document_title: List of Major League Baseball All-Star Game venues

question_text: when did the yankees host the all star game

text: Venue selection[edit]

text: The venue for each All-Star Game is chosen by an MLB selection committee. This choice may be made to commemorate a particular historical occasion, the opening of a new ballpark, or a significant milestone. The criteria for choosing the venue are subjective; for the most part, cities with new parks and cities who have not hosted the game in a long time –  or ever –  tend to be favored. The venues among the major league franchises; from 1964 to 2015, five teams have hosted 3 times, 13 teams twice, ten teams once, and two teams not at all. The "home team" is the league in which the host franchise plays its games. Traditionally, the game's venue alternated between the two leagues from year to year with a few exceptions; this tradition was discontinued after the 2015 game.

text: As of 2017, one Major League Baseball franchise have never hosted an All-Star Game: the Tampa Bay Rays. The Miami Marlins, who hosted in 2017 following the 2012 opening of Marlins Park. (Although Miami was initially scheduled to host in 2000, MLB eventually moved the game to Atlanta.) Although the Washington Nationals franchise haven't yet hosted the game in their current home ballpark, they did host one when they were the Montreal Expos; and All-Star games have been played in D.C., hosted by two incarnations of the Washington Senators (now known as the Minnesota Twins and as the Texas Rangers).

text: Of the remaining 27 franchises, the New York Mets had gone the longest period without hosting since their sole hosting duty in 1964, but this streak came to an end at 49 years in 2013. (The Dodgers are now the team with the longest active hosting drought, since 1980.) During that span, 18 of the remaining 25 teams have hosted an All-Star Game at least twice since 1964: Atlanta Braves (1972 and 2000), Chicago White Sox (1983 and 2003), Cincinnati Reds (1970, 1988, and 2015), Cleveland Indians (1981, 1997, 2019), Detroit Tigers (1971 and 2005), Houston Astros (1968, 1986, and 2004), Kansas City Royals (1973 and 2012), Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (1967, 1989, and 2010), Milwaukee Brewers (1975 and 2002), Minnesota Twins (1965, 1985, and 2014), New York Yankees (1977 and 2008), Philadelphia Phillies (1976 and 1996), Pittsburgh Pirates (1974, 1994, and 2006), San Diego Padres (1978, 1992, and 2016), San Francisco Giants (1984 and 2007), Seattle Mariners (1979 and 2001), St. Louis Cardinals (1966 and 2009), and Washington Senators/Texas Rangers (1969 and 1995).

text: New stadiums that have not hosted the All-Star Game in cities that have hosted it previously are: Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, Nationals Park in Washington, D.C., the new Yankee Stadium in New York City, and SunTrust Park in Atlanta.

text: Future All-Star Games will be played at Nationals Park in 2018, and Progressive Field in 2019.

text: Following the game at the first Yankee Stadium in 2008 in its final season, the Bronx's old stadium joined Cleveland's old Cleveland Stadium (also known as Municipal Stadium prior to its own demolition) as the only venues that have hosted four Major League Baseball All-Star games. New York City has hosted it more than any other city, having done so nine times in five different stadiums; after 2017, Tampa Bay will remain the only major league city since the first All-Star Game in 1933 to never have hosted.

text: List of hosts[edit]

text:
Date
City
Stadium
Host team
Attendance

July 6, 1933
Chicago
Comiskey Park
Chicago White Sox
47,595

July 10, 1934
New York City
Polo Grounds
New York Giants
48,368

July 8, 1935
Cleveland
Municipal Stadium
Cleveland Indians
69,812

July 7, 1936
Boston
Braves Field
Boston Bees
25,556

July 7, 1937
Washington, D.C.
Griffith Stadium
Washington Senators
31,391

July 6, 1938
Cincinnati
Crosley Field
Cincinnati Reds
27,067

July 11, 1939
New York City
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
62,892

July 9, 1940
St. Louis
Sportsman's Park
St. Louis Cardinals
32,373

July 8, 1941
Detroit
Briggs Stadium
Detroit Tigers
54,674

July 6, 1942
New York City
Polo Grounds
New York Giants
34,178

July 13, 1943
Philadelphia
Shibe Park
Philadelphia Athletics
31,938

July 11, 1944
Pittsburgh
Forbes Field
Pittsburgh Pirates
29,589

1945
Not held because of World War II

July 9, 1946
Boston
Fenway Park
Boston Red Sox
34,906

July 8, 1947
Chicago
Wrigley Field
Chicago Cubs
41,123

July 13, 1948
St. Louis
Sportsman's Park
St. Louis Browns
34,009

July 12, 1949
New York City
Ebbets Field
Brooklyn Dodgers
32,577

July 11, 1950
Chicago
Comiskey Park
Chicago White Sox
46,127

July 10, 1951
Detroit
Briggs Stadium
Detroit Tigers
52,075

July 8, 1952
Philadelphia
Shibe Park
Philadelphia Phillies
32,785

July 14, 1953
Cincinnati
Crosley Field
Cincinnati Redlegs
30,846

July 13, 1954
Cleveland
Municipal Stadium
Cleveland Indians
69,751

July 12, 1955
Milwaukee
County Stadium
Milwaukee Braves
45,643

July 10, 1956
Washington, D.C.
Griffith Stadium
Washington Senators
28,843

July 9, 1957
St. Louis
Busch Stadium
St. Louis Cardinals
30,693

July 8, 1958
Baltimore
Memorial Stadium
Baltimore Orioles
48,829

July 7, 1959
Pittsburgh
Forbes Field
Pittsburgh Pirates
35,277

August 3, 1959
Los Angeles
Memorial Coliseum
Los Angeles Dodgers
55,105

July 11, 1960
Kansas City
Municipal Stadium
Kansas City Athletics
30,619

July 13, 1960
New York City
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
38,362

July 11, 1961
San Francisco
Candlestick Park
San Francisco Giants
44,115

July 31, 1961
Boston
Fenway Park
Boston Red Sox
31,851

July 10, 1962
Washington, D.C.
D.C. Stadium
Washington Senators
45,480

July 30, 1962
Chicago
Wrigley Field
Chicago Cubs
38,359

July 9, 1963
Cleveland
Municipal Stadium
Cleveland Indians
44,160

July 7, 1964
New York City
Shea Stadium
New York Mets
50,850

July 13, 1965
Bloomington
Metropolitan Stadium
Minnesota Twins
46,706

July 12, 1966
St. Louis
Busch Memorial Stadium
St. Louis Cardinals
49,936

July 11, 1967
Anaheim
Anaheim Stadium
California Angels
46,309

July 9, 1968
Houston
Astrodome
Houston Astros
48,321

July 23, 1969
Washington, D.C.
RFK Stadium
Washington Senators
45,259

July 14, 1970
Cincinnati
Riverfront Stadium
Cincinnati Reds
51,838

July 13, 1971
Detroit
Tiger Stadium
Detroit Tigers
53,559

July 25, 1972
Atlanta
Atlanta Stadium
Atlanta Braves
53,107

July 24, 1973
Kansas City
Royals Stadium
Kansas City Royals
40,849

July 23, 1974
Pittsburgh
Three Rivers Stadium
Pittsburgh Pirates
50,706

July 15, 1975
Milwaukee
County Stadium
Milwaukee Brewers
51,480

July 13, 1976
Philadelphia
Veterans Stadium
Philadelphia Phillies
63,974

July 19, 1977
New York City
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
56,683

July 11, 1978
San Diego
San Diego Stadium
San Diego Padres
51,549

July 17, 1979
Seattle
Kingdome
Seattle Mariners
58,905

July 8, 1980
Los Angeles
Dodger Stadium
Los Angeles Dodgers
56,088

August 9, 1981
Cleveland
Municipal Stadium
Cleveland Indians
72,086

July 13, 1982
Montreal
Olympic Stadium
Montreal Expos
59,057

July 6, 1983
Chicago
Comiskey Park
Chicago White Sox
43,801

July 10, 1984
San Francisco
Candlestick Park
San Francisco Giants
57,756

July 16, 1985
Minneapolis
Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome
Minnesota Twins
54,960

July 15, 1986
Houston
Astrodome
Houston Astros
45,774

July 14, 1987
Oakland
Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum
Oakland Athletics
49,671

