document_title: Seat belt

question_text: when did cars come out with seat belts

question_tokens: when did cars come out with seat belts

text: Seat belt

text: Efficiency[edit]

text: An analysis conducted in the United States in 1984 compared a variety of seat belt types alone and in combination with air bags.[1] The range of fatality reduction for front seat passengers was broad, from 20% to 55%, as was the range of major injury, from 25% to 60%.[1] More recently, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has summarized this data by stating "seat belts reduce serious crash-related injuries and deaths by about half."[2] Most seatbelt malfunctions are as a result of there being too much slack in the seatbelt at the time of the accident.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: Seat belts were invented by English engineer George Cayley in the mid-19th century,[4] though Edward J. Claghorn of New York, was granted the first patent (U.S. Patent 312,085, on February 10, 1885 for a safety belt).[5] Claghorn was granted United States Patent #312,085 for a Safety-Belt for tourists, painters, firemen, etc. who are being raised or lowered, described in the patent as "designed to be applied to the person, and provided with hooks and other attachments for securing the person to a fixed object."

text: In 1946, Dr. C. Hunter Shelden had opened a neurological practice at Huntington Memorial Hospital in Pasadena, California. In the early 1950s, Dr. Shelden had made a major contribution to the automotive industry with his idea of retractable seat belts. This came about greatly in part from the high number of head injuries coming through the emergency rooms.[6] He investigated the early seat belts whose primitive designs were implicated in these injuries and deaths. His findings were published in the November 5, 1955 Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in which he proposed not only the retractable seat belt, but also recessed steering wheels, reinforced roofs, roll bars, door locks and passive restraints such as the air bag. Subsequently, in 1959, Congress passed legislation requiring all automobiles to comply with certain safety standards.[7]

text: American car manufacturers Nash (in 1949) and Ford (in 1955) offered seat belts as options, while Swedish Saab first introduced seat belts as standard in 1958.[8] After the Saab GT 750 was introduced at the New York Motor Show in 1958 with safety belts fitted as standard, the practice became commonplace.[9]

text: Glenn Sheren of Mason, Michigan submitted a patent application on March 31, 1955 for an automotive seat belt and was awarded US Patent 2,855,215 in 1958. This was a continuation of an earlier patent application that Mr. Sheren had filed on September 22, 1952.[10]

text: However, the first modern three point seat belt (the so-called CIR-Griswold restraint) used in most consumer vehicles today was patented in 1955 U.S. Patent 2,710,649 by the Americans Roger W. Griswold and Hugh DeHaven. Fatal car accidents were rapidly increasing in Sweden during the 1950s. When a study at Vattenfall of accidents among employees revealed that the majority of casualties came from car accidents, two Vattenfall engineers (Bengt Odelgard and Per-Olof Weman) started to develop the safety belt. Their work set the standard for safety belts in Swedish cars and was presented to Swedish manufacturer Volvo in the late 1950s.[11] The 3-point seatbelt was developed to its modern form by Swedish inventor Nils Bohlin for Volvo—who introduced it in 1959 as standard equipment. In addition to designing an effective three-point belt, Bohlin demonstrated its effectiveness in a study of 28,000 accidents in Sweden. Unbelted occupants sustained fatal injuries throughout the whole speed scale, whereas none of the belted occupants were fatally injured at accident speeds below 60 mph. No belted occupant was fatally injured if the passenger compartment remained intact.[12] Bohlin was granted U.S. Patent 3,043,625 for the device.[8]

text: The world's first seat belt law was put in place in 1970, in the state of Victoria, Australia, making the wearing of a seat belt compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers. This legislation was enacted after trialing Hemco seatbelts, designed by Desmond Hemphill (1926–2001), in the front seats of police vehicles, lowering the incidence of officer injury and death.[13]

text: Types[edit]

text: Two-point[edit]

text: A 2-point belt attaches at its two endpoints, and was invented in the early 1900s by Jack Swearingen of Louisville, Kentucky.[citation needed]

text: Lap[edit]

text: A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most commonly installed type of belt prior to legislation requiring 3-point belts, and is primarily found in older cars. Coaches are equipped with lap belts (although many newer coaches have three-point belts), as are passenger aircraft seats.

text: University of Minnesota Professor James J. (Crash) Ryan was the inventor of and held the patent on the automatic retractable lap safety belt. Ralph Nader cited Ryan's work in Unsafe at Any Speed and in 1966 President Lyndon Johnson signed two bills requiring safety belts in all passenger vehicles starting in 1968.[14]

text: Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front outboard seats of cars; the back seats were only often fitted with lap belts. Evidence of the potential of lap belts to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome", led to progressive revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all developed countries to require 3-point belts first in all outboard seating positions and eventually in all seating positions in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat.[15] Besides regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to tremendous liability for vehicle manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury verdict against the Ford Motor Company; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006.[16]

text: Sash[edit]

text: A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's outboard shoulder and is buckled inboard of his or her lap. The shoulder harness may attach to the lap belt tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle completely separate from those of the lap belt. Shoulder harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in conjunction with lap belts in the outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North American market starting at the inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 on 1 January 1968. However, if the shoulder strap is used without the lap belt, the vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine", or slide forward in the seat and out from under the belt, in a frontal collision. In the mid-1970s, 3-point belt systems such as Chrysler's "Uni-Belt" began to supplant the separate lap and shoulder belts in American-made cars, though such 3-point belts had already been supplied in European vehicles such as Volvos, Mercedes, and Saabs for some years.

text: Three-point[edit]

text: A 3-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but unitized. Like the separate lap-and-sash belt, in a collision the 3-point belt spreads out the energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first production three-point belt in 1959.[17] The first car with a three-point belt was a Volvo PV 544 that was delivered to a dealer in Kristianstad on August 13, 1959. However, the first car model to feature the three-point seat belt as a standard item was the 1959 Volvo 122, first outfitted with a two-point belt at initial delivery in 1958, replaced with the three-point seat belt the following year.[18] The three-point belt was developed by Nils Bohlin who had earlier also worked on ejection seats at Saab.[19] Volvo then made the new seat belt design patent open in the interest of safety and made it available to other car manufacturers for free.[20][21]

text: Belt-in-Seat (BIS)[edit]

text: The BIS is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself, rather than to the vehicle structure. The first car using this system was the Range Rover Classic. Fitment was standard on the front seats from 1970.[22] Some cars like the Renault Vel Satis use this system for the front seats. A General Motors assessment concluded seat-mounted 3-point belts offer better protection especially to smaller vehicle occupants,[23] though GM did not find a safety performance improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus belts mounted to the vehicle body.[24]

text: BIS type belts have been used by automakers in convertibles and pillarless hardtops, where there is no "B" pillar to affix the upper mount of the belt. Chrysler and Cadillac are well known for using this design. Antique auto enthusiasts sometimes replace original seats in their cars with BIS-equipped front seats, providing a measure of safety not available when these cars were new. However, modern BIS systems typically use electronics that must be installed and connected with the seats and the vehicle's electrical system in order to function properly.[citation needed]

text: 4-, 5-, and 6-point[edit]

text: Five-point harnesses are typically found in child safety seats and in racing cars. The lap portion is connected to a belt between the legs and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five points of attachment to the seat. A 4-point harness is similar, but without the strap between the legs, while a 6-point harness has two belts between the legs. In NASCAR, the 6-point harness became popular after the death of Dale Earnhardt, who was wearing a five-point harness when he suffered his fatal crash; as it was first thought that his belt had broken, and broke his neck at impact, some teams ordered a six-point harness in response.[25]

text: Seven-point[edit]

text: Aerobatic aircraft frequently use a combination harness consisting of a five-point harness with a redundant lap-belt attached to a different part of the aircraft. While providing redundancy for negative-g manoeuvres (which lift the pilot out of the seat); they also require the pilot to un-latch two harnesses if it is necessary to parachute from a failed aircraft.

text: Technology[edit]

text: Locking retractors[edit]

text: The purpose of locking retractors is to provide the seated occupant the convenience of some free movement of the upper torso within the compartment, while providing a method of limiting this movement in the event of a crash. Most modern seat belts are stowed on spring-loaded reels called "retractors" equipped with inertial locking mechanisms that stop the belt from extending off the reel during severe deceleration. There are two main types of inertial seat belt lock. A webbing-sensitive lock is based on a centrifugal clutch activated by rapid acceleration of the strap (webbing) from the reel. The belt can be pulled from the reel only slowly and gradually, as when the occupant extends the belt to fasten it. A sudden rapid pull of the belt—as in a sudden braking or collision event—causes the reel to lock, restraining the occupant in position.

text: A vehicle-sensitive lock is based on a pendulum swung away from its plumb position by rapid deceleration or rollover of the vehicle. In the absence of rapid deceleration or rollover, the reel is unlocked and the belt strap may be pulled from the reel against the spring tension of the reel. The vehicle occupant can move around with relative freedom while the spring tension of the reel keeps the belt taut against the occupant. When the pendulum swings away from its normal plumb position due to sudden deceleration or rollover, a pawl is engaged, the reel locks and the strap restrains the belted occupant in position. Dual-sensing locking retractors use both vehicle G-loading and webbing payout rate to initiate the locking mechanism.

text: Pretensioners and webclamps[edit]

text: Seatbelts in many newer vehicles are also equipped with "pretensioners" or "web clamps", or both.

text: Pretensioners preemptively tighten the belt to prevent the occupant from jerking forward in a crash. Mercedes-Benz first introduced pretensioners on the 1981 S-Class. In the event of a crash, a pretensioner will tighten the belt almost instantaneously. This reduces the motion of the occupant in a violent crash. Like airbags, pretensioners are triggered by sensors in the car's body, and many pretensioners have used explosively expanding gas to drive a piston that retracts the belt. Pretensioners also lower the risk of "submarining", which occurs when a passenger slides forward under a loosely fitted seat belt.

text: Some systems also pre-emptively tighten the belt during fast accelerations and strong decelerations, even if no crash has happened. This has the advantage that it may help prevent the driver from sliding out of position during violent evasive maneuvers, which could cause loss of control of the vehicle. These pre-emptive safety systems may prevent some collisions from happening, as well as reducing injury in the event an actual collision occurs.[26] Pre-emptive systems generally use electric pretensioners which can operate repeatedly and for a sustained period, rather than pyrotechnic pretensioners, which can only operate a single time.

text: Webclamps clamp the webbing in the event of an accident, and limit the distance the webbing can spool out (caused by the unused webbing tightening on the central drum of the mechanism). These belts also often incorporate an energy management loop ("rip stitching") in which a section of the webbing is looped and stitched with a special stitching. The function of this is to "rip" at a predetermined load, which reduces the maximum force transmitted through the belt to the occupant during a violent collision, reducing injuries to the occupant.

