document_title: World population

question_text: what percentage of the world's population is asian

question_tokens: what percentage of the world 's population is asian

text: World population

text: Population by region

text: Six of the Earth's seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.3 billion inhabitants accounting for 60% of the world population. The world's two most populated countries, China and India, together constitute about 37% of the world's population. Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1 billion people, or 15% of the world's population. Europe's 733 million people make up 12% of the world's population as of 2012, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to around 600 million (9%). Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada, has a population of around 352 million (5%), and Oceania, the least-populated region, has about 35 million inhabitants (0.5%).[21] Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population based mainly in polar science stations. This population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries.[22]

text: Population by continent

text:
Population by continent (2016 estimates)

Continent
Density
(inhabitants/km2)
Population
(millions)
Most populous country
Most populous city (metropolitan area)

Asia
96.4
4,436
1,382,300,000[note 1] -  China
35,676,000/13,634,685 -  Greater Tokyo Area/Tokyo Metropolis

Africa
36.7
1,216
0186,987,000 -  Nigeria
21,000,000 -  Lagos

Europe
72.9
738
0145,939,000 -  Russia;
approx. 112 million in Europe)
19,468,664 -  Moscow

North America[note 2]
22.9
579
0324,991,600 -  United States
23,723,696/08,537,673 -  New York Metropolitan Area/New York City

South America
22.8
422
0209,567,000 -  Brazil
27,640,577/11,316,149 -  Metro Area/São Paulo City

Oceania
4.5
39.9
0024,458,800 -  Australia
05,005,400 -  Sydney

Antarctica
0.0003
(varies)
0.004 in summer
(non-permanent, varies)[22]
N/A[note 3]
0000001,200 (non-permanent, varies) - McMurdo Station

text: History

text: Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of modernity, possible only since the Age of Discovery. Early estimates for the population of the world[23] date to the 17th century: William Petty in 1682 estimated world population at 320 million (modern estimates ranging close to twice this number); by the late 18th century, estimates ranged close to one billion (consistent with modern estimates).[24] More refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 to 1000 million in the early 1800s and at 800 to 1000 million in the 1840s.[25]

text: Antiquity and Middle Ages

text: Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BCE have ranged between 1 million and 15 million.[26][27] Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a population bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BCE, according to the Toba catastrophe theory. By contrast, it is estimated that around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century CE.[28]

text: The Plague of Justinian, which first emerged during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian, caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between the 6th and 8th centuries CE.[29] The population of Europe was more than 70 million in 1340.[30] The Black Death pandemic of the 14th century may have reduced the world's population from an estimated 450 million in 1340 to between 350 and 375 million in 1400;[31] it took 200 years for population figures to recover.[32] The population of China decreased from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million in 1393,[33] presumably due to a combination of Mongol invasions, famine, and plague.[34]

text: Starting in 2 AD, the Han Dynasty of ancient China kept consistent family registers in order to properly assess the poll taxes and labor service duties of each household.[35] In the year 2 AD the population of Western Han was recorded as 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households, decreasing to 47,566,772 individuals in 9,348,227 households by 146 AD, towards the End of the Han Dynasty.[35] At the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, China's population was reported to be close to 60 million; toward the end of the dynasty in 1644, it may have approached 150 million.[36] England's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500.[37] New crops that were brought to Asia and Europe from the Americas by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 16th century are believed to have contributed to population growth.[38][39][40] Since their introduction to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century,[41] maize and cassava have similarly replaced traditional African crops as the most important staple food crops grown on the continent.[42]

text: The pre-Columbian North American population probably numbered somewhere between 2 million and 18 million.[43] Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.[44] According to the most extreme scholarly claims, as many as 90% of the Native American population of the New World died due to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza.[45] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.[46]

text: Modern era

text: During the European Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[49] The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.[50][51] Between 1700 and 1900, Europe’s population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million.[52] Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36% of the world's population in 1900.[53]

text: Population growth in the West became more rapid after the introduction of vaccination and other improvements in medicine and sanitation.[54] Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century.[55] The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006.[56] The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010.[57]

text: The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large-scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths).[58][59] After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia's population declined significantly – from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012[60] – but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted.[61]

text: Many countries in the developing world have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953,[62] and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the Indian subcontinent, which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941;[63] today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about 1.63 billion people.[64] Java had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; its present-day successor, Indonesia, now has a population of over 140 million.[65] In just one hundred years, the population of Brazil decoupled (x10), from about 17 million in 1900, or about 1% of the world population in that year, to about 176 million in 2000, or almost 3% of the global population in the very early 21st century. Mexico's population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010.[66][67] Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million.[68]

text: Milestones by the billions

text:
World population milestones in billions

Population
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Year
1804
1927
1960
1974
1987
1999
2011
2024
2042

Years elapsed
––
123
33
14
13
12
12
13
18

text: It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960.[69] Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in 1987, six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, seven billion in March 2012.[70] The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011.[71][72][73]

text: According to current projections, the global population will reach eight billion by 2024, and will likely reach around nine billion by 2042. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion.[74] Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the fertility variable. Long-range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario", to "high scenarios" of 24.8 billion.[74] One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52.[10][75]

text: There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion" on July 11, 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion" on October 12, 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of 7 Billion" to be October 31, 2011.[76]

text: Global demographics

text:
80+
  77.5+
  75+
  72.5+
  70+
  67.5+
  65+

  60+
  55+
  50+
  45+
  40+
  less than 40

text: As of 2012, the global sex ratio is approximately 1.01 males to 1 female. The greater number of men is possibly due to the significant sex imbalances evident in the Indian and Chinese populations.[78][79] Approximately 26.3% of the global population is aged under 15, while 65.9% is aged 15–64 and 7.9% is aged 65 or over.[78] The median age of the world's population was estimated to be 29.7 years in 2014,[80] and is expected to rise to 37.9 years by 2050.[81]

text: According to the World Health Organization, the global average life expectancy is 70.5 years as of 2012, with women living an average of 73 years and men approximately 68 years.[77] In 2010, the global fertility rate was estimated at 2.52 children per woman.[75] In June 2012, British researchers calculated the total weight of Earth's human population as approximately 287 million tonnes, with the average person weighing around 62 kilograms (137 lb).[82]

text: The CIA estimated nominal 2013 gross world product at US$74.31 trillion, giving an annual global per capita figure of around US$10,500.[83] Around 1.29 billion people (18.4% of the world population) live in extreme poverty, subsisting on less than US$1.25 per day;[84] approximately 870 million people (12.25%) are undernourished.[85] 83% of the world's over-15s are considered literate.[78] In June 2014, there were around 3.03 billion global Internet users, constituting 42.3% of the world population.[86]

text: The Han Chinese are the world's largest single ethnic group, constituting over 19% of the global population in 2011.[87] The world's most-spoken first languages are Mandarin Chinese (spoken by 12.44% of the world's population), Spanish (4.85%), English (4.83%), Arabic (3.25%) and Hindustani (2.68%).[78] The world's largest religion is Christianity, whose adherents account for 33.35% of the global population; Islam is the second-largest religion, accounting for 22.43%, and Hinduism the third, accounting for 13.78%.[78] In 2005, around 16% of the global population were reported to be non-religious.[88]

text: Largest populations by country

text:
10 most populous countries

Rank
Country / Territory
Population
Date
Approx. % of world
population
Source

1
 China[note 4]
1,388,800,000
January 22, 2018
18.3%
[89]

2
 India
1,326,900,000
January 22, 2018
17.5%
[90]

3
 United States
326,496,000
January 22, 2018
4.3%
[91]

4
 Indonesia
261,600,000
October 31, 2016
3.44%
[92]

5
 Pakistan
210,333,000
January 22, 2018
2.77%
[93]

6
 Brazil
208,559,000
January 22, 2018
2.75%
[94]

7
 Nigeria
188,500,000
October 31, 2016
2.48%
[95]

8
 Bangladesh
163,865,000
January 22, 2018
2.16%
[96]

9
 Russia[note 5]
146,773,226
June 1, 2017
1.93%
[97]

10
 Japan
126,670,000
September 1, 2017
1.67%
[98]

text: Approximately 4.3 billion people live in these ten countries, representing around 58% of the world's population as of March 2016. Approximately 3.7 billion people, or half of the world population, live in the six most populous countries.[99]

text: Most densely populated countries

text: The tables below list the world's most densely populated countries, both in absolute terms and in comparison to their total populations.

text:
10 most densely populated countries (with population above 5 million)

Rank
Country
Population
Area (km2)
Density
(Pop. per km2)

