document_title: Blood type

question_text: who has been considered as universal blood doner person

text: Blood type

text: Blood group systems[edit]

text: A complete blood type would describe a full set of 30 substances on the surface of red blood cells, and an individual's blood type is one of many possible combinations of blood-group antigens.[3] Across the 35 blood groups, over 600 different blood-group antigens have been found.[4]Almost always, an individual has the same blood group for life, but very rarely an individual's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in infection, malignancy, or autoimmune disease.[5][6][7][8] Another more common cause in blood type change is a bone marrow transplant. Bone-marrow transplants are performed for many leukemias and lymphomas, among other diseases. If a person receives bone marrow from someone who is a different ABO type (e.g., a type A patient receives a type O bone marrow), the patient's blood type will eventually convert to the donor's type.

text: Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases; for example, the Kell antigen is sometimes associated with McLeod syndrome.[9] Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the Duffy antigen.[10] The Duffy antigen, presumably as a result of natural selection, is less common in ethnic groups from areas with a high incidence of malaria.[11]

text: ABO blood group system[edit]

text: In human blood there are two antigens and antibodies. The two antigens are antigen A and antigen B. The two antibodies are antibody A and antibody B. The antigens are present on the red blood cells and the antibodies in the serum. Regarding the antigen property of the blood all human beings can be classified into 4 groups, those with antigen A (group A), those with antigen B (group B), those with both antigen A and B (group AB) and those with neither antigen (group O). The antibodies present together with the antigens are found as follows:

text:
1. Antigen A with antibody B
2. Antigen B with antibody A
3. Antigen AB has no antibodies
4. Antigen nil (group O) with antibody A and B.

text: There is an agglutination reaction between similar antigen and antibody (for example, antigen A agglutinates the antibody A and antigen B agglutinates the antibody B). Thus, transfusion can be considered safe as long as the serum of the recipient does not contain antibodies for the blood cell antigens of the donor.

text: The ABO system is the most important blood-group system in human-blood transfusion. The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually immunoglobulin M, abbreviated IgM, antibodies. ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, bacteria, and viruses.[citation needed] The original terminology used by Karl Landsteiner in 1901 for the classification was A/B/C; in later publications "C" became "O".[12] "O" is often called 0 (zero, or null) in other languages.[12][13]

text:
Phenotype
Genotype

A
AA or AI

B
BB or BI

AB
AB

O
II

text: Rh blood group system[edit]

text: The Rh system (Rh meaning Rhesus) is the second most significant blood-group system in human-blood transfusion with currently 50 antigens. The most significant Rh antigen is the D antigen, because it is the most likely to provoke an immune system response of the five main Rh antigens. It is common for D-negative individuals not to have any anti-D IgG or IgM antibodies, because anti-D antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental substances. However, D-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-D antibodies following a sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from a fetus in pregnancy or occasionally a blood transfusion with D positive RBCs.[14] Rh disease can develop in these cases.[15] Rh negative blood types are much less common in Asian populations (0.3%) than they are in European populations (15%).[16] The presence or absence of the Rh(D) antigen is signified by the + or − sign, so that, for example, the A− group is ABO type A and does not have the Rh (D) antigen.

text: ABO and Rh distribution by country[edit]

text: As with many other genetic traits, the distribution of ABO and Rh blood groups varies significantly between populations.

text: Other blood group systems[edit]

text: Thirty-three blood-group systems have been identified by the International Society for Blood Transfusion in addition to the common ABO and Rh systems.[17] Thus, in addition to the ABO antigens and Rh antigens, many other antigens are expressed on the RBC surface membrane. For example, an individual can be AB, D positive, and at the same time M and N positive (MNS system), K positive (Kell system), Lea or Leb negative (Lewis system), and so on, being positive or negative for each blood group system antigen. Many of the blood group systems were named after the patients in whom the corresponding antibodies were initially encountered.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Blood transfusion[edit]

text: Transfusion medicine is a specialized branch of hematology that is concerned with the study of blood groups, along with the work of a blood bank to provide a transfusion service for blood and other blood products. Across the world, blood products must be prescribed by a medical doctor (licensed physician or surgeon) in a similar way as medicines.

text: Much of the routine work of a blood bank involves testing blood from both donors and recipients to ensure that every individual recipient is given blood that is compatible and is as safe as possible. If a unit of incompatible blood is transfused between a donor and recipient, a severe acute hemolytic reaction with hemolysis (RBC destruction), renal failure and shock is likely to occur, and death is a possibility. Antibodies can be highly active and can attack RBCs and bind components of the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused blood.

text: Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of a transfusion reaction. Risks can be further reduced by cross-matching blood, but this may be skipped when blood is required for an emergency. Cross-matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's serum with a sample of the donor's red blood cells and checking if the mixture agglutinates, or forms clumps. If agglutination is not obvious by direct vision, blood bank technicians usually check for agglutination with a microscope. If agglutination occurs, that particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient. In a blood bank it is vital that all blood specimens are correctly identified, so labelling has been standardized using a barcode system known as ISBT 128.

text: The blood group may be included on identification tags or on tattoos worn by military personnel, in case they should need an emergency blood transfusion. Frontline German Waffen-SS had blood group tattoos during World War II.

text: Rare blood types can cause supply problems for blood banks and hospitals. For example, Duffy-negative blood occurs much more frequently in people of African origin,[20] and the rarity of this blood type in the rest of the population can result in a shortage of Duffy-negative blood for these patients. Similarly for RhD negative people, there is a risk associated with travelling to parts of the world where supplies of RhD negative blood are rare, particularly East Asia, where blood services may endeavor to encourage Westerners to donate blood.[21]

text: Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)[edit]

text: Pregnant women may carry a fetus with a blood type which is different from their own. In those cases, the mother can make IgG blood group antibodies. This can happen if some of the fetus' blood cells pass into the mother's blood circulation (e.g. a small fetomaternal hemorrhage at the time of childbirth or obstetric intervention), or sometimes after a therapeutic blood transfusion. This can cause Rh disease or other forms of hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in the current pregnancy and/or subsequent pregnancies. Sometimes this is lethal for the fetus; in these cases it is called hydrops fetalis.[22] If a pregnant woman is known to have anti-D antibodies, the Rh blood type of a fetus can be tested by analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma to assess the risk to the fetus of Rh disease.[23] One of the major advances of twentieth century medicine was to prevent this disease by stopping the formation of Anti-D antibodies by D negative mothers with an injectable medication called Rho(D) immune globulin.[24][25] Antibodies associated with some blood groups can cause severe HDN, others can only cause mild HDN and others are not known to cause HDN.[22]

text: Blood products[edit]

text: To provide maximum benefit from each blood donation and to extend shelf-life, blood banks fractionate some whole blood into several products. The most common of these products are packed RBCs, plasma, platelets, cryoprecipitate, and fresh frozen plasma (FFP). FFP is quick-frozen to retain the labile clotting factors V and VIII, which are usually administered to patients who have a potentially fatal clotting problem caused by a condition such as advanced liver disease, overdose of anticoagulant, or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).

text: Units of packed red cells are made by removing as much of the plasma as possible from whole blood units.

text: Clotting factors synthesized by modern recombinant methods are now in routine clinical use for hemophilia, as the risks of infection transmission that occur with pooled blood products are avoided.

text: Red blood cell compatibility[edit]

text:
Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood plasma does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but cannot donate blood to any group other than AB. They are known as universal recipients.
Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type A or AB.
Blood group B individuals have the B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood serum containing IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can receive blood only from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals with type B or AB.
Blood group O (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum contains IgM anti-A and anti-B antibodies. Therefore, a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (i.e., A, B, O or AB). If a patient in a hospital situation needs a blood transfusion in an emergency, and if the time taken to process the recipient's blood would cause a detrimental delay, O negative blood can be issued. Because it is compatible with anyone, O negative blood is often overused and consequently is always in short supply.[26] According to the American Association of Blood Banks and the British Chief Medical Officer’s National Blood Transfusion Committee, the use of group O RhD negative red cells should be restricted to persons with O negative blood, women who might be pregnant, and emergency cases in which blood-group testing is genuinely impracticable.[26]

text:
Red blood cell compatibility table[27][28]

