document_title: History of Microsoft Windows

question_text: what is the oldest version of microsoft windows

question_tokens: what is the oldest version of microsoft windows

text: History of Microsoft Windows

text: Windows 1.x[edit]

text: The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on November 20, 1985, achieved little popularity. The project was briefly codenamed "Interface Manager" before the windowing system was developed - contrary to popular belief that it was the original name for Windows and Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name Windows would be more appealing to customers.[11]

text: Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended MS-DOS, and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems.

text: The first version of Microsoft Windows included a simple graphics painting program called Windows Paint; Windows Write, a simple word processor; an appointment calendar; a card-filer; a notepad; a clock; a control panel; a computer terminal; Clipboard; and RAM driver. It also included the MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi.

text: Microsoft had worked with Apple Computer to develop applications for Apple's new Macintosh computer, which featured a graphical user interface. As part of the related business negotiations, Microsoft had licensed certain aspects of the Macintosh user interface from Apple; in later litigation, a district court summarized these aspects as "screen displays". In the development of Windows 1.0, Microsoft intentionally limited its borrowing of certain GUI elements from the Macintosh user interface, to comply with its license. For example, windows were only displayed "tiled" on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one another.

text: Windows 2.x[edit]

text: Microsoft Windows version 2 came out on December 9, 1987, and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor. Much of the popularity for Windows 2.0 came by way of its inclusion as a "run-time version" with Microsoft's new graphical applications, Excel and Word for Windows. They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit.

text: Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when Aldus PageMaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on Macintosh. Some computer historians[who?] date this, the first appearance of a significant and non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the start of the success of Windows.

text: Versions 2.0x used the real-mode memory model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker like DESQview, which used the 286 protected mode.

text: Later, two new versions were released: Windows/286 2.1 and Windows/386 2.1. Like prior versions of Windows, Windows/286 2.1 used the real-mode memory model, but was the first version to support the High Memory Area. Windows/386 2.1 had a protected mode kernel with LIM-standard EMS emulation. All Windows and DOS-based applications at the time were real mode, running over the protected mode kernel by using the virtual 8086 mode, which was new with the 80386 processor.

text: Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the ostensibly copyrighted "look and feel" of its operating system and "embodie[d] and generated a copy of the Macintosh" in its OS. Judge William Schwarzer dropped all but 10 of Apple's 189 claims of copyright infringement, and ruled that most of the remaining 10 were over uncopyrightable ideas.

text: Windows 3.0[edit]

text: Windows 3.0, released in May 1990, improved capabilities given to native applications. It also allowed users to better multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory.

text: Windows 3.0's user interface finally resembled a serious competitor to the user interface of the Macintosh computer. PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to VGA video cards, and the protected/enhanced mode allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run in real, standard, or 386 enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088 up to the 80286 and 80386. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386.

text: Windows 3.0 received two updates. A few months after introduction, Windows 3.0a was released as a maintenance release, resolving bugs and improving stability. A "multimedia" version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0, was released in October 1991. This was bundled with "multimedia upgrade kits", comprising a CD-ROM drive and a sound card, such as the Creative Labs Sound Blaster Pro. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in Windows 3.1 (first released in April 1992) and later, and was part of Microsoft's specification for the Multimedia PC.

text: The features listed above and growing market support from application software developers made Windows 3.0 wildly successful, selling around 10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1. Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company to revise some of its earlier plans. Support was discontinued on December 31, 2001.[12]

text: During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had cooperatively been developing OS/2 as a successor to DOS. OS/2 would take full advantage of the aforementioned protected mode of the Intel 80286 processor and up to 16 MB of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables.

text: A GUI, called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Its API was incompatible with Windows. Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new file system, HPFS, to replace the FAT file system.

text: By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM relationship. They cooperated with each other in developing their PC operating systems, and had access to each other's code. Microsoft wanted to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be based on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to later succeed OS/2 2.0.

text: This agreement soon fell apart however, and the Microsoft/IBM relationship was terminated. IBM continued to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to Windows NT. Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below).

text: After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992. This was a major improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95. Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the Intel 80386. Still, much of the system had 16-bit code internally which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code also. This was one of the reasons for the chronic shortage of OS/2 drivers for the latest devices. Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result of the breakup.

text: Windows 3.1x[edit]

text: In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed Windows 3.1 (first released in April 1992), which included several improvements to Windows 3.0, such as display of TrueType scalable fonts (developed jointly with Apple), improved disk performance in 386 Enhanced Mode, multimedia support, and bugfixes. It also removed Real Mode, and only ran on an 80286 or better processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992.

text: In 1992 and 1993, Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), which was available both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that included the base Windows environment and the networking extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups included improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer networking. There were two versions of Windows for Workgroups, WfW 3.1 and WfW 3.11. Unlike prior versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 ran in 386 Enhanced Mode only, and needed at least an 80386SX processor. One optional download for WfW was the "Wolverine" TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through corporate networks.

text: All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace. Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the IBM PC. The Windows API became the de facto standard for consumer software.

text: Windows NT 3.x[edit]

text: Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of the chief architects of VMS at Digital Equipment Corporation (later acquired by Compaq, now part of Hewlett-Packard).[13] Microsoft hired him in October 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but Cutler created a completely new system instead. Cutler had been developing a follow-on to VMS at DEC called Mica, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise and around 20 engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he brought Mica's code to Microsoft and sued.[14] Microsoft eventually paid US$150 million and agreed to support DEC's Alpha CPU chip in NT.

text: Windows NT Workstation (Microsoft marketing wanted Windows NT to appear to be a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July 1992 Professional Developers Conference in San Francisco.[15] Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (Windows 95, codenamed Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed Cairo. In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until Windows XP—albeit Windows 2000, oriented to business, had already unified most of the system’s bolts and gears, it was XP that was sold to home consumers like Windows 95 and came to be viewed as the final unified OS. Parts of Cairo have still not made it into Windows as of 2017 - most notably, the WinFS file system, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo. Microsoft announced that they have discontinued the separate release of WinFS for Windows XP and Windows Vista[16] and will gradually incorporate the technologies developed for WinFS in other products and technologies, notably Microsoft SQL Server.

text: Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model. This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000. Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of developing drivers for a small segment of the market. Additionally, although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited hardware, and thus was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines.

text: However, these same features made Windows NT perfect for the LAN server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office networking was becoming common). NT also had advanced network connectivity options and NTFS, an efficient file system. Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's entry into this field, and took away market share from Novell (the dominant player) in the following years.

text: One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was a new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit Windows API. This API was called Win32, and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as Win16. The Win32 API had three levels implementations: the complete one for Windows NT, a subset for Chicago (originally called Win32c) missing features primarily of interest to enterprise customers (at the time) such as security and Unicode support, and a more limited subset called Win32s which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems. Thus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compatibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even though the two systems had radically different internal architectures. Windows NT was the first Windows operating system based on a hybrid kernel.

text: As released, Windows NT 3.x went through three versions (3.1, 3.5, and 3.51); changes were primarily internal and reflected back end changes. The 3.5 release added support for new types of hardware and improved performance and data reliability; the 3.51 release was primarily to update the Win32 APIs to be compatible with software being written for the Win32c APIs in what became Windows 95.

text: Windows 95[edit]

text: After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer oriented version of the operating system codenamed Chicago. Chicago was designed to have support for 32-bit preemptive multitasking like OS/2 and Windows NT, although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility. The Win32 API first introduced with Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved through a technique known as "thunking". A new object oriented GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.

text: Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance, and development time. Additionally it was necessary to carry over design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment. These factors eventually began to impact the operating system's efficiency and stability.

