document_title: Information security

question_text: how is risk defined in the context of information technology and information security

question_tokens: how is risk defined in the context of information technology and information security

text: Information security

text: Overview[edit]

text: Threats[edit]

text: Information security threats come in many different forms. Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, identity theft, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion. Most people have experienced software attacks of some sort. Viruses,[4] worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the IT field. Identity theft is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information. Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile.[citation needed] Cell phones are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization′s website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers. Information extortion consists of theft of a company′s property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with ransomware. There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is user carefulness.

text: Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research and financial status. Most of this information is now collected, processed and stored on electronic computers and transmitted across networks to other computers.

text: Should confidential information about a business' customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation. From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.[5]

text: For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in various cultures.

text: The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics.

text: Responses to threats[edit]

text: Possible responses to a security threat or risk are:[6]

text:
reduce/mitigate – implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats
assign/transfer – place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing
accept – evaluate if cost of countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to threat, do nothing.

text: History[edit]

text: Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering. Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands, but for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.[7][8] Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box. As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read and reseal letters (e.g. the UK Secret Office and Deciphering Branch in 1653).

text: In the mid-19th century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity. The British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889. By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters. In the United Kingdom this led to the creation of the Government Code and Cypher School in 1919. Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information. The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls. An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than men) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.The Enigma Machine which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and successfully decrypted by Alan Turing can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information. Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g. U-570).

text: The end of the 20th century and early years of the 21st century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption. The availability of smaller, more powerful and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and the home user. These computers quickly became interconnected through the Internet.

text: The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the Internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process and transmit. The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations – all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.

text: Definitions[edit]

text: The definitions of InfoSec suggested in different sources are summarized below (adopted from).[9]

text:
"Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information. Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved." (ISO/IEC 27000:2009)[10]
"The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability." (CNSS, 2010)[11]
"Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability)." (ISACA, 2008)[12]
"Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation." (Pipkin, 2000)[13]
"...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business." (McDermott and Geer, 2001)[14]
"A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance." (Anderson, J., 2003)[15]
"Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties." (Venter and Eloff, 2003)[16]
"Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.Threats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats. A set of security goals, identified as a result of a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment. The currently relevant set of security goals may include: confidentiality, integrity, availability, privacy, authenticity & trustworthiness, non-repudiation, accountability and auditability." (Cherdantseva and Hilton, 2013)[9]

text: Employment[edit]

text: Information security is a stable and growing profession. Information security professionals are very stable in their employment; more than 80 percent had no change in employer or employment in the past year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.[17]

text: Basic principles[edit]

text: Key concepts[edit]

text: The CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security.[18] (The members of the classic InfoSec triad — confidentiality, integrity and availability — are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.) There is continuous debate about extending this classic trio.[9][page needed] Other principles such as Accountability have sometimes been proposed for addition – it has been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.[19]

text: In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks[20] proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment. Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security[19] proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.

text: In 2002, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic CIA triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.[citation needed]

text: In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.[21] This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called "security objectives", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance and technical (4). This model is not currently widely adopted.

text: Confidentiality[edit]

text: In information security, confidentiality "is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes" (Excerpt ISO27000).

text: Integrity[edit]

text: In information security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire life-cycle.[22] This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner. This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing. Information security systems typically provide message integrity in addition to data confidentiality.

text: Availability[edit]

text: For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed. This means that the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly. High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades. Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system essentially forcing it to shut down.[23]

text: Non-repudiation[edit]

text: In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.

text: It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology. It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity). The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised. The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender himself, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity; and, therefore, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).

text: Risk management[edit]

text: The Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006 provides the following definition of risk management: "Risk management is the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization."[24]

text: There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day. Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.

text: Risk analysis and risk evaluation processes have their limitations since, when security incidents occur, they emerge in a context, and their rarity and even their uniqueness give rise to unpredictable threats. The analysis of these phenomena which are characterized by breakdowns, surprises and side-effects, requires a theoretical approach which is able to examine and interpret subjectively the detail of each incident.[25]

text: Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset). A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm.

text: The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact. In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property). It should be pointed out that it is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called "residual risk".

text: A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.

text: The research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.[26] The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:

text:
security policy,
organization of information security,
asset management,
human resources security,
physical and environmental security,
communications and operations management,
access control,
information systems acquisition, development and maintenance,
information security incident management,
business continuity management, and
regulatory compliance.

text: In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:

text:
Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.
Conduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.
Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality control, technical security.
Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.
Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.
Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.

text: For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business. Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.[27] The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.

text: Controls[edit]

text: Selecting proper controls and implementing those will initially help an organization to bring down risk to acceptable levels. Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment. Controls can vary in nature but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information. ISO/IEC 27001:2005 has defined 133 controls in different areas, but this is not exhaustive. Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization. ISO 27001:2013 has cut down the number of controls to 113. From 08.11.2013 the technical standard of information security in place is: ABNT NBR ISO/IEC 27002:2013.[28]

text: Administrative[edit]

text: Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people. They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business. Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards and guidelines that must be followed – the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) required by Visa and MasterCard is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.

text: Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls. Administrative controls are of paramount importance.

text: Logical[edit]

text: Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems. For example: passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are logical controls.

text: An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege. The principle of least privilege requires that an individual, program or system process is not granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task. A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time. This happens when employees' job duties change, or they are promoted to a new position, or they transfer to another department. The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.

text: Physical[edit]

text: Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities. They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities. For example: doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.

text: An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is the separation of duties, which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself. For example: an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check. An applications programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator – these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.[29]

text: Defense in depth[edit]

text: Information security must protect information throughout the life span of the information, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information. The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems. There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms. The building up, layering on and overlapping of security measures is called defense in depth. In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense-in-depth aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.

text: Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense-in-depth strategy. With this approach, defense-in-depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other. Additional insight into defense-in- depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and network security, host-based security and application security forming the outermost layers of the onion. Both perspectives are equally valid and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense-in-depth strategy.

