document_title: FC Barcelona in European football

question_text: when was the last time barcelona won champions league

text: FC Barcelona in European football

text: Overall record[edit]

text:
Competition
Played
Won
Drew
Lost
GF
GA
GD
Win%

European Cup / Champions League

7002289000000000000♠289

7002168000000000000♠168

7001660000000000000♠66

7001550000000000000♠55

7002575000000000000♠575

7002281000000000000♠281

+294

07001581300000000000♠58.13

Cup Winners' Cup

7001850000000000000♠85

7001500000000000000♠50

7001180000000000000♠18

7001170000000000000♠17

7002178000000000000♠178

7001870000000000000♠87

+91

07001588200000000000♠58.82

UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League

7001780000000000000♠78

7001400000000000000♠40

7001170000000000000♠17

7001210000000000000♠21

7002149000000000000♠149

7001750000000000000♠75

+74

07001512800000000000♠51.28

Inter-Cities Fairs Cup

7001710000000000000♠71

7001360000000000000♠36

7001170000000000000♠17

7001180000000000000♠18

7002143000000000000♠143

7001860000000000000♠86

+57

07001507000000000000♠50.70

UEFA Super Cup

7001140000000000000♠14

7000600000000000000♠6

7000400000000000000♠4

7000400000000000000♠4

7001170000000000000♠17

7001170000000000000♠17

+0

07001428600000000000♠42.86

FIFA Club World Cup

7000800000000000000♠8

7000700000000000000♠7

5000000000000000000♠0

7000100000000000000♠1

7001230000000000000♠23

7000300000000000000♠3

+20

07001875000000000000♠87.50

Intercontinental Cup

7000100000000000000♠1

5000000000000000000♠0

5000000000000000000♠0

7000100000000000000♠1

7000100000000000000♠1

7000200000000000000♠2

−1

005000000000000000000♠0.00

Total

7002547000000000000♠547

7002309000000000000♠309

7002122000000000000♠122

7002116000000000000♠116

7003109400000000000♠1,094

7002550000000000000♠550

+544

07001564900000000000♠56.49

text:
Historical progression by competition

1 Group stage. Highest-ranked eliminated team in case of qualification, lowest-ranked qualified team in case of elimination.

Intercontinental Cup / FIFA Club World Cup

Edition

Preliminary stages
Semifinals
Final / 3rd pos.

1992

 São Paulo

2006

 América
 Internacional

2009

 Atlante
 Estudiantes La Plata

2011

 Al-Sadd
 Santos

2015

 Evergrande
 River Plate

UEFA Super Cup

Edition

Final

1979

 Forest

1982

 Villa

1989

 Milan

1992

 W. Bremen

1997

 Dortmund

2006

 Sevilla

2009

 Shakhtar

2011

 Porto

2015

 Sevilla

European Cup / UEFA Champions League

Season
Preliminary stages
Round of 32
Round of 16
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
Final

1959–60

 CSKA Sofia
 Milan
 Wolverhampton
 R. Madrid

1960–61

 Lierse
 R. Madrid
 Hradec Králové
 Hamburg
 Benfica

1974–75

 VÖEST Linz
 Feyenoord
 Åtvidaberg
 Leeds

1985–86

 Sparta Prague
 Porto
 Juventus
 Göteborg
 Steaua

1991–92

 Hansa
 Kaiserslautern
 Sparta Prague 1
Not played
 Sampdoria

1992–93

 Viking
 CSKA Moscow

1993–94

 Dynamo Kyiv
 Austria Wien
 Spartak Moscow 1
 Porto
 Milan

1994–95

 Man. United 1
 PSG

1997–98

 Skonto Riga
 Dynamo Kyiv 1

1998–99

 Man. United 1

1999–2000

 Arsenal 1
 Sparta Prague 1
 Chelsea
 Valencia

2000–01

 Leeds 1

2001–02

 Wisla
 O. Lyon 1
 Roma 1
 Panathinaikos
 R. Madrid

2002–03

 Legia
 Club Brugge 1
 Newcastle 1
 Juventus

2004–05

 Shakhtar 1
 Chelsea

2005–06

 Udinese 1
 Chelsea
 Benfica
 Milan
 Arsenal

2006–07

 W. Bremen 1
 Liverpool

2007–08

 Rangers 1
 Celtic
 Schalke
 Man. United

2008–09

  Wisła
 Shakhtar 1
 O. Lyon
 Bayern
 Chelsea
 Man. United

2009–10

 Rubin 1
 Stuttgart
 Arsenal
 Inter Milan

2010–11

 Rubin 1
 Arsenal
 Shakhtar
 R. Madrid
 Man. United

2011–12

 Viktoria Plzeň 1
 Leverkusen
 Milan
 Chelsea

2012–13

 Benfica 1
 Milan
 PSG
 Bayern

2013–14

 Ajax 1
 Man. City
 Atlético

2014–15

 Ajax 1
 Man. City
 PSG
 Bayern
 Juventus

2015–16

 Leverkusen 1
 Arsenal
 Atlético

2016–17

 Borussia M. 1
 PSG
 Juventus

2017–18

 Sporting 1
 Chelsea
 Roma

UEFA Cup Winners' Cup

Season
Preliminary stages
Round of 32
Round of 16
Quarter-finals
Semifinals
Final

1963–64

 Shelbourne
 Hamburg

1968–69

 Lugano
Bye
 Lyn Oslo
 Köln
 Slovan B.

1971–72

 Distillery
 Steaua

1978–79

 Shakhtar
 Anderlecht
 Ipswich
 Beveren
 Fortuna

1979–80

 ÍA
 Aris
 Valencia

1981–82

 Botev
 Dukla
 Lokomotive
 Tottenham
 Standard

1982–83

 Apollon
 Crvena Zvezda
 Austria Wien

1983-84

 Magdeburg
 NEC
 Man. United

1984-85

 Metz

1988-89

 Fram
 Lech
 Aarhus
 CSKA Sofia
 Sampdoria

1989–90

 Legia
 Anderlecht

1990–91

 Trabzonspor
 Fram
 Dynamo Kyiv
 Juventus
 Man. United

1996–97

 AEK
 Crvena Zvezda
 AIK
 Fiorentina
 PSG

Inter-Cities Fairs Cup / UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League

Season
Preliminary stages
Round of 32
Round of 16
Quarterfinals
Semifinals
Final

1955-58

 Stævnet
 Birmingham
 London XI

1958-60

 Basel XI
 Inter Milan
 Belgrade XI
 Birmingham

1960-61

 Zagreb XI
 Hibernian

1961-62

 West Berlin XI
 D. Zagreb
 Wednesday
 Crvena Zvezda
 Valencia

1962-63

 Belenenses
 Crvena Zvezda

1964-65

 Fiorentina
 Celtic
 Strasbourg

1965-66

 Utrecht
 Antwerp
 Hannover
 Espanyol
 Chelsea
 Zaragoza

1966-67

 Dundee U.

1967-68

 Zürich

1969–70

 B 1913
 Győr
 Inter Milan

1970–71

 Katowice
 Juventus

1972–73

 Porto

1973–74

 Nice

1975–76

 PAOK
 Lazio
 Vasas
 Levski Sofia
 Liverpool

1976–77

 Belenenses
 Lokeren
 Öster
 Athletic Bilbao

1977–78

 Steaua
 AZ
 Ipswich
 Villa
 PSV

1980-81

 Sliema
 Köln

1986-87

 Flamurtari
 Sporting Lisbon
 Uerdingen
 Dundee U.

1987-88

 Belenenses
 Dynamo Moscow
 Flamurtari
 Leverkusen

1995–96

 Hapoel Be’er Sheva
 Vitória Guimarães
 Sevilla
 PSV
 Bayern

2000–01

 Club Brugge
 AEK
 Celta
 Liverpool

2003–04

 Púchov
 Panionios
 Brøndby
 Celtic

text: Pyrenees Cup[edit]

text: Barcelona began to play friendly games against teams from the neighbouring regions in France in 1904. Club president Arthur Witty organised the club's first trip abroad, which resulted in their first game against a non-Spanish team. On 1 May 1904, Barcelona defeated the French team Stade Olympien des Étudiants Toulousains.[10]

text: By 1910, the international friendlies evolved into the Pyrenees Cup, a competition featuring teams from Languedoc, Le Midi, Aquitaine, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. At that time it was considered the finest competition open for participation.[11][12] Five editions were played in total, with FC Barcelona winning four consecutive trophies from 1910 to 1913.[13]

text:
Year

Opposing team

Score

City

1910

 Real Sociedad

2–1

Sète, France

1911

 Gars de Bordeaux

4–0

Toulouse, France

1912

 Stade Bordelais UC

5–3

Toulouse, France

1913

 Comète Simot

7–2

Barcelona, Spain

text: Latin Cup[edit]

text: In 1949, the football federations of Spain, Italy, France, and Portugal, came together and launched their own club competition, the Latin Cup, which was staged at the end of every season in a single host country.[14] The competition featured two semi-finals, a third place play-off and a final. As La Liga champions in 1949, Barça represented Spain in the inaugural competition. They beat Reims 5–0 in their semi-final at Les Corts, before beating Sporting Lisbon 2–1 in the final at the Estadio Chamartín. Barça also played in and won the 1952 competition in Paris, beating Juventus 4–2 in the semi-final and then Nice 1–0 in the final.[14] After the introduction of the European Cup, the Latin Cup was discontinued and nowadays it is not recognised by UEFA but yes for FIFA.[14]

text:
Year

Round

Opposing team

Score

1949

Semi-final

 Stade de Reims

5–3 (H)

Final

 Sporting CP

2–1 (N)

1952

Semi-final

 Juventus

4–2 (N)

Final

 Nice

1–0 (N)

text: European Cup / UEFA Champions League[edit]

text: The European Cup was inaugurated in 1955, with Barcelona's arch-rivals Real Madrid winning the first five editions.[15] In 1959, Barcelona entered this competition for the first time, after winning the 1958–59 La Liga season. Until the 1990s, the club had little success, apart from their runner-up places in 1961 and 1986. In 1992, Johan Cruyff's Dream Team[16] won their first European Cup with a 1–0 win against Sampdoria. Since then, Barcelona has won the competition four additional times, in 2006, 2009, 2011 and 2015.  Barcelona has established itself as one of the strongest sides in European competitions, when measured in UEFA coefficients.[3][17]

text:
Season

Round

Opposing team

Score

Notes

1959–60[18]

Preliminary round

 CSKA Sofia

2–2 (A), 6–2 (H)

First round

 Milan

2–0 (A), 5–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Wolverhampton Wanderers

4–0 (H), 5–2 (A)

Semi-final

 Real Madrid

1–3 (A), 1–3 (H)

1960–61[19]

Preliminary round

 Lierse

2–0 (H), 3–0 (A)

First round

 Real Madrid

2–2 (A), 2–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Hradec Králové

4–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Semi-final

 Hamburger SV

1–0 (H), 1–2 (A)

[O]

Final

 Benfica

2–3 (N)

1974–75[20]

First round

 Linz

0–0 (A), 5–0 (H)

Second round

 Feyenoord

0–0 (A), 3–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Åtvidabergs FF

2–0 (H), 3–0 (A)

Semi-final

 Leeds United

1–2 (A), 1–1 (H)

1985–86[21]

First round

 Sparta Prague

2–1 (A), 0–1 (H)

