document_title: Council of Chalcedon

question_text: why did the council of chalcedon take place

text: Council of Chalcedon

text: Background[edit]

text: The Council of Chalcedon was convened by Emperor Marcian, with the reluctant approval of Pope Leo the Great, to set aside the 449 Second Council of Ephesus which would become known as the "Latrocinium" or "Robber Council".[4] The Council of Chalcedon issued the Chalcedonian Definition, which repudiated the notion of a single nature in Christ, and declared that he has two natures in one person and hypostasis. It also insisted on the completeness of his two natures: Godhead and manhood.[5] The council also issued 27 disciplinary canons governing church administration and authority. In a further decree, later known as canon 28, the bishops declared that the See of Constantinople (New Rome) had the same patriarchal status as the See of Rome.[6]

text: Acceptance[edit]

text: The teachings of the Council are accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church (collectively known as the Great Church), Old Catholics and various other Western Christian groups. As such, it is recognized as infallible in its dogmatic definitions by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. Most Protestants also agree that the teachings regarding the Trinity and the Incarnation, as defined at Nicaea (in 325) and Chalcedon, are orthodox doctrine to which they adhere. The Council, however, is not accepted by the Oriental Orthodox churches. These include the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and the Armenian Apostolic Church. They instead teach that "The Lord Jesus Christ is God the Incarnate Word. He possesses the perfect Godhead and the perfect manhood. His fully divine nature is united with His fully human nature yet without mixing, blending or alteration" [7] These Churches claim that this latter teaching has been misunderstood as monophysitism - an appellation with which they strongly disagree. Nevertheless, the Oriental Orthodox churches refuse to accept the decrees of the Council.

text: Many Anglicans and most Protestants consider it to be the last authoritative ecumenical council.[8] These churches, per Martin Luther, hold that both conscience and scripture preempt doctrinal councils and generally agree that the conclusions of later councils were unsupported by or contradictory to scripture.[9]

text: Theological background[edit]

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tag: table

text: Relics of Nestorianism[edit]

text: In 325, the first ecumenical council (First Council of Nicaea) determined that Jesus Christ was God, "consubstantial" with the Father, and rejected the Arian contention that Jesus was a created being. This was reaffirmed at the First Council of Constantinople (381) and the Council of Ephesus (431).

text: After the Council of Ephesus had condemned Nestorianism, there remained a conflict between Patriarchs John of Antioch and Cyril of Alexandria. Cyril claimed that John remained Nestorian in outlook, while John claimed that Cyril held to the Apollinarian heresy. The two settled their differences under the mediation of the Bishop of Beroea, Acacius, on April 12, 433. In the following year, Theodoret of Cyrrhus assented to this formula as well. He agreed to anathematize Nestorius as a heretic in 451, during the Council of Chalcedon, as the price to be paid for being restored to his see (after deposition at the Council of Ephesus of 449). This put a final end to Nestorianism within the Roman Empire.

text: Eutychian controversy[edit]

text: About two years after Cyril of Alexandria's death in 444, an aged monk from Constantinople named Eutyches began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional Christology in an attempt (as he described in a letter to Pope Leo I in 448) to stop a new outbreak of Nestorianism. He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 433.

text: Cyril had taught that "There is only one physis, since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Cyril had apparently understood the Greek word physis to mean approximately what the Latin word persona (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean natura (nature). Thus, many understood Eutyches to be advocating Docetism, a sort of reversal of Arianism—where Arius had denied the consubstantial divinity of Jesus, Eutyches seemed to be denying his human nature.[clarification needed] Cyril's orthodoxy was not called into question, since the Union of 433 had explicitly spoken of two physeis in this context. [clarification needed]

text: Leo I wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill on the matters than from malice. Further, his side of the controversy tended not to enter into arguments with their opponents, which prevented the misunderstanding from being uncovered. Nonetheless, due to the high regard in which Eutyches was held (second only to the Patriarch of Constantinople in the East), his teaching spread rapidly throughout the East. [clarification needed]

text: In November 448, during a local synod in Constantinople, Eutyches was denounced as a heretic by the Bishop Eusebius of Dorylaeum. Eusebius demanded that Eutyches be removed from office. Patriarch Flavian of Constantinople preferred not to press the matter on account of Eutyches' great popularity. He finally relented and Eutyches was condemned as a heretic by the synod. However, the Emperor Theodosius II and Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria, rejected this decision ostensibly because Eutyches had repented and confessed his orthodoxy.[clarification needed] Dioscorus then held his own synod which reinstated Eutyches. The competing claims between the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria led the Emperor to call a council which was held in Ephesus in 449. The emperor invited Pope Leo I to preside.[clarification needed][10] He declined to attend on account of the invasion of Italy by Attila the Hun. However, he agreed to send four legates to represent him. Leo provided his legates, one of whom died en route, with a letter addressed to Flavian of Constantinople explaining Rome's position in the controversy. Leo's letter, now known as Leo's Tome, confessed that Christ had two natures, and was not of or from two natures.[11] Although it could be reconciled with Cyril's Formula of Reunion, it was not compatible in its wording with Cyril's Twelve Anathemas. In particular, the third anathema reads: "If anyone divides in the one Christ the hypostases after the union, joining them only by a conjunction of dignity or authority or power, and not rather by a coming together in a union by nature, let him be anathema." This appeared to some to be incompatible with Leo's definition of two natures hypostatically joined. However, the Council would determine (with the exception of 13 Egyptian bishops) that this was an issue of wording and not of doctrine; a committee of bishops appointed to study the orthodoxy of the Tome using Cyril's letters (which included the twelve anathemas) as their criteria unanimously determined it to be orthodox, and the Council, with few exceptions, supported this.[clarification needed][12]

text: "Latrocinium" of Ephesus[edit]

text: On August 8, 449 the Second Council of Ephesus began its first session with Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria presiding by command of the Emperor. Dioscorus began the council by banning all members of the November 447 synod which had deposed Eutyches. He then introduced Eutyches who publicly professed that while Christ had two natures before the incarnation, the two natures had merged to form a single nature after the incarnation. Of the 130 assembled bishops, 111 voted to rehabilitate Eutyches. Throughout these proceedings, Hilary (one of the papal legates) repeatedly called for the reading of Leo's Tome, but was ignored. Dioscorus then moved to depose Flavian and Eusebius of Dorylaeum on the grounds that they taught the Word had been made flesh and not just assumed flesh from the Virgin and that Christ had two natures. When Flavian and Hilary objected, Dioscorus called for a pro-monophysite mob to enter the church and assault Flavian as he clung to the altar. Flavian was mortally wounded. Dioscorus then placed Eusebius of Dorylaeum under arrest and demanded the assembled bishops approve his actions. Fearing the mob, they all did. The papal legates refused to attend the second session at which several more orthodox bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre (a close personal friend of Nestorius), Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. Dioscorus then pressed his advantage by having Cyril of Alexandria's Twelve Anathemas posthumously declared orthodox[13] with the intent of condemning any confession other than one nature in Christ. Hilary, who later became pope and dedicated an oratory in the Lateran Basilica in thanks for his life,[14] managed to escape from Constantinople and brought news of the Council to Leo who immediately dubbed it a "synod of robbers"—Latrocinium—and refused to accept its pronouncements. The decisions of this council now threatened schism between the East and the West.

text: Convocation and session[edit]

text: The situation continued to deteriorate, with Leo demanding the convocation of a new council and Emperor Theodosius II refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the Emperor's death and the elevation of Marcian, an orthodox Christian, to the imperial throne. To resolve the simmering tensions, Marcian announced his intention to hold a new council. Leo had pressed for it to take place in Italy, but Emperor Marcian instead called for it to convene at Nicaea. Hunnish invasions forced it to move at the last moment to Chalcedon, where the council opened on October 8, 451. Marcian had the bishops deposed by Dioscorus returned to their dioceses and had the body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried honorably.

text: The Emperor asked Leo to preside over the council, but Leo again chose to send legates in his place. This time, Bishops Paschasinus of Lilybaeum and Julian of Cos and two priests Boniface and Basil represented the western church at the council. The Council of Chalcedon condemned the work of the Robber Council and professed the doctrine of the Incarnation presented in Leo's Tome.[clarification needed] The council was attended by about 520 bishops or their representatives and was the largest and best-documented of the first seven ecumenical councils.[15] Paschasinus refused to give Dioscorus (who had excommunicated Leo leading up to the council) a seat at the council. As a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschasinus further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus.

text: Marcian wished to bring proceedings to a speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's Tome.[11] They were also hesitant to write a new creed as the Council of Ephesus had forbidden the composition or use of any new creed. The second session of the council ended with shouts from the bishops, "It is Peter who says this through Leo. This is what we all of us believe. This is the faith of the Apostles. Leo and Cyril teach the same thing." However, during the reading of Leo's Tome, three passages were challenged as being potentially Nestorian, and their orthodoxy was defended by using the writings of Cyril.[16] Nonetheless due to such concerns, the Council decided to adjourn and appoint a special committee to investigate the orthodoxy of Leo's Tome, judging it by the standard of Cyril's Twelve Chapters, as some of the bishops present raised concerns about their compatibility. This committee was headed by Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and was given five days to carefully study the matter; Cyril's Twelve Chapters were to be used as the orthodox standard.[clarification needed] The committee unanimously decided in favor of the orthodoxy of Leo, determining that what he said was compatible with the teaching of Cyril. A number of other bishops also entered statements to the effect that they believed that Leo's Tome was not in contradiction with the teaching of Cyril as well.[16]

text: The council continued with Dioscorus' trial, but he refused to appear before the assembly. As a result, he was condemned, but by an underwhelming amount (more than half the bishops present for the previous sessions did not attend his condemnation), and all of his decrees were declared null. Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus. All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to the Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to "the traditional faith". As a result, the Emperor's commissioners decided that a credo would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached, and indeed the text has not survived to the present. Paschasinus threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the credo supporting Leo's doctrine [clarification needed], the bishops would have to relocate. The bishops relented and added a clause, saying that, according to the decision of Leo, in Christ there are two natures united, inconvertible, inseparable.[clarification needed]

text: Confession of Chalcedon[edit]

text: The Confession of Chalcedon provides a clear statement on the human and divine nature of Christ:[17]

text: We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach people to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood; truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body; consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood; in all things like unto us, without sin; begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably; (ἐν δύο φύσεσιν ἀσυγχύτως, ἀτρέπτως, ἀδιαιρέτως, ἀχωρίστως – in duabus naturis inconfuse, immutabiliter, indivise, inseparabiliter) the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person (prosopon) and one Subsistence (hypostasis), not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten God (μονογενῆ Θεόν), the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ; as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.

