document_title: List of earthquakes in New Zealand

question_text: when was the last time auckland had an earthquake

text: List of earthquakes in New Zealand

text: Pre-19th century[edit]

text:
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information

1100
Alpine Fault
South Island
7.6–8.3

[4]

1460
Wellington Region
Wellington
8.0
8.0
25 km
41.39°S
174.80°E

[5]

1610-20
Alpine Fault
South Island
7.6–8.3

[4][6]

1717
Alpine Fault
South Island
8.1

[4][6]

text: 19th century[edit]

text: Information for earthquakes before 1840 are later estimates.

text:
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information

1815
New Plymouth
Taranaki
7.0 [7]

25 km
38.99°S
174.00°E

1817
Fiordland
South Island
7.0 [8]

25 km
45.99°S
167.00°E

1826
Fiordland
South Island
8.0 [9]
8.0
25 km
44.99°S
167.00°E

1835
South Auckland
Auckland
7.0 [10]

25 km
36.99°S
175.00°E

Apparently a large shallow earthquake followed by aftershocks. Evidence rests on a single report that has so far not been verified[11]

1838
Waitotara Forest
Manawatu
7.0 [12]

25 km
39.39°S
176.10°E

26 May 1840
Paraparaumu
Wellington
6.0 [13]

25 km
41.00°S
175.00°E

8 Jul 1843
Near Taihape
Manawatu
7.6 [14]
7.6
12 km
39.59°S
176.20°E
2
1843 Wanganui earthquake

13 Jul 1846
Snares Islands
Southland
6.3 [15]

25 km
47.00°S
166.00°E

19 Nov 1846
Karamea
West Coast
6.5 [16]

25 km
41.00°S
172.00°E

4 Dec 1846
Wellington
Wellington
6.0 [17]

25 km
41.00°S
174.50°E

16 Oct 1848
Blenheim
Marlborough
7.4 [18]
7.8
12 km
41.89°S
173.60°E
3
1848 Marlborough earthquake

27 Jul 1851
Motueka
Tasman
6.0 [19]

25 km
41.00°S
173.00°E

23 Jan 1855
Lake Wairarapa
Wairarapa
8.2[20]
8.2
33 km
41.198°S
175.20°E
9
1855 Wairarapa earthquake[21][22][23][24]

23 Feb 1863
Waipukurau
Hawke's Bay
7.5[25]

25 km
40.00°S
176.50°E

1863 Hawke's Bay earthquake[26][27]

19 Oct 1868
Cape Farewell
Tasman
7.2 [28]

12 km[29]
40.20°S
173.00°E

Felt throughout Central New Zealand

5 Jun 1869
Christchurch
Canterbury
4.7[30]–5.7[31]

5 km
43.55°S
172.60°E

1869 Christchurch earthquake

18 Jul 1876
Palmerston North
Manawatu
6.8 [32]

50 km
40.19°S
175.80°E

Felt strongly in Palmerston North

25 Jun 1881
Palmerston North
Manawatu
6.7 [33]

33 km
40.39°S
175.60°E

Felt strongly in Palmerston North

5 Dec 1881
Castle Hill[34]
Canterbury
6.0 [35]

12 km
43.13°S
171.77°E

Damaged stone buildings in Christchurch, including ChristChurch Cathedral[36]

1 Sep 1888
Lewis Pass
Canterbury
7.0 [37]
7.1
12 km
42.59°S
172.55°E

1888 North Canterbury earthquake

23 Jun 1891
Port Waikato
Auckland
6.2 [38]

12 km
37.43°S
174.43°E

Felt in Auckland/Waikato

12 Feb 1893
Nelson
Tasman Bay
6.7 [39]

70 km
40.99°S
173.80°E

Felt throughout Central New Zealand

18 Aug 1895
Taupo
Bay of Plenty
6.0 [40]

12 km
38.80°S
176.80°E

Felt throughout Central New Zealand

8 Dec 1897
Wanganui
Manawatu
6.5 [41]

40 km
39.99°S,
175.00°E

Felt throughout North Island, Strong in Wanganui

text:
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information

16 Nov 1901
Cheviot
North Canterbury
6.8 [42]

12 km
42.74°S
173.35°E
1
1901 Cheviot earthquake

9 Aug 1904
Cape Turnagain
Hawke's Bay
7.0 [43]
7.2
16 km
40.40°S
176.40°E

1904 Cape Turnagain earthquake

7 Oct 1914
East Cape
Gisborne
6.6 [44]

12 km
37.80°S
178.20°E

Felt throughout eastern North Island

22 Nov 1914
Tauranga
Bay of Plenty
7.3 [45]

300 km
37.49°S
176.50°E

Felt throughout North Island

1 May 1917
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

8.0
50 km
29.00°S
177.00°W

Felt throughout New Zealand[46]

6 Aug 1917
Castlepoint
Manawatu
6.8 [47]

12 km
40.80°S
176.00°E

Felt throughout North Island

3 Nov 1918
Puysegur Trench
South of New Zealand
6.8 [48]

50 km
47.00°S
165.40°E

Felt throughout Southland

29 Jun 1921
Kaweka Forest
Hawke's Bay
7.0 [49]

80 km
39.29°S
176.40°E

Felt throughout North Island

25 Dec 1922
Motunau
North Canterbury
6.4

20 km
42.99°S
173.00°E

Felt throughout Upper half of South Island

9 Mar 1929
Arthur's Pass
Canterbury
7.0 [50]

12 km
42.83°S
171.83°E

1929 Arthur's Pass earthquake

17 Jun 1929
Murchison
West Coast
7.3 [51]
7.8
20 km
41.69°S
172.20°E
17
1929 Murchison earthquake

23 Jun 1929
Murchison
West Coast
6.5 [52]

12 km
41.78°S
172.32°E

12 Feb 1930
Porangahau
Hawke's Bay
6.2

33 km
40.39°S
176.55°E

Felt throughout lower half of North Island

3 Feb 1931
North of Napier
Hawke's Bay
7.4 [53]
7.8
20 km
39.29°S
177.00°E
256
1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake

13 Feb 1931
East of Napier
Hawke's Bay
7.3 [54]

30 km
39.55°S
177.31°E

Aftershock to M 7.4 event

16 Sep 1932
Wairoa
Hawke's Bay
6.9 [55]

12 km
38.95°S
177.59°E

Caused further damage to the already devastated Hawke's Bay.