[A]

Second round

 Porto

2–0 (H), 1–3 (A)

[A]

Quarter-final

 Juventus

1–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Semi-final

 IFK Göteborg

0–3 (A), 3–0 (H)

[D]

Final

 Steaua București

0–0 (N)

[E]

1991–92[22]

First round

 Hansa Rostock

3–0 (H), 0–1 (A)

Second round

 1. FC Kaiserslautern

2–0 (H), 1–3 (A)

[A]

Group B

 Sparta Prague

3–2 (H), 0–1 (A)

Group B

 Benfica

0–0 (A), 2–1 (H)

Group B

 Dynamo Kyiv

2–0 (A), 3–0 (H)

Final

 Sampdoria

1–0 (N)

1992–93[23]

First round

 Viking

1–0 (H), 0–0 (A)

Second round

 CSKA Moscow

1–1 (A), 2–3 (H)

1993–94[24]

First round

 Dynamo Kyiv

1–3 (A), 4–1 (H)

Second round

 Austria Wien

3–0 (H), 2–1 (A)

Group A

 Galatasaray

0–0 (A), 3–0 (H)

Group A

 Monaco

2–0 (H), 1–0 (A)

Group A

 Spartak Moscow

2–2 (A), 5–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Porto

3–0 (H)

Final

 Milan

0–4 (N)

1994–95[25]

Group A

 Galatasaray

2–1 (H), 1–2 (A)

Group A

 IFK Göteborg

1–2 (A), 1–1 (H)

Group A

 Manchester United

2–2 (A), 4–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Paris Saint-Germain

1–1 (H), 1–2 (A)

1997–98[26]

Second Qualifying round

 Skonto

3–2 (H), 1–0 (A)

Group C

 Newcastle United

2–3 (A), 1–0 (H)

Group C

 PSV

2–2 (H), 2–2 (A)

Group C

 Dynamo Kyiv

0–3 (A), 0–4 (H)

1998–99[27]

Group D

 Manchester United

3–3 (A), 3–3 (H)

Group D

 Brøndby

2–0 (H), 2–0 (A)

Group D

 Bayern Munich

0–1 (A), 1–2 (H)

1999–2000[28]

Group B

 AIK

2–1 (A), 5–0 (H)

Group B

 Fiorentina

4–2 (H), 3–3 (A)

Group B

 Arsenal

1–1 (H), 4–2 (A)

Group A second stage

 Hertha BSC

1–1 (A), 3–1 (H)

Group A second stage

 Sparta Prague

5–0 (H), 2–1 (A)

Group A second stage

 Porto

4–2 (H), 2–0 (A)

Quarter-final

 Chelsea

1–3 (A), 5–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Valencia

1–4 (A), 2–1 (H)

2000–01[29]

Group H

 Leeds United

4–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Group H

 Beşiktaş

0–3 (A), 5–0 (H)

Group H

 Milan

0–2 (H), 3–3 (A)

2001–02[30]

Third Qualifying round

 Wisła Kraków

4–3 (A), 1–0 (H)

Group F

 Fenerbahçe

3–0 (A), 1–0 (H)

Group F

 Bayer Leverkusen

1–2 (A), 2–1 (H)

Group F

 Lyon

2–0 (H), 3–2 (A)

Group B second stage

 Liverpool

3–1 (A), 0–0 (H)

Group B second stage

 Galatasaray

2–2 (H), 1–0 (A)

Group B second stage

 Roma

1–1 (H), 0–3 (A)

Quarter-final

 Panathinaikos

0–1 (A), 3–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Real Madrid

0–2 (H), 1–1 (A)

2002–03[31]

Third Qualifying round

 Legia Warsaw

3–0 (H), 1–0 (A)

Group H

 Club Brugge

3–2 (H), 1–0 (A)

Group H

 Galatasaray

2–0 (A), 3–1 (H)

Group H

 Lokomotiv Moscow

3–1 (A), 1–0 (H)

Group A second stage

 Bayer Leverkusen

2–1 (A), 2–0 (H)

Group A second stage

 Newcastle United

3–1 (H), 2–0 (A)

Group A second stage

 Internazionale

3–0 (H), 0–0 (A)

Quarter-final

 Juventus

1–1 (A), 1–2 (H)

2004–05[32]

Group F

 Celtic

3–1 (A), 1–1 (H)

Group F

 Shakhtar Donetsk

3–0 (H), 0–2 (A)

Group F

 Milan

0–1 (A), 2–1 (H)

Round of 16

 Chelsea

2–1 (H), 2–4 (A)

2005–06[33]

Group C

 Werder Bremen

2–0 (A), 3–1 (H)

Group C

 Udinese

4–1 (H), 2–0 (A)

Group C

 Panathinaikos

0–0 (A), 5–0 (H)

Round of 16

 Chelsea

2–1 (A), 1–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Benfica

0–0 (A), 2–0 (H)

Semi-final

 Milan

1–0 (A), 0–0 (H)

Final

 Arsenal

2–1 (N)

2006–07[34]

Group A

 Levski Sofia

5–0 (H), 2–0 (A)

Group A

 Werder Bremen

1–1 (A), 2–0 (H)

Group A

 Chelsea

0–1 (A), 2–2 (H)

Round of 16

 Liverpool

1–2 (H), 1–0 (A)

[B]

2007–08[35]

Group E

 Lyon

3–0 (H), 2–2 (A)

Group E

 VfB Stuttgart

2–0 (A), 3–1 (H)

Group E

 Rangers

0–0 (A), 2–0 (H)

Round of 16

 Celtic

3–2 (A), 1–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Schalke 04

1–0 (A), 1–0 (H)

Semi-final

 Manchester United

0–0 (H), 0–1 (A)

2008–09[36]

Third Qualifying round

 Wisła Kraków

4–0 (H), 0–1 (A)

Group C

 Sporting CP

3–1 (H), 5–2 (A)

Group C

 Shakhtar Donetsk

2–1 (A), 2–3 (H)

Group C

 Basel

5–0 (A), 1–1 (H)

Round of 16

 Lyon

1–1 (A), 5–2 (H)

Quarter-final

 Bayern Munich

4–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Semi-final

 Chelsea

0–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

[A]

Final

 Manchester United

2–0 (N)

2009–10[37]

Group F

 Internazionale

0–0 (A), 2–0 (H)

Group F

 Dynamo Kyiv

2–0 (H), 2–1 (A)

Group F

 Rubin Kazan

1–2 (H), 0–0 (A)

Round of 16

 VfB Stuttgart

1–1 (A), 4–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Arsenal

2–2 (A), 4–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Internazionale

1–3 (A), 1–0 (H)

2010–11[38]

Group D

 Copenhagen

2–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Group D

 Rubin Kazan

1–1 (A), 2–0 (H)

Group D

 Panathinaikos

5–1 (H), 3–0 (A)

Round of 16

 Arsenal

1–2 (A), 3–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Shakhtar Donetsk

5–1 (H), 1–0 (A)

Semi-final

 Real Madrid

2–0 (A), 1–1 (H)

Final

 Manchester United

3–1 (N)

2011–12[39]

Group H

 Milan

2–2 (H), 3–2 (A)

Group H

 BATE Borisov

5–0 (A), 4–0 (H)

Group H

 Viktoria Plzeň

2–0 (H), 4–0 (A)

Round of 16

 Bayer Leverkusen

3–1 (A), 7–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Milan

0–0 (A), 3–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Chelsea

0–1 (A), 2–2 (H)

2012–13[40]

Group G

 Spartak Moscow

3–2 (H), 3–0 (A)

Group G

 Benfica

2–0 (A), 0–0 (H)

Group G

 Celtic

2–1 (H), 1–2 (A)

Round of 16

 Milan

0–2 (A), 4–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Paris Saint-Germain

2–2 (A), 1–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Bayern Munich

0–4 (A), 0–3 (H)

2013–14[41]

Group H

 Ajax

4–0 (H), 1–2 (A)

Group H

 Milan

1–1 (A), 3–1 (H)

Group H

 Celtic

1–0 (A), 6–1 (H)

Round of 16

 Manchester City

2–0 (A), 2–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Atlético Madrid

1–1 (H), 0–1 (A)

2014–15

Group F

 APOEL

1–0 (H), 4–0 (A)

Group F

 Paris Saint-Germain

2–3 (A), 3–1 (H)

Group F

 Ajax

3–1 (H), 2–0 (A)

Round of 16

 Manchester City

2–1 (A), 1–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Paris Saint Germain

3–1 (A), 2–0 (H)

Semi-final

 Bayern Munich

3–0 (H), 2–3 (A)

Final

 Juventus

3–1 (N)

2015–16

Group E

 Roma

1–1 (A), 6–1 (H)

 Bayer Leverkusen

2–1 (H), 1–1 (A)

 BATE Borisov

2–0 (A), 3–0 (H)

Round of 16

 Arsenal

2–0 (A), 3–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Atlético Madrid

2–1 (H), 0–2 (A)

2016–17

Group C

 Celtic

7–0 (H), 2–0 (A)

 Borussia Mönchengladbach

4–0 (H), 2–1 (A)

 Manchester City

4–0 (H), 1–3 (A)

Round of 16

 Paris Saint Germain

0–4 (A), 6–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Juventus

0–3 (A), 0–0 (H)

2017–18

Group D

 Juventus

3–0 (H), 0–0 (A)

 Sporting CP

1–0 (A), 2–0 (H)

 Olympiacos

3–1 (H), 0–0 (A)

Round of 16

 Chelsea

1–1 (A), 3–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Roma

4–1  (H),  0–3  (A)

[A]

text: UEFA Cup Winners' Cup[edit]

text: The Cup Winners' Cup started in 1960, but it took three years until Barcelona participated for the first time. In their first edition, they were eliminated in the first round by Hamburg SV. In 1969, their second participation, they advanced to the final, but were beaten by Czechoslovakian side Slovan Bratislava. The first success came in 1979 when they defeated Fortuna Düsseldorf in the final, by 4–3 after extra time. This maiden success was emulated in 1982, 1989, and in their last participation in 1997, before the cup was reorganised into the UEFA Cup in 1999–2000. Barcelona's four victories are the most of any club.[42]

text:
Season

Round

Opposing team

Score

Notes

1963–64[43]

Preliminary round

 Shelbourne

2–0 (A), 3–1 (H)

First round

 Hamburger SV

4–4 (H), 0–0 (A)

[G]

1968–69[44]

First round

 Lugano

1–0 (A), 3–0 (H)

Second round

Bye

Quarter-final

 Lyn

3–2 (H), 2–2 (A)

Semi-final

 1. FC Köln

2–2 (A), 4–1 (H)

Final

 Slovan Bratislava

2–3 (N)

1971–72[45]

First round

 Distillery

3–1 (A), 4–0 (H)

Second round

 Steaua București

0–1 (H), 1–2 (A)

1978–79[46]

First round

 Shakhtar Donetsk

3–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Second round

 Anderlecht

0–3 (A), 3–0 (H)

[F]

Quarter-final

 Ipswich Town

1–2 (A), 1–0 (H)

[A]

Semi-final

 Beveren

1–0 (H), 1–0 (A)

Final

 Fortuna Düsseldorf

4–3 (N)

1979–80[47]

First round

 ÍA

1–0 (A), 5–0 (H)

Second round

 Aris Bonnevoie

4–1 (A), 7–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Valencia

0–1 (H), 3–4 (A)

