document_title: Social security in Australia

question_text: when did the old age pension start in australia

question_tokens: when did the old age pension start in australia

text: Social security in Australia

text: History[edit]

text: Prior to 1900 in Australia, charitable assistance from benevolent societies, sometimes with financial contributions from the authorities, was the primary means of relief for people not able to support themselves.[1] The 1890s economic depression and the rise of the trade unions and the Labor parties during this period led to a movement for welfare reform.[2]

text: In 1900, the states of New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65 and over. Queensland legislated a similar system in 1907 before the Australian  labor Commonwealth government led by Andrew Fisher introduced a national aged pension under the Invalid and Old-Aged Pensions Act 1908. A national invalid diasbility pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced in 1912.[1][3]

text: During the Second World War, Australia under a labor government created a welfare state by enacting national schemes for: child endowment in 1941 (superseding the 1927 New South Wales scheme); a widows’ pension in 1942 (superseding the New South Wales 1926 scheme); a wife’s allowance in 1943; additional allowances for the children of pensioners in 1943; and unemployment, sickness, and special benefits in 1945 (superseding the Queensland 1923 scheme).[1][3]

text: The Social Services Legislation Amendment (Welfare Reform) Bill 2017 has changed several aspects of social security in Australia, and has been given assent to as of 11 April 2018.[4]  It includes a demerit-point system for not meeting welfare obligations.[5]

text: Contemporary welfare attitudes[edit]

text: Current attitudes toward welfare in Australia can be separated into support for the welfare system and support for welfare recipients. A multivariate analysis using canonical correlation analysis identified five distinct profiles of welfare attitudes and socio-demographic characteristics.[6] The main attitude cluster was one toward support for the welfare system and welfare recipients. Having receiving government welfare in the past strongly predicted a person supporting the welfare system and its beneficiaries. The next most prominent attitude profile was summarized as 'the welfare system is good but the people on it are lazy and dependent'. This attitude profile was found among people receiving welfare payments that were either normative (e.g. the age pension) or where there is little expectation that a person will return to work (e.g. disability support pension). Overall, Australian's hold more negative attitudes toward welfare recipients than they do the welfare system. People with a history of receiving unemployment benefits tend to have more negative welfare attitudes if they live in areas where other community members have more negative attitudes.[7]

text: Legal framework[edit]

text: Social security payments and other benefits are currently made available under the following acts of parliament:

text:
Social Security Act 1991
A New Tax System (Family Assistance) Act 1999
Student Assistance Act 1973
Paid Parental Leave Act 2010

text: Payments under the Social Security Act and the Student Assistance Act[edit]

text:
ABSTUDY – offers a range of allowances to assist Indigenous students and New Apprentices.
Age Pension – for people planning for retirement or who are already retired aged 65 years and over.
Assistance for Isolated Children – for families with a child who cannot attend school locally because of distance or special needs.
Austudy Payment – for full-time students and New Apprentices aged 25 years or over.
Carer Allowance – for people who care for minors 16–17 and adults over 18 years with a disability.
Carer Allowance (Child) – for people who care for a child under 16 years with a disability.
Carer Payment – for people who provide full-time care for someone with a disability
Disability Support Pension – for people unable to work for 2 years due to illness, injury or disability.
Double Orphan Pension – for people who are raising children who have lost both parents.
Maternity Payment – for help with those extra costs after the birth of a new baby.
Newstart Allowance – for people who are looking for employment.
Parenting Payment – for parents or guardians to help with the cost of raising children under 6 for partnered parents and under 8 for sole parents.
Pensioner Education Supplement – for people on pensions with education expenses.
Special Benefit – for people who are in financial hardship, have no way of supporting themselves and are not entitled to another payment (normally due to residency requirements)
Youth Allowance – for full-time students or New Apprentices aged 15 (under some circumstances) 16 to 24 and people aged under 21 who are undertaking job search or a combination of approved activities.

text: Income support[edit]

text: All Centrelink income support payments are payable fortnightly, usually by direct deposit required into the recipient's bank account. They are also subject to a means test which calculates the recipient (and their partner's) fortnightly income and assets and affects the rate of their payment accordingly. As such, people on lower incomes may be entitled to part-payment of their allowance (subject to other qualification requirements). The assessment of income and assets varies greatly between different social security payments and the effect that income and assets have on each payment differs in that they have different income thresholds (i.e. how much income one can earn before it affects their payment) and different taper rates (the amount the payment drops by per dollar above these thresholds).

text: An individual may be precluded from claiming any of income support payments listed below for a certain number of weeks following receipt of a lump sum compensation payment, made wholly or partly in respect of lost earnings or lost capacity to earn resulting from personal injury[8] (often received in settlement of a Workers' Compensation claim). The number of weeks for which the preclusion period applies to an individual is proportional the size of the lump sum payment they received.[9] Centrelink has a discretion to reduce the duration of the preclusion period if it is satisfied that there exist special circumstances that make an individual's case out of the ordinary: for example, extreme financial hardship.[10]

text: Age Pension[edit]

text: The Age Pension was the first payment made by the Commonwealth Government, dating back to 1909.[citation needed] It is available to persons aged 65 years and over.[11] The eligibility age is currently being progressively increased to a cap of 67 years old.[12]  Except for the mandatory superannuation scheme, workers do not contribute to a pension or insurance scheme in Australia, unlike pension schemes in many other countries.[citation needed] Taxpayer-funded pensions are means tested.[11]

text: Newstart Allowance[edit]

text: Newstart Allowance is an unemployment benefit paid to unemployed people aged 22 to 64. To be eligible, a person must apply for the benefit and be actively seeking work. On 1 July 1991, it replaced the Unemployment Benefit (UB) which had been unchanged since 1945.[13] It was part of a government reform called Newstart - the Active Employment Strategy.[14]

text: It is paid on the basis of a 'mutual agreement' between the customer and Centrelink, where Centrelink will continue to pay fortnightly payments to the customer for so long as the customer attempts to find employment and fulfills the mutual obligation requirements. These mutual agreements are negotiated between Centrelink, the job seeker and their Job Services Australia provider or Disability Employment Services provider, and are recorded into an Employment Pathway Plan or "EPP". Activities to which a job seeker may have to agree, in order to continue receiving the Newstart Allowance, include applying for a specific number of jobs (usually ten) per fortnight and recording these applications in a Centrelink issued diary,[15] undertaking vocational education or training, paid work experience, participation in a labour market program or Work for the Dole project, and other activities, such as voluntary work if considered appropriate by Centrelink.[16] For example, more elderly customers who have been made redundant and are approaching the age pension age, and who may face considerable difficulties re-entering the labour market, are often permitted to fulfil their plan by engaging in voluntary activities alone. A job seeker has to nominate and engage in one activity (for example, either a vocational education activity or Work for the Dole activity) in any one mutual obligation period (lasting six months at a time).

text: Clients are not expected to engage in the more intensive of these activities as soon as their receipt of the allowance commences. The amount of activity required on behalf of the client in order to continue receiving his/her benefit is usually staggered as follows:

text:
Ordinarily, during the first three months of unemployment, a job seeker has no other obligations but to submit a fortnightly Application For Payment form at the local office. The form asks the applicant a number of questions about his /her circumstances and for the basic details of four positions for which the job seeker applied in the last fortnight. Customers may also be required to make up to 10 'Job Search Contacts' per fortnight (dependent on the local labour market and their personal circumstances) and record the details of these jobs within a specifically issued Job Seeker Diary for a given period of time. The job seeker then takes the Application For Payment form personally to the local Centrelink Office. He will then attend a short one-on-one interview with a Centrelink officer. The interview is usually for the purposes of checking that the application form is in order and that the applicant is aware of any appointments that may need to be attended, and obligations that may need to be met. The client at this stage also has the opportunity to talk to a Centrelink officer about any problems the client may be encountering without having to make a prior appointment first.
If after an initial three months of unemployment, during which the job seeker has only to hand in the fortnightly application form and record the Job Seeker Diary, the client remains unemployed; the client will be required to attend appointments with a Job Services Australia provider whose responsibility it is to assist the client to re-enter the work force. The job seeker also has to attend a two-week training course which focusses on job searching skills such as writing resumes and attending interviews.
If the customer remains unemployed for twelve months, they are then subject to the Work Experience Phase of their Employment Pathway Plan, which consists of more intensive assistance involving the activities listed above, such as, Work for the Dole, accredited study, part-time work, volunteer work or a combination of these. A Job Services Australia provider may require a Newstart recipient to do voluntary work (up to 15 hours a week), for which clients receive a supplement to their benefit of $20.80 per fortnight. The supplement is also paid to Work for the Dole participants.[17] They must also continue to apply for 4 or more positions at the same time to meet their mutual obligations.
If the client becomes long-term unemployed (24 months or longer), the client's activity requirements will usually consist of another Work Experience Phase style activity for six months in any twelve-month period. (Australia's unemployment benefits do not have a time limit: it is, in theory, possible to remain on unemployment benefits for the whole of one's working life).