text: The full text of the definition which reaffirms the decisions of the Council of Ephesus, the pre-eminence of the Creed of Nicea (325) and the further definitions of the Council of Constantinople (381) can be found here [18] It also canonises as authoritative two of Cyril of Alexandria's letters and the Tome of Leo written against Eutyches and sent to Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople in 449.

text: Canons[edit]

text: The work of the council was completed by a series of 30 disciplinary canons the Ancient Epitomes of which are:[11]

text:
The canons of every Synod of the holy Fathers shall be observed.
Whoso buys or sells an ordination, down to a Prosmonarius, shall be in danger of losing his grade. Such shall also be the case with go-betweens, if they be clerics they shall be cut off from their rank, if laymen or monks, they shall be anathematized.
Those who assume the care of secular houses should be corrected, unless perchance the law called them to the administration of those not yet come of age, from which there is no exemption. Unless further their Bishop permits them to take care of orphans and widows.
Domestic oratories and monasteries are not to be erected contrary to the judgment of the bishop. Every monk must be subject to his bishop, and must not leave his house except at his suggestion. A slave, however, can not enter the monastic life without the consent of his master.
Those who go from city to city shall be subject to the canon law on the subject.
In Martyries and Monasteries ordinations are strictly forbidden. Should any one be ordained therein, his ordination shall be reputed of no effect.
If any cleric or monk arrogantly affects the military or any other dignity, let him be cursed.
Any clergyman in an almshouse or monastery must submit himself to the authority of the bishop of the city. But he who rebels against this let him pay the penalty.
Litigious clerics shall be punished according to canon, if they despise the episcopal and resort to the secular tribunal. When a cleric has a contention with a bishop let him wait till the synod sits, and if a bishop have a contention with his metropolitan let him carry the case to Constantinople.
No cleric shall be recorded on the clergy-list of the churches of two cities. But if he shall have strayed forth, let him be returned to his former place. But if he has been transferred, let him have no share in the affairs of his former church.
Let the poor who stand in need of help make their journey with letters pacificatory and not commendatory: For letters commendatory should only be given to those who are open to suspicion.
One province shall not be cut into two. Whoever shall do this shall be cast out of the episcopate. Such cities as are cut off by imperial rescript shall enjoy only the honour of having a bishop settled in them: but all the rights pertaining to the true metropolis shall be preserved.
No cleric shall be received to communion in another city without a letter commendatory.
A Cantor or Lector alien to the sound faith, if being then married, he shall have begotten children let him bring them to communion, if they had there been baptized. But if they had not yet been baptized they shall not be baptized afterwards by the heretics.
No person shall be ordained deaconess except she be forty years of age. If she shall dishonour her ministry by contracting a marriage, let her be anathema.
Monks or nuns shall not contract marriage, and if they do so let them be excommunicated.
Village and rural parishes if they have been possessed for thirty years, they shall so continue. But if within that time, the matter shall be subject to adjudication. But if by the command of the Emperor a city be renewed, the order of ecclesiastical parishes shall follow the civil and public forms.
Clerics and Monks, if they shall have dared to hold conventicles and to conspire against the bishop, shall be cast out of their rank.
Twice each year the Synod shall be held wherever the bishop of the Metropolis shall designate, and all matters of pressing interest shall be determined.
A clergyman of one city shall not be given a cure in another. But if he has been driven from his native place and shall go into another he shall be without blame. If any bishop receives clergymen from without his diocese he shall be excommunicated as well as the cleric he receives.
A cleric or layman making charges rashly against his bishop shall not be received.
Whoever seizes the goods of his deceased bishop shall be cast forth from his rank.
Clerics or monks who spend much time at Constantinople contrary to the will of their bishop, and stir up seditions, shall be cast out of the city.
A monastery erected with the consent of the bishop shall be immovable. And whatever pertains to it shall not be alienated. Whoever shall take upon him to do otherwise, shall not be held guiltless.
Let the ordination of bishops be within three months: necessity however may make the time longer. But if anyone shall ordain counter to this decree, he shall be liable to punishment. The revenue shall remain with the œconomus.
The œconomus in all churches must be chosen from the clergy. And the bishop who neglects to do this is not without blame.
If a clergyman elope with a woman, let him be expelled from the Church. If a layman, let him be anathema. The same shall be the lot of any that assist him.
The bishop of New Rome shall enjoy the same honour as the bishop of Old Rome, on account of the removal of the Empire. For this reason the [metropolitans] of Pontus, of Asia, and of Thrace, as well as the Barbarian bishops shall be ordained by the bishop of Constantinople.
He is sacrilegious who degrades a bishop to the rank of a presbyter. For he that is guilty of crime is unworthy of the priesthood. But he that was deposed without cause, let him be [still] bishop.
It is the custom of the Egyptians that none subscribe without the permission of their Archbishop. Wherefore they are not to be blamed who did not subscribe the Epistle of the holy Leo until an Archbishop had been appointed for them.

tag: ol

text: Canon 28 grants equal privileges (isa presbeia) to Constantinople as of Rome because Constantinople is the New Rome as renewed by canon 36 of the Quinisext Council. Pope Leo fully approved the canons of this council [19], the “Holy, Great and Universal Council” simply addressed the bishop of Rome as “Archbishop Leo”.[20][21][22]

text: According to some ancient Greek collections, canons 29 and 30 are attributed to the council: canon 29, which states that an unworthy bishop cannot be demoted but can be removed, is an extract from the minutes of the 19th session; canon 30, which grants the Egyptians time to consider their rejection of Leo's Tome, is an extract from the minutes of the fourth session.[23]

text: In all likelihood an official record of the proceedings was made either during the council itself or shortly afterwards. The assembled bishops informed the pope that a copy of all the "Acta" would be transmitted to him; in March, 453, Pope Leo commissioned Julian of Cos, then at Constantinople, to make a collection of all the Acts and translate them into Latin.[clarification needed] Most of the documents, chiefly the minutes of the sessions, were written in Greek; others, e.g. the imperial letters, were issued in both languages; others, again, e.g. the papal letters, were written in Latin. Eventually nearly all of them were translated into both languages.

text: The status of the sees of Constantinople and Jerusalem[edit]

text: The status of Jerusalem[edit]

text: The metropolitan of Jerusalem was given independence from the metropolitan of Antioch and from any other higher-ranking bishop, given what is now known as autocephaly, in the council's seventh session whose "Decree on the Jurisdiction of Jerusalem and Antioch" contains: "the bishop of Jerusalem, or rather the most holy Church which is under him, shall have under his own power the three Palestines".[11] This led to Jerusalem becoming a patriarchate, one of the five patriarchates known as the pentarchy, when the title of "patriarch" was created in 531 by Justinian.[24] The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, s.v. patriarch (ecclesiastical), also calls it "a title dating from the 6th century, for the bishops of the five great sees of Christendom". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions,[25] says: "Five patriarchates, collectively called the pentarchy, were the first to be recognized by the legislation of the emperor Justinian (reigned 527–565)".

text: The status of Constantinople[edit]

text: In a canon of disputed validity,[26] the Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the Bishop of Rome".[27][28]

text: The Council of Nicaea in 325 had noted the primacy of the See of Rome, followed by the Sees of Alexandria and Antioch. At the time, the See of Constantinople was not yet of ecclesiastical prominence, but its proximity to the Imperial court gave rise to its importance. The Council of Constantinople in 381 modified the situation somewhat by placing Constantinople second in honor, above Alexandria and Antioch, stating in Canon III, that "the bishop of Constantinople... shall have the prerogative of honor after the bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome". In the early 5th century, this status was challenged by the bishops of Alexandria, but the Council of Chalcedon confirmed in Canon XXVIII:

text: For the Fathers rightly granted privileges to the throne of old Rome, because it was the royal city. And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops, actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges (ἴσα πρεσβεῖα) to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with the Sovereignty and the Senate and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is, and rank next after her.[11]

text: In making their case, the council fathers argued that tradition had accorded "honor" to the see of older Rome because it was the first imperial city. Accordingly, "moved by the same purposes" the fathers "apportioned equal prerogatives to the most holy see of new Rome" because "the city which is honored by the imperial power and senate and enjoying privileges equaling older imperial Rome should also be elevated to her level in ecclesiastical affairs and take second place after her".[29] The framework for allocating ecclesiastical authority advocated by the council fathers mirrored the allocation of imperial authority in the later period of the Roman Empire. The Eastern position could be characterized as being political in nature, as opposed to a doctrinal view. In practice, all Christians East and West addressed the papacy as the See of Peter and Paul or the Apostolic See rather than the See of the Imperial Capital. Rome understands this to indicate that its precedence has always come from its direct lineage from the apostles Peter and Paul rather than its association with Imperial authority.[clarification needed]

text: After the passage of the Canon 28, Rome filed a protest against the reduction of honor given to Antioch and Alexandria. However, fearing that withholding Rome's approval would be interpreted as a rejection of the entire council, in 453 the pope confirmed the council's canons with a protest against the 28th.

