit]

text: The process of analysis often involves breaking the piece down into relatively simpler and smaller parts. Often, the way these parts fit together and interact with each other is then examined. This process of discretization or segmentation is often considered, as by Jean-Jacques Nattiez (1990), necessary for music to become accessible to analysis. Fred Lerdahl (1992, 112–13) argues that discretization is necessary even for perception by learned listeners, thus making it a basis of his analyses, and finds pieces such as Artikulation by György Ligeti inaccessible (Lerdahl 1988, 235) while Rainer Wehinger (1970) created a "Hörpartitur" or "score for listening" for the piece, representing different sonorous effects with specific graphic symbols much like a transcription.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Analysis often displays a compositional impulse while composition often expresses "display[s] an analytical impulse" but where "intertextual analyses often succeed through simple verbal description there are good reasons to literally compose the proposed connections. We actually hear how these songs resonate with one another, comment upon and affect one another...in a way, the music speaks for itself" (BaileyShea 2007,[page needed]). This analytic bent is most obvious in recomposition including the mash-ups of popular music.[citation needed]

text: Analytical situations[edit]

text: Analysis is an activity most often engaged in by musicologists and most often applied to western classical music, although music of non-western cultures and of unnotated oral traditions is also often analysed. An analysis can be conducted on a single piece of music, on a portion or element of a piece or on a collection of pieces. A musicologist's stance is his or her analytical situation. This includes the physical dimension or corpus being studied, the level of stylistic relevance studied, and whether the description provided by the analysis is of its immanent structure, compositional (or poietic) processes, perceptual (or esthesic) processes (Nattiez 1990, 135–36), all three, or a mixture.

text: Stylistic levels may be hierarchized as an inverted triangle:

text:
universals of music

system (style) of reference

style of a genre or an epoch

style of composer X

style of a period in the life of a composer

work

text: Nattiez outlines six analytical situations, preferring the sixth:

text:
Poietic processes

Immanent
structures of the
work

Esthesic processes

1

x

Immanent
analysis

2

x
←
x

Inductive
poietics

3

x
→
x

External
poietics

4

x
→
x

Inductive
esthesics

5

x
←
x

External
esthesics

6

x
=
x
=
x

Communication between the three levels

text: Examples:

text:
"...tackles only the immanent configuration of the work." Allen Forte's musical set theory
"...proceed[s] from an analysis of the neutral level to drawing conclusions about the poietic." Reti (1951, 194–206), analysis of Debussy's la Cathédrale engloutie
The reverse of the previous, taking "a poietic document—letters, plans, sketches— ... and analyzes the work in the light of this information." Paul Mie (1929), "stylistic analysis of Beethoven in terms of the sketches"
The most common, grounded in "perceptive introspection, or in a certain number of general ideas concerning musical perception ... a musicologist ... describes what they think is the listener's perception of the passage" Meyer (1956, 48), analysis of measures 9–11 of Bach's C minor fugue in Book I of the Well-Tempered Clavier
"Begins with information collected from listeners to attempt to understand how the work has been perceived ... obviously how experimental psychologists would work"
"The case in which an immanent analysis is equally relevant to the poietic as to the esthesic." Schenkerian analysis, which, based on the sketches of Beethoven (external poietics) eventually show through analysis how the works must be played and perceived (inductive esthesics)

tag: ol

text: Compositional analysis[edit]

text: Jacques Chailley (1951, 104) views analysis entirely from a compositional viewpoint, arguing that, "since analysis consists of 'putting oneself in the composer's shoes,' and explaining what he was experiencing as he was writing, it is obvious that we should not think of studying a work in terms of criteria foreign to the author's own preoccupations, no more in tonal analysis than in harmonic analysis."

text: Perceptual analysis[edit]

text: On the other hand, Fay (1971, 112) argues that, "analytic discussions of music are often concerned with processes that are not immediately perceivable. It may be that the analyst is concerned merely with applying a collection of rules concerning practice, or with the description of the compositional process. But whatever he [or she] aims, he often fails -- most notably in twentieth-century music -- to illuminate our immediate musical experience," and thus views analysis entirely from a perceptual viewpoint, as does Edward Cone (1960, 36), "true analysis works through and for the ear. The greatest analysts are those with the keenest ears; their insights reveal how a piece of music should be heard, which in turn implies how it should be played. An analysis is a direction for performance," and Thomson (1970, 196): "It seems only reasonable to believe that a healthy analytical point of view is that which is so nearly isomorphic with the perceptual act."