text: Security classification for information[edit]

text: An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information. Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection. This requires information to be assigned a security classification.

text: The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy. The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.

text: Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete. Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.

text: The Business Model for Information Security enables security professionals to examine security from systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.

text: The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:

text:
In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.
In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents.
In cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.

text: All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification. The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.

text: Access control[edit]

text: Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information. The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized. This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected – the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be. The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.

text: Access control is generally considered in three steps: Identification, Authentication, and Authorization.

text: Identification[edit]

text: Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement "Hello, my name is John Doe" they are making a claim of who they are. However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe. Typically the claim is in the form of a username. By entering that username you are claiming "I am the person the username belongs to".

text: Authentication[edit]

text: Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe—a claim of identity. The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license. The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe. If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. Similarly by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he/she is the person the username belongs to.

text: There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:

text:
Something you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name.
Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card.
Something you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints and retina (eye) scans.

text: Strong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication). The username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication. Usernames and passwords have served their purpose but in our modern world they are no longer adequate.[citation needed] Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms.

text: Authorization[edit]

text: After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change). This is called authorization. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures. The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies. Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms—some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms. The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.

text: The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration. The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform. The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources. In the Mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.

text: Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control available in many advanced database management systems—simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems, Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems, Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers.

text: To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions. The US Treasury's guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail.[30]

text: Also, need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control. Need-to-know principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions. This principle is used in the government, when dealing with difference clearances. Even though two employees in different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged. Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee least amount privileges to prevent employees access and doing more than what they are supposed to. Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability (C‑I‑A) triad. Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.

text: Cryptography[edit]

text: Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption. Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user, who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption. Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.

text: Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network communications. Older less secure applications such as telnet and ftp are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as ssh that use encrypted network communications. Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as WPA/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP. Wired communications (such as ITU‑T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange. Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and Email.

text: Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly. Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography. The length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration. A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption. The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information. They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction and they must be available when needed. Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround key management.

text: Process[edit]

text: The terms reasonable and prudent person, due care and due diligence have been used in the fields of Finance, Securities, and Law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security. U.S.A. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.

text: In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the "reasonable and prudent person" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, and ongoing) in their due care of the business.

text: In the field of Information Security, Harris[31] offers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:

text: "Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees." And, [Due diligence are the] "continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational."

text: Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions. First, in due care, steps are taken to show - this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts. Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities - this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.

text: Security governance[edit]

text: The Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled "Governing for Enterprise Security (GES)", defines characteristics of effective security governance. These include:

text:
An enterprise-wide issue
Leaders are accountable
Viewed as a business requirement
Risk-based
Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined
Addressed and enforced in policy
Adequate resources committed
Staff aware and trained
A development life cycle requirement
Planned, managed, measurable, and measured
Reviewed and audited

text: Incident response plans[edit]

text: 1 to 3 paragraphs (non technical) that discuss:

text:
Selecting team members
Define roles, responsibilities and lines of authority
Define a security incident
Define a reportable incident
Training
Detection
Classification
Escalation
Containment
Eradication
Documentation

text: Change management[edit]

text: Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment. This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers and software. The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made. It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.

text: Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk. Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects. One of Management's many responsibilities is the management of risk. Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment. Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.

text: Not every change needs to be managed. Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment. Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management. However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity. The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.

text: Change management is usually overseen by a Change Review Board composed of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, Database administration, applications development, desktop support and the help desk. The tasks of the Change Review Board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application. The responsibility of the Change Review Board is to ensure the organizations documented change management procedures are followed. The change management process is as follows:

text:
Requested: Anyone can request a change. The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change. When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.
Approved: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, Management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change. Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices. Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.
Planned: Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing and documenting both implementation and backout plans. Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.
Tested: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment. The backout plan must also be tested.
Scheduled: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.
Communicated: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated. The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change. The communication also serves to make the Help Desk and users aware that a change is about to occur. Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.
Implemented: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented. Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan. If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.
Documented: All changes must be documented. The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.
Post change review: The change review board should hold a post implementation review of changes. It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.

text: Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment. Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented. This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation and communication.

text: ISO/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps[32] (Full book summary),[33] and Information Technology Infrastructure Library all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security.

text: Business continuity[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2016)

text: Business continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects. BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual. The BCM should be included in an organizations Risk Analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.[34] It encompasses:

text:
Analysis of requirements e.g. identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;
Specification e.g. maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);
Architecture and design e.g. an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g. engineering IT systems and processes for high availability, avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g. evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage/situation assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g. rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);
Implementation e.g. configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;
Testing e.g. business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;
Management e.g. defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities (e.g. IT, Facilities, HR, Risk Management, Information Risk and Security, Operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;
Assurance e.g. testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.

text: Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster. A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical ICT infrastructure. Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan.[35]

text: Laws and regulations[edit]

text: Below is a partial listing of European, United Kingdom, Canadian and US governmental laws and regulations that have, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security. Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.

text:
UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information. The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all EU member must adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the EU.
The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the UK Parliament making computer crime (e.g. hacking) a criminal offence. The Act has become a model upon which several other countries including Canada and the Republic of Ireland have drawn inspiration when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.
EU Data Retention laws requires Internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. § 1232 g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a US Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record.
Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council’s (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. And, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.
Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.
Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX). Section 404 of the act requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year. Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data. The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.
Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security. It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council, including American Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide and Visa International, to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis. The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design and other critical protective measures.
State security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted "personal information" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.
Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) – An Act to support and promote electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.
Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165/2011) - The Greek Law establishes and describes the minimum Information Security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' Confidentiality. These include both managerial and technical controls (i.e. log records should be stored for two years).
Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205/2013)- The latest Greek Law published by ADAE concentrates around the protection of the Integrity and Availability of the services and data offered by the Greek Telecommunication Companies.The new Law forces Telcos and associated companies to build, deploy and test appropriate Business Continuity Plans and redundant infrastructures.