5 Mar 1934
Pahiatua
Manawatu
7.2 [56]

12 km
40.54°S
176.29°E
2
1934 Pahiatua earthquake

15 Mar 1934
Wairoa
Hawke's Bay
6.3

25 km
39.31°S
177.23°E

Felt strongly in Hawke's Bay and Gisborne

24 May 1936
Whakatane
Bay of Plenty
6.5 [57]

150 km
37.99°S
177.00°E

Felt in North Island

16 Dec 1938
Fiordland
Southland
7.0

60 km
44.99°S
167.00°E

Felt throughout South Island

11 Feb 1939
Fiordland
Southland
7.0 [58]

25 km
45.00°S
167.50°E

Felt throughout South Island

26 Feb 1940
Hastings
Hawke's Bay
6.0

25 km
39.50°S
176.50°E

Felt throughout North Island

24 Jun 1942
Masterton
Wairarapa
6.9 [59]

12 km
40.96°S
175.69°E
1[60]
June 1942 Wairarapa earthquake

1 Aug 1942
Masterton
Wairarapa
6.8 [61]

40 km
41.01°S
175.52°E
1
August 1942 Wairarapa earthquake

17 Feb 1943
Te Anau
Southland
6.5

123 km
45.29°S
168.00°E

Felt throughout South Island

2 Aug 1943
Te Anau
Southland
6.1 [62]

33 km
45.64°S
166.67°E

Felt throughout South Island

2 Sep 1945
Stewart Island
Southland
6.5 [63]

12 km
47.47°S,
166.12°E

Felt throughout Southland and Otago

26 Jun 1946
Lake Coleridge
Canterbury
6.5[64]

12 km
43.30°S
171.47°E

Mainshock

26 Mar 1947
Offshore Poverty Bay
Gisborne
7.1

38.55°S
178.42°E

1947 Gisborne earthquakes and tsunami

17 May 1947
Offshore Tolaga Bay
Gisborne
7.1

38.21°S
178.60°E

1947 Gisborne earthquakes and tsunami

22 May 1948
Hanmer Springs
North Canterbury
6.4

12 km
42.49°S
173.00°E

Mainshock

22 May 1948
Cheviot
North Canterbury
6.2

12 km
42.83°S
173.05°E

Separate event triggered by the M 6.4 earthquake 5 minutes prior

9 Feb 1949
Hawera
Taranaki
6.4

199 km
39.67°S
174.35°E

Felt throughout North Island

text:
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information

10 Feb 1951
Porangahau
Hawke's Bay
6.1

33 km
40.21°S
177.04°E

Felt throughout North Island [65]

24 Jun 1951
Toaroa Junction
Manawatu
6.3

33 km
39.45°S
176.20°E

Felt throughout North Island

29 Sep 1953
Tauranga
Bay of Plenty
7.2 [66]

273 km
37.59°S
176.48°E

Felt throughout North Island

27 Feb 1955
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands
7.8

18 km
28.40°S
175.37°W

Felt in the East half of North Island

29 Dec 1956
Matawai
Gisborne
6.1
6.1
33 km
39.72°S
176.87°E

Felt strongly along the East Coast of the North Island

31 Jan 1958
Waipawa
Hawke's Bay
6.1

12 km
30.30°S
177.50°E

14 Sep 1959
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

7.8
35 km
28.82°S
177.07°W

Felt in the East half of North Island

28 Mar 1960
Mokau
Taranaki
6.6 [67]

237 km
39.04°S
174.81°E

Doublet earthquake to 6.5 event

28 Mar 1960
Mokau
Taranaki
6.5 [68]

209 km
39.04°S
174.77°E

Doublet earthquake to 6.6 event

25 May 1960
Milford Sound
Southland
6.3

12 km
44.17°S
167.72°E

27 Dec 1961
Martinborough
Wellington
6.2

12 km
41.51°S
176.11°E

Struck offshore, 65 km east of Martinborough

18 Dec 1963
Raoul Islands
Kermadec Islands

7.7
35 km
24.77°S
176.52°W

Felt in the East half of North Island

11 April 1965
Kaikoura
North Canterbury
6.1

12 km
42.76°S
173.87°E

Felt in Kaikoura/North Canterbury

21 May 1965
George Sound
Southland
6.4

101 km
44.94°S
167.36°E

4 Mar 1966
Gisborne
East Cape
6.0

33 km
38.73°S
178.11°E

Felt in Gisborne

23 April 1966
Cook Strait
Marlborough
5.8
5.8
12 km
41.64°S
174.54°E

Caused damage in Wellington

24 May 1968
Inangahua Junction
West Coast
6.7[69]
7.1[69]
12 km
41.75°S
172.04°E
2
1968 Inangahua earthquake

6 Jan 1973
Taupo
Waikato
7.0

163 km
39.03°S
175.26°E

Felt throughout New Zealand

5 May 1976
Milford Sound
Southland
6.6

12 km
44.67°S
167.38°E

15 Jan 1976
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

7.8
43 km
29.21°S
177.63°W

Foreshock to M 8.2 event

15 Jan 1976
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

8.2
31 km
29.17°S
177.31°W

Main shock

18 Jan 1977
Cook Strait
Marlborough
6.0

33 km
41.84°S
174.58°E

12 Oct 1979
Puysegur Trench
South of New Zealand
6.5

12 km
46.70°S
166.03°E

31 Dec 1984
White Island
Bay of Plenty
6.3

12 km
36.59°S
177.55°E

Felt around the Bay of Plenty

21 Oct 1986
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

8.3
33 km
28.15°S
176.29°W

Felt throughout New Zealand[70]

2 Mar 1987
Edgecumbe
Bay of Plenty
6.1
6.5
10 km
37.88°S
176.80°E

1987 Edgecumbe earthquake

4 Jun 1988
Te Anau
Southland
6.1

73 km
45.12°S
167.29°E

24 May 1989
Puysegur Trench
South of New Zealand

8.2

Felt in the South Island

31 May 1989
Doubtful Sound
Southland
6.1

23 km
45.33°S
166.87°E

13 May 1990
Weber
Manawatu
6.2[71]
6.4[71]
29 km
40.42S
176.47°E

Mainshock

28 Jan 1991
Buller Ranges
West Coast
6.1

9.9 km
41.90°S
171.65°E

Foreshock to M 6.3 event

29 Jan 1991
Buller Ranges
West Coast
6.3

17.3 km
41.90°S
171.72°E

Mainshock

8 Sep 1991
South Taranaki Bight
Manawatu
6.3

86 km
40.24°S
175.16°E

Felt throughout North Island

27 May 1992
Wairau Valley
Marlborough
6.8

79 km
41.60°S
173.66°E

Felt in Central New Zealand

21 June 1992
White Island
Bay of Plenty
6.1

5 km
37.57°S
176.82°E

Felt in Bay of Plenty

10 Aug 1993
Secretary Island
Southland
6.7
7.0
5 km
45.21°S
166.70°E

Felt as far away as Australia

10 Aug 1993
Gisborne
East Cape
6.3

45 km
38.52°S
177.90°E

Felt strongly in Gisborne.