text: A study demonstrated that standard automotive 3-point restraints fitted with pyrotechnic or electric pretensioners were not able to eliminate all interior passenger compartment head strikes in rollover test conditions.[27] Electric pretensioners are often incorporated on vehicles equipped with precrash systems; they are designed to reduce seat belt slack in a potential collision and assist in placing the occupants in a more optimal seating position.[28] The electric pretensioners also can operate on a repeated or sustained basis, providing better protection in the event of an extended rollover or a multiple collision accident.

text: Inflatable[edit]

text: The inflatable seatbelt was invented by Donald Lewis and tested at the Automotive Products Division of Allied Chemical Corporation.[29] Inflatable seatbelts have tubular inflatable bladders contained within an outer cover. When a crash occurs the bladder inflates with a gas to increase the area of the restraint contacting the occupant and also shortening the length of the restraint to tighten the belt around the occupant, improving the protection.[30] The inflatable sections may be shoulder-only or lap and shoulder. The system supports the head during the crash better than a web only belt. It also provides side impact protection. In 2013, Ford began offering rear seat inflatable seat belts on a limited set of models, such as the Explorer and Flex.[31]

text: Automatic[edit]

text: Seatbelts that automatically move into position around a vehicle occupant once the adjacent door is closed and/or the engine is started were developed as a countermeasure against low usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States. The first car to feature automatic shoulder belts as standard equipment was the 1981 Toyota Cressida, but the history of such belts goes back further.[32]

text: The 1972 Volkswagen ESVW1 Experimental Safety Vehicle presented passive seat belts.[33] Volvo tried to develop a passive three point seatbelt. In 1973 Volkswagen announced they had a functional passive seat belt.[34] The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the 1975 Volkswagen Golf.[35]

text: Automatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when Brock Adams, United States Secretary of Transportation in the Carter Administration, mandated that by 1983 every new car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts[36][37] despite strong lobbying from the auto industry.[38] Adams was attacked by Ralph Nader, who said that the 1983 deadline was too late.[39] Soon after, General Motors began offering automatic seat belts, first on the Chevrolet Chevette,[40][41] but by early 1979 the VW Rabbit and the Chevette were the only cars to offer the safety feature,[39] and GM was reporting disappointing sales.[42] By early 1978, Volkswagen had reported 90,000 Rabbits sold with automatic seat belts.[35] A study released in 1978 by the United States Department of Transportation claimed that cars with automatic seat belts had a fatality rate of .78 per 100 million miles, compared with 2.34 for cars with regular, manual belts.[43]

text: In 1981, Drew Lewis, the first Transportation Secretary of the Reagan Administration, influenced by studies done by the auto industry,[44] "killed"[45] the previous administration's mandate;[46] the decision was overruled in a federal appeals court the following year,[47] and then by the Supreme Court.[45] In 1984, the Reagan Administration reversed its course,[48] though in the meantime the original deadline had been extended; Elizabeth Dole, then Transportation Secretary, proposed that the two passive safety restraints be phased into vehicles gradually, from vehicle model year 1987 to vehicle model year 1990, when all vehicles would be required to have either automatic seat belts or driver side air bags.[45] Though more awkward for vehicle occupants, most manufacturers opted to use less expensive automatic belts rather than airbags during this time period.

text: When driver side airbags became mandatory on all passenger vehicles in model year 1995, most manufacturers stopped equipping cars with automatic seat belts. Exceptions include the 1995-1996 Ford Escort/Mercury Tracer and the Eagle Summit Wagon which had automatic safety belts along with dual airbags.[citation needed]

text: Systems[edit]

text:
Manual lap belt with automatic motorized shoulder belt — When the door is opened, the shoulder belt moves from a fixed point near the seat back on a track mounted in the door frame of the car to a point at the other end of the track near the windshield. Once the door is closed and the car is started, the belt moves rearward along the track to its original position, thus securing the passenger. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
Manual lap belt with automatic non-motorized shoulder belt — This system was used in American-market vehicles such as the Hyundai Excel and Volkswagen Jetta. The shoulder belt is fixed to the aft upper corner of the vehicle door, and is not motorized. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
Automatic shoulder and lap belts — This system was mainly used in General Motors vehicles, though it was also used on some Honda Civic hatchbacks and Nissan Sentra coupés. When the door is opened, the belts go from a fixed point in the middle of the car by the floor to retractors on the door. Passengers must slide into the car under the belts. When the door closes, the seat belt retracts into the door. The belts have normal release buttons that are supposed to be used only in an emergency, but in practice are routinely used in the same manner as manual seat belt clasps.[citation needed]

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: Automatic belt systems generally offer inferior occupant crash protection.[49][50] In systems with belts attached to the door rather than a sturdier fixed portion of the vehicle body, a crash that causes the vehicle door to open leaves the occupant without belt protection. In such a scenario, the occupant may be thrown from the vehicle and suffer greater injury or death.[50]

text: Because many automatic belt system designs compliant with the US passive-restraint mandate did not meet the safety performance requirements of Canada—which were not weakened to accommodate automatic belts—vehicle models which had been eligible for easy importation in either direction across the US-Canada border when equipped with manual belts became ineligible for importation in either direction once the U.S. variants obtained automatic belts and the Canadian versions retained manual belts. Two particular models included the Dodge Spirit and Plymouth Acclaim.[51][52]

text: Automatic belt systems also present several operational disadvantages. Motorists who would normally wear seat belts must still fasten the manual lap belt, thus rendering redundant the automation of the shoulder belt. Those who do not fasten the lap belt wind up inadequately protected only by the shoulder belt; in a crash without a lap belt such a vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine" (be thrown forward under the shoulder belt) and be seriously injured. Motorized or door-affixed shoulder belts hinder access to the vehicle, making it difficult to enter and exit—particularly if the occupant is carrying items such as a box or a purse. Vehicle owners tend to disconnect the motorized or door-affixed shoulder belt to relieve the nuisance of entering and exiting the vehicle, leaving only a lap belt for crash protection. Also, many automatic seat belt systems are incompatible with child safety seats, or only compatible with special modifications.

text: Homologation and testing[edit]

text: Starting in 1971 and ending in 1972, the United States conducted a research project on seat belt effectiveness on a total of 40,000 vehicle occupants using car accident reports collected during that time. Of these 40,000 occupants, 18% were reported wearing lap belts, or two-point safety belts, 2% were reported wearing a three-point safety belt, and the remaining 80% was reported as wearing no safety belt. The results concluded that users of the two-point lap belt had a 73% lower fatality rate, a 53% lower serious injury rate, and a 38% lower injury rate, when compared with the occupants that were reported unrestrained. Similarly, users of the three-point safety belt had a 60% lower serious injury rate and a 41% lower rate of all other injuries. Out of the 2% described as wearing a three-point safety belt, no fatalities were reported.[53]

text: This study and others led to the Restraint Systems Evaluation Program (RSEP), started by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1975 to increase the reliability and authenticity of past studies. A study as part of this program used data taken from 15,000 tow-away accidents that involved only car models made between 1973 and 1975. The study found that for injuries considered “moderate” or worse, individuals wearing a three-point safety belt had a 56.5% lower injury rate than those wearing no safety belt. The study also concluded that the effectiveness of the safety belt did not differ with size of car.[53] It was determined that the variation among results of the many studies conducted in the 1960s and 70s was due to the use of different methodologies, and could not be attributed to any significant variation in the effectiveness of safety belts.[54]

text: Helping to improve safety apparatuses in vehicles, injury testing, and seat belt effectiveness are being tested today by Wayne State University’s Automotive Safety Research Group, as well as other researchers.[55] Wayne State’s Bioengineering Center uses human cadavers in their crash test research. Albert King, the Center’s director, wrote in his 1995 article titled "Humanitarian Benefits of Cadaver Research on Injury Prevention” that that use of cadavers in this type of research since 1987 has saved and will continue to save nearly 8,500 lives each year, due to the vehicle safety improvements made possible by human cadaver testing. He also indicates that due to the improvements made to three-point safety belts an average of 61 lives are saved per year.[56]

text: The New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) was put in place by the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1979. The NCAP is a government program that evaluates vehicle safety designs and sets standards for foreign and domestic automobile companies. The agency has put in place a rating system and requires access to safety test results. As of September 2007[update], manufacturers are required to place a NCAP star rating on the automobile price sticker.[57]

text: Experimental[edit]

text: Research and development efforts are ongoing to improve the safety performance of vehicle seatbelts. Some experimental designs have included:

text:
Criss-cross Experimental safety belt presented in the Volvo SCC. It forms a cross-brace across the chest.[24]
3+2 Point Seatbelt: Experimental safety belt from Autoliv similar to the criss-cross. The 3+2 improves protection against rollovers and side impacts.[58]
Four point "belt and suspenders": An experimental design from Ford where the "suspenders" are attached to the backrest, not to the frame of the car.[59]
3 points Adjustable Seatbelt: Experimental safety belt from GWR Safety Systems that allowed the car Hiriko, designed by the MIT, to fold without compromising the safety and comfort of the occupants.[60]

text: In rear seats[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2014)

text: In 1955 (as a 1956 package), Ford offered lap only seat belts in the rear seats as an option within the Lifeguard safety package. In 1967, Volvo started to install lap belts in the rear seats. In 1972, Volvo upgraded the rear seat belts to a three-point belt.[61]

text: In crashes, unbelted rear passengers increase the risk of belted front seat occupants' death by nearly five times.[62][63]

text: Child occupants[edit]

text: As with adult drivers and passengers, the advent of seat belts was accompanied by calls for their use by child occupants, including legislation requiring such use. Generally children using adult seat belts suffer significantly lower injury risk when compared to non-buckled children.