Recipient[1]
Donor[1]

O−
O+
A−
A+
B−
B+
AB−
AB+

O−
Y
N
N
N
N
N
N
N

O+
Y
Y
N
N
N
N
N
N

A−
Y
N
Y
N
N
N
N
N

A+
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
N

B−
Y
N
N
N
Y
N
N
N

B+
Y
Y
N
N
Y
Y
N
N

AB−
Y
N
Y
N
Y
N
Y
N

AB+
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

text:
Table note
1. Assumes absence of atypical antibodies that would cause an incompatibility between donor and recipient blood, as is usual for blood selected by cross matching.

text: An Rh D-negative patient who does not have any anti-D antibodies (never being previously sensitized to D-positive RBCs) can receive a transfusion of D-positive blood once, but this would cause sensitization to the D antigen, and a female patient would become at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn. If a D-negative patient has developed anti-D antibodies, a subsequent exposure to D-positive blood would lead to a potentially dangerous transfusion reaction. Rh D-positive blood should never be given to D-negative women of child bearing age or to patients with D antibodies, so blood banks must conserve Rh-negative blood for these patients. In extreme circumstances, such as for a major bleed when stocks of D-negative blood units are very low at the blood bank, D-positive blood might be given to D-negative females above child-bearing age or to Rh-negative males, providing that they did not have anti-D antibodies, to conserve D-negative blood stock in the blood bank. The converse is not true; Rh D-positive patients do not react to D negative blood.

text: This same matching is done for other antigens of the Rh system as C, c, E and e and for other blood group systems with a known risk for immunization such as the Kell system in particular for females of child-bearing age or patients with known need for many transfusions.

text: Plasma compatibility[edit]

text: Blood plasma compatibility is the inverse of red blood cell compatibility.[29] Type AB plasma carries neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies and can be transfused to individuals of any blood group; but type AB patients can only receive type AB plasma. Type O carries both antibodies, so individuals of blood group O can receive plasma from any blood group, but type O plasma can be used only by type O recipients.

text:
Plasma compatibility table[28]

Recipient
Donor[1]

O
A
B
AB

O
Y
Y
Y
Y

A
N
Y
N
Y

B
N
N
Y
Y

AB
N
N
N
Y

text:
Table note
1. Assumes absence of strong atypical antibodies in donor plasma

text: Rh D antibodies are uncommon, so generally neither D negative nor D positive blood contain anti-D antibodies. If a potential donor is found to have anti-D antibodies or any strong atypical blood group antibody by antibody screening in the blood bank, they would not be accepted as a donor (or in some blood banks the blood would be drawn but the product would need to be appropriately labeled); therefore, donor blood plasma issued by a blood bank can be selected to be free of D antibodies and free of other atypical antibodies, and such donor plasma issued from a blood bank would be suitable for a recipient who may be D positive or D negative, as long as blood plasma and the recipient are ABO compatible.[citation needed]

text: Universal donors and universal recipients[edit]

text: In transfusions of packed red blood cells, individuals with type O Rh D negative blood are often called universal donors. Those with type AB Rh D positive blood are called universal recipients. However, these terms are only generally true with respect to possible reactions of the recipient's anti-A and anti-B antibodies to transfused red blood cells, and also possible sensitization to Rh D antigens. One exception is individuals with hh antigen system (also known as the Bombay phenotype) who can only receive blood safely from other hh donors, because they form antibodies against the H antigen present on all red blood cells.[30][31]

text: Blood donors with exceptionally strong anti-A, anti-B or any atypical blood group antibody may be excluded from blood donation. In general, while the plasma fraction of a blood transfusion may carry donor antibodies not found in the recipient, a significant reaction is unlikely because of dilution.

text: Additionally, red blood cell surface antigens other than A, B and Rh D, might cause adverse reactions and sensitization, if they can bind to the corresponding antibodies to generate an immune response. Transfusions are further complicated because platelets and white blood cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens, and sensitization to platelet or WBC antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.

text: For transfusions of plasma, this situation is reversed. Type O plasma, containing both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, can only be given to O recipients. The antibodies will attack the antigens on any other blood type. Conversely, AB plasma can be given to patients of any ABO blood group, because it does not contain any anti-A or anti-B antibodies.

text: Antibody-free blood typing[edit]

text: Typically, blood type tests are performed through addition of a blood sample to a solution containing antibodies corresponding to each antigen. The presence of an antigen on the surface of the blood cells is indicated by agglutination. An alternative system for blood type determination involving no antibodies was developed in 2017 at Imperial College London which makes use of paramagnetic molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles with affinity for specific blood antigens.[32] In these tests, rather than agglutination, a positive result is indicated by decolorization as red blood cells which bind to the nanoparticles are pulled toward a magnet and removed from solution.

text: Blood group genotyping[edit]

text: In addition to the current practice of serologic testing of blood types, the progress in molecular diagnostics allows the increasing use of blood group genotyping. In contrast to serologic tests reporting a direct blood type phenotype, genotyping allows the prediction of a phenotype based on the knowledge of the molecular basis of the currently known antigens. This allows a more detailed determination of the blood type and therefore a better match for transfusion, which can be crucial in particular for patients with needs for many transfusions to prevent allo-immunization.[33][34]

text: History[edit]

text: Two blood group systems were discovered by Karl Landsteiner during early experiments with blood transfusion: the ABO group in 1901[35][full citation needed] and in co-operation with Alexander S. Wiener the Rhesus group in 1937.[36][37] Development of the Coombs test in 1945,[38] the advent of transfusion medicine, and the understanding of ABO hemolytic disease of the newborn led to discovery of more blood groups, and now 33 human blood group systems are recognized by the International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT),[3] and in the 33 blood groups, over 600 blood group antigens have been found;[4] many of these are rare or are mainly found in certain ethnic groups.

text: Czech serologist Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, O) in 1907, which remains in use today. Blood types have been used in forensic science and were formerly used to demonstrate impossibility of paternity (e.g., a type AB man cannot be the father of a type O infant), but both of these uses are being replaced by genetic fingerprinting, which provides greater certainty.[39]

text: According to the Austrian Federal Ministry of Health[full citation needed] the original terminology used by Karl Landsteiner in 1901 for the classification is A, B and 0 (zero); the "O" (oh) found in the ABO group system is actually a subsequent variation occurred during the translation process, probably due to the similar shape between the number 0 and the letter O.

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: A popular belief in Japan is that a person's ABO blood type is predictive of their personality, character, and compatibility with others. This belief is also widespread in South Korea[40] and Taiwan. The theory reached Japan in a 1927 psychologist's report, and the government of the time commissioned a study aimed at breeding better soldiers.[40] Interest in the theory faded in the 1930s. Ultimately, the discovery of DNA in the following decades indicated that DNA instead had an important role in both heredity generally and personality specifically. Interest in the theory was revived in the 1970s by Masahiko Nomi, a broadcaster with a background in law rather than science.[40] The theory is widely accepted in Japanese and South Korean popular culture.[41]


document_title: Ernie Barnes

question_text: who was the real artist on good times

question_tokens: who was the real artist on good times

root

text: Ernie Barnes

text: Early life[edit]

text: Childhood[edit]

text: Ernest Barnes Jr. was born during Jim Crow in "the bottom" community of Durham, North Carolina, near the city's Hayti District. He had a younger brother James (b. 1942) as well as a half-brother, Benjamin B. Rogers Jr. (1920–1970). Ernest Jr. was nicknamed "June." His father, Ernest E. Barnes Sr. (1899–1966) worked as a shipping clerk for Liggett Myers Tobacco Company. His mother, Fannie Mae Geer (1905–2004) oversaw the household staff for a prominent Durham attorney and local Board of Education member, Frank L. Fuller Jr. On days when Fannie allowed "" (Barnes' nickname to family and childhood friends) to accompany her to the Fuller home, Barnes had the opportunity to peruse the art books and listen to classical music. The young Ernest was intrigued and captivated by the works of master artists.