11 Apr 1993
Hastings
Hawke's Bay
6.1

37 km
39.72°S
176.71°E

Felt strongly throughout Hawke's Bay

18 Jun 1994
Arthur's Pass
Canterbury
6.7 [72]
6.7
4 km
43.00°S
171.47°E

Mainshock

19 Jun 1994
Lake Coleridge
Canterbury
6.1

5 km
43.16°S,
171.47°E

Triggered from the M 6.7 Arthur's Pass event

24 Nov 1995
Arthur's Pass
Canterbury
6.3

7 km
42.95°S,
171.81°E

Felt strongly in the South Island

6 Feb 1995
NE of New Zealand
East Cape
7.0

12 km
37.7°7S
179.68°E

Mainshock

10 Feb 1995
NE of New Zealand
East Cape
6.6

12 km
37.92°7S
179.51°E

25 May 1997
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

7.9
339 km
33.61°S
177.80°E

Felt throughout North Island and upper half of South Island

20 Apr 1998
Taumaranui
Manawatu
6.7 [73]

232 km
39,02S
174.92°E

Felt throughout the North Island

25 Oct 1999
Taupo
Waikato
7.0

160 km
38.56S
175.91°E

Felt throughout New Zealand

text:
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information

15 Aug 2000
L'Esperance Rock
Kermadec Islands
7.6 [74]

436 km
31.94°S
178.55°E

Felt in Christchurch

1 Nov 2000
Fiordland
Southland
6.2 [75]

9 km
45.12°S
166.95°E

21 Aug 2001
NE of New Zealand
East Cape
7.1 [76]
7.1
33 km
36.98°S
179.16°E

Felt in the Gisborne area

21 Oct 2001
NE of New Zealand
East Cape
6.3

12 km
36.89°S
179.86°E

Felt in the Gisborne area

8 Dec 2001
Haast
West Coast
6.2

5 km
44.11°S
168.60°E

Mainshock

22 Aug 2003
Fiordland
Southland
7.0 [77]
7.2
24 km
45.19°S,
166.83°E

Felt throughout South Island

22 Nov 2004
Puysegur Trench
South of New Zealand
7.1 [78]
7.0
12 km
46.57°S
165.08°E

Reportedly felt as far north as Hamilton.

14 Mar 2005
Opunake
Manawatu-Wanganui
6.4

154 km
40.17°S
173.63°E

Felt strongly throughout central New Zealand

16 May 2006
L'Esperance Rock
Kermadec Islands
7.5 [79]
7.4
150 km
31.56°S,
179.30°W

Felt in East half of New Zealand

16 May 2006
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands
7.1

33 km
31.98°S,
177.21°W

Felt in East half on North Island

16 Oct 2007
Fiordland
Southland
6.7 [80]
6.7
5 km
44.72°S
167.39°E

Felt lower half of South Island

9 Dec 2007
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands

7.8
152 km
25.99°S
177.51°W

Felt in East half of New Zealand

20 Dec 2007
Gisborne
East Cape
6.7 [81]
6.6
44 km
38.89°S
178.44°E

2007 Gisborne earthquake

25 Aug 2008
Hastings
Hawke's Bay
5.9

31 km
39.71°S
176.85°E

2008 Hastings earthquake

15 Jul 2009
Puysegur Trench
South of New Zealand
6.1 [82]

33 km
46.07°S
165.75°E

Felt throughout Southland and Otago

15 Jul 2009
Dusky Sound
Southland

7.8 [83]
12 km
45.76°S
166.58°E

2009 Fiordland earthquake

text:
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)

Magnitude (Mb)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information

4 Sep 2010
Darfield
Canterbury
7.1
7.0

6.4
11 km
43.52°S
172.16°E

2010 Canterbury earthquake[84][85]

22 Feb 2011
Christchurch
Canterbury
6.3
6.1

6.1
6 km
43.58S
172.67E
185 [86]
2011 Christchurch earthquake[87][88]

13 Jun 2011
Christchurch
Canterbury
6.4
5.9

6.0
7 km
43.56°S
172.73°E
1
June 2011 Christchurch earthquake[89][90]

5 Jul 2011
Taupo
Waikato
6.5
5.5

5.4
153 km
38.65°S
175.70°E

Felt throughout New Zealand.[91][92]

7 Jul 2011
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands
7.6
7.6

7.0
20 km
29.31°S
176.20°W

Felt as far away as Christchurch.[93][94]

22 Oct 2011
Raoul Island
Kermadec Islands
7.3
7.4

6.5
33 km
28.99°S
176.18°W

Felt in eastern half of the North Island.[95][96]

23 Dec 2011
Christchurch
Canterbury
6.0
5.9

5.7
7 km
43.52°S
172.74°E

Caused damage in the Christchurch region.[97][98]

3 Jul 2012
South Taranaki Bight
Taranaki
6.5
6.3

5.9
254 km
40.00°S
173.75°E

2012 Opunake earthquake[99][100]

21 Jul 2013
Cook Strait
Marlborough
6.5
6.5

6.1
17 km
41.61°S
174.33°E

2013 Seddon earthquake[101][102]

16 Aug 2013
Lake Grassmere
Marlborough
6.6
6.5

6.0
8 km
41.73°S
174.15°E

2013 Lake Grassmere earthquake[103][104]

16 Aug 2013
Lake Grassmere
Marlborough
6.0
5.9

5.8
8 km
41.67°S
174.26°E

Largest aftershock to 2013 Lake Grassmere earthquake[105][106]

20 Jan 2014
Eketahuna
Wairarapa
6.2
6.1

5.8
34 km
40.62°S
175.85°E

2014 Eketahuna earthquake[107][108]

13 Oct 2014
Fiordland
Southland
6.2
5.8

5.4
9 km
46.29°S
165.87°E

[109][110]

14 Oct 2014
NE of Whakatane
Bay of Plenty
6.5

5.7
82 km
34.90°S
179.65°E

[111][112]

17 Nov 2014
NE of Gisborne
Gisborne
6.5
6.7

6.2
22 km
37.68°S
179.68°E

Felt strongly across the North Island[113][114]

6 Jan 2015
W of Arthur's Pass
Canterbury
6.0
5.6

5.5
5 km
43.06°S
171.25°E

Felt throughout the South Island[115][116]

24 Apr 2015
SE of St Arnaud
Marlborough
6.2
6.1

6.0
52 km
42.09°S
173.07°E

Felt throughout New Zealand[117][118]

2 Feb 2016
E of Macauley Island
Kermadec Islands
6.6
6.2

6.3
366 km
31.65°S
177.74°E

Felt widely in the North Island.[119]

14 Feb 2016
Christchurch
Canterbury
5.7
5.8

15 km
43.5°S
172.83°E

2016 Christchurch earthquake[120][121]

2 Sep 2016
NE of East Cape
East Cape
7.1
7.1

55 km
37.01°S
179.63°E

2016 Te Araroa earthquake[122][123]

14 Nov 2016
Culverden
North Canterbury
7.8
7.8[124][125]

15 km
42.757°S
173.077°E
2[126]
2016 Kaikoura earthquake[127]

11 Jul 2017
NW of Auckland Island
South Tasman Sea
6.6
6.6
6.3
10 km
49.546°S
164.031°E

[128]


document_title: Mississippian culture

question_text: moundville was one of the greatest ceremonial centers of which culture

root

text: Mississippian culture

text: Cultural traits[edit]

text: A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in adoption of some or all of these traits.

tag: p

text:
The construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses, temples, burial buildings, or other) were usually constructed atop such mounds.
Maize-based agriculture. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization.
Shell tempered pottery. The adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shells as tempering agents in ceramics.
Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.
The development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity.
The development of institutionalized social inequality.
A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one.
The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in which one major center (with mounds) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds.
The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin (see Aztalan State Park) to the Gulf Coast, and from Florida to Arkansas and Oklahoma. The SECC was frequently tied into ritual game-playing, as with chunkey.

tag: ol

text: The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering and annealing copper for ritual objects like Mississippian copper plates and other decorations,[5] but did not smelt iron or practice bronze metallurgy.

