document_title: Indigenous peoples

question_text: what percentage of the world's population is indigenous

question_tokens: what percentage of the world 's population is indigenous

text: Indigenous peoples

text: Definitions[edit]

text: The adjective indigenous was historically used to describe animals and plant origins. During the late twentieth century, the term Indigenous people began to be used to describe a legal category in indigenous law created in international and national legislations; it refers to culturally distinct groups affected by colonization.[4] It is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- 'to be born' with an archaic form of the prefix in 'in'.[5] Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their traditional native land claim.[6] Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, or first (as in Canada's First Nations).

text: The use of the term peoples in association with the indigenous is derived from the 19th century anthropological and ethnographic disciplines that Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines as "a body of persons that are united by a common culture, tradition, or sense of kinship, which typically have common language, institutions, and beliefs, and often constitute a politically organized group".[7]

text: James Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as "living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire and conquest".[8][9]

text: They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal system. The International Day of the World's Indigenous People falls on 9 August as this was the date of the first meeting in 1982 of the United Nations Working Group of Indigenous Populations of the Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities of the Commission on Human Rights.

text: National definitions[edit]

text: Throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Indigenous people also include people indigenous based on their descent from populations that inhabited the country when non-indigenous religions and cultures arrived—or at the establishment of present state boundaries—who retain some or all of their own social, economic, cultural and political institutions, but who may have been displaced from their traditional domains or who may have resettled outside their ancestral domains.

text: The status of the indigenous groups in the subjugated relationship can be characterized in most instances as an effectively marginalized, isolated or minimally participative one, in comparison to majority groups or the nation-state as a whole. Their ability to influence and participate in the external policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands and practices is very frequently limited. This situation can persist even in the case where the indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and land rights.

text: In a ground-breaking 1997 decision involving the Ainu people of Japan, the Japanese courts recognised their claim in law, stating that "If one minority group lived in an area prior to being ruled over by a majority group and preserved its distinct ethnic culture even after being ruled over by the majority group, while another came to live in an area ruled over by a majority after consenting to the majority rule, it must be recognised that it is only natural that the distinct ethnic culture of the former group requires greater consideration."[10]

text: The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to variously constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the indigenous society is regulated largely by its own tradition and custom. They may be purposefully imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have a measurable effect, even where countered by other external influences and actions deemed beneficial or that promote indigenous rights and interests.

text: United Nations[edit]

text: In 1982 the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) accepted as a preliminary definition a formulation put forward by Mr. José R. Martínez-Cobo, Special Rapporteur on Discrimination against Indigenous Populations. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, and would likely exclude other isolated or marginal societies.[11]

text: Indigenous communities, peoples, and nations are those that, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop, and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal systems.

text: The primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. The first paragraph of the Introduction of a report published in 2009 by the Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues published a report,[12] states

text: For centuries, since the time of their colonization, conquest or occupation, indigenous peoples have documented histories of resistance, interface or cooperation with states, thus demonstrating their conviction and determination to survive with their distinct sovereign identities. Indeed, indigenous peoples were often recognized as sovereign peoples by states, as witnessed by the hundreds of treaties concluded between indigenous peoples and the governments of the United States, Canada, New Zealand and others.[13]

text: In May 2016, the Fifteenth Session of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII) affirmed that indigenous people (also termed aboriginal people, native people, or autochthonous people) are distinctive groups protected in international or national legislation as having a set of specific rights based on their linguistic and historical ties to a particular territory, prior to later settlement, development, and or occupation of a region.[14] The session affirms that since indigenous peoples are vulnerable to exploitation, marginalization, oppression, forced assimilation, and genocide by nation states formed from colonizing populations or by politically dominant, different ethnic groups, special protection of individuals and communities maintaining ways of life indigenous to their regions, are entitled to special protection.

text: History[edit]

text: Classical antiquity[edit]

text: Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the prior existence of indigenous people(s), whom they referred to as "Pelasgians". These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors. The disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures (and distinct from non-Greek speaking "foreigners", termed "barbarians" by the historical Greeks).

text: Greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. But because already existent populations within other parts of Europe at the time of classical antiquity had more in common culturally speaking with the Greco-Roman world, the intricacies involved in expansion across the European frontier were not so contentious relative to indigenous issues.[15]

text: But when it came to expansion in other parts of the world, namely Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, then totally new cultural dynamics had entered into the equation, so to speak, and one sees here of what was to take the Americas, South East Asia, and the Pacific by storm a few hundred years later. The idea that peoples who possessed cultural customs and racial appearances strikingly different from those of the colonizing power is no new idea borne out of the Medieval period or the Enlightenment.

text: European expansion and colonialism[edit]

text: The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had a profound impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The exploratory and colonial ventures in the Americas, Africa, Asia and the Pacific often resulted in territorial and cultural conflict, and the intentional or unintentional displacement and devastation of the indigenous populations.

text: The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians and linguists.[16]

text: Population and distribution[edit]

text: Indigenous societies range from those who have been significantly exposed to the colonizing or expansionary activities of other societies (such as the Maya peoples of Mexico and Central America) through to those who as yet remain in comparative isolation from any external influence (such as the Sentinelese and Jarawa of the Andaman Islands).

text: Precise estimates for the total population of the world's Indigenous peoples are very difficult to compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census data. The United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide.[17] This would equate to just fewer than 6% of the total world population. This includes at least 5000 distinct peoples[18] in over 72 countries.

text: Contemporary distinct indigenous groups survive in populations ranging from only a few dozen to hundreds of thousands and more. Many indigenous populations have undergone a dramatic decline and even extinction, and remain threatened in many parts of the world. Some have also been assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes. In other cases, indigenous populations are undergoing a recovery or expansion in numbers.

text: Certain indigenous societies survive even though they may no longer inhabit their "traditional" lands, owing to migration, relocation, forced resettlement or having been supplanted by other cultural groups. In many other respects, the transformation of culture of indigenous groups is ongoing, and includes permanent loss of language, loss of lands, encroachment on traditional territories, and disruption in traditional lifeways due to contamination and pollution of waters and lands.

text: Indigenous peoples by region[edit]

text: Indigenous populations are distributed in regions throughout the globe. The numbers, condition and experience of indigenous groups may vary widely within a given region. A comprehensive survey is further complicated by sometimes contentious membership and identification.

text: Africa[edit]

text: In the post-colonial period, the concept of specific indigenous peoples within the African continent has gained wider acceptance, although not without controversy. The highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation. Since the late 20th century these peoples have increasingly sought recognition of their rights as distinct indigenous peoples, in both national and international contexts.

text: Though the vast majority of African peoples are indigenous in the sense that they originate from that continent—in practice, identity as an indigenous people per the modern definition is more restrictive, and certainly not every African ethnic group claims identification under these terms. Groups and communities who do claim this recognition are those who, by a variety of historical and environmental circumstances, have been placed outside of the dominant state systems, and whose traditional practices and land claims often come into conflict with the objectives and policies implemented by governments, companies and surrounding dominant societies.