tag: p

text: By the time Barnes entered the first grade, he was familiar with the works of such masters as Toulouse-Lautrec, Delacroix, Velasquez, Rubens, and Michelangelo. When he entered junior high school, he could appreciate, as well as decode, many of the cherished masterpieces within the walls of mainstream museums – although it would be a half dozen more years before he was allowed entrance because of his race.[1]

text: A self-described chubby and unathletic child, Barnes was taunted and bullied by classmates. He continually sought refuge in his sketchbooks, hiding in the less-traveled parts of campus away from other students. One day in a quiet area, Ernest was found drawing in a notebook by the masonry teacher, Tommy Tucker, who was also the weightlifting coach and a former athlete. Tucker was intrigued with Barnes' drawings, so he asked the aspiring artist about his grades and goals. Tucker shared his own experience of how bodybuilding improved his strength and outlook on life. That one encounter would begin Barnes' discipline and dedication that would permeate his life. By his senior year, Barnes became an excelling athlete at Hillside High School, becoming the captain of the football team and state champion in the shot put.[2]

text: College education[edit]

text: In 1956 Barnes graduated from Hillside High School with 26 athletic scholarship offers. Segregation prevented him from attending nearby Duke University or the University of North Carolina. His mother promised him a car if he lived at home, so he chose North Carolina College at Durham (formerly North Carolina College for Negroes, now North Carolina Central University). He majored in art on a full athletic scholarship. His college track coach was Dr. Leroy T. Walker.[1] Barnes played the football positions of tackle and center during college.

text: At age 18, on a college art class field trip to the newly desegregated North Carolina Museum of Art in Raleigh, Barnes inquired where he could find "paintings by Negro artists." The docent responded, "Your people don't express themselves that way."[3] Poetic justice prevailed 23 years later in 1979 when Barnes returned to the museum for a solo exhibition, hosted by North Carolina Governor Jim Hunt.

text: Professional football[edit]

text: Baltimore Colts (1959-60)[edit]

text: In December 1959 Barnes was drafted in the 10th round by the then-World Champion Baltimore Colts. He was originally selected in the 8th-round by the Washington Redskins,[4] who renounced the pick minutes after discovering he was a Negro.

text: Shortly after his 22nd birthday, while at the Colts training camp, Barnes was interviewed by N.P. Clark, sportswriter for the Baltimore News-Post newspaper. Until then Barnes was always known by his birth name, Ernest Barnes. But when Clark's article appeared on July 20, 1960, it referred to him as "Ernie Barnes," which changed his name and life forever.[5]

text: Titans of New York (1960)[edit]

text: Barnes was the last cut of the Colts' training camp. After Baltimore released Barnes, the newly formed Titans of New York immediately signed him because the team had first option on any player released within the league.[4]

text: Barnes loathed being on the Titans. He said, "(New York) was a circus of ineptitude. The equipment was poor, the coaches not as knowledgeable as the ones in Baltimore. We were like a group of guys in the neighborhood who said let's pretend we're pros."[4]

text: After a 27-21 loss to the Oilers on October 9, 1960 at Jeppesen Stadium, his teammate Howard Glenn died. Barnes asked for his release two days later. Glenn had sustained a broken neck in the first half of the game and it was reported that injury caused his death. However, Barnes and other teammates have long attributed it to heatstroke.[1] In a later interview, Barnes said, "They never really said what he died of. (Coach) Sammy Baugh said he'd broken his neck in a game the Sunday before. But how could that be? How could he have hit in practice all week with a broken neck? What he died of, I think, was more like heat exhaustion. I told them I didn't want to play on a team like this."[4]

text: San Diego Chargers (1960-62)[edit]

text: Barnes then accepted a previous offer from Coach Al Davis at the Los Angeles Chargers. Barnes joined their team at mid-season as a member of their taxi squad. The following season in 1961 the team moved to San Diego. It was there Barnes met their quarterback and future congressman Jack Kemp. The two men would share a lifelong close friendship.

text: During the off-seasons with the Chargers, Barnes was program director at San Diego's Southeast YMCA working with parolees from the California Youth Authority.[1] He also worked as the Sports Editor for The Voice, a local San Diego newspaper, writing a weekly column called "A Matter of Sports."[6]

text: Barnes also illustrated several articles for San Diego Magazine during the off-seasons in 1962 and 1963.[7][8]

text: Barnes' first television interview as a professional football player and artist was in 1962 on The Regis Philbin Show on KGTV in San Diego. It was Philbin's first talk show.

text: Denver Broncos (1963-64)[edit]

text: After a series of injuries, Barnes was cut midway through his second season with the Chargers. He then signed with the Denver Broncos.

text: Barnes was called "Big Rembrandt" by his Denver teammates.[9] Coincidentally, Barnes and Rembrandt share the same birthday.

text: Barnes was often fined by Denver Coach Jack Faulkner when caught sketching during team meetings.[1] One of the sketches that he was fined $100 for sold years later for $1000.[10]

text: During the Broncos games, Barnes would run off the field and onto the sideline to give his offensive line coach Red Miller the scraps of paper of his sketches and notes.

text: "During a timeout you've got nothing to do – you're not talking – you're just trying to breathe, mostly. Nothing to take out that little pencil and write down what you saw. The shape of the linemen. The body language a defensive lineman would occupy... his posture... What I see when you pull. The reaction of the defense to your movement. The awareness of the lines within the movement, the pattern within the lines, the rhythm of movement. A couple of notes to me would denote an action... an image that I could instantly recreate in my mind. Some of those notes have been made into paintings. Quite a few, really."[11]

text: On Barnes' 1964 Denver Broncos Topps football card he is shown wearing jersey #55 although he never played in that number. His jersey was #62.

text: Canadian Football League[edit]

text: In 1965, after his second season with the Broncos, Barnes signed with the Saskatchewan Roughriders in Canada. In the final quarter of their last exhibition game, Barnes fractured his right foot, effectively ending his professional football career.

text: Retirement[edit]

text: Shortly after his final football game, Barnes went to the 1965 NFL owners meeting in Houston in hopes of becoming the league's official artist. There he was introduced to New York Jets owner Sonny Werblin, who was intrigued by Barnes and his art. He paid for Barnes to bring his paintings to New York City. Later they met at a gallery and unbeknownst to Barnes, three art critics were there to evaluate his paintings. They told Werblin that Barnes was "the most expressive painter of sports since George Bellows."[1] In what was one of the most unusual personnel transactions in the history of the NFL, Werblin retained Barnes as a salaried player, but positioned him in front of the canvas, rather than on the football field. Werblin told Barnes, "You have more value to the country as an artist than as a football player."[12]

text: Barnes' November 1966 debut solo exhibition, hosted by Werblin at the Grand Central Art Galleries in New York City was critically acclaimed and all the paintings sold.[13][14]

text: In 1971 Barnes wrote a series of essays "I Hate the Game I Love" (with Neil Amdur), illustrated with Barnes' own drawings, in the Gridiron newspaper.[15] These articles became the beginning manuscript of his autobiography, later-published in 1995 titled From Pads to Palette which chronicles his transition from professional football to his art career.

text: In October 2007, the National Football League and Time Warner hosted a tribute to Ernie Barnes in New York City.

text: Work[edit]

text: Barnes credits his college art instructor Ed Wilson for laying the foundation for his development as an artist. Wilson was a sculptor who instructed Barnes to paint from his own life experiences. "He made me conscious of the fact that the artist who is useful to America is one who studies his own life and records it through the medium of art, manners and customs of his own experiences."[16]

text: All his life, Barnes was ambivalent about his football experience. In interviews and in personal appearances, Barnes said he hated the violence and the physical torment of the sport. However, his years as an athlete gave him unique, in-depth observations. "(Wilson) told me to pay attention to what my body felt like in movement. Within that elongation, there's a feeling. And attitude and expression. I hate to think had I not played sports what my work would look like."[17]

text: Barnes' first painting sale was in 1959 for $90 to Boston Celtic Sam Jones for a painting called Slow Dance.[1] It was subsequently lost in a fire at Jones' home.