text: Consequences: Chalcedonian Schism[edit]

text: The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism.[clarification needed] The bishops that were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of two physes was tantamount to Nestorianism. Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria advocated miaphysitism and had dominated the Council of Ephesus.[30] Churches that rejected Chalcedon in favor of Ephesus broke off from the rest of the Eastern Church in a schism, the most significant among these being the Church of Alexandria, today known as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[31]

text: Justinian I attempted to bring those monks who still rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon into communion with the greater church. The exact time of this event is unknown, but it is believed to have been between 535 and 548. St Abraham of Farshut was summoned to Constantinople and he chose to bring with him four monks. Upon arrival, Justinian summoned them and informed them that they would either accept the decision of the Council or lose their positions. Abraham refused to entertain the idea. Theodora tried to persuade Justinian to change his mind, seemingly to no avail. Abraham himself stated in a letter to his monks that he preferred to remain in exile rather than subscribe to a faith contrary to that of Athanasius.[clarification needed] They were not alone, and the non-Chalcedon churches compose Oriental Orthodoxy, with the Church of Alexandria as their primus inter pares. Only in recent years has a degree of rapprochement between Chalcedonian Christians and the Oriental Orthodox been seen.

text: Liturgical Commemorations[edit]

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates the "Holy Fathers of the 4th Ecumenical Council, who assembled in Chalcedon" on the Sunday on or after July 13; [32] [33] however, in some places (e.g. Russia) on that date is rather a feast of the Fathers of the First Six Ecumenical Councils.[34]

text: For both of the above complete propers have been composed and are found in the Menaion.

text: For the former "The Office of the 630 Holy and God-bearing Fathers of the 4th ... Summoned against the Monophysites Eftyches and Dioskoros ..." was composed in the middle of the 14th century by Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople. This contains numerous hymns exposing the council's teaching, commemorating its leaders whom it praises and whose prayers it implores, and naming its opponents pejoratively. e.g., "Come let us clearly reject the errors of ... but praise in divine songs the fourth council of pious fathers."[33]

text: For the latter the propers are titled "We Commemorate Six Holy Ecumenical Councils".[34] This repeatedly damns those anathematized by the councils with such rhetoric as "Christ-smashing deception enslaved Nestorius" and "mindless Arius and ... is tormented in the fires of Gehenna ..." while the fathers of the councils are praised and the dogmas of the councils are expounded in the hymns therein.


document_title: Tell Me If You Still Care

question_text: who sings tell me if you still care

question_tokens: who sings tell me if you still care

root

text: Tell Me If You Still Care

text:
"Tell Me If You Still Care"

Side-A label of U.S. 12-inch vinyl single

Single by The S.O.S. Band

from the album On the Rise

B-side
"If You Want My Love"[1]

Released
1983 (1983)

Format
12"

Recorded
1982

Genre

R&B
slow jam
quiet storm

Length
6:58 (album version)
4:59 (single edit)[2]

Label
Tabu

Songwriter(s)

James Harris III
Terry Lewis[3]

Producer(s)
Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis[2]

The S.O.S. Band singles chronology

"Just Be Good to Me"
(1983)
"Tell Me If You Still Care"
(1983)
"For Your Love"
(1983)

"Just Be Good to Me"
(1983)
"Tell Me If You Still Care"
(1983)
"For Your Love"
(1983)

On the Rise track listing

"Tell Me If You Still Care"
(1)
"Just Be Good to Me"
(2)

text: "Tell Me If You Still Care" is a song performed by American contemporary R&B group The S.O.S. Band. It is the opening track on the group's fourth studio album On the Rise and was issued as the album's second single. Written[3] and produced[2] by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, the song peaked at #65 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1983.[4]

tag: p

text: The song was covered by Monica in 1995 for her debut album, Miss Thang. It was also interpolated in the chorus of Scarface's 1997 hit Smile, as well as the 2013 song "Smile" by gospel artist Kirk Franklin. Also, the song was sampled by Mariah Carey in "Always Be My Baby" (Mr. Dupri Mix) [feat. Da Brat & Xscape], Janet Jackson in "Call on Me", and Jodeci's 2015 song "Incredible" for their album, The Past, The Present, The Future.

text: Chart positions[edit]

text:
Chart (1983)[4]
Peak
position

US Billboard Hot 100
65

US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks (Billboard)
5


document_title: Maggie & Bianca: Fashion Friends

question_text: who plays andrew in maggie and bianca fashion friends

text: Maggie & Bianca: Fashion Friends

text: Plot[edit]

text: Maggie is an eccentric American girl from Portland who wins a scholarship to the Fashion Academy of Milan, a prestigious fashion school, on her sixteenth birthday. Bianca is the stylish and chic daughter of a powerful Italian fashion mogul. The two girls meet and are thrown together as roommates at the Fashion Academy, but get off to a rocky start as they have very different personalities and conflicting points of view. However, as they clash over time, they come to understand one another. Together with three of their classmates, they form a band called the MoodBoards in order to pursue their musical dreams, while simultaneously continuing their study of fashion at the Academy. At the end of the first season Maggie and Bianca discover that they are half-sisters, with same father but different mothers.[3][4] In the second season, Maggie's mother, who is a songwriter, comes to the Academy to teach, while members of the MoodBoards' rival band, CoolGhost, attend the Academy as new students.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Emanuela Rei as Maggie
Giorgia Boni as Bianca
Sergio Ruggeri as Jacques
Luca Murphy as Quinn
Federica Corti as Nausica
Federico Pedroni as Leonardo (season 1)
Tiffany Zhou as Yuki (seasons 1–2)
Sergio Melone as Eduard
Simone Lijoi as Professor Ferrari (season 1)
Elia Nichols as Professor Tucker
Alvaro Gradella as Headmaster Maffei
Walter Leonardi as Uncle Max
Clelia Piscitello as Dolores (seasons 1–2)
Jody Cecchetto as Andrew (recurring, season 1; main, season 2)
Paolo Fantoni as Felipe (recurring, season 1; main, seasons 2–3)
Simona Di Bella as Susan (recurring, season 1; main, season 2)
Giovanni Bussi as Professor Falques (seasons 2–3)
Paolo Romano as Alberto (recurring, season 1; main, seasons 2–3)
Greta Bellusci as Rachel (guest, season 1; main, seasons 2–3)
Maria Luisa De Crescenzo as Eloise (season 3)

tag: ul

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date 11"A Dream Come True"August 29, 2016 (2016-08-29)
22"Places to Call My Own"August 30, 2016 (2016-08-30)
33"A Start to Classes"August 31, 2016 (2016-08-31)
44"Fashion Photography"September 1, 2016 (2016-09-01)
55"The Most Beautiful Day"September 2, 2016 (2016-09-02)
66"Keep Your Lucky Charm"September 3, 2016 (2016-09-03)
77"Model for a Day"September 4, 2016 (2016-09-04)
88"No Escape from Love"September 5, 2016 (2016-09-05)
99"A Mile in Her Shoes"September 6, 2016 (2016-09-06)
1010"Shock! Extortion!"September 7, 2016 (2016-09-07)
1111"Raiders of the Lost Exam"September 8, 2016 (2016-09-08)
1212"The Phantom of the Academy"September 9, 2016 (2016-09-09)
1313"A Perfect Concert"September 10, 2016 (2016-09-10)
1414"History Repeats Itself"September 22, 2016 (2016-09-22)
1515"Miss Venice"September 23, 2016 (2016-09-23)
1616"Our School Anniversary"September 23, 2016 (2016-09-23)
1717"A Matter of Style"September 24, 2016 (2016-09-24)
1818"Election Trouble"September 24, 2016 (2016-09-24)
1919"The One I Trust"September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
2020"No Mask, No Party"September 25, 2016 (2016-09-25)
2121"Never Mention "CoolGhost""September 26, 2016 (2016-09-26)
2222"Our First Challenge"September 26, 2016 (2016-09-26)
2323"Facing Semifinals"September 27, 2016 (2016-09-27)
2424"Do the Right Thing"September 27, 2016 (2016-09-27)
2525"The Great Lockart"September 28, 2016 (2016-09-28)
2626"Year-end Fashion Show"September 28, 2016 (2016-09-28)

text: Season 2 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air date 271"A Nightmarish Start"January 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
282"Fashion Bloggers Community"January 11, 2017 (2017-01-11)
293"Polar Opposites"January 12, 2017 (2017-01-12)
304"Something Go.Zy."January 12, 2017 (2017-01-12)
315"Hidden Talent"January 13, 2017 (2017-01-13)
326"At Loggerheads!"January 13, 2017 (2017-01-13)
337"Each One Has His Story"January 14, 2017 (2017-01-14)
348"Knights and Princesses"January 14, 2017 (2017-01-14)
359"The Back of the Book"January 15, 2017 (2017-01-15)
3610"Superpowers"January 15, 2017 (2017-01-15)
3711"Friendship Mission"January 16, 2017 (2017-01-16)
3812"A Matter of Details"January 16, 2017 (2017-01-16)
3913"Grand Gala"January 17, 2017 (2017-01-17)
4014"Leave Your Troubles"February 12, 2017 (2017-02-12)
4115"Where Is Bianca?"February 13, 2017 (2017-02-13)
4216"Reality"February 13, 2017 (2017-02-13)
4317"Strangers at School"February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)
4418"About the Future"February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)
4519"#staypositive"February 15, 2017 (2017-02-15)
4620"Mom's Coming!"February 15, 2017 (2017-02-15)
4721"Creative Chaos"February 16, 2017 (2017-02-16)
4822"No Trick, No Illusion"February 16, 2017 (2017-02-16)
4923"The Worst Is the New Best"February 17, 2017 (2017-02-17)
5024"Try Again, Maggie!"February 17, 2017 (2017-02-17)
5125"A Weird Family"February 18, 2017 (2017-02-18)
5226"The Musical"February 18, 2017 (2017-02-18)

text: Season 3 (2017)[edit]

text: A third season aired in Italy between September 18 and December 2, 2017, and consisted of 26 episodes. The third season has not yet been released internationally on Netflix.