text: Given the extensive and complicated history of human migration within Africa, being the "first peoples in a land" is not a necessary precondition for acceptance as an indigenous people. Rather, indigenous identity relates more to a set of characteristics and practices than priority of arrival. For example, several populations of nomadic peoples such as the Tuareg of the Sahara and Sahel regions now inhabit areas where they arrived comparatively recently; their claim to indigenous status (endorsed by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights) is based on their marginalization as nomadic peoples in states and territories dominated by sedentary agricultural peoples.

text: Americas[edit]

text: Indigenous peoples of the American continent are broadly recognized as being those groups and their descendants who inhabited the region before the arrival of European colonizers and settlers (i.e., Pre-Columbian). Indigenous peoples who maintain, or seek to maintain, traditional ways of life are found from the high Arctic north to the southern extremities of Tierra del Fuego.

text: The impact of European colonization of the Americas on the indigenous communities has been in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease but also violence. The extent of this impact is the subject of much continuing debate. Several peoples shortly thereafter became extinct, or very nearly so.

text: All nations in North and South America have populations of indigenous peoples within their borders. In some countries (particularly Latin American), indigenous peoples form a sizable component of the overall national population—in Bolivia they account for an estimated 56–70% of the total nation, and at least half of the population in Guatemala and the Andean and Amazonian nations of Peru. In English, indigenous peoples are collectively referred to by different names that vary by region and include such ethnonyms as Native Americans, Amerindians, and American Indians. In Spanish or Portuguese speaking countries one finds the use of terms such as pueblos indígenas, amerindios, povos nativos, povos indígenas, and in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly among Amazonian societies like the Urarina[19] and Matsés. In Chile there are indigenous tribes like the Mapuches in the Center-South and the Aymaras in the North, also the Rapa Nui indigenous to Easter Island are a Polynesian tribe.

text: In Brazil, the term índio (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈĩdʒi.u] or ˈĩdʒju) is used by most of the population, the media, the indigenous peoples themselves and even the government (FUNAI is acronym for the Fundação Nacional do Índio) (National Indio Foundation), although its Hispanic equivalent indio is widely not considered politically correct and falling into disuse.

text: Indigenous peoples in Canada comprise the First Nations,[20] Inuit[21] and Métis.[22] The descriptors "Indian" and "Eskimo" are falling into disuse in Canada.[23][24] There are currently over 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,272,790 2006 peoples spread across Canada with distinctive Aboriginal cultures, languages, art, and music.[25][26][27] National Aboriginal Day recognises the cultures and contributions of Aboriginals to the history of Canada

text: The Inuit have achieved a degree of administrative autonomy with the creation in 1999 of the territories of Nunavik (in Northern Québec), Nunatsiavut (in Northern Labrador) and Nunavut, which was until 1999 a part of the Northwest Territories. The self-ruling Danish territory of Greenland is also home to a majority population of indigenous Inuit (about 85%).

text: In the United States, the combined populations of Native Americans, Inuit and other indigenous designations totalled 2,786,652 (constituting about 1.5% of 2003 US census figures). Some 563 scheduled tribes are recognized at the federal level, and a number of others recognized at the state level.

text: In Mexico, approximately 6,000,000 (constituting about 6.7% of 2005 Mexican census figures) identify as Indígenas (Spanish for natives or indigenous peoples). In the southern states of Chiapas, Yucatán and Oaxaca they constitute 26.1%, 33.5% and 35.3%, respectively, of the population. In these states several conflicts and episodes of civil war have been conducted, in which the situation and participation of indigenous societies were notable factors (see for example EZLN).

text: The Amerindians make up 0.4% of all Brazilian population, or about 700,000 people.[28] Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country. On 18 January 2007, FUNAI reported that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.[29]

text: Asia[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The vast regions of Asia contain the majority of the world's present-day Indigenous populations, about 70% according to IWGIA figures.[30]

text: Western Asia[edit]

text: The Yazidis are indigenous to the Sinjar mountain range in northern Iraq.[citation needed]

text: The indigenous people of Northern Iraq are the Assyrians.[31] They claim descent from the ancient Neo-Assyrian Empire and Akkadians, and lived in what was Assyria, their original homeland. Their homeland is primarily occupied by the Kurdish autonomous region.

text: The indigenous people of modern Eastern Turkey, parts of the South Caucasus and much of Azerbaijan (Armenian Highlands) are the Armenians. They have a history in the region dating back to at least 2,450 BCE with the story of Hayk told by Movses Khorenatsi, however much like the Assyrians with whom they share several similarities including the Armenian Genocide and Assyrian Genocide, along with the two peoples becoming victims and minorities within their own land.[citation needed]

text: South Asia[edit]

text: The most substantial populations are in India, which constitutionally recognizes a range of "Scheduled Castes and Tribes" within its borders. These various peoples (collectively referred to as Dalit, Adivasis, or tribal peoples) number about 68 million (1991 census figures, approximately 8% of the total national population).

text: There are also indigenous people residing in the hills of Northern, North-eastern and Southern India like the Ladakhi, Kinnaurs, Lepcha, Bhutia (of Sikkim), Naga (of Nagaland), indigenous Assamese communities, Munda people of Chota Nagpur Plateau, Mizo (of Mizoram), Kodava (of Kodagu), Toda, Kurumba, Kota (of the Nilgiris), Irulas and others.

text: The Jats are indigenous people of ancient India, and can be tracked down to 4th century BC.[32]

text: North Asia[edit]

text: The Russians invaded Siberia and conquered the indigenous natives in the 17th-18th centuries.

text: Nivkh people are an ethnic group indigenous to Sakhalin, having a few speakers of the Nivkh language, but their fisher culture has been endangered due to the development of oil field of Sakhalin from 1990s.[33]

text: Eastern Asia[edit]

text: Ainu people are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin. As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward and fought against the Japanese in Shakushain's Revolt and Menashi-Kunashir Rebellion, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaidō, in a manner similar to the placing of Native Americans on reservations.[34]

text: The Dzungar Oirats are the natives of Dzungaria in Northern Xinjiang.

text: The Pamiris are the native people of Tashkurgan in Xinjiang.

text: The Ryukyuan people are indigenous to the Ryukyu Islands.

text: The languages of Taiwanese aborigines have significance in historical linguistics, since in all likelihood Taiwan was the place of origin of the entire Austronesian language family, which spread across Oceania.[35][36][37]

text: Southeast Asia[edit]

text: The Malay Singaporeans are the indigenous people of Singapore, inhabiting it since the Austronesian migration. They have established Kingdom of Singapura back in the 13th century. The name Singapore itself comes from the Malay word Singapura (Singa=Lion, Pura=City) which means the Lion City.