text: Critics have defined Barnes' work as neo-mannerist.[18] Based on his signature use of serpentine lines, elongation of the human figure, clarity of line, unusual spatial relationships, painted frames, and distinctive color palettes, art critic Frank Getlein credited Barnes as the founder of the neo-Mannerism movement - because of the similarity of technique and composition prevalent during the 16th century, as practiced by such masters as Michelangelo and Raphael.[19]

text: Numerous artists have been influenced by Barnes' art and unique style. Accordingly, several copyright infringement lawsuits have been settled and are currently pending.

text: Framing[edit]

text: Ernie Barnes framed his paintings with distressed wood in homage to his father. In his 1995 autobiography, Barnes wrote of his father: “... with so little education, he had worked so hard for us. His legacy to me was his effort, and that was plenty. He knew absolutely nothing about art.”[1]

text: Weeks before Ernie Barnes’ first solo art exhibition in 1966, he was at the family home in Durham as his father lay in the hospital after suffering a stroke. He noticed the usually well-maintained white picketed fence had gone untended since his father’s illness. Days later, Ernest E. Barnes Sr. died. “I placed a painting against the fence and stood away and had a look. I was startled at the marriage between the old wood fence and the painting. It was perfect. In tribute, Daddy’s fence would hug all my paintings in a prestigious New York gallery. That would have made him smile.”[1]

text: Eyes closed[edit]

text: A consistent and distinct feature in Barnes' work is the closed eyes of his subjects. "It was in 1971 when I conceived the idea of The Beauty of the Ghetto as an exhibition. And I exposed it to some people who were black to get a reaction. And from one (person) it was very negative. And when I began to express my points of view (to this) professional man, he resisted the notion. And as a result of his comments and his attitude I began to see, observe, how blind we are to one another's humanity. Blinded by a lot of things that have, perhaps, initiated feelings in that light. We don't see into the depths of our interconnection. The gifts, the strength and potential within other human beings. We stop at color quite often. So one of the things we have to be aware of is who we are in order to have the capacity to like others. But when you cannot visualize the offerings of another human being you're obviously not looking at the human being with open eyes."[20] "We look upon each other and decide immediately: This person is black, so he must be... This person lives in poverty, so he must be..."[11]

text: Sports art[edit]

text: The Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee named Barnes "Sports Artist of the 1984 Olympic Games". LAOOC President Peter V. Ueberroth said Barnes and his art "captured the essence of the Olympics" and "portray the city's ethnic diversity, the power and emotion of sports competition, the singleness of purpose and hopes that go into the making of athletes the world over." Barnes was commissioned to create five Olympic-themed paintings and serve as an official Olympic spokesman to encourage inner city youth.[21][22]

text: In 1985 Barnes was named the first "Sports Artist of the Year" by the United States Sports Academy.[10]

text: In 1987 Barnes created Fastbreak, a commissioned painting of the World Champion Los Angeles Lakers basketball team that included Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, James Worthy, Kurt Rambis and Michael Cooper.

text: Carolina Panthers football team owners Rosalind and Jerry Richardson (Barnes' former Colts teammate) commissioned Barnes to create the large painting Victory in Overtime (approximately 7 ft. x 14 ft.). It was unveiled before the team's 1996 inaugural season and hangs permanently in the owner's suite at the stadium.

text: To commemorate their 50th anniversary in 1996, the National Basketball Association commissioned Barnes to create a painting with the theme, "Where we were, where we are, and where we are going." The painting, The Dream Unfolds hangs in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts. A limited edition of lithographs were made, with the first 50 prints going to each of the NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time Team.

text: In 2004 Barnes was named "America's Best Painter of Sports" by the American Sport Art Museum & Archives.[23]

text: Other notable sports commissions include paintings for the New Orleans Saints, Oakland Raiders and Boston Patriots football team owners.[24]

text: "The Bench" painting[edit]

text: Shortly after Barnes was drafted by the Baltimore Colts in 1959, Barnes was invited to see their Colts' NFL Championship Game vs. the New York Giants at Memorial Stadium in Maryland. The Colts won 31-16 and Barnes was filled with layers of emotion after watching the game from behind the Colts' bench. He had just signed his football contract and met his new teammates Johnny Unitas, Jim Parker, Lenny Moore, Art Donovan, Gino Marchetti, Alan Ameche and "Big Daddy" Lipscomb.

text: Barnes later wrote that after he returned home, he "placed a stretched canvas on the easel. Without making any preliminary sketches, I started painting in quick, direct movements hoping to capture the vision in my mind before it evaporated." He created The Bench in less than an hour.[1] Throughout his life, The Bench remained in Barnes' possession, even taking it with him to all his football training camps and hiding it under his bed. It would be the only painting Barnes would never sell, despite many substantial offers, including a $25,000 bid at his first show in 1966.

text: On June 18, 2014 The Bench was formally presented to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio for their permanent collection by his wife Bernie Barnes.

text: "The Sugar Shack" painting[edit]

text: Barnes created the painting The Sugar Shack in the 1970s. It gained international exposure when it was used on the Good Times television series and on the 1976 Marvin Gaye album I Want You.

text: According to Barnes, he created the original version of The Sugar Shack after reflecting upon his childhood, during which he was not "able to go to a dance."[25] In a 2008 interview, Barnes said, "The Sugar Shack is a recall of a childhood experience. It was the first time my innocence met with the sins of dance. The painting transmits rhythm so the experience is re-created in the person viewing it. To show that African-Americans utilize rhythm as a way of resolving physical tension."[26] The Sugar Shack has been known to art critics for embodying the style of art composition known as "Black Romantic," which, according to Natalie Hopkinson of The Washington Post, is the "visual-art equivalent of the Chitlin' circuit."[27] When Barnes first created The Sugar Shack, he included his hometown radio station WSRC on a banner. (He incorrectly listed the frequency at 620, though it was actually 1410. Barnes confused what he used to hear WSRC's on-air personality Norfley Whitted saying "620 on your dial" when Whitted was at his former station WDNC in the early 1950s.)

text: After Marvin Gaye asked him for permission to use the painting as an album cover, Barnes then augmented the painting by adding references that allude to Gaye's album, including banners hanging from the ceiling to promote the album's singles.[27][28]

text: During the Motown 25: Yesterday, Today, Forever anniversary television special on March 25, 1983, tribute was paid to The Sugar Shack with a dance interpretation of the painting.

text: The original piece is currently owned by actor Eddie Murphy.[29]

text: Music album covers[edit]

text: Barnes' work appears on the following album covers:

text:
The Sugar Shack on Marvin Gaye's 1976 I Want You
The Disco on self-titled 1978 Faith, Hope & Charity
Donald Byrd and 125th Street, NYC on self-titled 1979 album
Late Night DJ on Curtis Mayfield's 1980 Something to Believe In
The Maestro on The Crusaders' 1984 Ghetto Blaster
Head Over Heels on The Crusaders' 1986 The Good and Bad Times
In Rapture on B.B. King's 2000 Making Love is Good For You

tag: ul

text: Other notable art and exhibitions[edit]

text: In response to the 1960s "Black is beautiful" cultural movement and James Brown's 1968 "Say it Loud: I'm Black and I'm Proud" song, Barnes created The Beauty of the Ghetto exhibition of 35 paintings that toured major American cities from 1972 to 1979 hosted by dignitaries, professional athletes and celebrities.

text: Of his The Beauty of the Ghetto exhibition, Barnes said, "I am providing a pictorial background for an understanding into the aesthetics of black America. It is not a plea to people to continue to live there (in the ghetto) but for those who feel trapped, it is...a challenge of how beautiful life can be."[30] When The Beauty of the Ghetto was on view in 1974 at the Museum of African Art in Washington, DC, Rep. John Conyers stressed the important positive message of the exhibit in the Congressional Record.