July 12, 1988
Cincinnati
Riverfront Stadium
Cincinnati Reds
55,837

July 11, 1989
Anaheim
Anaheim Stadium
California Angels
64,036

July 10, 1990
Chicago
Wrigley Field
Chicago Cubs
39,071

July 9, 1991
Toronto
SkyDome
Toronto Blue Jays
52,383

July 14, 1992
San Diego
Jack Murphy Stadium
San Diego Padres
59,372

July 13, 1993
Baltimore
Oriole Park at Camden Yards
Baltimore Orioles
48,147

July 12, 1994
Pittsburgh
Three Rivers Stadium
Pittsburgh Pirates
59,568

July 11, 1995
Arlington
The Ballpark in Arlington
Texas Rangers
50,920

July 9, 1996
Philadelphia
Veterans Stadium
Philadelphia Phillies
62,670

July 8, 1997
Cleveland
Jacobs Field
Cleveland Indians
44,916

July 7, 1998
Denver
Coors Field
Colorado Rockies
51,267

July 13, 1999
Boston
Fenway Park
Boston Red Sox
34,187

July 11, 2000
Atlanta
Turner Field
Atlanta Braves
51,323

July 10, 2001
Seattle
Safeco Field
Seattle Mariners
47,364

July 9, 2002
Milwaukee
Miller Park
Milwaukee Brewers
41,871

July 15, 2003
Chicago
U.S. Cellular Field
Chicago White Sox
47,609

July 13, 2004
Houston
Minute Maid Park
Houston Astros
41,886

July 12, 2005
Detroit
Comerica Park
Detroit Tigers
41,617

July 11, 2006
Pittsburgh
PNC Park
Pittsburgh Pirates
38,904

July 10, 2007
San Francisco
AT&T Park
San Francisco Giants
43,965

July 15, 2008
New York City
Yankee Stadium
New York Yankees
55,632

July 14, 2009
St. Louis
Busch Stadium
St. Louis Cardinals
46,760

July 13, 2010
Anaheim
Angel Stadium of Anaheim
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
45,408

July 12, 2011
Phoenix
Chase Field
Arizona Diamondbacks
49,033

July 10, 2012
Kansas City
Kauffman Stadium
Kansas City Royals
40,933

July 16, 2013
New York City
Citi Field
New York Mets
45,186

July 15, 2014
Minneapolis
Target Field
Minnesota Twins
41,048

July 14, 2015
Cincinnati
Great American Ball Park
Cincinnati Reds
43,656

July 12, 2016
San Diego
Petco Park
San Diego Padres
42,386

July 11, 2017
Miami
Marlins Park
Miami Marlins
37,188

July 17, 2018
Washington, D.C.
Nationals Park
Washington Nationals

July 9, 2019
Cleveland
Progressive Field
Cleveland Indians

July 14, 2020
TBA
TBA
TBD

text: Various statistics[edit]

text: Times hosted by city[edit]

text:
City
Times Hosted
Years

New York City
9
1934, 1939, 1942, 1949, 1960, 1964, 1977, 2008, 2013

Chicago
7
1933, 1947, 1950, 1962, 1983, 1990, 2003

Cleveland
5
1935, 1954, 1963, 1981, 1997, 2019

Pittsburgh
5
1944, 1959, 1974, 1994, 2006

St. Louis
5
1940, 1948, 1957, 1966, 2009

Cincinnati
5
1938, 1953, 1970, 1988, 2015

Washington, D.C.
4
1937, 1956, 1962, 1969, 2018

Boston
4
1936, 1946, 1961, 1999

Detroit
4
1941, 1951, 1971, 2005

Philadelphia
4
1943, 1952, 1976, 1996

Kansas City
3
1960, 1973, 2012

Milwaukee
3
1955, 1975, 2002

San Diego
3
1978, 1992, 2016

San Francisco
3
1961, 1984, 2007

Houston
3
1968, 1986, 2004

Anaheim
3
1967, 1989, 2010

Minneapolis
3
1965, 1985, 2014

Baltimore
2
1958, 1993

Los Angeles
2
1959, 1980

Atlanta
2
1972, 2000

Seattle
2
1979, 2001

Montreal
1
1982

Oakland
1
1987

Toronto
1
1991

Arlington
1
1995

Denver
1
1998

Phoenix
1
2011

Miami
1
2017

St. Petersburg
0
--

text: Times hosted by club[edit]

text:
Club
Times Hosted
Years

Cleveland Indians
5
1935, 1954, 1963, 1981, 1997, 2019

New York/San Francisco Giants
5
1934, 1942, 1961, 1984, 2007

Washington Senators/Minnesota Twins
5
1937, 1956, 1965, 1985, 2014

Cincinnati Reds/Redlegs
5
1938, 1953, 1970, 1988, 2015

Pittsburgh Pirates
5
1944, 1959, 1974, 1994, 2006

Chicago White Sox
4
1933, 1950, 1983, 2003

Boston Bees/Milwaukee/Atlanta Braves
4
1936, 1955, 1972, 2000

New York Yankees
4
1939, 1960, 1977, 2008

St. Louis Cardinals
4
1940, 1957, 1966, 2009

Detroit Tigers
4
1941, 1951, 1971, 2005

Philadelphia/Kansas City/Oakland Athletics
3
1943, 1960, 1987

Boston Red Sox
3
1946, 1961, 1999

Chicago Cubs
3
1947, 1962, 1990

St. Louis Browns/Baltimore Orioles
3
1948, 1958, 1993

Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers
3
1949, 1959, 1980

Philadelphia Phillies
3
1952, 1976, 1996

Washington Senators/Texas Rangers
3
1962, 1969, 1995

California/Los Angeles Angels
3
1967, 1989, 2010

Houston Astros
3
1968, 1986, 2004

San Diego Padres
3
1978, 1992, 2016

New York Mets
2
1964, 2013

Kansas City Royals
2
1973, 2012

Milwaukee Brewers
2
1975, 2002

Seattle Mariners
2
1979, 2001

Montreal Expos/Washington Nationals
1
1982, 2018

Toronto Blue Jays
1
1991

Colorado Rockies
1
1998

Arizona Diamondbacks
1
2011

Miami Marlins
1
2017

Tampa Bay Rays
0
–

text:
The Tampa Bay Rays have yet to host the All-Star Game.[2]
The Washington Nationals have yet to host the All-Star Game in Washington, D.C., though the Nationals have been selected to host the game in 2018.[3] They previously hosted the All-Star Game when they were in Montreal.

text: Ballparks that have hosted more than one All-Star Game[edit]

text: Active baseball parks[edit]

text:
Wrigley Field 1947, 1962, 1990
Fenway Park 1946, 1961, 1999
Angel Stadium 1967, 1989, 2010
Kauffman Stadium 1973, 2012

text: Discontinued baseball parks[edit]

text:
Yankee Stadium 1939, 1960, 1977, 2008
Cleveland Stadium 1935, 1954, 1963, 1981
Sportsman's Park 1940, 1948, 1957
Tiger Stadium 1941, 1951, 1971
Comiskey Park 1933, 1950, 1983
Polo Grounds 1934, 1942
Shibe Park 1943, 1952
Crosley Field 1938, 1953
Griffith Stadium 1937, 1956
Forbes Field 1944, 1959
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium 1962, 1969
Milwaukee County Stadium 1955, 1975
Candlestick Park 1961, 1984
Houston Astrodome 1968, 1986
Riverfront Stadium 1970, 1988
Jack Murphy Stadium 1978, 1992
Three Rivers Stadium 1974, 1994
Veterans Stadium 1976, 1996

text: The only discontinued ballparks that hosted one All-Star Game are: Memorial Stadium (Baltimore) in 1959, Shea Stadium in 1964, Metropolitan Stadium in 1965, Busch Memorial Stadium in 1966, Fulton County Stadium in 1972, the Kingdome in 1979, Olympic Stadium (Montreal) in 1982, Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in 1985, and Turner Field in 2000.

text: Ballparks that have never hosted an All-Star Game[edit]

text: Active baseball parks (oldest parks listed first)[edit]

text:
Tropicana Field, opened in 1990; the Rays have played there since 1998.
Citizens Bank Park, opened in 2004; the Phillies last hosted the ASG in 1996 in Veterans Stadium.
Nationals Park, opened in 2008; the franchise last hosted an ASG in 1982 in Montreal. Scheduled to host the 2018 Major League Baseball All-Star Game.
Yankee Stadium (New), opened in 2009; the Yankees last hosted the ASG in 2008 at the previous park.
SunTrust Park, opened in 2017; the Braves last hosted the ASG in 2000 in Turner Field.

text: Discontinued baseball parks (oldest parks listed first)[edit]

text:
Baker Bowl, the Phillies played there from 1895 to 1938 (the All-Star game began in 1933)
League Park, the Indians split games between League Park and Cleveland Stadium off and on until the end of the 1946 season
Seals Stadium, the Giants played there from 1958 to 1959 *
Wrigley Field of Los Angeles, the Angels played there in 1961 *
Colt Stadium, the Colt .45s (now the Astros) played there from 1962 to 1964 *
Sick's Stadium, the Pilots played there in 1969 *
Jarry Park, the Expos played there from 1969 to 1976 *
Arlington Stadium, the Rangers played there from 1972 to 1993
Exhibition Stadium, the Blue Jays played there from 1977 to 1989
Mile High Stadium, the Rockies played there from 1993 to 1994 *
Sun Life Stadium, the Marlins played there from 1993 to 2011

text: A * indicates that the stadium was a temporary facility, used in the short term by a team awaiting the construction of a larger, permanent home park.