text: Newstart Allowance rates are adjusted on 20 March and 20 September each year. As of September 2013, the basic Newstart rate for a single unemployed person without children is A$501 per fortnight. However, this basic rate does not include supplement payments which can include Rent Assistance of up to A$121.00 per fortnight, and other supplements, such as Pharmaceutical Allowance, Telephone Allowance, Remote Area Allowance, Training Supplement and the Work For The Dole Supplement; which are paid depending on personal circumstances and activity.[18] Rates differ for married couples, registered relationships or de facto couples (including same sex or opposite sex couples) and persons with children.  Despite significant increases in the cost of living, the increases to the Newstart Allowance have not kept pace with inflation. The initial income threshold has only risen from 1987's $60 to $62 in 2000 where it remains today.

text: On 1 March 2010, the Australian Government introduced changes to Disability Employment Services. Multiple existing programs were streamlined into two clearly distinct programs, making assessment and referral processes less complex.

text: All eligible job seekers with disability have access to individually tailored services which meet their needs including capacity building, training, work experience and other 'interventions' to help participants obtain and maintain suitable employment. DES providers support and manage a participant's condition in the workplace, along with providing ongoing support in the workplace for as long as it is required.

text: New compliance rules were introduced on 1 July 2011, dealing with client meetings with a DES provider and payment suspension. Data released in mid-November 2013 showed that the number of welfare recipients had grown by 55%. In 2007 228,621 Newstart Allowance recipients were registered, a total that increased to 646,414 in March 2013.[19]

text: Patrick McClure has as of January 2014 been appointed by the Abbott Government to a review targeting benefits on people in receipt of Newstart Allowance and the Disability Support Pension reporting in February 2014.[20]

text: In the 2016 Australian federal budget, the Turnbull Government planned to cease the clean energy supplement of $4.40 for people beginning Newstart after 20 September.[21]

text: In 2017, the Australian Council of Social Service stated that the Newstart Allowance was $160 below the poverty line.[22] The Business Council of Australia also advocates for increasing the Newstart Allowance, saying that it is impossible to live on.[23] In March 2018, Newstart was raised by 50 cents per day, which was criticised as inadequate.[24] After handing down the 2018 Australian federal budget, Treasurer Scott Morrison rejected calls to increase the rate of the Newstart Allowance, saying "my priority is to give tax relief to people who are working and paying taxes".[25] Newstart has not been increased since 1994,[26][27] when it was increased by $2.95 per week.[24]

text: The Anti Poverty Network of South Australia in 2018 with the Newstart Choir recorded a revised version of the It's Time song used by the Australian Labor Party in 1972 to win the election after 23 years of Conservative Government. The song is a campaign to the Australian Labor Party to commit if elected at the next federal election to raising Newstart.[28]

text: Youth Allowance[edit]

text: Youth Allowance is an income support payment available to full-time students and Australian Apprentices aged 16–24, and to job seekers and those undertaking a combination of other activities leading to employment aged 16–20.

text: Youth Allowance recipients are considered to either be dependent on a caregiver(s), or independent. The underlying philosophy of Youth Allowance is that legal guardians are responsible for supporting their children where they have the means if that young person has not lived independently from them.

text: Dependent recipients are subject to the Parental Income Test[29] and Family Assets Test, unless a parent is in receipt of a specified income support payment themselves. A dependent Youth Allowance recipients may be exempt from the Parental Income Test if their parent is in receipt of an income support payment themselves. A dependent recipient's rate of payment will be reduced as a result of parental income above the parental income free area, although the parental income free area can be increased by sibling concessions.

text: Dependent Youth Allowance recipients may also be subject to the Family Actual Means Test (FAMT)[30] which applies where the parent is self-employed, involved in a trust or company or several other categories. The rationale behind the FAMT is that the taxable income on which Youth Allowance is normally based may not accurately reflect the true financial means of parents in these categories. It asks for details of the family's spending on living expenses during the relevant tax year and extrapolates an equivalent notional taxable income from this. Sole traders involved in primary production and parents receiving drought assistance such as Exceptional Circumstances Relief Payment are exempt.

text: All Youth Allowance recipients are subject to the Personal Income Test, which takes into account any income they may earn through part-time or casual work. If an independent Youth Allowance customer has a partner, then their income will be included under the Partner Income Test.

text: Youth Allowance has lower payment rates for recipients who live with a parent or guardian compared to those who live away from home. Recipients living 'away from home' may also be eligible for Rent Assistance.

text: Fifteen-year-olds can also receive Youth Allowance if they are defined as independent and are over the school leaving age in the state of residence. The school leaving age is 17 in all states and territories of Australia.

text: Youth Allowance was introduced from July 1998 and replaced Youth Training Allowance and Newstart Allowance for job seekers under 21 and AUSTUDY for students under 25.

text: In 2009 a number of significant changes to Youth Allowance were announced in the Federal Budget. Some of the proposed changes included introducing new scholarships for university students, and changes to the independence criteria and Parental Income Test. These changes were passed by Parliament on 17 March 2010. The changes will be implemented over a number of years, beginning with the introduction of new scholarships from 1 April 2010.[31]

text: In the 2011–12 Budget, the Australian Government announced that from 1 July 2012, Youth Allowance (other) will be extended to 21-year-olds (currently 21-year-olds are eligible for Newstart Allowance). Twenty-one-year-olds who are on Newstart Allowance, or who have applied for it, by 1 July 2012 will not be affected by the change.[32]

text: Austudy Payment[edit]

text: The Austudy Payment was originally known as the AUSTUDY Scheme, an all-ages study allowance, but since the introduction of Youth Allowance (see above) it has been reserved for the over-25s. To qualify, one must be an Australian resident, over 25, and studying full-time at an approved education institution. However, students who were receiving a Youth Allowance prior to turning 25 and are still pursuing the same course of study continue to receive a Youth Allowance until they finish (or otherwise terminate) their course.

text: Unlike Youth Allowance, Austudy recipients are considered to be independent and are not subject to the Parental Income Test, Family Assets Test and the Family Actual Means Test. As part of the 2007 Australian federal budget, Austudy Payment recipients are eligible for Rent Assistance from 1 January 2008. Prior to 1 January 2008, Rent Assistance was not payable with Austudy. Like most Centrelink payments, Austudy Payments are subject to a personal and/or partner income and assets test.

text: ABSTUDY[edit]

text: ABSTUDY (The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Study Assistance Scheme) is a welfare payment for Indigenous Australians undergoing some form of study. All Indigenous students at secondary or tertiary institutions, as well as those studying by correspondence, and primary students who turned 14 prior to 1 January of their current year of study. To qualify as Indigenous, a student must be of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander descent by Centrelink standards and be a current Australian citizen. ABSTUDY is tailored according to income tests, and the status of partners, guardians, and dependent children.

text: Whilst this payment is administered through Centrelink, the payment is made under ABSTUDY Policy. The responsibility for ABSTUDY Policy rests with the Minister of Education and the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, and is not contained within the Social Security Act 1991.

text: Disability Support Pension[edit]

text: Provides income support for people who suffer a long-term disability, which in the opinion of an assessor they will not recover from in the next two years, and which will render them unable to work or participate in a training activity enabling them to work. The basic rate for a single person is A$782.20 (as at March 2015); different rates apply to persons under 18 with no children, and to couples, married, de facto or in a same-sex relationship. The payment is income and assets-tested. However, if an applicant is permanently blind, they can receive DSP without income and assets tests, and without needing to prove any inability to work, etc. DSP can take a while to process, so as a temporary measure claimants are placed on another payment (e.g. Newstart with a medical certificate to cover the activity tests) while the payment is being assessed; once granted it is backdated to the claim date at the higher DSP rate.

text: Patrick McClure has of January 2014 been appointed by the Abbott Government to a review targeting benefits on people in receipt of Newstart Allowance and the Disability Support Pension reporting in February 2014.[20]  Eligibility criteria for the DSP has been made more strict, and unsuccessful claimants can only receive the Newstart Allowance, which pays $170 less per week.  According to ACOSS, between 2010 and 2016 there was a large drop in successful claims to the DSP.[33]

text: Sickness Allowance[edit]

text: A Sickness Allowance is paid for those currently suffering an illness, injury, or disability (short-term i.e. less than two years), are employed, and have no access to leave or have used all their leave. It is paid under the Newstart system without an Activity Test.