text: In the wake of the 1992 Los Angeles riots, Mayor Tom Bradley used Barnes' painting Growth Through Limits as an inspirational billboard in the inner-city. Barnes contributed $1,000 to the winner of a slogan contest among the city's junior high school students that best represented the painting.[31][32]

text: Barnes' work was included in the 1995 traveling group exhibition 20th Century Masterworks of African-American Artists II.[33]

text: Barnes' painting The Advocate was donated to the North Carolina Central University School of Law in 1998 by a private collector.[34] Barnes felt compelled to create the painting from his "concern with the just application of the law... the integrity of the legal process for all people, but especially those without resource or influence."[35]

text: While watching the tragic events of 9/11, Barnes created the painting In Remembrance. It was formally unveiled at the Seattle Art Museum. It was later acquired on behalf of the City of Philadelphia and donated to its African American Museum. A limited number of giclée prints were sold with 100% of the proceeds going to the Hero Scholarship Fund, which provides college tuition and expenses to children of Pennsylvania police and fire personnel killed in the line of duty.[36]

text: Three of Barnes' original paintings were exhibited at London's Whitechapel Gallery in the 2005 Back to Black: Art, Cinema & Racial Imaginary art exhibition.[37]

text: In 2005 rapper producer Kanye West commissioned Barnes to create a painting to depict his life-changing experience following his near-fatal car crash. A Life Restored measures 9 ft. x 10 ft. and hangs on West's dining room ceiling. In the center of the painting is a large angel reaching out to a much smaller figure of West. It was inaccurately reported in several media outlets that the image of the angel in the painting is of West.[38]

text: Barnes' final public exhibition was in October 2007 when the NFL and Time Warner sponsored A Tribute to Artist and NFL Alumni Ernie Barnes in New York City. It was hosted by Donna Brazile, Susan L. Taylor, Brig Owens and his former teammate, the Hon. Jack Kemp (who died five days after Barnes in 2009).

text: At the time of his death, Barnes had been working on an exhibition Liberating Humanity From Within which featured a majority of paintings he created in the last few years of his life. Plans will continue. The exhibition will travel throughout the country and abroad.[39]

text: Television and movies[edit]

text: Barnes appeared on a 1967 episode of the game show To Tell The Truth/. The panelists correctly guessed Barnes was the professional football player-turned-artist.

text: Barnes played Deke Coleman in the 1969 motion picture Number One which stars Charlton Heston and Jessica Walter. Barnes played Dr. Penfield in the 1971 movie Doctors' Wives, which starred Dyan Cannon, Richard Crenna, Gene Hackman and Carroll O'Connor.

text: In 1971 Barnes, along with Mike Henry, created the Super Comedy Bowl, a variety show CBS television special which showcased pro athletes with celebrities such as John Wayne, Frank Gifford, Alex Karras, Joe Namath, Jack Lemmon, Lucille Ball, Carol Burnett and Tony Curtis. A second special aired in 1972.[40][41][42]

text: Throughout the Good Times television series (1974–79) most of the paintings by the character J.J. are works by Ernie Barnes. However a few images, including "Black Jesus" in the first season (1974), were not painted by Barnes. The Sugar Shack made its debut on the show's fourth season (1976–77) during the opening and closing credits. In the fifth season (1977–78) The Sugar Shack was only used in the closing credits for five early episodes during that season. In the sixth season (1978–79), The Sugar Shack was only used in opening credits for the first eight episodes and in the closing credits for five early episodes during that season. In the fifth and sixth seasons (1977–79), The Sugar Shack appears in the background of the Evans family apartment. Barnes had a bit part on two episodes of Good Times: The Houseguest (February 18, 1975) and Sweet Daddy Williams (January 20, 1976).

text: Barnes' artwork was also used on many television series, including Columbo, The White Shadow, Dream On, The Hughleys, The Wayans Bros., Wife Swap, and Soul Food, and in the movies Drumline and Boyz N The Hood.

text: In 1981 Barnes played baseball catcher Josh Gibson of the Negro League in the television movie Don't Look Back: The Story of Leroy ‘Satchel' Paige with Lou Gossett Jr. playing Paige.

text: The 2016 film Southside With You (about Barack and Michelle Obama's first date) features some of Barnes' artwork.[43]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Barnes was married to Andrea Burnett from 1957 to 1965. They had two children, Deidre (b. 1957) and Michael (b. 1961). He was married to Janet Thaleen Norton from 1965 to 1983. They had three children: Sean (b. 1965), Erin (b. 1969) and Paige (b. 1972). He was married to Bernadine "Bernie" Gradney from 1984 until his death.

text: Barnes died on April 27, 2009 at Cedars Sinai Hospital in Los Angeles, California from blood cancer.[44] He was cremated and his ashes were scattered in two places: at his hometown Durham, North Carolina, near the site of where his family home once stood, and at the beach in Carmel, California, one of his favorite cities.

text: Honors and awards[edit]

text: In 1990 Barnes was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts by North Carolina Central University.

text: In 1993 Barnes was selected to the Black College Football 100th Year All-Time Team by the Sheridan Broadcasting Network.[45]

text: In 1999 Barnes was bestowed The University Awar, the highest honor by The University of North Carolina Board of Governors.[46]

text: Quotations[edit]

text: "An artist paints his own reality."[4]

text: "The artist uses creative visualization and the athlete uses the same thing... It's the muscle of the mind, that's the main muscle."[21]

text: "I am bound by the strongest ties with the organic life of all people. And being an artist has created in me the desire to continually affirm beauty."[3]

text: "The five years I lived in (the Fairfax district) a Los Angeles Jewish community led me to learn of their unyielding spiritual strength and internal sense of grandeur. I met people who had survived a hard school of struggle."[3]

text: "My early paintings have all the rawness and passion of the (football) game."[47]

text: "I was angry. I wanted to show and tell people what I had seen and felt. I wanted to show the dehumanization that is professional football. My only expression is through art. I painted until I had exhausted the hate. I had so many ideas that I couldn't put a canvas up quick enough."[48]

text: "One day on the playing field, I looked up and the sun was breaking through the clouds, hitting the unmuddied areas on the uniforms, and I said, ‘that's beautiful!' I knew then that it was all over being a player. I was more interested in art. So I traded my cleats for canvas, my bruises for brushes, and put all the violence and power I had felt on the field into my paintings."[1]