text: The last time each franchise has hosted an All-Star Game[edit]

text:
Los Angeles Dodgers, 1980
Washington Nationals, 1982 (As Montreal Expos)
Oakland Athletics, 1987
Chicago Cubs, 1990
Toronto Blue Jays, 1991
Baltimore Orioles, 1993
Texas Rangers, 1995
Philadelphia Phillies, 1996
Cleveland Indians, 1997
Tampa Bay Rays, never (Franchise started in 1998)
Colorado Rockies, 1998
Boston Red Sox, 1999
Atlanta Braves, 2000
Seattle Mariners, 2001
Milwaukee Brewers, 2002
Chicago White Sox, 2003
Houston Astros, 2004
Detroit Tigers, 2005
Pittsburgh Pirates, 2006
San Francisco Giants, 2007
New York Yankees, 2008
St. Louis Cardinals, 2009
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, 2010
Arizona Diamondbacks, 2011
Kansas City Royals, 2012
New York Mets, 2013
Minnesota Twins, 2014
Cincinnati Reds, 2015
San Diego Padres, 2016
Miami Marlins, 2017

text: Hosting All-Star Game and post-season games in same season[edit]

text: The following teams have hosted the All-Star Game in the summer then proceeded to host post-season games in the fall:

text:
1939: New York Yankees – won World Series
1946: Boston Red Sox – lost World Series
1949: Brooklyn Dodgers – lost World Series
1954: Cleveland Indians – lost World Series
1959: (Game 2): Los Angeles Dodgers – won World Series
1960: (Game 2): New York Yankees – lost World Series
1965: Minnesota Twins – lost World Series

text: League Championship Series play began 1969

text:
1970: Cincinnati Reds – lost World Series – also first season for Riverfront Stadium
1974: Pittsburgh Pirates – lost NLCS
1976: Philadelphia Phillies – lost NLCS
1977: New York Yankees – won World Series
1983: Chicago White Sox – lost ALCS
1986: Houston Astros – lost NLCS
1991: Toronto Blue Jays – lost ALCS

text: Division Series play began 1995

text:
1997: Cleveland Indians – lost World Series
1999: Boston Red Sox – lost ALCS
2000: Atlanta Braves – lost NLDS
2001: Seattle Mariners – lost ALCS
2004: Houston Astros – lost NLCS
2009: St. Louis Cardinals – lost NLDS
2011: Arizona Diamondbacks – lost NLDS


document_title: List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders

question_text: who holds the 3 point record in nba

question_tokens: who holds the 3 point record in nba

root

text: Three-point field goals made leaders[edit]

text: This is a list of National Basketball Association players by total career regular-season three-point field goals made.

tag: p

text:
^

Active NBA player

*

Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

†

Not yet eligible for Hall of Fame consideration[3]

§

1st time eligible for Hall of Fame in 2019[4]

tag: table

text:
Rank

Name

Position(s)

Team(s) played for (years)[5]

Total 3-point field  goals made

Total 3-point field  goals attempted

3-point field goalpercentage

1

Ray Allen*

SG

Milwaukee Bucks (1996–2003) Seattle SuperSonics (2003–2007)Boston Celtics (2007–2012)Miami Heat (2012–2014)

2,973

7,429

.400

2

Reggie Miller*

SG

Indiana Pacers (1987–2005)

2,560

6,486

.395

3

Jason Terry^

SG/PG

Atlanta Hawks (1999–2004)Dallas Mavericks (2004–2012)Boston Celtics (2012–2013)Brooklyn Nets (2013–2014)Houston Rockets (2014–2016)Milwaukee Bucks (2016-2018)

2,282

6,010

.380

4

Kyle Korver^

SG/SF

Philadelphia 76ers (2003–2007)Utah Jazz (2007–2010)Chicago Bulls (2010–2012)Atlanta Hawks (2012–2017)Cleveland Cavaliers (2017–present)

2,213

5,130

.431

5

Jamal Crawford^

SG/PG

Chicago Bulls (2000–2004)New York Knicks (2004–2008)Golden State Warriors (2008–2009)Atlanta Hawks (2009–2011)Portland Trail Blazers (2011–2012)Los Angeles Clippers (2012–2017)Minnesota Timberwolves (2017–2018)

2,153

6,175

.349

6

Paul Pierce†

SF

Boston Celtics (1999–2013)Brooklyn Nets (2013–2014)Washington Wizards (2014–2015)Los Angeles Clippers (2015–2017)

2,143

5,816

.368

7

Stephen Curry^

PG

Golden State Warriors (2009–present)

2,129

4,880

.436

8

Vince Carter^

SG/SF

Toronto Raptors (1999–2004)New Jersey Nets (2004–2009)Orlando Magic (2009–2010)Phoenix Suns (2010–2011)Dallas Mavericks (2011–2014)Memphis Grizzlies (2014–2017)Sacramento Kings (2017–2018)Atlanta Hawks (2018–present)

2,106

5,650

.373

9

Jason Kidd*

PG

Dallas Mavericks (1994–1996, 2008–2012)Phoenix Suns (1996–2001)New Jersey Nets (2001–2008)New York Knicks (2012–2013)

1,988

5,701

.349

10

Joe Johnson^

SG/SF

Boston Celtics (2001–2002)Phoenix Suns (2002–2005)Atlanta Hawks (2005–2012)Brooklyn Nets (2012–2016)Miami Heat (2016)Utah Jazz (2016–2018)Houston Rockets (2018–present)

1,978

5,331

.371

11

Dirk Nowitzki^

PF

Dallas Mavericks (1999–present)

1,918

5,005

.383

12

J. R. Smith^

SG

New Orleans(/Oklahoma City) Hornets (2004–2006)Denver Nuggets (2006–2011)New York Knicks (2011–2015)Cleveland Cavaliers (2015–present)

1,917

5,128

.374

13

Chauncey Billups

PG/SG

Boston Celtics (1997–1998)Toronto Raptors (1998)Denver Nuggets (1999, 2008–2011)Minnesota Timberwolves (2000–2002)Detroit Pistons (2002–2008, 2013–2014)New York Knicks (2011)Los Angeles Clippers (2011–2013)

1,830

4,725

.387

14

Kobe Bryant†

SG

Los Angeles Lakers (1996–2016)

1,827

5,546

.330

15

Rashard Lewis

SF/PF

Seattle SuperSonics (1999–2007)Orlando Magic (2007–2010)Washington Wizards (2010–2012)Miami Heat (2012–2014)

1,787

4,625

.386

16

Peja Stojaković

SF

Sacramento Kings (1999–2006)  Indiana Pacers (2006)  New Orleans(/Oklahoma City) Hornets (2006–2010)  Toronto Raptors (2010–2011)  Dallas Mavericks (2011)

1,760

4,392

.401

17

Dale Ellis

SF/SG

Dallas Mavericks (1983–1986)Seattle SuperSonics (1986–1991, 1997–1999)Milwaukee Bucks (1991–1992, 1999–2000)San Antonio Spurs (1992–1994)Denver Nuggets (1994–1997)Charlotte Hornets (2000)

1,719

4,266

.403

18

Steve Nash*

PG

Phoenix Suns (1996–1998, 2004–2012)Dallas Mavericks (1999–2004)Los Angeles Lakers (2012–2014)

1,685

3,939

.428

19

James Harden^

SG

Oklahoma City Thunder (2009–2012)Houston Rockets (2012–present)

1,647

4,523

.364

20

LeBron James^

SF

Cleveland Cavaliers (2003–2010, 2014–2018)Miami Heat (2010–2014)Los Angeles Lakers (2018–present)

1,616

4,701

.344

21

Jason Richardson§

SG

Golden State Warriors (2001–2007)Charlotte Bobcats (2007–2008)Phoenix Suns (2008–2010)Orlando Magic (2010–2012)Philadelphia 76ers (2012–2015)

1,608

4,344

.370

22

Mike Miller

SF/SG

Orlando Magic (2000–2003)Memphis Grizzlies (2003–2008, 2013–2014)Minnesota Timberwolves (2008–2009)Washington Wizards (2009–2010)Miami Heat (2010–2013)Cleveland Cavaliers (2014–2015)Denver Nuggets (2015–2017)

1,590

3,910

.407

23

Glen Rice

SF

Miami Heat (1989–1995)Charlotte Hornets (1995–1998)Los Angeles Lakers (1999–2000)New York Knicks (2000–2001)Houston Rockets (2001–2003)Los Angeles Clippers (2003–2004)

1,559

3,896

.400

24

Klay Thompson^

SG

Golden State Warriors (2011–present)

1,557

3,691

.422

25

Eddie Jones

SG

Los Angeles Lakers (1994–1999)Charlotte Hornets (1999–2000)Miami Heat (2000–2005, 2007)Memphis Grizzlies (2005–2007)Dallas Mavericks (2007–2008)

1,546

4,147

.373

26

Tim Hardaway

PG

Golden State Warriors (1989–1993, 1994–1996)Miami Heat (1996–2001)Dallas Mavericks (2001–2002)Denver Nuggets (2002)Indiana Pacers (2003)