text: Chronology[edit]

text: The Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, depending on the speed of adoption or development of given Mississippian traits. The "Mississippi period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". The Mississippi period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society.

text:
The Early Mississippi period (c. 1000–1200 CE) had just transitioned from the Late Woodland period way of life (500–1000). Different groups abandoned tribal lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture. Production of surplus corn and attractions of the regional chiefdoms led to rapid population concentrations in major centers.
The Middle Mississippi period (c. 1200–1400) is the apex of the Mississippi era. The expansion of the great metropolis and ceremonial complex at Cahokia (in present-day Illinois), the formation of other complex chiefdoms, and the spread and development of SECC art and symbolism are characteristic changes of this period. The Mississippian traits listed above came to be widespread throughout the region.
The Late Mississippi period (c. 1400–1540) is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period (1350–1400), perhaps migrating to other rising political centers. More defensive structures are often seen at sites, and sometimes a decline in mound-building and large scale, public ceremonialism. Although some areas continued an essentially Middle Mississippian culture until the first significant contact with Europeans, the population of most areas had dispersed or were experiencing severe social stress by 1500.[6][7][8] Along with the contemporaneous Ancestral Pueblo peoples, these cultural collapses coincide with the global climate change of the Little Ice Age. Scholars theorize drought and the reduction of maize agriculture, together with possible deforestation and overhunting by the concentrated populations, forced them to move away from major sites. This period ended with European contact in the 16th century.

tag: ul

text: Regional variations[edit]

text: Middle Mississippian[edit]

text: The term Middle Mississippian is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. This area covers the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including western and central Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi. Sites in this area often contain large ceremonial platform mounds, residential complexes and are often encircled by earthen ditches and ramparts or palisades.[9]

text: Middle Mississippian cultures, especially the Cahokia polity located near East St. Louis, Illinois, was very influential on neighboring societies. High status artifacts, including stone statuary and elite pottery associated with Cahokia, have been found far outside of the Middle Mississippian area. These items, especially the pottery, were also copied by local artists.

text:
Cahokia: The largest and most complex Mississippian site and the largest Pre-Columbian settlement north of Mexico, Cahokia is considered to have been the most influential of the Mississippian culture centers. Discoveries found at the massive site include evidence of copper working (Mound 34), astronomy (Cahokia Woodhenge and the symbolic maximum southern moon rise aligned Rattlesnake Causeway), and ritual retainer burials (Mound 72).
Angel Mounds: A chiefdom in southern Indiana near Evansville. It is thought by some archaeologists that the Late Mississippian Caborn-Welborn culture developed from the Angel Phase people around 1400 CE and lasted to around 1700 CE.[10]
Kincaid Site: A major Mississippian mound center in southern Illinois across the Ohio River from Paducah, Kentucky.
Moundville: Ranked with Cahokia as one of the two most important sites at the core of the Mississippian culture,[11] located near Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
The Parkin Site: The type site for the "Parkin phase", an expression of Late Mississippian culture, believed by many archaeologists to be the province of Casqui visited by Hernando de Soto in 1542.[12]

text: South Appalachian Mississippian[edit]

text: The term South Appalachian Province was originally used by W. H. Holmes in 1903 to describe a regional ceramic style in the southeast involving surface decorations applied with a carved wooden paddle. By the late 1960s archaeological investigations had shown the similarity of the culture that produced the pottery and the midwestern Mississippian pattern defined in 1937 by the Midwestern Taxonomic System.

text: In 1967 James B. Griffin coined 'South Appalachian Mississippian' to describe the evolving understanding of the peoples of the Southeast.[13] South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Chronologically this area became influenced by Mississippian culture later than the Middle Mississippian area (about 1000 CE as compared to 800 CE) to its northwest. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors.[9]

text: Typical settlements were located on riverine floodplains and included villages with defensive palisades enclosing platform mounds and residential areas.[9] Etowah, Ocmulgee, and Moundville are prominent examples of the South Appalachian Mississippian settlements.

text: Caddoan Mississippian[edit]

text: The Caddoan Mississippian area, a regional variant of the Mississippian culture, covered a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeastern Texas, and northwestern Louisiana. Archaeological evidence has led to a scholarly consensus that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the  Caddo and related Caddo language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact are the direct ancestors of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma.[14]

text: The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. Major sites such as Spiro and the Battle Mound Site are in the Arkansas River and Red River Valleys, the largest and most fertile of the waterways in the Caddoan region, where maize agriculture would have been the most productive.[15] The sites generally lacked wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level of social stratification.

text: The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many Caddoan languages.[16] The Caddoan languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo and Pawnee, now spoken mainly by elderly people.

text: Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, he encountered several native groups now thought to have been Caddoan. Composed of many tribes, the Caddo were organized into three confederacies, the Hasinai, Kadohadacho, and Natchitoches, which were all linked by their similar languages.

text: Plaquemine Mississippian[edit]

text: The Plaquemine culture was an archaeological culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Good examples of this culture are the Medora Site (the type site for the culture and period) in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, and the Anna, Emerald Mound, Winterville and Holly Bluff sites located in Mississippi.[17] Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples.[18]

text:
Emerald Mound: A Plaquemine Mississippian period archaeological site located on the Natchez Trace Parkway near Stanton, Mississippi. The site dates from the period between 1200 and 1730. The platform mound is the second-largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in the country, after Monks Mound at Cahokia.
Grand Village of the Natchez: The main village of the Natchez people, with three mounds. The only mound site to be used and maintained into historic times.

text: Known Mississippian settlements[edit]

text: Although the Mississippian culture was heavily disrupted before a complete understanding of the political landscape was written down, many Mississippian political bodies were documented and others have been discovered by research.

text: Related modern nations[edit]

text: Mississippian peoples were almost certainly ancestral to the majority of the American Indian nations living in this region in the historic era. The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian Culture include: the Alabama, Apalachee, Caddo, Chickasaw, Catawba, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, Kansa, Missouria, Mobilian, Natchez, Osage, Quapaw, Seminole, Tunica-Biloxi, Yamasee, and Yuchi.[citation needed]

text: Contact with Europeans[edit]

text: Scholars have studied the records of Hernando de Soto's expedition of 1539–1543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. He visited many villages, in some cases staying for a month or longer. The list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition chronicles those villages. Some encounters were violent, while others were relatively peaceable. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between the Pacaha and the Casqui.

text: De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples, and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. The chronicles of the Narváez expedition were written before the de Soto expedition; the Narváez expedition informed the Court of de Soto about the New World.

text: After the destruction and flight of the de Soto expedition, the Mississippian peoples continued their way of life with little direct European influence. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed native societies in the Eastern United States. Because the natives lacked immunity to new infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to nomadism.[19] Political structures collapsed in many places.

text: At Joara, near Morganton, North Carolina, Native Americans of the Mississippian culture interacted with Spanish colonizers of the Juan Pardo expedition, who built a base there in 1567 called Fort San Juan. Expedition documentation and archaeological evidence of the fort and Native American culture both exist. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (1567–1568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Sixteenth-century Spanish artifacts have been recovered from the site, marking the first European colonization in the interior of what became the United States.[20]

text: By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century Cherokee.[21] Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the Mound Builders as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by Cyrus Thomas in 1894.