text: The UK extended compulsory seatbelt wearing to child passengers under the age of 14 in 1989. It was observed that this measure was accompanied by a 10% increase in fatalities and a 12% increase in injuries among the target population.[64] In crashes, small children who wear adult seatbelts can suffer "seat-belt syndrome" injuries including severed intestines, ruptured diaphragms and spinal damage. There is also research suggesting that children in inappropriate restraints are at significantly increased risk of head injury,[65] one of the authors of this research has been quoted as claiming that: "The early graduation of kids into adult lap and shoulder belts is a leading cause of child-occupant injuries and deaths."[66]

text: As a result of such findings, many jurisdictions now advocate or require child passengers to use specially designed child restraints. Such systems include separate child-sized seats with their own restraints and booster cushions for children using adult restraints. In some jurisdictions children below a certain size are forbidden to travel in front car seats."[67]

text: Reminder chime and light[edit]

text: In Europe and some other parts of the world, most modern cars include a seat-belt reminder light for the driver and some also include a reminder for the passenger, when present, activated by a pressure sensor under the passenger seat. Some cars will intermittently flash the reminder light and sound the chime until the driver (and sometimes the front passenger, if present) fasten their seatbelts.[68]

text: In North America, cars sold since the early 1970s[vague] have included an audiovisual reminder system consisting of a tell-tale light on the dashboard and a buzzer or chime reminding the driver and passengers to fasten their belts. Originally, these lights were accompanied by a warning buzzer whenever the transmission was in any position except park[clarification needed] if either the driver was not buckled up or, as determined by a pressure sensor in the passenger's seat, if there was a passenger there not buckled up.[citation needed] However, this was considered by many to be a major annoyance, as the light would be on and the buzzer would sound continuously if front-seat passengers were not buckled up. Therefore, people who did not wish to buckle up would defeat this system by fastening the seat belts with the seat empty and leaving them that way.[citation needed]

text: To combat this dangerous habit, in 1971[citation needed] NHTSA amended Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard № 208 (FMVSS 208) to require a seat belt/starter interlock system to prevent passenger cars from being started with an unbelted front-seat occupant. This mandate applied to passenger cars built after August 1973, i.e., starting with the 1974 model year. The specifications required the system to permit the car to be started only if the belt of an occupied seat were fastened after the occupant sat down, so pre-buckling the belts would not defeat the system.[69][70] The interlock systems used logic modules complex enough to require special diagnostic computers, and were not entirely dependable—an override button was provided under the hood of equipped cars, permitting one (but only one) "free" starting attempt each time it was pressed.[71] However, the interlock system spurred severe backlash from an American public who largely rejected seat belts. In 1974, Congress acted to prohibit NHTSA from requiring or permitting a system that prevents a vehicle from starting or operating with an unbelted occupant, or that gives an audible warning of an unfastened belt for more than 8 seconds after the ignition is turned on.[70] This prohibition took effect on 27 October 1974, shortly after the 1975 model year began.[72]

text: In response to the Congressional action, NHTSA once again amended FMVSS 208, requiring vehicles to come with a seat belt reminder system that gives an audible signal for 4 to 8 seconds and a warning light for at least 60 seconds after the ignition is turned on if the driver's seat belt is not fastened.[70] This is called a seat belt reminder (SBR) system. In the mid-1990s, an insurance company from Sweden called Folksam worked with Saab and Ford to determine the requirements for the most efficient seat belt reminder. One characteristic of the optimal SBR, according to the research, is that the audible warning becomes increasingly penetrating the longer the seat belt remains unfastened.[73]

text: In 2003, the Transportation Research Board Committee, chaired by two psychologists, reported that ESBRs could save an additional 1,000 lives a year.[74] Research by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety found that Ford's ESBR, which provides an intermittent chime for up to five minutes if the driver is unbelted, sounding for 6 seconds then pausing for 30, increased seat belt use by 5 percent.[74] Farmer and Wells found that driver fatality rates were 6% lower for vehicles with ESBR compared with otherwise-identical vehicles without.[75]

text: Efficacy[edit]

text: In 2001, Congress directed NHSTA to study the benefits of technology meant to increase the use of seat belts. NHSTA found that seat belt usage had increased to 73% since the initial introduction of the SBR system.[70] In 2002, Ford demonstrated that seat belts were used more in Fords with seat belt reminders than in those without: 76% and 71% respectively. In 2007, Honda conducted a similar study and found that 90% of people who drove Hondas with seat belt reminders used a seat belt, while 84% of people who drove Hondas without seat belt reminders used a seat belt.[73]

text: Legislation[edit]

text: Observational studies of car crash morbidity and mortality,[76][77][78] experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers indicate that wearing seat belts greatly reduces the risk of death and injury in the majority of car crashes.

text: This has led many countries to adopt mandatory seat belt wearing laws. It is generally accepted that, in comparing like-for-like accidents, a vehicle occupant not wearing a properly fitted seat belt has a significantly and substantially higher chance of death and serious injury. One large observation studying using US data showed that the odds ratio of crash death is 0.46 with a three-point belt, when compared with no belt.[79] In another study that examined injuries presenting to the ER pre- and post-seat belt law introduction, it was found that 40% more escaped injury and 35% more escaped mild and moderate injuries.[80]

text: The effects of seat belt laws are disputed by those who observe that their passage did not reduce road fatalities. There was also concern that instead of legislating for a general protection standard for vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and 3-point seat belts, rapidly tilting seats, and air bags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades[81]

text: As of 2016, seat belt laws can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. A primary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a citation for lack of seatbelt use without any other citation, whereas a secondary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a seat belt citation only in the presence of a different violation. In the United States, fifteen states enforce secondary laws, while 34 states, as well as the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, enforce primary seat belt laws. New Hampshire lacks both a primary and secondary seat belt law.[82]

text: Risk compensation[edit]

text: Some have proposed that the number of deaths was influenced by the development of risk compensation, which says that drivers adjust their behavior in response to the increased sense of personal safety wearing a seat belt provides.

text: In one trial subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving unbelted drove consistently faster when subsequently belted.[83] Similarly, a study of habitual non-seatbelt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seatbelt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances.[84] A 2001 analysis of US crash data aimed to establish the effects of seatbelt legislation on driving fatalities[85] and found that previous estimates of seatbelts effectiveness had been significantly overstated. According to the analysis used, seatbelts were claimed to have decreased fatalities by 1.35% for each 10% increase in seatbelt use. The study controlled for endogenous motivations of seat belt use, which it is claimed creates an artificial correlation between seat belt use and fatalities, leading to the conclusion that seatbelts cause fatalities. For example, drivers in high risk areas are more likely to use seat belts, and are more likely to be in accidents, creating a non-causal correlation between seatbelt use and mortality. After accounting for the endogeneity of seatbelt usage, Cohen and Einav found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seatbelt wearing drivers more dangerous, a finding at variance with other research.

text: Increased traffic[edit]

text: Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic, and other factors such as age, and based on these adjustments, a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use has been claimed.[76] However, Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation.

text: Mass transit considerations[edit]

text: Buses[edit]

text: School buses[edit]

text: In the US, six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require seat belts on school buses.[86]

text: Pros[87][88][89] and cons[90][91][92] had been alleged about the use of seatbelts in school buses. School buses which are much bigger in size than the average vehicle allow for the mass transportation of students from place to place. The American School Bus Council states in a brief article saying that, “The children are protected like eggs in an egg carton – compartmentalized, and surrounded with padding and structural integrity to secure the entire container.” (ASBC). Although school buses are considered safe for mass transit of students this will not guarantee that the students will be injury free if an impact were to occur. Seatbelts in buses are sometimes believed to make recovering from a roll or tip harder for students and staff as they could be easily trapped in their own safety belt.[93]

text: In 2015, for the first time, NHTSA endorsed seat belts on school buses.[94]

text: Motor coaches[edit]

text: In the European Union, all new long distance buses and coaches must be fitted with seat belts.[95]

text: Australia has required lap/sash seat belts in new coaches since 1994. These must comply with Australian Design Rule 68, which requires the seat belt, seat and seat anchorage to withstand 20g deceleration and an impact by an unrestrained occupant to the rear.[96]

text: In the United States, NHTSA has now required lap-shoulder seat belts in new "over-the-road" buses (includes most coaches) starting in 2016.[97]

text: Trains[edit]

text: The use of seatbelts in trains has been investigated. Concerns about survival space intrusion in train crashes and increased injuries to unrestrained or incorrectly restrained passengers led the researchers to discourage the use of seat belts in trains.

text: Airplanes[edit]

text: Lap belts are found on all passenger aircraft. Many civil aviation authorities require a "fasten seat belt" sign in passenger aircraft that can be activated by a pilot during takeoff, turbulence, and landing.[99][100] The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends the use of child restraints.[101]


document_title: Box turtle

question_text: how can you tell the age of a box turtle

root

text: Box turtle

text: Taxonomy and genetics[edit]

text: The genus name Terrapene was coined by Merrem in 1820 as a genus separate from Emys for those species which had a sternum which was separated into two or three divisions and which could move these parts independently.[3] He placed in this genus amongst others Terrapene boscii (now accepted to be Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum) and Terrapene carolina (but under the name Terrapene clausa). Also several Asian box turtles have been formerly classified within the genus Terrapene: e.g. Terrapene bicolor (now Cuora amboinensis couro) and Terrapene culturalia (now Cuora flavomarginata).[1] Currently four species are classified within the genus and twelve taxa are distinguished:[1]

tag: p

text:
Common box turtle, Terrapene carolina (Linnaeus, 1758) (type species)[2]

Florida box turtle, Terrapene carolina bauri Taylor, 1895
Eastern box turtle, Terrapene carolina carolina (Linnaeus, 1758)
Gulf Coast box turtle, Terrapene carolina major (Agassiz, 1857)
Mexican box turtle, Terrapene carolina mexicana (Gray, 1849)
Terrapene carolina putnami O.P. Hay, 1906 (extinct) [4]
Three-toed box turtle, Terrapene carolina triunguis (Agassiz, 1857)
Yucatán box turtle, Terrapene carolina yucatana (Boulenger, 1895)

Coahuilan box turtle, Terrapene coahuila Schmidt & Owens, 1944
Spotted box turtle, Terrapene nelsoni Stejneger, 1925

Northern spotted box turtle, Terrapene nelsoni klauberi Bogert, 1943
Southern spotted box turtle, Terrapene nelsoni nelsoni Stejneger, 1925

Ornate box turtle (or: Western box turtle), Terrapene ornata, (Agassiz, 1857)

Ornate box turtle (or: Western box turtle), Terrapene ornata ornata (Agassiz, 1857)
Desert box turtle, Terrapene ornata luteola H.M. Smith & Ramsey, 1952

tag: ul

text: Box turtles have diploid somatic cells with 50 chromosomes.[5]

text: Ecology and behavior[edit]

text: Life cycle and predation[edit]

text: Once maturity is reached, the chance of death seems not to increase with age. The survivorship curve of box turtles is therefore probably similar to that of other long-living turtles. The average life span of adult box turtles is 50 years, while a significant portion lives over 100 years. The age of a growing box turtle in the wild can not be accurately estimated by counting the growth rings on the scutes; Their growth is directly affected by the amount of food, types of food, water, illness, and so much more. Box turtle eggs are flexible, oblong and are (depending on the taxon) on average 2–4 cm long weighing 5-11 g. The normal clutch size is 1-7 eggs. In captivity and in the southern end of their range, box turtles can have more than one clutch per year, while the average clutch size is larger in more northern populations.[6] Turtles can defend themselves from predation by hiding, closing their shell and biting. The risk of death is greatest in small animals due to their size and weaker carapace and plastron. While the shell of an adult box turtle is seldom fractured, the box turtle is still vulnerable to surprise attacks and persistent gnawing or pecking. Common predators are mammals like minks, skunks, raccoons, dogs and rodents, but also birds (e.g. crows, ravens) and snakes (e.g. racers, cottonmouths) are known to kill box turtles.[7]

text: Diet[edit]

text: North American box turtles are omnivores with a varied diet, as a box turtle will "basically eat anything it can catch". Invertebrates (amongst others insects, earth worms, millipedes) form the principal component, but the diet also consists for a large part (reports range from 30-90%) of vegetation. The diet is amended with fruits (amongst others from cacti, apples and several species of berry), gastropods (Heliosoma, Succinea).[8] While reports exist that during their first five to six years, box turtles are primarily carnivorous, while adults are mostly herbivorous, there is no scientific basis for such a difference.[8]