text: Information security culture[edit]

text: Employee behavior can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization. "Exploring the Relationship between Organizational Culture and Information Security Culture" provides the following definition of information security culture: "ISC is the totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contribute to the protection of information of all kinds."[36]

text: Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security "effort" and often take actions that ignore organizational Information Security best interests.[37] Research shows Information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: Pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.[38]

text:
Pre-Evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analysis current security policy.
Strategic Planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets. Clustering people is helpful to achieve it.
Operative Planning: we can set a good security culture based on internal communication, management-buy-in, and security awareness and training program.[38]
Implementation: four stages should be used to implement the information security culture. They are commitment of the management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees.[38]

text: Sources of standards[edit]

text: International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a consortium of national standards institutes from 157 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is the world's largest developer of standards. ISO 15443: "Information technology – Security techniques – A framework for IT security assurance", ISO/IEC 27002: "Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security management", ISO-20000: "Information technology – Service management", and ISO/IEC 27001: "Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Requirements" are of particular interest to information security professionals.

text: The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce. The NIST Computer Security Division develops standards, metrics, tests and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the US Federal Information Processing Standard publications (FIPS).

text: The Internet Society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the Internet, and is the organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 Site Security Handbook.

text: The Information Security Forum is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas. It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual Standard of Good Practice and more detailed advisories for members.

text: The Institute of Information Security Professionals (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole. The Institute developed the IISP Skills Framework; This framework describes the range of competencies expected of Information Security and Information Assurance Professionals in the effective performance of their roles. It was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organisations and world-renowned academics and security leaders.[39]

text: The German Federal Office for Information Security (in German Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)) BSI-Standards 100-1 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including "methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security".[40] The BSI-Standard 100-2 IT-Grundschutz Methodology describes how an information security management can be implemented and operated. The Standard includes a very specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs (also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs). Before 2005 the catalogs were formerly known as "IT Baseline Protection Manual". The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses as of September 2013 over 4.400 pages with the introduction and catalogs. The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with to the ISO/IEC 2700x family.

text: At the European Telecommunications Standards Institute a catalog of Information security indicators have been standardized by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI.

text: Scholars working in the field[edit]

text:
Adam Back
Annie Anton
Brian LaMacchia
Bruce Schneier
Cynthia Dwork
Dawn Song
Deborah Estrin
Gene Spafford
Ian Goldberg
Lawrence A. Gordon
Martin P. Loeb
Monica S. Lam
Joan Feigenbaum
L Jean Camp
Lance Cottrell
Lorrie Cranor
Khalil Sehnaoui
Paul C. van Oorschot
Peter Gutmann
Peter Landrock
Ross J. Anderson
Stefan Brands


document_title: Pleurisy

question_text: pain left side of chest when breathing deeply

root

text: Pleurisy

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: The defining symptom of pleurisy is a sudden sharp, stabbing, burning or dull pain in the right or left side of the chest during breathing, especially when one inhales and exhales.[9] It feels worse with deep breathing, coughing, sneezing, or laughing. The pain may stay in one place, or it may spread to the shoulder or back.[10] Sometimes, it becomes a fairly constant dull ache.[11]

tag: p

text: Depending on its cause, pleuritic chest pain may be accompanied by other symptoms:[12]

text:
Dry cough
Fever and chills
Rapid, shallow breathing
Shortness of breath
Fast heart rate
Sore throat followed by pain and swelling in the joints

tag: ul

text: Causes[edit]

text: The pleural space can be invaded by fluid, air, and particles from other parts of the body, which fairly complicates diagnosis.[12][13] Viral infection (coxsackie B virus, HRSV, CMV, adenovirus, EBV, parainfluenza, influenza) is the most common cause of pleurisy. However, many other different conditions can cause pleuritic chest pain:[11]

text:
Aortic dissections
Autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus (or drug-induced lupus erythematosus), Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), rheumatoid arthritis and Behçet's disease.
Bacterial infections associated with pneumonia and tuberculosis
Chest injuries (blunt or penetrating)
Familial Mediterranean fever, an inherited condition that often causes fever and swelling in the abdomen or the lungs
Fungal or parasitic infections
Heart surgery, especially coronary-artery bypass grafting
Cardiac problems (ischemia, pericarditis)
Inflammatory bowel disease
Lung cancer and lymphoma
Other lung diseases like cystic fibrosis, sarcoidosis, asbestosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis, and mesothelioma
Pneumothorax
Pulmonary embolisms, which are blood clots that enter the lungs

text: When the space between the pleurae starts to fill with fluid, as in pleural effusion, the chest pain can be eased but a shortness of breath can result, since the lungs need room to expand during breathing. Some cases of pleuritic chest pain are idiopathic, which means that the exact cause cannot be determined.

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: A diagnosis of pleurisy or another pleural condition is based on a medical history, physical examinations, and diagnostic tests.[12] The goals are to rule out other sources of the symptoms and to find the cause of the pleurisy so that the underlying disorder can be treated.

text: Physical examination[edit]

text: A doctor uses a stethoscope to listen to the breathing. This method detects any unusual sounds in the lungs. A person with pleurisy may have inflamed layers of the pleurae that make a rough, scratchy sound as they rub against each other during breathing. This is called pleural friction rub.

text: Diagnostic tests[edit]

text: Depending on the results of the physical examination, diagnostic tests are sometimes performed.

text: Chest x-ray[edit]

text: A chest x-ray takes a picture of the heart and lungs. It may show air or fluid in the pleural space. It also may show the cause (e.g., pneumonia, a fractured rib, or a lung tumor) of the pleurisy.

text: Sometimes an x-ray is taken while lying on the painful side. This may show fluid, as well as changes in fluid position, that did not appear in the vertical x-ray.

text: Blood test[edit]

text: Blood tests can detect bacterial or viral infections, pneumonia, rheumatic fever, a pulmonary embolism, or lupus.

text: ECG[edit]

text: Electrocardiography test can determine if a heart condition contributes to the symptoms.

text: Ultrasound[edit]

text: Ultrasonography uses sound waves to create an image. It may show where fluid is located in the chest. It also can show some tumors. Although ultrasound may detect fluid around the lungs, also known as a pleural effusion, sound waves are scattered by air. Therefore, an actual picture of the lungs cannot be obtained with ultrasonography.

text: Computed tomography (CT) scan[edit]

text: A CT scan provides a computer-generated picture of the lungs that can show pockets of fluid. It also may show signs of pneumonia, a lung abscess, or a tumor.