1
 Singapore
5,612,300
710
7,905

2
 Bangladesh
163,870,000
143,998
1,138

3
 Taiwan
23,562,318
36,190
651

4
 South Korea
51,446,201
99,538
517

5
 Lebanon
6,082,000
10,452
582

6
 Rwanda
11,809,295
26,338
448

7
 Netherlands
17,190,000
41,526
414

8
 Haiti
10,911,819
27,065
403

9
 India
1,326,900,000
3,287,240
404

10
 Israel
8,800,000
22,072
399

text:
Countries ranking highly in both total population (more than 20 million people) and population density (more than 250 people per square kilometer):

Rank
Country
Population
Area (km2)
Density
(Pop. per km2)
Notes

1
 India
1,326,900,000
3,287,240
404
Growing population

2
 Pakistan
210,330,000
803,940
262
Rapidly growing population

3
 Bangladesh
163,870,000
143,998
1,138
Rapidly growing population

4
 Japan
126,670,000
377,873
335
Declining population[100]

5
 Philippines
105,330,000
300,000
351
Growing population

6
 Vietnam
93,700,000
331,689
282
Growing population

7
 United Kingdom
65,648,100
243,610
269
Slowly growing population

8
 South Korea
51,446,201
99,538
517
Slowly growing population

9
 Taiwan
23,562,318
36,190
651
Steady population

10
 Sri Lanka
21,444,000
65,610
327
Growing population

text: Fluctuation

text: Population size fluctuates at differing rates in differing regions. Nonetheless, population growth is the long-standing trend on all inhabited continents, as well as in most individual states. During the 20th century, the global population saw its greatest increase in known history, rising from about 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2000. A number of factors contributed to this increase, including the lessening of the mortality rate in many countries by improved sanitation and medical advances, and a massive increase in agricultural productivity attributed to the Green Revolution.[101][102][103]

text: In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.14% (equivalent to around 75 million people),[104] down from a peak of 88 million per year in 1989. By 2000, there were approximately ten times as many people on Earth as there had been in 1700. Globally, the population growth rate has been steadily declining from its peak of 2.19% in 1963, but growth remains high in Latin America, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa.[105]

text:
7–8 children
  6–7 children

  5–6 children
  4–5 children

  3–4 children
  2–3 children

  1–2 children
  0–1 children

text: During the 2010s, Japan and some countries in Europe began to encounter negative population growth (i.e. a net decrease in population over time), due to sub-replacement fertility rates.[100]

text: In 2006, the United Nations stated that the rate of population growth was visibly diminishing due to the ongoing global demographic transition. If this trend continues, the rate of growth may diminish to zero by 2050, concurrent with a world population plateau of 9.2 billion.[106] However, this is only one of many estimates published by the UN; in 2009, UN population projections for 2050 ranged between around 8 billion and 10.5 billion.[107] An alternative scenario is given by the statistician Jorgen Randers, who argues that traditional projections insufficiently take into account the downward impact of global urbanization on fertility. Randers' "most likely scenario" reveals a peak in the world population in the early 2040s at about 8.1 billion people, followed by decline.[108] Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and of sociology, states that "there’s a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world’s agenda, remains a very important issue."[109]

text:
Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BCE–2000 CE

Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC–2000 CE (in log y scale)

World population figures, 1950–2000

Estimated global growth rates, 1950–2050

Estimated and projected populations of the world and its continents (except Antarctica) from 1950 to 2100. The shaded regions correspond to the range of projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

tag: ul

text: Population growth by region

text: The table below shows historical and predicted regional population figures in millions.[110][111][112] The availability of historical population figures varies by region.

text:
World historical and predicted populations (in millions)[113][114][115]

Region
1500
1600
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
1999
2008
2010
2012
2050
2150

World
585
660
710
791
978
1,262
1,650
2,521
6,008
6,707
6,896
7,052
9,725
9,746

Africa
86
114
106
106
107
111
133
221
783
973
1,022
1,052
2,478
2,308

Asia
282
350
411
502
635
809
947
1,402
3,700
4,054
4,164
4,250
5,267
5,561

Europe
168
170
178
190
203
276
408
547
675
732
738
740
734
517

Latin America[Note 1]
40
20
10
16
24
38
74
167
508
577
590
603
784
912

North America[Note 1]
6
3
2
2
7
26
82
172
312
337
345
351
433
398

Oceania
3
3
3
2
2
2
6
13
30
34
37
38
57
51

text:
World historical and predicted populations by percentage distribution[113][114]

Region
1500
1600
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
1999
2008
2010
2012
2050
2150

World
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Africa
14.7
17.3
14.9
13.4
10.9
8.8
8.1
8.8
13.0
14.5
14.8
15.2
25.48
23.7

Asia
48.2
53.0
57.9
63.5
64.9
64.1
57.4
55.6
61.6
60.4
60.4
60.3
54.16
57.1

Europe
28.7
25.8
25.1
20.6
20.8
21.9
24.7
21.7
11.2
10.9
10.7
10.5
7.55
5.3

Latin America[Note 1]
6.8
3.0
1.4
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.5
6.6
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.06
9.4

North America[Note 1]
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.7
2.1
5.0
6.8
5.2
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.45
4.1

Oceania
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.59
0.5

text: Past population

text: The following table gives estimates of population in the past. The data for 1750 to 1900 are from the UN report "The World at Six Billion"[116] whereas the data from 1950 to 2015 are from a UN data sheet.[20]

text:
Year
World
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America & Carib.[Note 1]
North America[Note 1]
Oceania
Notes

70,000 BCE
< 0.015

[117]

10,000 BCE
4

[118]

8000 BCE
5

6500 BCE
5

5000 BCE
5

4000 BCE
7

3000 BCE
14

2000 BCE
27

1000 BCE
50
7
33
9

[citation needed]

500 BCE
100
14
66
16

CE 1
200
23
141
28

1000
400
70
269
50
8
1
2

1500
458
86
243
84
39
3
3

1600
580
114
339
111
10
3
3

1700
682
106
436
125
10
2
3

1750
791
106
502
163
16
2
2

1800
1,000
107
656
203
24
7
3

1850
1,262
111
809
276
38
26
2

1900
1,650
133
947
408
74
82
6

1950
2,525
229
1,394
549
169
172
12.7
[119]

1955
2,758
254
1,534
577
193
187
14.2

1960
3,018
285
1,687
606
221
204
15.8

1965
3,322
322
1,875
635
254
219
17.5

1970
3,682
366
2,120
657
288
231
19.7

1975
4,061
416
2,378
677
326
242
21.5

1980
4,440
478
2,626
694
365
254
23.0

1985
4,853
550
2,897
708
406
267
24.9

1990
5,310
632
3,202
721
447
281
27.0

1995
5,735
720
3,475
728
487
296
29.1

2000
6,127
814
3,714
726
527
314
31.1

2005
6,520
920
3,945
729
564
329
33.4

2010
6,930
1,044
4,170
735
600
344
36.4

2015
7,349
1,186
4,393
738
634
358
39.3

text: Using the above figures, the change in population from 2010 to 2015 was:

text:
World: +420 million
Africa: +142 million
Asia: +223 million
Europe: +3 million
Latin America and Caribbean: +35 million
Northern America: +14 million
Oceania: +2.9 million

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Northern America comprises the northern-most countries and territories of North America: Canada, the United States, Greenland, Bermuda, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. Latin America comprises Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.

text: Projections

text: Long-term global population growth is difficult to predict. The United Nations and the US Census Bureau both give different estimates – according to the UN, the world population reached seven billion in late 2011,[110] while the USCB asserted that this occurred in March 2012.[121] The UN has issued multiple projections of future world population, based on different assumptions. From 2000 to 2005, the UN consistently revised these projections downward, until the 2006 revision, issued on March 14, 2007, revised the 2050 mid-range estimate upwards by 273 million.

text: Average global birth rates are declining fast, but vary greatly between developed countries (where birth rates are often at or below replacement levels) and developing countries (where birth rates typically remain high). Different ethnicities also display varying birth rates. Death rates can change rapidly due to disease epidemics, wars and other mass catastrophes, or advances in medicine.

text:
UN (medium variant – 2012 revision) and US Census Bureau (June 2015) estimates[122][123]

Year
UN est.
(millions)
Difference
USCB est.
(millions)
Difference

2005
6,514
–
6,473
–

2010
6,916
402
6,866
393

2015
7,324
408
7,256
390

2020
7,717
393
7,643
380

2025
8,083
366
8,007
363

2030
8,425
342
8,341
334

2035
8,743
318
8,646
306

2040
9,039
296
8,926
280

2045
9,308
269
9,180
254

2050
9,551
243
9,408
228

text:
UN 2012 estimates and medium variant projections (in millions)[122]