1981–82[48]

First round

 Botev Plovdiv

4–1 (H), 0–1 (A)

Second round

 Dukla Prague

0–1 (A), 4–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Lokomotive Leipzig

3–0 (A), 1–2 (H)

Semi-final

 Tottenham Hotspur

1–1 (A), 1–0 (H)

Final

 Standard Liège

2–1 (H)

1982–83[49]

First round

 Apollon Limassol

8–0 (H), 1–1 (A)

Second round

 Red Star Belgrade

4–2 (H), 2–1 (A)

Quarter-final

 Austria Wien

0–0 (A), 1–1 (H)

[B]

1983–84[50]

First round

 1. FC Magdeburg

5–1 (A), 2–0 (H)

Second round

 NEC

3–2 (A), 2–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Manchester United

2–0 (H), 0–3 (A)

1984–85[51]

First round

 Metz

4–2 (A), 1–4 (H)

1988–89[52]

First round

 Fram

2–0 (A), 5–0 (H)

Second round

 Lech Poznań

1–1 (H), 1–1 (A)

[D]

Quarter-final

 AGF

1–0 (A), 0–0 (H)

Semi-final

 CSKA Sofia

4–2 (H), 2–1 (A)

Final

 Sampdoria

2–0 (N)

1989–90[53]

First round

 Legia Warsaw

1–1 (H), 1–0 (A)

Second round

 Anderlecht

0–2 (A), 2–1 (H)

1990–91[54]

First round

 Trabzonspor

0–1 (A), 7–2 (H)

Second round

 Fram

2–1 (A), 3–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Dynamo Kyiv

3–2 (A), 1–1 (H)

Semi-final

 Juventus

3–1 (H), 0–1 (A)

Final

 Manchester United

1–2 (N)

1996–97[55]

First round

 AEK Larnaca

2–0 (H), 0–0 (A)

Second round

 Red Star Belgrade

3–1 (H), 1–1 (A)

Quarter-final

 AIK

3–1 (H), 1–1 (A)

Semi-final

 Fiorentina

1–1 (A), 2–0 (H)

Final

 Paris Saint-Germain

1–0 (N)

text: Inter-Cities Fairs Cup / UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League[edit]

text: The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was established on 18 April 1955, two weeks after the European Cup, to promote trade fairs by playing various cities against each other. However, the city of Barcelona participated with a squad composed entirely of Barcelona players. From 1958 onwards, the organisers reverted to club participation, but the teams still had to come from cities staging trade fairs. Barcelona would go on to win the Fairs Cup a record three times before it was subsumed into the UEFA Cup in 1971.[56]

text: The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is considered to be the forerunner of the UEFA Europa League, but it is not recognized as a UEFA competition. Consequently, Inter-Cities Fairs Cup wins do not count toward the tally of Europa League wins.[57] This list tallies the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup together with the Europa League tournament. In the UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League, Barcelona has lost four semi-finals, in 1975–76, in 1977–78, in 1995–96, in 2000–01. Twice they lost to Liverpool (in 1976 and in 2001), once against PSV (in 1978) and once against Bayern Munich (in 1996). In all four cases, the team that had eliminated Barcelona ultimately won the competition.

text:
Season

Round

Opposing team[2][58][59]

Score

Notes

1955–58

Group A

 Copenhagen XI

6–2 (H), 1–1 (A)

Group A

 Vienna XI

[L]

Semi-final

 Birmingham City

3–4 (A), 1–0 (H)

[J]

Final

 London XI

2–2 (A), 6–0 (H)

1958–60

First round

 Basel XI

2–1 (A), 5–2 (H)

Quarter-final

 Internazionale

4–0 (H), 4–2 (A)

Semi-final

 Belgrade XI

4–2 (A), 4–2 (H)

Final

 Birmingham City

0–0 (A), 4–1 (H)

1960–61

First round

 Zagreb XI

1–1 (A), 4–3 (H)

Quarter-final

 Hibernian

4–4 (H), 2–3 (A)

1961–62

First round

 West Berlin XI

0–1 (A), 3–0 (H)

Second round

 Dinamo Zagreb

5–1 (H), 2–2 (A)

Quarter-final

 Sheffield Wednesday

2–3 (A), 2–0 (H)

Semi-final

 Red Star Belgrade

2–0 (A), 4–1 (H)

Final

 Valencia

2–6 (A), 1–1 (H)

1962–63

First round

 Belenenses

1–1 (A), 1–1 (H)

[M]

Second round

 Red Star Belgrade

2–3 (A), 1–0 (H)

[K]

1964–65

First round

 Fiorentina

0–1 (H), 2–0 (A)

Second round

 Celtic

3–1 (H), 0–0 (A)

Third round

 Strasbourg

0–0 (A), 2–2 (H)

[C]

1965–66

First round

 Utrecht

0–0 (A), 7–1 (H)

Second round

 Royal Antwerp

1–2 (A), 2–0 (H)

Third round

 Hannover 96

1–2 (A), 1–0 (H)

[I]

Quarter-final

 Espanyol

1–0 (H), 1–0 (A)

Semi-final

 Chelsea

2–0 (H), 0–2 (A)

[H]

Final

 Real Zaragoza

0–1 (H), 4–2 (A)

1966–67

First round

Bye

Second round

 Dundee United

1–2 (H), 0–2 (A)

1967–68

First round

 Zürich

1–3 (A), 1–0 (H)

1969–70

First round

 B1913

4–0 (H), 2–0 (A)

Second round

 Győri ETO

3–2 (A), 2–0 (H)

Third round

 Internazionale

1–2 (H), 1–1 (A)

1970–71

First round

 GKS Katowice

1–0 (A), 3–2 (H)

Second round

 Juventus

1–2 (H), 1–2 (A)

1971

Play-off Match

 Leeds United

2–1 (H)

[N]

1972–73

First round

 Porto

1–3 (A), 0–1 (H)

1973–74

First round

 Nice

0–3 (A), 2–0 (H)

1975–76

First round

 PAOK

0–1 (A), 6–1 (H)

Second round

 Lazio

3–0 (A), 4–0 (H)

Third round

 Vasas

3–1 (H), 1–0 (A)

Quarter-final

 Levski Sofia

4–0 (H), 4–5 (A)

Semi-final

 Liverpool

0–1 (H), 1–1 (A)

1976–77

First round

 Belenenses

2–2 (A), 3–2 (H)

Second round

 Lokeren

2–0 (H), 1–2 (A)

Third round

 Östers IF

3–0 (A), 5–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 Athletic Bilbao

1–2 (A), 2–2 (H)

1977–78

First round

 Steaua București

5–1 (H), 3–1 (A)

Second round

 AZ

1–1 (A), 1–1 (H)

[D]

Third round

 Ipswich Town

0–3 (A), 3–0 (H)

[F]

Quarter-final

 Aston Villa

2–2 (A), 2–1 (H)

Semi-final

 PSV

0–3 (A), 3–1 (H)

1980–81

First round

 Sliema Wanderers

2–0 (A), 1–0 (H)

Second round

 1. FC Köln

1–0 (A), 0–4 (H)

1986–87

First round

 Flamurtari

1–1 (A), 0–0 (H)

[A]

Second round

 Sporting CP

1–0 (H), 1–2 (A)

[A]

Third round

 Uerdingen 05

2–0 (A), 2–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Dundee United

0–1 (A), 1–2 (H)

1987–88

First round

 Belenenses

2–0 (H), 0–1 (A)

Second round

 Dynamo Moscow

2–0 (H), 0–0 (A)

Third round

 Flamurtari

4–1 (H), 0–1 (A)

Fourth round

 Bayer Leverkusen

0–0 (A), 0–1 (H)

1995–96

First round

 Hapoel Be'er Sheva

7–0 (A), 5–0 (H)

Second round

 Vitória de Guimarães

3–0 (H), 4–0 (A)

Third round

 Sevilla

1–1 (A), 3–1 (H)

Quarter-final

 PSV

2–2 (H), 3–2 (A)

Semi-final

 Bayern Munich

2–2 (A), 1–2 (H)

2000–01

Third round

 Club Brugge

2–0 (A), 1–1 (H)

Fourth round

 AEK Athens

1–0 (A), 5–0 (H)

Quarter-final

 Celta Vigo

2–1 (H), 2–3 (A)

[A]

Semi-final

 Liverpool

0–0 (H), 0–1 (A)

2003–04

First round

 Matador Púchov

1–1 (A), 8–0 (H)

Second round

 Panionios

3–0 (A), 2–0 (H)

Third round

 Brøndby

1–0 (A), 2–1 (H)

Fourth round

 Celtic

0–1 (A), 0–0 (H)

text: UEFA Super Cup[edit]

text: The UEFA Super Cup was inaugurated in 1973 as a way of determining the best team in Europe, by pitting the holders of the European Champion Clubs' Cup against the winners of the Cup Winners' Cup.[60] Barcelona first participated in the 1979 edition, after they won the 1978–79 Cup Winners' Cup. They lost 1–2 on aggregate to Nottingham Forest, having drawn 1–1 in Camp Nou after losing 0–1 in City Ground, Nottingham. The first victory was in the 1992 edition, when they beaten Werder Bremen 3–2 on aggregate. Since then, Barcelona has won the competition four additional times (in 1997, 2009, 2011 and 2015) and now shares the record of victories (five) with Milan.

text:
Year

Opposing team[61]

Score

Venue

1979

 Nottingham Forest

0–1 (A), 1–1 (H)

Two-legged

1982

 Aston Villa

1–0 (H), 0–3 (A) (a.e.t.)

Two-legged

1989

 Milan

1–1 (H), 0–1 (A)

Two-legged

1992

 Werder Bremen

1–1 (A), 2–1 (H)

Two-legged

1997

 Borussia Dortmund

2–0 (H), 1–1 (H)

Two-legged

2006

 Sevilla

0–3

Stade Louis II, Monaco

2009

 Shakhtar Donetsk

1–0 after extra time

Stade Louis II, Monaco

2011

 Porto

2–0

Stade Louis II, Monaco

2015

 Sevilla

5–4 after extra time

Boris Paichadze Dinamo Arena, Tbilisi

text: Intercontinental Cup / FIFA Club World Cup[edit]

text: In 1960, UEFA and their South-American equivalent, the South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL), created the Intercontinental Cup as a way of determining the best team in the world, by pitting the winners of the European Champions' Cup and the South American Copa Libertadores against each other. In 2000, FIFA launched their international club competition called the FIFA Club World Cup, featuring teams from all of its member associations. In the second edition of the Club World Cup, in 2005, FIFA took over the Intercontinental Cup, subsuming it into its own competition. Barcelona has won the FIFA Club World Cup three times (in 2009, 2011 and 2015) a record for this competition, shared with Real Madrid.[62][63][64]

text:
Year

Competition

Round

Opposing team

Score

Venue

1992

Intercontinental Cup

Final

 São Paulo

1–2

National Stadium, Tokyo, Japan

2006

FIFA Club World Cup

Semi-finals

 América

4–0

International Stadium, Yokohama, Japan[65]

Final

 Internacional

0–1

2009

FIFA Club World Cup

Semi-finals

 Atlante

3–1

Sheikh Zayed Stadium, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates[66]

Final

 Estudiantes La Plata

2–1

2011

FIFA Club World Cup

Semi-finals

 Al-Sadd

4–0

International Stadium, Yokohama, Japan[65]