text: Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the product name for Chicago when it was released on August 24, 1995. Microsoft had a double gain from its release: first, it made it impossible for consumers to run Windows 95 on a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS; secondly, although traces of DOS were never completely removed from the system and MS DOS 7 would be loaded briefly as a part of the booting process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386 enhanced mode, with a flat 32-bit address space and virtual memory. These features make it possible for Win32 applications to address up to 2 gigabytes of virtual RAM (with another 2 GB reserved for the operating system), and in theory prevented them from inadvertently corrupting the memory space of other Win32 applications. In this respect the functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows NT, although Windows 95/98/ME did not support more than 512 megabytes of physical RAM without obscure system tweaks.

text: IBM continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp). Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0's high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was significantly optimized both for speed and size. Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp 3.0 was even shipped preinstalled with several large German hardware vendor chains. However, with the release of Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose market share.

text: It is probably impossible to choose one specific reason why OS/2 failed to gain much market share. While OS/2 continued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for anything but the Win32s subset of Win32 API (see above). Unlike with Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of the Win32 API. IBM later introduced OS/2 into the United States v. Microsoft case, blaming unfair marketing tactics on Microsoft's part.

text: Microsoft went on to release five different versions of Windows 95:

text:
Windows 95 - original release
Windows 95 A - included Windows 95 OSR1 slipstreamed into the installation.
Windows 95 B - (OSR2) included several major enhancements, Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and full FAT32 file system support.
Windows 95 B USB - (OSR2.1) included basic USB support.
Windows 95 C - (OSR2.5) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced.

text: OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public; rather, they were available only to OEMs that would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).

text: The first Microsoft Plus! add-on pack was sold for Windows 95.

text: Windows NT 4.0[edit]

text: Windows NT 4.0 was the successor of 3.51 (1995) and 3.5 (1994). Microsoft released Windows NT 4.0 to manufacturing in July 1996, one year after the release of Windows 95. Major new features included the new Explorer shell from Windows 95, scalability and feature improvements to the core architecture, kernel, USER32, COM and MSRPC.[17]

text: Windows NT 4.0 came in four versions:

text:
Windows NT 4.0 Workstation
Windows NT 4.0 Server
Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes support for 8-way SMP and clustering)
Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server

text: Windows 98[edit]

text: On June 25, 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98 (codenamed Memphis). It included new hardware drivers and the FAT32 file system which supports disk partitions that are larger than 2 GB (first introduced in Windows 95 OSR2). USB support in Windows 98 is marketed as a vast improvement over Windows 95. The release continued the controversial inclusion of the Internet Explorer browser with the operating system that started with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1. The action eventually led to the filing of the United States v. Microsoft case, dealing with the question of whether Microsoft was introducing unfair practices into the market in an effort to eliminate competition from other companies such as Netscape.[18]

text: In 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release. One of the more notable new features was the addition of Internet Connection Sharing, a form of network address translation, allowing several machines on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet connection. Hardware support through device drivers was increased and this version shipped with Internet Explorer 5. Many minor problems that existed in the first edition were fixed making it, according to many, the most stable release of the Windows 9x family.[citation needed]

text: Windows 2000[edit]

text: Microsoft released Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000. It has the version number Windows NT 5.0. Windows 2000 has had four official service packs. It was successfully deployed both on the server and the workstation markets. Amongst Windows 2000's most significant new features was Active Directory, a near-complete replacement of the NT 4.0 Windows Server domain model, which built on industry-standard technologies like DNS, LDAP, and Kerberos to connect machines to one another. Terminal Services, previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was expanded to all server versions. A number of features from Windows 98 were incorporated also, such as an improved Device Manager, Windows Media Player, and a revised DirectX that made it possible for the first time for many modern games to work on the NT kernel. Windows 2000 is also the last NT-kernel Windows operating system to lack product activation.

text: While Windows 2000 upgrades were available for Windows 95 and Windows 98, it was not intended for home users.[19]

text: Windows 2000 was available in four editions:

text:
Windows 2000 Professional
Windows 2000 Server
Windows 2000 Advanced Server
Windows 2000 Datacenter Server

text: Windows ME[edit]

text: In September 2000, Microsoft released a successor to Windows 98 called Windows ME, short for "Millennium Edition". It was the last DOS-based operating system from Microsoft. Windows ME introduced a new multimedia-editing application called Windows Movie Maker, came standard with Internet Explorer 5.5 and Windows Media Player 7, and debuted the first version of System Restore – a recovery utility that enables the operating system to revert system files back to a prior date and time. System Restore was a notable feature that would continue to thrive in later versions of Windows, including XP, Vista, and Windows 7.

text: Windows ME was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Windows XP. Many of the new features were available from the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows versions (System Restore and Windows Movie Maker were exceptions). Windows ME was criticized for stability issues, as well as for lacking real mode DOS support, to the point of being referred to as the "Mistake Edition"[20] or "Many Errors." Windows ME was the last operating system to be based on the Windows 9x (monolithic) kernel and MS-DOS.

text: Windows XP and Server 2003[edit]

text: On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP (codenamed "Whistler"). The merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 95/98/Me lines was finally achieved with Windows XP. Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 kernel, marking the entrance of the Windows NT core to the consumer market, to replace the aging 16/32-bit branch. The initial release met with considerable criticism, particularly in the area of security, leading to the release of three major Service Packs. Windows XP SP1 was released in September 2002, SP2 came out in August 2004 and SP3 came out in April 2008. Service Pack 2 provided significant improvements and encouraged widespread adoption of XP among both home and business users. Windows XP lasted longer as Microsoft's flagship operating system than any other version of Windows, from October 25, 2001 to January 30, 2007 when it was succeeded by Windows Vista.

text: Windows XP is available in a number of versions:

text:
Windows XP Home Edition, for home desktops and laptops - lacked features such as joining Active Directory Domain, Remote Desktop Server and Internet Information Services Server.

Windows XP Home Edition N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling

Windows XP Professional, for business and power users contained all features in Home Edition.

Windows XP Professional N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling

Windows XP Media Center Edition (MCE), released in October 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an emphasis on home entertainment. Contained all features offered in Windows XP Professional and the Windows Media Center. Subsequent versions are the same but have an updated Windows Media Center.

Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003
Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004
Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on October 12, 2004. Included Windows XP Service Pack 2, the Royale Windows Theme and joining a Windows Active Directory Domain is disabled. The Aquarium, Da Vinci, Nature and Space themes are retained from Windows XP Plus!

Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, for tablet PCs

Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005

Windows XP Embedded, for embedded systems
Windows XP Starter Edition, for new computer users in developing countries
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, released on April 25, 2005 for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86-64 instruction set originally developed by AMD as AMD64; Intel calls their version Intel 64. Internally, XP x64 was a somewhat updated OS based on the Server 2003 code line.
Windows XP 64-bit Edition, is a version for Intel's Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator. It is roughly analogous to Windows XP Professional in features. It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as "Workstations".

text: Windows Server 2003[edit]

text: On April 25, 2003 Microsoft launched Windows Server 2003, a notable update to Windows 2000 Server encompassing many new security features, a new "Manage Your Server" wizard that simplifies configuring a machine for specific roles, and improved performance. It has the version number NT 5.2. A few services not essential for server environments are disabled by default for stability reasons, most noticeable are the "Windows Audio" and "Themes" services; users have to enable them manually to get sound or the "Luna" look as per Windows XP. The hardware acceleration for display is also turned off by default, users have to turn the acceleration level up themselves if they trust the display card driver.

text: December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 R2, which is actually Windows Server 2003 with SP1 (Service Pack 1) plus an add-on package. Among the new features are a number of management features for branch offices, file serving, printing and company-wide identity integration.