1,542

4,345

.355

27

Nick Van Exel

PG

Los Angeles Lakers (1993–1998)Denver Nuggets (1999–2002)Dallas Mavericks (2002–2003)Golden State Warriors (2003–2004)Portland Trail Blazers (2004–2005)San Antonio Spurs (2005–2006)

1,528

4,278

.357

28

Mike Bibby

PG

Vancouver Grizzlies (1999–2001)Sacramento Kings (2001–2008)Atlanta Hawks (2008–2011)Washington Wizards (2011)Miami Heat (2011)New York Knicks (2011–2012)

1,517

3,999

.379

29

Manu Ginóbili†

SG

San Antonio Spurs (2002–2018)

1,495

4,055

.369

30

J. J. Redick^

SG

Orlando Magic (2006–2013)Milwaukee Bucks (2013) Los Angeles Clippers (2013–2017) Philadelphia 76ers (2017–present)

1,464

3,524

.415

31

Michael Finley

SF

Phoenix Suns (1995–1996)Dallas Mavericks (1996–2005)San Antonio Spurs (2005–2010)Boston Celtics (2010)

1,454

3,880

.375

32

Kevin Durant^

SF/SG

Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder (2007–2016)Golden State Warriors (2016–present)

1,433

3,734

.384

33

Wesley Matthews^

SG

Utah Jazz (2009–2010)Portland Trail Blazers (2010–2015)Dallas Mavericks (2015–present)

1,405

3,667

.383

34

Brent Barry

SG

Los Angeles Clippers (1995–1998)Miami Heat (1998)Chicago Bulls (1999)Seattle SuperSonics (1999–2004)San Antonio Spurs (2004–2008)Houston Rockets (2008–2009)

1,395

3,442

.405

35

Antoine Walker

PF

Boston Celtics (1996–2003, 2005)Dallas Mavericks (2003–2004)Atlanta Hawks (2004–2005)Miami Heat (2005–2007)Minnesota Timberwolves (2007–2008)

1,386

4,264

.325

36

Kyle Lowry^

PG

Memphis Grizzlies (2006–2009)Houston Rockets (2009–2012)Toronto Raptors (2012–present)

1,375

3,717

.370

37

Dan Majerle

SG/SF

Phoenix Suns (1988–1995, 2001–2002)Cleveland Cavaliers (1995–1996)Miami Heat (1996–2001)

1,360

3,798

.358

38

Carmelo Anthony^

SF

Denver Nuggets (2003–2011)New York Knicks (2011–2017)Oklahoma City Thunder (2017–2018)Houston Rockets (2018–present)

1,341

3,861

.347

39

Baron Davis

PG

Charlotte Hornets (1999–2002)New Orleans Hornets (2002–2005)Golden State Warriors (2005–2008)Los Angeles Clippers (2008–2011)Cleveland Cavaliers (2011)New York Knicks (2012)

1,332

4,159

.320

40

Mitch Richmond*

SG

Golden State Warriors (1988–1991)Sacramento Kings (1991–1998)Washington Wizards (1999–2001)Los Angeles Lakers (2001–2002)

1,326

3,419

.388

41

Ryan Anderson^

PF

New Jersey Nets (2008–2009)Orlando Magic (2009–2012)New Orleans Hornets/Pelicans (2012–2016)Houston Rockets (2016–present)

1,315

3,446

.382

42

Trevor Ariza^

SF

New York Knicks (2004–2006)Orlando Magic (2006–2007)Los Angeles Lakers (2007–2009)Houston Rockets (2009–2010, 2014–2018)New Orleans Hornets (2010–2012)Washington Wizards (2012–2014)Phoenix Suns (2018–present)

1,313

3,721

.353

43

Allan Houston

SG

Detroit Pistons (1993–1996)New York Knicks (1996–2005)

1,305

3,247

.402

44

Mike Dunleavy Jr.

SF/SG

Golden State Warriors (2002–2007)Indiana Pacers (2007–2011)Milwaukee Bucks (2011–2013)Chicago Bulls (2013–2016)Cleveland Cavaliers (2016–2017) Atlanta Hawks (2017)

1,304

3,460

.377

45

Terry Porter

PG

Portland Trail Blazers (1985–1995)Minnesota Timberwolves (1995–1998)Miami Heat (1999)San Antonio Spurs (1999–2002)

1,297

3,360

.386

46

Mookie Blaylock

PG

New Jersey Nets (1989–1992)Atlanta Hawks (1992–1999)Golden State Warriors (1999–2002)

1,283

3,816

.336

47

Damian Lillard^

PG

Portland Trail Blazers (2012–present)

1,269

3,447

.368

48

Vernon Maxwell

SG

San Antonio Spurs (1988–1990, 1996–1997)Houston Rockets (1990–1995)Philadelphia 76ers (1995–1996, 2000)Orlando Magic (1998)Charlotte Hornets (1998)Sacramento Kings (1999)Seattle SuperSonics (1999–2000)Dallas Mavericks (2001)

1,256

3,931

.320

49

Clifford Robinson

PF/SF

Portland Trail Blazers (1989–1997)Phoenix Suns (1997–2001)Detroit Pistons (2001–2003)Golden State Warriors (2003–2005)New Jersey Nets (2005–2007)

1,253

3,515

.356

50

Stephen Jackson

SG/SF

New Jersey Nets (2000–2001)San Antonio Spurs (2001–2003, 2012–2013)Atlanta Hawks (2003–2004)Indiana Pacers (2004–2007)Golden State Warriors (2007–2009)Charlotte Bobcats (2009–2011)Milwaukee Bucks (2011–2012)Los Angeles Clippers (2013–2014)

1,252

3,763

.333

text: Progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders[edit]

text: This is a progressive list of 3-point scoring leaders showing how the record has increased through the years.

text:
Team abbreviations

Team(s) listed is the one player was on when he established the record.

BOS
Boston Celtics
HOU
Houston Rockets
ORL
Orlando Magic
SEA
Seattle SuperSonics

CHA
Charlotte Bobcats
IND
Indiana Pacers
PHI
Philadelphia 76ers
TOR
Toronto Raptors

CHI
Chicago Bulls
LAL
Los Angeles Lakers
PHO
Phoenix Suns
UTA
Utah Jazz

CLE
Cleveland Cavaliers
MIA
Miami Heat
SAC
Sacramento Kings
WAS
Washington Wizards

DEN
Denver Nuggets
MIL
Milwaukee Bucks
SAS
San Antonio Spurs
WSB
Washington Bullets

GSW
Golden State Warriors
NYK
New York Knicks
SDC
San Diego Clippers

text:
Progressive 3-point leaders

Season

Year-by-year leader

3P

Active player leader

3P

Career record

3P

Single-season record

3P

Season

1979–80
Brian Taylor000SDC
90
Brian Taylor000SDC
90
Brian Taylor000SDC
90
Brian Taylor000SDC
90
1979–80

1980–81
Mike Bratz000CLE
57
134
134
1980–81

1981–82
Don Buse000IND
73
Joe Hassett000GSW
193
Joe Hassett000GSW
193
1981–82

1982–83
Mike Dunleavy000 SAS
67
194
194
1982–83

1983–84
Darrell Griffith000UTA
91
Darrell Griffith000UTA
154
Darrell Griffith000UTA
91
1983–84

1984–85
92
246
Darrell Griffith000UTA
246
92
1984–85

1985–86
Larry Bird*000BOS
82
Larry Bird*000BOS
267
Larry Bird*000BOS
267
1985–86

1986–87
90
357
357
1986–87

1987–88
Danny Ainge000BOS
148
455
455
Danny Ainge000BOS
148
1987–88

1988–89
Michael Adams000DEN
166
Dale Ellis000SEA
472
Dale Ellis000SEA
472
Michael Adams000DEN
166
1988–89

1989–90
158
568
568
1989–90

1990–91
Vernon Maxwell000HOU
172
Michael Adams000DEN 1990–91000WSB 1991–92
658
Michael Adams000DEN 1990–91000WSB 1991–92
658
Vernon Maxwell000HOU
172
1990–91

1991–92
162
783
783
1991–92

1992–93
Reggie Miller*000INDDan Majerle000PHO
167
Dale Ellis000 SAS 1992–94000 DEN 1994–97
882
Dale Ellis000 SAS 1992–94000 DEN 1994–97
882
1992–93

1993–94
Dan Majerle000PHO
192
1,013
1,013
Dan Majerle000PHO
192
1993–94

1994–95
John Starks000NYK
217
1,119
1,119
John Starks000NYK
217
1994–95

1995–96
Dennis Scott000ORL
267
1,269
1,269
Dennis Scott000ORL
267
1995–96

1996–97
Reggie Miller*000IND
229
1,461
1,461
1996–97

1997–98
Wesley Person000CLE
192
Reggie Miller*000IND
1,596
Reggie Miller*000IND
1,596
1997–98