document_title: Abundance of the chemical elements

question_text: the core of the earth is believed to consist of 88.8 of what

text: Abundance of the chemical elements

text: Universe[edit]

text:
Ten most common elements in the Milky Way Galaxy estimated spectroscopically[3]

Z
Element
Mass fraction (ppm)

1
Hydrogen
739,000

2
Helium
240,000

8
Oxygen
10,400

6
Carbon
4,600

10
Neon
1,340

26
Iron
1,090

7
Nitrogen
960

14
Silicon
650

12
Magnesium
580

16
Sulfur
440

tag: table

text: The elements – that is, ordinary (baryonic) matter made of protons, neutrons, and electrons, are only a small part of the content of the Universe. Cosmological observations suggest that only 4.6% of the universe's energy (including the mass contributed by energy, E = mc² ↔ m = E / c²) comprises the visible baryonic matter that constitutes stars, planets, and living beings. The rest is thought to be made up of dark energy (68%) and dark matter (27%).[4] These are forms of matter and energy believed to exist on the basis of scientific theory and observational deductions, but they have not been directly observed and their nature is not well understood.

text: Most standard (baryonic) matter is found in intergalactic gas, stars, and interstellar clouds, in the form of atoms or ions (plasma), although it can be found in degenerate forms in extreme astrophysical settings, such as the high densities inside white dwarfs and neutron stars.

text: Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe; helium is second.  However, after this, the rank of abundance does not continue to correspond to the atomic number; oxygen has abundance rank 3, but atomic number 8. All others are substantially less common.

text: The abundance of the lightest elements is well predicted by the standard cosmological model, since they were mostly produced shortly (i.e., within a few hundred seconds) after the Big Bang, in a process known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Heavier elements were mostly produced much later, inside of stars.

text: Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up roughly 74% and 24% of all baryonic matter in the universe respectively. Despite comprising only a very small fraction of the universe, the remaining "heavy elements" can greatly influence astronomical phenomena. Only about 2% (by mass) of the Milky Way galaxy's disk is composed of heavy elements.

text: These other elements are generated by stellar processes.[5][6][7] In astronomy, a "metal" is any element other than hydrogen or helium. This distinction is significant because hydrogen and helium are the only elements that were produced in significant quantities in the Big Bang.  Thus, the metallicity of a galaxy or other object is an indication of stellar activity, after the Big Bang.

text: In general, elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovae. Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei). Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with increasing atomic number.

text: Solar system[edit]

text:
Most abundant nuclides in the Solar System[8]

Nuclide

A

Mass fraction in parts per million

Atom fraction in parts per million

Hydrogen-1
1
705,700
909,964

Helium-4
4
275,200
88,714

Oxygen-16
16
9,592
477

Carbon-12
12
3,032
326

Nitrogen-14
14
1,105
102

Neon-20
20
1,548
100

Other nuclides:
3,879
149

Silicon-28
28
653
30

Magnesium-24
24
513
28

Iron-56
56
1,169
27

Sulfur-32
32
396
16

Helium-3
3
35
15

Hydrogen-2
2
23
15

Neon-22
22
208
12

Magnesium-26
26
79
4

Carbon-13
13
37
4

Magnesium-25
25
69
4

Aluminium-27
27
58
3

Argon-36
36
77
3

Calcium-40
40
60
2

Sodium-23
23
33
2

Iron-54
54
72
2

Silicon-29
29
34
2

Nickel-58
58
49
1

Silicon-30
30
23
1

Iron-57
57
28
1

text:
The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in the Solar System. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass.[3]
Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. Since physical laws and processes are uniform throughout the universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements.

text: The abundance of elements is in keeping with their origin from the Big Bang and nucleosynthesis in a number of progenitor supernova stars. Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, while the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays).

text: Beginning with carbon, elements have been produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable). The effect of odd-numbered chemical elements generally being more rare in the universe was empirically noticed in 1914, and is known as the Oddo-Harkins rule.

text: Relation to nuclear binding energy[edit]

text:
Loose correlations have been observed between estimated elemental abundances in the universe and the nuclear binding energy curve.  Roughly speaking, the relative stability of various atomic nuclides has exerted a strong influence on the relative abundance of elements formed in the Big Bang, and during the development of the universe thereafter.[9]
See the article about nucleosynthesis for the explanation on how certain nuclear fusion processes in stars (such as carbon burning, etc.) create the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.

text:
A further observed peculiarity is the jagged alternation between relative abundance and scarcity of adjacent atomic numbers in the elemental abundance curve, and a similar pattern of energy levels in the nuclear binding energy curve. This alternation is caused by the higher relative binding energy (corresponding to relative stability) of even atomic numbers compared with odd atomic numbers and is explained by the Pauli Exclusion Principle.[10]
The semi-empirical mass formula (SEMF), also called Weizsäcker's formula or the Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula, gives a theoretical explanation of the overall shape of the curve of nuclear binding energy.[11]

text: Earth[edit]

text: The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements.

text: The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98×1024 kg. In bulk, by mass, it is composed mostly of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%); with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements.[12]

text: The bulk composition of the Earth by elemental-mass is roughly similar to the gross composition of the solar system, with the major differences being that Earth is missing a great deal of the volatile elements hydrogen, helium, neon, and nitrogen, as well as carbon which has been lost as volatile hydrocarbons. The remaining elemental composition is roughly typical of the "rocky" inner planets, which formed in the thermal zone where solar heat drove volatile compounds into space. The Earth retains oxygen as the second-largest component of its mass (and largest atomic-fraction), mainly from this element being retained in silicate minerals which have a very high melting point and low vapor pressure.

text:
Estimated abundances of chemical elements in the Earth.[13] The right two columns give the fraction of the mass in parts per million (ppm) and the fraction by number of atoms in parts per billion (ppb).
show

Atomic Number

Name

Symbol

Mass fraction (ppm)

Atomic fraction (ppb)[13]