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming on a third season of the series took place during summer 2017,[5] and premiered in mid-September on Rai Gulp in Italy.[6][7]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Maggie & Bianca Fashion Friends was originally televised on Rai Gulp in Italy, where the first season aired from August 29 to September 28, 2016. The second season aired in Italy between January 11 and February 18, 2017, with the third season following between September 18 and December 2, 2017.

text: It also aired on Gulli in France; Disney Channel in Germany; Nickelodeon in Greece, Poland, Netherlands and Benelux; Sitel TV in Macedonia; Vizion Plus and Tip TV in Albania; TV Cultura in Brazil; Megamax in Hungary, Romania and Czech Republic; Карусель in Russia[8] and Biggs in Portugal.[9]

text: The series is also available on Netflix worldwide,[1] including in the countries listed above, as well as in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. The first season was released on Netflix on March 31, 2017, with the second season released on April 30, 2018.


document_title: Zero-turn mower

question_text: who built the first zero turn lawn mower

text: Zero-turn mower

text: History[edit]

text: In 1949, Warrensburg, MO resident Max Swisher invented the very first commercially available zero-turn mower and called it the "Ride King". It was a three-wheeled machine - one drive wheel in front and two in the rear. The patented system utilized the front wheel as the drive wheel that also was able to turn an amazing 360 degrees. The wheel was driven by the motor in the same direction 100% of the time. In order to reverse and/or utilize the zero turn capabilities, you simply turn the steering wheel 180 degrees and the mower would move in reverse. In 1963, John Regier was an employee of the Hesston Corporation, a manufacturer of farm and agricultural equipment. The company had recently engineered a device called the swather, which, propelled by a series of belts, cut hay, alfalfa and other farming materials and laid them out in windrows. The way the belts and pulleys operated allowed for counter- rotation—a process which particularly struck Regier. An idea came to him one day: What if he could incorporate the same technology into lawnmowers?

text: "So he went home and invented this thing that was able to operate on the zero-turn radius," says Ken Raney, advertising manager at Hustler Turf. "He began selling them, but they weren’t really taking off the way he wanted them to. Nobody knew the technology then, so nobody wanted to buy it." Regier's patent was eventually sold to Hesston, which would eventually become Excel Industries—parent company of Hustler Turf. The mower was called—appropriately enough—the Hustler.

text: "We were the first company to offer mowers with zero-turn technology," says Paul Mullet, president of Excel Industries. "After Regier sold us the patent, he came to work for us and the rest is history." Excel Industries is the parent company of Hustler Turf Equipment, Inc., which manufacturers Hustler Turf and BigDog Mowers zero-turn mowers.[1]

text: In 1969, Grasshopper Mowers introduced the first commercially viable zero-turn mower,[citation needed]and in 1974, Dixon coined the term "zero-turn radius" with their entrance into the mower market.[1]

text: In 1997, Robert D. Davis Jr. obtained United States Patent 5644903 for a new steering control he had invented for a zero turn radius mower, based on eight previous patents.[2][3]

text: Currently, there are more than three dozen zero-turn mower manufacturers offering a range of mid-mounted and out-front mowing deck options and accessories.

text: Steering[edit]

text: For most zero-turn mowers today, steering is simply changing the speeds of the drive tires, a method called differential steering. The tire speed is controlled by two levers that protrude on either side of the driver and typically extend over the lap (aka. lap bars). It is not that different from steering a shopping cart.[4] When both levers are pushed forward simultaneously with the same force, the mower moves forward; when both levers are pulled back simultaneously with the same force, the mower moves backward. Push one lever more than the other and the mower makes a gentle turn. Push one lever forward and pull the other back and the mower pivots from the drive wheels, creating a zero-radius turn.[5]

text: Zero-turn mowers can use steering wheels but must be designed much differently. Cub Cadet is one of the few zero-turns to use a steering wheel by connecting the back wheels to an axle. The axle is mounted in its midpoint to the body of the mower.[6]

text: Operation[edit]

text: Zero-turn mowers are designed to cut so closely around obstacles that there's virtually no need to trim. These mowers pivot through 180 degrees without leaving any uncut grass. Maximum lever movement means maximum fluid flow, which translates into a rapidly turning wheel. If one drive wheel turns more rapidly than the other, the machine moves along a curved path. If both wheels turn at the same speed, the machine follows a straight path. If one wheel stops and the other turns, or if the wheels turn in opposite directions, the mower pivots.[6] This drive system can be used on two different types of zero turn mowers, Mid Mount, where the mower is suspended under a 4 wheel chassis or Out Front, where the mower is terrain following and front mounted.The terrain following models provide a higher level of balance, comfort, safety and performance. The Out-front models utilise a centralised main drive wheel system with front and rear caster wheels. The midmount has front caster wheels and rear drive wheels. As both types use traction only as a steering system, care must be taken on any sloping terrain. Loss of traction causes total loss of steering.

text: Attachments[edit]

text: There are a number of different attachments that add to the versatility of zero-turn mowers. One popular attachment is a bagging system that allows you to collect grass clippings. There are many bagger options available for zero turn mowers including two- and three-bucket designs. You can also add a mulching kit to the deck to mulch clippings back into the lawn instead of having the grass discharge from the side chute.

text: Adding a hitch to the back of a zero turn mower allows use of a variety of different attachments, including a dump cart, spreader, plug aerator, lawn dethatcher, roller or sprayer. Some zero turn mowers also accommodate front-mounted attachments such as a snow blade, snow blower or brush for clearing snow or debris.[citation needed]


document_title: Suicide Squad (film)

question_text: who plays killer croc in suicide squad movie

text: Suicide Squad (film)

text: Plot

text: In the aftermath of Superman's death, intelligence officer Amanda Waller assembles Task Force X, a team of dangerous criminals imprisoned at Belle Reve Prison consisting of elite hitman Deadshot, former psychiatrist Harley Quinn, pyrokinetic ex-gangster El Diablo, opportunistic thief Captain Boomerang, genetic mutation Killer Croc, and specialized assassin Slipknot. They are placed under command of Colonel Rick Flag to be used as disposable assets in high-risk missions for the United States government. Each member has a nano bomb implanted in their neck, designed to detonate should any member rebel or try to escape.

text: One of Waller's intended recruits is Flag's girlfriend Dr. June Moone, an archaeologist possessed by a witch known as the "Enchantress". Enchantress quickly turns on Waller, deciding to eradicate humankind with a mystical weapon for imprisoning her. She besieges Midway City by transforming its populace into a horde of monsters, and summons her brother Incubus to assist her. Waller then deploys the squad to extract a high-profile mark from Midway, which is reported to be under a terrorist attack.

text: Harley's homicidal lover, the Joker, finds out about her predicament and tortures Belle Reve Security Officer Griggs into leading him to the facility where the nano bombs are made. There, he blackmails Dr. Van Criss into disabling Harley's bomb. On approach, the squad's helicopter is shot down, forcing them to proceed on foot to their target. Boomerang inaccurately convinces Slipknot that the bombs are a ruse to keep them in check; Slipknot attempts to escape and Flag kills him via his nano bomb, while the squad is attacked by Enchantress' minions. They eventually fight their way through to a safe room, where they learn that their mark is Waller herself, who is attempting to cover up her involvement in Enchantress' siege.

text: The squad escorts Waller to a rooftop for extraction, but the arriving helicopter has been hijacked by the Joker and his men, who open fire on the squad while Harley climbs aboard upon Dr. Van Criss disarming the bomb. However, Waller's men shoot down the helicopter, and Harley falls out while the Joker is presumed dead, after which Harley rejoins the squad. Alerted to Waller's whereabouts, Enchantress' minions arrive and kidnap her. Deadshot finds Waller's confidential files and learns the truth about Enchantress. Flag is then forced to confess the truth, causing the squad members to abandon him. With Waller compromised, Flag relieves the squad of the mission, but chooses to continue. Realizing they have an opportunity to prove themselves, they soon rejoin him and locate Enchantress at a partially-flooded subway station. Killer Croc and a group of Navy SEALs, led by Lieutenant GQ Edwards, go underwater to plant a bomb underneath Incubus. El Diablo embraces his abilities and distracts Incubus long enough for the bomb to detonate underneath, killing them both as well as Edwards.

text: The remaining squad members battle Enchantress together, but are ultimately defeated. Enchantress offers to fulfill their deepest desires in exchange for their allegiance, and Harley feigns interest in order to get close enough to cut out Enchantress' heart. Killer Croc then throws explosives into Enchantress' weapon and Deadshot shoots them, destroying the device. Flag takes Enchantress' heart and crushes it, finally freeing June from the curse. Waller, still alive, emerges, and the squad members are returned to Belle Reve with ten years off their sentences. All but Captain Boomerang are allowed special privileges. The Joker, alive and unscathed, breaks into the penitentiary and rescues Harley. In a mid-credits scene, Waller meets with Bruce Wayne, who agrees to protect her from the backlash against her role in Enchantress' rampage in exchange for access to the government's files on the expanding metahuman community.

text: Cast

text: Will Smith as Floyd Lawton / Deadshot:[4]

text: Jared Leto as the Joker:

text: Margot Robbie as Harleen Quinzel / Harley Quinn:[10]

text: Joel Kinnaman as Rick Flag:[13]

text: Viola Davis as Amanda Waller:[15]

text: Jai Courtney as George "Digger" Harkness / Captain Boomerang:[18]

text: Jay Hernandez as Chato Santana / El Diablo:[14][17]

text: Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje as Waylon Jones / Killer Croc:

text: Cara Delevingne as June Moone / Enchantress:

text: Karen Fukuhara as Tatsu Yamashiro / Katana:

text: Adam Beach as Christopher Weiss / Slipknot:[21]

text: Ike Barinholtz as Griggs:[22]

text: Scott Eastwood as GQ Edwards:[22]

text: Additionally, Ben Affleck appears as Bruce Wayne / Batman, and Ezra Miller appears as Barry Allen / Flash, reprising their roles from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice in cameo roles; while Jason Momoa makes a brief photographic appearance as Arthur Curry / Aquaman.[24][25][26] Alain Chanoine portrays Incubus, the brother of Enchantress, who possesses the body of a businessman in Midway City.[27] Jim Parrack appears as Jonny Frost, and Common appears as Monster T, the Joker's henchmen.[17][28] David Harbour portrays government official Dexter Tolliver, Alex Meraz portrays Navy SEAL Gomez, and Matt Baram portrays Dr. Van Criss.[29][30][22] Shailyn Pierre-Dixon plays Zoe Lawton, Deadshot's daughter, and Corina Calderon plays Grace Santana, Diablo's wife.[31][32] David Ayer, writer and director of the film, makes a cameo appearance as a Belle Reve officer.