text: Analyses of the immanent level[edit]

text: Analyses of the immanent level include analyses by Alder, Heinrich Schenker, and the "ontological structuralism" of the analyses of Pierre Boulez, who says in his analysis of The Rite of Spring (Boulez 1966, 142), "must I repeat here that I have not pretended to discover a creative process, but concern myself with the result, whose only tangibles are mathematical relationships? If I have been able to find all these structural characteristics, it is because they are there, and I don't care whether they were put there consciously or unconsciously, or with what degree of acuteness they informed [the composer's] understanding of his conception; I care very little for all such interaction between the work and 'genius.'"

text: Again, Nattiez (1990, 138–39) argues that the above three approaches, by themselves, are necessarily incomplete and that an analysis of all three levels is required. Jean Molino (1975a, 50–51) shows that musical analysis shifted from an emphasis upon the poietic vantage point to an esthesic one at the beginning of the eighteenth century (Nattiez 1990, 137).

text: Nonformalized analyses[edit]

text: Nattiez distinguishes between nonformalized and formalized analyses. Nonformalized analyses, apart from musical and analytical terms, do not use resources or techniques other than language. He further distinguishes nonformalized analyses between impressionistic, paraphrases, or hermeneutic readings of the text (explications de texte). Impressionistic analyses are in "a more or less high-literary style, proceeding from an initial selection of elements deemed characteristic," such as the following description of the opening of Claude Debussy's Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun: "The alternation of binary and ternary divisions of the eighth notes, the sly feints made by the three pauses, soften the phrase so much, render it so fluid, that it escapes all arithmetical rigors. It floats between heaven and earth like a Gregorian chant; it glides over signposts marking traditional divisions; it slips so furtively between various keys that it frees itself effortlessly from their grasp, and one must await the first appearance of a harmonic underpinning before the melody takes graceful leave of this causal atonality" (Vuillermoz 1957, 64).

text: Paraphrases are a "respeaking" in plain words of the events of the text with little interpretation or addition, such as the following description of the "Bourée" of Bach's Third Suite: "An anacrusis, an initial phrase in D major. The figure marked (a) is immediately repeated, descending through a third, and it is employed throughout the piece. This phrase is immediately elided into its consequent, which modulates from D to A major. This figure (a) is used again two times, higher each time; this section is repeated" (Warburton 1952, 151).

text: "Hermeneutic reading of a musical text is based on a description, a 'naming' of the melody's elements, but adds to it a hermeneutic and phenomenological depth that, in the hands of a talented writer, can result in genuine interpretive masterworks.... All the illustrations in Abraham's and Dahlhaus's Melodielehre (1972) are historical in character; Rosen's essays in The Classical Style (1971) seek to grasp the essence of an epoch's style; Meyer's analysis of Beethoven's Farewell Sonata (1973: 242-68) penetrates melody from the vantage point of perceived structures." He gives as a last example the following description of Franz Schubert's Unfinished Symphony: "The transition from first to second subject is always a difficult piece of musical draughtsmanship; and in the rare cases where Schubert accomplishes it with smoothness, the effort otherwise exhausts him to the verge of dullness (as in the slow movement of the otherwise great A minor Quartet). Hence, in his most inspired works the transition is accomplished by an abrupt coup de théâtre; and of all such coups, no doubt the crudest is that in the Unfinished Symphony. Very well then; here is a new thing in the history of the symphony, not more new, not more simple than the new things which turned up in each of Beethoven's nine. Never mind its historic origin, take it on its merits. Is it not a most impressive moment?" (Tovey 1978, 213–1990, 162–163).

text: Formalized analyses[edit]

text: Formalized analyses propose models for melodic functions or simulate music. Meyer distinguishes between global models, which "provide an image of the whole corpus being studied, by listing characteristics, classifying phenomena, or both; they furnish statistical evaluation," and linear models which "do not try to reconstitute the whole melody in order of real time succession of melodic events. Linear models ... describe a corpus by means of a system of rules encompassing not only the hierarchical organization of the melody, but also the distribution, environment, and context of events, examples including the explanation of "succession of pitches in New Guinean chants in terms of distributional constraints governing each melodic interval" by Chenoweth (1972, 1979), the transformational analysis by Herndon (1974, 1975), and the "grammar for the soprano part in Bach's chorales [which,] when tested by computer ... allows us to generate melodies in Bach's style" by Baroni and Jacoboni (1976,[page needed]).