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)[edit]

text: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), also called nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning, uses powerful magnets to show pleural effusions and tumors.

text: Arterial blood gas[edit]

text: In arterial blood-gas sampling, a small amount of blood is taken from an artery, usually in the wrist. The blood is then checked for oxygen and carbon-dioxide levels. This test shows how well the lungs are taking in oxygen.

text: Thoracentesis[edit]

text: Once the presence of an excess fluid in the pleural cavity, or pleural effusion, is suspected and location of fluid is confirmed, a sample of fluid can be removed for testing.[14] The procedure to remove fluid in the chest is called a diagnostic thoracentesis.[15] The doctor inserts a small needle or a thin, hollow, plastic tube in the chest wall and withdraws fluid.[16]

text: Thoracentesis can be done in the doctor's office or at the hospital. Ultrasound is used to guide the needle to the fluid that is trapped in small pockets around the lungs.

text: Thoracentesis usually does not cause serious complications. Generally, a chest x-ray is done after the procedure to evaluate the lungs. Possible complications of thoracentesis include the following:

text:
Bleeding and bruising where the needle went in. In rare cases, bleeding may occur in or around the lung. The doctor can use a chest tube to drain the blood. In some cases, surgery is needed.
Infection where the needle went in
Injury to the liver or spleen (in rare cases)
Pain.
Pneumothorax, or buildup of air in the pleural space, with a collapsed or partially collapsed lung. Sometimes air comes in through the needle or the needle makes a hole in the lung. Usually, a hole seals itself—but sometimes air builds up around the lung and makes it collapse. A chest tube removes the air and lets the lung expand again.

text: The lung fluid is examined under a microscope and is evaluated for the presence of chemicals and for its color and texture. The degree of clarity is an indicator of infection, cancer, or other conditions that may be causing the buildup of fluid or blood in the pleural space.

text: Biopsy[edit]

text: If tuberculosis or cancer is suspected, a small piece of the pleura may be examined under a microscope to make a definitive diagnosis. This is called a biopsy.

text: Several approaches to taking tissue samples are available

text:
Insertion of a needle through the skin on the chest to remove a small sample of the outer layer of the pleura
Insertion of a small tube with a light on the end (endoscope) into tiny cuts in the chest wall to visualize the pleura, and biopsy of small pieces of tissue through the endoscope
Removal of a sample of the pleura through a small cut in the chest wall (open pleural biopsy), usually done if the sample from the needle biopsy is too small for accurate diagnosis

tag: ol

text: Treatment[edit]

text: Treatment has several goals:[12]

text:
Relief of symptoms
Removal of the fluid, air, or blood from the pleural space
Treatment of the underlying condition

text: Procedures[edit]

text: If large amounts of fluid, air, or blood are not removed from the pleural space, they may cause the lung to collapse.

text: The surgical procedures used to drain fluid, air, or blood from the pleural space are as follows:

text:
During thoracentesis, a needle or a thin, hollow, plastic tube is inserted through the ribs in the back of the chest into the chest wall. A syringe is attached to draw fluid out of the chest. This procedure can remove more than 6 cups (1.5 litres) of fluid at a time.
When larger amounts of fluid must be removed, a chest tube may be inserted through the chest wall. The doctor injects a local painkiller into the area of the chest wall outside where the fluid is. A plastic tube is then inserted into the chest between two ribs. The tube is connected to a box that suctions the fluid out. A chest x-ray is taken to check the tube's position.
A chest tube is also used to drain blood and air from the pleural space. This can take several days. The tube is left in place, and the patient usually stays in the hospital during this time.
Sometimes the fluid contains thick pus or blood clots, or it may have formed a hard skin or peel. This makes it harder to drain the fluid. To help break up the pus or blood clots, the doctor may use the chest tube to put certain medicines into the pleural space. These medicines are called fibrinolytics. If the pus or blood clots still do not drain out, surgery may be necessary.

text: Medications[edit]

text: A couple of medications are used to relieve pleurisy symptoms:

text:
Paracetamol (acetaminophen) or anti-inflammatory agents to control pain and decrease inflammation. Only indomethacin (brand name Indocin) has been studied with respect to relief of pleurisy.[17]
Codeine-based cough syrups to control the cough

text: There may be a role for the use of corticosteroids (for tuberculous pleurisy), tacrolimus (Prograf) and methotrexate (Trexall, Rheumatrex) in the treatment of pleurisy. Further studies are needed.

text: Lifestyle changes[edit]

text: The following may be helpful in the management of pleurisy:

text:
Lying on the painful side may be more comfortable
Breathing deeply and coughing to clear mucus as the pain eases. Otherwise, pneumonia may develop.
Getting rest

text: Treating the cause[edit]

text: Ideally, the treatment of pleurisy is aimed at eliminating the underlying cause of the disease.

text:
If the pleural fluid is infected, treatment involves antibiotics and draining the fluid. If the infection is tuberculosis or from a fungus, treatment involves long-term use of antibiotics or antifungal medicines.
If the fluid is caused by tumors of the pleura, it may build up again quickly after it is drained. Sometimes anti-tumor medicines prevent further fluid buildup. If they don't, the doctor may seal the pleural space. This is called pleurodesis. Pleurodesis involves the drainage of all the fluid out of the chest through a chest tube. A substance is inserted through the chest tube into the pleural space. This substance irritates the surface of the pleura. This causes the two layers of the pleurae to squeeze shut so there is no room for more fluid to build up.
Chemotherapy or radiation treatment also may be used to reduce the size of the tumors.
If congestive heart failure is causing the fluid buildup, treatment usually includes diuretics and other medicines.