text: Carer Payment[edit]

text: A Carer Payment is made to those providing full-time care to someone who is ill, injured or has a disability.

text: Parenting Payment[edit]

text: A payment for those who are principal carers of dependent children under the age of 6 for partnered customers and children under the age of 8 for single customers.  Parenting Payment Partnered is classified as an allowance and Parenting Payment Single is classified as a pension.

text: A controversial decision by the Labor party in 2006 and 2013, to transfer sole parents to the lower Newstart payment, has placed sole parents well below the poverty line.  Welfare groups have reported these parents, 82.3% of which are women (ABS 2011), are turning to prostitution (because of the cash in hand options), have given up their education and are sleeping in their cars.[citation needed] This decision was made as an incentive for parents to seek work, as 57% of primary residential mothers work and 70% of primary residential fathers work (ABS 2011). With one quarter of single parent households headed by a single parent being 896,542 families (17.7% male & 82.3% female, ABS 2011)

text: Parenting Payment Partnered uses an individual and a partner income test to determine the rate of payment with benefit withdrawal rates of 60 cents in the dollar (as of 1 July 2007) on income over the legislated limits. A partner's gross earnings are assessed as shared, regardless of individual tax already paid. If, for example, the breadwinner is currently paying 30 per cent personal tax, the effective marginal tax rate (EMTR) after benefit withdrawal is 90 percent of earnings above the legislated limit (the EMTR prior to 1 July 2007 is 100% as the benefit withdrawal rate is 70% of the partner's earnings above the legislated income limit).

text: Additional and supplementary payments[edit]

text: Rent Assistance[edit]

text: Income support recipients who are classed as non-homeowners and pay more than a required amount of board or rent for accommodation are eligible for Rent Assistance payments. This payment is paid as part of the income support payment. Verification of the rent details is required, either a lease or by completing a Rent Certificate every six months. The amount of rent assistance a recipient is eligible for depends on the amount of rent one is paying. The basic rate for a single person with no children and not sharing accommodation is as follows. As at 28 January 2010, Rent Assistance begins to be paid when a renter's fortnightly rent is in excess of A$99.40. For every dollar in excess of this amount, Rent Assistance pays A$0.75, up to a maximum of A$111.80 per fortnight. The maximum amount payable is lower for those sharing accommodation, in which case it is A$74.53. Different rates apply to couples, couples separated by illness, couples temporarily separated and singles and couples with dependent children.[34]

text: Pharmaceutical Allowance[edit]

text: A payment of A$6.00 per fortnight for those receiving Centrelink payments, to help cover the cost of prescription medicines. The amount covers the cost of one prescription per fortnight for a concession card holder eligible for the concessional rate of medicines (A$5.90 per script from 1 January 2013)[35] which are covered under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme, which covers most prescription medicines available.[36]

text: Telephone Allowance[edit]

text: A payment issued quarterly to eligible customers receiving pension payments, to help cover the cost of telephone bills. Eligible customers must have a telephone service subscribed in their name to be eligible for Telephone Allowance. There are two rates payable: a basic rate of A$23.40 and a higher rate of A$35.20.[37]

text: Pensioner Education Supplement[edit]

text: "The Pensioner Education Supplement (PES) helps [recipients] with the costs of full-time or part-time study."[38] It is an additional payment for those on a pension. It only applies to approved courses of study. Bachelor's degrees and many TAFE courses are approved courses of study, but generally postgraduate study is not. One is still eligible for PES for study even if you have completed previous studies.

text: Payments made under the A New Tax System (Family Assistance) Act[edit]

text:
Family Tax Benefit Part A – for parents or carers to help with the cost of raising children.
Family Tax Benefit Part B – for single income families or sole parents.
Maternity Immunisation Allowance – for fully immunised children or those exempt from immunisation
Child Care Benefit – for families to help with the cost of child care.
Schoolkids Bonus - for families for the cost of education for children in primary and secondary school.

text: Family Tax benefit[edit]

text: Family Tax Benefit is a per-child payment made through the Department of Human Services to the people with at least 35 per cent of care for a child. Family Tax Benefit is income-tested on a family's adjusted taxable income in the given financial year. Income support recipients are exempt from the income test and are entitled to the maximum rate of payment.

text: Payments can be paid in fortnightly instalments or as a lump sum payment at the end of the year. For Family Tax Benefit paid in instalments, the income test is based on an estimate of adjusted taxable income that is reconciled after the recipient has lodged their tax return. The reconciliation process compares the estimated income with their actual income.

text:
Centrelink debt is accrued for overpayments, when customers underestimate their income.
A top-up payment is granted at the end of the year, when customers overestimate their income which can be used to repay outstanding Centrelink debt.[39]

text: Family Tax benefit Part B is paid based on the lower of the recipient and their partner's income, or, for a single parent at the maximum rate.

text: Maternity Immunisation Allowance[edit]

text: Maternity Immunisation Allowance is paid to parents whose children who have received all immunisations specified by the national immunisation schedule by the time they are 2 years old. Alternatively, if the parents object to immunisation on any grounds and inform Centrelink of this, they may also receive this allowance. The allowance ceased on 1 July 2012.[40]

text: Child Care Benefit[edit]

text: Child Care Benefit assists Australian parents with the cost of approved and registered child care. It is a means tested payment and is based on the recipient's taxable income; low income families receive the highest rate of Child Care Benefit.

text: The Australian Government spent approximately $2.1 billion on Child Care Benefit to assist families with the cost of child care in the financial year ending 30 June 2011.[41]

text: Schoolkids Bonus[edit]

text: In May 2012, the Australian Government abolished the Education Tax Refund (ETR) that allowed families to claim a refund for education expenses through the Australian Tax Office (ATO). The Schoolkids Bonus replaced the ETR from 1 January 2013. The Schoolkids Bonus aimed to assist families and students with the costs of education for children in primary and secondary school. The School Kids Bonus is paid in 2 equal instalments each year in January and July.[42]

text: Paid Parental Leave Scheme[edit]

text: The Paid Parental Leave Scheme provides financial support to eligible working parents of newborn or recently adopted children. Under the scheme, the government funds employers to provide Parental Leave Pay or Dad and Partner Pay to their eligible employees.[43]

text: Parental Leave Pay is paid to the child's primary carer and eligible parents for up to 18 weeks of pay based on the rate of National Minimum Wage. Dad and Partner Pay is for eligible working dads or partners (including adopting parents and same-sex couples) for up to two weeks of pay based on the rate of National Minimum Wage.[43]

text: Concession cards[edit]

text: The following concession cards are issued by Centrelink:

text:
Health Care Card – primarily entitles holder to PBS medications at the concession rate. Most recipients of a payment are entitled to this as well as people receiving the maximum rate of Family Tax Benefit part A. This card has secondary benefits, including cheaper public transport in some states.
Commonwealth Seniors Health Card- a HCC issued to senior citizens
Pensioner Concession Card – this offers additional benefits to the Pensioner, including pensioner transportation fares (in some areas), and a certain number of free country rail journeys within the holder's state.

text: Prisons and psychiatric hospitals[edit]

text: Persons imprisoned or admitted to a psychiatric institution are generally not eligible to receive benefits for the duration of imprisonment or admission. (However, it may be payable if a psychiatric stay is classed as rehabilitation.) The benefits resume upon release or discharge. However, upon release or discharge from imprisonment or psychiatric hospitalisation of more than two weeks, the claimant is entitled to an additional payment equal to seven days of their regular payment, to help with adjustment.

text: Review of social security decisions[edit]

text: Every decision made under social security law is to be in writing and given sufficient notice, usually in a letter.[44] Applications for review of such decisions may be lodged at any time, but depending on the decision remedial action may only be taken if the review is received within 13 weeks of receiving notice, for decisions made under the Social Security act, or 52 weeks for decisions made under Family assistance law. At the bottom of each letter informing customers of a Centrelink decision, a "your rights" box informs individuals of potential avenues for review.

text: Internal review[edit]

text: Legislation ultimately governs the decision making process, and Centrelink policy guidelines provide the lens through which legislation is interpreted by Centrelink Customer Service Advisers (CSAs). However, notwithstanding legislation and policy, there are still many areas in which significant discretion is afforded to the decision maker, which may be subject to internal and external review.