text: Windows Server 2003 is available in six editions:

text:
Web Edition (32-bit)
Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit)
Datacenter Edition (32 and 64-bit)
Small Business Server (32-bit)
Storage Server (OEM channel only).

text: Windows Server 2003 R2, an update of Windows Server 2003, was released to manufacturing on December 6, 2005. It is distributed on two CDs, with one CD being the Windows Server 2003 SP1 CD. The other CD adds many optionally installable features for Windows Server 2003. The R2 update was released for all x86 and x64 versions, except Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition, which was not released for Itanium.

text: Windows XP x64 and Server 2003 x64 Editions[edit]

text: On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003, x64 Editions in Standard, Enterprise and Datacenter SKUs. Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is an edition of Windows XP for x86-64 personal computers. It is designed to use the expanded 64-bit memory address space provided by the x86-64 architecture.[21]

text: Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is based on the Windows Server 2003 codebase; with the server features removed and client features added. Both Windows Server 2003 x64 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition use identical kernels.[22]

text: Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is not to be confused with Windows XP 64-bit Edition, as the latter was designed for Intel Itanium processors.[23][24] During the initial development phases, Windows XP Professional x64 Edition was named Windows XP 64-Bit Edition for 64-Bit Extended Systems.[25]

text: Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs[edit]

text: In July 2005, Microsoft released a thin-client version of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs (WinFLP). It is only available to Software Assurance customers. The aim of WinFLP is to give companies a viable upgrade option for older PCs that are running Windows 95, 98, and ME that will be supported with patches and updates for the next several years. Most user applications will typically be run on a remote machine using Terminal Services or Citrix.

text: Windows Home Server[edit]

text: Windows Home Server (codenamed Q, Quattro) is a server product based on Windows Server 2003, designed for consumer use. The system was announced on January 7, 2007 by Russel Adolfo. Windows Home Server can be configured and monitored using a console program that can be installed on a client PC. Such features as Media Sharing, local and remote drive backup and file duplication are all listed as features. The release of Windows Home Server Power Pack 3 added support for Windows 7 to Windows Home Server.

text: Windows Vista and Server 2008[edit]

text: Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006 to business customers - consumer versions followed on January 30, 2007. Windows Vista intended to have enhanced security by introducing a new restricted user mode called User Account Control, replacing the "administrator-by-default" philosophy of Windows XP. Vista was the target of much criticism and negative press, and in general was not well regarded; this was seen as leading to the relatively swift release of Windows 7.

text: One major difference between Vista and earlier versions of Windows, Windows 95 and later, is that the original start button was replaced with the Windows icon in a circle (called the Start Orb). Vista also features new graphics features, the Windows Aero GUI, new applications (such as Windows Calendar, Windows DVD Maker and some new games including Chess, Mahjong, and Purble Place),[26] Internet Explorer 7, Windows Media Player 11, and a large number of underlying architectural changes including Windows Powershell being shipped with the operating system, which many believed to have taken place in Windows 7's architecture and later. Windows Vista has the version number NT 6.0. Since its release, Windows Vista has had two service packs.

text: Windows Vista ships in six editions:[27]

text:
Starter (only available in developing countries)
Home Basic
Home Premium
Business
Enterprise (only available to large business and enterprise)
Ultimate (combines both Home Premium and Enterprise)

text: All editions (except Starter edition) are currently available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. The biggest advantage of the 64-bit version is breaking the 4 gigabyte memory barrier, which 32-bit computers cannot fully access.

text: Windows Server 2008[edit]

text: Windows Server 2008, released on February 27, 2008, was originally known as Windows Server Codename "Longhorn". Windows Server 2008 builds on the technological and security advances first introduced with Windows Vista, and is significantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003.

text: Windows Server 2008 ships in ten editions:

text:
Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition (32-bit and 64-bit)
Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition (32-bit and 64-bit)
Windows Server 2008 Datacenter Edition (32-bit and 64-bit)
Windows HPC Server 2008
Windows Web Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
Windows Storage Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
Windows Small Business Server 2008 (64-bit only)
Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems
Windows Server 2008 Foundation Server

text: Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2[edit]

text: Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009, and reached general retail availability on October 22, 2009.[28][29] It was previously known by the codenames Blackcomb and Vienna. Windows 7 has the version number NT 6.1. Since its release, Windows 7 has had one service pack.

text: Some features of Windows 7 are faster booting, Device Stage, Windows PowerShell, less obtrusive User Account Control, multi-touch, and improved window management.[30] Features included with Windows Vista and not in Windows 7 include the sidebar (although gadgets remain) and several programs that were removed in favor of downloading their Windows Live counterparts.

text: Windows 7 ships in six editions:[31]

text:
Starter (available worldwide)
Home Basic
Home Premium
Professional
Enterprise (available to volume-license business customers only)
Ultimate

text: In some countries (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland)[citation needed], there are other editions that lack some features such as Windows Media Player, Windows Media Center and Internet Explorer - these editions were called names such as "Windows 7 N." Microsoft focuses on selling Windows 7 Home Premium and Professional. All editions, except the Starter edition, are available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. Unlike the corresponding Vista editions, the Professional and Enterprise editions are supersets of the Home Premium edition.

text: At the Professional Developers Conference (PDC) 2008, Microsoft also announced Windows Server 2008 R2, as the server variant of Windows 7. Windows Server 2008 R2 ships in 64-bit versions (x64 and Itanium) only.

text: Windows Thin PC[edit]

text: In 2010, Microsoft released Windows Thin PC or WinTPC, which is a feature- and size-reduced locked-down version of Windows 7 expressly designed to turn older PCs into thin clients. WinTPC is available for software assurance customers and relies on cloud computing in a business network. Wireless operation is supported since WinTPC has full wireless stack integration, but wireless operation may not be as good as the operation on a wired connection.[32][33]

text: Windows Home Server 2011[edit]

text: Windows Home Server 2011 code named 'Vail'[34] was released on April 6, 2011.[35] Windows Home Server 2011 is built on the Windows Server 2008 R2 code base and removed the Drive Extender drive pooling technology in the original Windows Home Server release.[36] Windows Home Server 2011 is considered a "major release".[34] Its predecessor was built on Windows Server 2003. WHS 2011 only supports x86-64 hardware.

text: Microsoft decided to discontinue Windows Home Server 2011 on July 5, 2012 while including its features into Windows Server 2012 Essentials.[37] Windows Home Server 2011 was supported until April 12, 2016.[38]

text: Windows 8 and Server 2012[edit]

text: On October 26, 2012, Microsoft released Windows 8 to the public. One edition, Windows RT, runs on some system-on-a-chip devices with mobile 32-bit ARM (ARMv7) processors. Windows 8 features a redesigned user interface, designed to make it easier for touchscreen users to use Windows. The interface introduced an updated Start menu known as the Start screen, and a new full-screen application platform. The desktop interface is also present for running windowed applications, although Windows RT will not run any desktop applications not included in the system. On the Building Windows 8 blog, it was announced that a computer running Windows 8 can boot up much faster than Windows 7.[39] New features also include USB 3.0 support, the Windows Store, the ability to run from USB drives with Windows To Go, and others. Windows 8 was given the kernel number NT 6.2, with its successor 8.1 receiving the kernel number 6.3. So far, neither has had any service packs yet, although many consider Windows 8.1 to be a service pack for Windows 8.

text: Windows 8 is available in the following editions:

text:
Windows 8
Windows 8 Pro
Windows 8 Enterprise
Windows RT

text: The first public preview of Windows Server 2012 and was also shown by Microsoft at the 2011 Microsoft Worldwide Partner Conference.[40]

text: Windows 8 Release Preview and Windows Server 2012 Release Candidate were both released on May 31, 2012.[41] Product development on Windows 8 was completed on August 1, 2012, and it was released to manufacturing the same day.[42] Windows Server 2012 went on sale to the public on September 4, 2012. Windows 8 went on sale October 26, 2012.