text: The Cham are the indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến. The Cham in Vietnam are only recognized as a minority, and not as an indigenous people by the Vietnamese government despite being indigenous to the region.

text: The Degar (Montagnards) are the natives of the Central Highlands (Vietnam) and were conquered by the Vietnamese in the Nam tiến.

text: The Khmer Krom are the native people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.

text: In Indonesia, there are 50 to 70 million people who classify as indigenous peoples.[38] However, the Indonesian government does not recognize the existence of indigenous peoples, classifying every Native Indonesian ethnic group as "indigenous" despite the clear cultural distinctions of certain groups.[39] This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.

text: In the Philippines, there are 135 ethno-linguistic groups, majority of which are considered as indigenous peoples by mainstream indigenous ethnic groups in the country. The indigenous people of Cordillera Administrative Region and Cagayan Valley in the Philippines are the Igorot people. The indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago. There are also others sets of indigenous peoples in Palawan, Mindoro, Visayas, and the rest central and south Luzon. The country has one of the largest indigenous peoples population in the world.

text: Europe[edit]

text: In Europe, present-day indigenous populations as recognized by the UN are relatively few, mainly confined to its north and far east. Nevertheless, the ethnic groups traditionally inhabiting most, if not all, European countries are considered to be indigenous to Europe. This includes the majority populations.

text: Notable minority indigenous populations in Europe include the Basque people of northern Spain and southern France, the Sami people of northern Scandinavia, the Crimean Tatars of Crimea,[dubious – discuss] the Nenets, Samoyedic and Komi peoples of northern Russia, and the Circassians of southern Russia and the North Caucasus.

text: Oceania[edit]

text: In Australia the indigenous populations are the Aboriginal Australians, within which are many different nations and tribes, and the Torres Strait Islanders. These groups are often spoken of as Indigenous Australians.

text: Many of the present-day Pacific Island nations in the Oceania region were originally populated by Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples over the course of thousands of years. European colonial expansion in the Pacific brought many of these under non-indigenous administration. During the 20th century several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states were formed under local control. However, various peoples have put forward claims for Indigenous recognition where their islands are still under external administration; examples include the Chamorros of Guam and the Northern Marianas, and the Marshallese of the Marshall Islands.

text: The remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.[40]

text: In most parts of Oceania, indigenous peoples outnumber the descendants of colonists. Exceptions include New Zealand and Hawaii. According to the 2013 census, New Zealand Māori make up 14.9% of the population of New Zealand, with less than half (46.5%) of all Māori residents identifying solely as Māori. The Māori are indigenous to Polynesia and settled New Zealand relatively recently, the migrations were thought to have occurred in the 13th century CE. In New Zealand pre-contact Māori tribes were not a single people, thus the more recent grouping into tribal (iwi) arrangements has become a more formal arrangement in more recent times. Many Māori tribal leaders signed a treaty with the British, the Treaty of Waitangi, which formed the modern geo-political entity that is New Zealand.

text: The independent state of Papua New Guinea (PNG) has a majority population of indigenous societies, with more than 700 different tribal groups recognized out of a total population of 8 million.[41] The PNG Constitution and other Acts identify traditional or custom-based practices and land tenure, and explicitly set out to promote the viability of these traditional societies within the modern state. However, conflicts and disputes concerning land use and resource rights continue between indigenous groups, the government, and corporate entities.

text: Indigenous rights and other issues[edit]

text:
Part of a series on

Indigenous rights

Rights

Ancestral domain
Intellectual property
Land rights
Language
Traditional knowledge
Treaty rights

Governmental organizations

AADNC
ACHPR
Arctic Council
Bureau of Indian Affairs
CDI
Council of Indigenous Peoples
FUNAI
NCIP
UNPFII

NGOs and political groups

AFN
Amazon Watch
CAP
COICA
CONAIE
Cultural Survival
EZLN
fPcN
IPACC
IPCB
IWGIA
NARF
ONIC
Survival International
UNPO

more ...

Issues

Civilizing mission
Manifest Destiny

Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples

Discovery doctrine
Indigenism

Legal representation

ILO 107
ILO 169
United Nations Declaration

Category

v
t
e

text: Indigenous peoples confront a diverse range of concerns associated with their status and interaction with other cultural groups, as well as changes in their inhabited environment. Some challenges are specific to particular groups; however, other challenges are commonly experienced.[42] These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination.

text: The interaction between indigenous and non-indigenous societies throughout history has been complex, ranging from outright conflict and subjugation to some degree of mutual benefit and cultural transfer. A particular aspect of anthropological study involves investigation into the ramifications of what is termed first contact, the study of what occurs when two cultures first encounter one another. The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.

text: Wherever indigenous cultural identity is asserted, common societal issues and concerns arise from the indigenous status. These concerns are often not unique to indigenous groups. Despite the diversity of Indigenous peoples, it may be noted that they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society. They are generally concerned that the cultures of Indigenous peoples are being lost and that indigenous peoples suffer both discrimination and pressure to assimilate into their surrounding societies. This is borne out by the fact that the lands and cultures of nearly all of the peoples listed at the end of this article are under threat. Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two of the northern indigenous peoples of Russia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999). In Australia, a landmark case, Mabo v Queensland (No 2),[43] saw the High Court of Australia reject the idea of terra nullius. This rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practiced by the Meriam people.

text: It is also sometimes argued that it is important for the human species as a whole to preserve a wide range of cultural diversity as possible, and that the protection of indigenous cultures is vital to this enterprise.

text: Human rights violations[edit]

text: The Bangladesh Government has stated that there are "no Indigenous Peoples in Bangladesh".[44] This has angered the Indigenous Peoples of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, collectively known as the Jumma.[45] Experts have protested against this move of the Bangladesh Government and have questioned the Government's definition of the term "Indigenous Peoples".[46][47] This move by the Bangladesh Government is seen by the Indigenous Peoples of Bangladesh as another step by the Government to further erode their already limited rights.[48]

text: Both Hindu and Chams have experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confisticating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs. Hindu temples were turned into tourist sites against the wishes of the Cham Hindus. In 2010 and 2013 several incidents occurred in Thành Tín and Phươc Nhơn villages where Cham were murdered by Vietnamese. In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.[49] Cham in the Mekong Delta have also been economically marginalised, with ethnic Vietnamese settling on land previously owned by Cham people with state support.[50]

text: The Indonesian government has outright denied the existence of indigenous peoples within the countries' borders. In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide… Indonesia, however, does not recognize the application of the indigenous peoples concept… in the country’.[51] Along with the brutal treatment of the country's Papuan people (a conservative estimate places the violent deaths at 100,000 people in West New Guinea since Indonesian occupation in 1963, see Papua Conflict) has led to Survival International condemning Indonesia for treating its indigenous peoples as the worst in the world.[51]