Year
World
Asia
Africa
Europe
Latin America/Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania

2010
6,916
4,165 (60.2%)
1,031 (14.9%)
740 (10.7%)
596 (8.6%)
347 (5.0%)
37 (0.5%)

2015
7,324
4,385 (59.9%)
1,166 (15.9%)
743 (10.1%)
630 (8.6%)
361 (4.9%)
39 (0.5%)

2020
7,717
4,582 (59.4%)
1,312 (17.0%)
744 (9.6%)
662 (8.6%)
376 (4.9%)
42 (0.5%)

2025
8,083
4,749 (58.8%)
1,468 (18.2%)
741 (9.2%)
691 (8.5%)
390 (4.8%)
45 (0.6%)

2030
8,425
4,887 (58.0%)
1,634 (19.4%)
736 (8.7%)
717 (8.5%)
403 (4.8%)
47 (0.6%)

2035
8,743
4,997 (57.2%)
1,812 (20.7%)
730 (8.3%)
739 (8.5%)
415 (4.8%)
50 (0.6%)

2040
9,039
5,080 (56.2%)
1,999 (22.1%)
724 (8.0%)
757 (8.4%)
426 (4.8%)
52 (0.6%)

2045
9,308
5,136 (55.2%)
2,194 (23.6%)
717 (7.7%)
771 (8.3%)
436 (4.7%)
55 (0.6%)

2050
9,551
5,164 (54.1%)
2,393 (25.1%)
709 (7.4%)
782 (8.2%)
446 (4.7%)
57 (0.6%)

2055
9,766
5,168 (52.9%)
2,595 (26.6%)
700 (7.2%)
788 (8.1%)
456 (4.7%)
59 (0.6%)

2060
9,957
5,152 (51.7%)
2,797 (28.1%)
691 (6.9%)
791 (7.9%)
465 (4.7%)
61 (0.6%)

2065
10,127
5,120 (50.6%)
2,998 (29.6%)
681 (6.7%)
791 (7.8%)
474 (4.7%)
63 (0.6%)

2070
10,277
5,075 (49.4%)
3,195 (31.1%)
673 (6.5%)
788 (7.6%)
482 (4.7%)
64 (0.6%)

2075
10,409
5,019 (48.2%)
3,387 (32.5%)
665 (6.4%)
783 (7.5%)
490 (4.7%)
66 (0.6%)

2080
10,524
4,957 (47.1%)
3,570 (33.9%)
659 (6.3%)
776 (7.4%)
496 (4.7%)
67 (0.6%)

2085
10,626
4,894 (46.1%)
3,742 (35.2%)
653 (6.1%)
767 (7.2%)
502 (4.7%)
68 (0.6%)

2090
10,717
4,833 (45.1%)
3,903 (36.4%)
649 (6.1%)
757 (7.1%)
506 (4.7%)
69 (0.6%)

2095
10,794
4,773 (44.2%)
4,051 (37.6%)
644 (6.0%)
747 (6.9%)
510 (4.7%)
69 (0.6%)

2100
10,854
4,712 (43.4%)
4,185 (38.6%)
639 (5.9%)
736 (6.8%)
513 (4.7%)
70 (0.6%)

text: Mathematical approximations

text: In 1975, Sebastian von Hoerner proposed a formula for population growth which represented hyperbolic growth with an infinite population in 2025.[124] The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the carrying capacity of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on.[125] The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition.

text: According to the Russian demographer Sergey Kapitsa,[126] the world population grew between 67,000 BCE and 1965 according to the following formula:

text: where

text:
N is current population
T is the current year
C = (1.86±0.01)·1011
T0 = 2007±1

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

 = 42±1

text: Years for world population to double

text: According to linear interpolation and extrapolation of UNDESA population estimates, the world population has doubled, or will double, in the years listed in the tables below (with two different starting points). During the 2nd millennium CE, each doubling took roughly half as long as the previous doubling, fitting the hyperbolic growth model mentioned above. However, after 2024, it is unlikely that there will be another doubling of the global population in the 21st century.[127]

text:
Starting at 500 million

Population
(in billions)
0.5
1
2
4
8

Year
1500
1804
1927
1974
2024

Years elapsed
304
123
47
50

text:
Starting at 375 million

Population
(in billions)
0.375
0.75
1.5
3
6

Year
1171
1715
1881
1960
1999

Years elapsed
544
166
79
39

text: Overpopulation

text: Predictions of scarcity

text: In his 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population, the British scholar Thomas Malthus incorrectly predicted that continued population growth would exhaust the global food supply by the mid-19th century. Malthus wrote the essay to refute what he considered the unattainable utopian ideas of William Godwin and Marquis de Condorcet, as presented in Political Justice and The Future Progress of the Human Mind. In 1968, Paul R. Ehrlich reprised Malthus' argument in The Population Bomb, predicting that mass global famine would occur in the 1970s and 1980s.[129]

text: The predictions of Ehrlich and other neo-Malthusians were vigorously challenged by a number of economists, notably Julian Lincoln Simon, and advances in agriculture, collectively known as the Green Revolution, forestalled any potential global famine in the late 20th century. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250%.[130] The world population has grown by over four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution, but food production has so far kept pace with population growth. Most scholars believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater levels of famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents.[131] However, neo-Malthusians point out that fossil fuels provided the energy for the Green Revolution, in the form of natural gas-derived fertilizers, oil-derived pesticides, and hydrocarbon-fueled irrigation, and that many crops have become so genetically uniform that a crop failure in any one country could potentially have global repercussions.[132]

text: In 2004, a meta-analysis of 70 quantitative studies estimating a sustainable limit to the world population generated a meta-estimate of 7.7 billion people.[133]

text: In May 2008, the price of grain was pushed up severely by the increased cultivation of biofuels, the increase of world oil prices to over $140 per barrel ($880/m3),[134] global population growth,[135] the effects of climate change,[136] the loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development,[137][138] and growing consumer demand in the population centres of China and India.[139][140] Food riots subsequently occurred in some countries.[141][142] However, oil prices then fell sharply. Resource demands are expected to ease as population growth declines, but it is unclear whether mass food wastage and rising living standards in developing countries will once again create resource shortages.[143][144]

text: David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, estimates that the sustainable agricultural carrying capacity for the United States is about 200 million people; its population as of 2015 is over 300 million.[145] In 2009, the UK government's chief scientific advisor, Professor John Beddington, warned that growing populations, falling energy reserves and food shortages would create a "perfect storm" of shortages of food, water, and energy by 2030.[128][146] According to a 2009 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people.[147]

text: The observed figures for 2007 showed an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, with 923 million undernourished in 2007, versus 832 million in 1995.[148] The 2009 FAO estimates showed an even more dramatic increase, to 1.02 billion.[149]

text: Environmental impacts

text: A number of scientists have argued that the current global population expansion and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world's ecosystem.[150][151] The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented" population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution.[152] Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation's most serious impact is its effect on the environment.[15] The situation has continued to worsen, as at the time of the 1994 IAP statement, the world population stood at 5.5 billion and lower-bound scenarios predicted a peak of 7.8 billion by 2050, a number that current estimates state will be reached in the late 2020s.

text: Scientists contend that human overpopulation, continued human population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, are the primary drivers of mass species extinction.[153][154][155][156] By 2050 population growth, along with profligate consumption, could result in oceans containing more plastic than fish by weight.[155] In November 2017, a statement by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries asserted that rapid human population growth is the "primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats."[157]

text: A July 2017 study published in Environmental Research Letters argued that the most significant way individuals could mitigate their own carbon footprint is to have fewer children, followed by living without a vehicle, forgoing air travel and adopting a plant-based diet.[158]

text: Population control

text: Human population control is the practice of intervening to alter the rate of population growth. Historically, human population control has been implemented by limiting a region's birth rate, by voluntary contraception or by government mandate. It has been undertaken as a response to factors including high or increasing levels of poverty, environmental concerns, and religious reasons. The use of abortion in some population control strategies has caused controversy,[159] with religious organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church explicitly opposing any intervention in the human reproductive process.[160]

text: The University of Nebraska publication Green Illusions argues that population control to alleviate environmental pressures need not be coercive. It states that "Women who are educated, economically engaged, and in control of their own bodies can enjoy the freedom of bearing children at their own pace, which happens to be a rate that is appropriate for the aggregate ecological endowment of our planet."[161] The book Fatal Misconception by Matthew Connelly similarly points to the importance of supporting the rights of women in bringing population levels down over time.[162]