text: Global models are further distinguished as analysis by traits, which "identify the presence or absence of a particular variable, and makes a collective image of the song, genre, or style being considered by means of a table, or classificatory analysis, which sorts phenomena into classes," one example being "trait listing" by Helen Roberts (1955, 222), and classificatory analysis, which "sorts phenomena into classes," examples being the universal system for classifying melodic contours by Kolinski (1956). Classificatory analyses often call themselves taxonomical. "Making the basis for the analysis explicit is a fundamental criterion in this approach, so delimiting units is always accompanied by carefully defining units in terms of their constituent variables." Nattiez (1990, 164)

text: Intermediary analyses[edit]

text: Nattiez lastly proposes intermediary models "between reductive formal precision, and impressionist laxity." These include Schenker, Meyer (classification of melodic structure in Meyer 1973, chapter 7), Narmour, and Lerdahl-Jackendoff's "use of graphics without appealing to a system of formalized rules," complementing and not replacing the verbal analyses. These are in contrast to the formalized models of Babbitt (1972) and Boretz (1969). According to Nattiez, Boretz "seems to be confusing his own formal, logical model with an immanent essence he then ascribes to music," and Babbitt "defines a musical theory as a hypothetical-deductive system ... but if we look closely at what he says, we quickly realize that the theory also seeks to legitimize a music yet to come; that is, that it is also normative ... transforming the value of the theory into an aesthetic norm ... from an anthropological standpoint, that is a risk that is difficult to countenance." Similarly, "Boretz enthusiastically embraces logical formalism, while evading the question of knowing how the data—whose formalization he proposes—have been obtained" (Nattiez 1990, 167).

text: Divergent analyses[edit]

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text: Typically a given work is analyzed by more than one person and different or divergent analyses are created. For instance, the first two bars of the prelude to Claude Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande:

text: are analyzed differently by Leibowitz (1971), Laloy, van Appledorn, and Christ (1966). Leibowitz analyses this succession harmonically as D minor:I-VII-V, ignoring melodic motion, Laloy analyses the succession as D:I-V, seeing the G in the second measure as an ornament, and both van Appledorn and Christ (1966,[page needed]) analyses the succession as D:I-VII.

text: Nattiez (1990, 173) argues that this divergence is due to the analysts' respective analytic situations, and to what he calls transcendent principles (1997b: 853, what George Holton might call "themata"), the "philosophical project[s]", "underlying principles", or a prioris of analyses, one example being Nattiez's use of the tripartitional definition of sign, and what, after epistemological historian Paul Veyne, he calls plots.

text: Van Appledorn sees the succession as D:I-VII so as to allow the interpretation of the first chord in measure five, which Laloy sees as a dominant seventh on D (V/IV) with a diminished fifth (despite that the IV doesn't arrive till measure twelve), while van Appledorn sees it as a French sixth on D, D-F♯-Ab-[C] in the usual second inversion. This means that D is the second degree and the required reference to the first degree, C, being established by the D:VII or C major chord. "The need to explain the chord in measure five establishes that C-E-G is 'equally important' as the D-(F)-A of measure one." Leibowitz (1971,[page needed]) gives only the bass for chord, E indicating the progression I-II an "unreal" progression in keeping with his "dialectic between the real and the unreal" used in the analysis, while Christ explains the chord as an augmented eleventh with a bass of B♭, interpreting it as a traditional tertian extended chord.

text: Not only does an analyst select particular traits, they arrange them according to a plot [intrigue].... Our sense of the component parts of a musical work, like our sense of historical 'facts,' is mediated by lived experience." (176)

text: While John Blacking (1973, 17–18), among others, holds that "there is ultimately only one explanation and ... this could be discovered by a context-sensitive analysis of the music in culture," according to Nattiez (1990: 168) and others, "there is never only one valid musical analysis for any given work." Blacking gives as example: "everyone disagrees hotly and stakes his [or her] academic reputation on what Mozart really meant in this or that bar of his symphonies, concertos, or quartets. If we knew exactly what went on inside Mozart's mind when he wrote them, there could be only one explanation". (93) However, Nattiez points out that even if we could determine "what Mozart was thinking" we would still be lacking an analysis of the neutral and esthesic levels.