text: Original decision maker (ODM) review[edit]

text: Centrelink possesses a prescribed two-tiered system of internal review. The initial stage is the ODM Review, where the matter is brought back to the CSA for reconsideration.[45] This is a wholly intra-office process and functions as an initial check on the decision, and the appeal progresses further from the ODM only if necessary. Many reviews are due to legislative changes, administrative errors, provision of new customer documentation, or customer disagreement with the decision. There is also the opportunity for the customer to make a formal written complaint. However, many individuals may not wish to have the same CSA make another decision, which may even lead to confusion as to whether internal review has actually taken place.

text: Once the ODM review has been completed it should contain the relevant legislative provisions, any new information considered, and a determination stating whether the original decision has been set aside, affirmed or varied.

text: Authorised review officer (ARO) review[edit]

text: If the individual is not satisfied, an Authorised Review Officer (ARO), an officer delegated review powers from the Secretary for the purposes of social security law, may affirm, vary, or set aside the original decision.[46] Although an employee of the Centrelink, an ARO is not to defend ODM decisions as it is a strong principle that the ARO is independent of the situation and has no previous involvement in the case. Nevertheless, AROs also look at legislation with the same policy guidelines as CSAs.

text: External review[edit]

text: The Social Security Appeals Tribunal – SSAT[edit]

text: A customer dissatisfied with an internal review of a decision may apply to the Social Security Appeals Tribunal (SSAT) [47] to review a decision affirmed, varied or set aside by internal review,  subject to some exceptions. The SSAT generally has the same powers as the Secretary, and may affirm, vary, set aside and substitute a decision or return the matter to Centrelink with recommendations. SSAT hearings are generally informal, confidential and not bound by  the Laws of Evidence.

text: Experience has indicated that at the SSAT more weighting goes towards the legislation as opposed to policy guidelines[citation needed]. Welfare advocacy groups such as the Welfare Rights Centre are often involved in providing legal help to individuals affected by Centrelink decisions.

text: As of 1 July 2015, the SSAT is no longer is a separate tribunal. Alongside the Migration Review Tribunal and the Refugee Review Tribunal, the SSAT has instead merged with the Administrative Appeals Tribunal (AAT).[48] Decisions deemed reviewable by the ARO are now heard in the Social Services and Child Support Division of the AAT. The primary functions of the SSAT as the first tier of the review process have been converted and are now known as the 'AAT first review'.[49] Therefore, the traditional two-tier review process has morphed in light of the amalgamation but it has nevertheless been preserved within the AAT.

text: The AAT and the Courts[edit]

text: A decision must have been reviewed by the SSAT before it can be heard at the AAT. However, the Secretary or a delegated person on behalf of the Secretary may appeal a decision from the SSAT. Only 17% of decisions are overturned at the AAT. Further appeals (on questions of law only) are available to the Federal Court and High Court.

text: The Ombudsman[edit]

text: The Commonwealth Ombudsman does not conduct a merits review (as would the ARO, SSAT or AAT), but considers the administrative decision making process employed by Centrelink to reach the decision or carry out the action complained of.

text: Where the Ombudsman concludes that there has been a deficiency in Centrelink's action (for examples[50]) the Ombudsman may make recommendations to Centrelink for remedial action. This may result in Centrelink changing their decision, or providing a better explanation of their decision.

text: Investigations by the Ombudsman are usually result from a complaint about a decision or action of Centrelink, and in the process of an investigation the Ombudsman is entitled to view Centrelink records and ask questions of Centrelink staff. While the Ombudsman does not have coercive powers to make Centrelink change a decision or act in a certain way, recommendations made by the Ombudsman are rarely rejected.


document_title: Judy Hensler

question_text: who played judy on the original leave it to beaver

root

text: Judy Hensler

text:
Judy Hensler

Jeri Weil as Judy Hensler

First appearance
"Beaver Gets 'Spelled" (October 4, 1957)

Created by
Bob Mosher
Joe Connelly

Portrayed by
Jeri Weil

Information

Gender
Female

tag: table

text: Judy Hensler is a fictional character in the American television sitcom Leave It to Beaver. The show aired from October 4, 1957 to June 20, 1963. Judy is a recurring character portrayed by Jeri Weil. She appeared in 31 of the show's 234 episodes, between October 1957 and October 1960.

tag: p

text: Profile[edit]

text: Judy Hensler is a classmate of the series' hero, "Beaver" Cleaver. She makes her first appearance in the premiere episode, "Beaver Gets 'Spelled", as a student in Miss Canfield's second grade class. Judy is a goody-goody who snitches on her school fellows, especially Beaver. In one episode, she believes Beaver is Miss Canfield's pet and urges him to prove her wrong by putting a spring-action snake in the teacher's desk drawer. Beaver does and regrets it. In another episode, Beaver begs his parents to buy him a sweater in a shop window. They buy it and Beaver wears it to school, only to discover Judy has the same sweater. Believing he has bought a girl's sweater, Beaver stuffs the sweater behind a candy machine at the movie theater and then faces discipline at home. On the show, Judy is rarely seen outside the classroom. She tries to curry favor with her teachers, but they are aware of her deviousness and keep her in check. Judy's parents are seen briefly in an episode about Beaver's being chosen to perform in a school play as a canary. Her last appearance is in the episode, "Beaver Becomes a Hero" (October 1960). She was later dropped and replaced by Penny Woods, who becomes Beaver's new nemesis. However unlike Judy, Penny becomes his frenemy and constant love-hate-relationship love interest.


document_title: Liturgical colours

question_text: color to wear to church on good friday

question_tokens: color to wear to church on good friday

text: Liturgical colours

text: Roman Catholic Church[edit]

text: Current rubrics[edit]

text: In the Roman Rite, as reformed by Pope Paul VI, the following colours are used.[1]

text:
Color
Obligatory usage
Optional usage (in lieu of prescribed obligatory colour)

Green

Sundays and Ferias in Ordinary Time

Violet

Sundays and Ferias of Advent
Sundays and Ferias in Lent
Liturgies on Holy Saturday (except for the Easter Vigil)
Sacrament of Reconciliation
Sacrament of the Sick

All Souls' Day
Requiem Masses and offices for the dead

Rose

Gaudete Sunday (Third Sunday of Advent)
Laetare Sunday (Fourth Sunday in Lent)

White

Christmastide (from [Vigil] of Christmas to the Baptism of the Lord)
Holy Thursday
Easter season (from the Easter Vigil to the Vigil of Pentecost excl.)
Solemnity of the Most Holy Trinity
Feasts of Our Lord other than those of His Passion
Marian feast days[2]
Feasts of the Angels
Feasts of non-martyred saints or confessors
Feast of St. John
Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter
Feast of the Conversion of Paul the Apostle
The Nativity of St. John the Baptist
Feast of All Saints
Sacrament of Baptism
Sacrament of Matrimony
Sacrament of Holy Orders

Requiem Masses and offices for the dead where the Conference of Bishops has permitted it.[3]
Votive Masses and other Masses where Green is normally used.

Red

Palm Sunday
Good Friday
Pentecost
Feasts of the Passion of the Lord
Feasts of Martyrs, Apostles, and Evangelists
Sacrament of Confirmation

Red Masses and other votive Masses of the Holy Spirit.
Papal funeral (Red is the colour of mourning for popes according to an ancient Byzantine custom)