8
oxygen
O
297000
482,000,000

12
magnesium
Mg
154000
164,000,000

14
silicon
Si
161000
150,000,000

26
iron
Fe
319000
148,000,000

13
aluminum
Al
15900
15,300,000

20
calcium
Ca
17100
11,100,000

28
nickel
Ni
18220
8,010,000

1
hydrogen
H
260
6,700,000

16
sulfur
S
6350
5,150,000

24
chromium
Cr
4700
2,300,000

11
sodium
Na
1800
2,000,000

6
carbon
C
730
1,600,000

15
phosphorus
P
1210
1,020,000

25
manganese
Mn
1700
800,000

22
titanium
Ti
810
440,000

27
cobalt
Co
880
390,000

19
potassium
K
160
110,000

17
chlorine
Cl
76
56,000

23
vanadium
V
105
53,600

7
nitrogen
N
25
46,000

29
copper
Cu
60
25,000

30
zinc
Zn
40
16,000

9
fluorine
F
10
14,000

21
scandium
Sc
11
6,300

3
lithium
Li
1.10
4,100

38
strontium
Sr
13
3,900

32
germanium
Ge
7.00
2,500

40
zirconium
Zr
7.10
2,000

31
gallium
Ga
3.00
1,000

34
selenium
Se
2.70
890

56
barium
Ba
4.50
850

39
yttrium
Y
2.90
850

33
arsenic
As
1.70
590

5
boron
B
0.20
480

42
molybdenum
Mo
1.70
460

44
ruthenium
Ru
1.30
330

78
platinum
Pt
1.90
250

46
palladium
Pd
1.00
240

58
cerium
Ce
1.13
210

60
neodymium
Nd
0.84
150

4
beryllium
Be
0.05
140

41
niobium
Nb
0.44
120

76
osmium
Os
0.90
120

77
iridium
Ir
0.90
120

37
rubidium
Rb
0.40
120

35
bromine
Br
0.30
97

57
lanthanum
La
0.44
82

66
dysprosium
Dy
0.46
74

64
gadolinium
Gd
0.37
61

52
tellurium
Te
0.30
61

45
rhodium
Rh
0.24
61

50
tin
Sn
0.25
55

62
samarium
Sm
0.27
47

68
erbium
Er
0.30
47

70
ytterbium
Yb
0.30
45

59
praseodymium
Pr
0.17
31

82
lead
Pb
0.23
29

72
hafnium
Hf
0.19
28

74
tungsten
W
0.17
24

79
gold
Au
0.16
21

48
cadmium
Cd
0.08
18

63
europium
Eu
0.10
17

67
holmium
Ho
0.10
16

47
silver
Ag
0.05
12

65
terbium
Tb
0.07
11

51
antimony
Sb
0.05
11

75
rhenium
Re
0.08
10

53
iodine
I
0.05
10

69
thulium
Tm
0.05
7

55
cesium
Cs
0.04
7

71
lutetium
Lu
0.05
7

90
thorium
Th
0.06
6

73
tantalum
Ta
0.03
4

80
mercury
Hg
0.02
3

92
uranium
U
0.02
2

49
indium
In
0.01
2

81
thallium
Tl
0.01
2

83
bismuth
Bi
0.01
1

text: Crust[edit]

text: The mass-abundance of the nine most abundant elements in the Earth's crust is approximately: oxygen 46%, silicon 28%, aluminum 8.2%, iron 5.6%, calcium 4.2%, sodium 2.5%, magnesium 2.4%, potassium 2.0%, and titanium 0.61%. Other elements occur at less than 0.15%. For a complete list, see abundance of elements in Earth's crust.

text: The graph at right illustrates the relative atomic-abundance of the chemical elements in Earth's upper continental crust— the part that is relatively accessible for measurements and estimation.

text: Many of the elements shown in the graph are classified into (partially overlapping) categories:

text:
rock-forming elements (major elements in green field, and minor elements in light green field);
rare earth elements (lanthanides, La-Lu, and Y; labeled in blue);
major industrial metals (global production >~3×107 kg/year; labeled in red);
precious metals (labeled in purple);
the nine rarest "metals" — the six platinum group elements plus Au, Re, and Te (a metalloid) — in the yellow field. These are rare in the crust from being soluble in iron and thus concentrated in the Earth's core.

text: Note that there are two breaks where the unstable (radioactive) elements technetium (atomic number: 43) and promethium (atomic number: 61) would be. These elements are surrounded by stable elements, yet both have relatively short half lives (~ 4 million years and ~ 18 years respectively). These are thus extremely rare, since any primordial initial fractions of these in pre-Solar System materials have long since decayed and disappeared. These two elements are now only produced naturally through the spontaneous fission of very heavy radioactive elements (for example, uranium, thorium, or the trace amounts of plutonium that exist in uranium ores), or by the interaction of certain other elements with cosmic rays. Both technetium and promethium have been identified spectroscopically in the atmospheres of stars, where they are produced by ongoing nucleosynthetic processes.

text: There are also breaks in the abundance graph where the six noble gases would be, since they are not chemically bound in the Earth's crust, and they are only generated by decay chains from radioactive elements in the crust, and are therefore extremely rare there.

text: The eight naturally occurring very rare, highly radioactive elements (polonium, astatine, francium, radium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and plutonium) are not included, since any of these elements that were present at the formation of the Earth have decayed away eons ago, and their quantity today is negligible and is only produced from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.

text: Oxygen and silicon are notably the most common elements in the crust. On Earth and in rocky planets in general, silicon and oxygen are far more common than their cosmic abundance. The reason is that they combine with each other to form silicate minerals. In this way, they are the lightest of all of the two-percent "astronomical metals" (i.e., non-hydrogen and helium elements) to form a solid that is refractory to the Sun's heat, and thus cannot boil away into space. All elements lighter than oxygen have been removed from the crust in this way.

text: Rare-earth elements[edit]

text: "Rare" earth elements is a historical misnomer. The persistence of the term reflects unfamiliarity rather than true rarity. The more abundant rare earth elements are similarly concentrated in the crust compared to commonplace industrial metals such as chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, or lead. The two least abundant rare earth elements (thulium and lutetium) are nearly 200 times more common than gold. However, in contrast to the ordinary base and precious metals, rare earth elements have very little tendency to become concentrated in exploitable ore deposits. Consequently, most of the world's supply of rare earth elements comes from only a handful of sources. Furthermore, the rare earth metals are all quite chemically similar to each other, and they are thus quite difficult to separate into quantities of the pure elements.

text: Differences in abundances of individual rare earth elements in the upper continental crust of the Earth represent the superposition of two effects, one nuclear and one geochemical. First, the rare earth elements with even atomic numbers (58Ce, 60Nd, ...) have greater cosmic and terrestrial abundances than the adjacent rare earth elements with odd atomic numbers (57La, 59Pr, ...). Second, the lighter rare earth elements are more incompatible (because they have larger ionic radii) and therefore more strongly concentrated in the continental crust than the heavier rare earth elements. In most rare earth ore deposits, the first four rare earth elements – lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium – constitute 80% to 99% of the total amount of rare earth metal that can be found in the ore.

text: Mantle[edit]

text: The mass-abundance of the eight most abundant elements in the Earth's mantle (see main article above) is approximately: oxygen 45%, magnesium 23%, silicon 22%, iron 5.8%, calcium 2.3%, aluminum 2.2%, sodium 0.3%, potassium 0.3%.

text: The mantle differs in elemental composition from the crust in having a great deal more magnesium and significantly more iron, while having much less aluminum and sodium.

text: Core[edit]

text: Due to mass segregation, the core of the Earth is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.[12]

text: Ocean[edit]

text: The most abundant elements in the ocean by proportion of mass in percent are oxygen (85.84), hydrogen (10.82), chlorine (1.94), sodium (1.08), magnesium (0.1292), sulfur (0.091), calcium (0.04), potassium (0.04), bromine (0.0067), carbon (0.0028), and boron  (0.00043).

text: Atmosphere[edit]

text: The order of elements by volume-fraction (which is approximately molecular mole-fraction) in the atmosphere is nitrogen (78.1%), oxygen (20.9%),[14] argon (0.96%), followed by (in uncertain order) carbon and hydrogen because water vapor and carbon dioxide, which represent most of these two elements in the air, are variable components.   Sulfur, phosphorus, and all other elements are present in significantly lower proportions.

text: According to the abundance curve graph (above right), argon, a significant if not major component of the atmosphere, does not appear in the crust at all. This is because the atmosphere has a far smaller mass than the crust, so argon remaining in the crust contributes little to mass-fraction there, while at the same time buildup of argon in the atmosphere has become large enough to be significant.