text: Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 were released on October 17, 2013. Windows 8.1 is available as an update in the Windows store for Windows 8 users only and also available to download for clean installation.[43] The update adds new options for resizing the live tiles on the Start screen.[44]

text: Windows 10 and Server 2016[edit]

text: Windows 10, codenamed Threshold, is the current release of the Microsoft Windows operating system. Unveiled on September 30, 2014, it was released on July 29, 2015.[45] It was distributed without charge to Windows 7 and 8.1 users for one year after release. A number of new features like Cortana, the Microsoft Edge web browser, the ability to view Windows Store apps as a window instead of fullscreen, virtual desktops, revamped core apps, Continuum, and a unified Settings app were all features debuted in Windows 10. Microsoft has announced that Windows 10 will be the last major version of its series of operating systems to be released. Instead, Microsoft will release major updates to the operating system via download or in Windows Update, similar to the way updates are delivered in macOS.[46]

text: So far, three major versions have been released, and one has been announced for release in 2017:

text:
Version 1507, the original version of Windows 10, codenamed Threshold 1 and released in July 2015.[47] Kernel version number: 10.0.10240.
Version 1511, announced as the November Update and codenamed Threshold 2. It was released in November 2015. This update added many visual tweaks, such as more consistent context menus and the ability to change the color of window titlebars. Windows 10 can now be activated with a product key for Windows 7 and later, thus simplifying the activation process and essentially making Windows 10 free for anyone who has Windows 7 or later, even after the free upgrade period ended. A "Find My Device" feature was added, allowing users to track their devices if they lose them, similar to the Find My iPhone service that Apple offers. Controversially, the Start menu now displays "featured apps". A few tweaks were added to Microsoft Edge, including tab previews and the ability to sync the browser with other devices running Windows 10.[48][49] Kernel version number: 10.0.10586.
Version 1607, announced as the Anniversary Update and codenamed Redstone 1. It is the first of 4 planned updates with the "Redstone" codename. Its version number, 1607, means that it was supposed to launch in July 2016, however it was delayed until August 2016. Tons of new features were included in the version, including more integration with Cortana, a dark theme, browser extension support for Microsoft Edge, click-to-play Flash by default, tab pinning, web notifications, swipe navigation in Edge, and the ability for Windows Hello to use a fingerprint sensor to sign into apps and websites, similar to Touch ID on the iPhone. Also added was Windows Ink, which improves digital inking in many apps, and the Windows Ink Workspace which lists pen-compatible apps, as well as quick shortcuts to a sticky notes app and a sketchpad. Microsoft, through their partnership with Canonical, integrated a full Ubuntu bash shell via the Windows Subsystem for Linux. Notable tweaks in this version of Windows 10 include the removal of the controversial password-sharing feature of Microsoft's Wi-Fi Sense service, a slightly redesigned Start menu, Tablet Mode working more like Windows 8, overhauled emoji, improvements to the lock screen, calendar integration in the taskbar, and the Blue Screen of Death now showing a QR code which users can scan to quickly find out what caused the error.[50] This version of Windows 10's kernel version is 10.0.14393.
Version 1703, announced as the Creators Update and codenamed Redstone 2. Planned features for this update include a new Paint 3D application, which allows users to create and modify 3D models, integration with Microsoft's HoloLens and other "mixed-reality" headsets produced by other manufacturers, Windows MyPeople, which allows users to manage contacts, Xbox game broadcasting, support for newly developed APIs such as WDDM 2.2, Dolby Atmos support, improvements to the Settings app, and more Edge and Cortana improvements. This version will also include tweaks to system apps, such as an address bar in the Registry Editor, Windows PowerShell being the default command line interface instead of the Command Prompt and the Windows Subsystem for Linux being upgraded to support Ubuntu 16.04.[51] This version of Windows 10 was released on 11 April 2017 as a free update.[52]

text: Windows Server 2016[edit]

text: Windows Server 2016 is a release of the Microsoft Windows Server operating system that was unveiled on September 30, 2014. Windows Server 2016 was officially released at Microsoft's Ignite Conference, September 26–30, 2016.[53]


document_title: Thorne Forrester

question_text: who played the original thorne on bold and the beautiful

root

text: Thorne Forrester

text:
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tag: table

text:
Thorne Forrester

Ingo Rademacher as Thorne Forrester

The Bold and the Beautiful character

Portrayed by

Clayton Norcross (1987–89)
Jeff Trachta (1989–96)
Winsor Harmon (1996–2016)
Ingo Rademacher (2017–)

Duration
1987–

First appearance
March 23, 1987 (1987-03-23)

Created by
William J. Bell

Book appearances
Sunset Love (2014)

Classification
Present; regular

Profile

Occupation

Businessman
Fashion designer (2017–)

Home
Los Angeles, California

Winsor Harmon as Thorne Forrester

[show]Family

Family
Forrester

Father
Eric Forrester

Mother
Stephanie Forrester

Stepmother

Brooke Logan (1991–93, 2005–06)
Sheila Carter (1993–95)
Donna Logan (2008–10)
Quinn Fuller (2016–)

Sisters

Kristen Forrester
Felicia Forrester
Angela Forrester

Half-brothers

Ridge Forrester
Rick Forrester
Marcus Forrester (adoptive)

Half-sisters
Bridget Forrester

Wife

Caroline Spencer Forrester (1987–89)
Macy Alexander (1990–93, 1995–97, 2000–03)
Brooke Logan (2001)
Darla Einstein (2004–06)

Daughters
Alexandria Forrester

Uncles
John Forrester

Aunts
Pamela Douglas

Nephews
Dino Damiano
Zende Forrester (adoptive)
Thomas Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Logan Knight

Nieces
Steffy Forrester
Phoebe Forrester
Rosie Forrester (adoptive)
Lizzy Forrester

First cousins
Jessica Forrester
Ivy Forrester

text: Thorne Forrester is a fictional character on CBS soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful. The character was played by Clayton Norcross from the show's premiere in 1987 until 1989, by Jeff Trachta from 1989 until 1996 and Winsor Harmon from 1996 to 2016. In September 2017, Harmon announced that the role of Thorne was to be recast, and several days after, it was announced that daytime veteran Ingo Rademacher had been cast in the role; he made his first appearance on November 27, 2017.

tag: p

text: Character creation and casting[edit]

text: Actor Clayton Nocross debuted in the role of Thorne in the serial's premiere episode on March 23, 1987. He remained in the role until 1989, when he was recast with Jeff Trachta. In 1996, Trachta was let go from the role and was recast with former All My Children actor Winsor Harmon. In May 2010, it was announced that Harmon had been downgraded to a recurring capacity, following a "mutual decision" between Harmon and the higher ups at The Bold and the Beautiful.[1] On September 23, 2017, Harmon announced that executive producer Bradley Bell intended to recast the role of Thorne.[2] Two days later, TV Insider's Michael Logan announced that former General Hospital actor Ingo Rademacher had been cast in the role of Thorne; he made his first appearance on November 27, 2017.[3][4] On his exit, Harmon stated: "It shocked me, especially since [Executive Producer Brad Bell] had called said, 'I want you to come to the fan club event [in August].' I was told there was a storyline coming and then [a month later], I got the call from him that he was going to recast the role. So yeah, it was a bit of a shocker, I have to say."[5]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Thorne Forrester is the younger son of Eric and Stephanie Forrester. Thorne was raised in Beverly Hills with his siblings, Ridge, Kristen, and Felicia Forrester. Thorne grew up in the shadow of big brother Ridge. Thorne had a crush on Caroline Spencer, even though she was engaged to Ridge. When Caroline dumped Ridge for having a one-night stand before their wedding, Thorne befriended Caroline, and the friendship turned to romance. But Thorne knew Caroline still loved Ridge, so he convinced Ridge's new girlfriend, Brooke Logan, to hide a letter in which Ridge professed his devotion to Caroline. Thorne and Caroline married soon after, although Caroline was furious when she learned of Thorne's part in hiding the letter.