text: Overpopulation skepticism

text: The Population Research Institute (PRI), an anti-abortion, anti-contraception advocacy group, has criticised predictions of overpopulation and attendant resource scarcity, with some describing overpopulation as a "myth".[163] The PRI argues that advances in agricultural, medical, and industrial technology have allowed global economic productivity to keep pace with rising populations despite Malthusian predictions to the contrary. PRI further says that family sizes are naturally declining worldwide due to higher living standards, increased availability of contraception and better economic opportunities for women. However, other commentators have described PRI's arguments on overpopulation as deceptive.[164][165][166]

text: Number of humans who have ever lived

text: Estimates of the total number of humans who have ever lived range in the order of 100 billion. It is difficult for estimates to be better than rough approximations, as even modern population estimates are fraught with uncertainties on the order of 3% to 5%.[167] Kapitza (1996) cites estimates ranging between 80 and 150 billion.[168] Haub (1995) prepared another figure, updated in 2002 and 2011; the 2011 figure was approximately 107 billion.[18][19][169] Haub characterized this figure as an estimate that required "selecting population sizes for different points from antiquity to the present and applying assumed birth rates to each period".[19]

text: Robust population data only exists for the last two or three centuries. Until the late 18th century, few governments had ever performed an accurate census. In many early attempts, such as in Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire, the focus was on counting merely a subset of the population for purposes of taxation or military service.[170] Thus, there is a significant margin of error when estimating ancient global populations.

text: Another critical factor for such an estimate is the question of pre-modern infant mortality rates; these figures are very difficult to estimate for ancient times due to a lack of accurate records. Haub (1995) estimates that around 40% of those who have ever lived did not survive beyond their first birthday. Haub also stated that "life expectancy at birth probably averaged only about ten years for most of human history".[19]


document_title: Dazed and Confused (film)

question_text: who did ben affleck play in dazed and confused

root

text: Dazed and Confused (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: It is May 28, 1976, the last day of school at Lee High School in the suburbs of Austin, Texas. The next year's group of seniors are preparing for the annual hazing of incoming freshmen. Randall "Pink" Floyd (Jason London), the school's star football player, is asked to sign a pledge promising not to take drugs during the summer or do anything that would "jeopardize the goal of a championship season". When classes end, the incoming freshman boys are hunted down by the seniors and paddled. The incoming freshman girls are also hazed; they are rounded up in the school parking lot by senior girls, covered in mustard, ketchup, flour and raw eggs, and forced to propose to senior boys.

tag: p

text: Freshman Mitch Kramer (Wiley Wiggins) escapes the initial hazing with his best friend Carl Burnett (Esteban Powell), but is later cornered after a baseball game and violently paddled. Fred O'Bannion (Ben Affleck), a senior participating in the hazing tradition for a second year after failing to graduate, delights in punishing Mitch. Pink gives the injured Mitch a ride home and offers to take him cruising with friends that night. Plans for the evening are ruined when Kevin Pickford's (Shawn Andrews) parents discover his intention to host a keg party. Elsewhere, the intellectual trio of Cynthia Dunn (Marissa Ribisi), Tony Olson (Anthony Rapp), and Mike Newhouse (Adam Goldberg) decide to participate in the evening's activities. Pink and his friend David Wooderson (Matthew McConaughey), a man in his early 20s who still socializes with high school students, pick up Mitch and head for the Emporium, a pool hall frequented by teenagers.

text: As the evening progresses, students loiter around the Emporium, listen to rock music, cruise the neighborhood and stop at the hamburger drive-in. Mitch is introduced to sophomore Julie Simms (Catherine Avril Morris), with whom he shares a mutual attraction. While cruising again with Pink, Pickford, and Don Dawson (Sasha Jenson), Mitch drinks beer and smokes marijuana for the first time. After a game of mailbox baseball, a neighborhood resident brandishing a gun threatens to call the police. They barely escape after the resident fires at their car. After returning to the Emporium, Mitch runs into his middle school friends. They hatch a plan to get revenge on O'Bannion. The plan culminates with them dumping paint on O'Bannion, who leaves in a fit of rage.

text: After the Emporium closes, an impromptu keg party is planned in a field under a moonlight tower. Cynthia, Tony and Mike arrive at their first keg party, where Mike is threatened by tough guy Clint Bruno (Nicky Katt). Tony runs into freshman Sabrina Davis (Christin Hinojosa), whom he met earlier during the hazing, and they begin hanging out together. Cynthia likes Wooderson and exchanges phone numbers with him. Mike, suffering from the humiliation of his confrontation with Clint, decides to make a stand, punches him, and gets tackled. The fight is broken up by Pink and Wooderson. Football player Benny O'Donnell (Cole Hauser) confronts Pink about his refusal to sign the pledge. Pink, the only player not to have signed, believes it violates his individuality and beliefs. Mitch leaves the keg party with Julie. They drive to a nearby hill overlooking town to make out. Tony gives Sabrina a ride home and they kiss good night.

text: As night turns to dawn, Pink, Wooderson, Don, Ron Slater (Rory Cochrane) and several other friends decide to smoke marijuana on the 50-yard line of the football field. The police arrive, so they ditch the drugs. Recognizing Pink, the police call Coach Conrad, his football coach. Conrad lectures Pink about hanging out with "losers" and insists that he sign the pledge. Pink says that he might play football, but he is not going to sign the pledge. Pink leaves with his friends to get tickets to an Aerosmith concert. Mitch arrives home after sunrise to find his mother has waited up for him. She decides against punishment but warns him about coming home late again. Mitch goes to his bedroom, puts on headphones and listens to "Slow Ride" by Foghat as Pink, Wooderson, Slater and Simone Kerr (Joey Lauren Adams) travel down a highway to purchase their tickets.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jason London as Randall "Pink" Floyd
Wiley Wiggins as Mitch Kramer
Matthew McConaughey as David Wooderson
Sasha Jenson as Don Dawson
Michelle Burke as Jodi Kramer
Christine Harnos as Kaye Faulkner
Adam Goldberg as Mike Newhouse
Anthony Rapp as Tony Olson
Marissa Ribisi as Cynthia Dunn
Catherine Avril Morris as Julie Simms
Shawn Andrews as Kevin Pickford
Rory Cochrane as Ron Slater
Cole Hauser as Benny O'Donnell
Milla Jovovich as Michelle Burroughs
Joey Lauren Adams as Simone Kerr
Christin Hinojosa as Sabrina Davis
Ben Affleck as Fred O'Bannion
Parker Posey as Darla Marks
Deena Martin as Shavonne Wright
Nicky Katt as Clint Bruno
Esteban Powell as Carl Burnett
Jason O. Smith as Melvin Spivey
Mark Vandermeulen as Tommy Houston
Jeremy Fox as Hirschfelder
Renée Zellweger as Nesi White

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: When asked in an interview what he wanted to do after Slacker, Richard Linklater said "'I want to make this teenage rock’n’roll spree.' I knew I wanted the story to take place on one day in the spring of 1976, but at one point it was much more experimental. The whole movie took place in a car with the characters driving around listening to ZZ Top."[9] Lee Daniel, the director of photography, described the concept: "It would have been two shots—one of a guy putting in an eight-track of ZZ Top’s Fandango! and one of two guys driving around talking. The film would be the length of the actual album, and you’d hear each track in the background as a source."[9]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Vince Vaughn was almost cast as the bully O'Bannion before Ben Affleck was chosen.[10] As Linklater put it, "Ben was smart and full of life. You don’t cast the unappealing person; you cast the appealing person."[9] Other young actors considered for roles include Elizabeth Berkley, Mira Sorvino, Ron Livingston, and Claire Danes.[10] Casting director Don Phillips said, "We wanted Claire Danes for the girl, but she was too young. She couldn’t leave school."[9] Renee Zellweger has a nonspeaking role in the film, but was originally considered for the part of Darla, that went to Parker Posey instead.[11] Linklater said, "Parker was just crazier."[10]

text: Some roles which were intended to be larger were reduced. The Kevin Pickford character, played by Shawn Andrews, was meant to be a larger role, but due to his behavior with other cast members, Pickford's screen time was cut in favor of Matthew McConaughey's character, Wooderson. Linklater recalled "There was another actor [Shawn Andrews] who was kind of the opposite [of McConaughey]. He wasn’t really getting along with everybody. I could tell the actors weren’t responding to him."[9] Linklater had to break up a fight between Andrews and London at one point. On screen, the two characters barely speak to each other during the film.[11] Milla Jovovich, who played Michelle, Pickford's girlfriend, had her role reduced because, in Linklater's words, "it didn't really gel."[10]