text: The French, the Communist North Vietnamese, and the anti-Communist South Vietnamese all exploited and persecuted the Montagnards. North Vietnamese Communists forcibly recruited "comfort girls" from the indigenous Montagnard peoples of the Central Highlands and murdered those who didn't comply, inspired by Japan's use of comfort women.[52] The Vietnamese viewed and dealt with the indigenous Montagnards in the CIDG from the Central Highlands as "savages" and this caused a Montagnard uprising against the Vietnamese.[53] The Vietnamese were originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien, while the Vietnamese received strong Chinese influence in their culture and civilization and were Sinicized, and the Cambodians and Laotians were Indianized, the Montagnards in the Central Highlands maintained their own native culture without adopting external culture and were the true indigenous natives of the region, and to hinder encroachment on the Central Highlands by Vietnamese nationalists, the term Pays Montagnard du Sud-Indochinois PMSI emerged for the Central Highlands along with the natives being addressed by the name Montagnard.[54] The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the region.[55] The anti-ethnic minority discriminatory policies by the Vietnamese, environmental degradation, deprivation of lands from the natives, and settlement of native lands by a massive amount of Vietnamese settlers led to massive protests and demonstrations by the Central Highland's indigenous native ethnic minorities against the Vietnamese in January–February 2001 and this event gave a tremendous blow to the claim often published by the Vietnamese government that in Vietnam There has been no ethnic confrontation, no religious war, no ethnic conflict. And no elimination of one culture by another.[56]

text: Health issues[edit]

text: In December 1993, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the International Decade of the World's Indigenous People, and requested UN specialized agencies to consider with governments and indigenous people how they can contribute to the success of the Decade of Indigenous People, commencing in December 1994. As a consequence, the World Health Organization, at its Forty-seventh World Health Assembly, established a core advisory group of indigenous representatives with special knowledge of the health needs and resources of their communities, thus beginning a long-term commitment to the issue of the health of indigenous peoples.[57]

text: The WHO notes that "Statistical data on the health status of indigenous peoples is scarce. This is especially notable for indigenous peoples in Africa, Asia and eastern Europe", but snapshots from various countries, where such statistics are available, show that indigenous people are in worse health than the general population, in advanced and developing countries alike: higher incidence of diabetes in some regions of Australia;[58] higher prevalence of poor sanitation and lack of safe water among Twa households in Rwanda;[59] a greater prevalence of childbirths without prenatal care among ethnic minorities in Vietnam;[60] suicide rates among Inuit youth in Canada are eleven times higher than the national average;[61] infant mortality rates are higher for indigenous peoples everywhere.[62]

text: Non-indigenous viewpoints[edit]

text: Indigenous peoples have been denoted primitives, savages[63] or uncivilized. These terms were common during the heights of European colonial expansion, but still continue in certain societies in modern times .[64]

text: During the 17th century, indigenous peoples were commonly labeled "uncivilized". Some philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes considered indigenous people to be merely 'savages', while others are purported to have considered them to be "noble savages". Those who were close to the Hobbesian view tended to believe themselves to have a duty to "civilize" and "modernize" the indigenous. Although anthropologists, especially from Europe, used to apply these terms to all tribal cultures, it has fallen into disfavor as demeaning and is, according to many anthropologists, not only inaccurate, but dangerous.

text: Survival International runs a campaign to stamp out media portrayal of indigenous peoples as 'primitive' or 'savages'.[65] Friends of Peoples Close to Nature considers not only that indigenous culture should be respected as not being inferior, but also sees their way of life as a lesson of sustainability and a part of the struggle within the "corrupted" western world, from which the threat stems.[66]

text: After World War I, however, many Europeans came to doubt the morality of the means used to "civilize" peoples. At the same time, the anti-colonial movement, and advocates of indigenous peoples, argued that words such as "civilized" and "savage" were products and tools of colonialism, and argued that colonialism itself was savagely destructive. In the mid 20th century, European attitudes began to shift to the view that indigenous and tribal peoples should have the right to decide for themselves what should happen to their ancient cultures and ancestral lands.


document_title: United States Flag Code

question_text: what happens if a us flag touches the ground

root

text: United States Flag Code

text: Summary of the Code[edit]

text:
The flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This is sometimes misreported as a tradition that comes from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII; American team flag bearer Ralph Rose did not follow this protocol, and teammate Martin Sheridan is often, though apocryphally, quoted as proclaiming that "this flag dips before no earthly king."[2]
When a flag is so tattered that it no longer fits to serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The Veterans of Foreign Wars, American Legion, Boy Scouts of America, Girl Scouts of America, the military and other organizations regularly conduct dignified flag-burning ceremonies.[3]
The flag should never touch anything beneath it. Contrary to an urban legend, the flag code does not state that a flag that touches the ground should be burned. Instead, it is considered disrespectful and the flag in question should be moved in such a manner that it is no longer touching the ground.[3]
The flag should always be permitted to fall freely. (An exception was made during the Apollo moon landings when the flag hung from a vertical pole designed with an extensible horizontal bar, allowing full display even in the absence of an atmosphere.)[4]

tag: ul

text: History[edit]

text: Prior to Flag Day, June 14, 1923, neither the federal government nor the states had official guidelines governing the display of the United States' flag. On that date, the National Flag Code was constructed by representatives of over 68 organizations, under the auspices of the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion. The code drafted by that conference was printed by the national organization of the American Legion and given nationwide distribution.

tag: p

text: On June 22, 1942, the Code became Public Law 77-623; chapter 435.[5] Little had changed in the code since the Flag Day 1923 Conference. The most notable change was the removal of the Bellamy salute due to its similarities to the Hitler salute.[6]

text: The Freedom to Display the American Flag Act of 2005 prohibits real estate management organizations from restricting homeowners from displaying the Flag of the United States on their own property.

text: The Army Specialist Joseph P. Micks Federal Flag Code Amendment Act of 2007 added a provision to fly the flag at half-staff upon the death of a member of the Armed Forces from any State, territory, or possession who died while serving on active duty. It also gave the mayor of the District of Columbia the authority to direct that the flag be flown at half-staff. Federal facilities in the area covered by the governor or mayor of the District of Columbia will also fly the flag at half-staff as directed.[7]

text: The Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009 (Sec. 595.) allows the military salute for the flag during the national anthem by members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and by veterans.