text: The treatment for pleurisy depends on its origin and is prescribed by a physician on a base of an individual assessment.[18] Paracetamol (acetaminophen) and amoxicillin, or other antibiotics in case of bacterial infections, are common remedies dispensed by doctors to relieve the initial symptoms and pain in the chest, while viral infections are self-limited. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), preferably indometacin, are usually employed as pain control agents.[12]

text: Alternative treatments[edit]

text: A number of alternative or complementary medicines are being investigated for their anti-inflammatory properties, and their use in pleurisy. At this time, clinical trials of these compounds have not been performed.

text: Extracts from the Brazilian folk remedy Wilbrandia ebracteata ("Taiuia") have been shown to reduce inflammation in the pleural cavity of mice.[19][20] The extract is thought to inhibit the same enzyme, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), as the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.[20]

text: Related problems[edit]

text: Pleurisy is often associated with complications that affect the pleural space.

text: Pleural effusion[edit]

text: In some cases of pleurisy, excess fluid builds up in the pleural space. This is called a pleural effusion. The buildup of fluid usually forces the two layers of the pleura apart so they don't rub against each other when breathing. This can relieve the pain of pleurisy. A large amount of extra fluid can push the pleura against the lung until the lung, or a part of it, collapses. This can make it hard to breathe.

text: In some cases of pleural effusion, the extra fluid gets infected and turns into an abscess. This is called an empyema.

text: Pleural effusion involving fibrinous exudates in the fluid may be called fibrinous pleurisy. It sometimes occurs as a later stage of pleurisy.

text: A person can develop a pleural effusion in the absence of pleurisy. For example, pneumonia, heart failure, cancer, or a pulmonary embolism can lead to a pleural effusion.

text: Pneumothorax[edit]

text: Air or gas also can build up in the pleural space. This is called a pneumothorax. It can result from acute lung injury or a lung disease like emphysema. Lung procedures, like surgery, drainage of fluid with a needle, examination of the lung from the inside with a light and a camera, or mechanical ventilation, also can cause a pneumothorax.

text: The most common symptom is sudden pain in one side of the lung and shortness of breath. A pneumothorax also can put pressure on the lung and cause it to collapse.

text: If the pneumothorax is small, it may go away on its own. If large, a chest tube is placed through the skin and chest wall into the pleural space to remove the air.

text: Hemothorax[edit]

text: Blood also can collect in the pleural space. This is called hemothorax. The most common cause is injury to the chest from blunt force or surgery on the heart or chest. Hemothorax also can occur in people with lung or pleural cancer.

text: Hemothorax can put pressure on the lung and force it to collapse. It also can cause shock, a state of hypoperfusion in which an insufficient amount of blood is able to reach the organs.

text: Prognosis[edit]

text: Pleurisy and other disorders of the pleurae can be serious, depending on what caused them. Generally, pleurisy treatment has an excellent prognosis, but if left untreated it can cause severe complications. For example, a resulting pulmonary heart disease cor pulmonale, which manifests itself with an inflammation of the arms and legs, can lead to heart failure. If the conditions that caused the pleurisy or other pleural disorders were adequately diagnosed and treated early, one can expect a full recovery. Help of a pulmonologist (respiratory physician in the U.K. and Australia) may be enlisted to address the underlying cause and chart post-illness rehabilitation.


document_title: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

question_text: who played mrs brady in inherit the wind

text: Inherit the Wind (1960 film)

text: Background[edit]

text: Inherit the Wind is a fictionalized account of the 1925 Scopes "Monkey" Trial, which resulted in John T. Scopes's conviction for teaching Charles Darwin's theory of evolution to a high school science class, contrary to a Tennessee state law. The characters of Matthew Harrison Brady, Henry Drummond, Bertram Cates and E. K. Hornbeck correspond to the historical figures of William Jennings Bryan, Clarence Darrow, Scopes, and H. L. Mencken, respectively. However, Lee and Lawrence state in a note at the opening of the play on which the film is based that it is not meant to be a historical account,[6] and many events were substantially altered or invented.[7][8][9] For instance, the characters of the preacher and his daughter were fictional, the townspeople were not hostile towards those who had come to Dayton for the trial, and Bryan offered to pay Scopes' fine if he was convicted. Bryan did die shortly after the trial's conclusion, but his death occurred five days later in his sleep.[8][9] Political commentator Steve Benen said of the drama's inaccuracies: "Scopes issued no plea for empathy, there was no fiancee and the real Scopes was never arrested. Lawrence explained in a 1996 interview that the play's purpose was to criticize McCarthyism and defend intellectual freedom. According to Lawrence, "we used the teaching of evolution as a parable, a metaphor for any kind of mind control ... It's not about science versus religion. It's about the right to think."[4]

text: Plot[edit]

text: In a small Southern town, a school teacher, Bertram Cates, is about to stand trial. His offense: violating a state law by introducing to his students the concept that man descended from the lower life forms, a theory of the naturalist Charles Darwin. Cates is denounced by town leaders including the Rev. Jeremiah Brown.

text: The town is excited because appearing on behalf of the prosecution will be Matthew Brady, a noted statesman and three-time presidential candidate. A staunch foe of Darwinism and a Biblical scholar, Brady will sit beside prosecuting attorney Tom Davenport, in the courtroom of Judge Coffey.

text: The teacher's defense is to be handled by the equally well-known Henry Drummond, one of America's most controversial legal minds and a long-standing acquaintance and adversary of Brady. An influential newspaperman, E.K. Hornbeck of the Baltimore Herald, has persuaded Drummond to represent Cates, and ensured that his newspaper and a radio network will provide nationwide coverage of the case.

text: Rev. Brown publicly rallies the townspeople against Cates and Drummond. The preacher's daughter Rachel is conflicted because she and Cates are engaged to be married.