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: Box turtles are native to North America. The widest distributed species is the common box turtle which is found in the United States (subspecies carolina, major, bauri, triunguis; south-central, eastern, and southeastern parts) and Mexico (subspecies yukatana and mexicana; Yucatán peninsula and northeastern parts). The ornate box turtle is endemic to the south-central and southwestern parts of the U.S. (and adjacent Mexico) while the spotted box turtle is endemic to northwestern Mexico only. The Coahuilan box turtle is only found in Cuatro Ciénegas Basin (Coahuila, Mexico).[2]

text: Habitat[edit]

text: Because box turtles occupy a wide variety of habitats (which both vary on a day-to-day, season-to-season, but also species-to-species basis), a standard box turtle habitat can not be identified. Mesic woodlands are a habitat where box turtles are generally found. T. ornata is the only species regularly found in grasslands, but its subspecies the desert box turtle is also found in the semidesert with rainfall predominantly in summer. The single location where Coahuilan box turtles are found is a 360 km2 region characterized by marshes, permanent presence of water and several types of cacti.

text: Prior to hibernation, box turtles tend to move further into the woods, where they dig a chamber for overwintering. Ornate box turtles dig chambers up to 50 centimeters, while Eastern box turtles hibernate at depth of about 10 centimeters. The location for overwintering can be up to 0.5 km from the summer habitat and is often in close proximity to that of the previous year. In more southern locations, turtles are active year-round, as has been observed for T. coahuila and T.c.major'. Other box turtles in higher temperatures are more active (T.c.yukatana) or only active during the wet seasons.[9]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Box turtles appeared "abruptly in the fossil record, essentially in modern form". The absence of strong changes in their morphology might indicate that they are a generalist species.[4] It is therefore complicated to establish how their evolution from other turtles took place. The oldest finds of fossilized box turtles were found in Nebraska (U.S.), date from about 15 million years before present (in the Miocene)[4] and resemble the aquatic species T. coahuila most, which indicates that the common ancestor was also an aquatic species. Fossilized specimens of T. ornata and T. carolina were dated circa 5 million years before present and indicated that those main lineages also already diverged within the Miocene. The only recognized extinct subspecies (T.c. putnami) dates from the Pliocene and was, with a carapace length of 30 cm (12 in), much larger than other species.[4]

text: Interaction with humans[edit]

text: Conservation status[edit]

text: As the conservation status is defined for species and not for a genus, differences exist between the different genera. Terrapene coahuila is -as it is endemic only to Coahuila- classified as endangered. While the range reduced by 40% to 360 km2 in the past 40–50 years, the population of this species reduced from "well over 10,000" to "2,500" in 2002.[10] The most widely distributed species Terrapene carolina is classified as vulnerable, while Terrapene ornata is in a lower category as near threatened.[11][12] For Terrapene nelsoni insufficient information is available for classification.[13]

text: Sniffer dogs have been trained to find and track box turtles as part of conservation efforts.[14]

text: Box turtles as pets[edit]

text: Most turtle and tortoise societies recommend against box turtles as pets for small children.[15] Box turtles are easily stressed by over-handling and require more care than is generally thought. Box turtles get stressed when moved into new surroundings. Some specimens will wander aimlessly until they die trying to find their original home if they are removed from the exact area they grew up in.[citation needed] Three-piece box turtles are often considered the best species to keep as pets since they are hardy and seem to suffer less from being moved into a new environment

text: Box turtles can be injured by dogs and cats so special care must be taken to protect them from household pets. Box turtles require an outdoor enclosure, consistent exposure to the sun and a varied diet. Without these, a turtle's growth can be stunted and its immune system weakened.

text: It is recommended to buy captive bred box turtles (in areas where this is allowed) to reduce the pressure put on the wild populations. A 3-year study in Texas indicated that over 7,000 box turtles were taken from the wild for commercial trade. A similar study in Louisiana found that in a 41-month period, nearly 30,000 box turtles were taken from the wild for resale, many for export to Europe. Once captured, turtles are often kept in poor conditions where up to half of them die. Those living long enough to be sold may suffer from conditions such as malnutrition, dehydration, and infection.[16][17]

text: Indiana, Tennessee, and other states prohibit collecting wild turtles, and many states require a permit to keep them. Breeding is prohibited in some states for fear of its possible detrimental effects upon wild populations.[18]

text: Collecting box turtles from the wild may damage their populations, as these turtles have a low reproduction rate.[19]

text: State reptiles[edit]

text:
"The turtle watches undisturbed as countless generations of faster 'hares' run by to quick oblivion, and is thus a model of patience for mankind, and a symbol of our State’s unrelenting pursuit of great and lofty goals."

North Carolina Secretary of State[20]

tag: div

text: Box turtles are official state reptiles of four U.S. states. North Carolina and Tennessee honor the eastern box turtle.[21][22][23] Missouri names the three-toed box turtle.[24] Kansas honors the ornate box turtle.[25][26]

text: In Pennsylvania, the eastern box turtle made it through one house of the legislature, but failed to win final naming in 2009.[27] In Virginia, bills to honor the eastern box turtle failed in 1999 and then in 2009. In opposition one legislator had asked why Virginia would make an official emblem of an animal that retreats into its shell when frightened. What may have mattered most in Virginia, though, was the creature's close link to neighbor state North Carolina.[28][29]


document_title: Massachusetts House of Representatives

question_text: who represents the 14th norfolk district in the massachusetts house of representatives

text: Massachusetts House of Representatives

text: Representation[edit]

text: Originally,[when?] representatives were apportioned by town. For the first 150 persons, one representative was granted, and this ratio increased as the population of the town increased. The largest membership of the House was 749 in 1812 (214 of these being from the District of Maine); the largest House without Maine was 635 in 1837.[1] The original distribution was changed to the current regional population system in the 20th century. Until 1978, there were 240 members of the house,[2] a number in multi-member districts; today there are 160 in single-member districts.[3]

text: Today, each Representative represents about 40,000 residents. Their districts are named for the counties they are in and tend to stay within one county, although districts occasionally cross county lines.  Representatives serve two-year terms which are not limited.

text: The Sacred Cod[edit]

text: Within the House's debating chamber hangs the Sacred Cod of Massachusetts. The 5-foot-long (1.5 m) pine carving of the cod was offered by Representative John Rowe in 1784 in commemoration of the state's maritime economy and history. Two previous carvings of the cod existed during the legislature's colonial era; the first destroyed in a fire in 1747, and the second during the American War of Independence. Since 1784, the current Sacred Cod has been present at nearly every House session, and moved to its current location when the House began convening in the State House in 1798.

text: In 1933, members of the Harvard Lampoon stole the cod carving as part of a prank. The theft sparked a large statewide search by the Boston and Massachusetts State Police. Following outrage from Boston newspapers and the General Court itself, the cod was anonymously handed back.

text: Composition[edit]

text: The Democrats hold a supermajority in the House.

text:
Affiliation

Party (Shading indicates majority caucus)

Total

Democratic

Republican

Ind

Vacant

End of 186th General Court

144

16

0

160

0

Begin 187th

128

32

0

160

0

End 187th

126

33

159

1

Begin 188th

129

29

0

158

2

End 188th

124

153

7

Begin 189th

125

35

0

160

0

End 189th

126

34

Begin 190th[4]

125

35

0

160

0

June 18, 2017[5]

124

159

1

July 19, 2017[6]

123

158

2

August 22, 2017[7]

34

1

November 7, 2017[8]

125

160

0

January 2, 2018[9]

124

159

1

February 20, 2018[10]

123

2

February 22, 2018[11]

122

158

2

March 6, 2018[12]

121

157

3

April 3, 2018[13]

122

158

2

April 9, 2018[14]

121

157

3

April 21, 2018[15]

120

156

4

May 1, 2018[16]

119

155

5

May 2, 2018[17]

118

154

6

May 11, 2018[18]

117

153

7

Latest voting share

7001731009999900000♠73.1%

7001213000000000000♠21.3%

7000130000000000000♠1.3%

tag: table

text: Leadership[edit]

text: The Speaker of the House presides over the House of Representatives. The Speaker is elected by the majority party caucus followed by confirmation of the full House through the passage of a House Resolution. As well as presiding over the body, the Speaker is also the chief leader, and controls the flow of legislation. Other House leaders, such as the majority and minority leaders, are elected by their respective party caucuses relative to their party's strength in the House.

text: The current Speaker of the House is Robert DeLeo of the 19th Suffolk District (Winthrop). The Majority Leader is Ronald Mariano of the 3rd Norfolk District (Quincy). The Republican Minority Leader is Bradley Jones, Jr. of the 20th Middlesex District (North Reading).

text: Leaders[edit]

text:
Position
Name
Party
Residence
District

Speaker of the House
Robert A. DeLeo
Democratic
Winthrop
19th Suffolk

Majority Leader
Ronald Mariano
Democratic
Quincy
3rd Norfolk

Speaker Pro Tempore
Patricia A. Haddad
Democratic
Somerset
5th Bristol

Assistant Majority Leader
Byron Rushing
Democratic
Boston (South End)
9th Suffolk

Second Assistant Majority Leader
Paul J. Donato
Democratic
Medford
35th Middlesex

Second Assistant Majority Leader
Michael J. Moran
Democratic
Brighton
18th Suffolk

First Division Chair
Ann-Margaret Ferrante
Democratic
Gloucester
5th Essex

Second Division Chair
David M. Nangle
Democratic
Lowell
17th Middlesex

Third Division Chair
Sarah K. Peake
Democratic
Provincetown
4th Barnstable

Fourth Division Chair
Louis L. Kafka
Democratic
Stoughton
8th Norfolk

House Ways and Means Chair
Jeffrey Sánchez
Democratic
Jamaica Plain
15th Suffolk

Minority Leader
Bradley H. Jones, Jr.
Republican
North Reading
20th Middlesex

Assistant Minority Leader
Bradford R. Hill
Republican
Ipswich
4th Essex

Second Assistant Minority Leader
Elizbeth A. Poirier
Republican
North Attleborough
14th Bristol

Third Assistant Minority Leader
Paul K. Frost
Republican
Auburn
7th Worcester

Third Assistant Minority Leader
Susan Williams Gifford
Republican
Wareham
2nd Plymouth

text: The most recent election of members was held on November 8, 2016. Representatives serve two-year terms.

text: Members[edit]

text: The following is a complete list of Members of the House of Representatives in the 189th General Court, by district:

text: Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket[edit]

text: 6 Representatives (2 Democrats, 4 Republicans)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Tim Whelan

Republican

Brewster

1st Barnstable

Precinct 1 of Barnstable, precincts 1 and 2 of Brewster, Dennis, and precincts 1–4 and 7 of Yarmouth, Barnstable County.