document_title: The General Crisis

question_text: the crisis of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in england included

text: The General Crisis

text: What was the "General Crisis"?[edit]

text: The term was coined by English Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm in his pair of 1954 articles entitled "The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century" published in Past and Present, and cemented by his contemporary, Hugh Trevor-Roper, in a 1959 article entitled "The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century" published in the same journal. Hobsbawm discussed an economic crisis in Europe; Trevor-Roper saw a wider crisis, "a crisis in the relations between society and the State".[2] Trevor-Roper argued that the middle years of the 17th century in Western Europe saw a widespread break-down in politics, economics and society caused by a complex series of demographic, religious, economic and political problems. In this "general crisis", various events such as the English Civil War, the Fronde in France, the climax of the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and revolts against the Spanish Crown in Portugal, Naples and Catalonia were all manifestations of the same problem. The most important cause of the "general crisis",[3] in Trevor-Roper’s opinion, was the conflict between "Court" and "Country"; that is between the increasingly powerful centralizing, bureaucratic, sovereign princely states represented by the court, and the traditional, regional, land-based aristocracy and gentry representing the country. In addition, the intellectual and religious changes introduced by the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation were important secondary causes of the "general crisis". The "general crisis" thesis generated much controversy between those, such as the Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm, who believed in the "general crisis" thesis but saw the problems of 17th-century Europe as being more social and economic in origin than Trevor-Roper would allow, and those who simply denied there was any "general crisis". Current historians interested in the General Crisis include Geoffrey Parker, who has authored a book on the subject.

text: Global patterns[edit]

text: Many historians have argued the 17th century was an era of crisis.[4][page needed][5][page needed] Many other historians have rejected the idea.[who?] Today there are historians who promote the crisis model,[6] arguing it provides an invaluable insight into the warfare, politics, economics,[7] and even art.[8] The Thirty Years War (1618–48) focused attention on the massive horrors that wars could bring to entire populations.[9][page needed] The 1640s in particular saw more state breakdowns around the world than any previous or subsequent period.[4][page needed][5][page needed] The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in Europe, temporarily disappeared. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish Empire, the world’s first global empire. In Britain the entire Stuart monarchy (Kingdom of England, Kingdom of Scotland, Kingdom of Ireland, and British America) rebelled. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equaled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. More wars took place around the world in the mid-17th century than in almost any other period of recorded history. The crises spread far beyond Europe—for example Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed.[10]

text: China’s Ming dynasty and Japan’s Tokugawa shogunate had radically different economic, social, and political systems. However they experienced a series of crises during the mid-17th century that were at once interrelated and strikingly similar to those occurring in other parts of the world at the same time.[11] Frederic Wakeman argues that the crisis which destroyed the Ming dynasty was partly a result of the climatic change as well as China’s already significant involvement in the developing world economy. Bureaucratic dishonesty worsened the problem. Moreover, the Qing dynasty’s success in dealing with the crisis made it more difficult for it to consider alternative responses when confronted with severe challenges from the West in the 19th century.[12]

text: Conflicts and Wars[edit]

text: Examples which have been given for general crisis and state breakdown during this period include:

text:
The Thirty Years War in Germany (1618–48)
The Economic Crisis in the Holy Roman Empire (1619–23)[13]
The Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–51), The Protectorate (1653–59), and the Glorious Revolution (1688) in Britain and Ireland
The collapse of the Ming Dynasty and rise of the Qing Dynasty in China (1644–62)
The Fronde in France (1643–68)
Revolts against the Spanish crown in Naples, Portugal, and Catalonia
The climax of the Dutch Revolt and related conflicts (ends in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia)
Numerous internal revolts in the Ottoman Empire (especially 1622)
The disintegration of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Deluge
The beginning of Sakoku in Japan and the Shimabara Uprising (1638)
The Char Bouba War in Mauritania (1644–74)
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14)
Several wars of succession in the Mughal Empire (1600-1605 between Akbar and Salim; 1605; Shahjahan's revolt)

text: Inflation[edit]

text: Precious metals from newly discovered deposits in America, especially silver from Potosí in modern Bolivia and from Mexico, were shipped by Spain to China as well as to Europe. Silver was less prevalent in China than in Europe and consequently more valuable. The continuous flow of silver from the New World caused a continuous flow of wealth from China to Spain. The silver imports also caused general price inflation throughout Europe. Rapid population growth until the mid-decades of the seventeenth century also initially contributed to inflation in some areas.[citation needed]

text: Demographic decline[edit]

text: For those who extend the General Crisis outside Europe, one symptom is dramatic population decline. For example, with the collapse of the Ming Dynasty the population of China fell by approximately 50 million between 1600 and 1644, a decrease of over 30%.[14] Likewise, Germany's population was reduced by approximately 15% to 30% in the Thirty Years War.[15] The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth also lost about a third of its population. Many theories have been proposed as to why population dropped so rapidly during this period. Renowned economist Robert Malthus proposed the theory of population limitation as a result of carrying capacity. In his theory, food supplies simply did not grow as fast as population. As such, the subsistence gap between food and population created a check on the population. In applying this theory to the demographic crisis of this period, much focus has been placed on the growth and expansion of the "new" monarchies of late medieval Europe. These newly centralized and bureaucratized monarchies with their greater demands for war placed greater demands on the populaces of their realms. The previously mentioned climatic change also helped to exacerbate these new problems of war.[citation needed]

text: Climate change[edit]

text: The General Crisis overlaps fairly neatly with the Little Ice Age which some authorities locate in the 17th century. Of particular interest is the overlap with the Maunder Minimum. Across the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-17th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. Geoffrey Parker has suggested that environmental factors may have been in part to blame, especially the global cooling trend of this period.[16]


document_title: Mount Jackson (Montana)

question_text: mount jackson a peak in glacier national park is located in which state

text: Mount Jackson (Montana)

text:
Mount Jackson

Cloud cap over Mount Jackson

Highest point

Elevation
10,052 ft (3,064 m) [1]

Prominence
3,406 ft (1,038 m) [1]

Parent peak
Mount Cleveland[1]

Listing
Mountains in Flathead County, Montana

Coordinates
48°36′02″N 113°43′19″W / 48.60056°N 113.72194°W / 48.60056; -113.72194Coordinates: 48°36′02″N 113°43′19″W / 48.60056°N 113.72194°W / 48.60056; -113.72194 [2]

Geography

Mount Jackson

Flathead County, Montana, Glacier County, Montana, U.S.

Parent range
Lewis Range

Topo map
USGS Mount Jackson, MT

tag: table

text:
Mount Jackson (10,052 feet (3,064 m)) is located in the Lewis Range, Glacier National Park in the U.S. state of Montana.[3] Mount Jackson is the fourth tallest mountain in Glacier National Park and it is situated on the Continental Divide. Both the mountain and its namesake Jackson Glacier are easily seen from the Going-to-the-Sun Road. On the southern flanks of Mount Jackson is Harrison Glacier, the largest remaining glacier in the park.[1]
Route Descriptions can be found on Summitpost or in "A Climbers Guide to Glacier National Park.


document_title: V6 News

question_text: who is the owner of v6 telugu news channel

text: V6 News

text: History[edit]

text: The channel started on 1 March 2012 and is owned by VIL Media Pvt Ltd. The channel's chief editor and CEO is Ankam Ravi, a seasoned journalist. It is a backed by a team of popular journalists.[2]

text: Programming[edit]

text: The channel airs shows like Teenmaar, Matakari Mangli, Cinma Talkies, Janapadam, Spotlight, Death Secrets etc.