text: Urban soils[edit]

text: For a complete list of the abundance of elements in urban soils, see Abundances of the elements (data page)#Urban soils.

text: Human body[edit]

text:
Elemental abundance in the human body
show

Element
Proportion (by mass)

Oxygen
65

Carbon
18

Hydrogen
10

Nitrogen
3

Calcium
1.5

Phosphorus
1.2

Potassium
0.2

Sulfur
0.2

Chlorine
0.2

Sodium
0.1

Magnesium
0.05

Iron
< 0.05

Cobalt
< 0.05

Copper
< 0.05

Zinc
< 0.05

Iodine
< 0.05

Selenium
< 0.01

text: By mass, human cells consist of 65–90% water (H2O), and a significant portion of the remainder is composed of carbon-containing organic molecules. Oxygen therefore contributes a majority of a human body's mass, followed by carbon. Almost 99% of the mass of the human body is made up of six elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. The next 0.75% is made up of the next five elements: potassium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium, and magnesium. Only 17 elements are known for certain to be necessary to human life, with one additional element (fluorine) thought to be helpful for tooth enamel strength. A few more trace elements may play some role in the health of mammals. Boron and silicon are notably necessary for plants but have uncertain roles in animals. The elements aluminium and silicon, although very common in the earth's crust, are conspicuously rare in the human body.[15]

text: Below is a periodic table highlighting nutritional elements.[16]

text:
Nutritional elements in the periodic table

H

He

Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

Cs
Ba
La
*
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

Fr
Ra
Ac
**
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

*
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

**
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr

text:
The four basic organic elements

  Quantity elements

  Essential trace elements

  Deemed essential trace element by U.S., not by European Union

  Suggested function from deprivation effects or active metabolic handling, but no clearly-identified biochemical function in humans

  Limited circumstantial evidence for trace benefits or biological action in mammals

  No evidence for biological action in mammals, but essential in some lower organisms.(In the case of lanthanum, the definition of an essential nutrient as being indispensable and irreplaceable is not completely applicable due to the extreme similarity of the lanthanides. Thus Ce, Pr, and Nd may be substituted for La without ill effects for organisms using La, and the smaller Sm, Eu, and Gd may also be similarly substituted but cause slower growth.)


document_title: The Love Boat

question_text: what was julie's job on the love boat

question_tokens: what was julie 's job on the love boat

text: The Love Boat

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gavin MacLeod as Captain Merrill Stubing
Bernie Kopell as Dr. Adam "Doc" Bricker, ship's physician
Fred Grandy as Burl "Gopher" Smith, Yeoman Purser (seasons 1–9)
Ted Lange as Isaac Washington, bartender
Lauren Tewes as Julie McCoy, Cruise Director (seasons 1–7, 9 (1 episode), 4 specials)
Jill Whelan as Vicki Stubing, the captain's daughter (seasons 3–9, 4 specials, made-for-TV movie, plus a guest star appearance in Season 2 episode 8)[3]
Ted McGinley as Ashley "Ace" Covington Evans, ship's photographer (seasons 7–9), Yeoman Purser (4 specials)
Pat Klous as Judy McCoy, Julie's sister and successor as cruise director (seasons 8–9)

text: Gavin MacLeod, Bernie Kopell and Ted Lange are the only cast members to appear in every episode of the series, including the last three made-for-TV movies. Fred Grandy was in every episode throughout the run of the series, but was not in the last of the TV movies. However, MacLeod was not the captain in the first two TV movies. However, when MacLeod's character was introduced, there was mention of him being "the new captain".

text: Among the series' attractions was the casting of well-known actors in guest-starring roles, with many famous film stars of yesteryear making rare television appearances. It was not the first comedy series to use the guest-star cast anthology format—Love, American Style used the formula seven years earlier, but The Love Boat had such success with the formula that future series in similar style (such as Supertrain and Masquerade) were inevitably compared to The Love Boat. The series was followed on Saturday nights on ABC by Fantasy Island, which was also produced by Aaron Spelling, and had a similar format.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Production[edit]

text: The one-hour sitcom was usually set aboard a Princess Cruises cruise liner called Pacific Princess.[4] Other ships used were twin sister Island Princess, Stella Solaris (for a Mediterranean cruise), Pearl of Scandinavia (for a Chinese cruise), Royal Viking Sky (for European cruises) and Royal Princess and Sun Princess (for Caribbean cruises). In 1981, P&O Cruises' Sea Princess was also used for the special two-hour episode "Julie's Wedding", set in and around Australia.

text: The series was filmed primarily on sets in California—20th Century Fox Studios for seasons one through five and Warner Hollywood Studios for the remainder of the series. After being renamed the MS Pacific and spending its golden years owned by a cruise line in Spain, the Pacific Princess was retired to Turkey in 2013 where it was scrapped by a ship breaking company because no buyer could be found.[5]

text: Writing format[edit]

text: Another unique aspect of The Love Boat was its writing format. Every episode contained several storylines, each written by a different set of writers working on one group of guest stars. As a result, episodes ended up with ungainly titles like "Disco Baby/Alas, Poor Dwyer/After the War/Ticket to Ride/Itsy Bitsy: Part 1."

text: Even though the cast of Charlie's Angels had been on separate episodes of the series, there was a crossover episode of the series in which the lady detectives had a case on the ship.

text: On rare occasions, there were crossovers between the stories. In one episode, actors Robert Reed and Florence Henderson, formerly of The Brady Bunch, guest starred in separate segments. In one scene, the two pass each other in a corridor, exchange a "Do I know you?" double-take, and then continue on their separate ways without talking.

text: In a one-time Fantasy Island crossover episode, the cruise ship makes a detour to deliver a troubled woman (played by Loni Anderson) to the mysterious island, and her storyline continued on that series.

text: There were typically three storylines. One storyline usually focused on a member of the crew, a second storyline would often focus on a crew member interacting with a passenger, and the third storyline was more focused on a single passenger (or a group of passengers). The three storylines usually followed a similar thematic pattern: One storyline (typically the "crew" one) was straight-ahead comedy. The second would typically follow more of a romantic comedy format (with only occasional dramatic elements). The third storyline would usually be the most dramatic of the three, often offering few (if any) laughs and a far more serious tone.

text: Laugh track[edit]

text: The series was also distinctive as being one of the few hour-long series ever made for American television that used a laugh track[citation needed] (Eight Is Enough, on the same network and produced at the same time, being another example).

text: Theme song and title sequence[edit]

text: The Love Boat theme song was sung by Jack Jones (except for the last season, where a cover version by Dionne Warwick was used). The lyrics were written by Paul Williams with music by Charles Fox. The song has since been recorded and released commercially by Charo in 1978 and Amanda Lear in 2001.