Black

All Souls' Day
Requiem Masses

text: On more solemn days, i.e. festive, more precious, sacred vestments may be used, even if not of the colour of the day. Such vestments may, for instance, be made from cloth of gold or cloth of silver. Moreover, the Conference of Bishops may determine and propose to the Apostolic See adaptations suited to the needs and culture of peoples.[4]

text: Ritual Masses are celebrated in their proper colour, in white, or in a festive colour. Masses for Various Needs, on the other hand, are celebrated in the colour proper to the day or the season or in violet if they bear a penitential character. Votive Masses are celebrated in the colour suited to the Mass itself or even in the colour proper to the day or the season.[5]

text: Regional and situational exceptions[edit]

text: Some particular variations:

text:
Blue, a colour associated with the Virgin Mary, is permitted for the feast of the Immaculate Conception in Spain and in some dioceses in Portugal, Mexico, and South America. In the Philippines, it is authorised for all feasts of the Virgin Mary, a practice followed in some other places without official warrant. There have also been uses of blue in place of violet for the season of Advent despite the fact that this practice is prohibited under liturgical law.[6]
  White or   cloth of gold was traditionally used for the Novena from 16 to 24 December according to a Spanish custom abolished in that country in the 1950s, but still widely observed in the Philippines[citation needed]. White is also used for East Asian Masses for the dead, as white is the traditional colour of mourning in many of the region's cultures. Furthermore, if not enough vestments of the proper colour are available (particularly in concelebrations), white may be used for all concelebrants.
  Violet or   black are often permitted on national holidays honoring military dead. For example in Canada, they are used on Remembrance Day.
  Gold or   silver may be worn on more solemn occasions in the Dioceses of the United States.[7]

tag: ul

text: Pre-1969 rubrics[edit]

text: The Roman Missal, as revised by Pope John XXIII in 1962, was authorised for use as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite by Pope Benedict XVI by the 2007 motu proprio entitled Summorum Pontificum. Pope John XXIII's revision of the Missal incorporated changes that he had made with his motu proprio Rubricarum instructum of 29 July 1960.[8] The following are the differences between its rules for liturgical colours and the later rules:

text:
Colour
1920–1955 usage
1955–1960 Usage
1960-1969 Usage

Violet

Ember days
Rogation days
Vigil of St. Andrew
Vigil of St. Thomas
Vigil of Christmas
Holy Innocents (when this falls on a weekday)
Purification (Blessing of Candles and Procession)
Vigil of St. Matthias (in leap years only)
Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima
Palm Sunday (Blessing of Palms, Procession, Mass)
Holy Saturday (pre-Mass blessings and rites)
Vigil of Pentecost (pre-Mass blessings and rites)
Vigil of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist
Vigil of St. James
Vigil of the Assumption
Vigil of Sts. Simon and Jude
Vigil of All Saints
All Souls (during the Forty Hours' Devotion only)
Sacrament of Baptism (Introductory rites and Exorcism)

Ember days
Rogation days
Vigil of Christmas
Holy Innocents (when this falls on a weekday)
Purification (Blessing of Candles and Procession)
Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima
Palm Sunday (Mass only)
Good Friday (Distribution of Holy Communion only)
Easter Vigil (pre-Mass blessings and rites)
Vigil of Pentecost (pre-Mass blessings and rites)
Vigil of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist
Vigil of the Assumption
All Souls (during the Forty Hours' Devotion only)
Sacrament of Baptism (Introductory rites and Exorcism)

Ember days
Rogation days
Vigil of Christmas
Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima
Palm Sunday (Mass only)
Good Friday (Distribution of Holy Communion only)
Easter Vigil (pre-Mass blessings and rites)
Vigil of Pentecost (pre-Mass blessings and rites)
Vigil of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist
Vigil of Sts. Peter and Paul
Vigil of St. Lawrence
Vigil of the Assumption
All Souls (during the Forty Hours' Devotion only)
Sacrament of Baptism (Introductory rites and Exorcism)

Rose

Gaudete Sunday
Laetare Sunday

Gaudete Sunday
Laetare Sunday

Gaudete Sunday
Laetare Sunday

White

Octave of the Immaculate Conception
Octave of St. John
Vigil of the Epiphany
Octave of the Epiphany
Octave of the Solemnity of St. Joseph
Vigil of the Ascension
Octave of the Ascension
Octave of Corpus Christi
Octave of the Sacred Heart
Octave of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist
Octave of the Assumption
Octave of All Saints
Sacrament of Confirmation

Vigil of the Ascension
Sacrament of Confirmation

Vigil of the Ascension
Sacrament of Confirmation

Red

Octave of St. Stephen
Octave of the Holy Innocents
Octave of Pentecost
Octave of Sts. Peter and Paul

Palm Sunday (blessing of palms only)
Octave of Pentecost

Palm Sunday (blessing of palms only)
Octave of Pentecost

Black

Good Friday
All Souls (except during the Forty Hours' Devotion)
Requiem Masses

Good Friday (main liturgy)
All Souls (except during the Forty Hours' Devotion)
Requiem Masses

Good Friday (main liturgy)
All Souls (except during the Forty Hours' Devotion)
Requiem Masses

text: Pope Pius X raised the rank of Sundays of ordinary time, so that on those that fell within octaves green was used instead of the colour of the octave, as had previously been the rule.[9]

text: The rules on liturgical colours before the time of Pope Pius X were essentially those indicated in the edition of the Roman Missal that Pope Pius V promulgated in 1570, except for the addition of feasts not included in his Missal. The scheme of colours in his Missal reflected usage that had become fixed in Rome by the twelfth century.

text: Byzantine Rite[edit]

text: The Byzantine Rite, which is used by all the member churches of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches of Byzantine Rite, does not have a universal system of colours, with the service-books of the Byzantine tradition only specifying "light" or "dark" vestments in the service books. In the Greek tradition, maroon or burgundy are common for solemn feast days, and a wide variety of colours are used at other times, the most common of which are gold and white.

text: Slavic-use churches and others influenced by Western traditions have adopted a cycle of liturgical colours. The particulars may change from place to place, but generally:

text:
Colour
Common usage
Other usage

Gold

When no other colour is specified

Light blue

Feasts of the Theotokos
Feasts of the Holy Archangels

Churches dedicated to the Theotokos may use light blue for the default, instead of gold.
In some places, blue is also used for Holy Theophany.
In many places, blue is used for the Dormition Fast (except from the Transfiguration to its afterfeast (August 6–13), when either gold or white is used).

Purple or wine-red

Saturdays and Sundays during Great Lent

In many places, purple or dark red are only worn on the weekdays of the Great Fast, while bright colors (gold, gold/white) are used on Saturdays and Sundays.

Red

Holy Thursday
Feast of the Cross
Beheading of St. John the Baptist
Feasts of Martyrs
Nativity Fast
Apostles' Fast

Pascha (Mount Athos and Jerusalem)
Nativity (Mount Athos and Jerusalem)
Feasts of the Holy Theotokos (Mount Athos)
In some places, red is used for the Dormition Fast (except from the Transfiguration to its afterfeast (August 6–13), when either gold or white is used).

Green

Palm Sunday
Pentecost
Feasts of Venerable (Monastic) Saints

Feast of the Cross in some places (such as Jerusalem)

Black

Weekdays during Great Lent
Weekdays during Holy Week (except Holy Thursday)

Black is far more prevalent in the Slavic traditions than the Greek tradition, especially in the United States.

White

Pascha
Nativity
Theophany
Other Great Feasts of the Lord

Funerals (Throughout the year, even during Holy Week.)

text: The colours would be changed before Vespers on the eve of the day being commemorated. During Great Feasts, the colour is changed before the vespers service that begins the first day of a forefeast, and remains until the apodosis (final day of the afterfeast).

text: Under Western influence, black is often used in the Slavic churches for funerals, weekdays of Great Lent, and Holy Week as a sign of penance and mourning, but in the second half of the 20th century, the ancient white became more common, as a sign of the hope of the Resurrection.

text: Russian liturgical colours[edit]

text: According to the Russian Orthodox Church's Nastol'naya Kniga Sviashchenno-sluzhitelia,[10] up to eight different liturgical colours may be used throughout the year. Exact usage of these colours varies, but the following are the most common uses.

text:
Colour
Common usage
Uncommon or other usage

Gold

Feasts of the Lord Jesus Christ
Feasts of Prophets
Feasts of Apostles
Feasts of Holy Hierarchs
When no other colour is specified

Light blue

Feasts of the Theotokos
Presentation of the Lord
Annunciation
Feasts of Bodiless Powers
Feasts of Virgins

Fifth Friday in Lent
Dormition Fast until Elevation of the Cross, or even Advent (Carpatho-Russians)

Purple or wine-red

Cross of Our Lord
Great and Holy Thursday
Weekends of Lent

Weekdays of Lent

Red

Feasts of Martyrs
Feast of Saints Peter and Paul
Advent
Feasts of Angels
Elevation of the Cross

Pascha (Mount Athos and Jerusalem)
Nativity (Mount Athos and Jerusalem)

Green

Palm Sunday
Pentecost
Holy Spirit Day
Feasts of Monastic Saints
Feasts of Ascetics
Feasts of Fools for Christ
Feasts of Prophets
Feasts of Angels

Pentecost until Saints Peter and Paul (Carpatho-Russians)

Black

Weekdays of Lent

Weekday funerals, memorials, and liturgies (Carpatho-Russians)

White

Epiphany
Transfiguration
Paschal season
Funerals

Theophany
Christmas Day

Orange or tawny

Saints Peter and Paul fast
Feast of Saints Peter and Paul until Transfiguration

text: Coptic Rite[edit]

text: The Coptic tradition, followed by the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church, only uses white vestments, with gold and silver being considered variations of white. The only exception is during Passion Week when black is used. Nonetheless, trimmings of red, gold or blue may be found on some vestments.