Final

 Santos

4–0

2015

FIFA Club World Cup

Semi-finals

 Guangzhou Evergrande

3–0

International Stadium, Yokohama, Japan[65]

Final

 River Plate

3–0

text: Notes[edit]

text:
A. a b c d e f g h i  Won on the away goals rule.
B. a b  Lost on the away goals rule.
C. a  Lost on coin toss.
D. a b c  Won 5–4 on penalties.[67][68][69]
O. Won play-off 1–0 in Brussels.
E. a  Lost 0–2 on penalties.[21]
F. a  Won 3–1 on penalties.[69]
G. a  Lost play-off 2–3 in Lausanne.[43]
H. a  Won play-off 5–0 in Barcelona.[2]
I. a  Won on coin toss.[2]
J. a  Won play-off 2–1 in Basel.[2]
K. a  Lost play-off 0–1 in Nice.[2]
L. a  Vienna XI withdrew from the competition.[2]
M. a  Won play-off 1–0 in Barcelona.[2]
N. a  After the 1970–71 season the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was taken over by UEFA. A match was played between FC Barcelona, the first Fairs Cup winners, and Leeds United, the last winners, to decide who should keep the old Fairs Cup trophy permanently.[70]


document_title: Christmas tree

question_text: who introduced the first christmas tree to england

question_tokens: who introduced the first christmas tree to england

root

text: Christmas tree

text: History[edit]

text: Possible predecessors[edit]

text: The relevance of ancient pre-Christian customs to the 16th-century German initiation of the Christmas tree custom is disputed. Resistance to the custom was often because of its supposed Lutheran origins.[12]

tag: p

text: Other sources have offered a connection between the first documented Christmas trees in Alsace around 1600 and pre-Christian traditions. For example, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, "The use of evergreen trees, wreaths, and garlands to symbolize eternal life was a custom of the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, and Hebrews. Tree worship was common among the pagan Europeans and survived their conversion to Christianity in the Scandinavian customs of decorating the house and barn with evergreens at the New Year to scare away the devil and of setting up a tree for the birds during Christmas time."[13]

text: During the Roman mid-winter festival of Saturnalia, houses were decorated with wreaths of evergreen plants, along with other antecedent customs now associated with Christmas.[14]

text: The modern Christmas tree is frequently traced to the symbolism of trees in pre-Christian winter rites, wherein Viking and Saxon worshiped trees.[14] The story of Saint Boniface cutting down Donar's Oak illustrates the pagan practices in 8th century among the Germans. A later folk version of the story adds the detail that an evergreen tree grew in place of the felled oak, telling them about how its triangular shape reminds humanity of the Trinity and how it points to heaven.[15][16]

text: Alternatively, it is identified with the "tree of paradise" of medieval mystery plays that were given on 24 December, the commemoration and name day of Adam and Eve in various countries. In such plays, a tree decorated with apples (to represent the forbidden fruit) and wafers (to represent the Eucharist and redemption) was used as a setting for the play. Like the Christmas crib, the Paradise tree was later placed in homes. The apples were replaced by round objects such as shiny red balls.[10][11][17][18][19][20]

text: At the end of the Middle Ages, an early predecessor appears referred in the Regiment of the Order of Cister around 1400, in Alcobaça, Portugal. The Regiment of the local high-Sacristans of the Cistercian Order refers to what may be considered one of the oldest references to the Christmas tree: "Note on how to put the Christmas branch, scilicet: On the Christmas eve, you will look for a large Branch of green laurel, and you shall reap many red oranges, and place them on the branches that come of the laurel, specifically as you have seen, and in every orange you shall put a candle, and hang the Branch by a rope in the pole, which shall be by the candle of the altar-mor."[21]

text: Modern Christmas trees originated during the Renaissance of early modern Germany. Its 16th-century origins are sometimes associated with Protestant Christian reformer Martin Luther, who is said to have first added lighted candles to an evergreen tree.[22][23][24]

text: The first recorded Christmas tree can be found on the keystone sculpture of a private home in Turckheim, Alsace (then part of Germany, today France), dating 1576.[25]

text: Georgia[edit]

text: Georgians have their own traditional Christmas tree called Chichilaki, made from dried up hazelnut or walnut branches that are shaped to form a small coniferous tree. These pale-colored ornaments differ in height from 20 cm (7.9 in) to 3 meters (9.8 feet). Chichilakis are most common in the Guria and Samegrelo regions of Georgia near the Black Sea, but they can also be found in some stores around the capital of Tbilisi.[citation needed] Georgians believe that Chichilaki resembles the famous beard of St. Basil the Great, because Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates St. Basil on January 1.

text: Poland[edit]

text: There was an old pagan custom, associated with Koliada, of suspending a branch of fir, spruce or pine called Podłaźniczka from the ceiling. The branches were decorated with apples, nuts, cookies, colored paper, stars made of straw, ribbons and colored wafers. Some people believed that the tree had magical powers that were linked with harvesting and success in the next year.

text: In the late 18th and early 19th century, these traditions were almost completely replaced by the German custom of decorating the Christmas tree.

text: Estonia, Latvia and Germany[edit]

text: Customs of erecting decorated trees in wintertime can be traced to Christmas celebrations in Renaissance-era guilds in Northern Germany and Livonia. The first evidence of decorated trees associated with Christmas Day are trees in guildhalls decorated with sweets to be enjoyed by the apprentices and children. In Livonia (present-day Estonia and Latvia), in 1441, 1442, 1510 and 1514, the Brotherhood of Blackheads erected a tree for the holidays in their guild houses in Reval (now Tallinn) and Riga. On the last night of the celebrations leading up to the holidays, the tree was taken to the Town Hall Square, where the members of the brotherhood danced around it.[26]

text: A Bremen guild chronicle of 1570 reports that a small tree decorated with "apples, nuts, dates, pretzels and paper flowers" was erected in the guild-house for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas Day.[27] In 1584, the pastor and chronicler Balthasar Russow in his Chronica der Provinz Lyfflandt (1584) wrote of an established tradition of setting up a decorated spruce at the market square, where the young men "went with a flock of maidens and women, first sang and danced there and then set the tree aflame".

text: After the Protestant Reformation, such trees are seen in the houses of upper-class Protestant families as a counterpart to the Catholic Christmas cribs. This transition from the guild hall to the bourgeois family homes in the Protestant parts of Germany ultimately gives rise to the modern tradition as it developed in the 18th and 19th centuries.

text: 18th to early 20th centuries[edit]

text: Germany[edit]

text: By the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper Rhineland, but it had not yet spread to rural areas. Wax candles, expensive items at the time, are found in attestations from the late 18th century.

text: Along the lower Rhine, an area of Roman Catholic majority, the Christmas tree was largely regarded as a Protestant custom. As a result, it remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long period of time. The custom did eventually gain wider acceptance beginning around 1815 by way of Prussian officials who emigrated there following the Congress of Vienna.

text: In the 19th century, the Christmas tree was taken to be an expression of German culture and of Gemütlichkeit, especially among emigrants overseas.[28]

text: A decisive factor in winning general popularity was the German army's decision to place Christmas trees in its barracks and military hospitals during the Franco-Prussian War. Only at the start of the 20th century did Christmas trees appear inside churches, this time in a new brightly lit form.[29]

text: Adoption by European nobility[edit]

text: In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg introduced the Christmas tree to Vienna in 1816, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In France, the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchesse d'Orléans. In Denmark a Danish newspaper claims that the first attested Christmas tree was lit in 1808 by countess Wilhemine of Holsteinborg. It was the aging countess who told the story of the first Danish Christmas tree to the Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen in 1865. He had published a fairy-tale called The Fir-Tree in 1844, recounting the fate of a fir-tree being used as a Christmas tree.[30]

text: Britain[edit]

text: Although the tradition of decorating the home with evergreens was long established,[32] the custom of decorating an entire small tree was unknown in Britain until some two centuries ago. At the time of the personal union with Hanover, George III's German-born wife, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, introduced a Christmas tree at a party she gave for children in 1800.[33] The custom did not at first spread much beyond the royal family.[34] Queen Victoria as a child was familiar with it and a tree was placed in her room every Christmas. In her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old princess wrote:[35]

text: After dinner... we then went into the drawing-room near the dining-room... There were two large round tables on which were placed two trees hung with lights and sugar ornaments. All the presents being placed round the trees...

text: After Victoria's marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became even more widespread[36] as wealthier middle-class families followed the fashion. In 1842 a newspaper advert for Christmas trees makes clear their smart cachet, German origins and association with children and gift-giving.[37] An illustrated book, The Christmas Tree, describing their use and origins in detail, was on sale in December 1844.[38] On 2 January 1846 Elizabeth Fielding (née Fox Strangways) wrote from Laycock Abbey to William Henry Fox-Talbot: "Constance is extremely busy preparing the Bohemian Xmas Tree. It is made from Caroline's[39] description of those she saw in Germany".[40] In 1847 Prince Albert wrote: "I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest [his brother] and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas-trees is not less than ours used to be".[41] A boost to the trend was given in 1848[42] when The Illustrated London News,[43] in a report picked up by other papers,[44] described the trees in Windsor Castle in detail and showed the main tree, surrounded by the royal family, on its cover. In fewer than ten years their use in better-off homes was widespread. By 1856 a northern provincial newspaper contained an advert alluding casually to them,[45] as well as reporting the accidental death of a woman whose dress caught fire as she lit the tapers on a Christmas tree.[46] They had not yet spread down the social scale though, as a report from Berlin in 1858 contrasts the situation there where "Every family has its own" with that of Britain, where Christmas trees were still the preserve of the wealthy or the "romantic".[47]

text: Their use at public entertainments, charity bazaars and in hospitals made them increasingly familiar however, and in 1906 a charity was set up specifically to ensure even poor children in London slums 'who had never seen a Christmas tree' would enjoy one that year.[48] Anti-German sentiment after World War I briefly reduced their popularity[49] but the effect was short-lived[50] and by the mid-1920s the use of Christmas trees had spread to all classes.[51] In 1933 a restriction on the importation of foreign trees led to the "rapid growth of a new industry" as the growing of Christmas trees within Britain became commercially viable due to the size of demand.[52] By 2013 the number of trees grown in Britain for the Christmas market was approximately 8 million[53] and their display in homes, shops and public spaces a normal part of the Christmas season.