text: The opening sequence for the series underwent three changes over the years. From seasons one to eight, the opening sequence began with a long shot of the ship before the camera slowly zoomed in onto its bridge area. This was followed by posing shots of the crew members (updated several times due to cast additions and changes throughout all seasons) at different points on the ship set. The long shot footage of the ship was used for the credits of the celebrity guest stars. For only the first season, the guest stars were credited by having their names appear on the screen while the series' logo, a radar/compass style circle with four hearts, wrapped around them. Beginning with season two (and originally experimented with in the fifteenth episode of the first season), the compass was graphically put in place and at its center, the guest stars were shown posing for the camera on different parts of the set (or a city spot used in on-location episodes) while their names appeared at the bottom of the screen. For the final season, the compass was replaced by a crescent wave and the long shots of the ship were replaced by a montage of the various locations traveled to on the series. At the center of the wave graphic, the guest stars were shown posing for the camera wearing their formal outfits against different colored backgrounds.

text: Reception[edit]

text: For its first seven years, The Love Boat was very successful in the ratings. During that time, it ranked among the top 20, and even the top 10. For the 1980–81 season it posted its highest rating at No. 5. By the beginning of the 1984–85 season, the ratings were beginning to drop, and at the end of the following year, The Love Boat was canceled after nine years on ABC, although four three-hour specials aired during the 1986–87 season.

text: Sequels, spin-offs and crossovers[edit]

text:
A 1979 episode of another Aaron Spelling series, Charlie's Angels, had that series' characters attempting to recover a stolen statue while aboard the Pacific Princess on a Caribbean cruise (all of the Love Boat regulars had cameo appearances).
In 1982, "The Love Boat Goes to Fantasy Island" was a 90-minute back-to-back of each series--the episode started on The Love Boat and the guest stars finished on Fantasy Island.
In 1990 a TV reunion movie, The Love Boat: A Valentine Voyage, aired on CBS.
A second TV series, Love Boat: The Next Wave aired on UPN from 1998 to 1999, with Robert Urich as Captain Jim Kennedy, a retired United States Navy officer, Phil Morris as Chief Purser Will Sanders, and Heidi Mark as cruise director Nicole Jordan (several members of the original show's cast guest-starred on a reunion-themed episode, where it was revealed that Julie and Doc had been in love all along).
A two-part 1996 Martin episode, "Goin' Overboard", had the main characters going on a cruise and encountering Isaac, Julie, Doc and Vicki
Isaac Washington also appeared in a 2005 episode of The King of Queens, "The Black List".

text: Cultural references[edit]

text:
The crew of the Pacific Princess appears as some of the prisoners kept by the Sirens in their island, in the episode "Scotsman Saves Jack: Part 2" of the animated series Samurai Jack
One of the waiters of The Bloody Steak restaurant in the 2010 animated series Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated is based on Isaac Washington.

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released Seasons 1, 2 & 3 of The Love Boat on DVD in Region 1 & 4. Each season has been released in two volume sets.

text:
DVD Name
Ep No.
Release dates
Bonus Features

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

Season 1, Volume 1
12
March 4, 2008
September 1, 2008
April 10, 2008

Episodic promos

Season 1, Volume 2
12
August 12, 2008
September 1, 2008
October 2, 2008

The New Love Boat (pilot TV-Movie)
Episodic promos

Season 2, Volume 1
13
January 27, 2009
N/A
September 2, 2009

Episodic promos

Season 2, Volume 2
12
August 4, 2009
N/A
December 24, 2009

Episodic promos

Season 3, Volume 1
14
January 17, 2017[6]
N/A
N/A

Episodic promos

Season 3, Volume 2
14
January 17, 2017[7]
N/A
N/A

Episodic promos

text: International syndication[edit]

text:
Country
Foreign title
Translation
Network(s)
Notes

 Australia
The Love Boat
None
Nine Network (1978–86)
Eleven (2011–)

 Canada
The Love Boat

Global Television Network (Ontario)
First-run syndication (rest of Canada)

 Cyprus
To ploio tis agapis
(The Ship of Love)
Subtitled
CyBC

 Denmark
The Love Boat
Subtitled
Kanal 2

 Finland
Lemmenlaiva
(Ship of Love)
Subtitled
MTV3

 France
 Canada

La croisière s'amuse
(The Fun Cruise)
Dubbed
TF1 (80's) FR3 (90's & 00's)
TVA

As usual in France, the laugh track was omitted in the French synchronisation which made this a romantic telenovela-like series rather than a sitcom

 Germany
Love Boat
Dubbed
Sat.1
Tele 5
9Live
Premiere (pay television network)
Anixe
Originally shown on Sat.1 and later on Tele 5, 9Live, Premiere, and Anixe.
The laugh track was omitted

 Gibraltar
Love Boat

GBC TV
Hugely popular in Gibraltar, with The Love Boat (the real one) having berthed at Gibraltar Port various times over the years

 Greece
Το Πλοίο της Αγάπης
(The Ship of Love)
Subtitled
ERT

 Hungary
Szerelemhajó
(Love Ship)
Dubbed
Movies 24
Aired in 2010; The laugh track was omitted

 Israel
ספינת האהבה
(The Love Boat)
Subtitled
IBA

 Italy
Love Boat
Dubbed
Mediaset
First run on Canale 5, beginning in 1980; reruns on Canale 5, Rete 4, SkyVivo, FoxRetro, Raidue; In Italy, the laugh track was omitted

 Netherlands
The Love Boat
Subtitled
VARA and later RTL4

 New Zealand
The Love Boat
None
TVNZ

 Norway
Kjærlighetsskipet
(The Love Ship)
Subtitled
TV2 (1994–96)

 Philippines
The Love Boat
None
GMA Network

 Poland
Statek miłości
(The Love Boat)
Dubbed
TVP2

 Portugal
Barco do Amor
(The Love Boat)
Subtitled
RTP 1
RTP 2
Sic Gold
Sic Comédia
RTP 1 (first run) in 1980s
RTP 2 (rerun) in 1980s and early 1990s as possible choice of phone-vote selection program Agora Escolha
Sic Gold (reruns)
Sic Comédia (reruns)

 Slovakia
Loď lásky
(Love Ship)
Dubbed
Tv Joj

 South Africa
Die Plesierboot
(The Pleasure Boat)
Dubbed in Afrikaans
TV2

 South Korea
사랑의 유람선
(Cruise ship of Love)
Dubbed
MBC

 Thailand
เรือรัก เรือสำราญ
(Ship of Love, Ship of Fun)
Dubbed
TV3

 Spain
Vacaciones en el mar
(Sea Holidays)
Dubbed
Televisión Española (first run)
Telecinco (reruns)

 Sweden
Kärlek ombord
(Love on Board)
Subtitled
TV4

 Taiwan
愛之船
(The Boat of Love)
Subtitled
CTV

 Turkey
Aşk Gemisi
(The Love Boat)
Dubbed
TRT 1 (first run)
Show TV (reruns)

 United Kingdom
The Love Boat
None
BBC TV

 Venezuela
 Mexico

El Crucero del Amor
(The Boat of Love)
Dubbed
Venezolana de Televisión
XHGC Canal 5 Televisa

The series was dubbed in Mexico for Latin America and, with the exception here marked, is known as "El Crucero del Amor" (The Cruise Ship of Love). Also the laugh track was omitted.

text: Awards and Honors[edit]

text: On May 23, 2017, the original cast (MacLeod, Kopell, Grandy, Lange, Tewes and Whelan) reunited on Today, where it was announced they will be receiving a joint star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to television, sponsored by Princess Cruises.[8]

text:
1970s portal
1980s portal
Television portal