text: Production

text: Development

text: The film was announced in 2009 with Dan Lin as producer. Stephen Gilchrist as co-producer and Justin Marks as the screenwriter.[33] David Ayer signed on to direct and write the film in September 2014.[34][35] later describing the film to Empire Online as "Dirty Dozen with supervillains".[36] Ayer had six weeks to write his script, given the release date was already set.[37]

text: Casting

text: In October 2014, Warner Bros. had initially offered Ryan Gosling, Tom Hardy, Margot Robbie, and Will Smith roles in the film.[38] In November, TheWrap revealed that Jared Leto was in talks for the role of Joker, which Gosling was originally sought for.[39] The main cast was announced by Warner Brothers in December 2014 with Smith, Hardy, Leto, Robbie, Jai Courtney, and Cara Delevingne as Deadshot, Rick Flag, Joker, Harley Quinn, Captain Boomerang, and Enchantress, respectively.[40] The studio was also considering Viola Davis, Octavia Spencer, and Oprah Winfrey for the role of Amanda Waller.[41] Following the announcement of the cast, comic book writer John Ostrander (creator of the modern incarnation of the Suicide Squad) talked with Comic Book Resources about the casting, saying, "I have no problem with the casting... what I am really impressed by with all of the casting is that they are getting some very good actors to play these parts."[42]

text: In January 2015, Davis expressed interest in playing Amanda Waller during an interview, saying "I'm fascinated by her (Waller)."[16] Meanwhile, Tom Hardy had to drop out as Rick Flag because of scheduling issues with his film The Revenant.[43] Jake Gyllenhaal was then given an offer to replace Hardy as Flag, but he declined.[44] The studio was then looking at Joel Edgerton, Jon Bernthal, and Joel Kinnaman to play the role.[45][46][47] In February, Jay Hernandez joined the cast and Kinnaman was also confirmed to play Flag.[48] At the 87th Academy Awards, Davis confirmed that she had been cast as Amanda Waller.[49] In March 2015, boxer Raymond Olubawale was reported to have an unspecified role in the film,[50] and Scott Eastwood announced that he had been cast on Twitter.[51] Later that month, it was confirmed that Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje and Karen Fukuhara had been cast as Killer Croc and Katana, respectively.[20] Adam Beach, Ike Barinholtz, and Jim Parrack were added to the cast in April 2015.[22] In January 2016, Ben Affleck was confirmed to reprise his role as Batman from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[24]

text: Filming

text: Filming began on April 13, 2015.[52][53] On April 26 and 27, filming was to take place at the Hy's Steakhouse.[54] A "snowstorm" scene was filmed on April 29 on the Adelaide St. and in Ching Lane.[55] On May 5, a few major scenes were filmed in downtown Toronto next to Yonge and Dundas Square.[56] Principal photography wrapped in August 2015 after additional filming took place in Chicago, Illinois.[57][58] Additional filming ensued in 2016 following Warner's desire to make a more lighthearted and comedic tone akin to the trailers, especially as Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice was criticized for being too somber. It was also confirmed that Zack Snyder filmed the shot with the Flash while shooting Justice League in London, while Ayer was in post-production on Suicide Squad.[59] Ayer confirmed that the film was completed on June 24, 2016.[60] Despite the involvement of multiple editors in the process, only John Gilroy is named in the main credit sequence.[37] It was later revealed that many of Jared Leto's scenes were omitted from the final cut.[61][62] An interview with Leto revealed that he was upset over the removal of his work.[63][64]

text: Music

text: Academy Award-winning composer Steven Price, who previously worked with Ayer on Fury, composed the score for Suicide Squad.[65] Suicide Squad: Original Motion Picture Score was announced for a release date of August 8, 2016.[66] A soundtrack album for the film, titled Suicide Squad: The Album, was announced in June 2016, and released on August 5, 2016.[67] The album's first single, "Heathens" by Twenty One Pilots, was released on June 20, 2016.[68] A music video for the song, set in a prison and featuring footage from the film, was released on June 21.[69] "Sucker for Pain" was released as the second single on June 24.[68] The album's third single, "Purple Lamborghini" by Skrillex and Rick Ross, was released on July 22.[70] "Gangsta" by Kehlani; "Standing in the Rain" by Action Bronson, Mark Ronson, and Dan Auerbach of The Black Keys; "Medieval Warfare" by Grimes; and a cover of Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" performed by Panic! at the Disco were released as four promotional singles on August 2, August 3, and August 4, 2016 respectively, with "Medieval Warfare" and "Bohemian Rhapsody" being released on the same day.[71]

text: Marketing

text: Suicide Squad held a panel at the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International, with stars Smith, Robbie, Courtney, Davis, and Kinnaman amongst those who appeared. A trailer intended to be exclusive to the event premiered, but was leaked online, with Warner Bros. responding by stating they would not release an official version.[72] However, the following day, Warner Bros. released an official version, stating: "Warner Bros. Pictures and our anti-piracy team have worked tirelessly over the last 48 hours to contain the Suicide Squad footage that was pirated from Hall H on Saturday. We have been unable to achieve that goal. Today we will release the same footage that has been illegally circulating on the web, in the form it was created and high quality with which it was intended to be enjoyed. We regret this decision as it was our intention to keep the footage as a unique experience for the Comic-Con crowd, but we cannot continue to allow the film to be represented by the poor quality of the pirated footage stolen from our presentation."[73]

text: Release

text: Suicide Squad premiered at the Beacon Theatre in New York City on August 1, 2016. It was theatrically released in the United States on August 5, 2016, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D.[74]

text: Reception

text: Box office

text: Suicide Squad was a box office success,[75] grossing $325.1 million in the United States and Canada and $420.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $745.6 million, against a production budget of $175 million ($325 million including advertising and promotion costs).[3][76][77] Suicide Squad was highly anticipated by audiences worldwide, despite the negative critical reception and lower-than-expected box office performance of Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice in March.[2] It recorded a worldwide opening of $267.1 million from 59 countries and IMAX global debut of $18.2 million, both set new records for the month of August.[78] That is also the second-best debut worldwide for a DC property after Dawn of Justice ($422.5 million) and the seventh best for a superhero title.[79] The Hollywood Reporter highlighted that Dawn of Justice had an advantage of receiving a coveted day-and-date release with China, while Suicide Squad did not secure a release date in the country.[80] Forbes pointed out that had the film secured a release in China, it may well have matched or topped the $773 million total of Guardians of the Galaxy and the $782 million gross of Deadpool.[75] Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $158.45 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 10th most profitable release of 2016.[81]

text: North America

text: Projections for its opening weekend in the United States and Canada were being continuously revised upwards starting from $100 million to as high as $150 million.[82][83][84][85][86] The film opened across 4,255 theaters, the widest for the month of August. Of that, 382 theaters were in IMAX, over 490 large-format screens locations, 270+ drive-ins, 180+ D-Box locations and over 200 dine-in/luxury theaters.[87] It opened Friday, August 5, 2016, on about 11,000 screens and earned $65.1 million, marking the biggest August opening and single day, and the third biggest opening day gross of 2016. Of that, $5.8 million came from IMAX theaters, also a new August record.[88] This includes $20.5 million it earned from Thursday previews, which began at 6:00pm, setting the record for biggest-ever preview of August and the second biggest for a non-sequel film (behind Man of Steel). IMAX comprised $2.4 million (12%) of that figure.[89][90] Much like Batman v Superman and The Dark Knight Rises, however, the film saw a steep Friday-to-Saturday decline, grossing $38.8 million (a drop of 41%).[79][91] In total, it earned $133.7 million in its opening weekend, setting records for the month of August (previously held by Guardians of the Galaxy) and for Will Smith's career (I Am Legend).[79] It is also the second-biggest debut ever for a non-sequel, behind The Hunger Games ($152 million), the fourth biggest of the year and the fifth biggest for Warner Bros.[79][91] IMAX made up $11 million of the opening numbers from 382 theaters, just $200,000 shy of breaking Guardians of the Galaxy' record. Nevertheless, it did beat Guardians' $7.6 million in terms of premium large format screens which comprised $13 million. For Cinemark XD screens, which made $3.2 million, the sixth-highest opening ever.[79]

text: The opening numbers helped Warner Bros. push past the $1 billion mark in North America for the sixteenth year in a row. The film also helped the total weekend tickets sales to an unprecedented $221.3 million in August. Previously, August has never exceeded $200 million at the box office in a single weekend in North America.[79][92][93] Suicide Squad scored a massive debut primarily on the backs of the under-35 set which made up 76% of the opening weekend.[94] Audiences were also diverse, with African-Americans making up 41% of the patrons.[94]

text: Following its record breaking opening weekend, it posted the biggest August Monday gross with $13.1 million, a drop of 56.5% from its Sunday gross. This broke Guardians of the Galaxy's previous record of $11.7 million,[95][96] and also the biggest August Tuesday with $14.3 million, up 9% from its Monday take.[97] The film has now earned the biggest Friday, Saturday, Sunday, Monday and Tuesday in August history.[98] It made $179.1 million in its first week of release, the fourth biggest of the year.[99] Despite earning $13.4 million on its second Friday, the film dropped 79%, slightly less than Batman v Superman's 81% drop.[100] Following a first-place finish in its first weekend of release, the film faced a steep decline of 67.2% in its second weekend, earning an estimated $43.8 million to score the biggest August second weekend gross. It also passed the $200 million mark in just ten days and was able to hold the top spot for the second time in a row despite competition from the comedy Sausage Party.[101] However, the drop is among one of the biggest decline for a studio superhero film, and for Warner Bros. which The Hollywood Reporter called it "deja vu all over again" after Batman v Superman tumbled 69% in its second weekend earlier in the year. The second weekend decline is the second biggest in summer history, only behind Warcraft's historic 70% drop in June of the same year. The site also highlighted possible reasons for the significantly steep drop: dismal reviews, general apathy among moviegoers, altering movie-going habits and competition.[102][103]