text: The judge admires Brady, addressing him as "Colonel". Drummond objects to this; as a compromise the mayor makes him a "temporary" colonel for the proceedings. Each time Drummond calls a scientist or authority figure to discuss Darwin's theories, the judge sustains the prosecution's objections and forbids such opinions from being heard. Drummond grows frustrated, feeling the case has already been decided. When he asks to withdraw from the case, the judge tells Drummond to show cause the next morning why he should not be held in contempt of court. John Stebbins offers his farm as collateral toward the bail. His son was a friend and protege of Cates who drowned after developing a cramp while swimming. The Reverend had said the child was damned to hell because he was not baptized. This, led to Cates' abandonment of the church, as he felt it was not fair that a child could not enter Heaven due to an action that was beyond his control.

text: That night, mocking crowds go by the jail and then to the hotel where Drummond is staying. Drummond is trying to decide how to accomplish his defense without his witnesses and states that he needs a miracle. Hornbeck throws him a Bible from Brady stating there are plenty in that. As Hornbeck pours some drinks and turns to Drummond, he is surprised by Drummond holding the Bible and smiling.

text: Drummond calls Brady himself to the witness stand. Brady's confidence in his Biblical knowledge is so great that he welcomes this challenge, but becomes flustered under Drummond's cross-examination, unable to explain certain apparent contradictions, until he is forced to confess that at least some Biblical passages cannot be interpreted literally. Drummond hammers home his point – that Cates, like any other man, demands the right to think for himself, and those citing divine support as a rationale to silence him are wrong.

text: Cates is found guilty, but because Drummond has made his case so convincingly, with the trial becoming a political embarrassment, the judge only fines him $100. Brady is furious and tries to enter a speech into the record, but Drummond persuades the judge to disallow it as the trial has concluded. As court adjourns, Brady tries to give his speech but most ignore him outside of his wife and his opponents. As he becomes increasingly hysterical, he suffers from a "busted belly", dying in the courtroom.

text: After the crowd has cleared out, Hornbeck talks with Drummond, wanting to use the Bible quotation from Reverend Brown's rally and in which Brady had quoted the "inherit the wind" verse because Brown was about to damn his own daughter. Drummond quotes the verse verbatim, shocking Hornbeck, who states, "Well, we're growing an odd crop of agnostics this year!" They argue over Brady's legacy, Drummond accuses Hornbeck of being a heartless cynic, and Hornbeck walks out, leaving Drummond alone in the courtroom. Drummond picks up the Bible and Darwin's book (On the Origin of Species), balancing them in his hands before walking out with them.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Spencer Tracy as Henry Drummond (patterned after Clarence Darrow)
Fredric March as Matthew Harrison Brady (patterned after William Jennings Bryan)
Gene Kelly as E. K. Hornbeck of the Baltimore Herald (patterned after Henry L. Mencken)
Florence Eldridge as Sara Brady
Dick York as Bertram T. Cates (patterned after John Scopes)
Donna Anderson as Rachel Brown
Harry Morgan as Judge Merle Coffey
Claude Akins as Rev. Jeremiah Brown
Elliott Reid as Prosecutor Tom Davenport
Paul Hartman as Deputy Horace Meeker - Bailiff
Philip Coolidge as Mayor Jason Carter
Jimmy Boyd as Howard
Noah Beery Jr. as John Stebbins
Norman Fell as WGN Radio Technician
Hope Summers as Mrs. Krebs - Townswoman
Ray Teal as Jessie H. Dunlap
Renee Godfrey as Mrs. Stebbins
Uncredited roles include Richard Deacon, George Dunn, Snub Pollard, Addison Richards, Harry Tenbrook, Will Wright[10]

text: Actress and singer Leslie Uggams sings both the opening and closing songs by herself a cappella.

text: Kramer offered the role of Henry Drummond to Spencer Tracy, who turned it down. Kramer then enlisted March, Eldridge, and Kelly as co-stars, and Tracy eventually signed. However, none of the co-stars had been signed at the time; Tracy was the first. Once Tracy signed to do the part, the others signed, also.[11]

text: Adaptation changes[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The film includes events from the actual Scopes trial, such as when Darrow was cited for contempt of court when he denounced his perception of prejudice by the court and his subsequent act of contrition the next day to have the charge dropped. The film also expands on the relationship of Drummond and Brady, particularly when the two opponents have a respectful private conversation in rocking chairs, in which they explain their positions in the trial. Furthermore, the film has a sequence occurring on the night after the court recessed and Cates and Drummond are harassed by a mob even as the lawyer is inspired how to argue his case the next day.

text: Historical Inaccuracies[edit]

text: Being mostly faithful to the play, the film engages in literary license with the facts and should not be relied upon as a historical document. For example, Scopes (Bertram Cates) is shown being arrested in class, thrown in jail, burned in effigy, and taunted by a fire-snorting preacher. William Jennings Bryan (Matthew Harrison Brady) is portrayed as an almost comical fanatic who dramatically dies of a "busted belly" while attempting to deliver his summation in a chaotic courtroom. The townspeople are shown as frenzied, mean-spirited, and ignorant. None of that happened in Dayton, Tennessee during the actual trial.[12]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film grossed $2 million worldwide and recorded a loss of $1.7 million.[2]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Reviews[edit]

text: The film opened to a storm of praise with Kramer and company applauded for capturing the essence of the Scopes trial. Upon the film's release, Variety described it as "a rousing and fascinating motion picture ... roles of Tracy and March equal Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan who collided on evolution ... a good measure of the film's surface bite is contributed by Gene Kelly as a cynical Baltimore reporter (patterned after Henry L. Mencken) whose paper comes to the aid of the younger teacher played by Dick York. Kelly demonstrates again that even without dancing shoes he knows his way on the screen."[13] The movie was also lauded by film critc Bosley Crowther of The New York Times.[14]

text: In 2006, film critic Roger Ebert referred to it as "a film that rebukes the past when it might also have feared the future".[15]

text: As of 2009, the website Rotten Tomatoes had given the film a 90% rating with 19 fresh and 2 rotten reviews.[16]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Academy Awards Inherit the Wind was nominated for four Academy Awards.