text: Roger Scruton (1978, 175–76), in a review of Nattiez's Fondements, says one may, "describe it as you like so long as you hear it correctly ... certain descriptions suggest wrong ways of hearing it ... what is obvious to hear [in Pélleas et Mélisande] is the contrast in mood and atmosphere between the 'modal' passage and the bars which follow it." Nattiez counters that if compositional intent were identical to perception, "historians of musical language could take a permanent nap.... Scruton sets himself up as a universal, absolute conscience for the 'right' perception of the Pélleas et Mélisande. But hearing is an active symbolic process (which must be explained): nothing in perception is self-evident."

text: Thus Nattiez suggests that analyses, especially those intending "a semiological orientation, should ... at least include a comparative critique of already-written analyses, when they exist, so as to explain why the work has taken on this or that image constructed by this or that writer: all analysis is a representation; [and] an explanation of the analytical criteria used in the new analysis, so that any critique of this new analysis could be situated in relation to that analysis's own objectives and methods. As Jean-Claude Gardin so rightly remarks, 'no physicist, no biologist is surprised when asked to indicate, in the context of a new theory, the physical data and the mental operations that led to its formulation' Gardin (1974, 69). Making one's procedures explicit would help to create a cumulative progress in knowledge." (177)


document_title: The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

question_text: when was the taj hotel in mumbai built

question_tokens: when was the taj hotel in mumbai built

text: The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

text: History[edit]

text: The hotel's original building was commissioned by Tata and first opened its doors to guests on 16 December 1903.

text: It is widely believed that Jamsetji Tata decided to build the hotel after he was refused entry to one of the city's grand hotels of the time, Watson's Hotel, as it was restricted to "whites only". However, this story has been challenged by some commentators that suggest that Tata was unlikely to have been concerned with 'revenge' against his British adversaries. Instead, they suggest that the Taj was built at the urging of editor of The Times of India who felt a hotel "worthy of Bombay" was needed.[10]

text: The original Indian architects were Sitaram Khanderao Vaidya and D. N. Mirza, and the project was completed by an English engineer, W. A. Chambers. The builder was Khansaheb Sorabji Ruttonji Contractor who also designed and built its famous central floating staircase. The cost of construction was £250,000 (£127 million in 2008 prices).[11]

text: Originally the main entrance was on the other side, where now the pool exists, and the ocean was at the back, although it is now always viewed and photographed from the ocean side.[12]

text: Between 1915 and 1919, work proceeded at Apollo Bundar to reclaim the land behind the hotel where the Gateway of India was built in 1924. Gateway of India soon became a major focal point in Bombay.

text: The original clientele were mainly the Europeans, the Maharajas and the elites. Many world-renowned personalities have since stayed there, from Somerset Maugham and Duke Ellington to Lord Mountbatten and Bill Clinton.

text: When it opened in 1903, the hotel was the first in India to have: electricity, American fans, German elevators, Turkish baths and English butlers. Later it also had the city’s first licensed bar, India’s first all-day restaurant, and the India’s first discotheque, Blow Up.[13] Initially in 1903, it charged Rs 13 for rooms with fans and attached bathrooms, and Rs 20 with full board.

text: During World War I the hotel was converted into a hospital with 600 beds.

text: Jinnah's estranged wife Ratanbai Petit lived here during her last days in 1929 (her mother belonged to the Tata family).[14] By 1966, the building was run-down, perhaps as a results of losing the British customers in 1948.[15]

text: The Taj Hotel was home to legendary Jazz musician Micky Correa, "The Sultan of Swing" from 1936-1960.[16][17]

text: The Taj Mahal Tower, an additional wing of the hotel, was opened in 1973.[18] It was designed by Melton Bekker.[19] Also in 1970s Taj Hotels Resorts and Palaces was organized that built new properties and converted palaces into heritage hotels. In 1980, it expanded overseas.

text: The hotel received extensive international exposure in 2008 and reopened after extensive repairs.