1998–99
Dee Brown000TOR
135
1,702
1,702
1998–99

1999–00
Gary Payton*000SEA
177
1,867
1,867
1999–00

2000–01
Antoine Walker000BOS
221
2,037
2,037
2000–01

2001–02
Ray Allen*000MIL
229
2,217
2,217
2001–02

2002–03
201
2,330
2,330
2002–03

2003–04
Peja Stojaković000SAC
240
2,464
2,464
2003–04

2004–05
Quentin Richardson0PHOKyle Korver^00PHI
226
2,560
2,560
2004–05

2005–06
Ray Allen*000SEA
269
Ray Allen*000SEA 2005–07000BOS 2007–12000MIA 2012–14
1,755
Ray Allen*000SEA
269
2005–06

2006–07
Gilbert Arenas00WAS Raja Bell00PHO
205
1,920
2006–07

2007–08
Jason Richardson§000CHA
243
2,100
2007–08

2008–09
Rashard Lewis000ORL
220
2,299
2008–09

2009–10
Aaron Brooks^000HOU
209
2,444
2009–10

2010–11
Dorell Wright†000GSW
194
2,612
Ray Allen*000BOS 2010–12000MIA 2012–14
2,612
2010–11

2011–12
Ryan Anderson^000ORL
166
2,718
2,718
2011–12

2012–13
Stephen Curry^000GSW
272
2,857
2,857
Stephen Curry^000GSW
272
2012–13

2013–14
261
2,973
2,973
2013–14

2014–15
286
Jason Terry^000HOU 2014–16000MIL 2016–18
2,076
286
2014–15

2015–16
402
2,169
402
2015–16

2016–17
324
2,242
2016–17

2017–18
James Harden^000HOU
265
2,282
2017–18

Season
Year-by-year leader
3P
Active player leader
3P
Career record
3P
Single-season record
3P
Season

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The National Basketball Association did not record 3-point field goals until the 1979–80 season

Jump up ^ "NBA Progressive Leaders and Records for 3-Pt Field Goals". Basketball-Reference.com. Sports-Reference. Retrieved 24 March 2015.

^ Jump up to: a b A player is not eligible for induction into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame until he has been fully retired for three calendar years.

^ Jump up to: a b "2019 Hall of Fame Candidates". Retrieved August 18, 2018.

Jump up ^ American Basketball Association (ABA) teams other than those admitted into the NBA in 1976 are not included; each year is linked to an article about that particular NBA season.

tag: ol


document_title: Third place playoff

question_text: what do you get 3rd place world cup

question_tokens: what do you get 3rd place world cup

text: Third place playoff

text: Olympics[edit]

text: Most sports using a knockout format in the Olympic Games have a third place game to determine who wins the bronze medal, with the exception being boxing which awards two bronze medals (judo, taekwondo, and wrestling, which also award two bronze medals, both feature two bronze medal matches, between the losing semi-finalists and the winners of the repechage). As the difference between a bronze medal and no medal is quite significant, competitors still take this game seriously.

text: IRB Rugby World Cup[edit]

text: The Rugby World Cup used to give automatic qualification to all teams in the top three of the ongoing tournament to the one that would follow it four years later thus making the third place playoff game important, but this was later scrapped after the 1999 edition of the tournament allowing teams outside the top three to automatically qualify depending on their IRB co-efficient in the rankings.

text: FIFA World Cup and other association football tournaments[edit]

text: The 1980 edition was the last UEFA European Football Championship to have a third place match. That was one of the few third place football matches ever to be decided by a penalty shootout, where Czechoslovakia defeated hosts Italy 9-8.

text: The FIFA World Cup features a third place playoff, usually on the day before the final. It is often there to provide a spectacle as there is often a gap of a few days between the semi-finals and the final. The third place playoff is considered a lower-priority match to organizers, as it is frequently scheduled in one of the smaller stadia; the largest stadium (usually located in the host nation's capital city) is reserved for the final, while the semi-finals occupy the second and third-largest stadia. However, the third place match in the 1994 World Cup did use the Rose Bowl stadium, the same venue that would later host the tournament final, setting a record attendance of 91,500 for a third place playoff in FIFA World Cup history.

text: The third-place match in the FIFA Women's World Cup has been somewhat more important to the organizers—the 1999, 2003, and 2007 matches were all held in the same stadium as the final. In fact, the 1999 and 2007 third-place matches were both held as the first half of a doubleheader that culminated in the final. The 2011 third-place match returned to the more traditional scheduling of the day before the final in a different stadium. Notably, the 1999 third-place match was the curtain-raiser to the most-attended women's sporting event in history, the 1999 final also held in the Rose Bowl.

text: The third place match is generally a high-scoring affair, as no men's match has seen fewer than two goals scored since Poland's 1-0 win over Brazil in 1974, while all bronze-medal games since 1994 (except for 1998, 2014 and 2018) have seen four goals or more. For tournament top scorers, the third place match's tendency of attacking football is a great opportunity to win the Golden Shoe, with players such as Salvatore Schillaci (1990), Davor Šuker (1998), and Thomas Müller (2010) getting the goal they needed to take sole possession of the lead.[1] The FIFA Women's World Cup has had only seven editions to date, therefore creating less opportunity for a pattern to form. However, two of the third-place games in that competition have seen fewer than three goals. In 1995, the USA defeated China 2–0. In 1999, the third-place match between Brazil and Norway ended in a scoreless draw and penalty shootout (won by Brazil), as did the final between the USA and China (won by the USA). In 2015, the third place match between Germany and England was the first to go to extra time, and in the second period of extra time, England scored a single penalty kick goal and held on to the lead to upset Germany.

text: How seriously the competing teams take this match is subject to debate. Certain teams, especially ones which had been expected to reach the final, will rest some of their starters to allow some of their reserve team players to participate in a World Cup game. For instance French team captain Michel Platini did not play in either the 1982 or 1986 third place matches, while German goalkeeper Hans-Jörg Butt received his only competitive international appearance in a third place playoff[2][3], and Michel Vorm came on during injury time of the 3–0 third place play-off win against Brazil in Brasília thus ensuring that all 23 Dutch squad members played at the tournament.[4] By contrast, teams that are not expected to get this far usually take this match seriously, as third place can be a historical achievement.  In the 1994 World Cup, the Sweden national team branded the game as "the bronze match" and after victory they landed at Arlanda with a fighter escort and were then paraded through the streets of Stockholm to millions live on national TV. Another example of a high-profile third place match was in 1998, when the recently established Croatian football team upset the Netherlands.

text: If the host nation is involved in the third place match, the team generally uses the match to thank the support of their fans (such as the South Korean football team in 2002, and the German football team in 2006.[1] German goalkeeper Oliver Kahn, who had been a reserve to Jens Lehmann during the 2006 tournament, was allowed to retire in the third place playoff by then manager Jürgen Klinsmann. Germany and Portugal fielded strong lineups in that match, after both were narrowly eliminated in their respective semi-finals (Germany and Italy nearly went to a penalty shootout,[5] while Portugal was defeated by the lower-ranked France[6]). For Brazil, the dismal 3–0 loss to the Netherlands in the 2014 third place match, along with the 7-1 semi-final defeat to Germany, led to coach Luiz Felipe Scolari being dismissed.[7][8] For the Dutch, this was their first bronze medal in the FIFA World Cup.[9]

text: Germany currently holds the most third-place finishes in the (men's) World Cup, with four, their most recent in 2010.[10] The U.S. has the most third-place finishes in the Women's World Cup, with three; they have never finished outside the top three.

text: Little League World Series[edit]

text: For most of its history, the Little League World Series has featured either a consolation bracket, or consolation games. Currently, the tournament features a single consolation game between the United States runner-up and the International runner-up.  Like the championship, the game allows an American team to compete against an International team.  All other games are played within their respective American or International pool of eight teams each, except two exhibition games which match the United States teams and International teams which went 0-2 in their respective brackets.

text: Early season College Basketball Tournaments[edit]

text: Third place games (and consolation games for lower placings) are common in early season college basketball tournaments, as it gives each team an opportunity to play more games before the conference games start in earnest.  It also provides the tournament venue with additional games.

text: Defunct third place playoff games[edit]

text: Many sports tournaments do not have a third place playoff, mostly due to a lack of interest from the competitors and also from the fans. Two of the most celebrated knockout tournaments — the FA Cup Third-fourth place matches (1970–1974) and the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship (1946–1981) — did feature the third place game for a period of time, but later abandoned it. For most of its years, the NCAA consolation game held interest because it usually featured two nationally ranked teams in which only a few teams qualified for the tournament. However, as the field expanded beyond 32 teams, the game lost significance.[citation needed]  In addition, eliminating the game allowed the losing teams to return home rather than remaining in the Final Four city for an additional two days to play a game many[who?] believed was irrelevant. Relevancy aside, others[who?] supported the game for competitive reasons because it typically featured a match between two of the best college teams in the nation; and, it allowed each of those teams to be honored as a Final Four team for the entire weekend.