text: Caroline had too much to drink at a party, and Ridge thought it would be funny to slip into Caroline's bed. But Caroline, thinking Ridge was Thorne, made love to Ridge. Afterwards, Thorne was frustrated by Caroline's hesitancy to be intimate with him. While recovering from an appendectomy, Thorne overheard Eric and Stephanie discussing Ridge's prank. Drinking heavily while on painkillers, Thorne grabbed Stephanie's gun and shot Ridge in the head. Thorne passed out, so Stephanie wiped Thorne's fingerprints from the gun and told the police she had shot Ridge, thinking he was a prowler. Neither Thorne nor Ridge had any memory of what had happened that night.

text: Thorne's family worked overtime to keep Thorne from remembering what he had done, fearing a repeat episode. Caroline, who wanted Ridge back, took Thorne to a therapist under the guise of getting marriage counseling, and soon Thorne was strong enough to grant Caroline a divorce. When Thorne finally learned of Ridge's prank, Thorne cut both Ridge and Caroline out of his life and turned an eye toward Brooke's sister, Donna Logan.

text: Thorne had grown up thinking his youngest sister, Angela, was dead, but Stephanie was caring for a comatose Angela on the sly. No one knew that Angela's doctor had replaced Angela, who had died, with an imposter to bilk money out of the Forresters. "Angela" was severely burned escaping with the doctor, and later introduced herself to Thorne as Deveney Dickson. Thorne's empathy and offer of plastic surgery softened "Deveney", who fell in love with Thorne, but "Deveney" still went through with drugging Thorne and giving him a gun to shoot Ridge. Thorne responded when Ridge talked him down, and Angela got away with the money Thorne had given her for the surgery.

text: Thorne met Macy Alexander when her mother, Sally Spectra, meant to lock Macy and Ridge in a room on the Queen Mary during a fashion show. Thorne briefly dated Macy and Donna Logan at the same time, but ultimately Thorne chose Macy. The Forresters and the Spectras were fashion rivals, and neither family approved of Thorne and Macy's relationship. Thorne and Macy married anyway, but separated when the strain of the families' battle became too much.

text: During the separation, Macy dated Jake Maclaine, while Thorne got close to Karen Spencer, Caroline's long-lost identical twin sister. Just as Thorne asked Karen to move in with him, Macy asked for a reconciliation, and the three ended up living under the same roof. Macy and Karen got into a food fight over Thorne, who couldn't choose between them. Thorne finally decided on Macy, but misinterpreted Macy's goodbye hug with Jake, prompting Thorne to settle for Karen. Thorne and Macy's attempts at communication were thwarted by Karen and her father, Bill Spencer, Sr., as well as Sly Donovan, who capitalized on Macy's growing drinking problem by getting her drunk to keep her from meeting with Thorne.

text: Karen left Thorne after she realized that Thorne still loved Macy. Thorne found Macy passed out in an alley, after which they cleared up their misunderstandings and reconciled. Thorne refused to support Eric's marriage to Sheila Carter, so Sheila spiked Macy's orange juice. When Anthony Armando, who was designing for Spectra, took Macy home and put her to bed, Thorne walked in and punched Anthony. Macy explained that Spectra needed Anthony and refused to fire him, so Thorne left Macy again. Brooke interfered with Ridge's marriage to Taylor Hayes by arranging an overseas business trip with Ridge, so Thorne punched Ridge at the airport and travelled to Paris with Brooke instead.

text: Thorne returned for Taylor's funeral, and re-established a friendship with Macy, though he briefly dated Forrester model Ivana Vanderveld. Thorne and Macy began singing together and were signed by Decadent Records. Ivana was jealous when Thorne and Macy performed together in Rotterdam, Holland. But Macy collapsed after the show and was diagnosed with throat cancer. Thorne gave up singing and proposed to Macy after she recovered from her surgery. Ivana retaliated by sending Macy one nasty fan letter, but the letters kept coming and became increasingly threatening. Thorne fought with Ivana when the police found stationery in her apartment, and soon after, Ivana was murdered with Thorne's letter opener. Thorne was arrested during his wedding to Macy.

text: Anthony had framed Thorne because he wanted Macy for himself. He had proposed to Ivana, then played the devastated fiancé to gain Macy's sympathy. Thorne found out Anthony had stationery like Ivana's and broke out of prison to protect Macy, who had gone to Mexico to comfort Anthony. Thorne extracted a confession from Anthony, which Macy overheard. Thorne was recaptured, while Macy pretended to believe in Anthony's innocence. Macy tried to goad Anthony into confessing on tape but was discovered, and Sally was shot in the ensuing melée. Thorne and Macy finally remarried after Anthony was apprehended.

text: Thorne performed Grease on Broadway for four months. Upon his return, Thorne befriended Claudia Cortez. Claudia had come to the U.S. for political asylum but was in the country illegally. Thorne gave Claudia a job at Forrester anyway, and Claudia fell for Thorne. When Macy caught Claudia giving Thorne a massage, Macy reported Claudia to immigration, which drove a wedge between Macy and Thorne. Meanwhile, Thorne began to see the back-from-the-dead Taylor in a new light. After Macy divorced Thorne, Claudia and Thorne almost made love, but Claudia shied away when she realized the depth of Thorne's feelings for Taylor.

text: Despondent over Ridge, Taylor got drunk and set her nightgown on fire with a lantern. Thorne saved Taylor and stood by her as she recovered from her burns. While Ridge was in jail for shooting Grant Chambers, Thorne convinced Taylor to lie that Ridge's baby was Thorne's and even proposed to Taylor in Hawaii. But soon Taylor wanted to tell Ridge the truth, so Thorne again worked with Brooke to prevent it. Thorne even sedated Taylor with a drugged protein shake when Ridge came to visit. Finally, Thorne relented and agreed to help Taylor stop Ridge and Brooke's wedding, but Taylor went into labor in Thorne's car, forcing Thorne to deliver baby Thomas himself.

text: Ridge finally found out he was Thomas' father and reunited with Taylor, leaving Thorne in the cold, especially since Macy had just married Grant. Thorne moved in next door to the newlyweds, and Macy was jealous when she saw her best friend, Darla Einstein, making a move on Thorne. Grant was diagnosed with untreatable testicular cancer and wanted Thorne to fulfill Macy's desire to have a family. Thorne shocked Macy by kissing her as Grant lay dying in his hospital bed. After Grant died, Macy would only accept Thorne's friendship. Thorne, who had quit Forrester Creations over Stephanie's preferential treatment of Ridge, stepped in and saved Spectra Fashions from bankruptcy.

text: When Macy hedged about accepting Thorne's proposal because of the Forrester/Spectra feud, Thorne connected with Brooke. Macy saw Brooke hiding under Thorne's bed and told Stephanie. Thorne arrived at the Big Bear cabin to find Stephanie terrorizing Brooke and saved Brooke from being stabbed by Stephanie . Later, Stephanie had a stroke and didn't remember finding Thorne with Brooke together, so Thorne and Brooke kept their continuing relationship a secret to prevent Stephanie from having another episode. Thorne was conflicted and even dreamt that his relationship with Brooke had killed Stephanie.