text:
Award
Result
Nominee

Best Actor
Nominated
Spencer Tracy
Winner was Burt Lancaster - Elmer Gantry

Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium
Nominated
Nedrick Young and Harold Jacob Smith
Winner was Richard Brooks - Elmer Gantry

Best Cinematography (Black-and-White)
Nominated
Ernest Laszlo
Winner was Freddie Francis - Sons and Lovers

Best Film Editing
Nominated
Frederic Knudtson
Winner was Daniel Mandell - The Apartment

text: BAFTA

text:
Nominated: Best Film
Nominated: Best Foreign Actor (March and Tracy)

text: Berlin International Film Festival

text:
Won: Silver Bear for Best Actor (March)[17]
Won: Best Feature Film Suitable for Young People (Kramer)
Nominated: Golden Bear award (Kramer)

text: Golden Globes

text:
Nominated: Best Film
Nominated: Best Actor (Tracy)


document_title: Ski suit

question_text: what's the name of a one piece ski suit

question_tokens: what 's the name of a one piece ski suit

text: Ski suit

text: Design[edit]

text: A ski suit can either be one-piece, in the form of a jumpsuit, or two-piece, in the form of a ski jacket and matching trousers, called salopettes or ski pants.[4] A ski suit is made from wind- and water-resistant or waterproof fabric, and has a non-removable liner made of nylon, silk, cotton or taffeta. Its main function is to keep a person warm while participating in winter sports, especially Nordic (cross-country) or Alpine (down-hill) skiing. It is generally a unisex garment. A ski suit is meant to be worn with a base layer, which consists of long johns and a warm shirt, usually designed for skiing. Ski suits are often made of Gore-Tex or similar materials. They are often in the form of a shell suit, to which the skier adds more or less warm underwear depending on the weather. Pockets are usually made to be waterproof, so items put in them should stay dry.

text: One-piece ski suits[edit]

text: A one-piece suit cover the whole torso, arms and legs. They usually have one or sometimes two zippers down the front of the suit, sometimes additionally closed by a flap with velcro or buttons, and often have a belt at the waist. Sometimes, the suit has built-in suspenders on the inside for added support. One-piece ski suits are often just made as a shell layer, with the skier adding warm underwear of own choice adapted to the current weather situation. Other suits may be padded for warmth, but when intended for skiing they are still not as insulated as a snowmobile suit.

text: Ski jacket[edit]

text: A ski jacket covers the arms and torso, sometimes just to the waist while other times reaching down over the buttocks. It can be a separate item or part of a two-piece ski suit together with matching ski pants.

text: From the introduction of ski jackets in the middle to late 1950s through the early 1980s, the dominant style was for a ski jacket to resemble a safari jacket in having a similar belt and shirt-like collar. A similar jacket, especially one with a hood, may also be called a parka, anorak, down jacket or winter shell.

text: Ski pants[edit]

text: Ski pants, or salopettes, when part of a two-piece ski suit, is usually made in the same fabric and color as the corresponding ski jacket. It is sometimes in the form of bib-and-brace and the jacket is worn over it.

text: Race suits[edit]

text: Often referred to as race suits or speed suits, these are the suits worn by professional and junior racers to improve their speed. They are mostly made as one-piece suits. Made mostly of Polyurethane (85-90%) and Polyester (15-10%), these suits can reduce wind resistance by as much as fifty percent. Since wind resistance accounts for ninety five percent of the force stopping skiers from going faster, wearing one of these suits can potentially give you nearly double the speed. They are very tight and form hugging and can take a while to adapt to the body. Olympic athletes can reach over 160 km/h in a race suit, while even a junior racer may struggle to get past 80 km/h without one. Suit costs range from $210 for a beginners suit to $1,200 for the suits generally worn by Olympic athletes. Ski suits are not unisex garments due to the need to be skin tight and must be sized properly to be effective. Most athletes wear a base layer beneath their suit, but some may wear only the suit on race days, as the base layer will decrease the efficiency of the suit slightly.

text: Snowsuit events[edit]

text: In North America, there are many charity networks working with providing less fortunate children with snowsuits for the winter.[5]

text: Ski suits and snow suits are a natural part of some sporting events. There are also some events which emphasize the use of the snowsuit as such. At the annual winter outdoor music festival Igloofest in Montreal in Canada, there is a contest for wearers of one-piece suits.[6]


document_title: ILOVEYOU

question_text: where is the creator of i love you virus

text: ILOVEYOU

text: Key to success[edit]

text: On the machine system level, ILOVEYOU relied on the scripting engine system setting (which runs scripting language files such as .vbs files) being enabled, and took advantage of a feature in Windows that hid file extensions by default, which malware authors would use as an exploit. Windows would parse file names from right to left, stopping at the first period character, showing only those elements to the left of this. The attachment, which had two periods, could thus display the inner fake "txt" file extension. Text files are considered to be innocuous, as they are normally incapable of running executable code. The worm also used social engineering to entice users to open the attachment (out of actual desire to connect or simple curiosity) to ensure continued propagation. Systemic weaknesses in the design of Microsoft Outlook and Microsoft Windows were exploited that allowed malicious code capable of complete access to the operating system, secondary storage, and system and user data simply by unwitting users clicking on an icon.

text: Spread[edit]

text: Messages generated in the Philippines began to spread westwards through corporate email systems. Because the worm used mailing lists as its source of targets, the messages often appeared to come from acquaintances and were therefore often regarded as "safe" by their victims, providing further incentive to open them. Only a few users at each site had to access the attachment to generate millions more messages that crippled mail systems and overwrote millions of files on computers in each successive network.