text: "Throughout my five seasons in the NFL, I remained at the deepest level of my being...an artist."[1]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Barnes, Ernie (1995). From Pads to Palette. Waco, Texas: WRS Publishing. ISBN 1-56796-064-2.
Jump up ^ Maher, Charles (May 7, 1968). "Artist's Portrait". Los Angeles Times.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Beauty of the Ghetto" catalogue, Grand Central Art Galleries, New York, 1990 "Artist Statement"
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Ernie Barnes: An Athletic Artist". New York Times. May 7, 1984.
Jump up ^ Clark, N.P. (July 20, 1960). "Little Bunch of Colt Rookies Turn Up Big". The Baltimore News-Post.
Jump up ^ The Voice Newspapers. 1962–1963.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Ridgely, Roberta (February 1962). "The Times are Out of Joints". San Diego Magazine.
Jump up ^ Keen, Harold (July 1963). "San Diego's Racial Powder Keg". San Diego Magazine.
Jump up ^ "Rembrandt of the Broncos". Empire Magazine. December 6, 1964.
^ Jump up to: a b "Two 'Gold Medalists' in Art, Barnes, Parmenter, Coming Here". Mobile Register. March 13, 1985.
^ Jump up to: a b The National Sports Daily. December 14, 1990.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Resonance, The Company of Art (newsletter), 1996.
Jump up ^ "People". Sports Illustrated. November 21, 1966. Retrieved August 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Merchant, Larry (November 19, 1966). "The Painter". The New York Post.
Jump up ^ Barnes, Ernie; Amdur, Neil (1971). "I Hate the Game I Love". Gridiron.
Jump up ^ Durham Morning Herald. November 1, 1973.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Interview, "Our World with Black Enterprise"
Jump up ^ "Neo-mannerist paintings by Ernie Barnes at Grand Central". Antiques and The Arts Weekly. November 9, 1990.
Jump up ^ Getlein, Frank (1989). "A Critical Perspective on the Art of Ernie Barnes". Archived from the original on July 28, 2010. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Barnes, Ernie. Interview, "Personal Diaries" with Ed Gordon, BET, 1990
^ Jump up to: a b "An Olympic Artist With A Message". Los Angeles Times. May 24, 1984.
Jump up ^ Long Beach Press Telegram. March 15, 1984.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "1984 & 2004 Sports Artist of the Year, Ernie Barnes, America's El Greco". ASAMA.org. The American Sport Art Museum & Archives. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Biography". ErnieBarnes.com. Archived from the original on December 16, 2016. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Top Black Painter Exhibits in Oakland". Oakland Tribune. August 14, 2002. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Barnes, Ernie. "Ernie Barnes Interview". SoulMuseum.net. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Neal, Mark Anthony. Review: I Want You. PopMatters. Retrieved on October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ritz (2003), pp. 2-3.
Jump up ^ Eddie Murphy & Jimmy Kimmel Share Their Love of Good Times. Jimmy Kimmel Live. Retrieved on September 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ The Atlanta Journal and Constitution. September 16, 1973.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Billboard Art". Los Angeles Times. May 29, 1992.  |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Wharton, David (July 10, 1992). "Street Art". Los Angeles Times.  |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "African-American Art: 20th Century Masterworks, II". Archived from the original on November 26, 2010. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Wellington, Elizabeth (May 8, 1998). "'The Advocate' will plead a special case". The News & Observer.
Jump up ^ Artist Statement in Commemorative catalogue for "The Advocate," May 7, 1998. Retrieved October 2010
Jump up ^ "Honorary Artwork". The Philadelphia Tribune. July 12, 2002.
Jump up ^ "Back to Black - Art, Cinema and the Racial Imaginary". Whitechapel Gallery. 2005. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved October 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Kanye West denies angel likeness in painting". NME. July 7, 2008. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Remembering Ernie Barnes". CNN. November 27, 2009. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "'Super Comedy Bowl' Features Stars, Players". Los Angeles Times. January 9, 1971.
Jump up ^ Los Angeles Times. November 23, 1971.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Los Angeles Times. January 9, 1972.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (January 24, 2016). "'Southside With You': Sundance Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved February 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ Weber, Bruce (April 30, 2009). "Ernie Barnes, Artist and Athlete, Dies at 70". The New York Times. Retrieved October 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Black Centennial Team". USA Today. January 25, 1993.  |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Awards". northcarolina.edu. North Carolina Board of Governors. Archived from the original on 2010-05-27.
Jump up ^ Durham Sun. April 11, 1973.  Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Durham Morning Herald. June 6, 1971.  Missing or empty |title= (help)

tag: ol


document_title: Blue Monday (date)

question_text: where does the saying blue monday come from

text: Blue Monday (date)

text: History[edit]

text: This date was published in a press release under the name of Cliff Arnall, at the time a tutor at the Centre for Lifelong Learning, a Further Education centre attached to Cardiff University. Guardian columnist Ben Goldacre reported that the press release was delivered substantially pre-written to a number of academics by public relations agency Porter Novelli, who offered them money to put their names to it.[2] The Guardian later printed a statement from Cardiff University distancing themselves from Arnall: "Cardiff University has asked us to point out that Cliff Arnall... was a former part-time tutor at the university but left in February."[3]

text: Variations of the story have been repeatedly reused by other companies in press releases, with 2014 seeing Blue Monday invoked by legal firms and retailers of bottled water and alcoholic drinks.[4] Some versions of the story purport to analyse trends in social media posts to calculate the date.[4]

text: Date[edit]

text: The date is generally reported as falling on the third Monday in January,[5] but also on the second or fourth Monday,[5] or the Monday of the last full week of January.[6] The first such date declared was 24 January in 2005 as part of a Sky Travel press release.[7]

text: Calculation[edit]

text: Arnall has said the date was devised to help a travel company to "analyze when people book holidays and holiday trends"[7] and used many factors, including: weather conditions, debt level (the difference between debt accumulated and our ability to pay), time since Christmas, time since failing our new year’s resolutions, low motivational levels and feeling of a need to take action. One equation used by Arnall in 2006 was:[2]

text: where Tt = travel time; D = delays; C = time spent on cultural activities; R = time spent relaxing; ZZ = time spent sleeping; St = time spent in a state of stress; P = time spent packing; Pr = time spent in preparation. Units of measurement are not defined.

text: The 2005 press release[7] and a 2009 press release[8] used a different formula:

text: where W=weather, D=debt, d=monthly salary, T=time since Christmas, Q=time since failing our new year’s resolutions, M=low motivational levels, and Na=the feeling of a need to take action. Again, no units were defined.

text: Ben Goldacre has observed that the equations "fail even to make mathematical sense on their own terms", pointing out that under Arnall's original equation, packing for ten hours and preparing for 40 will always guarantee a good holiday, and that "you can have an infinitely good weekend by staying at home and cutting your travel time to zero".[2] Dean Burnett, a neuroscientist who has worked in the psychology department of Cardiff University, has described the work as "farcical", with "nonsensical measurements".[9]

text: Happiest day[edit]

text: Arnall also says, in a press release commissioned by Wall's ice cream,[10] that he has calculated the happiest day of the year—in 2005, 24 June,[11] in 2006, 23 June,[12] in 2007, 20 June[13] in 2009, 19 June,[14] and in 2010, 18 June.[15] So far, this date has fallen close to Midsummer in the Northern Hemisphere (June 21 to 24).


document_title: Elaine Davidson

question_text: who has the most piercings in the world

question_tokens: who has the most piercings in the world

text: Elaine Davidson

text:
Elaine Davidson

Born
Brazil

Residence
Edinburgh, Scotland

Known for
extensive body piercings

tag: table

text: Elaine Davidson is the "Most Pierced Woman" according to the Guinness World Records.[1]

text: When examined by a Guinness World Record official in May 2000, Davidson had 462 piercings, with 192 in her face alone. By August 9, 2001 when she was re-examined she was found to have 720 piercings.[1] Performing at the Edinburgh Festival in 2005, the Guardian reported that she now had 3,950 body piercings.[2] She has more piercings in her genitalia than in any other part of the body - 500 in all, externally and internally.[3] The total weight of her internal piercings is estimated to be about 3 kilograms.[4] As of May 2008, Davidson's piercings total 5,920.[5] As of Feb. 2009 her piercings total 6,005.[6] In March 2010, Davidson reported a total of 6,725 piercings. As of March 2012, she has over 9,000. As of May 2016, she has 9,800.

text: She was born in Brazil and is a former nurse.[7] She does not drink or use drugs. She now resides in Edinburgh, Scotland.[3] On June 8, 2011, Davidson married Douglas Watson, a man with no piercings. At the time of her wedding, news reports claimed her total number of piercings was 6,925. The couple later divorced in 2012. Davidson continues to reside in Edinburgh.[4]


document_title: All men are created equal

question_text: who said we hold these truths to be self evident that all are created equal

text: All men are created equal

text: Origin of Thomas Jefferson's use of the phrase[edit]

text: Thomas Jefferson, at the age of 33, may have also borrowed the expression from an Italian friend and neighbor, Philip Mazzei,[4] as noted by Joint Resolution 175 of the 103rd Congress as well as by John F. Kennedy in A Nation of Immigrants.[5][6]

text: In 1776 the Second Continental Congress asked Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman to write the Declaration of Independence. This Committee of Five voted to have Thomas Jefferson write the document. After Jefferson finished he gave the document to Franklin to proof. Franklin suggested minor changes, and one of them stands out far more than the others. Jefferson had written, "We hold these truths to be sacred and un-deniable..." Franklin changed it to, "We hold these truths to be self-evident."