text: Teenmaar News A news satire show, it is aired every night at 9.30 P.M, is hosted by Savithri and Bithiri Sathi. Earlier the programme created most popular news characters like Racha Ramulamma, Mallanna and Teenmar Lacchavva. It became very popular in a short time.

text: It mainly focuses on political and civil issues. It exposes politicians and celebrities in a comical way using typical Telangana slang. It also shows the adventurous and interesting things happening across the world.

text: Spotlight It is a current affair program that focuses on a topic with in-depth and critical analysis. The political topic ranges from National level, state level or any particular issue.

text: Studio discussion It runs a political debate involving political party leaders and analysts, every morning and evening. The morning shows covers newspaper headlines in all major Telugu Newspapers of the day.

text: Telangana Herolu The program celebrates unsung and noted people from Telangana. It narrates their life stories and sacrifices.

text: Hamaraa Hyderabad It is a local news and events program pertaining to the city of Hyderabad.

text: "Telangana the name itself beautiful"

text: The Channel[edit]

text: The foundation of V6 News tries to lay emphasis on credibility. The news gathering network is strategically organised to get the first light of any happenings. The analysis is straight to the point, deeper and unbiased.

text: The team at V6 News is professionally qualified that thrives to add functional value to the viewers with uncompromising integrity. It is spearheaded by noted electronic Telugu journalist Ravi Ankam as CEO and the editor-in-chief, supported by a strong team of media professionals with passion for news and extensive strengths in their respective areas of news broadcasting. The studio is equipped with state-of-the-art infrastructure and technology.

text: Distribution[edit]

text: The channel is available on various distribution platforms in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh States viz. analog and digital cable and on mobile, on Yupp TV app on [Android (operating system)|Android]] platforms. The channel can be viewed in all major digital platforms.

text: No.1 news channel[edit]

text: The channel's news website became No.1 news channel website on the internet according to Need Citation - No valid proof.


document_title: Charlotte's Web

question_text: who is the little girl in charlottes web

text: Charlotte's Web

text: Plot summary

text: After her father spares the life of a piglet from slaughtering it as runt of the litter, a little girl named Fern Arable nurtures the piglet lovingly, naming him Wilbur. On greater maturity, Wilbur is sold to Fern's uncle, Homer Zuckerman, in whose barnyard he is left yearning for companionship but is snubbed by other barn animals, until befriended by a barn spider named Charlotte, living on a web overlooking Wilbur's enclosure. Upon Wilbur's discovery that he is intended for slaughter, she promises to hatch a plan guaranteed to spare his life. Accordingly, she secretly weaves praise of him into her web, attracting publicity among Zuckerman's neighbors who attribute the praise to divine intervention. As time passes, more inscriptions appear on Charlotte's webs, increasing his renown. Therefore, Wilbur is entered in the county fair, accompanied by Charlotte and the rat Templeton, whom she employs in gathering inspiration for her messages. There, Charlotte spins an egg sac containing her 514 unborn children, and Wilbur, despite winning no prizes, is later celebrated by the fair's staff and visitors (thus made too prestigious alive to justify killing him). Exhausted apparently by laying eggs, Charlotte remains at the fair and dies shortly following Wilbur's departure. Having returned to Zuckerman's farm, Wilbur guards Charlotte's egg sac and is saddened further when the new spiders depart shortly after hatching. The three smallest remain, however, and take up residence in the doorway where Charlotte used to live. Pleased at finding new friends, Wilbur names one of them Nellie, while the remaining two name themselves Joy and Aranea. The book then concludes by mentioning that more generations of spiders kept him company in subsequent years.

text: Characters

text:
Wilbur is a rambunctious pig, the runt of his litter. He is often strongly emotional.
Charlotte A. Cavatica, or simply Charlotte, is a spider who befriends Wilbur. In some passages, she is the heroine of the story.[2]
John Arable: Wilbur's first owner.
Fern Arable, John's daughter, who adopts Wilbur when he's a piglet, and later visits him. She is the only human in the story capable of understanding nonhuman conversation.
Templeton is a rat who helps Charlotte and Wilbur only when offered food. He serves as a somewhat caustic, self-serving comic relief to the plot.
Avery Arable is the elder brother of Fern and John's son. Like Templeton, he is a source of comic relief.
Homer Zuckerman is Fern’s uncle who keeps Wilbur in his barn. He has a wife, Edith, and an assistant named Lurvy.
Other animals in Zuckerman’s barn, with whom Wilbur converses, are a disdainful lamb, a talkative goose, and an intelligent "old sheep".
Henry Fussy is a boy of Fern’s age, of whom Fern becomes fond.
Dr. Dorian is the family physician/psychologist consulted by Fern's mother and something of a wise old man character.
Uncle is a large pig whom Charlotte disdains for coarse manners and Wilbur’s rival at the fair.
Charlotte's children are the 514 children of Charlotte. Although they were born at the barn, all but three of them go their own ways by ballooning.

text: History

text: Charlotte's Web was published three years after White began writing it.[3] White's editor Ursula Nordstrom said that one day in 1952, E. B. White arrived at her office and handed her a new manuscript, the only copy of Charlotte's Web then in existence, which she read soon after and enjoyed.[4]

text: Since White published Death of a Pig in 1948,[5] an account of his own failure to save a sick pig (bought for butchering), Charlotte's Web can be seen as White's attempt "to save his pig in retrospect".[6] White's overall motivation for the book has not been revealed and he has written: "I haven't told why I wrote the book, but I haven't told you why I sneeze, either. A book is a sneeze".[7]

text: When White met the spider who originally inspired Charlotte, he called her Charlotte Epeira (after Epeira sclopetaria, the Grey Cross spider, now known as Larinioides sclopetarius), before discovering that the more modern name for that genus was Aranea.[8] In the novel, Charlotte gives her full name as "Charlotte A. Cavatica", revealing her as a barn spider, an orb-weaver with the scientific name Araneus cavaticus.