text: 2008 attack[edit]

text: Taj Mahal Palace Hotel was specifically chosen by Lashkar-e-Taiba for an attack so that it will be "striking a blow against a symbol of Indian wealth and progress".[20] The hotel was attacked on 26 November 2008, during which material damage occurred, including the destruction of the hotel's roof in the hours following.[21] Hostages were taken during the attacks, and at least 167 people were killed, including many foreigners. The casualties were mostly Indian citizens, although westerners carrying foreign passports were singled out.[22] Indian commandos killed the gunmen barricaded in the hotel, to end the three-day battle on 29 November.[23] At least 31 died at the Taj. Approximately 450 people were staying in the Taj Mahal Palace and Hotel at the time of the seizure.[24] The attack was planned using information compiled by David Headley, a Pakistani-American, who had stayed at the hotel multiple times.

text: Soon after (30 November), Tata chairman Ratan Tata said in an interview with CNN's Fareed Zakaria that they had received advance warning of the attacks and that some countermeasures had been taken. These may have been relaxed before the attack, but in any case were easily sidestepped by the operatives.[25]

text: The less-damaged sections of the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower hotel reopened on 21 December 2008. It took several months to rebuild the popular heritage section of the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel.[26]

text: Hillary Clinton visited Mumbai in July 2009, aiming to deepen India – United States relations and stayed at the Taj hotel; she also attended a commemoration event. "I wanted to send a message that I personally and our country is in sympathy and solidarity with the employees and the guests of the Taj who lost their lives … with the people of Mumbai."[27] On 15 August 2010, India's Independence Day, the Taj Mahal Palace was reopened after restoration. The cost of the restoration of the hotel so far has been 1.75 billion rupees. The palace wing has been restored and offers new hotel services.[clarification needed][28]

text: On 6 November 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama became the first foreign head of state to stay at the Taj Mahal Palace after the attacks. In a speech from the terrace of the hotel, Obama said that "the Taj has been the symbol of the strength and the resilience of the Indian people."[29]

text: In media[edit]

text:
William Warren, Jill Gocher (2007). Asia's Legendary Hotels: The Romance of Travel. Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-0-7946-0174-4.
The hotel is the primary setting of the novel Night in Bombay (1940) by the American novelist Louis Bromfield.
It has also been mentioned in the short story "Sahab Bahadur" by Indian writer Sultan Rashed Mirza, Farhat Ullah Baaaig, and in the novel Delinquent Chacha by Ved Mehta.
It was portrayed as a dream destination for a schoolboy to visit in the Marathi movie Taryanche Bait.[30]
Michael Palin spent the night in episode 4 of Michael Palin: Around the World in 80 Days.

text: Hotel Grand Palace is the other name for Hotel Taj Mahal. This name has been used by people as a translation of the Hindi version of Taj Mahal, especially by authors. Such authors as Jeffrey Archer have used this term in their novels.

text: The hotel was the subject of a four-part BBC Two fly on the wall documentary series starting in August 2014, called Hotel India.[31]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Images of The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel dome in the old wing.

A night view of The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

A view of The Hotel and The Gateway of India from the Arabian Sea.

A night view of The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel

The Taj Mahal Hotel in 1908

Taj Mahal Palace Hotel During Sunset

Taj Mahal Palace Hotel Seaside View, before monsoon


document_title: Neisseria meningitidis

question_text: what kind of antibiotics are used for neisseria meningitidis

text: Neisseria meningitidis

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text:
Meningococcus can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease.[3]
It initially produces general symptoms like fatigue, fever, and headache and can rapidly progress to neck stiffness, coma and death in 10% of cases. Symptoms of meningococcal meningitis are easily confused with those caused by other bacteria, such as Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae.[4][5] Suspicion of meningitis is a medical emergency and immediate medical assessment is recommended. Current guidance in the United Kingdom is that if a case of meningococcal meningitis or septicaemia (infection of the blood) is suspected intravenous antibiotics should be given and the ill person admitted to the hospital.[6] This means that laboratory tests may be less likely to confirm the presence of Neisseria meningitidis as the antibiotics will dramatically lower the number of bacteria in the body. The UK guidance is based on the idea that the reduced ability to identify the bacteria is outweighed by reduced chance of death.