text: The National Football League had a consolation game, the Playoff Bowl, from 1960 to 1969, which pitted the second-place team in each of the two conferences (based on regular season record from 1960 to 1966) against each other in Miami, Florida. Through the 1966 season, the only scheduled NFL playoff game was the Championship Game (with unscheduled conference tie-breaker games as necessary; only in 1965 during the 1960s). In 1967, the NFL playoff field expanded to four (division champions), and its first round losers went to the Playoff Bowl, increasingly unpopular with the participating players. With interest declining for a third-place game and an eight-team playoff field arriving with the AFL–NFL merger in 1970, the Playoff Bowl was abandoned with little objection.

text: Third place playoffs are especially controversial when they are used in tournaments that use a Page playoff system since there is only one "semi-final" game in this format. Critics argue that in such a formula, the loser of the semi-final should simply be awarded third place. Proponents of the third place game argue that without it, the importance of the medal round is cheapened since the top two teams heading into the Page playoff would otherwise be "guaranteed" a medal - this argument carries less weight in tournaments where medals are not awarded or where they are considered of relatively minor importance in comparison to winning the tournament.


document_title: Cell cycle

question_text: it begins after dna replicates during interphase of the cell cycle

text: Cell cycle

text: Phases[edit]

text: The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: karyokinesis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase.

text:
State
Phase
Abbreviation
Description

Resting
Gap 0
G0
A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.

Interphase
Gap 1
G1
Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

Synthesis
S
DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Gap 2
G2
During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.

Cell division
Mitosis
M
Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division.

text: After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.

text: G0 phase (quiescence)[edit]

text: G0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. The word "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G1. Some cells enter the G0 phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g., epithelial cells.

text: Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.

text: Interphase (intermitosis)[edit]

text: Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division.Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.

text: Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase but may continue till G2 in case of heterochromatin.

text: G1 phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase)[edit]

text: The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G1 (G indicating gap). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species.[3] In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G1 phase, a cell has three options. (1) To continue cell cycle and enter S phase (2) Stop cell cycle and enter G0 phase for undergoing differentiation. (3) Get arrested in G1 phase hence it may enter G0 phase or re-enter cell cycle. The deciding factor is availability of nitrogens and storage of energy rich compounds at the deciding point called check point. This check point is called G1 cyclin or CG1. It causes transition of G1 to S phase. Once the check point of G1 phase is crossed, cell cycle will go uninterrupted till it is completed.

text: S phase (DNA replication)[edit]

text: The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.[4][5][6]

text: G2 phase (growth)[edit]

text: G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle.

text: Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)[edit]

text: The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis). It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:

text:
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase,
telophase

tag: ul

text: Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei.[7] During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.[8]

text: Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.[9] Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.

text: Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components)[edit]

text: Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.

text: Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "M phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.[10] Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.

text: The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells.[8]

text: Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle[edit]

text: Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle.

text: Role of cyclins and CDKs[edit]

text:
Nobel Laureate
Paul Nurse

Nobel Laureate
Tim Hunt

text: Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle.[11] Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules.[12] Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae;[13] genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle") followed by an identifying number, e.g. cdc25 or cdc20.

text: Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.[14]

text: General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction[edit]

text: Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G1 cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G1 cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.[15]

text: Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G1 phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.

text: Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G2 phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.[16]

text: Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes[edit]

text: Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb). The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively "blocking" them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G1 to S phase (G1/S, which initiates the G2/M transition).[17] Cyclin B-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis.[14] A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin-CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.[15]

text: Inhibitors[edit]

text: Two families of genes, the cip/kip (CDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein) family and the INK4a/ARF (Inhibitor of Kinase 4/Alternative Reading Frame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.

text: The cip/kip family includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt cell cycle in G1 phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin-CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor of β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.

text: The INK4a/ARF family includes p16INK4a, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G1 phase, and p14ARF which prevents p53 degradation.

text: Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.[18]

text: Transcriptional regulatory network[edit]

text: Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800–1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle.[13][19][20] They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.[21]

text: Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects.[22] Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression.[19][23] The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).[20][24]

text: Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (clb1,2,3,4,5,6). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between G1 and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events.[20] Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.[22][25][26]

text: While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.[27]

text: DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity[edit]

text: Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes.[28] This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression,[29][30][31] and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.

text: Checkpoints[edit]

text: Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle.[32] Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.

text: There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G1/S checkpoint, the G2/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.

text: G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point.[14] This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.

text: The G2/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G2/M checkpoint.

text: The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that's not to say it isn't important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.[33]

text: While these are the three "main" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G0 until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.

text: Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G0, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.

text: p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.

text: Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle[edit]

text: Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO2) was fused to hCdt1(30/120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins. The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G2, or M phase and degraded during the G0 or G1 phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G0 or G1 phase and destroyed during the S, G2, or M phase.[34] A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria-derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome-derived fluorescent protein (movie found at this link).[35]

text: Role in tumor formation[edit]

text: A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation.[36] As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G0 phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue[citation needed]. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.

text: The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G0 to G1 phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.[14]

text: The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G1, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.

text: In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G2 phases and most resistant in late S phase.

text: For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G1 phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G1.

text: The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.


document_title: Caesar's invasions of Britain

question_text: who tried to invade britain 100 years before claudius

text: Caesar's invasions of Britain

text: Britain before Caesar[edit]

text: Britain had long been known to the classical world as a source of tin. The coastline had been explored by the Greek geographer Pytheas in the 4th century BC, and may have been explored even earlier, in the 5th, by the Carthaginian sailor Himilco. But to many Romans, the island, lying as it did beyond the Ocean at what was to them the edge of the "known world," was a land of great mystery. Some Roman writers even insisted that it did not exist,[2] and dismissed reports of Pytheas's voyage as a hoax.[3]

text: Britain during the reign of Julius Caesar had an Iron Age culture, with an estimated population  of between one and four million. Archaeological research shows that its economy was broadly divided into lowland and highland zones. In the lowland southeast, large areas of fertile soil made possible extensive arable farming, and communication developed along trackways, such as the Icknield Way, the Pilgrims' Way and the Jurassic Way, and navigable rivers such as the Thames. In the highlands, north of the line between Gloucester and Lincoln, arable land was available in only isolated pockets, so pastoralism, supported by garden cultivation, was more common than settled farming, and communication was more difficult. Settlements were generally built on high ground and fortified, but in the southeast, oppida had begun to be established on lower ground, often at river crossings, suggesting that trade was becoming more important. Commercial contact between Britain and the continent had increased since the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul in 124 BC, and Italian wine was being imported via the Armorican peninsula, much of it arriving at Hengistbury Head in Dorset.[4]

text: Caesar's written account of Britain says that the Belgae of northeastern Gaul had previously conducted raids on Britain, establishing settlements in some of its coastal areas, and that within living memory Diviciacus, king of the Suessiones, had held power in Britain as well as Gaul.[5] British coinage from this period shows a complicated pattern of intrusion. The earliest Gallo-Belgic coins that have been found in Britain date to before 100 BC, perhaps as early as 150 BC, were struck in Gaul, and have been found mainly in Kent. Later coins of a similar type were struck in Britain and are found all along the south coast as far west as Dorset. It appears that Belgic power was concentrated on the southeastern coast, although their influence spread further west and inland, perhaps through chieftains establishing political control over the native population.[6]

text: First invasion (55 BC)[edit]

text: Planning and reconnaissance[edit]

text: Caesar claimed that, in the course of his conquest of Gaul, the Britons had supported the campaigns of the mainland Gauls against him, with fugitives from among the Gallic Belgae fleeing to Belgic settlements in Britain,[7] and the Veneti of Armorica, who  controlled seaborne trade to the island, calling in aid from their British allies to fight for them against Caesar in 56 BC.[8] Strabo says that the Venetic rebellion in 56 BC had been intended to prevent Caesar from travelling to Britain and disrupting their commercial activity,[9] suggesting that the possibility of a British expedition had already been considered by then.

text: In late summer, 55 BC, even though it was late in the campaigning season, Caesar decided to make an expedition to Britain. He summoned merchants who traded with the island, but they were unable or unwilling to give him any useful information about the inhabitants and their military tactics, or about harbours he could use, presumably not wanting to lose their monopoly on cross-channel trade. He sent a tribune, Gaius Volusenus, to scout the coast in a single warship. He probably examined the Kent coast between Hythe and Sandwich, but was unable to land, since he "did not dare leave his ship and entrust himself to the barbarians",[10] and after five days returned to give Caesar what intelligence he had managed to gather.

text: By then, ambassadors from some of the British states, warned by merchants of the impending invasion, had arrived promising their submission. Caesar sent them back, along with his ally Commius, king of the Gallic Atrebates, to use their influence to win over as many other states as possible.