2014

William L. Crocker, Jr.

Republican

Barnstable

2nd Barnstable

Precincts 2–10 and 13 of Barnstable, and precincts 5 and 6 of Yarmouth, Barnstable County

2016

David Vieira

Republican

Falmouth

3rd Barnstable

Precincts 3–6 of Bourne, precincts 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9 of Falmouth, and Mashpee, Barnstable County

2010

Sarah Peake

Democratic

Provincetown

4th Barnstable

Precinct 3 of Brewster, Chatham, Eastham, Harwich, Orleans, Provincetown, Truro and Wellfleet, Barnstable County

2006

Randy Hunt

Republican

Sandwich

5th Barnstable

Precincts 11 and 12, of Barnstable, precincts 1, 2, and 7 of Bourne, and Sandwich, Barnstable County;Precinct 9 of Plymouth, Plymouth County

2010

Dylan Fernandes

Democratic

Falmouth

Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket

Precincts 1, 2, 5 and 6, of Falmouth, in Barnstable County;Chilmark, Edgartown, Aquinnah, Gosnold, Oak Bluffs, Tisbury and West Tisbury, all in Dukes County;Nantucket, Nantucket County

2016

text: Berkshire[edit]

text: 4 Representatives (4 Democrats)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

John Barrett III[19]

Democratic

North Adams

1st Berkshire

Adams, Cheshire, Clarksburg, Florida, Hancock, Lanesborough, New Ashford, North Adams, and Williamstown, all in Berkshire County;

2017

Paul Mark

Democratic

Peru

2nd Berkshire

Dalton, Hinsdale, Peru, Savoy and Windsor, and precinct B of ward 1, of Pittsfield, Berkshire County;Bernardston, Charlemont, Colrain, Greenfield, Hawley, Heath, Leyden, Monroe, Northfield, and Rowe, Franklin County

2010

Tricia Farley-Bouvier

Democratic

Pittsfield

3rd Berkshire

Precinct A of ward 1, all precincts of wards 2–7, of Pittsfield, Berkshire County

2011

William "Smitty" Pignatelli

Democratic

Lenox

4th Berkshire

Alford, Becket, Egremont, Great Barrington, Lee, Lenox, Monterey, Mount Washington, New Marlborough, Otis, Richmond, Sandisfield, Sheffield, Stockbridge, Tyringham, Washington, and West Stockbridge, Berkshire County;Blandford, Russell, and Tolland, Hampden County

2002

text: Bristol[edit]

text: 14 Representatives (9 Democrats, 5 Republicans)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

F. Jay Barrows

Republican

Mansfield

1st Bristol

Foxborough, Norfolk County;Precincts 2, 3 and 6, of Mansfield, and precincts 3, 4 and 5, of Norton, Bristol County

2006

 Jim Hawkins

Democratic

Attleboro

2nd Bristol

Wards 1 and 2, precinct A of ward 3, and Wards 4, 5 and 6, of Attleboro, Bristol County

2018

Shaunna O'Connell

Republican

Taunton

3rd Bristol

Precinct 6 of Easton, and precinct A of ward 3, and all precincts in wards 1, 2, 5, 7 and 8, of Taunton, Bristol County

2010

Steve Howitt

Republican

Seekonk

4th Bristol

Precincts 1 and 2 of Norton, Rehoboth and Seekonk, and precincts 4 and 5, of Swansea, Bristol County

2010

Patricia Haddad

Democratic

Somerset

5th Bristol

Dighton and Somerset, precincts 1, 2 and 3 of Swansea, and ward 6 of Taunton, Bristol County

2000

Carole Fiola

Democratic

Fall River

6th Bristol

Precincts B and C of ward 5, precinct C of ward 6, all precincts of wards 7, 8, and 9, of Fall River, and precinct 1, of Freetown, Bristol County

2013

Alan Silvia

Democratic

Fall River

7th Bristol

Precincts B and C of ward 1, ward 2, ward 3, ward 4, and precinct A of ward 5, of Fall River, Bristol County

2008

Paul Schmid

Democratic

Westport

8th Bristol

Precinct A of ward 1, precincts A and B of ward 6 of Fall River, precincts 2 and 3 of Freetown, precincts D, E and F of ward 1 of New Bedford, and Westport, Bristol County

2010

Christopher Markey

Democratic

Dartmouth

9th Bristol

Dartmouth, and precincts D, E and F of ward 3, of New Bedford, Bristol County

2010

William M. Straus

Democratic

Mattapoisett

10th Bristol

Fairhaven, and precinct A of ward 3, and precinct D and E of ward 4, of New Bedford, Bristol County;Marion, Mattapoisett and Rochester, Plymouth County

1992

Robert Koczera

Democratic

New Bedford

11th Bristol

Acushnet, precincts A, B, and C, of ward 1 and all precincts of ward 2, and precincts B and C of ward 3, of New Bedford, Bristol County

1988

Keiko Orrall

Republican

Lakeville

12th Bristol

Berkley, precinct B of ward 3 and ward 4, of Taunton, Bristol County;Lakeville, and precincts 2, 4 and 5 of Middleborough, Plymouth County

2011

Antonio Cabral

Democratic

New Bedford

13th Bristol

Precincts A, B, C and F of ward 4, and wards 5 and 6, of New Bedford, Bristol County

1990

Elizabeth Poirier

Republican

North Attleborough

14th Bristol

Precinct B of ward 3, of Attleboro, precincts 1 and 5, of Mansfield, North Attleborough, Bristol County

1999

text: Essex[edit]

text: 18 Representatives (13 Democrats, 5 Republicans)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

James Kelcourse

Republican

Amesbury

1st Essex

Amesbury and Salisbury, and Newburyport, Essex County

2015

Leonard Mirra

Republican

West Newbury

2nd Essex

Precincts 2 and 3 of Boxford, Georgetown, Groveland, precinct 3 of ward 4 and precinct 3 of ward 7, of Haverhill, and Merrimac, Newbury, and West Newbury, Essex County

2013

Andy Vargas[20]

Democratic

Haverhill

3rd Essex

Ward 1, precinct 3 of ward 2, ward 3, precincts 1 and 2 of ward 4, precincts 1 and 3 of ward 5, and ward 6, of Haverhill, Essex County

2017

Bradford Hill

Republican

Ipswich

4th Essex

Hamilton, Ipswich, Manchester-by-the-Sea, Rowley, Topsfield, and Wenham, Essex County

1999

Ann-Margaret Ferrante

Democratic

Gloucester

5th Essex

Essex and Rockport, and Gloucester, Essex County

2009

Jerry Parisella

Democratic

Beverly

6th Essex

Beverly, Essex County

2011

Paul Tucker

Democratic

Salem

7th Essex

Salem, Essex County

2015

Lori Ehrlich

Democratic

Marblehead

8th Essex

Precinct 4 of ward 3, and precinct 4 of ward 4, of Lynn, and Marblehead and Swampscott, Essex County

2007

Donald Wong

Republican

Saugus

9th Essex

Precincts 1 and 2 of ward 1, of Lynn, and precincts 1, 2, 4–9, of Saugus, Essex County;Precincts 1, 2, 3 and 7, of Wakefield, Middlesex County

2011

Dan Cahill

Democratic

Lynn

10th Essex

Precincts 3 and 4 of Ward 1, Ward 2, Precincts 1, 2 and 3 of Ward 3, Precincts 1 and 2 of Ward 4, and Precincts 2 and 3 of Ward 5, of Lynn.

2016

Vacant

11th Essex

Precinct 3 of ward 4, precincts 1 and 4 of ward 5, wards 6 and 7, of Lynn, and Nahant, Essex County

Thomas Walsh

Democratic

Peabody

12th Essex

Wards 1–4 and precincts 1 and 3 of ward 5 of Peabody, Essex County

2016

Theodore C. Speliotis

Democratic

Danvers

13th Essex

Danvers, precinct 2 of Middleton and, precinct 2 of ward 5 and ward 6, of Peabody, Essex County

1997

Diana DiZoglio

Democratic

Methuen

14th Essex

Precinct 2 of ward 7 in Haverhill, precincts 1 and 3 of ward A and precinct 1 of ward F, of Lawrence, precincts 3, 7, and 10 of Methuen, and precincts 1–5 of North Andover, Essex County

2013

Linda Dean Campbell

Democratic

Methuen

15th Essex

Precincts 1 and 2 of ward 2, precinct 2 of ward 5 and precinct 1 of ward 7 in Haverhill and precincts 1, 4, 5, 6, 8–12 of Methuen, Essex County

2007

Juana Matias

Democratic

Lawrence

16th Essex

Precincts 2 and 4 of ward A, ward B, precinct 4 of ward C, precincts 2, 3 and 4 of ward E, and precincts 2, 3 and 4 of ward F, of Lawrence, Essex County

2017

Frank A. Moran

Democratic

Lawrence

17th Essex

Precincts 2, 3 and 4, of Andover, precincts 1, 2 and 3, of ward C, ward D, and precinct 1 of ward E, of Lawrence, and precinct 2 in Methuen, Essex County

2013

James J. Lyons, Jr.