text: The second paragraph of the United States Declaration of Independence starts as follows:

text: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed;[7]

text: The Virginia Declaration of Rights, chiefly authored by George Mason and approved by the Virginia Convention on June 12, 1776, contains the wording:

text: all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights of which . . . they cannot deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.[8]

text: George Mason was an elder-planter who had originally stated John Locke's theory of natural rights:

text: All men are born equally free and independent and have certain inherent natural rights of which they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; among which are the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.[9]

text: Mason's draft was accepted by a small committee and then rejected by the Virginia Convention. Thomas Jefferson, a competent Virginia lawyer, saw this as a problem in legal writing and chose words that were more acceptable to the Second Continental Congress.

text: The Massachusetts Constitution, chiefly authored by John Adams in 1780, contains in its Declaration of Rights the wording:

text: Article I. All men are born free and equal, and have certain natural, essential, and unalienable rights; among which may be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties; that of acquiring, possessing, and protecting property; in fine, that of seeking and obtaining their safety and happiness.[10]

text: The plaintiffs in the cases of Brom and Bett v. John Ashley and Commonwealth v. Nathaniel Jennison argued that this provision abolished slavery in Massachusetts.[11] The latter case resulted in a "sweeping declaration . . . that the institution of slavery was incompatible with the principles of liberty and legal equality articulated in the new Massachusetts Constitution".[12]

text: The phrase has since been considered a hallmark statement in democratic constitutions and similar human rights instruments, many of which have adopted the phrase or variants thereof.[13]

text: Slavery and the phrase[edit]

text: The contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal" and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration of Independence was first published. Before final approval, Congress, having made a few alterations to some of the wording, also deleted nearly a fourth of the draft, including a passage critical of the slave trade. At that time many members of Congress, including Jefferson, owned slaves, which clearly factored into their decision to delete the controversial "anti-slavery" passage.[14] In 1776, abolitionist Thomas Day responding to the hypocrisy in the Declaration wrote, though the first draft stated " All free men are created equal":

text: If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves.[14]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: The phrase "all men are created equal" has received criticism from elitists and traditional conservatives: Richard Weaver writing in one of the cornerstone works of traditional conservatism, Ideas Have Consequences (1948), paraphrased a nineteenth-century writer in writing that "no man was ever created free and no two men [were] ever created equal". He continues:

text: The comity of peoples in groups large or small rests not upon this chemerical notion of equality but upon fraternity, a concept which long antedates it in history because it goes immeasurably deeper in human sentiment. The ancient feeling of brotherhood carries obligations of which equality knows nothing. It calls for respect and protection, for brotherhood is status in family, and family is by nature hierarchical.[15]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Vietnamese proclamation of independence, written in 1945, uses the phrase "all men are created equal" and mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence in it as well.

text: The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one, however, it omits the phrase "all men are created equal", along with "the consent of the governed".[16][17][18]


document_title: Australopithecus

question_text: two forms of australopithecines have been found in south africa. these are

question_tokens: two forms of australopithecines have been found in south africa . these are

text: Australopithecus

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Gracile australopiths shared several traits with modern apes and humans, and were widespread throughout Eastern and Northern Africa around 3.5 million years ago. The earliest evidence of fundamentally bipedal hominids can be observed at the site of Laetoli in Tanzania. This site contains hominid footprints that are remarkably similar to those of modern humans and have been dated to as old as 3.6 million years.[8] The footprints have generally been classified as australopith because that is the only form of prehuman known to have existed in that region at that time.

text: Australopithecus anamensis, A. afarensis, and A. africanus are among the most famous of the extinct hominins. A. africanus was once considered to be ancestral to the genus Homo (in particular Homo erectus). However, fossils assigned to the genus Homo have been found that are older than A. africanus[citation needed]. Thus, the genus Homo either split off from the genus Australopithecus at an earlier date (the latest common ancestor being either A. afarensis or an even earlier form, possibly Kenyanthropus), or both developed from a yet possibly unknown common ancestor independently.

text: According to the Chimpanzee Genome Project, the human (Ardipithecus, Australopithecus and Homo) and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes and Pan paniscus) lineages diverged from a common ancestor about five to six million years ago, assuming a constant rate of evolution. It is theoretically more likely for evolution to happen more slowly, as opposed to more quickly, from the date suggested by a gene clock (the result of which is given as a youngest common ancestor, i.e., the latest possible date of divergence.) However, hominins discovered more recently are somewhat older than the presumed rate of evolution would suggest.[9]

text: Sahelanthropus tchadensis, commonly called "Toumai", is about seven million years old and Orrorin tugenensis lived at least six million years ago. Since little is known of them, they remain controversial among scientists since the molecular clock in humans has determined that humans and chimpanzees had a genetic split at least a million years later. One theory suggests that the human and chimpanzee lineages diverged somewhat at first, then some populations interbred around one million years after diverging.[9]

text: Morphology[edit]

text: The brains of most species of Australopithecus were roughly 35% of the size of a modern human brain. Most species of Australopithecus were diminutive and gracile, usually standing 1.2 to 1.4 m (3 ft 11 in to 4 ft 7 in) tall. In several variations is a considerable degree of sexual dimorphism, males being larger than females.[10]

text: According to one scholar, A. Zihlman, Australopithecus body proportions closely resemble those of bonobos (Pan paniscus),[11] leading evolutionary biologists such as Jeremy Griffith to suggest that bonobos may be phenotypically similar to Australopithecus.[12] Furthermore, thermoregulatory models suggest that Australopithecus species were fully hair covered, more like chimpanzees and bonobos, and unlike humans.[13]

text: Modern humans do not appear to display the same degree of sexual dimorphism as Australopithecus did. In modern populations, males are on average a mere 15% larger than females, while in Australopithecus, males could be up to 50% larger than females. New research suggests, however, that australopithecines exhibited a lesser degree of sexual dimorphism than these figures suggest, but the issue is not settled.[10]

text: Species variations[edit]

text: Opinions differ as to whether the species A. aethiopicus, A. boisei, and A. robustus should be included within the genus Australopithecus, and no current consensus exists as to whether they should be placed in a distinct genus, Paranthropus, which is suggested to have developed from the ancestral Australopithecus line.[citation needed] Until the last half-decade, the majority of the scientific community included all the species shown in the box at the top of this article in a single genus. The postulated genus Paranthropus was morphologically distinct from Australopithecus, and its specialized morphology implies that its behaviour may have been quite different from that of its ancestors, although it has been suggested that the distinctive features of A. aethiopicus, A. boisei, and A. robustus may have evolved independently.

text: Evolutionary role[edit]

text: The fossil record seems to indicate that Australopithecus is the common ancestor of the distinct group of hominids now called Paranthropus (the "robust australopiths"), and most likely the genus Homo, which includes modern humans. Though the intelligence of these early hominids was likely no more sophisticated than in modern apes, the bipedal stature is the key element that distinguishes the group from previous primates, which were quadrupeds. The morphology of Australopithecus upset what scientists previously believed — namely, that strongly increased brain size had preceded bipedalism.

text: If A. afarensis was the definite hominid that left the footprints at Laetoli, that strengthens the notion that A. afarensis had a small brain, but was a biped. Fossil evidence such as this makes it clear that bipedalism far predated large brains. However, it remains a matter of controversy as to how bipedalism first emerged (several concepts are still being studied). The advantages of bipedalism were that it left the hands free to grasp objects (e.g., carry food and young), and allowed the eyes to look over tall grasses for possible food sources or predators. However, many anthropologists argue that these advantages were not large enough to cause the emergence of bipedalism.