text: McConaughey was not originally cast in the film. He approached casting director Phillips in the bar of the Radisson in Austin where the cast was staying.[11] Phillips recalls, "The bartender says to him, 'See that guy down there? That’s Don Phillips. He cast Sean Penn in Fast Times.' And Matthew goes, 'I’m gonna go down and talk to this guy.'" Phillips also recalls that Linklater didn't like McConaughey at first "because he was too handsome." Much of the Wooderson role was improvised or written on the spot, giving McConaughey more screen time.[9]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Dazed and Confused was released on September 24, 1993 in 183 theaters, grossing $918,127 on its opening weekend. It went on to make $7.9 million in North America.[12]

text: The film received positive reviews from critics. It garnered a 94% approval rating from 51 critics – an average rating of 7.8 out of 10 – on the review-aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, whose consensus reads: "Featuring an excellent ensemble cast, a precise feel for the 1970s, and a killer soundtrack, Dazed and Confused is a funny, affectionate, and clear-eyed look at high school life."[13] Metacritic provides a score of 78 out of 100 from 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.[14]

text: Film critic Roger Ebert awarded the film three stars out of four, praising the film as "art crossed with anthropology" with a "painful underside".[15] In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote, "Dazed and Confused has an enjoyably playful spirit, one that amply compensates for its lack of structure".[16] Desson Howe, in his review for The Washington Post, wrote, "Dazed succeeds on its own terms and reflects American culture so well, it becomes part of it".[17] In her review for The Austin Chronicle, Marjorie Baumgarten gave particular praise to Matthew McConaughey's performance: "He is a character we're all too familiar with in the movies but McConaughey nails this guy without a hint of condescension or whimsy, claiming this character for all time as his own".[18]

text: Rolling Stone's Peter Travers gave the film four stars out of four, and praised Linklater as a "sly and formidable talent, bringing an anthropologist's eye to this spectacularly funny celebration of the rites of stupidity. His shitfaced American Graffiti is the ultimate party movie – loud, crude, socially irresponsible and totally irresistible".[19] In his review for Time, Richard Corliss wrote, "Linklater is surely no ham-fisted moralist, and his film has lots of attitude to shake a finger at. But it also has enough buoyant '70s music to shake anybody's tail feather, and a kind of easy jubilance of narrative and character".[20] Entertainment Weekly gave the film an "A" rating, and Owen Gleiberman wrote, "Yet if Linklater captures the comic goofiness of the time, he also evokes its liberating spirit. The film finds its meaning in the subtle clash between the older, sadistic macho-jock ethos and the follow-your-impulse hedonism that was the lingering legacy of the '60s".[21]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Quentin Tarantino included it on his list of the 10 greatest films of all time in the 2002 Sight and Sound poll.[22] In 2003, Entertainment Weekly ranked the film #17 on their list of "The Top 50 Cult Films",[23] third on their list of the 50 Best High School Movies,[24] 10th on their "Funniest Movies of the Past 25 Years" list,[25] and ranked it #6 on their "The Cult 25: The Essential Left-Field Movie Hits Since '83" list.[26]

text: In October 2004, three of Linklater's former classmates from Huntsville High School, whose surnames are Wooderson, Slater, and Floyd, filed a defamation lawsuit against Linklater, claiming to be the basis for the similarly named characters on the film. The lawsuit was filed in New Mexico rather than Texas because New Mexico has a longer statute of limitations.[27] The suit was subsequently dismissed.[28]

text: In 2012, McConaughey reprised his role as Wooderson in the Butch Walker and The Black Widows music video "Synthesizers".[29] To celebrate the film's 20th anniversary in 2013, the film received the Star of Texas award from the Texas Film Hall of Fame. Linklater accepted the award after being introduced by Tarantino, who reiterated his appreciation of the film as his favorite of the 1990s. The event featured a reunion of several cast members including Joey Lauren Adams, Wiley Wiggins, Christin Hinojosa, Nicky Katt, Mona Lee, Catherine Avril Morris, Anthony Rapp, Marissa Ribisi, Michelle Burke Thomas, and Mark Vandermeulen. At the event, Linklater described his intent to create an inverse John Hughes film: "The drama is so low-key in [Dazed & Confused]. I don’t remember teenage being that dramatic. I remember just trying to go with the flow, socialize, fit in and be cool. The stakes were really low. To get Aerosmith tickets or not? That’s a big thing. It was really rare when the star-crossed lovers from the opposite side of the tracks and the girl gets pregnant and there’s a car crash and somebody dies. That didn’t really happen much. But riding around and trying to look for something to do with the music cranked up, now that happened a lot!"[30][31]

text: After Boyhood was released Linklater announced that his next film, Everybody Wants Some!!, would be a "spiritual sequel" to Dazed and Confused.[32] The newer film takes place in a Texas college in 1980.[32]

text: The line "alright, alright, alright" became a catchphrase for Matthew McConaughey.[33]

text: Home video[edit]

text: MCA/Universal released Dazed and Confused on laserdisc in January 1994,[34] followed by a VHS release two months later.[35]

text: The film was released on HD DVD in 2006.[36] The Criterion Collection released a two-disc boxed-set edition of the film on June 6, 2006 in the U.S. and Canada. Features included an audio commentary by Richard Linklater, deleted scenes, the original trailer, the 50 minute "Making Dazed" documentary that aired on the American Movie Classics channel on September 18, 2005, on-set interviews, behind-the-scenes footage, cast auditions and footage from the ten-year anniversary celebration. Also included is a 72-page book featuring new essays by Kent Jones, Jim DeRogatis, and Chuck Klosterman as well as memories from the cast and crew, character profiles and a mini reproduction of the original film poster designed by Frank Kozik. Entertainment Weekly gave it an "A" rating and stated that it "grants this enduring cult classic the DVD treatment it deserves".[37]

text: Universal Studio released Dazed and Confused on Blu-ray in August 2011, in a 1080p/AVC MPEG-4 transfer, with a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 soundtrack.[36]

text: Soundtracks[edit]

text: The soundtrack for the film was released on September 28, 1993 by The Medicine Label. The songs "Hurricane" by Bob Dylan, "Hey Baby" by Ted Nugent, and "Sweet Emotion" by Aerosmith were also included in the film, but not on the commercial soundtracks. "The Alien Song (For Those Who Listen)" by Milla Jovovich was briefly performed by the character Michelle Burroughs, but was not included in the soundtrack either.

text:
Dazed and Confused

Soundtrack album by Various Artists

Released
September 28, 1993

Genre
Hard rock, blues rock, heavy metal, glam rock, Southern rock, funk

Length
56:56

Label
Giant/Medicine

tag: table

text:
Dazed and Confused (1993)

No.
Title
Artist
Length

1.
"Rock and Roll, Hoochie Koo"
Rick Derringer
3:44

2.
"Slow Ride" (Single version)
Foghat
3:58

3.
"School's Out"
Alice Cooper
3:29

4.
"Jim Dandy"
Black Oak Arkansas
2:42

5.
"Tush"
ZZ Top
2:17

6.
"Love Hurts"
Nazareth
3:53

7.
"Stranglehold"
Ted Nugent
8:24

8.
"Cherry Bomb"
The Runaways
2:19

9.
"Fox on the Run"
Sweet
3:26

10.
"Low Rider"
War
3:13

11.
"Tuesday's Gone"
Lynyrd Skynyrd
7:32

12.
"Highway Star"
Deep Purple
6:08

13.
"Rock and Roll All Nite"
Kiss
2:57

14.
"Paranoid"
Black Sabbath
2:47

Total length:
56:56

text:
[show]Even More Dazed and Confused (1994)

No.
Title
Artist
Length

1.
"Free Ride"
Edgar Winter Group
3:08

2.
"No More Mr. Nice Guy"
Alice Cooper
3:07

3.
"Livin' in the USA"
The Steve Miller Band
4:05

4.
"Never Been Any Reason"
Head East
5:12

5.
"Why Can't We Be Friends?"
War
3:51

6.
"Summer Breeze"
Seals and Crofts
3:25

7.
"Right Place, Wrong Time"
Dr. John
2:54

8.
"Balinese"
ZZ Top
2:39

9.
"Lord Have Mercy On My Soul"
Black Oak Arkansas
6:14

10.
"I Just Want to Make Love to You"
Foghat
4:19

11.
"Show Me the Way"
Peter Frampton
4:41

12.
"Do You Feel Like We Do"
Peter Frampton
7:13

Total length:
50:52

text: Book[edit]

text: In September 1993, St. Martin's Press published a 127-page, softcover book (ISBN 0-312-09466-3) inspired by Richard Linklater's screenplay. It was compiled by Linklater, Denise Montgomery, and others, and designed by Erik Josowitz. It was presented as a kind of yearbook, with character profiles, essays by characters, a time-line focusing on the years 1973 to 1977, and various 1970s pop culture charts and quizzes. It also featured dozens of black-and-white photos from the film.