text: He gathered a fleet consisting of eighty transport ships, sufficient to carry two legions (Legio VII and Legio X), and an unknown number of warships under a quaestor, at an unnamed port in the territory of the Morini, almost certainly Portus Itius (Boulogne). Another eighteen transports of cavalry were to sail from a different port, probably Ambleteuse.[11] These ships may have been triremes or biremes, or may have been adapted from Venetic designs Caesar had seen previously, or may even have been requisitioned from the Veneti and other coastal tribes. Clearly in a hurry, Caesar himself left a garrison at the port and set out "at the third watch" – well after midnight – on 23 August[12] with the legions, leaving the cavalry to march to their ships, embark, and join him as soon as possible. In light of later events, this was either a tactical mistake or (along with the fact that the legions came over without baggage or heavy siege gear)[13] confirms the invasion was not intended for complete conquest.

text: Landing[edit]

text:
Caesar initially tried to land at Dubris (Dover), whose natural harbour had presumably been identified by Volusenus as a suitable landing place. However, when he came in sight of shore, the massed forces of the Britons gathered on the overlooking hills and cliffs dissuaded him from landing there, since the cliffs were so close to the shore that javelins could be thrown down from them onto anyone landing there.[14] After waiting there at anchor "until the ninth hour" (about 3pm) waiting for his supply ships from the second port to come up and meanwhile convening a council of war, he ordered his subordinates to act on their own initiative and then sailed the fleet about 7 miles (11 kilometres) along the coast to an open beach. The first level beach area after Dover is at Walmer where a memorial is placed.
Recent archaeology by the University of Leicester indicates that the possible landing beach was in Pegwell Bay on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, where artefacts and massive earthworks dating from this period have been exposed, although this area would not have been the first easy landing site seen after Dover. If Caesar had as large a fleet with him as has been suggested, then it is possible that the beaching of ships would have been spread out over a number of miles stretching from Walmer towards Pegwell Bay.[15]

text: Having been tracked all the way along the coast by the British cavalry and chariots, the landing was opposed. To make matters worse, the loaded Romans ship were too low in the water to go close inshore and the troops had to disembark in deep water, all the while attacked by the enemy from the shallows. The troops were reluctant, but according to Caesar's account were led by the aquilifer (standard-bearer, whose name is not provided by Caesar) of the 10th legion who jumped in first as an example, shouting:

text: The British were eventually driven back with catapultae and slings fired from the warships into the exposed flank of their formation and the Romans managed to land and drive them off. The cavalry, delayed by adverse winds, still had not arrived, so the Britons could not be pursued and finished off, and Caesar could not enjoy what he calls, in his usual self-promoting style, his "accustomed success".[17]

text: Beach-head[edit]

text: The Romans established a camp of which archaeological traces have been found, received ambassadors and had Commius, who had been arrested as soon as he had arrived in Britain, returned to them. Caesar claims he was negotiating from a position of strength and that the British leaders, blaming their attacks on him on the common people, were in only four days awed into giving hostages, some immediately, some as soon as they could be brought from inland, and disbanding their army. However, after his cavalry had come within sight of the beachhead but then been scattered and turned back to Gaul by storms, and with food running short, Caesar, a native of the Mediterranean, was taken by surprise by high British tides and a storm. His beached warships filled with water, and his transports, riding at anchor, were driven against each other. Some ships were wrecked, and many others were rendered unseaworthy by the loss of rigging or other vital equipment, threatening the return journey.

text: Realising this and hoping to keep Caesar in Britain over the winter and thus starve him into submission, the Britons renewed the attack, ambushing one of the legions as it foraged near the Roman camp. The foraging party was relieved by the remainder of the Roman force and the Britons were again driven off, only to regroup after several days of storms with a larger force to attack the Roman camp. This attack was driven off fully, in a bloody rout, with improvised cavalry that Commius had gathered from pro-Roman Britons and a Roman scorched earth policy.

text: Conclusion[edit]

text: The British once again sent ambassadors and Caesar, although he doubled the number of hostages, realised he could not hold out any longer and dared not risk a stormy winter crossing. Caesar had set out late in the campaigning season and the winter was approaching, and so he allowed them to be delivered to him in Gaul, to which he returned with as many of the ships as could be repaired with flotsam from the wrecked ships. Even then, only two tribes felt sufficiently threatened by Caesar to actually send the hostages, and two of his transports were separated from the main body and made landfall elsewhere.

text: Success and motivation[edit]

text: If the invasion was intended as a full-scale campaign, invasion or occupation, it had failed, and if it is seen as a reconnaissance-in-force or a show of strength to deter further British aid to the Gauls, it had fallen short.  Nonetheless, going to Britain beyond the "known world" carried such kudos for a Roman that the Senate decreed a supplicatio (thanksgiving) of twenty days when they received Caesar's report. It is also suggested that this invasion established alliances with British kings in the area which smoothed the later invasion of AD 43.[18]

text: Caesar's pretext for the invasion was that "in almost all the [[wars with the Gauls succours had been furnished to our enemy from that country". This is plausible, although it may also have been a cover for investigating Britain's mineral resources and economic potential: afterwards, Cicero refers to the disappointing discovery that there was no gold or silver in the island;[19] and Suetonius reports that Caesar was said to have gone to Britain in search of pearls.[20]

text: Second invasion (54 BC)[edit]

text: Preparation[edit]

text: A second invasion was planned  in the winter of 55–54 for the summer of 54 BC. Cicero wrote letters to his friend Gaius Trebatius Testa and his brother Quintus, both of whom were serving in Caesar's army, expressing his excitement at the prospect. He urged Trebatius to capture him a war chariot, and asked Quintus to write him a description of the island. Trebatius, as it turned out, did not go to Britain, but Quintus did, and wrote him several letters from there – as did Caesar himself.[21]

text: Determined not to make the same mistakes as the previous year, Caesar gathered a larger force than on his previous expedition  with five legions as opposed to two, plus two-thousand cavalry, carried in ships which he designed, with experience of Venetic shipbuilding technology, to be more suitable to a beach landing than those used in 55 BC being broader and lower for easier beaching. This time he names Portus Itius as the departure point.[22]

text: Crossing and landing[edit]

text: Labienus was left at Portus Itius to oversee regular food transports from there to the British beachhead.  The military ships were joined by a flotilla of trading ships captained by Romans and provincials from across the empire, and local Gauls, hoping to cash in on the trading opportunities. It seems more likely that the figure Caesar quotes for the fleet (800 ships) include these traders and the troop-transports, rather than the troop-transports alone.

text: Caesar landed at the place he had identified as the best landing-place the previous year. The Britons did not oppose the landing, apparently, as Caesar states, intimidated by the size of the fleet, but equally this may have been a strategic ploy to give them time to gather their forces, or may reflect their lack of concern.

text: Kent campaign[edit]

text: Upon landing, Caesar left Quintus Atrius in charge of the beach-head and made an immediate night march 12 mi (19 km) inland, where he encountered the British forces at a river crossing, probably somewhere on the River Stour. The Britons attacked but were repulsed, and attempted to regroup at a fortified place in the forests, possibly the hillfort at Bigbury Wood, Kent,[23] but were again defeated and scattered. As it was late in the day and Caesar was unsure of the territory, he called off the pursuit and made camp.

text: However, the next morning, as he prepared to advance further, Caesar received word from Atrius that, once again, his ships at anchor had been dashed against each other in a storm and suffered considerable damage. About forty, he says, were lost. The Romans were unused to Atlantic and Channel tides and storms, but nevertheless, considering the damage he had sustained the previous year, this was poor planning on Caesar's part. However, Caesar may have exaggerated the number of ships wrecked to magnify his own achievement in rescuing the situation.[24] He returned to the coast, recalling the legions that had gone ahead, and immediately set about repairing his fleet. His men worked day and night for approximately ten days, beaching and repairing the ships, and building a fortified camp around them. Word was sent to Labienus to send more ships.

text: Caesar was on the coast on 1 September, from where he wrote a letter to Cicero. News must have reached him at this point of the death of his daughter Julia, as Cicero refrained from replying "on account of his mourning".[25]

text: March inland[edit]

text: Caesar then returned to the Stour crossing and found the Britons had massed their forces there. Cassivellaunus, a warlord from north of the Thames, had previously been at war with most of the British tribes. He had recently overthrown the king of the powerful Trinovantes and forced his son, Mandubracius, into exile, but now the Britons had appointed him to lead their combined forces. After several indecisive skirmishes, during which a Roman tribune, Quintus Laberius Durus, was killed, the Britons attacked a foraging party of three legions under Gaius Trebonius, but were repulsed and routed by the pursuing Roman cavalry.