text: A recent study of primate evolution and morphology noted that all apes, both modern and fossil, show skeletal adaptations to erect posture of the trunk, and that fossils such as Orrorin tugenensis indicate bipedalism around six million years ago, around the time of the split between humans and chimpanzees indicated by genetic studies. This suggested that erect, straight-legged walking originated as an adaptation to tree-dwelling. Studies of modern orangutans in Sumatra have shown that these apes use four legs when walking on large, stable branches, and swing underneath slightly smaller branches, but are bipedal and keep their legs very straight when walking on multiple flexible branches under 4 cm diameter, while also using their arms for balance and additional support. This enables them to get nearer to the edge of the tree canopy to get fruit or cross to another tree.[14]

text: The ancestors of gorillas and chimpanzees are suggested to have become more specialised in climbing vertical tree trunks, using a bent hip and bent knee posture that matches the knuckle-walking posture they use for ground travel. This was due to climate changes around 11 to 12 million years ago that affected forests in East and Central Africa, so periods occurred when openings prevented travel through the tree canopy, and at these times, ancestral hominids could have adapted the erect walking behaviour for ground travel. Humans are closely related to these apes, and share features including wrist bones apparently strengthened for knuckle-walking.[15]

text: However, the view that human ancestors were knuckle-walkers is now questioned since the anatomy and biomechanics of knuckle-walking in chimpanzees and gorillas are different, suggesting that this ability evolved independently after the last common ancestor with the human lineage.[16] Further comparative analysis with other primates suggests that these wrist-bone adaptations support a palm-based tree walking.[16]

text: Radical changes in morphology took place before gracile australopiths evolved; the pelvis structure and feet are very similar to modern humans.[17] The teeth have small canines, but australopiths generally evolved a larger postcanine dentition with thicker enamel.[18]

text: Most species of Australopithecus were not any more adept at tool use than modern nonhuman primates, yet modern African apes, chimpanzees, and most recently gorillas, have been known to use simple tools (i.e. cracking open nuts with stones and using long sticks to dig for termites in mounds), and chimpanzees have been observed using spears (not thrown) for hunting.[citation needed]

text: For a long time, no known stone tools were associated with A. afarensis, and paleoanthropologists commonly thought that stone artifacts only dated back to about 2.5 million years ago.[19] However, a 2010 study suggests the hominin species ate meat by carving animal carcasses with stone implements. This finding pushes back the earliest known use of stone tools among hominins to about 3.4 million years ago.[20]

text: Some have argued that A. garhi used stone tools due to a loose association of this species and butchered animal remains.

text: Dentition[edit]

text: Australopithecines have thirty two teeth, like modern humans, but with an intermediate formation; between the great apes and humans. Their molars were parallel, like those of great apes, and they had a slight pre-canine diastema. But, their canines were smaller, like modern humans, and with the teeth less interlocked than in previous hominins. In fact, in some australopithecines the canines are shaped more like incisors.[21]

text: The molars of Australopithicus fit together in much the same way ours do, with low crowns and four low, rounded cusps used for crushing. They have cutting edges on the crests.[21]

text: Robust australopithecines (like A. boisei and A. robustus) had larger cheek, or buccal, teeth than the smaller – or gracile – species (like A. afarensis and A. africanus). It is possible that they had more tough, fibrous plant material in their diets while the smaller species of Australopithecus had more meat. But it is also possibly due to their generally larger build requiring more food. Their larger molars do support a slightly different diet, including some hard food.[21]

text: Australopithecines also had thick enamel, like those in genus Homo, while other great apes have markedly thinner enamel. One explanation for the thicker enamel is that these hominins were living more on the ground than in the trees and were foraging for tubers, nuts, and cereal grains. They would also have been eating a lot of gritty dirt with the food, which would wear at enamel, so thicker enamel would be advantageous. Or, it could simply indicate a change in diet. Robust australopithecines wore their molar surfaces down flat, unlike the more gracile species, who kept their crests, which certainly seems to suggest a different diet. The gracile Australopithecus had larger incisors, which indicates tearing and more meat in the diet, likely scavenged. The wear patterns on the tooth surfaces support a largely herbivorous diet.[21]

text: When we examine the buccal microwear patterns on the teeth of A. afarensis and A. anamensis, we see that A. afarensis did not consume a lot of grasses or seeds, but rather ate fruits and leaves, but A. anamensis did eat grasses and seeds in addition to fruits and leaves.[22]

text: Diet[edit]

text: In a 1979 preliminary microwear study of Australopithecus fossil teeth, anthropologist Alan Walker theorized that robust australopiths were largely frugivorous.[23] Australopithecus species mainly ate fruit, vegetables, small lizards, and tubers. Much research has focused on a comparison between the South African species A. africanus and Paranthropus robustus. Early analyses of dental microwear in these two species showed, compared to P. robustus, A. africanus had fewer microwear features and more scratches as opposed to pits on its molar wear facets.[24]

text: These observations have been interpreted as evidence that P. robustus may have fed on hard and brittle foods, such as some nuts and seeds.[24] More recently, new analyses based on three-dimensional renderings of wear facets have confirmed earlier work, but have also suggested that P. robustus ate hard foods primarily as a fallback resource, while A. africanus ate more mechanically tough foods.[25]

text: In 1992, trace-element studies of the strontium/calcium ratios in robust australopith fossils suggested the possibility of animal consumption, as they did in 1994 using stable carbon isotopic analysis.[26]

text: In 2005, fossils of animal bones with butchery marks dating 2.6 million years old were found at the site of Gona, Ethiopia. Fossil evidence indicates meat consumption by at least three species of hominins occurring around 2.6-2.5 Mya: A. africanus, A. garhi, and P. aethiopicus.[27]

text: In 2010, fossils of butchered animal bones dated 3.4 million years old were found in Ethiopia, close to regions where australopith fossils were found.[28]

text: History of study[edit]

text: The type specimen for genus Australopithecus was discovered in 1924, in a lime quarry by workers at Taung, South Africa. The specimen was studied by the Australian anatomist Raymond Dart, who was then working at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg. The fossil skull was from a three-year-old bipedal primate that he named Australopithecus africanus. The first report was published in Nature in February 1925. Dart realised that the fossil contained a number of humanoid features, and so, he came to the conclusion that this was an early ancestor of humans.[29] Later, Scottish paleontologist Robert Broom and Dart set about to search for more early hominin specimens, and at several sites they found more A. africanus remains, as well as fossils of a species Broom named Paranthropus (which would now be recognised as P. robustus). Initially, anthropologists were largely hostile to the idea that these discoveries were anything but apes, though this changed during the late 1940s.[29]

text: The first australopithecine discovered in eastern Africa was a skull belonging to an A. boisei that was excavated in 1959 in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania by Mary Leakey. Since then, the Leakey family have continued to excavate the gorge, uncovering further evidence for australopithecines, as well as for Homo habilis and Homo erectus.[30] The scientific community took 20 years to widely accept Australopithecus as a member of the family tree.

text: Then, in 1997, an almost complete Australopithecus skeleton with skull was found in the Sterkfontein caves of Gauteng, South Africa. It is now called "Little Foot" and it is probably around three million years old. It was named Australopithecus prometheus[31][32] which has since been placed within A. africanus. Other fossil remains found in the same cave in 2008 were named Australopithecus sediba, which lived 1.9 million years ago. A. africanus probably evolved into A. sediba, which some scientists think may have evolved into H. erectus,[33] though this is heavily disputed.

text: Notable specimens[edit]

text:
Australopithecus bahrelghazali, mandibular fragment, discovered 1995 in Sahara, Chad
AL 129-1, an A. afarensis knee joint, discovered 1973 in Hadar, Ethiopia
Karabo, a juvenile male A. sediba, discovered in South Africa
Laetoli footprints, preserved hominin footprints in Tanzania
Lucy, a 40%-complete skeleton of a female A. afarensis, discovered 1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia
Selam, remains of a three-year-old A. afarensis female, discovered in Dikika, Ethiopia
STS 5 (Mrs. Ples), the most complete skull of an A. africanus ever found in South Africa
STS 14, remains of an A. africanus, discovered 1947 in Sterkfontein, South Africa
STS 71, skull of an A. africanus, discovered 1947 in Sterkfontein, South Africa
Taung Child, skull of a young A. africanus, discovered 1924 in Taung, South Africa

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
The spot where the first Australopithecus boisei was discovered in Tanzania.

Original skull of Mrs. Ples, a female A. africanus

Taung Child by Cicero Moraes, Arc-Team, Antrocom NPO, Museum of the University of Padua.

Cast of the skeleton of Lucy, an A. afarensis

Skull of the Taung child