text: Ethiopian Rite[edit]

text: The liturgical tradition of Ethiopia, followed by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Catholic Church, embraces a wide variety of liturgical colours. In Eritrea, similar traditions are followed.

text: Anglicanism[edit]

text: Most Anglican churches use the colours appointed in the Roman Rite, usually in its post-1969 form, with the exception of Sarum Blue replacing violet for Advent, but some use the earlier form, with, for instance, black in place of red on Good Friday. Some churches use black at Masses for the dead, but more commonly white or purple is used. For historical reasons much of the worldwide Anglican Communion takes a noticeable lead from the practice of the Church of England. Since the 1980 Alternative Service Book, liturgical colours have been recommended for seasons, with more detailed advice offered as part of the Common Worship series of liturgies, including colours for all Sundays and festivals printed in the 'core volume' next to collects.

text: The Church's published Lectionary now makes detailed suggestions for liturgical colour throughout the year, which corresponds almost exactly with the above table of Roman Rite (post-1969 usage) usage with five minor exceptions, and one more significant one:

text:
there is no reference in Anglican usage to Masses of deceased popes and cardinals;
no liturgical colour at all is suggested for Holy Saturday (the words "hangings removed" are printed);
the recommendation of red for confirmation rites is extended also to ordination rites;
Lenten Array (unbleached linen) continues to be listed as an alternative option to purple during Lent;
the option exists for using red instead of green during the "Kingdom Season", the four last Sundays of the liturgical year, culminating in Christ the King, as is common is some Lutheran traditions (see below);
finally, and more significantly, the Church of England provision suggests white throughout the Sundays after Epiphany as a distinct "Epiphany season", with ordinary time commencing the day after Candlemas.

text: The Church of England suggested colour scheme also indicates where gold vestments should be used in those churches that possess gold and white as distinct colours. The use of rose-pink vestments, as in the Roman Rite table above, was mentioned as an option in early editions of Common Worship,[11] and is a listed option in the annual published lectionary; however, later Common Worship publications have begun to refer to this practice as "traditional" reflecting its resurgence.[12]

text: Sarum Rite[edit]

text: The Sarum Rite was a medieval liturgical rite used in England before the Reformation which had a distinct set of liturgical colours. After the Anglo-Catholic Revival of the 19th Century, certain Church of England churches began adopting Sarum liturgical colours as an attempt to produce something that was an English expression of Catholicism rather than a Roman expression. One of the chief advocates behind this was the Reverend Percy Dearmer. The exact colours used by the mediaeval Sarum rite are a matter of dispute, but colours adopted by contemporary churches claiming to use the Sarum scheme include in particular deep blue for Advent, which may be popularly referred to as "Sarum blue", and unbleached linen for Lent. The Sarum rite has never received official approval in the Church of England or in The Episcopal Church, but has influenced a number of cathedrals and parish churches.

text: Protestants[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Some Protestant churches, historically especially Methodists, and today many mainline Protestants, use a colour scheme similar to those used by Anglicans and Catholics, although the practice is not universally followed. Many Protestant churches do not use liturgical colours at all. The United Methodist Church, prior to the early-1990s, used red solely for Pentecost, even including the Sundays after Pentecost Sunday, with the use of green being reserved for the season of Kingdomtide, which usually lasted from late August/early September until Christ the King (the last Sunday in Kingdomtide). Since the publication of the 1992 Book of Worship, the UMC has followed the ELCA practice of wearing red only for Pentecost and Reformation Sundays and green for the rest of the Pentecost season.

text: The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), uses the same colour scheme as that of the Anglicans and their Scandinavian Lutheran counterparts, but with the use of gold only for the Easter Vigil and Easter Sunday services, with Holy Week using scarlet in place of crimson.

text: Both the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS), along with the United Methodist Church use a similar system, but with purple being the primary colour for both Advent and Lent (with blue being the alternate colour for Advent only), and the use of gold in place of white for both Christmas and Easter (in similar practice to the Catholic Church). In the WELS, the use of red is also done during the Period of End Times, a period of the Church regarding the teachings of the Book of Revelation, culminating in the creation of the New Jerusalem (corresponding to Christ the King in the ELCA). In all three churches, including the ELCA, red is also worn on the last Sunday of October, in celebration of the Reformation on October 31, when Martin Luther nailed the 95 Theses onto the door of Wittenberg Castle Church.

text: The Presbyterian Church (USA) has sanctioned the use of liturgical colours and promoted their use in the 1993 Book of Common Worship (although their use was also promoted in the church's annual Planning Calendars beginning in the 1980s). Advent and Lent are periods of preparation and repentance and are represented by the colour purple. The feasts of Christmas Day and Christmastide, Epiphany Sunday, Baptism of the Lord Sunday, Transfiguration Sunday, Easter Season, Trinity Sunday, and Christ the King Sunday are represented by white. Green is the colour for periods of Ordinary Time. Red is for Pentecost Sunday, but may also be used for ordinations, church anniversaries, and memorial services for ordained clergy. Red or purple are appropriate for Palm Sunday. During Holy Week, the church may use purple or remain bare (although a few churches will use black for Good Friday).

text: Similarly, the United Church of Christ includes indications of which liturgical colour to use for each Sunday in its annual calendar. The general Western pattern is followed, with either purple or blue recommended for Advent.[13]


document_title: Marginal propensity to consume

question_text: the marginal propensity to consume (mpc) is equal to the ratio of

question_tokens: the marginal propensity to consume ( mpc ) is equal to the ratio of

text: Marginal propensity to consume

text: Background[edit]

text:
Mathematically, the

M
P
C

{\displaystyle {\mathit {MPC}}}

 function is expressed as the derivative of the consumption function

C

{\displaystyle C}

 with respect to disposable income

Y

{\displaystyle Y}

, i.e., the instantaneous slope of the

C

{\displaystyle C}

-

Y

{\displaystyle Y}

 curve.

text: or, approximately,

text:
Marginal propensity to consume can be found by dividing change in consumption by a change in income, or

M
P
C

=
Δ
C

/

Δ
Y

{\displaystyle {\mathit {MPC}}=\Delta C/\Delta Y}

. The MPC can be explained with the simple example:

text:
Income
Consumption

120
120

180
170

text:
Here

Δ
C
=
50

{\displaystyle \Delta C=50}

;

Δ
Y
=
60

{\displaystyle \Delta Y=60}

 Therefore,

M
P
C

=
Δ
C

/

Δ
Y
=
50

/

60
=
0.83

{\displaystyle {\mathit {MPC}}=\Delta C/\Delta Y=50/60=0.83}

 or 83%. For example, suppose you receive a bonus with your paycheck, and it's $500 on top of your normal annual earnings. You suddenly have $500 more in income than you did before. If you decide to spend $400 of this marginal increase in income on a new business suit, your marginal propensity to consume will be 0.8 (

$
400

/

$
500

{\displaystyle \$400/\$500}

).

text: The marginal propensity to consume is measured as the ratio of the change in consumption to the change in income, thus giving us a figure between 0 and 1. The MPC can be more than one if the subject borrowed money or dissaved to finance expenditures higher than their income. The MPC can also be less than zero if an increase in income leads to a reduction in consumption (which might occur if, for example, the increase in income makes it worthwhile to save up for a particular purchase). One minus the MPC equals the marginal propensity to save (in a two sector closed economy), which is crucial to Keynesian economics and a key variable in determining the value of the multiplier.

text: In a standard Keynesian model, the MPC is less than the average propensity to consume (APC) because in the short-run some (autonomous) consumption does not change with income. Falls (increases) in income do not lead to reductions (increases) in consumption because people reduce (add to) savings to stabilize consumption. Over the long-run, as wealth and income rise, consumption also rises; the marginal propensity to consume out of long-run income is closer to the average propensity to consume.

text: The MPC is not strongly influenced by interest rates; consumption tends to be stable relative to income. In theory one might think that higher interest rates would induce more saving (the substitution effect) but higher interest rates also mean than people do not have to save as much for the future.

text: Economists often distinguish between the marginal propensity to consume out of permanent income, and the marginal propensity to consume out of temporary income, because if consumers expect a change in income to be permanent, then they have a greater incentive to increase their consumption.[2] This implies that the Keynesian multiplier should be larger in response to permanent changes in income than it is in response to temporary changes in income (though the earliest Keynesian analyses ignored these subtleties). However, the distinction between permanent and temporary changes in income is often subtle in practice, and it is often quite difficult to designate a particular change in income as being permanent or temporary. What is more, the marginal propensity to consume should also be affected by factors such as the prevailing interest rate and the general level of consumer surplus that can be derived from purchasing.