document_title: Venda

question_text: when did venda become part of south africa

text: Venda

text: History[edit]

text:
Historical states
in present-day
South Africa

before 1600[show]

Kingdom of Mapungubwe (1050–1270)
Kingdom of Mutapa (1430–1760)

1600–1700[show]

Dutch Cape Colony (1652–1795)

1700–1800[show]

Mthethwa Paramountcy (ca. 1780–1817)
Ndwandwe (ca. 1780–1817)
Swellendam (1795)
Graaff-Reinet (1795–96)
Cape Colony (1795–1802)

1800–1850[show]

Dutch Cape Colony (1802–06)
Cape Colony (1806–1910)
Waterboer's Land (1813–71)
Zulu Kingdom (1818–97)
Adam Kok's Land (1825–61)
Winburg (1836–44)
Potchefstroom (1837–48)
Natalia Republic (1839–43)

1850–1875[show]

South African Republic (1852–1902)
Orange Free State (1854–1902)
Republic of Utrecht (1854–58)
Lydenburg Republic (1856–60)
Griqualand East (1861–79)
Griqualand West (1870–80)
Diggers' Republic (1870-71)

1875–1900[show]

Stellaland (1882–85)
Goshen (1882–83)
Nieuw Republiek (1884–88)
Klein Vrystaat (1886–91)

1900–present[show]

Cape Colony (1652–1910)
Union of South Africa (1910–61)
Transkei (1976–94)
Bophuthatswana (1977–94)
Venda (1979–94)
Ciskei (1981–94)
Republic of South Africa (1961–present)

 South Africa portal

v
t
e

text: Venda was declared self-governing on 1 February 1973,[4] with elections held later in the year.[5] Further elections were held in July 1978.[5] The territory was declared independent by the South African government on 13 September 1979 and its residents lost their South African citizenship.[6][7] In common with other Bantustans, its independence was not recognized by the international community.

text: Venda was initially a series of non-contiguous territories in the Transvaal, with one main part and one main exclave. Its capital, formerly at Sibasa, was moved to Thohoyandou (which included the old Sibasa administrative district) when Venda was declared independent in 1979. Prior to independence it was expanded to form one contiguous territory, with a total land area of 6,807 km².[3] In the 1984 elections the ruling Venda Independence People's Party (VIPP) lost to the Venda National Party (VNP).[5]

text: At independence in 1979, the population of Vhavenda stood at about 200,000 people. The state was cut off from neighboring Zimbabwe by the Madimbo corridor, patrolled by South African troops, to the North, and from nearby Mozambique by the Kruger National Park.[3]

text: The first President of Venda, Patrick Mphephu, was also a Paramount Chief of the Vhavenda people; he was born and lived in Dzanani in Limpopo. His successor, Orifuna Ndou, was overthrown in a military coup by the Venda Defence Force in 1990, after which the territory was ruled by the Council of National Unity. Venda was re-absorbed into South Africa on 27 April 1994.[4]

text: Institutions of Education[edit]

text: In 1982, the University of Venda known as Univen was established as an institution of higher learning for the Vhavenda people.[8] Being nominally independent it was able to set up a casino in the early 1980s, staffed mainly by British workers. This would not have been legally possible in South Africa proper.[citation needed]

text: Districts in 1991[edit]

text: Districts of the province and population at the 1991 census.[2]

text:
Dzanani: 123,035
Mutale: 244,532
Thohoyandou: 136,089
Vuwani: 55,141


document_title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

question_text: what percentage of the earth's atmosphere is carbon dioxide

question_tokens: what percentage of the earth 's atmosphere is carbon dioxide

text: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere

text: Current concentration[edit]

text: Over the past 400,000 years, CO2 concentrations have shown several cycles of variation from about 180 parts per million during the deep glaciations of the Holocene and Pleistocene to 280 parts per million during the interglacial periods. Each part per million by volume of CO2 in the atmosphere contains approximately 2.13 gigatonnes of carbon.[10] Currently CO2 constitutes about 0.041% (equal to 410 ppm) by volume of the atmosphere,[11][12] which corresponds to approximately 3200 gigatons of CO2, which includes approximately 870 gigatons of carbon. The global mean CO2 concentration is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating.[13][14]

text: Following the start of the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased to over 400 parts per million and continues to increase. The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013.[15] This has caused the phenomenon of global warming.[16] The global average concentration of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere is currently about 0.04%,[17] or 400 parts per million by volume (ppm).[13][18] There is an annual fluctuation of about 3–9 ppm which is negatively correlated with the Northern Hemisphere's growing season. The Northern Hemisphere dominates the annual cycle of CO2 concentration because it has much greater land area and plant biomass than the Southern Hemisphere. Concentrations reach a peak in May as the Northern Hemisphere spring greenup begins, and decline to a minimum in October, near the end of the growing season.[19]

text: Since global warming is attributed to increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases such as CO2, scientists closely monitor atmospheric CO2 concentrations and their impact on the present-day biosphere. At the scientific recording station in Mauna Loa, the concentration reached 400 ppm for the first time in May 2013,[15][20] although this concentration had already been reached in the Arctic in June 2012.[21] The National Geographic wrote that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is this high "for the first time in 55 years of measurement—and probably more than 3 million years of Earth history."[22] The current concentration may be the highest in the last 20 million years.[6]

text: Past concentration[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Carbon dioxide concentrations have varied widely over the Earth's 4.54 billion year history. Carbon dioxide is believed to have been present in Earth's first atmosphere, shortly after Earth's formation. Earth's second atmosphere emerged after the lighter gases, hydrogen and helium, escaped to space or like oxygen were bound up in molecules and is thought to have consisted largely of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases[which?] produced by outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases[which?] produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by asteroids.[citation needed] The production of free oxygen by cyanobacterial photosynthesis eventually led to the oxygen catastrophe that ended Earth's second atmosphere and brought about the Earth's third atmosphere (the modern atmosphere) 2.4 billion years before the present. Carbon dioxide concentrations dropped from 7,000 parts per million during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 parts per million during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years.[citation needed]

text: Drivers of ancient-Earth carbon dioxide concentration[edit]

text: On long timescales, atmospheric CO2 concentration is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock weathering, and volcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO2. On a timescale of billions of years, such downward trend appears bound to continue indefinitely as occasional massive historical releases of buried carbon due to volcanism will become less frequent (as earth mantle cooling and progressive exhaustion of internal radioactive heat proceeds further). The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they are of no relevance to the atmospheric CO2 concentration over the next hundreds or thousands of years.

text: In billion-year timescales, it is predicted that plant, and therefore animal, life on land will die off altogether, since by that time most of the remaining carbon in the atmosphere will be sequestered underground, and natural releases of CO2 by radioactivity-driven tectonic activity will have continued to slow down.[27] The loss of plant life would also result in the eventual loss of oxygen. Some microbes are capable of photosynthesis at concentrations of CO2 of a few parts per million and so the last life forms would probably disappear finally due to the rising temperatures and loss of the atmosphere when the sun becomes a red giant some four billion years from now.[28]

text: Measuring ancient-Earth carbon dioxide concentration[edit]

text: The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before instrumental sampling is to measure bubbles of air (fluid or gas inclusions) trapped in the Antarctic or Greenland ice sheets. The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO2 concentrations were about 260–280 ppmv immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years.[29] The longest ice core record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 800,000 years.[5] During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180–210 ppm during ice ages, increasing to 280–300 ppm during warmer interglacials.[30][31] The beginning of human agriculture during the current Holocene epoch may have been strongly connected to the atmospheric CO2 increase after the last ice age ended, a fertilization effect raising plant biomass growth and reducing stomatal conductance requirements for CO2 intake, consequently reducing transpiration water losses and increasing water usage efficiency.[32]

text: Various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations millions of years in the past. These include boron and carbon isotope ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of stomata observed on fossil plant leaves. While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO2 volume concentrations between 200 and 150 million years ago of over 3,000 ppm, and between 600 and 400 million years ago of over 6,000 ppm.[6] In more recent times, atmospheric CO2 concentration continued to fall after about 60 million years ago. About 34 million years ago, the time of the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event and when the Antarctic ice sheet started to take its current form, CO2 is found to have been about 760 ppm,[33] and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were less than 300 ppm by about 20 million years ago. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation.[34] Low CO2 concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago.[35]

text: Ancient-Earth climate reconstruction is a vibrant field with numerous studies and reconstructions that sometimes reinforce one another and sometimes disagree with each other. Academically, one study disputed the claim of stable CO2 concentrations during the present interglacial of the last 10,000 years. Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.[36] argued that CO2 levels during the last 7,000–10,000 year period were significantly higher (~300 ppm) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations. Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO2.[37] Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO2 values than similar measurements in Antarctica. However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g. H. J Smith et al.[38]) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from in situ decomposition of calcium carbonate dust found in the ice. When dust concentrations in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between measurements of Antarctic and Greenland CO2 concentrations.