Republican

Andover

18th Essex

Precincts 1, 5–9, of Andover, precinct 1, of Boxford and precincts 6, 7 and 8, of North Andover, Essex County;Precincts 3 and 3A of Tewksbury, Middlesex County

2011

text: Franklin[edit]

text: 2 Representatives (1 Democrat, 1 Unenrolled)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Stephen Kulik

Democratic

Worthington

1st Franklin

Chester, Hampden County;Ashfield, Buckland, Conway, Deerfield, Leverett, Montague, Shelburne, Shutesbury, Sunderland, and Whately, Franklin County;Chesterfield, Cummington, Goshen, Huntington, Middlefield, Plainfield, Williamsburg, and Worthington, Hampshire County

1993

Susannah Whipps Lee

Unenrolled

Athol

2nd Franklin

Erving, Gill, New Salem, Orange, Warwick, and Wendell, Franklin County;Precinct A of Belchertown, Hampshire County;Athol, Petersham, Phillipston, Royalston, and Templeton Worcester County

2015

text: Hampden[edit]

text: 12 Representatives (10 Democrats, 2 Republicans)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Todd Smola

Republican

Palmer

1st Hampden

Brimfield, Holland, Palmer and Wales, Hampden County;Precincts B and C, in Ware, Hampshire County;Sturbridge and Warren, Worcester County

2004

Brian Ashe

Democratic

Longmeadow

2nd Hampden

Precincts 2, 3 and 4, of East Longmeadow, Hampden, Longmeadow and Monson, Hampden County

2008

Nicholas Boldyga

Republican

Southwick

3rd Hampden

Agawam, Granville and Southwick, Hampden County

2011

John Velis

Democratic

Westfield

4th Hampden

Westfield, Hampden County

2014

Aaron Vega

Democratic

Holyoke

5th Hampden

Holyoke, Hampden County

2013

Michael Finn

Democratic

West Springfield

6th Hampden

Precinct A of ward 2, precinct A of ward 3, precinct A of ward 4, of Chicopee, precinct E of ward 2 of Springfield, and West Springfield, Hampden County

2011

Thomas Petrolati

Democratic

Ludlow

7th Hampden

Precinct B of ward 6, of Chicopee, Ludlow, precincts E, F and G of ward 8, of Springfield, Hampden County;Precincts B, C, and D, of Belchertown, Hampshire County

1986

Joseph Wagner

Democratic

Chicopee

8th Hampden

Ward 1, precinct B of ward 2, precinct B of ward 3, precinct B of ward 4, precinct B of ward 5, precinct A of ward 6, wards 7, 8 and 9, of Chicopee, Hampden County

1990

Jose Tosado

Democratic

Springfield

9th Hampden

Precincts A, B, C, D, F and G of ward 2, precincts C, D, G and H of ward 5, precincts F and H of ward 7, and precincts A, B, D and H of ward 8, of Springfield, and precinct A of ward 5 of Chicopee, Hampden County

2015

Carlos Gonzalez

Democratic

Springfield

10th Hampden

Ward 1, precincts B, C, D, E, F, G and H of ward 3, and precincts A, B and F of ward 6, of Springfield, in Hampden County

2015

Bud Williams

Democratic

Springfield

11th Hampden

Precinct H of ward 2, precinct A of ward 3, ward 4, precincts A, B, E and F of ward 5, precinct E of ward 6, precinct A of ward 7, and precinct C of ward 8, of Springfield, in Hampden County

2017

Angelo Puppolo

Democratic

Springfield

12th Hampden

Precinct 1, of East Longmeadow, precincts C, D, G and H of ward 6, precincts B, C, D, E and G of ward 7, of Springfield, and Wilbraham, all in Hampden County

2006

text: Hampshire[edit]

text: 3 Representatives (3 Democrats)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Vacant

1st Hampshire

Montgomery, in Hampden County;Hatfield, Northampton, Southampton and Westhampton, Hampshire County

John Scibak

Democratic

South Hadley

2nd Hampshire

Easthampton, precinct 2 of Granby, Hadley and South Hadley, Hampshire County

2003

Solomon Goldstein-Rose

Unenrolled

Amherst

3rd Hampshire

Amherst, precinct 1 of Granby and Pelham, Hampshire County

2017

text: Middlesex[edit]

text: 37 Representatives (33 Democrats, 3 Republicans, 1 Vacant)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Sheila Harrington

Republican

Groton

1st Middlesex

Ashby, Dunstable, Groton, Pepperell, Townsend and precinct 1 of Ayer, Middlesex County

2011

James Arciero

Democratic

Westford

2nd Middlesex

Precincts 5, 7 and 8, of Chelmsford and Littleton and Westford, Middlesex County

2009

Kate Hogan

Democratic

Stow

3rd Middlesex

Hudson, Maynard and Stow, all in Middlesex County;Bolton, Worcester County

2009

Danielle Gregoire

Democratic

Marlborough

4th Middlesex

Precinct 1 of ward 2, wards 3–6, and precinct 2 of ward 7, of Marlborough, Middlesex County;Precincts 1 and 3 of Northborough, and precincts 1 and 3 of Westborough, Worcester County

2009-2011  2013

David Linsky

Democratic

Natick

5th Middlesex

Natick and Sherborn, Middlesex County;Precincts 2 and 3, of Millis, Norfolk County

1999

Vacant

6th Middlesex

Precincts 1, 2, 4–7, 9–12 and 15, of Framingham, Middlesex County

Jack Patrick Lewis

Democratic

Ashland

7th Middlesex

Ashland, and precincts 8, 13, 14, 16, 17 and 18, of Framingham, Middlesex County

2017

Carolyn Dykema

Democratic

Holliston

8th Middlesex

Holliston and Hopkinton, Middlesex County;Southborough, and precinct 2, of Westborough, Worcester County

2009

Thomas Stanley

Democratic

Waltham

9th Middlesex

Lincoln, and wards 1, 2 and 3, precinct 1 of ward 4, precinct 2 of ward 5, precinct 1 of ward 6, and precinct 1 of ward 7, of Waltham, Middlesex County

2001

John J. Lawn

Democratic

Watertown

10th Middlesex

Precinct 1 and 4 of ward 1 of Newton, precinct 2 of ward 4, precinct 1 of ward 5, precinct 2 of ward 6, precinct 2 of ward 7, and wards 8 and 9, of Waltham, and precincts 10, 11 and 12, of Watertown, Middlesex County

2011

Kay Khan

Democratic

Newton

11th Middlesex

Precincts 2 and 3 of ward 1, ward 2, ward 3, ward 4, and precinct 2 of ward 7, of Newton, Middlesex County

1995

Ruth Balser

Democratic

Newton

12th Middlesex

Ward 5, ward 6, precincts 1, 3 and 4 of ward 7, and all precincts of ward 8, of Newton, Middlesex County

1999

Carmine Gentile

Democratic

Sudbury

13th Middlesex

Precinct 3 in Framingham, ward 1, precinct 2 of ward 2, and precinct 1 of ward 7 in Marlborough, Sudbury, precincts 1, 2 and 3 of Wayland, Middlesex County

2015

Cory Atkins

Democratic

Concord

14th Middlesex

Precincts 1, 2 and 6, of Acton, Carlisle and Concord, and precincts 1 and 9, of Chelmsford, Middlesex County

1999

Jay R. Kaufman

Democratic

Lexington

15th Middlesex

Lexington, and Wards 1 and 7, of Woburn, Middlesex County

1995

Thomas Golden, Jr.

Democratic

Lowell

16th Middlesex

Precincts 2, 3 and 6, of Chelmsford, wards 5, 6 and 9, of Lowell, Middlesex County

2003

David Nangle

Democratic

Lowell

17th Middlesex

Precinct 4, of Chelmsford, ward 1, precinct 3 of ward 2, precincts 2 and 3 of ward 4, and wards 10 and 11, of Lowell, Middlesex County

1999

Rady Mom

Democratic

Lowell

18th Middlesex

Precincts 1 and 2 of ward 2, ward 3, precinct 1 of ward 4, and wards 7 and 8, of Lowell, Middlesex County

2015

Vacant

19th Middlesex

Precincts 1, 1A, 2, 2A, 4 and 4A, of Tewksbury, and precincts 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6, of Wilmington, Middlesex County

Bradley Jones, Jr.

Republican

North Reading

20th Middlesex

Lynnfield, and precinct 1, of Middleton, Essex County;North Reading, and precincts 1, 6, 7 and 8, of Reading, Middlesex County

2003

Ken Gordon

Democratic

Bedford

21st Middlesex

Bedford and Burlington, and precinct 3, of Wilmington, Middlesex County

2013

Marc Lombardo

Republican

Billerica

22nd Middlesex

Billerica, Middlesex County

2011

Sean Garballey

Democratic

Arlington

23rd Middlesex

Precincts 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13–21 of Arlington, precinct 2 of ward 3, and precincts 1 and 2 of ward 6, of Medford, Middlesex County.

2008

Dave Rogers

Democratic

Cambridge

24th Middlesex

Precincts 2, 4, 8, 10 and 12, of Arlington, Belmont, precincts 1 and 3 of ward 11, of Cambridge, Middlesex County[21]

Marjorie Decker

Democratic

Cambridge

25th Middlesex

Ward 4, precincts 2 and 3 of ward 6, wards 7 and 8, and precincts 1 and 2 of ward 10, of Cambridge, Middlesex County[21]

2013

Mike Connolly

Democratic

Cambridge

26th Middlesex

Ward 1, precinct 1 of ward 2, ward 3, and precinct 1 of ward 6, of Cambridge, and ward 1 and precinct 1 of ward 2, of Somerville, Middlesex County[21]

2017

Denise Provost

Democratic

Somerville

27th Middlesex

Precincts 2 and 3 of ward 2, and wards 3, 5 and 6, of Somerville, Middlesex County

2006

Joe McGonagle

Democratic

Everett

28th Middlesex

Everett, Middlesex County

2015

Jon Hecht

Democratic

Watertown

29th Middlesex

Ward 9, precinct 3 of ward 10, and precinct 2 of ward 11, of Cambridge, and precincts 1–9, of Watertown, Middlesex County[21]

2009

James J. Dwyer

Democratic

Woburn

30th Middlesex

Precincts 2–5, of Reading, and wards 2–6, of Woburn, Middlesex County

2009

Michael Day

Democratic

Stoneham

31st Middlesex

Stoneham and Winchester, Middlesex County

Paul Brodeur

Democratic

Melrose

32nd Middlesex

Precinct 2 of ward 5 in Malden, Melrose, and precincts 4, 5 and 6, of Wakefield, Middlesex County

Steven Ultrino

Democratic

Malden

33rd Middlesex

Ward 2, precinct 1 of ward 3, ward 4, precinct 1 of ward 5, ward 6, precinct 2 of ward 7, and ward 8, of Malden, Middlesex County

2015

Christine Barber

Democratic

Somerville

34th Middlesex

Wards 4 and 5, precinct 1 of ward 7, and precinct 2 of ward 8, of Medford, and wards 4 and 7, of Somerville, Middlesex County

2015

Paul Donato

Democratic

Medford

35th Middlesex

Ward 1, precinct 2 of ward 3, precinct 1 of ward 7, of Malden, and ward 1 and 2, precinct 1 of ward 3, precinct 2 of ward 7, and precinct 1 of ward 8, of Medford, Middlesex County

2001

Colleen Garry

Democratic

Dracut

36th Middlesex

Dracut and Tyngsborough, Middlesex County

2003

Jennifer Benson

Democratic

Lunenburg

37th Middlesex

Precincts 3, 4 and 5, of Acton,  precinct 2 of Ayer, Boxborough and Shirley, all in Middlesex County;Harvard, and precincts A, C, and D, of Lunenburg, Worcester County

2009

text: Norfolk[edit]

text: 15 Representatives (14 Democrats, 1 Republican)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Bruce Ayers

Democratic

Quincy

1st Norfolk

Precincts 4 and 5 of ward 3, precincts 1 and 3 of ward 4, precinct 2 of ward 5, and ward 6, of Quincy, and precincts 5, 6, 11, and 12 of Randolph, Norfolk County

1999

Tackey Chan

Democratic

Quincy

2nd Norfolk

Ward 1, precincts 1 and 2 of ward 3, precincts 2 and 4 of ward 4 and precincts 1, 3, 4, and 5 of ward 5, of Quincy, Norfolk County

2011

Ronald Mariano

Democratic

Quincy

3rd Norfolk

Precincts 2, 3 and 4, of Holbrook, ward 2, and precinct 5 of ward 4, of Quincy, precincts 5, 6, 9, 12 and 16, of Weymouth, Norfolk County

1991

James Murphy

Democratic

Weymouth

4th Norfolk

Precincts 1–4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17 and 18, of Weymouth, Norfolk County;Precinct 2 of Hingham, Plymouth County

2001

Mark Cusack

Democratic

Braintree

5th Norfolk

Braintree, precinct 1, of Holbrook, precinct 4, of Randolph, Norfolk County

2011

William C. Galvin

Democratic

Canton

6th Norfolk

Avon and Canton, and precincts 1, 5, 7 and 8, of Stoughton, Norfolk County

1991

William Driscoll Jr.