text: After three weeks of holding the top spot, it was finally overtaken by Don't Breathe on its fourth weekend.[104] It maintained the second spot in its fifth weekend and registered its best hold with only a -20% decline while also passing the $300 million threshold[105][106] on its thirty-second day of release.[107] It remained in the top ten for eight weekends until finally falling off in its ninth weekend.[108]

text: Outside North America

text: Internationally, Suicide Squad secured a release in approximately 62 countries with no China on the slate.[109] It was released in 57 countries (70% of the marketplace) in conjuncture with its North American debut, including France, South Korea, Australia, Russia and the CIS, Brazil, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Spain and Mexico beginning from Wednesday, August 3. According to trackings, the film was projected to have an opening anywhere between $85 million to $120 million, which would be a new August international debut record.[110][111] Deadline.com pointed out that although the film is a lesser known property, similar to Guardians of the Galaxy, stars such as Will Smith are better known internationally, which could potentially aid the film's performance.[110] It opened Wednesday, August 3, 2016, in 7 countries, earning $8.1 million.[112] It opened in 50 more countries on August 4 and 5, earning $53.8 million for a three-day total of $64.6 million from 57 countries.[112] Through Sunday, August 7, it delivered a five-day opening of $133.3 million from 57 countries on 17,630 screens, nearly double the previous August record held by Guardians of the Galaxy. It also set IMAX opening record with $7 million.[113] It added $58.7 million on its second weekend, a drop of 57% on 15,600 screens in 62 territories.[114] After two straight wins, it was overtaken by the animated The Secret Life of Pets in its third weekend.[115]

text: It recorded the biggest opening day of all time for Warner Bros. in Russia ($3.9 million), the biggest August opening day in the United Kingdom and Ireland ($6.2 million), Brazil ($3 million), South Korea ($2.9 million, also the second biggest Warner Bros. opening day), France ($2.7 million), Sweden ($564,000) and Holland ($517,000, also the biggest opening of the year).[112] Mexico and Spain opened with $3.9 million and $1.4 million respectively.[112] In terms of opening weekend, the film recorded the biggest Warner Bros. opening of all time in Russia ($11.4 million). In Brazil, despite playing amidst the 2016 Summer Olympics, it managed to open with $11.75 million, marking the biggest August opening weekend of all time, the biggest Will Smith opening, and the fourth biggest opening for a superhero film. Its opening numbers alone made it the second biggest film for the studio there.[113] In South Korea, although the film was off to a strong start, however, it was eventually overtaken by The Last Princess and Operation Chromite debuting at No. 3. It made $10.8 million in five days (Wednesday to Sunday).[113][116] The U.K. and Ireland posted the biggest opening market for the film with £11.25 million ($14.8 million) from 573 theaters. Discounting previews, it delivered the third-biggest UK opening of the year, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (£14.62 million) and Captain America: Civil War (£14.47 million). It also became the first new released film of August since 2014 to debut above £3 million.[113][117] Elsewhere, it scored the biggest August opening in Australia ($10.5 million), Mexico ($10.4 million) and Argentina ($2.5 million), while in Spain, it recorded the biggest DC opening with $3.4 million, where it was behind The Secret Life of Pets for the weekend and France a $7.9 million opening.[113] It opened in first place in India for a non-local film with $1.8 million from 462 screens, despite facing competition from Jason Bourne ($1.1 million from 1,027 screens) which also opened on the same weekend. Despite the later film occupying twice the screen number of the former, Suicide Squad managed to take the top spot.[118] Italy opened with an estimated $2.2 million in two days, that's the biggest opening for Smith there.[114] It opened in first place in Germany with $6.9 million.[115] It opened in Japan – the film's last market – on September 9 where it debuted with $3.8 million.[119] It finished in second spot (and first among new releases) behind local anime Your Name. With such a robust opening, Variety projected that the film will end its run there around $20 million.[120] It has so far grossed $9.4 million there.[109]

text: In terms of total earnings, its biggest market outside of North America are the U.K. and Ireland ($43.3 million), followed by Brazil ($35.1 million) and Mexico ($27.1 million).[119] In just two weeks, it became the second-highest-grossing Warner Bros. film of all time in Brazil behind Dawn of Justice.[121]

text: Critical response

text: Suicide Squad received generally negative reviews from critics.[123][124] On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 26% based on 321 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 4.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Suicide Squad boasts a talented cast and a little more humor than previous DCEU efforts, but they aren't enough to save the disappointing end result from a muddled plot, thinly written characters, and choppy directing."[125] On Metacritic, the film has a normalized score of 40 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[126] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[127]

text: Rolling Stone's Peter Travers wrote, "DC Comics tries something different with Suicide Squad, an all-star collection of crime fighting villains—and the result is anything but super."[128] Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair said, "Suicide Squad is just bad. It's ugly and boring, a toxic combination that means the film's highly fetishized violence doesn't even have the exciting tingle of the wicked or the taboo."[129] Writing for The Wall Street Journal, Joe Morgenstern heavily criticized the film saying, "In a word, Suicide Squad is trash. In two words, it's ugly trash." He further said, it "amounts to an all-out attack on the whole idea of entertainment," and called the film a product of "shameless pandering".[130]

text: Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film B− saying, "Suicide Squad kicks off with fizzy, punk-rock ferocity before turning flat and spiraling into familiar formulas," and called Jared Leto's "scene-stealing" Joker "wasted" and "stranded in the periphery". He concluded by saying, "For DC, Suicide Squad is a small step forward. But it could have been a giant leap."[131] IGN gave the film 5.9/10, saying: "Suicide Squad is a decidedly different flavor than Batman v Superman. It goes for subversive, funny and stylish, and it succeeds wildly during the first act. But then the movie turns into something predictable and unexciting."[132] Drew McWeeny from HitFix gave it a positive review, writing "Suicide Squad is not the darkest mainstream superhero comic book movie ever made, nor is it even the darkest live-action film featuring Batman ever made. However, it is gleefully nihilistic, and it takes a different approach to what has become a fairly familiar story form at this point, right at the moment when it feels like superhero movies either have to evolve or die."[133] Brian Truitt from USA Today wrote, "Compared to its ilk, Suicide Squad is an excellently quirky, proudly raised middle finger to the staid superhero-movie establishment."[134]

text: Margot Robbie's performance as Harley Quinn was better received, with many critics eager to see more of the character in future films.[123][131][135][136][137] In January 2017, David Ayer later stated on Twitter that he wished he had done certain things differently in the film including story elements, as well as giving more screen time to the Joker.[122]

text: Accolades

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Despite the negative critical and mixed audience reception to the film, Suicide Squad was nominated for various awards, receiving several.

text: Home media

text: Suicide Squad was released on Digital HD on November 15, 2016, and on Blu-ray, 4K Ultra-HD Blu-Ray, Blu-Ray 3D, and DVD on December 13, 2016. An extended cut of the film is included in the home entertainment release, containing roughly thirteen minutes of footage absent from the theatrical version.[138][139][140]

text: Sequel and spin-offs

text:
In March 2016, it was announced that Warner Bros. would bring Ayer and Smith back for a sequel, to be shot in 2017.[141][142] The following month, Ayer expressed an interest in making the sequel R-rated.[143] Fukuhara has stated that she wants to explore Katana's backstory in the sequel,[144] and Courtney has stated about his hopes of reprising his role as well.[145] In February 2017, it was reported that the studio had a shortlist of potential directors for the sequel, including Mel Gibson.[146][147] In March of that same year, Adam Cozad was hired as screenwriter for the film.[148] In July, Jaume Collet-Serra was named as the studio's first choice to helm the sequel, with production scheduled for mid-2018; Zak Penn had also submitted a story treatment and a new script was being written.[149] The film was officially titled Suicide Squad 2 at San Diego Comic-Con.[150] Leto was confirmed to reprise his role as the Joker in the film.[151] In September 2017, it was announced Gavin O'Connor had signed on as writer and director for the film.[152][153]
In addition, it was later announced in September 2016 that Warner Bros. was planning a film focusing on Harleen Quinzel / Harley Quinn, with Robbie serving as executive producer and Christina Hodson serving as the screenwriter for the solo film.[154][155][156] In December 2016, it was announced that Ayer will return to the shared universe as director and producer of Gotham City Sirens, a film based on the comic book team of the same name, consisting of Harley Quinn, Selina Kyle / Catwoman and Pamela Isley / Poison Ivy. That same month, it was also reported that the studio is developing a film focusing on Floyd Lawton / Deadshot, which will star Smith.[157] In August 2017, another film focusing on the Joker and Harley Quinn entered development with Glenn Ficarra and John Requa in final negotiations to be the co-writer/co-director team handling the project.[158]


document_title: Chanson de geste

question_text: he primary subject of a chanson de geste was

text: Chanson de geste

text: Origins[edit]

text: Since the 19th century, much critical debate has centered on the origins of the chansons de geste, and particularly on explaining the length of time between the composition of the chansons and the actual historical events which they reference.[6] The historical events the chansons allude to occur in the eighth through tenth centuries, yet the earliest chansons we have were probably composed at the end of the eleventh century: only three chansons de geste have a composition that incontestably dates from before 1150: the Chanson de Guillaume, The Song of Roland and Gormont et Isembart:[6] the first half of the Chanson de Guillaume may date from as early as the eleventh century;[7][8] Gormont et Isembart may date from as early as 1068, according to one expert;[9] and The Song of Roland probably dates from after 1086[10] to c.1100.[6][11]

text: Three early theories of the origin of chansons de geste believe in the continued existence of epic material (either as lyric poems, epic poems or prose narrations) in these intervening two or three centuries.[12] Critics like Claude Charles Fauriel, François Raynouard and German Romanticists like Jacob Grimm posited the spontaneous creation of lyric poems by the people as a whole at the time of the historic battles, which were later put together to form the epics.[13] This was the basis for the "cantilena" theory of epic origin, which was elaborated by Gaston Paris, although he maintained that single authors, rather than the multitude, were responsible for the songs.[14]