text: Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect[edit]

text: Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible and carbon dioxide plays a significant role in providing for the relatively warm temperature that the planet enjoys. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary atmosphere warms the planet's surface beyond the temperature it would have in the absence of its atmosphere.[39][40][41] Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's temperature would be about −18 °C (-0.4 °F) [42][43] compared to Earth's actual surface temperature of approximately 14 °C (57.2 °F).[44]

text: Carbon dioxide is believed to have played an important effect in regulating Earth's temperature throughout its 4.7 billion year history. Early in the Earth's life, scientists have found evidence of liquid water indicating a warm world even though the Sun's output is believed to have only been 70% of what it is today. It has been suggested by scientists that higher carbon dioxide concentrations in the early Earth atmosphere might help explain this faint young sun paradox. When Earth first formed, Earth's atmosphere may have contained more greenhouse gases and CO2 concentrations may have been higher, with estimated partial pressure as large as 1,000 kPa (10 bar), because there was no bacterial photosynthesis to reduce the gas to carbon compounds and oxygen. Methane, a very active greenhouse gas which reacts with oxygen to produce CO2 and water vapor, may have been more prevalent as well, with a mixing ratio of 10−4 (100 parts per million by volume).[45][46]

text: Though water is responsible for most (about 36-70%) of the total greenhouse effect, the role of water vapor as a greenhouse gas depends on temperature. On earth, carbon dioxide is the most relevant direct anthropologically influenced greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is often mentioned in the context of its increased influence as a greenhouse gas since the pre-industrial (1750) era. In the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report the increase in CO2 was estimated to be responsible for 1.82 W·m2 of the 2.63 W·m2 change in radiative forcing on earth (about 70%).[49]

text: The concept of atmospheric CO2 increasing ground temperature was first published by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.[50] The increased radiative forcing due to increased CO2 in the earth's atmosphere is based on the physical properties of CO2 and the non-saturated absorption windows where CO2 absorbs outgoing long-wave energy.

text: Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the carbon cycle[edit]

text: Atmospheric carbon dioxide plays an integral role in the Earth's carbon cycle whereby carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by some natural processes such as photosynthesis and deposition of carbonates, to form limestones for example, and added back to the atmosphere by other natural processes such as respiration and the acid dissolution of carbonate deposits. There are two broad carbon cycles on earth: the fast carbon cycle and the slow carbon cycle. The fast carbon cycle refers to movements of carbon between the environment and living things in the biosphere whereas the slow carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, soil, rocks and volcanism. Both carbon cycles are intrinsically interconnected and atmospheric gaseous carbon dioxide facilitates the carbon cycle.

text: Natural sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide include volcanic outgassing, the combustion of organic matter, wildfires and the respiration processes of living aerobic organisms. Man-made sources of carbon dioxide include the burning of fossil fuels for heating, power generation and transport, as well as some industrial processes such as cement making. It is also produced by various microorganisms from fermentation and cellular respiration. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria convert carbon dioxide to carbohydrates by a process called photosynthesis. They gain the energy needed for this reaction from absorption of sunlight by chlorophyll and other pigments. Oxygen, produced as a by-product of photosynthesis, is released into the atmosphere and subsequently used for respiration by heterotrophic organisms and other plants, forming a cycle.

text: Most sources of CO2 emissions are natural, and are balanced to various degrees by natural CO2 sinks. For example, the natural decay of organic material in forests and grasslands and the action of forest fires results in the release of about 439 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide every year, while new growth entirely counteracts this effect, absorbing 450 gigatonnes per year.[51] Although the initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by volcanic activity, modern volcanic activity releases only 130 to 230 megatonnes of carbon dioxide each year.[52] These natural sources are nearly balanced by natural sinks, physical and biological processes which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. For example, some is directly removed from the atmosphere by land plants for photosynthesis and it is soluble in water forming carbonic acid. There is a large natural flux of CO2 into and out of the biosphere and oceans.[53] In the pre-industrial era these fluxes were largely in balance. Currently about 57% of human-emitted CO2 is removed by the biosphere and oceans.[54][55] From pre-industrial era to 2010, the terrestrial biosphere represented a net source of atmospheric CO2 prior to 1940, switching subsequently to a net sink.[55] The ratio of the increase in atmospheric CO2 to emitted CO2 is known as the airborne fraction (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages and is typically about 45% over longer (5 year) periods.[55] Estimated carbon in global terrestrial vegetation increased from approximately 740 billion tons in 1910 to 780 billion tons in 1990.[56]

text: Atmospheric carbon dioxide and photosynthesis[edit]

text: Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential to life and to the present planetary biosphere. Over the course of Earth's geologic history CO2 concentrations have played a role in biological evolution. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.[57] Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe,[58] which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. In recent geologic times, low CO2 concentrations below 600 parts per million might have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of C4 plants which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 million years ago over plants that use the less efficient C3 metabolic pathway.[35] At current atmospheric pressures photosynthesis shuts down when atmospheric CO2 concentrations fall below 150 ppm and 200 ppm although some microbes can extract carbon from the air at much lower concentrations.[59][60] Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts,[61][62][63] which is about six times larger than the current power consumption of human civilization.[64] Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.[65][66]

text: Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from CO2 and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than CO2, as a source of carbon.[67] In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria that carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis, which consumes CO2 but does not release oxygen.

text: Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both a source of energy to drive this process, and the electrons needed to convert CO2 into a carbohydrate. This addition of the electrons is a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce CO2 and water, and to release exothermic chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism. However, the two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments.

text: Most organisms that utilize photosynthesis to produce oxygen use visible light to do so, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far-red radiation.[68]

text: Impact on plant growth[edit]

text: A 1993 review of scientific greenhouse studies found that a doubling of CO2 concentration would stimulate the growth of 156 different plant species by an average of 37%. The amount of gain varied significantly by species, with some showing much greater gains, and a small number showing a loss. For example, a 1979 greenhouse study compared the dry weights of cotton and maize plants grown in different greenhouses, one with double the CO2 concentration of the other. In the enriched CO2 air, the dry weight of 40-day-old cotton plants doubled, but the dry weight of 30-day-old maize plants increased by only 20%.[69][70]

text: Because of concerns that greenhouse experiments might not adequately simulate the actual environment (such as competing plants), scientists developed Free-air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) experiments. In this procedure, plants are grown outdoors, and the CO2 concentration of the surrounding air is artificially elevated. FACE experiments, using generally lower CO2 levels than the greenhouse studies, showed lower gains in growth than greenhouse studies, with the gains depending heavily on the species under study. A 2005 review of 12 experiments at 475-600 ppm showed an average gain of 17% in crop yield, with legumes typically showing a greater response than other species, and C4 plants generally showing less. The review also stated that the reviewed experiments have their own limitations. The studied CO2 levels were lower, and most of the experiments were carried out in temperate regions.[71]

text: A 2017 article describes research that shows how increased CO2 levels have a negative impact on a variety of human food crops, by increasing the levels of carbohydrates, such as glucose, while decreasing the levels of important nutrients such as protein, iron, and zinc. Crops experiencing a decrease in protein include rice, wheat, barley and potatoes.[72]

text: Atmospheric carbon dioxide and the oceanic carbon cycle[edit]

text: The Earth's oceans contain a large amount of CO2 in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions — much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

text: Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO2. Since the right side of the reaction produces an acidic compound, adding CO2 on the left side decreases the pH of sea water, a process which has been termed ocean acidification (pH of the ocean becomes more acidic although the pH value remains in the alkaline range). Reactions between CO2 and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas. This can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO2. Over hundreds of millions of years, this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks.