Democratic

Milton

7th Norfolk

Precincts 3–10, of Milton, and precincts 1, 2, 3, 7–10, of Randolph, Norfolk County

Louis Kafka

Democratic

Stoughton

8th Norfolk

Precinct 4, of Mansfield, Bristol County;Sharon, precincts 2, 3, 4 and 6, of Stoughton, and precincts 3 and 4, of Walpole, Norfolk County

1991

Shawn Dooley

Republican

Norfolk

9th Norfolk

Precincts 3 and 4, of Medfield, precinct 1, of Millis, Norfolk and Plainville, precinct 5, of Walpole, and Wrentham, Norfolk County

2014

Jeffrey N. Roy

Democratic

Franklin

10th Norfolk

Franklin, and precincts 2, 3 and 4, of Medway, Norfolk County

2013

Paul McMurtry

Democratic

Dedham

11th Norfolk

Dedham, precinct 8, of Walpole, and Westwood, Norfolk County

2007

John H. Rogers

Democratic

Norwood

12th Norfolk

Norwood, precincts 1, 2, 6 and 7, of Walpole, Norfolk County

1992

Denise Garlick

Democratic

Needham

13th Norfolk

Dover, precincts 1 and 2 of Medfield, and Needham, Norfolk County

2011

Alice Peisch

Democratic

Wellesley

14th Norfolk

Precinct 4, of Wayland, and Weston, Middlesex County;Wellesley, Norfolk County

2003

Frank Smizik

Democratic

Brookline

15th Norfolk

Precincts 2–4, 6–13 of Brookline, Norfolk County

2001

text: Plymouth[edit]

text: 12 Representatives (7 Democrats, 5 Republicans)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Matt Muratore

Republican

Plymouth

1st Plymouth

Precincts 2–8, 10, 11, 12, 14 and 15, of Plymouth, Plymouth County

2015

Susan Williams Gifford

Republican

Wareham

2nd Plymouth

Carver, precincts 3 and 6, of Middleborough, and Wareham, Plymouth County

2003

Joan Meschino

Democratic

Hull

3rd Plymouth

Cohasset, Norfolk County;Precincts 1 and 3–6, of Hingham, Hull, and precinct 3, of Scituate, Plymouth County

Vacant

4th Plymouth

Marshfield, and precincts 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6, of Scituate, both in Plymouth County

David DeCoste

Republican

Norwell

5th Plymouth

Hanover, Norwell and Rockland, Plymouth County

2014

Josh S. Cutler

Democratic

Duxbury

6th Plymouth

Precincts 2-6, of Duxbury, the towns of Hanson and Pembroke, all in Plymouth County

2013

Geoff Diehl

Republican

Whitman

7th Plymouth

Abington, Precincts 2-4 in East Bridgewater and Whitman, Plymouth County

2011

Angelo D'Emilia

Republican

Bridgewater

8th Plymouth

Raynham, Bristol County;Bridgewater, Plymouth County

2011

Gerry Cassidy

Democratic

Brockton

9th Plymouth

Ward 2, precincts A, B, C of ward 3, precincts A and D of ward 4, precinct A of ward 5, and precincts A and B of ward 7, of Brockton, Plymouth County

Michelle DuBois

Democratic

Brockton

10th Plymouth

Precincts B and C of ward 4, precincts B, C and D of ward 5 and ward 6, of Brockton, precinct 1 of East Bridgewater, and West Bridgewater, Plymouth County

2015

Claire Cronin

Democratic

Brockton

11th Plymouth

Precincts 1–5, of Easton, Bristol County;Ward 1, precinct D of ward 3, and precincts C and D of ward 7, of Brockton, Plymouth County

2013

Vacant

12th Plymouth

Precinct 1 of Duxbury, Halifax, Kingston, precinct 1 of Middleborough, precincts 1, 11 and 13 of Plymouth, and Plympton, Plymouth County

text: Suffolk[edit]

text: 19 Representatives (19 Democrats)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Adrian Madaro

Democratic

East Boston, Boston

1st Suffolk

Precincts 1–14 of ward 1, of Boston, Suffolk County

Dan Ryan

Democratic

Charlestown, Boston

2nd Suffolk

Ward 2, of Boston, and Wards 1 and 2, precincts 1 and 3 of ward 3, and precincts 1 and 4 of ward 4, of Chelsea, Suffolk County

2014

Aaron M. Michlewitz

Democratic

North End, Boston

3rd Suffolk

Precincts 1–4, 6, 7 and 8 of ward 3, precinct 1 and 3 of ward 4, and precinct 1 of ward 5, of Boston, Suffolk County

2009

Vacant

4th Suffolk

Precinct 15 of ward 1, ward 6, precincts 1–8 of ward 7, and precinct 3 of ward 13, of Boston, Suffolk County

Evandro Carvalho

Democratic

Uphams Corner, Dorchester, Boston

5th Suffolk

Precinct 10 of ward 7, precincts 5, 6, and 7 of ward 8, precinct 6 of ward 12, precincts 1, 2, 4 and 5 of ward 13, precinct 1 of ward 14, precincts 1–5, 7, 8 and 9, of ward 15, and precincts 1 and 2 of ward 17, of Boston, Suffolk County

2014

Russell Holmes

Democratic

Mattapan, Boston

6th Suffolk

Precincts 2 and 4–14 of ward 14, precincts 6–9 of ward 17, precincts 7 and 8 of ward 18, and precinct 12 of ward 19, of Boston, Suffolk County

2011

Chynah Tyler

Democratic

Roxbury, Boston

7th Suffolk

Precincts 8, 9 and 10 of ward 4, sub-precinct 2A of ward 5, precincts 1–5 and 8 of ward 12, precincts 4 and 5 of ward 9, and precinct 1 of ward 21, of Boston, Suffolk County

Jay Livingstone

Democratic

Back Bay, Boston

8th Suffolk

Precinct 2 and 3 of ward 2, and ward 5, of Cambridge, in Middlesex County;Precinct 5 of ward 3, and precinct 6 of ward 4, and precincts 3–9 and 11 of ward 5, of Boston, Suffolk County[21]

2013

Byron Rushing

Democratic

South End, Boston

9th Suffolk

Precinct 2, 4, 5 and 7 of ward 4, precincts 2 and 10 of ward 5, precincts 1–4 of ward 8, and precincts 1, 2 and 3 of ward 9, of Boston, Suffolk County

1982

Edward F. Coppinger

Democratic

West Roxbury, Boston

10th Suffolk

Precincts 14–16, of Brookline, in Norfolk County;Precincts 1, 5–7, 10–20 of ward 20, of Boston, Suffolk County

2011

Liz Malia

Democratic

Jamaica Plain, Boston

11th Suffolk

Ward 11, precincts 7 and 9 of ward 12, precinct 3 of ward 14, and precincts 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 and 13, of ward 19, of Boston, Suffolk County

1998

Dan Cullinane

Democratic

Dorchester, Boston

12th Suffolk

Precincts 1 and 2 of Milton, Norfolk County;Precincts 8 and 11 of ward 16, precincts 4 and 10–14 of ward 17, precincts 1–6 and 21 of ward 18, of Boston, Suffolk County

2013

Daniel Hunt

Democratic

Savin Hill, Dorchester, Boston

13th Suffolk

Precinct 3 of ward 3, of the city of Quincy, Norfolk County;Precinct 9 of ward 7, precincts 6–10 of ward 13, precinct 6 of ward 15, precincts 1–7, 9, 10 and 12 of ward 16, and precincts 3 and 5 of ward 17, of Boston, Suffolk County

2014

Angelo Scaccia

Democratic

Readville, Hyde Park, Boston

14th Suffolk

Precincts 9–20, 22 and 23 of ward 18, precincts 3, 8 and 9 of ward 20, of Boston, Suffolk County

1981

Jeffrey Sanchez

Democratic

Jamaica Plain, Boston

15th Suffolk

Precinct 5 of Brookline, Norfolk County;Ward 10, precincts 1–5 and 8 of ward 19, and precincts 2 and 4 of ward 20, of Boston, Suffolk County

2003

RoseLee Vincent

Democratic

Revere

16th Suffolk

Precincts 3 and 10, of Saugus, in Essex County;Precincts 2 and 4 of ward 3, precincts 2 and 3 of ward 4, of Chelsea, and precinct 3 of ward 1, precinct 1 of ward 3, ward 4, precincts 1 and 2 of ward 5, and ward 6, of Revere, Suffolk County

2014

Kevin Honan

Democratic

Brighton, Boston

17th Suffolk

Precincts 3, 5–12 and 15 of ward 21, and precincts 2, 3, 6, 9 and 10 in ward 22, of Boston, Suffolk County

Michael Moran

Democratic

Brighton, Boston

18th Suffolk

Precinct 1, of Brookline, Norfolk County;Precincts 2, 4, 13, 14 and 16 of ward 21, and precincts 1, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12 and 13 of ward 22, of Boston, Suffolk County

Robert DeLeo

Democratic

Winthrop

19th Suffolk

Precincts 1 and 2 of ward 1, ward 2, precincts 2 and 3 of ward 3, and precinct 3 of ward 5, of Revere, and Winthrop, Suffolk County

1995

text: Worcester[edit]

text: 18 Representatives (9 Democrats, 9 Republicans)

text:
Representative

Party

Residence

District

District Description

First elected

Kimberly Ferguson

Republican

Holden

1st Worcester

Holden, Paxton, Princeton, Rutland, precinct 1 of Sterling, and precinct 2 of Westminster, Worcester County

2010

Jonathan Zlotnik

Democratic

Gardner

2nd Worcester

Ashburnham, Gardner, Winchendon, and precinct 1 of Westminster, Worcester County

2012

Stephan Hay

Democratic

Fitchburg

3rd Worcester

Fitchburg and precinct B of Lunenburg, Worcester County

2016

Natalie Higgins

Democratic

Leominster

4th Worcester

Leominster, Worcester County

2016

Donnie Berthiaume

Republican

Spencer

5th Worcester

Precinct A, of Ware, Hampshire County;Barre, Brookfield, East Brookfield, Hardwick, Hubbardston, New Braintree, North Brookfield, Oakham, precincts 2, 3 and 4, in Spencer, and West Brookfield, Worcester County

2014

Peter Durant

Republican

Spencer

6th Worcester

Precincts 1, 2 and 3 of Charlton, Dudley, Southbridge, and precinct 1, of Spencer, Worcester County

2011

Paul Frost

Republican

Auburn

7th Worcester

Auburn, precinct 4 of Charlton, Millbury, and precincts 2 and 3, of Oxford, Worcester County

1996

Kevin Kuros

Republican

Uxbridge

8th Worcester

Bellingham, Norfolk County;Blackstone, Millville, and Uxbridge, Worcester County

2008

David Muradian

Republican

Grafton

9th Worcester

Grafton, Northbridge and Upton, Worcester County

2014

Brian Murray

Democratic

Milford

10th Worcester

Precinct 1, of Medway, Norfolk County;Hopedale, Mendon and Milford, Worcester County

2016

Hannah Kane

Republican

Shrewsbury

11th Worcester

Shrewsbury, and precincts 4 and 5, of Westborough, Worcester County

2015

Harold Naughton, Jr.