text: North America[edit]

text: The tradition was introduced to North America in the winter of 1781 by Hessian soldiers stationed in the Province of Québec (1763–1791) to garrison the colony against American attack. General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel and his wife, the Baroness von Riedesel, held a Christmas party for the officers at Sorel, delighting their guests with a fir tree decorated with candles and fruits.[54]

text: The Christmas tree became very common in the United States in the early nineteenth century. The first image of a Christmas tree was published in 1836 as the frontispiece to The Stranger's Gift by Hermann Bokum. The first mention of the Christmas tree in American literature was in a story in the 1836 edition of The Token and Atlantic Souvenir, titled "New Year's Day," by Catherine Maria Sedgwick, where she tells the story of a German maid decorating her mistress's tree. Also, a woodcut of the British Royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle, initially published in The Illustrated London News December 1848, was copied in the United States at Christmas 1850, in Godey's Lady's Book. Godey's copied it exactly, except for the removal of the Queen's tiara and Prince Albert's moustache, to remake the engraving into an American scene.[55] The republished Godey's image became the first widely circulated picture of a decorated evergreen Christmas tree in America. Art historian Karal Ann Marling called Prince Albert and Queen Victoria, shorn of their royal trappings, "the first influential American Christmas tree".[56] Folk-culture historian Alfred Lewis Shoemaker states, "In all of America there was no more important medium in spreading the Christmas tree in the decade 1850–60 than Godey's Lady's Book". The image was reprinted in 1860, and by the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become even more common in America.[55]

text: Several cities in the United States with German connections lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree: Windsor Locks, Connecticut, claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House,[57] while the "First Christmas Tree in America" is also claimed by Easton, Pennsylvania, where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816. In his diary, Matthew Zahm of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, recorded the use of a Christmas tree in 1821, leading Lancaster to also lay claim to the first Christmas tree in America.[58] Other accounts credit Charles Follen, a German immigrant to Boston, for being the first to introduce to America the custom of decorating a Christmas tree.[59] August Imgard, a German immigrant living in Wooster, Ohio, is said to be the first to popularize the practice of decorating a tree with candy canes.[citation needed] In 1847, Imgard cut a blue spruce tree from a woods outside town, had the Wooster village tinsmith construct a star, and placed the tree in his house, decorating it with paper ornaments, gilded nuts and Kuchen.[60] German immigrant Charles Minnegerode accepted a position as a professor of humanities at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1842, where he taught Latin and Greek. Entering into the social life of the Virginia Tidewater, Minnigerode introduced the German custom of decorating an evergreen tree at Christmas at the home of law professor St. George Tucker, thereby becoming another of many influences that prompted Americans to adopt the practice at about that time.[61] An 1853 article on Christmas customs in Pennsylvania defines them as mostly "German in origin", including the Christmas tree, which is "planted in a flower pot filled with earth, and its branches are covered with presents, chiefly of confectionary, for the younger members of the family." The article distinguishes between customs in different states however, claiming that in New England generally "Christmas is not much celebrated", whereas in Pennsylvania and New York it is.[62]

text: When Edward H. Johnson was vice president of the Edison Electric Light Company, a predecessor of Con Edison, he created the first known electrically illuminated Christmas tree at his home in New York City in 1882. Johnson became the "Father of Electric Christmas Tree Lights".[63]

text: The lyrics sung in the United States to the German tune O Tannenbaum begin "O Christmas tree...", giving rise to the mistaken idea that the German word Tannenbaum (fir tree) means "Christmas tree", the German word for which is instead Weihnachtsbaum.

text:
18th to early 20th century representations

The Christmas tree by Winslow Homer, 1858

Christmas in the Netherlands, c. 1899

Illustration for Harper's Bazaar, published 1 January 1870.

Christmas tree depicted as Christmas card by Prang & Co. (Boston) 1880

Vera Komissarzhevskaya as Nora in Ibsen's A Doll's House (c. 1904). Photo by Elena Mrozovskaya

An Italian American family on Christmas, 1924

tag: ul

text: 1935 to present[edit]

text: In Russia, the Christmas tree was banned after the October Revolution[64] but then reinstated as a New-year spruce (Новогодняя ёлка, Novogodnyaya yolka) in 1935. It became a fully secular icon of the New Year holiday, for example, the crowning star was regarded not as a symbol of Bethlehem Star, but as the Red star. Decorations, such as figurines of airplanes, bicycles, space rockets, cosmonauts, and characters of Russian fairy tales, were produced. This tradition persists after the fall of the USSR, with the New Year holiday outweighing the Christmas (7 January) for a wide majority of Russian people.[65]

text: The TV special A Charlie Brown Christmas (1965) was influential on the pop culture surrounding the Christmas tree. Aluminum Christmas trees were popular during the early 1960s in the US. They were satirized in the Charlie Brown show and came to be seen as symbolizing the commercialization of Christmas. The term Charlie Brown Christmas tree, describing any poor-looking or malformed little tree, also derives from the 1965 TV special, based on the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree.[66]

text:
1935 to present

Christmas tree with presents

Christmas Tree in the cozy room at the Wisconsin Governor's mansion.

Christmas tea with Christmas Tree at an espresso shop in Eugene, Oregon

A Soviet-era (1960s) New Year tree decoration depicting a cosmonaut

Christmas Trees in church

An aluminum Christmas tree

text: Public Christmas trees[edit]

text: Since the early 20th century, it has become common in many cities, towns, and department stores to put up public Christmas trees outdoors, such as the Macy's Great Tree in Atlanta (since 1948), the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York City, and the large Christmas tree at Victoria Square in Adelaide. The use of fire retardant allows many indoor public areas to place real trees and be compliant with code. Licensed applicants of fire retardant solution spray the tree, tag the tree, and provide a certificate for inspection. Real trees are popular with high end visual merchandising displays around the world. Leading global retailers such as Apple often place real trees in their window displays. In 2009, Apple placed two Fraser fir trees in every one of its retail establishments.[citation needed]

text: The United States' National Christmas Tree has been lit each year since 1923 on the South Lawn of the White House. Today,[clarification needed] the lighting of the National Christmas Tree is part of what has become a major holiday event at the White House. President Jimmy Carter lit only the crowning star atop the tree in 1979 in honor of the Americans being held hostage in Iran.[67] The same was true in 1980, except that the tree was fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity.[67]

text: During most of the 1970s and 1980s, the largest decorated Christmas tree in the world was put up every year on the property of the National Enquirer in Lantana, Florida. This tradition grew into one of the most spectacular and celebrated events in the history of southern Florida, but was discontinued on the death of the paper's founder in the late 1980s.[68]

text: In some cities, a charity event called the Festival of Trees is organized, in which multiple trees are decorated and displayed.

text: The giving of Christmas trees has also often been associated with the end of hostilities. After the signing of the Armistice in 1918 the city of Manchester sent a tree, and £500 to buy chocolate and cakes, for the children of the much-bombarded town of Lille in northern France.[69] In some cases the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in Trafalgar Square in London, where the City of Oslo, Norway presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during the Second World War; in Boston, where the tree is a gift from the province of Nova Scotia, in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 ammunition ship explosion that leveled the city of Halifax; and in Newcastle upon Tyne, where the main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of Bergen, in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from Nazi occupation.[70] Norway also annually gifts a Christmas tree to Washington, D.C. as a symbol of friendship between Norway and the US and as an expression of gratitude from Norway for the help received from the US during World War II.[71]

text:
Public Christmas trees

Christmas tree in Milan, Italy, 2008

Christmas tree in Vatican City, 2007

Christmas tree in Salerno old town, Italy, 2008.

Trafalgar Square Christmas tree

Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree

Christmas tree on the Römerberg in Frankfurt (2008)

in Lisbon (2005), at 75 metres (246 feet) the tallest Christmas tree in Europe.

Boston's Christmas Tree.

An Árbol navideño luminoso in Madrid (2011)

Christmas tree in Warsaw

Christmas tree in South Coast Plaza, California

Christmas tree in Stockholm at NK shopping mall

Christmas trees in Ocean Terminal, Harbour City, Hong Kong

text: Chrismon trees[edit]

text: A "Chrismon tree" is a Christmas tree decorated with explicitly Christian symbols in white and gold.[72][73] First introduced by North American Lutherans in 1957,[74] the practice has rapidly spread to other Christian denominations,[75] including Anglicans,[76] Catholics,[77] Methodists,[78] and the Reformed.[79]

text: "Chrismon" (plural "Chrismons") was adopted for the type of Christmas decoration and explained as a portmanteau of "Christ-monogram" (a Christogram).[80][81]

text: Customs and traditions[edit]

text: Setting up and taking down[edit]

text:
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tag: table

text: Both setting up and taking down a Christmas tree are associated with specific dates. Traditionally, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until Christmas Eve (24 December)[citation needed] or, in the traditions celebrating Christmas Eve rather than the first day of Christmas, 23 December, and then removed the day after Twelfth Night (5 January); to have a tree up before or after these dates was even considered bad luck,[citation needed] and that to avoid bad luck from affecting the house's residents, the tree must be left up until after the following Twelfth Night passes.

text: In many areas, it has become customary to set up one's Christmas tree at the beginning of the Advent season.[82] Some families in the U.S. and Canada will put up a Christmas tree a week prior to American Thanksgiving (the fourth Thursday of November), and Christmas decorations can show up even earlier in retail stores, often the day after Halloween (31 October). In Canada many families wait until after Remembrance Day, as to show respect to fallen soldiers. Some households do not put up the tree until the second week of December, and leave it up until 6 January (Epiphany). In Germany, traditionally the tree is put up on 24 December and taken down on 7 January, though many start one or two weeks earlier, and in Roman Catholic homes the tree may be kept until February 2 (Candlemas).[why?][citation needed]

text: In Italy, Ireland and Argentina, along with many countries in Latin America, the Christmas tree is put up on 8 December (Immaculate Conception day) and left up until 6 January. In Australia, the Christmas tree is usually put up on 1 December, which occurs about a 2 weeks before the school summer holidays (except for South Australia, where most people put up their tree after in late November following the completion of the Adelaide Christmas Pageant, a time frame that has started to filter into other states as the official time Christmas decorations and in store Santa Claus start to appear) and is left up until it is taken down.[citation needed] Some traditions suggest that Christmas trees may be kept up until no later than 2 February, the feast of the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple (Candlemas), when the Christmas season effectively closes.[83] Superstitions say that it is a bad sign if Christmas greenery is not removed by Candlemas Eve.[84]

text: Decoration[edit]

text: Christmas ornaments are decorations (usually made of glass, metal, wood, or ceramics) that are used to decorate a Christmas tree. The first decorated trees were adorned with apples, white candy canes and pastries in the shapes of stars, hearts and flowers. Glass baubles were first made in Lauscha, Germany, and also garlands of glass beads and tin figures that could be hung on trees. The popularity of these decorations grew into the production of glass figures made by highly skilled artisans with clay molds.

text: Tinsel and several types of garland or ribbon are commonly used to decorate a Christmas tree. Silvered saran-based tinsel was introduced later. Delicate mold-blown and painted colored glass Christmas ornaments were a specialty of the glass factories in the Thuringian Forest, especially in Lauscha in the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers. Baubles are another common decoration, consisting of small hollow glass or plastic spheres coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide coloration. Lighting with electric lights (Christmas lights or, in the United Kingdom, fairy lights) is commonly done. A tree-topper, sometimes an angel but more frequently a star, completes the decoration.

text: In the late 1800s, home-made white Christmas trees were made by wrapping strips of cotton batting around leafless branches creating the appearance of a snow-laden tree. In the 1940s and 1950s, popularized by Hollywood films in the late 1930s, flocking was very popular on the West Coast of the United States. There were home flocking kits that could be used with vacuum cleaners. In the 1980s some trees were sprayed with fluffy white flocking to simulate snow.

text:
Decorations

A transparent Christmas bauble

A golden bauble decorating a Christmas tree

Christmas baubles

A snowman-shaped decoration painted as a baseball

A toy bear Christmas decoration.

Fabergé egg as a Christmas decoration.