text: Impact[edit]

text: The malware originated in the Pandacan neighborhood of Manila in the Philippines on May 5, 2000, thereafter following daybreak westward across the world, moving first to Hong Kong, then to Europe, and finally the United States, as employees began their workday that Friday morning.[2] [3] The outbreak was later estimated to have caused US$5.5–8.7 billion in damages worldwide,[4][5] and estimated to cost US$15 billion to remove the worm.[6] Within ten days, over fifty million infections had been reported,[7] and it is estimated that 10% of internet-connected computers in the world had been affected.[5] Damage cited was mostly the time and effort spent getting rid of the infection and recovering files from backups. To protect themselves, The Pentagon, CIA, the British Parliament and most large corporations decided to completely shut down their mail systems.[8] The ILOVEYOU virus infected computers all over the world. At the time it was one of the world's most destructive computer related disasters ever.

text: The events inspired the song E-mail on the Pet Shop Boys' UK top-ten album of 2002, Release, the lyrics of which play thematically on the human desires which enabled the mass destruction of this computer infection.

text: Architecture[edit]

text: The ILOVEYOU Script (the attachment) was written in Microsoft Visual Basic Scripting (VBS) which runs in Microsoft Outlook and was enabled by default. The script added Windows Registry data for automatic startup on system boot.

text: The worm then searched connected drives and replaced files with extensions JPG, JPEG, VBS, VBE, JS, JSE, CSS, WSH, SCT, DOC, HTA, MP2, and MP3 with copies of itself, while appending the additional file extension VBS, making the user's computer unbootable. However, MP3s and other sound related files were hidden rather than overwritten.

text: The worm propagated itself by sending out one copy of the payload to each entry in the Microsoft Outlook address book (Windows Address Book). It also downloaded the Barok trojan renamed for the occasion as "WIN-BUGSFIX.EXE".

text: The fact that the virus was written in VBS provided users a way to modify the virus. A user could easily modify the virus to replace important files in the system, and destroy it. This allowed many variations of ILOVEYOU to spread across the internet, each one doing different kinds of damage.[9]

text: Some mail messages sent by ILOVEYOU:

text:
VIRUS ALERT!![10]
Important! Read Carefully!![10]

text: Developments[edit]

text: On 5 May 2000, two young Filipino computer programmers named Reonel Ramones and Onel de Guzman became targets of a criminal investigation by agents of the Philippines' National Bureau of Investigation (NBI).[11] Local Internet service provider Sky Internet had reported receiving numerous contacts from European computer users alleging that malware (in the form of the "ILOVEYOU" worm) had been sent via the ISP's servers.

text: After surveillance and investigation by Darwin Bawasanta of Sky Internet, the NBI traced a frequently appearing telephone number to Ramones' apartment in Manila. His residence was searched and Ramones was arrested and placed on inquest investigation before the Department of Justice (DOJ). Onel de Guzman was likewise charged in absentia.

text: At that point, the NBI were unsure what felony or crime would apply.[11] It was suggested they be charged with violating Republic Act 8484 (the Access Device Regulation Act), a law designed mainly to penalise credit card fraud, since both used pre-paid (if not stolen) Internet cards to purchase access to ISPs. Another idea was that they be charged with malicious mischief, a felony (under the Philippines Revised Penal Code of 1932) involving damage to property. The drawback here was that one of its elements, aside from damage to property, was intent to damage, and de Guzman had claimed during custodial investigations that he may have unwittingly released the worm.[12]

text: To show intent, the NBI investigated AMA Computer College, where de Guzman had dropped out at the very end of his final year.[11] They found that, for his undergraduate thesis, de Guzman had proposed the implementation of a trojan to steal Internet login passwords.[13] This way, he proposed, users would finally be able to afford an Internet connection. The proposal was rejected by the College of Computer Studies board,[12] prompting de Guzman to cancel his studies the day before graduation.

text: Legislative aftermath[edit]

text: Since there were no laws in the Philippines against writing malware at the time, both Ramones and de Guzman were released with all charges dropped by state prosecutors.[14] To address this legislative deficiency,[11] the Philippine Congress enacted Republic Act No. 8792,[15] otherwise known as the E-Commerce Law, in July 2000, just two months after the worm outbreak. In 2002, the ILOVEYOU virus obtained a world record for being the most virulent computer virus at the time.[16]


document_title: Fried clams

question_text: what kind of clams are used for clam strips

text: Fried clams

text: Preparation[edit]

text: The clams are dipped in evaporated milk, and coated with a combination of regular, corn, and/or pastry flour.[1][5] Then the coated clams are fried in canola oil or soybean oil, or lard.[1][5]

text: The usual variant in New England is made from whole soft-shell clams, known as "Whole-Bellies"; these include the clam's gastrointestinal tract and have a fuller flavor.[1][6] Some restaurants remove the clam's chewy siphon called the neck.[5]

text: Outside New England, "clam strips", made of sliced parts of Atlantic surf clams, are more common.[7]

text: History[edit]

text: Fried clams are mentioned as early as 1840,[8] and are listed on an 1865 menu from the Parker House hotel. How exactly they were prepared is unclear; the 1865 menu offers both "oysters—fried" and "oysters—fried in batter", but only "fried clams".[9]

text: Nineteenth-century American cookbooks describe several different dishes of fried clams:

text:
Seasoned clams sautéed in butter. (1850)[10]
Clams breaded (with egg binding) and sautéed in butter or fat. (1850)[10] (1904)[11]
Clams in a beaten egg batter, fried in butter, called "clam fritters". (1850)[10] (1904)[11]

text: The modern deep-fried, breaded version is generally credited to Lawrence Henry "Chubby" Woodman from Essex, Massachusetts. He is said to have created the first batch on July 3, 1916,[12] in his small roadside restaurant, now Woodman's of Essex. One of his specialties was potato chips, so he had large vats for deep-frying. He used the clams, which he had collected himself from the mud flats of the Essex River located close to his home.[13]

text: Later, Thomas Soffron, of Soffron Brothers Clam Co., based in Ipswich, Massachusetts, created clam strips, which are made from the "foot" of hard-shelled sea clams. He sold these to Howard Johnson's in an exclusive deal, and as the  chain expanded, they became popular throughout the country.[14][15]

text: Health and dietary considerations[edit]

text: Clams in themselves are low in cholesterol and fat, but fried clams absorb cooking fat.[16]