text: The arachnid anatomical terms (mentioned in the beginning of chapter nine) and other information that White used, came mostly from American Spiders by Willis J. Gertsch and The Spider Book by John Henry Comstock, both of which combine a sense of poetry with scientific fact.[9] White incorporated details from Comstock's accounts of baby spiders, most notably the "flight" of the young spiders on silken parachutes.[9] White sent Gertsch’s book to illustrator Garth Williams.[10] Williams’ initial drawings depicted a spider with a woman’s face, and White suggested that he simply draw a realistic spider instead.[11]

text: White originally opened the novel with an introduction of Wilbur and the barnyard (which later became the third chapter) but decided to begin the novel by introducing Fern and her family on the first page.[10] White’s publishers were at one point concerned with the book’s ending and tried to get White to change it.[12]

text: Charlotte's Web has become White's most famous book; but White treasured his privacy and that of the farmyard and barn that helped inspire the novel, which have been kept off limits to the public according to his wishes.[13]

text: Reception

text: Charlotte's Web was generally well-reviewed when it was released. In The New York Times, Eudora Welty wrote, "As a piece of work it is just about perfect, and just about magical in the way it is done."[14] Aside from its paperback sales, Charlotte's Web is 78th on the all-time bestselling hardback book list. According to publicity for the 2006 film adaptation (see below), the book has sold more than 45 million copies and been translated into 23 languages. It was a Newbery Honor book for 1953, losing to Secret of the Andes by Ann Nolan Clark for the medal. In 1970, White won the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal, a major prize in the field of children's literature, for Charlotte's Web, along with his first children's book, Stuart Little, published in 1945. Seth Lerer, in his book Children’s Literature, finds that Charlotte represents female authorship and creativity, and compares her to other female characters in children’s literature such as Jo March in Little Women and Mary Lennox in The Secret Garden.[15] Nancy Larrick brings to attention the "startling note of realism" in the opening line, "Where's Papa going with that Ax?"[16]

text: Illustrator Henry Cole expressed his deep childhood appreciation of the characters and story, and calls Garth Williams' illustrations full of “sensitivity, warmth, humor, and intelligence.”[17] Illustrator Diana Cain Bluthenthal states that Williams' illustrations inspired and influenced her.[18]

text: There is an unabridged audio book read by White himself which reappeared decades after it had originally been recorded.[19] Newsweek writes that White reads the story "without artifice and with a mellow charm," and that "White also has a plangency that will make you weep, so don't listen (at least, not to the sad parts) while driving."[19] Joe Berk, president of Pathway Sound, had recorded Charlotte's Web with White in White’s neighbor's house in Maine (which Berk describes as an especially memorable experience) and released the book in LP.[20] Bantam released Charlotte’s Web alongside Stuart Little on CD in 1991, digitally remastered, having acquired the two of them for rather a large amount.[20]

text: In 2005, a school teacher in California conceived of a project for her class in which they would send out hundreds of drawings of spiders (each representing Charlotte’s child Aranea going out into the world so that she can return and tell Wilbur of what she has seen) with accompanying letters; they ended up visiting a large number of parks, monuments, and museums, and were hosted by and/or prompted responses from celebrities and politicians such as John Travolta and then-First Lady Laura Bush.[21]

text: In 2003 Charlotte's Web was listed at number 170 on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's 200 "best-loved novels."[22] A 2004 study found that Charlotte's Web was a common read-aloud book for third-graders in schools in San Diego County, California.[23] Based on a 2007 online poll, the National Education Association named the book one of its "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children."[24] It was one of the "Top 100 Chapter Books" of all time in a 2012 poll by School Library Journal.[25]

text: Its awards and nominations include:

text:
Newbery Honor Book (1953)[26]
Horn Book Fanfare (1953)[27]
Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal (1970) (awarded to White for his children's books: Charlotte's Web and Stuart Little)
Massachusetts Children's Book Award (1984)[28]

text: Adaptations

text: Film

text: The book was adapted into an animated feature of the same name in 1973 by Hanna-Barbera Productions and Sagittarius Productions with a score by the Sherman Brothers. In 2003, a direct-to-video sequel of that film, Charlotte's Web 2: Wilbur's Great Adventure, was released by Paramount Pictures. In 2006, Paramount Pictures, with Walden Media, Kerner Entertainment Company, and Nickelodeon Movies, produced a live-action/animated adaptation starring Dakota Fanning as Fern and the voice of Julia Roberts as Charlotte, released on December 15, 2006.

text: Stage

text: A musical production was created with music and lyrics by Charles Strouse.

text: Video game

text: A video game of the 2006 film was developed by Backbone Entertainment and published by THQ and Sega, and released on December 12, 2006, for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2 and PC.


document_title: Baseball (ball)

question_text: what is the diameter of a major league baseball

text: Baseball (ball)

text: History[edit]

text: In the early, mid-1800s days of baseball, there was a great variety in the size, shape, weight, and manufacturing of baseballs. Early baseballs were made from a rubber core from old, melted shoes, wrapped in yarn and leather. Fish eyes were also used as cores in some places. Pitchers usually made their own balls, which were used throughout the game, softening and coming unraveled as the game went on. One of the more popular earlier ball designs was the "lemon peel ball," named after its distinct four lines of stitching design. Lemon peel balls were darker, smaller, and weighed less than other baseballs, prompting them to travel further and bounce higher, causing very high-scoring games.[3]

text: In the mid-1850s, teams in New York met in attempt to standardize the baseball. They decided to regulate baseballs to weighing between 5.5-6 oz and having a circumference of 8-11 inches. There were still many variations of baseballs since they were completely handmade. Balls with more rubber and a tighter winding went further and faster (known as "live balls"), and balls with less rubber and a looser winding (known as "dead balls") did not travel as far or fast. This is generally true for all baseballs. Teams often used this knowledge to their advantage, as players from the team usually manufactured their own baseballs to use in games.[3]

text: There is no agreement on who invented the commonplace figure-8 stitching on baseballs. Some historians say that it was invented by Ellis Drake, a shoemaker's son, to make the cover stronger and more durable. Others say it was invented by Colonel William A. Cutler and sold to William Harwood in 1858. Harwood built a factory in Natick, Massachusetts, and was the first to popularize and mass-produce baseballs with the figure-8 design.[3]

text: In 1876, the National League (NL) was created, and standard rules and regulations were put in place. A.G. Spalding, a well-known baseball pitcher who made his own balls, convinced the NL to adopt his ball as the official baseball for the NL. It remained that way for 100 years.

text: In 1910, the cork-core ball was introduced. They outlasted rubber core baseballs; and for the first few years they were used, balls were hit farther and faster than rubber core balls. It eventually went back to normal.[3] Pitchers adapted with the use of the spitball, which is now illegal, and an emphasis on changing the ball.[3]

text: In 1920, a couple of important changes were made to baseballs. They began to be made using machine winders and a higher grade of yarn from Australia. Although there was no evidence that these balls impacted the game, offensive statistics rose throughout the 1920s, and both players and fans believed that the new balls helped batters hit the ball farther.[4]

text: In 1925, Milton Reach patented his "cushion cork" center. It was a cork core surrounded by black rubber, then another layer of red rubber.[3]

text: In 1934, The National League and American League came to a compromise and standardized the baseball. They agreed on a cushion cork center; two wrappings of yarn; a special rubber cement coating; two more wrappings of yarn; and, finally, a horsehide cover.[5]

text: Baseballs have gone through only a few small changes since the compromise. During World War II, the US banned the use of rubber for non war-related goods, including for baseballs. So in 1943, instead of using rubber, baseballs were made with rubberlike shells of balata; a substance, obtained from a particular type of tropical tree, that was also used in golf balls. Hitting declined significantly in 1943.

text: The introduction of synthetic rubber in 1944 resulted in baseballs returning to normal.[6] Offense would return to normal after the change back to the regular ball and return of players from active duty.