text: Septicaemia caused by Neisseria meningitidis has received much less public attention than meningococcal meningitis even though septicaemia has been linked to infant deaths.[7]  Meningococcal septicaemia typically causes a purpuric rash, that does not lose its color when pressed with a glass ("non-blanching") and does not cause the classical symptoms of meningitis. This means the condition may be ignored by those not aware of the significance of the rash. Septicaemia carries an approximate 50% mortality rate over a few hours from initial onset.

text: Other severe complications include Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome, a massive, usually bilateral, hemorrhage into the adrenal glands caused by fulminant meningococcemia, adrenal insufficiency, and disseminated intravascular coagulation.[5]

text: Not all instances of a purpura-like rash are due to meningococcal septicaemia; other possible causes, such as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP; a platelet disorder) and Henoch–Schönlein purpura, also need prompt investigation.

text: Microbiology[edit]

text: N. meningitidis is a Gram-negative diplococcus since it has an outer and inner membranes with a thin layer of peptidoglycan in between. It is 0.6–1.0 micrometers in size. It tests positive for the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase.[8]

text: Habitat[edit]

text: N. meningitidis is a part of the normal nonpathogenic flora in the nasopharynx of up to 5–15% of adults.[9] It colonizes and infects only humans, and has never been isolated from other animals. This is thought to stem from the bacterium's inability to get iron sources other than human transferrin and lactoferrin.[4]

text: Subtypes[edit]

text: Disease-causing strains are classified according to the antigenic structure of their polysaccharide capsule.[10] Serotype distribution varies markedly around the world.[11]  Among the 13 identified capsular types of N. meningitidis, six (A, B, C, W135, X, and Y) account for most disease cases worldwide.[12] Type A has been the most prevalent in Africa and Asia, but is rare/practically absent in North America.  In the United States, serogroup B is the predominant cause of disease and mortality, followed by serogroup C. The multiple subtypes have hindered development of a universal vaccine for meningococcal disease.

text: Pathogenesis[edit]

text: Virulence[edit]

text: Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) is a component of the outer membrane of N. meningitidis. This acts as an endotoxin and is responsible for septic shock and hemorrhage due to the destruction of red blood cells.[13] Other virulence factors include a polysaccharide capsule which prevents host phagocytosis and aids in evasion of the host immune response; fimbriae  mediate attachment of the bacterium to the epithelial cells of the nasopharynx.[14][15]  It infects the cell by sticking to it mainly with long thin extensions called pili and the surface-exposed proteins Opa and Opc.[16] Meningococci produce an IgA protease, an enzyme that cleaves IgA class antibodies and thus allows the bacteria to evade a subclass of the humoral immune system.

text: A hypervirulent strain was discovered in China. Its impact is yet to be determined.[5]

text: Complement inhibition[edit]

text: Factor H binding protein (fHbp) that is exhibited in N. meningitidis and some commensal species is the main inhibitor of the alternative complement pathway. fHbp protects meningococci from complement-mediated death in human serum experiments, but has also been shown to protect meningococci from antimicrobial peptides in vitro. Factor H binding protein is key to the pathogenesis of N. meningitidis, and is, therefore, important as a potential vaccine candidate.[17]  Porins are also an important factor for complement inhibition for both pathogenic and commensal species. Porins are important for nutrient acquisition. Porins are also recognized by TLR2, they bind complement factors (C3b, C4b, factor H, and C4bp (complement factor 4b-binding protein)). Cooperation with pili for CR3-mediated internalization is another function of porins.  Ability to translocate into host cells and modulate reactive oxygen species production and apoptosis is made possible by porins, as well. Strains of the same species can express different porins.