text: Ultimately, most of the CO2 emitted by human activities will dissolve in the ocean;[73] however, the rate at which the ocean will take it up in the future is less certain. Even if equilibrium is reached, including dissolution of carbonate minerals, the increased concentration of bicarbonate and decreased or unchanged concentration of carbonate ion will give rise to a higher concentration of un-ionized carbonic acid and dissolved CO2. This, along with higher temperatures, would mean a higher equilibrium concentration of CO2 in the air.

text: Anthropogenic CO2 emissions[edit]

text: While CO2 absorption and release is always happening as a result of natural processes, the recent rise in CO2 levels in the atmosphere is known to be mainly due to human (anthropogenic) activity.[74] There are 4 ways human activity, especially fossil fuel burning, is known to have caused the rapid increase in atmospheric CO2 over the last few centuries. 1) Various national statistics accounting for fossil fuel consumption, combined with knowledge of how much atmospheric CO2 is produced per unit of fossil fuel (e.g. liter of gasoline).[75] 2) By examining the ratio of various carbon isotopes in the atmosphere.[74] The burning of long-buried fossil fuels releases CO2 containing carbon of different isotopic ratios to those of living plants, enabling distinction between natural and human-caused contributions to CO2 concentration. 3) Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere, where most of the world's population lives (and emissions originate from), compared to the southern hemisphere. This difference has increased as anthropogenic emissions have increased.[76] 4) Atmospheric O2 levels are decreasing in earth's atmosphere as it reacts with the carbon in fossil fuels to form CO2.[77]

text: Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas is the leading cause of increased anthropogenic CO2; deforestation is the second major cause. In 2010, 9.14 gigatonnes of carbon (GtC, equivalent to 33.5 gigatonnes of CO2 or about 4.3 ppm in earth's atmosphere) were released from fossil fuels and cement production worldwide, compared to 6.15 GtC in 1990.[78] In addition, land use change contributed 0.87 GtC in 2010, compared to 1.45 GtC in 1990.[78] In 1997, human-caused Indonesian peat fires were estimated to have released between 13% and 40% of the average carbon emissions caused by the burning of fossil fuels around the world in a single year.[79][80][81] In the period 1751 to 1900, about 12 GtC were released as CO2 to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels, whereas from 1901 to 2013 the figure was about 380 GtC.[82]

text: Anthropogenic carbon emissions exceed the amount that can be taken up or balanced out by natural sinks.[87] As a result, carbon dioxide has gradually accumulated in the atmosphere, and as of 2013[update], its concentration is almost 43% above pre-industrial levels.[15][20] Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in carbon dioxide sinks. Currently about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere.[88]

text: Excess CO2 emitted since the pre-industrial era is projected to remain in the atmosphere for centuries to millennia,[89] even after emissions stop. Even if human carbon dioxide emissions were to completely cease, atmospheric temperatures are not expected to decrease significantly for thousands of years.[90]

text:
Global fossil carbon emissions 1800–2007.

False-color image of smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.

Biosphere CO2 flux in the northern hemisphere summer (NOAA Carbon Tracker).

Biosphere CO2 flux in the northern hemisphere winter (NOAA Carbon Tracker).

text: Ongoing measurements of atmospheric CO2[edit]

text: The first reproducibly accurate measurements of atmospheric CO2 were from flask sample measurements made by Dave Keeling at Caltech in the 1950s.[91] A few years later in March 1958 the first ongoing measurements were started by Keeling at Mauna Loa. Measurements at Mauna Loa have been ongoing since then. Now measurements are made at many sites globally. Additional measurement techniques are also used as well. Many measurement sites are part of larger global networks. Global network data are often made publicly available on the conditions of proper acknowledgement according to the respective data user policies.

text: There are several surface measurement (including flasks and continuous in situ) networks including NOAA/ERSL,[92] WDCGG,[93] and RAMCES.[94] The NOAA/ESRL Baseline Observatory Network, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Network [95] data are hosted at the CDIAC at ORNL. The World Data Centre for Greenhouse Gases (WDCGG), part of GAW, data are hosted by the JMA. The Reseau Atmospherique de Mesure des Composes an Effet de Serre database (RAMCES) is part of IPSL.

text: From these measurements, further products are made which integrate data from the various sources. These products also address issues such as data discontinuity and sparseness. GLOBALVIEW-CO2 is one of these products.[96]

text: Ongoing ground-based total column measurements began more recently. Column measurements typically refer to an averaged column amount denoted XCO2, rather than a surface only measurement. These measurements are made by the TCCON. These data are also hosted on the CDIAC, and made publicly available according to the data use policy.[97]

text: Satellite measurements are also a recent addition to atmospheric XCO2 measurements. SCIAMACHY aboard ESA's ENVISAT made global column XCO2 measurements from 2002-2012. AIRS aboard NASA’s Aqua satellite makes global XCO2 measurements and was launched shortly after ENVISAT in 2012. More recent satellites have significantly improved the data density and precision of global measurements. Newer missions have higher spectral and spatial resolutions. JAXA's GOSAT was the first dedicated GHG monitoring satellite to successfully achieve orbit in 2009. NASA's OCO-2 launched in 2014 was the second. Various other satellites missions to measure atmospheric XCO2 are planned.


document_title: Bombay State

question_text: what is the name of maharashtra before 1960

text: Bombay State

text: History[edit]

text: During the British Raj, portions of the western coast of India under direct British rule were part of the Bombay Presidency. In 1937, the Bombay Presidency became a province of British India.[2][3]

text: After India gained independence in 1947, Bombay Presidency became part of India, and Sind province became part of Pakistan. The territory retained by India was restructured into Bombay State. It included princely states such as Kolhapur in Deccan, and Baroda and the Dangs in Gujarat, which had been under the political influence of the former Bombay Presidency.[4]

text: Expansion of the state[edit]

text:
As a result of the States Reorganisation Act on 1 November 1956, the Kannada-speaking districts of Belgaum (except Chandgad taluk), Bijapur, Dharwar, and North Canara were transferred from Bombay State to Mysore State.[5]
but the State of Bombay was significantly enlarged, expanding eastward to incorporate the Marathi-speaking Marathwada region of Hyderabad State, the Marathi-speaking Vidarbha region of southern Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarati-speaking Saurashtra and Kutch states. The Bombay state was being referred to by the local inhabitants as "Maha Dwibhashi Rajya", meaning, "the great bilingual state".[3]

text: In 1956, the States Reorganisation Committee, against the will of Jawaharlal Nehru, recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra-Gujarat with Bombay as its capital, whereas in Lok Sabha discussions in 1955, the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state.[6] In the 1957 elections, the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed these proposals, and insisted that Bombay be declared the capital of Maharashtra.[7]

text: Dissolution of Bombay state[edit]

text: Bombay State was finally dissolved with the formation of Maharashtra and Gujarat states on May 1, 1960.[8]

text: Following protests of Samyukta Maharashtra Movement, in which 105 people were killed by police, Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines.[9] Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat following Mahagujarat Movement.[10] Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them.[11]

text: Chief Ministers[edit]

text: Bombay State had three Chief Ministers after the independence of India:

text:
Balasaheb Gangadhar Kher was the first Chief Minister of Bombay (1947–1952)
Morarji Desai (1952–1957)
Yashwantrao Chavan (1957–1960)

text: Governors[edit]

text: In 1960, the designation of the "Governor of Bombay" was transmuted as the Governor of Maharashtra.[12]

text:
#

Name

Assumed office

Left office

Years in Office

1

Raja Sir Maharaj Singh

6 January 1948

30 May 1952

4

2

Sir Girija Shankar Bajpai

30 May 1952

5 December 1954

2

3

Harekrushna Mahatab

2 March 1955

14 October 1956

1

4

Sri Prakasa[f]

10 December 1956

16 April 1962

6

text: Sources: Raj Bhavan (Maharashtra)[12] and Greater Bombay District Gazetteer[13]


document_title: Don't judge a book by its cover

question_text: who wrote the quote dont judge a book by its cover

text: Don't judge a book by its cover

text:
The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's general notability guideline. Please help to establish notability by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond its mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be established, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.
Find sources: "Don't judge a book by its cover" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The English idiom "don't judge a book by its cover" is a metaphorical phrase which means "you shouldn't prejudge the worth or value of something by its outward appearance alone". For example "That man may look very small and insignificant, but don't judge a book by its cover – he's a very powerful man in his circle".[1]

text: Early reference[edit]

text:
In George Eliot's The Mill on the Floss (1860), Mr Tulliver uses the phrase in discussing Daniel Defoe's The History of the Devil, saying how it was beautifully bound.
The preceding version was then publicised by the 1946 murder mystery novel by Edwin Rolfe (de) and Lester Fuller, Murder in the Glass Room, in the form of "You can never tell a book by its cover."