text: MPC and the multiplier[edit]

text: MPC's importance depends on the multiplier theory. MPC determines the value of the multiplier. The higher the MPC, the higher the multiplier and vice versa. The relationship between the multiplier and the propensity to consume is as follows:

text:
Since

c

{\displaystyle c}

 is the MPC, the multiplier

K

{\displaystyle K}

 is, by definition, equal to

1

/

(
1
−
M
P
C
)

{\displaystyle 1/(1-MPC)}

. The multiplier can also be derived from MPS (marginal propensity to save) and it is the reciprocal of MPS,

K
=
1

/

M
P
S

{\displaystyle K=1/{\mathit {MPS}}}

text:
Δ
C

/

Δ
Y

{\displaystyle \Delta C/\Delta Y}

 (MPC)

Δ
S

/

Δ
Y

{\displaystyle \Delta S/\Delta Y}

 (MPS) [

1
−

M
P
C

{\displaystyle 1-{\mathit {MPC}}}

]

K

{\displaystyle K}

 (multiplier coefficient)

0
1
1

1/2
1/2
2

2/3
1/3
3

3/4
1/4
4

4/5
1/5
5

8/9
1/9
9

9/10
1/10
10

1
0

∞

{\displaystyle \infty }

text:
The above table shows that the size of the multiplier varies directly with the MPC and inversely with the MPS. Since the MPC is always greater than zero and less than one (i.e.

0
<

M
P
C

<
1

{\displaystyle 0<{\mathit {MPC}}<1}

), the multiplier is always between one and infinity (

1
<
K
<
∞

{\displaystyle 1<K<\infty }

). If the multiplier is one, it means that the whole increment of income is saved and nothing is spent because the MPC is zero. On the other hand, an infinite multiplier implies that MPC is equal one and the entire increment of income is spent on consumption. It will soon lead to full employment in the economy and then create a limitless inflationary spiral. But these are rare phenomenon. Therefore, the multiplier coefficient varies between one and infinity.

text: Significance of MPC[edit]

text:
When income increases, the MPC falls but more than the APC. Conversely, when income falls, the MPC rises and the APC also rises but at a slower rate than the former. Such changes are only possible during cyclical fluctuations whereas in the short-run there is no change in the MPC and

M
P
C

<

A
P
C

{\displaystyle {\mathit {MPC}}<{\mathit {APC}}}

. Keynes is concerned primarily with the MPC, for his analysis pertains to the short-run while the APC is useful in the long-run analysis. The post-Keynesian economists have come to the conclusion that over the long-run APC and MPC are equal and approximate 0.9. In the Keynesian analysis the MPC is given more prominence. Its value is assumed to be positive and less than unity which means that when income increases the whole of it is not spent on consumption. On the contrary, when income falls, consumption expenditure does not decline in the same proportion and never becomes zero. The Keynesian hypothesis is that the marginal propensity to consume is positive but less than unity (

0
≤
Δ
C

/

Δ
Y
<
1

{\displaystyle 0\leq \Delta C/\Delta Y<1}

) is of great analytical and practical significance. Besides telling us that consumption is an increasing function of income and it increases by less than the increment of income, this hypothesis helps in explaining 1) The theoretical possibility of general overproduction or "underemployment equilibrium" and also 2) The relative stability of a highly developed industrial economy. For it implies that the gap between income and consumption at all high levels of income is too wide to be easily filled by investment with the possible consequences that the economy may fluctuate around underemployment equilibrium. Thus the economic significance of the MPC lies in filling the gap between income and consumption through planned investment to maintain the desired level of income.

text: MPC and nature of country[edit]

text: The MPC is higher in the case of poorer people than in rich[3]. When a person earns a higher income, the cost of their basic human needs amount to a smaller fraction of this income, and correspondingly their average propensity to save is higher than that of a person with a lower income. The marginal propensity to save of the richer classes is greater than that of the poorer classes. If, at any time, it is desired to increase aggregate consumption, then the purchasing power should be transferred from the richer classes (with low propensity to consume) to the poorer classes (with a higher propensity to consume). Likewise, if it is desired to reduce community consumption, the purchasing power must be taken away from the poorer classes by taxing consumption. The marginal propensity to consume is higher in a poor country and lower in the case of rich country. The reason is same as stated above. In the case of rich country, most common of the basic needs of the people have already been satisfied, and all the additional increments of income are saved, resulting in a higher marginal propensity to save but in a lower marginal propensity to consume. In a poor country, on the other hand, most of the basic needs of the people remain unsatisfied so that additional increments of income go to increase consumption, resulting in a higher marginal propensity to consume and a lower marginal propensity to save. This is the reason MPC is higher in the underdeveloped countries of Asia and Africa, and lower in developed countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Singapore and Germany.

text: The MPC of individuals[edit]

text: Much of the current discussion seems to rely on the MPC being unique to a country, and homogeneous across such an economic entity; and the theory and the mathematical formulae apply to this use of the term. However, individuals have an MPC, and furthermore MPC is not homogeneous across society. Even if it was, the nature of the consumption is not homogeneous. Some consumption may be seen as more benevolent (to the economy) than others. Therefore, spending could be targeted where it would do most benefit, and thus generate the highest (closest to 1) MPC. This has traditionally been regarded as construction or other major projects (which also bring a direct benefit in the form of the finished product). Clearly, some sectors of society are likely to have a much higher MPC than others. Someone with above average wealth or income or both may have a very low (short-term, at least) MPC of nearly zero—saving most of any extra income. But a pensioner, for example, will have an MPC of 1 or even greater than 1. This is because a pensioner is quite likely to spend every penny of any extra income. Further, if the extra income is seen as regular extra income, and guaranteed into the future, the pensioner may actually spend MORE than the extra £1. This would occur where the extra income stream gives confidence that the individual does not need to put aside as much in the form of savings; or perhaps can even dip into existing savings. More importantly, this consumption is much more likely to occur in local small business—local shops, pubs and other leisure activities for example. These types of businesses are themselves likely to have a high MPC, and again the nature of their consumption is likely to be in the same, or next tier of businesses, and also of a benevolent nature. Other individuals with a high, and benevolent, MPC would include almost anyone on a low income—students, parents with young children, and the unemployed.


document_title: On Golden Pond (1981 film)

question_text: who played in the movie on golden pond

question_tokens: who played in the movie on golden pond

text: On Golden Pond (1981 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: An aging couple, Ethel and Norman Thayer, continue the long tradition of spending each summer at their cottage on a lake called Golden Pond, in the far reaches of northern New England. When they first arrive, Ethel notices the loons calling on the lake "welcoming them home". As they resettle into their summer home, Norman's memory problems arise when he is unable to recognize several family photographs, which he copes with by frequently talking about death and growing old. They are visited by their only child, a daughter, Chelsea, who is somewhat estranged from her curmudgeon of a father. She introduces her parents to her fiance Bill and his thirteen-year-old son Billy. Norman tries to play mind games with Bill, an apparent pastime of his, but Bill won't hear of it, saying he can only take so much. In another conversation, Chelsea discusses with Ethel her frustration over her relationship with her overbearing father, feeling that even though she lives thousands of miles away in Los Angeles, she still feels like she's answering to him. Before they depart for a European vacation, Chelsea and Bill ask the Thayers to permit Billy to stay with them while they have some time to themselves. Norman, seeming more senile and cynical than usual due to his 80th birthday and heart palpitations, agrees to Billy's staying. Ethel tells him that he's the sweetest man in the world, but she is the only one who knows it.

text: Billy is at first annoyed by being left with elderly strangers with no friends nearby and nothing to do. He resents Norman's brusque manner, but eventually comes to enjoy their Golden Pond fishing adventures together. Billy and Norman soon grow obsessed with catching Norman's fish rival, named "Walter", which leads to the accidental destruction of the Thayers' motorboat. Chelsea returns to find out her father has made good friends with her fiance's, now husband's, son. But when she sees the change in her father's demeanor, Chelsea attempts something Billy accomplished that she never could: a backflip. Chelsea successfully executes the dive in front of a cheering Norman, Billy, and Ethel. Chelsea and Norman finally fully embrace before she departs with Billy back home.