Christmas decorations

Red ornamented Christmas bauble

Christmas baubles

text: Production[edit]

text: Each year, 33 to 36 million Christmas trees are produced in America, and 50 to 60 million are produced in Europe. In 1998, there were about 15,000 growers in America (a third of them "choose and cut" farms). In that same year, it was estimated that Americans spent $1.5 billion on Christmas trees.[85] By 2016 that had climbed to $2.04 billion for natural trees and a further $1.86 billion for artificial trees. In Europe, 75 million trees worth €2.4 billion ($3.2 billion) are harvested annually.[86]

text: Natural trees[edit]

text: The most commonly used species are fir (Abies), which have the benefit of not shedding their needles when they dry out, as well as retaining good foliage color and scent; but species in other genera are also used.

text: In northern Europe most commonly used are:

text:
Norway spruce Picea abies (the original tree, generally the cheapest)
Silver fir Abies alba
Nordmann fir Abies nordmanniana
Noble fir Abies procera
Serbian spruce Picea omorika
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Stone pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees)
Swiss pine Pinus cembra

text: In North America, Central America and South America most commonly used are:

text:
Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii
Balsam fir Abies balsamea
Fraser Fir Abies fraseri
Grand fir Abies grandis
Guatemalan fir Abies guatemalensis
Noble fir Abies procera
Red fir Abies magnifica
White fir Abies concolor
Pinyon pine Pinus edulis
Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris
Stone pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees)
Norfolk Island pine Araucaria heterophylla

text: Several other species are used to a lesser extent. Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as giant sequoia, Leyland cypress, Monterey cypress and eastern juniper. Various types of spruce tree are also used for Christmas trees (including the blue spruce and, less commonly, the white spruce); but spruces begin to lose their needles rapidly upon being cut, and spruce needles are often sharp, making decorating uncomfortable. Virginia pine is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States; however, its winter color is faded. The long-needled eastern white pine is also used there, though it is an unpopular Christmas tree in most parts of the country, owing also to its faded winter coloration and limp branches, making decorating difficult with all but the lightest ornaments. Norfolk Island pine is sometimes used, particularly in Oceania, and in Australia, some species of the genera Casuarina and Allocasuarina are also occasionally used as Christmas trees. But, by far, the most common tree is the Monterey pine. Adenanthos sericeus or Albany woolly bush is commonly sold in southern Australia as a potted living Christmas tree. Hemlock species are generally considered unsuitable as Christmas trees due to their poor needle retention and inability to support the weight of lights and ornaments.

text: Some trees, frequently referred to as "living Christmas trees", are sold live with roots and soil, often from a plant nursery, to be stored at nurseries in planters or planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades. Others are produced in a container and sometimes as topiary for a porch or patio. However, when done improperly, the combination of root loss caused by digging, and the indoor environment of high temperature and low humidity is very detrimental to the tree's health; additionally, the warmth of an indoor climate will bring the tree out of its natural winter dormancy, leaving it little protection when put back outside into a cold outdoor climate. Often Christmas trees are a large attraction for living animals, including mice and spiders. Thus, the survival rate of these trees is low.[87] However, when done properly, replanting provides higher survival rates.[88]

text: European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside western areas where trees are often wild-harvested on public lands)[89] there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations.

text: In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on tree farms. Almost all Christmas trees in the United States are grown on Christmas tree farms where they are cut after about ten years of growth and new trees planted. According to the United States Department of Agriculture's agriculture census for 2007, 21,537 farms were producing conifers for the cut Christmas tree market in America, 5,717.09 square kilometres (1,412,724 acres) were planted in Christmas trees.[90]

text: The life cycle of a Christmas tree from the seed to a 2-metre (7 ft) tree takes, depending on species and treatment in cultivation, between 8 and 12 years. First, the seed is extracted from cones harvested from older trees. These seeds are then usually grown in nurseries and then sold to Christmas tree farms at an age of 3–4 years. The remaining development of the tree greatly depends on the climate, soil quality, as well as the cultivation and how the trees are tended by the Christmas tree farmer.[91]

text: Artificial trees[edit]

text: The first artificial Christmas trees were developed in Germany during the 19th century,[92][93] though earlier examples exist.[94] These "trees" were made using goose feathers that were dyed green.,[92] as one response by Germans to continued deforestation.[93] Feather Christmas trees ranged widely in size, from a small 2-inch (51 mm) tree to a large 98-inch (2,500 mm) tree sold in department stores during the 1920s.[95] Often, the tree branches were tipped with artificial red berries which acted as candle holders.[96]

text: Over the years, other styles of artificial Christmas trees have evolved and become popular. In 1930, the U.S.-based Addis Brush Company created the first artificial Christmas tree made from brush bristles.[97] Another type of artificial tree is the aluminum Christmas tree,[93] first manufactured in Chicago in 1958,[98] and later in Manitowoc, Wisconsin, where the majority of the trees were produced.[99] Most modern artificial Christmas trees are made from plastic recycled from used packaging materials, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).[93] Approximately 10% of artificial Christmas trees are using virgin suspension PVC resin; despite being plastic most artificial trees are not recyclable or biodegradable.[100]

text: Other trends have developed in the early 2000s as well. Optical fiber Christmas trees come in two major varieties; one resembles a traditional Christmas tree.[101] One Dallas-based company offers "holographic mylar" trees in many hues.[94] Tree-shaped objects made from such materials as cardboard,[102] glass,[103] ceramic or other materials can be found in use as tabletop decorations. Upside-down artificial Christmas trees became popular for a short time and were originally introduced as a marketing gimmick; they allowed consumers to get closer to ornaments for sale in retail stores and opened up floor space for more products.[104] Artificial trees became increasingly popular during the late 20th century.[93] Users of artificial Christmas trees assert that they are more convenient, and, because they are reusable, much cheaper than their natural alternative.[93] They are also considered much safer[105] as natural trees can be a significant fire hazard. Between 2001 and 2007 artificial Christmas tree sales in the U.S. jumped from 7.3 million to 17.4 million.[106] Currently it is estimated that around 58% of Christmas trees used in the United States are artificial while numbers in the United Kingdom are indicated to be around 66%.[107]

text:
Artificial trees

A tree with fibre optic lights

Christmas tree and presents Athens, Greece

White Christmas tree

Spanish artificial Christmas tree

A chrismon tree (St. Alban's Anglican Cathedral, Oviedo, Florida)

An artificial Aluminum Christmas tree

Artificial tree

text: Environmental issues[edit]

text: The debate about the environmental impact of artificial trees is ongoing. Generally, natural tree growers contend that artificial trees are more environmentally harmful than their natural counterparts.[106] However, trade groups such as the American Christmas Tree Association, continue to refute that artificial trees are more harmful to the environment, and maintain that the PVC used in Christmas trees has excellent recyclable properties.[108]

text: Live trees are typically grown as a crop and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable habitat for wildlife.[citation needed] Alternately, live trees can be donated to livestock farmers of such animals like goats who find that such trees uncontaminated by chemical additives are excellent fodder.[109] In some cases management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it sometimes involves heavy input of pesticides.[110] Concerns have been raised about people cutting down old and rare conifers, such as the Keteleeria evelyniana and Abies fraseri , for Christmas trees.

text: Real or cut trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as mulch, wildlife habitat, or used to prevent erosion.[111][112][113] Real trees are carbon-neutral, they emit no more carbon dioxide by being cut down and disposed of than they absorb while growing.[114] However, emissions can occur from farming activities and transportation. An independent life-cycle assessment study, conducted by a firm of experts in sustainable development, states that a natural tree will generate 3.1 kg (6.8 lb) of greenhouse gases every year (based on purchasing 5 km (3.1 miles) from home) whereas the artificial tree will produce 48.3 kg (106 lb) over its lifetime.[115] Some people use living Christmas or potted trees for several seasons, providing a longer life cycle for each tree. Living Christmas trees can be purchased or rented from local market growers. Rentals are picked up after the holidays, while purchased trees can be planted by the owner after use or donated to local tree adoption or urban reforestation services.[116]

text: Most artificial trees are made of recycled PVC rigid sheets using tin stabilizer in the recent years. In the past, lead was often used as a stabilizer in PVC, but is now banned by Chinese laws.[citation needed] The use of lead stabilizer in Chinese imported trees has been an issue of concern among politicians and scientists over recent years. A 2004 study found that while in general artificial trees pose little health risk from lead contamination, there do exist "worst-case scenarios" where major health risks to young children exist.[117] A 2008 United States Environmental Protection Agency report found that as the PVC in artificial Christmas trees aged it began to degrade.[118] The report determined that of the 50 million artificial trees in the United States approximately 20 million were 9 or more years old, the point where dangerous lead contamination levels are reached.[118] A professional study on the life-cycle assessment of both real and artificial Christmas trees revealed that one must use an artificial Christmas tree at least 20 years to leave an environmental footprint as small as the natural Christmas tree.[115]

text: Religious issues[edit]

text: The Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Bucer.[119][120] In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees."[121][122] When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem, a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897.[5][123] Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus.[6]

text: Under the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other religious holidays—were prohibited as a result of the Soviet anti-religious campaign.[124][125][126] The League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, among them being the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an anti-religious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.[127] With the Christmas tree being prohibited in accordance with Soviet anti-religious legislation, people supplanted the former Christmas custom with New Year's trees.[126][128] In 1935 the tree was brought back as New Year tree and became a secular, not a religious holiday.

text: Pope John Paul II introduced the Christmas tree custom to the Vatican in 1982. Although at first disapproved of by some as out of place at the centre of the Roman Catholic Church, the Vatican Christmas Tree has become an integral part of the Vatican Christmas celebrations,[129] and in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI spoke of it as part of the normal Christmas decorations in Catholic homes.[130] In 2004, Pope John Paul called the Christmas tree a symbol of Christ. This very ancient custom, he said, exalts the value of life, as in winter what is evergreen becomes a sign of undying life, and it reminds Christians of the "tree of life" of Genesis 2:9, an image of Christ, the supreme gift of God to humanity.[131] In the previous year he said: "Beside the crib, the Christmas tree, with its twinkling lights, reminds us that with the birth of Jesus the tree of life has blossomed anew in the desert of humanity. The crib and the tree: precious symbols, which hand down in time the true meaning of Christmas."[132] The Catholic Church's official Book of Blessings has a service for the blessing of the Christmas tree in a home.[133] Likewise the Protestant Episcopal Church in The Anglican Family Prayer Book, which has the imprimatur of The Rt. Rev. Catherine S. Roskam of the Anglican Communion, has long had a ritual titled Blessing of a Christmas Tree, as well as Blessing of a Crèche, for use in the church and the home.[134]

text: In 2005, the city of Boston renamed the spruce tree used to decorate the Boston Common a "Holiday Tree" rather than a "Christmas Tree".[135] The name change drew a poor response from the public and it was reversed after the city was threatened with several lawsuits.[136]

text: Chrismon trees are a variety developed in 1957 by a Lutheran laywoman in Virginia, as a specifically religious version appropriate for a church's Christmas celebrations, although most Christian churches continue to display the traditional Christmas tree in their sanctuaries during Christmastide.[137]


document_title: Greenhouse effect

question_text: who coined the term greenhouse effect or atmosphere effect

text: Greenhouse effect

text: History

text: The existence of the greenhouse effect was argued for by Joseph Fourier in 1824. The argument and the evidence were further strengthened by Claude Pouillet in 1827 and 1838 and reasoned from experimental observations by John Tyndall in 1859, who measured the radiative properties of specific greenhouse gases.[7] The effect was more fully quantified by Svante Arrhenius in 1896, who made the first quantitative prediction of global warming due to a hypothetical doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide.[8] However, the term "greenhouse" was not used to refer to this effect by any of these scientists; the term was first used in this way by Nils Gustaf Ekholm in 1901.[9][10]

text: Mechanism

text: Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation. Of the total amount of solar energy available at the top of the atmosphere, about 26% is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the photosphere of the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, thereby warming it. In addition to the absorption of solar and thermal radiation, the atmosphere gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere were absent.