text: This theory was also supported by Robert Fawtier and by Léon Gautier (although Gautier thought the cantilenae were composed in Germanic languages).[14] At the end of the nineteenth century, Pio Rajna, seeing similarities between the chansons de geste and old Germanic/Merovingian tales, posited a Germanic origin for the French poems.[14] A different theory, introduced by the medievalist Paul Meyer, suggested the poems were based on old prose narrations of the original events.[12][15]

text: Another theory (largely discredited today[16]), developed by Joseph Bédier, posited that the early chansons were recent creations, not earlier than the year 1000, developed by singers who, emulating the songs of "saints lives" sung in front of churches (and collaborating with the church clerics[16]), created epic stories based on the heroes whose shrines and tombs dotted the great pilgrimage routes, as a way of drawing pilgrims to these churches.[17] Critics have also suggested that knowledge by clerics of ancient Latin epics may have played a role in their composition.[15][17]

text: Subsequent criticism has vacillated between "traditionalists" (chansons created as part of a popular tradition) and "individualists" (chansons created by a unique author),[15] but more recent historical research has done much to fill in gaps in the literary record and complicate the question of origins. Critics have discovered manuscripts, texts and other traces of the legendary heroes, and further explored the continued existence of a Latin literary tradition (c.f. the scholarship of Ernst Robert Curtius) in the intervening centuries.[18] The work of Jean Rychner on the art of the minstrels[16] and the work of Parry and Lord on Yugoslavian oral traditional poetry, Homeric verse and oral composition have also been suggested to shed light on the oral composition of the chansons, although this view is not without its critics[19] who maintain the importance of writing not only in the preservation of the texts, but also in their composition, especially for the more sophisticated poems.[19]

text: Subject matter and structure[edit]

text: Composed in Old French and apparently intended for oral performance by jongleurs, the chansons de geste narrate legendary incidents (sometimes based on real events) in the history of France during the eighth, ninth and tenth centuries, the age of Charles Martel, Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, with emphasis on their conflicts with the Moors and Saracens, and also disputes between kings and their vassals.

text: The traditional subject matter of the chansons de geste became known as the Matter of France. This distinguished them from romances concerned with the Matter of Britain, that is, King Arthur and his knights; and with the so-called Matter of Rome, covering the Trojan War, the conquests of Alexander the Great, the life of Julius Cæsar and some of his Imperial successors, who were given medieval makeovers as exemplars of chivalry.[20]

text: A key theme of the chansons de geste, which set them off from the romances (which tended to explore the role of the "individual"), is their critique and celebration of community/collectivity (their epic heroes are portrayed as figures in the destiny of the nation and Christianity)[21] and their representation of the complexities of feudal relations and service.

text: The subject matter of the chansons evolved over time, according to public taste. Alongside the great battles and scenes of historic prowess of the early chansons there began to appear other themes. Realistic elements (money, urban scenes) and elements from the new court culture (female characters, the role of love) began to appear.[3] Other fantasy and adventure elements, derived from the romances, were gradually added:[3] giants, magic, and monsters increasingly appear among the foes along with Muslims. There is also an increasing dose of Eastern adventure, drawing on contemporary experiences in the Crusades; in addition, one series of chansons retells the events of the First Crusade and the first years of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The conflicts of the 14th century (Hundred Years' War) brought a renewed epic spirit and nationalistic (or propagandistic[22]) fervor to some chansons de geste (such as La Chanson de Hugues Capet).[23]

text: The poems contain an assortment of character types; the repertoire of valiant hero, brave traitor, shifty or cowardly traitor, Saracen giant, beautiful Saracen princess, and so forth. As the genre matured, fantasy elements were introduced. Some of the characters that were devised by the poets in this manner include the fairy Oberon, who made his literary debut in Huon de Bordeaux; and the magic horse Bayard, who first appears in Renaud de Montauban. Quite soon an element of self-parody appears; even the august Charlemagne was not above gentle mockery in the Pèlerinage de Charlemagne.

text: The narrative structure of the chanson de geste has been compared to the one in the Nibelungenlied and in creole legends by Henri Wittmann[24] on the basis of common narreme structure as first developed in the work of Eugene Dorfman[25] and Jean-Pierre Tusseau[26]

text: Versification[edit]

text: Early chansons de geste were typically composed in ten-syllable lines grouped in assonanced (meaning that the last stressed vowel is the same in each line throughout the stanza, but the last consonant differs from line to line) stanzas (called laisses). These stanzas are of variable length.

text: An example from the Chanson de Roland illustrates the technique of the ten-syllable assonanced form. The assonance in this stanza is on e:

text:
Desuz un pin, delez un eglanter
Un faldestoed i unt, fait tout d'or mer:
La siet li reis ki dulce France tient.
Blanche ad la barbe et tut flurit le chef,
Gent ad le cors et le cuntenant fier.
S'est kil demandet, ne l'estoet enseigner.

Under a pine tree, by a rosebush,
there is a throne made entirely of gold.
There sits the king who rules sweet France;
his beard is white, with a full head of hair.
He is noble in carriage, and proud of bearing.
If anyone is looking for the King, he doesn't need to be pointed out.

text: Later chansons were composed in monorhyme stanzas, in which the last syllable of each line rhymes fully throughout the stanza. Later chansons also tended to be composed using alexandrines (twelve-syllable) lines, instead of ten-syllable lines (some early chansons, such as Girart de Vienne, were even adapted into a twelve-syllable version).

text: The following example of the twelve-syllable rhymed form is from the opening lines of Les Chétifs, a chanson in the Crusade cycle. The rhyme is on ie:

text:
Or s'en fuit Corbarans tos les plains de Surie,
N'enmaine que .ii. rois ens en sa conpaignie.
S'enporte Brohadas, fis Soudan de Persie;
En l'estor l'avoit mort a l'espee forbie
Li bons dus Godefrois a le chiere hardie
Tres devant Anthioce ens en la prairie.

So Corbaran escaped across the plains of Syria;
He took only two kings in his company.
He carried away Brohadas, son of the Sultan of Persia,
Who had been killed in the battle by the clean sword
Of the brave-spirited good duke Godfrey
Right in front of Antioch, down in the meadow.

text: These forms of versification were substantially different than the forms found in the Old French verse romances (romans) which were written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets.

text: Composition and performance[edit]

text: The public of the chansons de geste—the lay (secular) public of the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries—was largely illiterate,[27] except for (at least to the end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and (in the south) smaller noble families.[28] Thus, the chansons were primarily an oral medium.

text: Opinions vary greatly on whether the early chansons were first written down and then read from manuscripts (although parchment was quite expensive[29]) or memorized for performance,[30] or whether portions were improvised,[29] or whether they were entirely the product of spontaneous oral composition and later written down. Similarly, scholars differ greatly on the social condition and literacy of the poets themselves; were they cultured clerics or illiterate jongleurs working within an oral tradition? As an indication of the role played by orality in the tradition of the chanson de geste, lines and sometimes whole stanzas, especially in the earlier examples, are noticeably formulaic in nature, making it possible both for the poet to construct a poem in performance and for the audience to grasp a new theme with ease.

text: Scholarly opinions differ on the exact manner of recitation, but it is generally believed that the chansons de geste were originally sung (whereas the medieval romances were probably spoken)[30] by poets, minstrels or jongleurs, who would sometimes accompany themselves, or be accompanied, on the vielle, a mediæval fiddle played with a bow. Several manuscript texts include lines in which the jongleur demands attention, threatens to stop singing, promises to continue the next day, and asks for money or gifts.[29] By the middle of the 13th century, singing had probably given way to recitation.[3]

text: It has been calculated that a reciter could sing about a thousand verses an hour[31] and probably limited himself to 1000–1300 verses by performance,[27] making it likely that the performance of works extended over several days.[31] Given that many chansons from the late twelfth century on extended to over 10,000 verses or more (for example, Aspremont comprises 11, 376 verses, while Quatre Fils Aymon comprises 18,489 verses), it is conceivable that few spectators heard the longest works in their entirety.[32]

text: While poems like The Song of Roland were sometimes heard in public squares and were no doubt warmly received by a broad public,[33] some critics caution that the chansons should probably not be characterized as popular literature[34] and some chansons appear particularly tailored for an audience of aristocratic, privileged or warrior classes.[35]

text: The poems themselves[edit]

text: More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in around three hundred manuscripts[5] that date from the 12th to the 15th century. Several popular chansons were written down more than once in varying forms. The earliest chansons are all (more or less) anonymous; many later ones have named authors.

text: By the middle of the 12th century, the corpus of works was being expanded principally by "cyclisation", that is to say by the formation of "cycles" of chansons attached to a character or group of characters—with new chansons being added to the ensemble by singing of the earlier or later adventures of the hero, of their youthful exploits ("enfances"), the great deeds of their ancestors or descendants, or their retreat from the world to a convent ("moniage") – or attached to an event (like the Crusades).[36]

text: About 1215 Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, in the introductory lines to his Girart de Vienne, subdivided the Matter of France, the usual subject area of the chansons de geste, into three cycles, which revolved around three main characters (see quotation at Matter of France). There are several other less formal lists of chansons, or of the legends they incorporate. One can be found in the fabliau entitled Des Deux Bordeors Ribauz, a humorous tale of the second half of the 13th century, in which a jongleur lists the stories he knows.[37] Another is included by the Catalan troubadour Guiraut de Cabrera in his humorous poem Ensenhamen, better known from its first words as "Cabra juglar": this is addressed to a juglar (jongleur) and purports to instruct him on the poems he ought to know but doesn't.[38]

text: The listing below is arranged according to Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube's cycles, extended with two additional groupings and with a final list of chansons that fit into no cycle. There are numerous differences of opinion about the categorization of individual chansons.

text: Geste du roi[edit]

text: The chief character is usually Charlemagne or one of his immediate successors. A pervasive theme is the King's role as champion of Christianity. This cycle contains the first of the chansons to be written down, the Chanson de Roland or "The Song of Roland".