text: Thorne reconciled with an unsuspecting Macy to throw Stephanie off the scent, narrowly avoiding a surprise wedding to Macy that Stephanie had arranged. Eric, Ridge, and Taylor plotted to convince Thorne that Brooke still loved Ridge. While in Venice, Italy, Ridge staged a fight with Taylor and then made a move on Brooke. Thorne was devastated to see Brooke kissing Ridge. Thorne followed Macy to the airport, and married her in Amsterdam. Macy was blissfully unaware that Thorne still thought of Brooke, who was trying to lure Thorne back. Macy overheard Eric and Ridge discussing Thorne's feelings for Brooke and started drinking again.

text: A sober Macy asked Thorne, who wanted a divorce, to come to Big Bear for a last dance before ending their marriage. After Thorne left, Brooke confronted Macy with divorce papers. Macy tried to drive off, but Brooke jumped in the car with her. Macy drove recklessly to frighten Brooke and collided with a tanker. Thorne arrived and saved Brooke, but before he could get to Macy, the car exploded. At Macy's funeral, Sally exposed Thorne's continuing relationship with Brooke, causing Stephanie to have another stroke. When Stephanie forced Thorne to choose between Brooke and his family, Thorne chose Brooke, and Stephanie disowned him.

text: Macy's half-sister, Kimberly Fairchild, decided she wanted Thorne, and set about seducing him away from Brooke. Meanwhile, Brooke's children, Rick and Bridget, were against Brooke's relationship with Thorne. Kimberly kissed Thorne backstage at a fashion show, and Bridget raised the curtain so the public would see. Brooke broke things off, and Kimberly took advantage of an inebriated Thorne by lying that they'd had sex. Kimberly also tried to kill Brooke by rigging a heavy photography light to fall on her; Thorne was almost hit when a second light dropped. Thorne and Brooke reconciled and married at the Forrester mansion, even managing to get last-minute support from the family.

text: Thorne's happiness was short-lived when he overheard Brooke telling Deacon Sharpe that Ridge would always be her soul mate. Thorne had a vision of Macy, and, feeling he had made a terrible mistake with Brooke, Thorne asked Brooke for an annulment. Later, after Taylor was again presumed dead, Thorne shared a few quick kisses with grief counselor Tricia Quick.

text: Ridge had defected to Spectra and challenged Forrester to a fashion showdown in Portofino, Italy. Thorne chased Lena, a woman that reminded him of Macy. But "Lena" really was Macy: Adam Alexander, Macy's father, had saved Macy before her car exploded. Adam's connections to the mob had made it necessary to take Macy on the run, and Thorne was dismayed when Macy insisted on staying in Italy and marrying her fiancé, Lorenzo Barelli. When Sally had a heart attack, Macy returned to Los Angeles, where Thorne informed Macy they were still married because she had never signed their divorce papers. Macy's marriage to Lorenzo was invalid, leading Thorne and Macy to again reconcile.

text: Like with Jake years earlier, Thorne mistook Macy's goodbye to Lorenzo. Thorne got drunk and made love to Darla, thinking she was Macy. Thorne and Macy squared things, but now Darla was carrying Thorne's child and wanted an abortion. After Macy had a recurrence of cancer that required her to have a hysterectomy, Thorne asked Darla to let him and Macy raise Darla's child. Darla agreed if Thorne would tell Macy he was its father, after which Macy shunned Darla and asked Thorne for an annulment.

text: Thorne drew closer to Darla during her pregnancy. On the night Macy headlined a new club, she made peace with Thorne and Darla. Thorne and the horrified clubgoers watched helplessly as a chandelier crashed down on Macy, who went into a coma. Sally was forced to pull the plug on Macy, and Darla named her child Alexandria in tribute to Macy's memory. Darla supported Thorne as he asked to be made president of Forrester Creations, and soon Thorne and Darla were married.

text: Ridge initially supported Thorne's presidency, but soon challenged Thorne's authority and insulted Darla. Thorne punched Ridge, then attempted a truce. But Darla mistakenly handed Sally photos of the Forrester Ingenue line, which Sally rushed into production. Thorne forgave Darla, but when Ridge banned Darla from the building, the brothers fought and demanded that Eric decide who should leave. Eric chose Ridge, and Thorne raged that he was the only true Forrester son, as it had been revealed that Massimo Marone was really Ridge's father. Thorne threw a chair through a window and told his family they would regret their choice.

text: Sally made Thorne acting president of Spectra, where Thorne used Forrester's client list to gain support. Thorne also stole Forrester designs to use in a Spectra fashion show. But eventually, Thorne had original Spectra couture created by Spectra mainstay Clarke Garrison, former designer Amber Moore, and Thorne's sister, Felicia. Thorne challenged Forrester to a fashion showdown with Spectra. Thorne lost the competition, but gained Eric's respect. Ridge overheard Eric call Thorne his "only son" and tried to stop Spectra's line from being stocked alongside Forrester in boutiques. Thorne sold his Forrester shares and invested the money in Spectra. But when Spectra lost another fashion showdown featuring Thomas' designs, Thorne lost his investment. Stephanie discovered she was the sole owner of Forrester and offered Thorne his presidency back.

text: Sally fell ill and lied she was going on a cruise when she was really moving to a retirement home, so Thorne and Darla moved Sally in with them. Thorne also gave Sally a job at Forrester, since Spectra was now owned by Marone Industries.

text: The night of Alexandria's birthday party, Taylor's daughter, Phoebe Forrester, had a flat tire on a foggy highway, so Darla raced off to help. But Darla fell into the path of an oncoming car and died. Thorne was devastated, and asked for Taylor's psychiatric expertise to help explain things to Alexandria. Thorne and Taylor became close and fell in love. But Taylor had a secret: Taylor had driven drunk while also coming to help Phoebe, and was the one who had hit Darla. Phoebe and Stephanie were afraid Taylor would go to jail, and begged Taylor to keep quiet. However, when Thorne proposed to Taylor, Thorne was horrified to hear that Taylor was responsible for Darla's death.

text: Thorne felt betrayed by Taylor, Stephanie, and Phoebe for keeping the circumstances of Darla's death from him. Taylor was arrested and pleaded guilty, but, when a witness surfaced who had seen Darla fall into the path of Taylor's car, Thorne encouraged Taylor to change her plea to not guilty, and Taylor was released. Later, Nick Marone took control of Forrester Creations, and Thorne and Ridge pulled together to help Eric create a new company, Forrester Originals.

text: Meanwhile, Thorne and Taylor moved ahead with their plans to marry, but when Alexandria found out Taylor had killed Darla, Alexandria blacked out Taylor's pictures with crayon and slashed Taylor's wedding dress. Thorne and Taylor called off their engagement, realizing Alexandria wasn't ready to see them married. Thorne became despondent and again turned to alcohol in his grief over Darla. Thorne reconnected with Donna, seeing Darla's face as they made love. Thorne soon asked Donna to marry him, unaware that Donna was only using Thorne to get back at Stephanie for constantly hurting Brooke. On Thorne's wedding day, Donna's other sister, Katie, overheard Donna admitting she didn't love Thorne. When Katie told Thorne what she'd heard, Thorne cancelled the ceremony.

text: Thorne was unhappy when Donna moved on to Eric, and briefly found himself bonding with Katie, although a romance never developed. When Eric planned to announce his relationship with Donna at a fashion show, Thorne and Felicia locked Donna in the Forrester steam room to keep her from taking the stage. Thorne and his family fought Eric on his decision to give Donna a position in the company. Later, when Eric fell into a coma, Donna temporarily fired Thorne and his siblings. Thorne knew that Donna was spending time with Owen Knight, so when Eric recovered, Thorne hired Donna and Owen lookalikes to kiss for a hidden camera so Eric would divorce Donna. Thorne's scheme failed.