text: An ideal thermally conductive blackbody at the same distance from the Sun as Earth would have a temperature of about 5.3 °C. However, because Earth reflects about 30%[11][12] of the incoming sunlight, this idealized planet's effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) would be about −18 °C.[13][14] The surface temperature of this hypothetical planet is 33 °C below Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C.[15]

text: The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate. The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the diurnal cycle as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.

text: Within the region where radiative effects are important, the description given by the idealized greenhouse model becomes realistic. Earth's surface, warmed to a temperature around 255 K, radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range of 4–100 μm.[16] At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more absorbent.[16] Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower layers. It reradiates in all directions, both upwards and downwards; in equilibrium (by definition) the same amount as it has absorbed. This results in more warmth below. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and reradiation, and thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.[14]

text: Greenhouse gases—including most diatomic gases with two different atoms (such as carbon monoxide, CO) and all gases with three or more atoms—are able to absorb and emit infrared radiation. Though more than 99% of the dry atmosphere is IR transparent (because the main constituents—N2, O2, and Ar—are not able to directly absorb or emit infrared radiation), intermolecular collisions cause the energy absorbed and emitted by the greenhouse gases to be shared with the other, non-IR-active, gases.

text: Greenhouse gases

text: By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on Earth the four major gases are:[17][18]

text:
water vapor, 36–70%
carbon dioxide, 9–26%
methane, 4–9%
ozone, 3–7%

text: It is not physically realistic to assign a specific percentage to each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the gases overlap (hence the ranges given above). The major non-gas contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds, also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an effect on the radiative properties of the atmosphere.[18]

text: Role in climate change

text: Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the enhanced (or anthropogenic) greenhouse effect.[20] This increase in radiative forcing from human activity is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.[21] According to the latest Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Their effects, together with those of other anthropogenic drivers, have been detected throughout the climate system and are extremely likely to have been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century".[22]

text: CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation.[23] Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 parts per million (ppm)[24] in 1960 to about 389 ppm in 2010. It reached the 400 ppm milestone on May 9, 2013.[25] The current observed amount of CO2 exceeds the geological record maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data.[26] The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect.

text: Over the past 800,000 years,[27] ice core data shows that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 ppm to the pre-industrial level of 270 ppm.[28] Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide concentration to be a fundamental factor influencing climate variations over this time scale.[29][30]

text: Real greenhouses

text: The "greenhouse effect" of the atmosphere is named by analogy to greenhouses which become warmer in sunlight. However, a greenhouse is not primarily warmed by the "greenhouse effect".[31] "Greenhouse effect" is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection,[32] while the "greenhouse effect" works by preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure through radiative transfer.

text: A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight usually glass, or plastic. The sun warms the ground and contents inside just like the outside, which then warms the air. Outside, the warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft, keeping the temperature lower than inside, where the air continues to heat up because it is confined within the greenhouse. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It was demonstrated experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a (not heated) "greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent to infrared) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover.[6] Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.[5]

text: Heated greenhouses are yet another matter, having an internal source of heating they leak heat out, which must be prevented. So it again makes sense to try to prevent radiative cooling through the use of adequate glazing.[33]

text: Related effects

text: Anti-greenhouse effect

text: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar and symmetrical to the greenhouse effect: greenhouse effect is about atmosphere letting radiation in, while not letting thermal radiation out, which warms the body surface; anti-greenhouse effect is about atmosphere NOT letting radiation in, while letting thermal radiation out, which lowers the equilibrium surface temperature. Such an effect has been cited about Titan[34]

text: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.[35] A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor has long ago been hypothesized to have occurred on Venus,[36] this idea is still largely accepted[citation needed].

text: Bodies other than Earth

text: In the Solar System, there are also greenhouse effects on Mars, Venus, and Titan.

text: The greenhouse effect on Venus is particularly large because its dense atmosphere consists mainly of carbon dioxide.[37]

text: The greenhouse effect on Mars is small as its atmosphere is tenuous.[citation needed].

text: Titan has an anti-greenhouse effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to outgoing infrared radiation.

text: Pluto is also colder than would be expected because evaporation of nitrogen cools it.[38]


document_title: Ron Hale

question_text: who plays sonny's father mike on general hospital

question_tokens: who plays sonny 's father mike on general hospital

text: Ron Hale

text: This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Ron HaleBorn
 (1946-01-02) January 2, 1946 (age 72)Grand Rapids, Michigan[1]

text: Ron Hale (born January 2, 1946) is an American actor best known for his role as Dr. Roger Coleridge on the ABC soap opera Ryan's Hope for its entire run (1975–1989). He played the recurring role of Mike Corbin, the father of mobster Sonny Corinthos in the ABC soap opera General Hospital.

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Search for Tomorrow (1951, TV Series) - Walt Driscoll (1969)
A Lovely Way To Die (1968) - (uncredited)
Me, Natalie (1969) - Stanley Dexter
Love is a Many Splendored Thing (1973, TV Series) - Dr. Jim Abbott
All the President's Men (1976) - Frank Sturgis
Ryan's Hope (1975-1989, TV Series) - Dr. Roger Coleridge
Matlock (1989, TV Series) - Eldon Williams
MacGyver (1990, TV Series) - Mike Travers
Original Intent (1992) - Dr. Johnson
Trial by Jury (1994) - Bailiff
The Dark Mist (1996) - Pentakis
Port Charles (1997, TV Series) - Mike Corbin
The Brothers Flub (1999) - Squish (voice)
Sunstorm (2001) - Jack
Intimate Portrait (2003, TV Series, Vanessa Marcil) - Himself
General Hospital (1996-2010, TV Series) - Mike Corbin
The Ghost and The Whale (2017) - Father Reinhart


document_title: Caribbean Community

question_text: which countries are the latest additions to caricom

text: Caribbean Community

text: Membership[edit]

text: Currently CARICOM has 15 full members, 5 associate members and 8 observers. All of the associate members are British overseas territories, and it is currently not established what the role of the associate members will be. The observers are states which engage in at least one of CARICOM's technical committees.

text:
CARICOM Members[9]

Status
Name
Join date
Notes

Full member
 Antigua and Barbuda
4 July 1974

 Bahamas
4 July 1983
Not part of customs union

 Barbados
1 August 1973

 Belize
1 May 1974

 Dominica
1 May 1974

 Grenada
1 May 1974

 Guyana
1 August 1973

 Haiti
2 July 2002
Provisional membership on 4 July 1998

 Jamaica
1 August 1973

 Montserrat
1 May 1974
British overseas territory

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
26 July 1974
Joined as Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla

 Saint Lucia
1 May 1974

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1 May 1974

 Suriname
4 July 1995

 Trinidad and Tobago
1 August 1973
Founder of the Organization before handing over to Guyana

Associate
 Anguilla
July 1999
British overseas territory

 Bermuda
2 July 2003
British overseas territory

 British Virgin Islands
July 1991
British overseas territory

 Cayman Islands
16 May 2002
British overseas territory

 Turks and Caicos Islands
July 1991
British overseas territory

Observer
 Aruba

Country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

 Colombia

 Curaçao

Country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

 Dominican Republic

 Mexico

 Puerto Rico

Commonwealth of the USA

 Sint Maarten

Country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

 Venezuela

text: Organizational structure[edit]

text: Structures comprised by the overall Caribbean Community (CARICOM).[10]

text: Under Article 4 CARICOM breaks its 15 member states into two groups: Less Developed Countries (LDCs) and More Developed Countries (MDCs).[11]

text: The countries of CARICOM which are designated as Less Developed Countries (LDCs) are:[11]

text:
Antigua & Barbuda
Belize
Commonwealth of Dominica
Grenada
Republic of Haiti
Montserrat
Federation of St. Kitts & Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent & the Grenadines

text: The countries of CARICOM which are designated as More Developed Countries (MDCs) are:[11]

text:
Commonwealth of the Bahamas
Barbados
Co-operative Republic of Guyana
Jamaica
Republic of Suriname
Republic of Trinidad & Tobago

text: Chairmanship[edit]

text: The post of Chairman (Head of CARICOM) is held in rotation by the regional Heads of State (for the republics) and Heads of Government (for the realms) of CARICOM's 15 member states.

text: Heads of government[edit]

text: CARICOM contains a quasi-Cabinet of the individual Heads of Government. These heads are given specific specialised portfolios of responsibility for overall regional development and integration.[12]

text: Secretariat[edit]

text:
Secretariat of the Caribbean Community, The term of office of the Secretary-General is five years, which may be renewed. (Chief Administrative Organ)
Secretary-General of the Caribbean Community, the CARICOM Secretary General (Chief Executive) handles foreign and community relations.
Deputy Secretary-General of the Caribbean Community, handles human and social Development.
General Counsel of the Caribbean Community, handles trade and economic integration.

text: The goal statement of the CARICOM Secretariat is:

text: To provide dynamic leadership and service, in partnership with Community institutions and Groups, toward the attainment of a viable, internationally competitive and sustainable Community, with improved quality of life for all.

text: Organs and bodies[edit]

text:
Principal organs

Organ
Description

CARICOM Heads of Government
Consisting of the various heads of Government from each member state

Standing Committee of Ministers
Ministerial responsibilities for specific areas, for example the Standing Committee of Ministers responsible for Health will consist of Ministers of Health from each member state

text: Community Council[edit]

text: The Community Council consists of ministers responsible for community affairs and any other Minister designated by the member states in their absolute discretion. It is one of the community's principal organs; the other is the Conference of the Heads of Government. It is supported by four other organs and three bodies.

text:
Secondary organs

Secondary organ
Abbreviation

Council for Finance and Planning
COFAP

Council for Foreign and Community Relations
COFCOR

Council for Human and Social Development
COHSOD

Council for Trade and Economic Development
COTED

text:
Bodies

Body
Description

Legal Affairs Committee
provides legal advice

Budget Committee
examines the draft budget and work programme of the Secretariat and submits recommendations to the Community Council.