text: The final day on Golden Pond comes and the Thayers are loading the last of the boxes. Norman tries to move a heavy box, but starts having heart pain and collapses onto the floor of the porch. Ethel tries unsuccessfully to get the operator to phone the hospital. Norman then says the pain is gone and attempts to stand to say a final farewell to the lake. Ethel tells him she has always known about death but for the first time it felt real, thinking Norman was going to die on the spot. Ethel helps Norman to the edge of the lake where they see the loons and Norman notes how they are just like him and Ethel, that their offspring is grown and gone off on her own, and now it is just the two of them.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Katharine Hepburn – Ethel Thayer
Henry Fonda – Norman Thayer Jr.
Jane Fonda – Chelsea Thayer Wayne
Doug McKeon – Billy Ray
Dabney Coleman – Bill Ray
William Lanteau – Charlie Martin
Christopher Rydell – Sumner Todd

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Jane Fonda purchased the rights to the play specifically for her father, Henry Fonda, to play the role of the cantankerous Norman Thayer.[3] The father-daughter rift depicted on screen closely paralleled the real-life relationship between the two Fondas.

text: Screenwriter Thompson spent his summers along the shores of Great Pond, located in Belgrade, Maine, but the film was made on Squam Lake in Holderness, New Hampshire.[4] The house used in the film was leased from a New York physician and was modified significantly for the shoot: an entire second floor was added as a balcony over the main living area at the request of the production designer. After the shoot, the production company was contractually obligated to return the house to its original state but the owner liked the renovations so much that he elected to keep the house that way and asked the crew not to dismantle the second story. A gazebo and a small boathouse were also relocated during the shoot.

text: Despite their many common acquaintances and long careers in show business, Henry Fonda and Katharine Hepburn not only had never worked together, but had never met until working on the film. On the first day of shooting, Hepburn presented Henry Fonda with her longtime companion Spencer Tracy's "lucky" hat, which Fonda wore in the film. Hepburn, who was 74 at the time of filming, performed all her own stunts, including a dive into the pond. The scene in which Norman and step-grandson Billy run their boat into the rocks was filmed repeatedly. The vintage 1951 mahogany Chris-Craft boat, used strictly for the crash scene, was so sturdy that it kept bouncing off the rocks without any damage.[5][6][7] The crew had to modify the boat so it would break away in the wreck. The water level in Squam Lake was so low during the summer of production that Fonda and Doug McKeon could have stood during the scene in which they were supposedly clinging to the rocks for fear of drowning. The September water was barely knee-deep, but it was cold enough that the pair had to wear wetsuits under their clothes. Hepburn, on the other hand, dove into the water without the aid of the wetsuit because she wanted the scene to keep its authenticity. Some of the scenes in which Billy takes the boat out on his own were filmed on nearby Lake Winnipesaukee. While filming the scene where Fonda and Hepburn were watching the loons on the lake, the speedboat that zoomed by and disturbed them was so forceful it overturned their canoe in one take; Fonda was immediately taken out of the water and wrapped up in blankets as his health was fragile by that time. The speedboat was piloted by the screenwriter, Ernest Thompson.

text: When visiting Holderness, New Hampshire, one can take a boat tour of Squam Lake and view the filming sites from the movie. There is also a restaurant called "Walter's Basin", which is named after the trout called "Walter" that Billy catches with Norman. For filming, "Walter" was brought in from a trout pond at the nearby Castle in the Clouds estate. He was released after his capture back into Squam Lake. Leftover footage of Fonda and Hepburn driving through the New Hampshire countryside, as seen in the opening credits, was later used for the opening of the CBS television sitcom Newhart.

text: The studio behind the film was ITC Entertainment, the British company presided over (until late 1981) by Lord Grade, the television and film mogul. It was Grade who largely raised the financing for the film.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: With a box office take of $119,285,432, On Golden Pond was the second-highest grossing film of the year, following Raiders of the Lost Ark, which earned $209,562,121.[8]

text: Critical Reception[edit]

text: On Golden Pond garnered widespread critical acclaim with critics highlighting the performances of Katharine Hepburn and Henry Fonda. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 92% based on 386 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "There's little that happens in On Golden Pond that isn't thoroughly predictable from the start, but the film is blessed with so much star power, charm and honest sentiment that everyone in the audience is willing to ignore the cliches and go the distance." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said "On Golden Pond was a treasure for many reasons, but the best one, I think, is that I could believe it. I could believe in its major characters and their relationships, and in the things they felt for one another, and there were moments when the movie was witness to human growth and change. I left the theater feeling good and warm, and with a certain resolve to try to mend my own relationships and learn to start listening better . . . watching the movie, I felt I was witnessing something rare and valuable."[9]

text: In his The New York Times review, Vincent Canby said, "As a successful Broadway play, On Golden Pond was processed American cheese, smooth, infinitely spreadable and bland, with color added by the actors . . . the movie . . . still American cheese, but its stars – Henry Fonda, Katharine Hepburn, Jane Fonda and Dabney Coleman – add more than color to this pasteurized product. On Golden Pond now has the bite of a good old cheddar . . . Mr. Fonda gives one of the great performances of his long, truly distinguished career. Here is film acting of the highest order . . . Miss Hepburn . . . is also in fine form. One of the most appealing things about her as an actress is the way she responds to – and is invigorated by – a strong co-star . . . she needs someone to support, challenge and interact with. Mr. Fonda is the best thing that's happened to her since Spencer Tracy and Humphrey Bogart . . . an added pleasure is the opportunity to see Dabney Coleman [in] a role that goes beyond the caricatures he's usually given to play . . . On Golden Pond is a mixed blessing, but it offers one performance of rare quality and three others that are very good. That's not half-bad."[10]

text: TV Guide rates it 3 ½ out of a possible four stars, calling it "a beautifully photographed movie filled with poignancy, humor, and (of course) superb acting . . . there could have been no finer final curtain for [Henry Fonda] than this."[11] Channel 4 sums up its review by stating, "Henry Fonda and Katharine Hepburn both shine in an impressively executed Hollywood drama. [It] has its mawkish moments but there's a certain pleasure in that, and writer Thompson's analysis of old age is sensitive, thought-provoking and credible."[12]

text: Not all reviewers were impressed, however. David Kehr of the Chicago Reader called the film "the cinematic equivalent of shrink-wrapping, in which all of the ideas, feelings, characters, and images are neatly separated and hermetically sealed to prevent spoilage, abrasion, or any contact with the natural world . . . Mark Rydell's bright, banal visual style further sterilizes the issues. The film exudes complacency and self-congratulation; it is a very cowardly, craven piece of ersatz art."[13] Time Out London says, "Two of Hollywood's best-loved veterans deserved a far better swan song than this sticky confection."[14] Mad magazine satirized the film as On Olden Pond.

text: American Film Institute recognition

text:
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies – Nominated[15]
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions – No. 22
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes:

"Listen to me, mister. You're my knight in shining armor. Don't you forget it. You're going to get back on that horse, and I'm going to be right behind you, holding on tight, and away we're gonna go, go, go!" – #88
"Come here, Norman. Hurry up. The loons! The loons! They're welcoming us back." – Nominated[16]

AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – #24
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers – #45
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated[17]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result

Academy Awards[18]
March 29, 1982
Best Picture
Bruce Gilbert
Nominated

Best Director
Mark Rydell
Nominated

Best Actor
Henry Fonda
Won

Best Actress
Katharine Hepburn
Won

Best Supporting Actress
Jane Fonda
Nominated

Best Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium
Ernest Thompson
Won

Best Cinematography
Billy Williams
Nominated

Best Editing
Robert L. Wolfe
Nominated

Best Original Score
Dave Grusin
Nominated

Best Sound
Richard Portman and David M. Ronne
Nominated

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result

BAFTA Awards[19]
March 20, 1983
Best Film
Bruce Gilbert
Nominated

Best Director
Mark Rydell
Nominated

Best Actor
Henry Fonda
Nominated

Best Actress
Katharine Hepburn
Won

Best Supporting Actress
Jane Fonda
Nominated

Best Screenplay
Ernest Thompson
Nominated

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result

Golden Globe Awards[20]
January 30, 1982
Best MotionPicture-Drama
Bruce Gilbert
Won

Best Director
Mark Rydell
Nominated

Best Actor
Henry Fonda
Won

Best Actress
Katharine Hepburn
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress
Jane Fonda
Nominated

Best Screenplay
Ernest Thompson
Won

text:
Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures (nominee)
Grammy Award for Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Special (nominee)
Writers Guild of America Award for Best Drama Adapted from Another Medium (winner)