text:
Chanson de Roland (c. 1100 for the Oxford text, the earliest written version); several other versions exist, including the Occitan Ronsasvals[39], the Middle High German Ruolandsliet and the Latin Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis.
Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne or Voyage de Charlemagne à Jérusalem et à Constantinople dealing with a fictional expedition by Charlemagne and his knights (c. 1140; two 15th century reworkings)
Fierabras (c. 1170)[40][41]
Aspremont (c. 1190); a later version formed the basis of Aspramonte by Andrea da Barberino
Anseïs de Carthage (c. 1200)
Chanson de Saisnes or "Song of the Saxons", by Jean Bodel (c. 1200)
Huon de Bordeaux originally c. 1215–1240, known from slightly later manuscripts. A "prequel" and four sequels were later added:

Auberon
Chanson d'Esclarmonde
Clarisse et Florent
Yde et Olive
Godin

Gaydon (c. 1230)[42]
Jehan de Lanson (before 1239)[43]
Berthe aux Grands Pieds by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275), and a later Franco-Italian reworking
Les Enfances Ogier by Adenet le Roi (c. 1275) | to Ogier the Dane.
Entrée d'Espagne (c. 1320)[44]
Hugues Capet (c. 1360)
Galiens li Restorés known from a single manuscript of about 1490[45]
Aiquin or Acquin[46]
Otuel or Otinel
Mainet
Basin
Ogier le Danois by Raimbert de Paris[47]
Gui de Bourgogne[48]
Macaire or La Chanson de la Reine Sebile
Huon d'Auvergne, a lost chanson known from a 16th-century retelling. The hero is mentioned among epic heroes in the Ensenhamen of Guiraut de Cabrera, and figures as a character in Mainet

text: Geste de Garin de Monglane[edit]

text: The central character is not Garin de Monglane but his supposed great-grandson, Guillaume d'Orange. These chansons deal with knights who were typically younger sons, not heirs, who seek land and glory through combat with the Infidel (in practice, Muslim) enemy.

text:
Chanson de Guillaume (c. 1100)
Couronnement de Louis (c. 1130)
Le Charroi de Nîmes (c. 1140)
La Prise d'Orange (c. 1150), reworking of a lost version from before 1122
Aliscans (c. 1180), with several later versions
La Bataille Loquifer by Graindor de Brie (fl. 1170)
Le Moniage Rainouart by Graindor de Brie (fl. 1170)
Foulques de Candie, by Herbert le Duc of Dammartin (fl. 1170)
Simon de Pouille or "Simon of Apulia", fictional eastern adventures; the hero is said to be a grandson of Garin de Monglane[49]
Floovant (late 12th); the hero is a son of Merovingian King Clovis I
Aymeri de Narbonne by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube (late 12th/early 13th)
Girart de Vienne by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube (late 12th/early 13th); also found in a later shorter version alongside Hernaut de Beaulande and Renier de Gennes[50]
Les Enfances Garin de Monglane (15th century)
Garin de Monglane (13th century)
Hernaut de Beaulande; a fragment of the 14th century and a later version[50]
Renier de Gennes[50]
Les Enfances Guillaume (before 1250)
Les Narbonnais (c. 1205), in two parts, known as Le département des enfants Aymeri, Le siège de Narbonne
Les Enfances Vivien (c. 1205)[51]
Le Covenant Vivien or La Chevalerie Vivien
Le Siège de Barbastre (c. 1180)
Bovon de Commarchis (c. 1275), reworking by Adenet le Roi of the Siege de Barbastre
Guibert d'Andrenas (13th century)
La Prise de Cordres (13th century)
La Mort Aymeri de Narbonne (c. 1180)
Les Enfances Renier
Le Moniage Guillaume (1160–1180)[52]

text: Geste de Doon de Mayence[edit]

text: This cycle concerns traitors and rebels against royal authority. In each case the revolt ends with the defeat of the rebels and their eventual repentance.

text:
Gormond et Isembart
Girart de Roussillon (1160–1170). The hero Girart de Roussillon also figures in Girart de Vienne, in which he is identified as a son of Garin de Monglane. There is a later sequel:

Auberi le Bourgoing

Renaud de Montauban or Les Quatre Fils Aymon (end of the 12th century)
Raoul de Cambrai, apparently begun by Bertholais; existing version from end of 12th century
Doön de Mayence (mid 13th century)
Doon de Nanteuil current in the second half of the 12th century, now known only in fragments which derive from a 13th-century version.[53] To this several sequels were attached:

Aye d'Avignon, probably composed between 1195 and 1205. The fictional heroine is first married to Garnier de Nanteuil, who is son of Doon de Nanteuil and grandson of Doon de Mayence. After Garnier’s death she marries the Saracen Ganor
Gui de Nanteuil, evidently popular around 1207 when the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaqueiras mentions the story. The fictional hero is son of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon (to which Gui de Nanteuil forms a sequel)
Tristan de Nanteuil. The fictional hero is son of the hero of Gui de Nanteuil
Parise la Duchesse. The fictional heroine is daughter of the heroine of Aye d'Avignon. Exiled from France, she gives birth to a son, Hugues, who becomes king of Hungary[54]

Maugis d'Aigremont
Vivien l'Amachour de Monbranc

text: Lorraine cycle[edit]

text: This local cycle of epics of Lorraine traditional history, in the late form in which it is now known, includes details evidently drawn from Huon de Bordeaux and Ogier le Danois.

text:
Garin le Loherain
Hervis de Metz
Gerbert de Metz
Anseïs fils de Girbert

text: Crusade cycle[edit]

text: Not listed by Bertrand de Bar-sur-Aube, this cycle deals with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath.

text:
Chanson d'Antioche, apparently begun by Richard le Pèlerin c. 1100; earliest surviving text by Graindor de Douai c. 1180; expanded version 14th century
Les Chétifs telling the adventures (mostly fictional) of the poor crusaders led by Peter the Hermit; the hero is Harpin de Bourges. The episode was eventually incorporated, c. 1180, by Graindor de Douai in his reworking of the Chanson d'Antioche
Matabrune tells the story of old Matabrune and of the great-grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon
Le Chevalier au Cigne tells the story of Elias, grandfather of Godefroi de Bouillon. Originally composed around 1192, it was afterwards extended and divided into several branches
Les Enfances Godefroi or "Childhood exploits of Godefroi" tells the story of the youth of Godefroi de Bouillon and his three brothers
Chanson de Jérusalem
La Mort de Godefroi de Bouillon, quite unhistorical, narrates Godefroi’s poisoning by the Patriarch of Jerusalem
Baudouin de Sebourc (mid-14th century)
Bâtard de Bouillon (early 14th century)

text: Others[edit]

text:
Gormont et Isembart[55]
Ami et Amile, followed by a sequel:

Jourdain de Blaye

Beuve de Hanstonne, and a related poem:

Daurel et Beton, whose putative Old French version is lost; the story is known from an Occitan version of c. 1200

Aigar et Maurin
Aïmer le Chétif, a lost chanson[56]
Aiol (13th century)[57]
Théséus de Cologne, possibly a romance

text: The chansons de geste reached their apogee in the period 1150–1250.[3] By the middle of the 13th century, public taste in France had begun to abandon these epics, preferring, rather, the romances.[58] As the genre progressed in the middle of the 13th century, only certain traits (like versification, laisse structure, formulaic forms, setting, and other clichés of the genre) remained to set the chansons apart from the romances.[58] The 15th century saw the cycles of chansons (along with other chronicles) converted into large prose compilations (such as the compilation made by David Aubert).[23][59] Yet, the themes of the epics continued to exert an influence through the 16th century.[59]

text: Legacy and adaptations[edit]

text: The chansons de geste created a body of mythology that lived on well after they ceased to be produced in France.

text: The French chanson gave rise to the Old Spanish tradition of the cantar de gesta.

text: The chanson de geste was also adapted in southern (Occitan-speaking) France. One of the three surviving manuscripts of the chanson Girart de Roussillon (12th century) is in Occitan,[60] as are two works based on the story of Charlemagne and Roland, Rollan a Saragossa[61] and Ronsasvals (early 12th century).[62] The chanson de geste form was also used in such Occitan texts as Canso d'Antioca (late 12th century), Daurel e Betó (first half of the 13th century), and Song of the Albigensian Crusade (c.1275) (cf Occitan literature).

text: In medieval Germany, the chansons de geste elicited little interest from the German courtly audience, unlike the romances which were much appreciated. While The Song of Roland was among the first French epics to be translated into German (by Konrad der Pfaffe as the Rolandslied, c.1170), and the German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach based his (incomplete) 13th century epic Willehalm (consisting of seventy-eight manuscripts) on the Aliscans, a work in the cycle of William of Orange (Eschenbach's work had a great success in Germany), these remained isolated examples. Other than a few other works translated from the cycle of Charlemagne in the 13th century, the chansons de geste were not adapted into German, and it is believed that this was because the epic poems lacked what the romances specialized in portraying: scenes of idealized knighthood, love and courtly society.[63]

text: In the late 13th century, certain French chansons de geste were adapted into the Old Norse Karlamagnús saga.

text: In Italy, there exist several 14th-century texts in verse or prose which recount the feats of Charlemagne in Spain, including a chanson de geste in Franco-Venetian, the Entrée d'Espagne (c.1320)[64] (notable for transforming the character of Roland into a knight errant, similar to heroes from the Arthurian romances[65]), and a similar Italian epic La Spagna (1350–1360) in ottava rima. Through such works, the "Matter of France" became an important source of material (albeit significantly transformed) in Italian romantic epics. Morgante (c.1483) by Luigi Pulci, Orlando innamorato (1495) by Matteo Maria Boiardo, Orlando furioso (1516) by Ludovico Ariosto, and Jerusalem Delivered (1581) by Torquato Tasso are all indebted to the French narrative material (the Pulci, Boiardo and Ariosto poems are founded on the legends of the paladins of Charlemagne, and particularly, of Roland, translated as "Orlando").

text: The incidents and plot devices of the Italian epics later became central to works of English literature such as Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene; Spenser attempted to adapt the form devised to tell the tale of the triumph of Christianity over Islam to tell instead of the triumph of Protestantism over Roman Catholicism.

text: The Welsh poet, painter, soldier and engraver David Jones's Modernist poem In Parenthesis was described by contemporary critic Herbert Read as having "the heroic ring which we associate with the old chansons de geste".