Committee of the Central Bank Governors
provides recommendations to the COFAP on monetary and financial matters.

text: Institutions[edit]

text: The 23 designated institutions of CARICOM are as follows:

text:
Institutions

Institution
Abbreviation

Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency
CDEMA

Caribbean Meteorological Institute
CMI

Caribbean Meteorological Organisation
CMO

Caribbean Food Corporation
CFC

Caribbean Environment Health Institute
CEHI

Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute
CARDI

Caribbean Regional Centre for the Education and training of Animal Health and Veterinary Public Health Assistants
REPAHA

Assembly of Caribbean Community Parliamentarians
ACCP

Caribbean Centre for Development Administration
CARICAD

Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute
CFNI

CARICOM Implementation Agency for Crime and Security
IMPACS

Caribbean Examinations Council
CXC

CARICOM Single Market and Economy
CSME

Caribbean Court of Justice
CCJ

CARICOM Competition Commission
CCC

Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism
CRFM

Caribbean Regional Organisation for Standards and Quality
CROSQ

Caribbean Telecommunications Union
CTU

Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre
CCCCC

Caribbean Organisation of Tax Administrators
COTA

Council of Legal Education
CLE

Caribbean Aviation Safety and Securing Oversight System
CASSOS

Caribbean Regional Information and Translation Institute
CRITI

text: The Caribbean Court of Justice will act in its "original jurisdiction", as settlement unit for disputes on the functioning of the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy (CSME). Additionally the states of CARICOM voted to supplement original jurisdiction with "appellate jurisdiction" under this the former colonies of the United Kingdom will have effectively replaced the Privy Council in London, United Kingdom with the CCJ.[citation needed]

text: The CCJ is based in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. The majority of member states[which?] however, continue to utilize the Privy Council as their final appellate court and three member states do not use the CCJ for either its original jurisdiction or its appellate jurisdiction because they have either not signed the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas (the Bahamas and Haiti) or are a current British colony (Montserrat).

text: Associate institutions[edit]

text: The six designated associate institutions of CARICOM are as follows:

text:
Associate institutions

Associate institution
Abbreviation

Caribbean Development Bank
CDB

University of Guyana
UG

University of the West Indies
UWI

Caribbean Law Institute / Caribbean Law Institute Centre
CLI / CLIC

Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
OECS

West Indies Cricket Board
WICB

text: The CARICOM Standard and CARICOM Song[edit]

text: The flag of the Caribbean Community was chosen and approved in November 1983 at the Conference of Heads of Government Meeting in Port of Spain, Trinidad. The original design by the firm of WINART Studies in Georgetown, Guyana was substantially modified at the July 1983 Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government.[13] The flag was first flown on 4 July 1984 in Nassau, Bahamas at the fifth Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government.[14]

text: The flag features a blue background, but the upper part is a light blue representing sky and the lower, a darker blue representing the Caribbean Sea. The yellow circle in the centre represents the sun on which is printed in black the logo of the Caribbean Community, two interlocking Cs. The two Cs are in the form of broken links in a chain, symbolising both unity and a break with the colonial past. The narrow ring of green around the sun represents the vegetation of the region.[13]

text: For CARICOM's 40th anniversary, a competition to compose an official song or anthem for CARICOM was launched in April 2013[15] to promote choosing a song that promoted unity and inspired CARICOM identity and pride. A regional panel of judges comprising independent experts in music was nominated by member states and the CARICOM Secretariat. Three rounds of competition condensed 63 entries to a final three, from which judges chose Celebrating CARICOM by Michele Henderson of Dominica[15] in March 2014.[16] Henderson won a US$10,000 prize.[17] Her song was produced by her husband, Roland Delsol Jr., and arranged by Earlson Matthew. It also featured Michael Ferrol on drums and choral input from the St. Alphonsus Choir. It was re-produced for CARICOM by Carl Beaver Henderson of Trinidad and Tobago.[16]

text: A second-place entry titled My CARICOM came from Jamaican Adiel Thomas[15] who won US$5,000,[17] and a third-place song titled One CARICOM by Carmella Lawrence of St. Kitts and Nevis,[15] won US$2,500.[17] The other songs from the top-ten finalists (in no particular order) were:

text:
One Region one Caribbean from Anguilla,
One Caribbean Family from Jamaica,
CARICOM’s Light from St. Vincent & the Grenadines,
We Are CARICOM from Dominica,
Together As one from Dominica,
Blessed CARICOM from Jamaica,
Together We Rise from Jamaica.[16]

text: The first official performance of Celebrating CARICOM by Henderson took place on Tuesday 1 July 2014 at the opening ceremony for the Thirty-Fifth Regional Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government in Antigua and Barbuda.[15]

text: History[edit]

text: CARICOM, originally the Caribbean Community and Common Market, was established by the Treaty of Chaguaramas[18] which took effect on 1 August 1973. The first four signatories were Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago.

text: CARICOM superseded the 1965–1972 Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) organised to provide a continued economic linkage between the English-speaking countries of the Caribbean after the dissolution of the West Indies Federation, which lasted from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962.

text: A revised Treaty of Chaguaramas established the Caribbean Community including the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) and was signed by the CARICOM Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community on 5 July 2001 at their Twenty-Second Meeting of the Conference in Nassau, The Bahamas.[11] The revised treaty cleared the way to transform the idea of a common market CARICOM into the Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy. Part of the revised treaty includes the establishing and implementing the Caribbean Court of Justice.

text: Since 2013 the CARICOM-bloc and with the Dominican Republic have been tied to the European Union via an Economic Partnership Agreements signed in 2008 known as CARIFORUM.[7] The treaty grants all members of the European Union and CARIFORUM equal rights in terms of trade and investment. Under Article 234 of the agreement, the European Court of Justice handles dispute resolution between CARIFORUM and European Union states.[8]

text: Haiti invasion[edit]

text: In March 2004, tensions became strained between member-state Haiti and the rest of the Caribbean Community bloc. Democratically elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide phoned other CARICOM heads of government and stated that he had been kidnapped by France and the United States and taken out of the country.[19][20] CARICOM announced that no democratically elected government in CARICOM should have its leader deposed. The fourteen other heads of government sought to have Aristide visit Jamaica and share his account of events with them. The move to fly Jean-Bertrand Aristide to Jamaica from where he was in Africa infuriated the unelected interim Haitian prime minister, Gérard Latortue. Latortue announced he would take steps to take Haiti out of CARICOM.

text: CARICOM announced it would vote on suspending recognition of Latortue's régime before he could do so. They did; Haitian officials were suspended from the councils of CARICOM. This did not stop Latortue, who announced that he would continue a part of his plan to suspend Haiti from CARICOM.[21] Haiti's membership remained effectively suspended from 29 February 2004 through early June 2006. Following the democratic election of René Préval as President of Haiti, he gave the opening address at the Council of Ministers meeting in July.

text: Statistics[edit]

text:
Population and economic statistics of full and associate members

Member
Membership
Land area (km2)[22]
Population[23] (2016)
GDP (PPP) Millions USD[24]
GDP Per Capita (PPP) USD (2015)
Human Development Index (2015)

 Anguilla
associate
91
14,764
0.108
8,800

 Antigua & Barbuda
full member
442.6
100,963
1,920
23,523
0.786

 Bahamas
full member
10,010
391,232
8,800
24,505
0.792

 Barbados
full member
430
284,996
4,500
16,670
0.795

 Belize
full member
22,806
366,954
2,800
8,321
0.706

 Bermuda
associate
54
61,666
5,085
-

 British Virgin Islands
associate
151
30,661

-

 Cayman Islands
associate
264
60,765
1,939
-

 Dominica
full member
751
73,543
730
11,163
0.726

 Grenada
full member
344
107,317
1,210
13,572
0.754

 Guyana
full member
214,970
773,303
5,200
7,537
0.638

 Haiti
full member
27,560
10,847,334
17,600
1,757
0.493

 Jamaica
full member
10,831
2,881,355
23,600
8,771
0.730

 Montserrat
full member
102
5,152
0.043
-

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
full member
261
54,821
1,160
24,476
0.765

 Saint Lucia
full member
606
178,015
1,880
11,710
0.735

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
full member
389
109,643
1,160
10,937
0.722

 Suriname
full member
156,000
558,368
8,800
16,253
0.725

 Trinidad & Tobago
full member
5,128
1,364,962
40,600
32,573
0.780

 Turks and Caicos Islands
associate
948
34,900
0.845
-

Full members
members only
432,510
16,743,693
107,815
6,439
0.719

text: Thousands of Caricom nationals live within other member states of the Community.

text: An estimated 30,000 Jamaicans legally reside in other CARICOM member states,[25] mainly in the Bahamas (5,600),[26] Antigua & Barbuda (estimated 12,000),[27] Barbados and Trinidad & Tobago).[25] Also, an estimated 150 Jamaicans live and work in Montserrat.[27] A November 21, 2013 estimated put 16,958 Jamaicans residing illegally in Trinidad & Tobago, as according to the records of the Office of the Chief Immigration Officer, their entry certificates would have since expired.[28] By October 2014, the estimated Jamaicans residing illegally in Trinidad and Tobago was 19,000 along with an estimated 7,169 Barbadians and 25,884 Guyanese residing illegally.[29] An estimated 8,000 Trinidadians and Tobagonians live in Jamaica.[30]

text: Barbados hosts a large diaspora population of Guyanese, of whom (in 2005) 5,032 lived there permanently as citizens, permanent residents, immigrants (with immigrant status) and Caricom skilled nationals; 3,200 were residing in Barbados temporarily under work permits, as students, or with "reside and work" status. A further 2,000-3,000 Guyanese were estimated to be living illegally in Barbados at the time.[31] Migration between Barbados and Guyana has deep roots, going back over 150 years, with the most intense period of Barbadian migration to then-British Guiana occurring between 1863 and 1886, although as late as the 1920s and 1930s Barbadians were still leaving Barbados for British Guiana.[32]

text: Migration between Guyana and Suriname also goes back a number of years. An estimated 50,000 Guyanese had migrated to Suriname by 1986[33][34] In 1987 an estimated 30-40,000 Guyanese were in Suriname.[35] Many Guyanese left Suriname in the 1970s and 1980s, either voluntarily by expulsion. Over 5,000 were expelled in January 1985 alone.[36] in the instability Suriname experienced following independence, both coups and civil war.[34] In 2013 an estimated 11,530 Guyanese had emigrated to Suriname and 4,662 Surinamese to Guyana.[37]

text: Relationship to other supranational Caribbean organisations[edit]

text: Parts of this article (those related to Anguilla) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2012)

text: Association of Caribbean States[edit]

text: CARICOM was instrumental in the formation of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) on 24 July 1994. The original idea for the Association came from a recommendation of the West Indian Commission, established in 1989 by the CARICOM heads of state and government. The Commission advocated both deepening the integration process (through the CARICOM Single Market and Economy) and widening it through a separate regional organization encompassing all states in the Caribbean.[38]

text: CARICOM accepted the commission's recommendations and opened dialogue with other Caribbean states, the Central American states and the Latin American nations of Colombia, Venezuela and Mexico which border the Caribbean, for consultation on the proposals of the West Indian Commission.[38]

text: At an October 1993 summit the heads of state and government of CARICOM and the presidents of the then-Group of Three (Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela) formally decided to create an association grouping all states of the Caribbean basin. A work schedule for its formation was adopted. The aim was to create the association in less than a year, an objective which was achieved with the formal creation of the ACS.[38]

text: Community of Latin American and Caribbean States[edit]

text: CARICOM was also involved in the formation of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC) on 3 December 2010. The idea for CELAC originated at the Rio Group–Caribbean Community Unity Summit on 23 February 2010 in Mexico.[39][40][41][42][43]

text: OHADAC Project[edit]

text: In May 2016, Caricom's court of original jurisdiction, the CCJ, signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the ACP Legal Association based in Guadeloupe recognizing and supporting the goals of implementing a harmonized business law framework in the Caribbean through ACP Legal Association's OHADAC Project.[44]

text: OHADAC is the acronym for the French "Organisation pour l'Harmonisation du Droit des Affaires en les Caraïbes", which translates into English as "Organisation for the Harmonization of Business Law in the Caribbean". The OHADAC Project takes inspiration from a similar organisation in Africa and aims to enhance economic integration across the entire Caribbean and facilitate increased trade and international investment through unified laws and alternative dispute resolution methods.[44]