text: Genome[edit]

text: At least 8 complete genomes of Neisseria meningitidis strains have been determined which encode about 2,100 to 2,500 proteins.[18]

text: The genome of strain MC58 (serogroup B) has 2,272,351-base pairs. When sequenced in 2000, it was found to contain 2158 open reading frames (ORFs). Of these, a biological function was predicted for 1158 (53.7%). There were three major islands of horizontal DNA transfer found. Two encode proteins involved in pathogenicity. The third island only codes for hypothetical proteins. They also found more genes that undergo phase variation than any pathogen then known. Phase variation is a mechanism that helps the pathogen to evade the immune system of the host.[19]

text: The genome size of strain H44/76 is 2.18 Mb, and encodes 2,480 open reading frames (ORFs), compared to 2.27 Mb and 2,465 ORFs for MC58.[18] Both strains have a GC content of 51.5%.[18] A comparison with MC58 showed that four genes are uniquely present in H44/76 and nine genes are only present in MC58. Of all ORFs in H44/76, 2,317 (93%) show more than 99% sequence identity.[18]

text: The complete genome sequence of strain NMA510612  (serogroup A) consists of one circular chromosome with a size of 2,188,020 bp, and the average GC content is 51.5%. The chromosome is predicted to possess 4 rRNA operons, 163 insertion elements (IS), 59 tRNAs, and 2,462 ORFs.[20]

text: Genetic transformation[edit]

text: Genetic transformation is the process by which a recipient bacterial cell takes up DNA from a neighboring cell and integrates this DNA into the recipient’s genome by recombination.  In N. meningitidis, DNA transformation requires the presence of short DNA sequences (9–10 mers residing in coding regions) of the donor DNA.  These sequences are called DNA uptake sequences (DUSs).  Specific recognition of these sequences is mediated by a type IV pilin.[21]  In N. meningitidis DUSs occur at a significantly higher density in genes involved in DNA repair and recombination (as well as in restriction-modification and replication) than in other annotated gene groups. The over-representation of DUS in DNA repair and recombination genes may reflect the benefit of maintaining the integrity of the DNA repair and recombination machinery by preferentially taking up genome maintenance genes, that could replace their damaged counterparts in the recipient cell.[22]

text: N. meningititis colonizes the nasopharyngeal mucosa, which is rich in macrophages.  Upon their activation, macrophages produce superoxide (O2¯) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Thus N. meningitidis is likely to encounter oxidative stress during its life cycle.[23]  Consequently, an important benefit of genetic transformation to N. meningitidis may be the maintenance of the recombination and repair machinery of the cell that removes oxidative DNA damages such as those caused by reactive oxygen. This is consistent with the more general idea that transformation benefits bacterial pathogens by facilitating repair of DNA damages produced by the oxidative defenses of the host during infection.[24]

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: With a fatality risk approaching 15% within 12 hours of infection, it is crucial to initiate testing as quickly as possible, but not to wait for the results before initiating antibiotic therapy.

text: A small amount of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is sent to the laboratory as soon as possible for analysis. The diagnosis is suspected, when Gram-negative diplococci are seen on Gram stain of a centrifuged sample of CSF; sometimes they are located inside white blood cells. The microscopic identification takes around 1–2 hours after specimen arrival in the laboratory.[3]

text: The gold standard of diagnosis is microbiological isolation of N. meningitidis by growth from a sterile body fluid, which could be CSF or blood.[5] Diagnosis is confirmed when the organism has grown, most often on a chocolate agar plate, but also on Thayer-Martin agar. To differentiate any bacterial growth from other species a small amount of a bacterial colony is tested for oxidase, catalase for which all clinically relevant Neisseria show a positive reaction, and the carbohydrates maltose, sucrose, and glucose, in which N. meningitidis will ferment that is, utilize the glucose and maltose. Finally, serology determines the subgroup of the N. meningitidis, which is important for epidemiological surveillance purposes; this may often only be done in specialized laboratories.

text: The above tests take a minimum of 48–72 hours turnaround time for growing the organism, and up to a week more for serotyping. Growth can and often does fail, either because antibiotics have been given preemptively, or because specimens have been inappropriately transported, as the organism is extremely susceptible to antibiotics and fastidious in its temperature, CO2 and growth medium requirements.