Democratic

Clinton

12th Worcester

Berlin, Boylston, Clinton, Lancaster, precincts 2 and 4 of Northborough, and precinct 2 of Sterling, Worcester County

1994

John J. Mahoney

Democratic

Worcester

13th Worcester

Precincts 1–4 of ward 1, precinct 2 of ward 3, ward 9, and precinct 1 of ward 10, of Worcester, Worcester County

2010

James O'Day

Democratic

West Boylston

14th Worcester

West Boylston, and precinct 5 of ward 1, ward 2, and precincts 1, 3 and 5 of ward 3, of Worcester, Worcester County

2007

Mary Keefe

Democratic

Worcester

15th Worcester

Precincts 2–5, of ward 10, precinct 4 of ward 3, ward 4, and precinct 3 of ward 5, of Worcester, Worcester County

2012

Dan Donahue

Democratic

Worcester

16th Worcester

Precincts 1, 2, 4 and 5, of ward 5, ward 6, and precincts 1 and 5 of ward 8, of Worcester, Worcester County

2013

Kate Campanale

Republican

Leicester

17th Worcester

Leicester, and ward 7, and precincts 2, 3 and 4 of ward 8, of Worcester, Worcester County

2014

Joseph D. McKenna

Republican

Webster

18th Worcester

Douglas, precincts 1 and 4 of Oxford, Sutton, and Webster, Worcester County

2014

text: Past composition of the House of Representatives[edit]


document_title: A Time to Kill (Grisham novel)

question_text: when does the movie a time to kill take place

text: A Time to Kill (Grisham novel)

text: Setting[edit]

text: The story takes place in the fictional town of Clanton, Mississippi in the 1980s, a period of time during which racial tension was heavily prevalent in America. This setting is also featured in other John Grisham novels. Three of the characters, Jake Brigance, Harry Rex Vonner and Lucien Wilbanks, later appear in the 2013 sequel Sycamore Row. Harry Rex Vonner and Lucien Wilbanks also appear in Grisham's 2003 novel The Last Juror, which is set in Clanton in the 1970s. Harry Rex Vonner also appears in the 2002 Grisham novel, The Summons, and in the short story "Fish Files," in the 2009 collection Ford County. A brief reference to the events depicted in the book is also contained in Grisham's 1994 novel The Chamber.

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: In 1984 at the De Soto County courthouse in Hernando, Grisham witnessed the harrowing testimony of a 12-year-old rape victim.[1] The inspiration came from the case of the rape and assault of 12 year old Marcie Scott and her 16-year-old sister Julie Scott. Unlike Grisham's depiction, however, the Scotts were white and their assailant, Willie Harris, was black.[2] According to Grisham's official website, Grisham used his spare time to begin his first novel, which "explored what would have happened if the girl's father had murdered her assailants." [1] He spent three years on A Time to Kill and finished it in 1987. Grisham has also cited Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird as an influence. This book is set in 1984.[3] Another stated inspiration was the success of Presumed Innocent.[4]

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the small town of Clanton, in fictional Ford County, Mississippi, a ten-year-old African-American girl named Tonya Hailey is viciously raped and beaten by two redneck white supremacists, James "Pete" Willard and Billy Ray Cobb. Tonya is later found and rushed to the hospital while Pete and Billy Ray are heard bragging at a roadside bar about their crime. Tonya's distraught and outraged father, Carl Lee Hailey, consults his friend Jake Brigance, a white attorney who had previously represented Hailey's brother, on whether he could get Carl Lee acquitted if he killed the two men. Jake tells Carl Lee not to do anything stupid, but admits that if it had been his daughter, he would kill the rapists. Carl Lee is determined to avenge Tonya and, while Pete and Billy Ray are being led into holding after their bond hearing, he kills both men with an M-16.

text: Carl Lee is charged with capital murder. Despite efforts to persuade Carl Lee to retain high-powered attorneys, he elects to be represented by Jake. Helping Jake are two loyal friends, disbarred attorney Lucien Wilbanks and sleazy divorce lawyer Harry Rex Vonner. Later, the team is assisted by liberal law student Ellen Roark, who has prior experience with death penalty cases and offers her services as a temporary clerk pro bono. Ellen appears to be interested in Jake romantically, but the married Jake resists her overtures. The team also receives some illicit behind-the-scenes help from black county sheriff Ozzie Walls, a figure beloved by the black community and also well respected by the white community who upholds the law by arresting Carl Lee but, as the father of two daughters of his own, privately supports Carl Lee and gives him special treatment while in jail and goes out of the way to assist Jake in any way he legally can. Carl Lee is prosecuted by Ford County's corrupt district attorney, Rufus Buckley, who hopes that the case will boost his political career. It is claimed that the judge presiding over Carl Lee's trial, Omar "Ichabod" Noose, has been intimidated by local white supremacist elements. This proves true when, despite having no history of racist inclinations in his rulings, Noose refuses Jake's perfectly reasonable request for a change of venue, even though the racial make-up of Ford County virtually guarantees an all-white jury.

text: Billy Ray's brother, Freddy, seeks revenge against Carl Lee, enlisting the help of the Mississippi branch of the Ku Klux Klan and its Grand Dragon, Stump Sisson. Subsequently, the KKK attempts to plant a bomb beneath Jake's porch, leading him to send his wife and daughter out of town until the trial is over. Later, the KKK attacks Jake's secretary, Ethel Twitty, and kills her frail husband, Bud. On the day the trial begins, a riot erupts between the KKK and the area's black residents outside of the courthouse; Stump is killed by a molotov cocktail. Believing that the black people are at fault for Stump's death, Freddy and the KKK increase their attacks. As a result, the National Guard is called to Clanton to keep the peace during Carl Lee's trial. Undeterred, Freddy continues his efforts to get revenge for Billy Ray's death. The KKK shoots at Jake one morning as he is being escorted into the courthouse, missing Jake but seriously wounding one of the guardsmen assigned to protect him. They continue to burn crosses throughout Clanton. Later, they burn down Jake's house, killing his dog.

text: Despite the loss of his house and several setbacks at the start of the trial, Jake perseveres. Jake badly discredits the state's psychiatrist by establishing that he has never conceded to the insanity of any defendant in any criminal case in which he has been asked to testify, even when several other doctors have been in consensus otherwise. He traps the doctor with a revelation that several previous defendants found insane in their trials are currently under his care despite his having testified to their "sanity" in their respective trials. Jake follows this up with a captivating closing statement. After lengthy deliberations, the jury acquits Carl Lee by reason of temporary insanity. Carl Lee returns to his family and the story ends with Jake, Lucien and Harry Rex having a celebratory drink before Jake holds a press conference and leaving town to reunite with his family.

text: Legal issues and social conventions[edit]

text: At the heart of the novel is a deep discrepency between written law and prevailing social conventions.

text: Since the facts of the case are undisputed - Carl Lee did kill the two rapists - the only way in law to get a verdict of not guilty is to plead temporary insanity. Ellen Roark prepares for Brigance a thorough study of all Mississippi precedents touching on the relevant British M'Naghten rules which apply in Mississippi as in sixteen other US states. Brigance gets a psychiatrist to prove that Carl Lee was indeed insane while committing his act, and the state gets an opposing psychiatrist to assert he was completely sane and therefore culpable. Much of the trial is devoted to prosecution and defense trying to discredit each other's expert witnesses. Yet in fact, no one truly takes seriously the issue of Carl Lee's sanity, and it has only a marginal place in the jurors' deliberations and the final verdict they reach.

text: The true issue, of which everybody is acutely aware though it is never mentioned in open court, is quite different - i.e. the right to private, extrajudicial revenge. There is no such right recognized in American law - but as depicted in the book, in the prevailing social conventions of Ford County such a right is generally accepted and taken for granted. Throughout the book, numerous minor and major characters, including the protagonist Brigance himself, repeatedly express the opinion that in the case of rape - and certainly in the case of a particularly brutal rape of a very young girl - the victim's father is entitled to exact revenge on the rapists. Many characters say outright that such an act of revenge should not only be condoned but also praised.

text: It is taken for granted by everybody that, had it been a white father on trial on identical charges, an aquittal would have been the certain and foregone verdict. The only real question at issue is whether or not such a socially-recognized right of private revenge would also apply to a black father taking revenge on white rapists. This makes it an issue of racial equality, getting it a nation-wide interest and making the NAACP intervene on one side and the Ku Klux Klan - on the other. Also in the deliberations of the jurors, the question of Carl Lee's sanity - which in theory should have been the paramount consideration - in fact has only a marginal place. The jurors deadlock is broken when a woman juror makes an emotional appeal to her fellows, asking them to imagine how they would have ruled if "a white ten years old girl, blond and blue-eyed" had been raped and brutalized by two drunken blacks. All jurors viscerally agree that in such a case they would have acquitted a vengeful white father - which leads them to agree that a black father deserves the same treatment.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
The 1996 Joel Schumacher film A Time to Kill starring Samuel L. Jackson and Matthew McConaughey is based on this novel.
A theatre adaptation, based on this novel, was written by Rupert Holmes, directed by Ethan McSweeny and presented by Daryl Roth/Arena Stage at the Arena Stage, Washington, D.C. in 2011.[5]
The Rupert Holmes adaptation opened on Broadway on October 20, 2013 at the Golden Theatre, directed by McSweeny. The cast featured Tom Skerritt, Patrick Page and Tonya Pinkins.[6] The production closed on November 17, 2013.[7][8]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: A sequel novel, titled Sycamore Row, was released on October 22, 2013.[9]