text: Thorne was suspected of giving Forrester designs to Jackie M after he made noise about Rick and Ridge getting too much attention at Forrester, but the real culprit was Rick. Thorne expected to take the president position when Rick stepped down, but felt even more underappreciated when Brooke made Rick president instead. Thorne and Felicia, feeling Forrester was overrun with Logans, resigned from Forrester when Brooke, Donna, and Katie became models for the Royalty line.

text: Thorne eventually returned, but soon Bill Spencer, Jr. took control of Forrester and installed his new wife, Katie, as CEO. Katie offered Thorne the vice presidency, but Thorne refused, and Donna was given the position. Thorne joined his family in creating the ugly Dare line in an unsuccessful attempt to sabotage Bill. Thorne was upset when Steffy Forrester got the company back from Bill, but divided the stock between Ridge, Eric, Stephanie, and Taylor, while Thorne got none.

text: Liam Cooper came to town looking for his long-lost father. It turned out both Thorne and Bill had dated Kelly Cooper, Liam's late mother. Thorne submitted to a DNA test, which showed that Bill was Liam's father. Later, when Thomas developed a crush on Brooke, Thorne pointed out that Thomas didn't have much experience with women and wondered if Thomas was gay. Ridge returned to Taylor when he thought Brooke had slept with Thomas, but, at the wedding, Stephanie admitted she'd gotten Thomas to lie in exchange for her 25% stock. Thorne growled to Eric, saying he was all right being banished in the basement with no stock because he "didn't want to have to spend that much time around you people".

text: Thorne came to Taylor, who had also been hurt by Thomas' lie, and pointed out that Taylor and her children now controlled 55% of Forrester since Stephanie had made Taylor the trustee of Thomas' stock. When Thorne and Taylor realized they could take over the company, they kissed, reigniting their romance. Thorne made a power play at Forrester, but lost Taylor's support when she realized a takeover would put her children against their father. Thorne and Taylor later made up, with their continuing romance happening primarily off-screen, which has ended due to Taylor's relationship with Eric Forrester.

text: Most recently, Thorne and Thomas strongly disagreed with Eric's decision to make Rick president of Forrester Creations. Thorne's daughter Alexandria Forrester has returned and is working at Forrester Creations with Hope Logan. On January 6, 2014, Ridge and Aly revealed to Rick that Thorne has taken over Ridge's former position as head of Forrester International.

text: Thorne has returned several times a year as follows: after the helicopter crash of his brother Ridge, and late with Taylor, revealing to his relatives that he had started a new relationship with her. This caused Aly lots of anger and anxiety, but was resolved with conversations with Oliver and Thorne. Aly eventually found it okay because it makes Thorne happy until May 2015 when she announced to Oliver Jones that she was still quite angry at her.

text: Thorne appeared for a few episodes in and around the death of his daughter Aly in July 2015 and then in September 2016 in an attempt to stop Eric and Quinn's wedding.


document_title: Biome

question_text: what has to be present in biomes to make them similar

text: Biome

text: History of the concept

text: The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius (1877).[4] Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation (used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic element of species composition.[5][6] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[7][8] The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[9]

text: However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology - irrespectively of the continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name - and corresponds to his "zonobiome", "orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determinated by climate zone, altitude or soil).[10]

text: In Brazilian literature, the term "biome" is sometimes used as synonym of "biogeographic province", an area based on species composition (the term "floristic province" being used when plant species are considered), or also as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and of a certain vegetation form. Both includes many biomes in fact.[5][11][12]

text: Classifications

text: To divide the world in a few ecological zones is a difficult attempt, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that predominate in them.[13]

text: A 1978 study on North American grasslands[14] found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general results from the study were that precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit.[15] These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge’s bioclassification scheme (see below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit perfectly into the classification schemes created.

text: Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones

text: Holdridge classified climates based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-called "humidity provinces", which are clearly visible in his diagram. While this scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge acknowledged that these were important.

text: Allee (1949) biome-types

text: The principal biome-types by Allee (1949):[16]

text:
Tundra
Taiga
Deciduous forest
Grasslands
Desert
High plateaus
Tropical forest
Minor terrestrial biomes

tag: ul

text: Kendeigh (1961) biomes

text: The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[17]

text:
Terrestrial

Temperate deciduous forest
Coniferous forest
Woodland
Chaparral
Tundra
Grassland
Desert
Tropical savanna
Tropical forest

Marine

Oceanic plankton and nekton
Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte
Pelecypod-annelid
Coral reef

text: Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types

text: Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.

text: Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He was in a unique position to make such a holistic assertion because he had previously compiled a review of biome classifications.[18]

text: Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme

text:
Physiognomy: the apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species.
Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that are similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities.
Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents, defined by physiognomy.
Formation-type:a grouping of convergent formations.

text: Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is simply a broader method to categorize similar communities.[19]

text: Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types

text: Whittaker, seeing the need for a simpler way to express the relationship of community structure to the environment, used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[19]

text:
Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide
Climatic moisture gradient
Temperature gradient by altitude
Temperature gradient by latitude

tag: ol

text: Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:

text:
The gradient runs from favorable to extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable).
Trends in diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines.
The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.

text: Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient, and combined this with gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker classification scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.

text: Biome-types

text:
Tropical rainforest
Tropical seasonal rainforest

deciduous
semideciduous

Temperate giant rainforest
Montane rainforest
Temperate deciduous forest
Temperate evergreen forest

needleleaf
sclerophyll

Subarctic-subalpin needle-leaved forests (taiga)
Elfin woodland
Thorn forests and woodlands
Thorn scrub
Temperate woodland
Temperate shrublands

deciduous
heath
sclerophyll
subalpine-needleleaf
subalpine-broadleaf

Savanna
Temperate grassland
Alpine grasslands
Tundra
Tropical desert
Warm-temperate desert
Cool temperate desert scrub
Arctic-alpine desert
Bog
Tropical fresh-water swamp forest
Temperate fresh-water swamp forest
Mangrove swamp
Salt marsh
Wetland[20]

text: Goodall (1974-) ecosystem types

text: ... The multiauthored series Ecosystems of the world, edited by David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on earth:[21]

text:
Terrestrial Ecosystems

Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems

Wet Coastal Ecosystems
Dry Coastal Ecosystems
Polar and Alpine Tundra
Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen and Moor
Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts
Coniferous Forests
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Natural Grasslands
Heathlands and Related Shrublands
Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests
Mediterranean-Type Shrublands
Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands
Tropical Savannas
Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems
Wetland Forests
Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground

Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems

Managed Grasslands
Field Crop Ecosystems
Tree Crop Ecosystems
Greenhouse Ecosystems
Bioindustrial Ecosystems

Aquatic Ecosystems

Inland Aquatic Ecosystems

River and Stream Ecosystems
Lakes and Reservoirs

Marine Ecosystems

Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems
Coral Reefs
Estuaries and Enclosed Seas
Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves
Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean

Managed Aquatic Ecosystems

Managed Aquatic Ecosystems

Underground Ecosystems

Cave Ecosystems

text: Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes

text: The eponymously-named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the same biome.[10][22][23]

text:
Zonobiome
Zonal soil type
Zonal vegetation type

ZB I. Equatorial, always moist, little temperature seasonality
Equatorial brown clays
Evergreen tropical rainforest

ZB II. Tropical, summer rainy season and cooler “winter” dry season
Red clays or red earths
Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest, scrub, or savanna

ZB III. Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid climate
Serosemes, sierozemes
Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface

ZB IV. Mediterranean, winter rainy season and summer drought
Mediterranean brown earths
Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands

ZB V. Warm temperate, occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum
Yellow or red forest soils, slightly podsolic soils
Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive

ZB VI. Nemoral, moderate climate with winter freezing
Forest brown earths and grey forest soils
Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest

ZB VII. Continental, arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters
Chernozems to serozems
Grasslands and temperate deserts

ZB VIII. Boreal, cold temperate with cool summers and long winters
Podsols
Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga)

ZB IX. Polar, short, cool summers and long, cold winters
Tundra humus soils with solifluction (permafrost soils)
Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils

text: Schultz (1988) ecozones

text: Schultz (1988) defined nine ecozones (note that his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome used in this article than to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[24]

text:
polar/subpolar zone
boreal zone
humid mid-latitudes
arid mid-latitudes
tropical/subtropical arid lands
Mediterranean-type subtropics
seasonal tropics
humid subtropics
humid tropics

text: Bailey (1989) ecoregions

text: Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into seven domains (polar, humid temperate, dry, humid, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).[25][26]

text:
100 Polar Domain

120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)
M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)
M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces

200 Humid Temperate Domain

210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)
M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)
M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)
M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)
M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)
260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)
M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces

300 Dry Domain

310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
330 Temperate Steppe Division
340 Temperate Desert Division

400 Humid Tropical Domain

410 Savanna Division
420 Rainforest Division

text: Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200

text: A team of biologists convened by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme that divided the world's land area into biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions (Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each ecoregion is characterized by a main biome (also called major habitat type).[27][28]

text: This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation.[27]

text: For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the biogeographic realm, nn is the biome number, NN is the individual number).

text: Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)

text:
NA: Nearctic
PA: Palearctic
AT: Afrotropic
IM: Indomalaya
AA: Australasia
NT: Neotropic
OC: Oceania
AN: Antarctic[28]

text: It should be noted, however, that the applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975) - to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.[29]

text: Biogeographic realms (marine)

text:
Arctic
Temperate Northern Atlantic
Temperate Northern Pacific
Tropical Atlantic
Western Indo-Pacific
Central Indo-Pacific
Eastern Indo-Pacific
Tropical Eastern Pacific
Temperate South America
Temperate Southern Africa
Temperate Australasia
Southern Ocean[30]

text: Biomes (terrestrial)

text:
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
Tundra (Arctic)
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid with winter rainfall)
Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[28]

text: Biomes (freshwater)

text: According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[31]

text:
Large lakes
Large river deltas
Polar freshwaters
Montane freshwaters
Temperate coastal rivers
Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands
Temperate upland rivers
Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers
Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands
Tropical and subtropical upland rivers
Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
Oceanic islands

text: Biomes (marine)

text: Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):

text:
Polar
Temperate shelves and sea
Temperate upwelling
Tropical upwelling
Tropical coral[32]

text: Summary of the scheme

text:
Biosphere

Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)

Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a main biome type (14)

Ecosystems (biotopes)

Biosphere

Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)

Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a main biome type (12)

Ecosystems (biotopes)

Biosphere

Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)

(Marine provinces) (62)

Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a main biome type (5)

Ecosystems (biotopes)

text: Example:

text:
Biosphere

Biogeographic realm: Palearctic

Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed forests

Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100–1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral zone (temperate zone)

Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list)

Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba)

text: Other biomes

text: Marine biomes

text: Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[33]

text:
Litoral zone
Pelagic zone
Abyssal zone

text: Longhurst (1998) biomes:[34]

text:
Coastal
Polar
Trade wind
Westerly

text: Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):[citation needed]

text:
Open sea
Deep sea
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Benthic zone
Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)
Abyssal
Hadal (ocean trench)
Littoral/Intertidal zone
Kelp forest
Pack ice

text: Anthropogenic biomes

text: Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they have been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a new way forward in ecology and conservation by recognizing the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and moving us toward an understanding of how best to live in and manage our biosphere and the anthropogenic biomes we live in.

text: Major anthropogenic biomes:

text:
Dense settlements
Croplands
Rangelands
Forested
Indoor[35]

text: Microbial biomes

text: Endolithic biomes

text: The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.[36]

text: Dermal biome

text: The dermal biome is the living ecosystem that animals (including humans) have evolved, that permits them to live symbiotically and in balance with the microbes on and in them (the microbiome). This ecosystem consists of skin, follicles, hair, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles, peptides, proteins, lipids and its associated microbiota. A healthy dermal biome has several functions: it resists infection of pathogens, protects against moisture loss and water damage, dynamically regulates body temperature and supports the healthy renewal of skin through the epidermal cell life cycle.[37]

text:
Infection Resistance: Commensal microbiota assist the dermal biome resist infection for pathogenic bacteria by i] out-competing pathogens for resources, ii] training or stimulating the host’s immune system to defeat the pathogen, or iii] expressing substances that are directly hostile to the pathogen.
Water-barrier regulation: The dermal biome regulates the water barrier – preventing moisture from escaping (except when expressed as sweat) and preventing environmental water from permeating the skin. Because environmental water can have a chilling effect to mammals and warm-blooded animals when kept in close proximity to the epidermis, the dermal biome also produces hydrophobic lipids that repel water.
Temperature regulation: The dermal biome is responsible for thermoregulation. To regulate excess heat, the dermal biome activates the sweat glands, allowing for evaporative cooling as sweat evaporates. To regulate cooler temperatures, the arrector pili muscles contract, causing hairs to “stand up” (goosebumps), and thereby trap an insulating blanket of air close to the skin.
Skin renewal: a healthy biome supports the replacement of skin through the life cycle of epidermal cells as they proliferate in the basal layers of the epidermis until they die and are shed (desquamation).


document_title: South African Reserve Bank

question_text: roles and functions of the south african reserve bank

text: South African Reserve Bank

text: Functions of the South African Reserve Bank[edit]

text:
Formulating and implementing monetary policy;
Issuing banknotes and coin;
Supervising the banking system;
Ensuring the effective functioning of the national payment system (NPS);
Managing official gold and foreign-exchange reserves;
Acting as banker to the government;
Administering the country's remaining exchange controls; and
Acting as lender of last resort in exceptional circumstances.

text: Organizational structure[edit]

text: Board of Directors[edit]

text: SARB has a board of directors consisting of a Governor, three Deputy Governors, and eleven Directors. The Governor, and Deputy governors are appointed for five-year terms by the President of South Africa in consultation with the Minister of Finance. Four of the directors are also appointed by the President for terms of three years. The remaining seven directors are appointed by the Shareholders of the Bank, also for a three-year term.[3]

text: Ownership[edit]

text: The Reserve Bank is privately owned, with 2 million issued shares. The only limitation on shareholding is that no single shareholder may own more than 10,000 shares individually. Currently there are more than 660 shareholders owning shares in the South African Reserve Bank.

text: Shareholders are entitled a dividend of not more than 10 South African cents per share per annum (the total maximum dividend is therefore 200,000 South African Rand or a maximum of 1,000 South African Rand for any individual shareholder), with the remaining profits being paid to the South African government.[1]

text: List of Governors of the South African Reserve Bank[edit]

text:
William Henry Clegg – December 1920 – December 1931
Johannes Postmus – January 1932 – June 1945
Michiel Hendrik de Kock – July 1945 – June 1962
Gerhard Rissik – July 1962 – June 1967
Theunis Willem de Jongh – July 1967 – December 1980
Gerhard de Kock – January 1981 – August 1989
Chris Stals – August 1989 – August 1999
Tito Mboweni – August 1999 – November 2009
Gill Marcus – November 2009 – November 2014
Lesetja Kganyago – November 2014 – present