text: In 1974, baseballs covers were switched from horsehide to cowhide.[citation needed]

text: In 1976, MLB stopped using Spalding for manufacturing their baseballs and started using Rawlings.[6]

text: Overview[edit]

text: Cushioned wood cores were patented in the late 19th century by sports equipment manufacturer Spalding, the company founded by former baseball star A.G. Spalding. In recent years, various synthetic materials have been used to create baseballs; however, they are generally considered lower quality, stiched with two red thick thread, and are not used in the major leagues. Using different types of materials affects the performance of the baseball. Generally a tighter-wound baseball will leave the bat faster, and fly farther. Since the baseballs used today are wound tighter than in previous years, notably the dead-ball era that prevailed through 1920, people often say that the ball is "juiced". The height of the seams also affects how well a pitcher can pitch. Generally, in Little League through college leagues, the seams are markedly higher than balls used in professional leagues.

text: In the early years of the sport, only one ball was typically used in each game, unless it was too damaged to be usable; balls hit into the stands were retrieved by team employees in order to be put back in play, as is still done today in most other sports.[7] Over the course of a game, a typical ball would become discolored due to dirt, and often tobacco juice and other materials applied by players; damage would also occur, causing slight rips and seam bursts. This would lower the offense during the games giving pitchers an advantage. However, after the 1920 death of batter Ray Chapman after being hit in the head by a pitch, perhaps due to his difficulty in seeing the ball during twilight, an effort was made to replace dirty or worn baseballs.

text: In 1909, sports magnate and former player Alfred J. Reach patented the ivory centered "ivory nut" in Panama and suggested it might be even better in a baseball than cork. However, Philadelphia Athletics president Benjamin F. Shibe, who had invented and patented [8] the cork centered ball, commented, "I look for the leagues to adopt an 'ivory nut' baseball just as soon as they adopt a ferro-concrete bat and a base studded with steel spikes." Both leagues adopted Shibe's cork-centered ball in 1910.

text: The official major league ball is made by Rawlings, which produces the stitched balls in Costa Rica. Attempts to automate the manufacturing process were never entirely successful, leading to the continued use of hand-made balls. The raw materials are imported from the United States, assembled into baseballs and shipped back.

text: Throughout the 20th Century, Major League Baseball used two technically identical but differently marked balls. The American League had "Official American League" and the American League's president's signature in blue ink, while National League baseballs had "Official National League" and the National League president's signature in black ink. According to Bob Feller, in the 1930s, when he was a rookie in the National League, baseball laces were black, intertwined with red; the American League's were blue and red.[9] In 2000, Major League Baseball reorganized its structure to eliminate the position of league presidents, and switched to one ball specification for both leagues. Under the current rules, a major league baseball weighs between 5 and 5 1⁄4 ounces (142 and 149 g), and is 9 to 9 1⁄4 inches (229–235 mm) in circumference (2 7⁄8–3 in or 73–76 mm in diameter).[10] There are 108 double stitches on a baseball, or 216 individual stitches.

text: Today, several dozen baseballs are used in a typical professional game, due to scratches, discoloration, and undesirable texture that can occur during the game. Balls hit out of the park for momentous occasions (record setting, or for personal reasons) are often requested to be returned by the fan who catches it, or donated freely by the fan. Usually, the player will give the fan an autographed bat and/or other autographed items in exchange for the special ball.

text: Balls used in the professional game are rubbed with a mud known as "rubbing mud", which is typically applied by the umpire before each game, and is intended to help the pitcher's grip.[11]

text: There are different types of baseball used.

text:
Baseball or Hard baseball - ordinary baseball which is used in Major League Baseball, in Japan is used in high school baseball and above for (hardball) baseball, referred to as hardball or baseball
Rubber baseball aka Nanshiki - used for rubberball baseball usually played prior to high school in Japan; sometimes referred to as Japanese rubber baseball
Soft (compression) baseball - used for batting practice and fielding training or softball baseball which can be safely played indoors, usually made from polyurethane (PU) material

text:
A baseball

A rubber baseball

A soft (compression) baseball

text: Famous baseballs[edit]

text: There are several historic instances of people catching, or attempting to catch, baseballs tied to MLB milestones:

text:
The ball that Mark McGwire hit for his 70th home run of the 1998 baseball season, then setting a new record, was sold by a fan to Todd McFarlane for US$3.2 million at auction.[12]
Larry Ellison, not to be confused with the software entrepreneur of the same name, famously retrieved both Barry Bonds' 660th and 661st home runs.[13]
Barry Bonds' 73rd home run of the 2001 season. It was the last home run of his historic, record breaking season where he broke Mark McGwire's single season home run record. Ownership of the ball generated controversy and litigation resulted between the two people that claimed to have caught it. The story was made into a documentary, Up for Grabs. It was sold in auction to Todd McFarlane for $450,000.[14]
Barry Bonds' record-breaking 756th home run, beating Hank Aaron's record, caught by a New York Mets fan in 2007.[15] It was later sold at an online auction for more than $750,000 to Marc Ecko, a New York fashion designer.[16]
Derek Jeter's 3,000th hit, a home run, was caught by a New York Yankees fan who gave the ball back to the Yankees and was rewarded with about $70,000 worth of gifts and memorabilia.[17]
Roger Maris' 61st single-season home run was caught barehanded by a truck driver. The ball was sold at the price of $5,000.[18]

text: Other famous baseballs:

text:
Babe Ruth's home run in the 1933 MLB All-Star Game sold for over $800,000. It was also signed by him.[19]
Hank Aaron's 755th home run ball sold for $650,000 at auction in 1999. The ball was kept in a safety deposit box for 23 years after groundskeeper Richard Arndt was fired from the Milwaukee Brewers for not returning the ball, even though he had attempted to the previous day.[20]
A baseball signed by both Joe DiMaggio and Marilyn Monroe (who were married for less than a year) in 1961 during spring training in Florida sold for $191,200 in auction.[21]
The ball that rolled between Bill Buckner's legs during the 1986 World Series sold for $418,250 at auction in July. This was the play that forced a game 7 with the New York Mets and caused the Boston Red Sox to ultimately lose the series.[22]
Steve Bartman interfered with a play while attempting to catch a foul ball, causing the Chicago Cubs not to get an out in "The Inning" during the 2003 NLCS. The loose ball was snatched up by a Chicago lawyer and sold at an auction in December 2003. Grant DePorter purchased it for $113,824.16 on behalf of Harry Caray's Restaurant Group. On February 26, 2004, it was publicly exploded in a procedure designed by Cubs fan and Academy Award winning special effects expert Michael Lantieri. In 2005, the remains of the ball were used by the restaurant in a pasta sauce. While no part of the ball itself was in the sauce, the ball was boiled in water, beer, vodka, and herbs and the steam captured, condensed, and added to the final concoction.[23]