text: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests where available, mostly in industrialized countries, have been increasingly used; PCR can rapidly identify the organism, and works even after antibiotics have been given.[5]

text: Prevention[edit]

text: All recent contacts of the infected patient over the 7 days before onset should receive medication to prevent them from contracting the infection. This especially includes young children and their child caregivers or nursery-school contacts, as well as anyone who had direct exposure to the patient through kissing, sharing utensils, or medical interventions such as mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Anyone who frequently ate, slept or stayed at the patient's home during the 7 days before the onset of symptom, or those who sat beside the patient on an airplane flight or classroom for 8 hours or longer, should also receive chemoprophylaxis. The agent of choice is usually oral rifampicin for a few days.[5]

text: Receiving a dose of the Meningococcal vaccine before traveling to a country in the "meningitis belt" or having a booster meningitis vaccine, normally five years apart could prevent someone from getting an infection from the pathogen.[25]

text: Vaccination[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: A number of vaccines are available in the U.S. to prevent meningococcal disease. Some of the vaccines cover serogroup B, while others cover A, C, W, and Y.[26] A meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine (MPSV4) has been available since the 1970s and is the only meningococcal vaccine licensed for people older than 55. MPSV4 may be used in people 2–55 years old if the MCV4 vaccines are not available or contraindicated. Two meningococcal conjugate vaccines (MCV4) are licensed for use in the U.S. The first conjugate vaccine was licensed in 2005, the second in 2010. Conjugate vaccines are the preferred vaccine for people 2 through 55 years of age. It is indicated in those with impaired immunity, such as nephrotic syndrome or splenectomy. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes information about who should receive meningococcal vaccine.[27]

text: In June 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a combination vaccine against two types of meningococcal diseases and Hib disease for infants and children 6 weeks to 18 months old. The vaccine, Menhibrix, was designed to prevent disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis serogroups C and Y, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib). It was the first meningococcal vaccine that could be given to infants as young as six weeks old.[28]

text: In October 2014 the FDA approved the first vaccine effective against serogroup B,  named Trumenba, for use in 10- to 25-year-old individuals.[29]

text: Africa[edit]

text: In 2010, the Meningitis Vaccine Project introduced a vaccine called MenAfriVac in the African meningitis belt. It was made by generic drug maker Serum Institute of India and cost 50 U.S. cents per injection. Beginning in Burkina Faso in 2010, it has been given to 215 million people across Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Togo and Gambia.[30] The vaccination campaign has resulted in near-elimination of serogroup A meningitis from the participating countries.[31]

text: Treatment[edit]

text: Persons with confirmed N. meningitidis infection should be hospitalized immediately for treatment with antibiotics. Because meningococcal disease can disseminate very rapidly, a single dose of intramuscular antibiotic is often given at the earliest possible opportunity, even before hospitalization, if disease symptoms look suspicious enough.[5] Third-generation cephalosporin antibiotics (i.e. cefotaxime, ceftriaxone) should be used to treat a suspected or culture-proven meningococcal infection before antibiotic susceptibility results are available.[32] Empirical treatment should also be considered if a lumbar puncture, to collect CSF for laboratory testing, cannot be done within 30 minutes of admission to hospital.[33][34] Antibiotic treatment may affect the results of microbiology tests,  but a diagnosis may be made on the basis of blood-cultures and clinical examination.[35]

text: Epidemiology[edit]

text:
N. meningitidis is a major cause of illness, developmental impairment and death during childhood in industrialized countries and has been responsible for epidemics in Africa and in Asia. Every year, about 2,500 to 3,500 people become infected with N. meningitidis in the US, with a frequency of about 1 in 100,000. Children younger than 5 years are at greatest risk, followed by teenagers of high school age. Rates in the African meningitis belt were as high as 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100[5] before introduction of a vaccine in 2010. The incidence of meningococcal disease is highest among infants (children younger than 1-year-old) whose immune system is relatively immature. In industrialized countries there is a second peak of incidence in young adults, who are congregating closely, living in dormitories or smoking.[36] Vaccine development is ongoing.[37]
It is spread through saliva and other respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, and chewing on toys. Inhalation of respiratory droplets from a carrier which may be someone who is themselves in the early stages of disease can transmit the bacteria. Close contact with a carrier is the predominant risk factor.  Other risk factors include a weakened general or local immune response, such as a recent upper respiratory infection, smoking, and complement deficiency. The incubation period is short, from 2 to 10 days. In susceptible individuals, N. meningitidis may invade the bloodstream and cause a systemic infection, sepsis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, breakdown of circulation, and septic shock.

text: History[edit]

text: In 1884 Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli first observed the bacterium inside cells in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF).[38] In 1887 Anton Weichselbaum isolated the bacterium from the CSF of patients with bacterial meningitis.[39]  He named the bacterium Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis.[38]