text: Cassivellaunus realised he could not defeat Caesar in a pitched battle. Disbanding the majority of his force and relying on the mobility of his 4,000 chariots and superior knowledge of the terrain, he used guerrilla tactics to slow the Roman advance. By the time Caesar reached the Thames, the one fordable place available to him had been fortified with sharpened stakes, both on the shore and under the water, and the far bank was defended. Second Century sources state that Caesar used a large war elephant, which was equipped with armour and carried archers and slingers in its tower, to put the defenders to flight. When this unknown creature entered the river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over and entered Cassivellaunus' territory.[26]

text: The Trinovantes, whom Caesar describes as the most powerful tribe in the region, and who had recently suffered at Cassivellaunus' hands, sent ambassadors, promising him aid and provisions. Mandubracius, who had accompanied Caesar, was restored as their king, and the Trinovantes provided grain and hostages. Five further tribes, the Cenimagni, Segontiaci, Ancalites, Bibroci and Cassi, surrendered to Caesar, and revealed to him the location of Cassivellaunus' stronghold, possibly the hill fort at Wheathampstead,[27] which he proceeded to put under siege.

text: Cassivellaunus sent word to his allies in Kent, Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus and Segovax, described as the "four kings of Cantium",[28] to stage a diversionary attack on the Roman beach-head to draw Caesar off, but this attack failed, and Cassivellaunus sent ambassadors to negotiate a surrender. Caesar was eager to return to Gaul for the winter due to growing unrest there, and an agreement was mediated by Commius. Cassivellaunus gave hostages, agreed an annual tribute, and undertook not to make war against Mandubracius or the Trinovantes. Caesar wrote to Cicero on 26 September, confirming the result of the campaign, with hostages but no booty taken, and that his army was about to return to Gaul.[29] He then left, leaving not a single Roman soldier in Britain to enforce his settlement. Whether the tribute was ever paid is unknown.

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Commius, Caesar's Atrebatian ally, later switched sides, fighting in Vercingetorix's rebellion. After a number of unsuccessful engagements with Caesar's forces, he cut his losses and fled to Britain. Sextus Julius Frontinus, in his Strategemata, describes how Commius and his followers, with Caesar in pursuit, boarded their ships. Although the tide was out and the ships still beached, Commius ordered the sails raised. Caesar, still some distance away, assumed the ships were afloat and called off the pursuit.[30] Archaeologist John Creighton[31] believes that this anecdote was a legend, and that Commius was sent to Britain as a friendly king as part of his truce with Mark Antony.[32] Commius established a dynasty in the Hampshire area, known from coins of Gallo-Belgic type. Verica, the king whose exile prompted Claudius's conquest of AD 43, styled himself a son of Commius.

text: Discoveries about Britain[edit]

text: As well as noting elements of British warfare, particularly the use of chariots, which were unfamiliar to his Roman audience, Caesar also aimed to impress them by making further geographical, meteorological and ethnographic investigations of Britain.  He probably gained these by enquiry and hearsay rather than direct experience, as he did not penetrate that far into the interior, and most historians would be wary of applying them beyond the tribes with whom he came into direct contact.

text: Geographical and meteorological[edit]

text: Caesar's first-hand discoveries were limited to east Kent and the Thames Valley, but he was able to provide a description of the island's geography and meteorology. Though his measurements are not wholly accurate, and may owe something to Pytheas, his general conclusions even now seem valid:

text: No information about harbours or other landing-places was available to the Romans before Caesar's expeditions, so Caesar was able to make discoveries of benefit to Roman military and trading interests. Volusenus's reconnaissance voyage before the first expedition apparently identified the natural harbour at Dubris (Dover), although Caesar was prevented from landing there and forced to land on an open beach, as he did again the following year, perhaps because Dover was too small for his much larger forces. The great natural harbours further up the coast at Rutupiae (Richborough), which were used by Claudius for his invasion 100 years later, were not used on either occasion. Caesar may have been unaware of them, may have chosen not to use them, or they may not have existed in a form suitable for sheltering and landing such a large force at that time. Present knowledge of the period geomorphology of the Wantsum Channel that created that haven is limited.

text: By Claudius' time Roman knowledge of the island would have been considerably increased by a century of trade and diplomacy, and four abortive invasion attempts. However, it is likely that the intelligence gathered in 55 and 54 BC would have been retained in the now-lost state records in Rome, and been used by Claudius in the planning of his landings.

text: Ethnography[edit]

text: The Britons are defined as typical barbarians, with polygamy and other exotic social habits, similar in many ways to the Gauls,[35] yet as brave adversaries whose crushing can bring glory to a Roman:

text: Military[edit]

text: In addition to infantry and cavalry, the Britons employed chariots, a novelty to the Romans, in warfare. Caesar describes their use as follows:

text: Technology[edit]

text: During the civil war, Caesar made use of a kind of boat he had seen used in Britain, similar to the Irish currach or Welsh coracle. He describes them thus:

text: Religion[edit]

text: Economic resources[edit]

text: Caesar not only investigates this for the sake of it, but also to justify Britain as a rich source of tribute and trade:

text: This reference to the 'midland' is inaccurate as tin production and trade occurred in the southwest of England, in Cornwall and Devon, and was what drew Pytheas and other traders.  However, Caesar only penetrated to Essex and so, receiving reports of the trade whilst there, it would have been easy to perceive the trade as coming from the interior.

text: Outcome[edit]

text: Caesar made no conquests in Britain, but his enthroning of Mandubracius marked the beginnings of a system of client kingdoms there, thus bringing the island into Rome's sphere of political influence. Diplomatic and trading links developed further over the next century, opening up the possibility of permanent conquest, which was finally begun by Claudius in AD 43. In the words of Tacitus:

text: Lucan’s Pharsalia (II,572) makes the jibe that Caesar had:


document_title: Fore (golf)

question_text: where did the term four come from in golf

text: Fore (golf)

text: "Fore!", originally an Australian interjection, is used to warn anyone standing or moving in the flight of a golf ball.[1] The mention of the term in an 1881 Australian Golf Museum indicates that the term was in use at least as early as that period.[2]

text: It is believed[according to whom?] to come from the military "beware before", which an artilleryman about to fire would yell alerting nearby infantrymen to drop to the ground to avoid the shells overhead. (Before may mean "in front of (the gun being fired)"; fore may mean "(look) ahead".)

text: Other possible origins include the term being derived from the term "fore-caddy", a caddy waiting down range from the golfer to find where the ball lands. These caddies were often warned about oncoming golf balls by a shout of the term "fore-caddy" which was eventually shortened to just "fore!".[2][3] The Colonel Bogey March is based on the descending minor third which the original Colonel Bogey whistled instead of yelling Fore around 1914.[4]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ SND: Fore
^ Jump up to: a b Why Do Golfers Yell "Fore" for Errant Shots? retrieved June 15, 2007
Jump up ^ Derivation 4 Fore! and Caddie retrieved June 15, 2007
Jump up ^ The Windsor Magazine: An Illustrated Monthly for Men and Women Vol. 33, no. 192 (December 1910)


document_title: Borders of Denmark

question_text: denmark shares a physical frontier with which european country

text: Borders of Denmark

text: Denmark has existed with its current borders since 1921. The only terrestrial border of Denmark is that with Germany, with a length of 68 km. The border along the territorial waters (12 nautical miles zone) with Sweden runs along the Øresund for a length of about 115 km.

text: The exclusive economic zone (EEZ, 200 nautical miles zone) of Denmark borders those of Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Norway, Iceland and Canada.

text: History[edit]

text: Sweden and Denmark–Norway became separate= countries with the breakup of the Kalmar Union in 1523. Until 1658, the historic provinces of Skåne, Blekinge and Bohuslän (and until 1645 also Halland) belonged to Denmark, so that the Denmark–Sweden border ran across what is now southern Sweden. In 1645 and 1658 respectively, these provinces were ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde, establishing the Øresund as national boundary. The modern Norway–Sweden border remained the border between Denmark–Norway and Sweden until the breakup of Denmark and Norway in 1814. Under the Treaty of Kiel, Denmark retained possession of Greenland and Faroer.

text: The Schleswig-Holstein Question became virulent in the context of the German unification during the 19th century. Following the Second Schleswig War, the terms of Treaty of Vienna (1864) gave Schleswig to Prussia, after 1866 as the Province of Schleswig-Holstein. Following the German defeat in World War I, the Schleswig plebiscites of 1920 resulted in a partition of Schleswig, establishing the current German-Danish border, effective in 1921. Denmark was under German occupation from 1940 to 1943.

text: The Nordic Passport Union of 1958 removed passport checks at the borders between Nordic countries. However, custom checks remained in force between Denmark and other Nordic countries until the Schengen acquis of 2001. With the European migrant crisis, Sweden re-introduced stricter border controls in November 2015. Since 4 January 2016, Sweden has required carriers to perform identity checks on the Danish side of the Denmark–Sweden border, while still keeping the border controls on the Swedish side. As a reaction to the Swedish control, Denmark also strengthened its border controls at the German border. [1]

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Denmark–Germany border extends for 68 km between Schleswig-Holstein and South Jutland County.

text: The territorial waters (12 nautical miles) of Denmark form a border with Sweden along the Øresund, extending to 115 km.

text: The border between the Danish and Norwegian EEZ runs along the Skagerrak, between Faroer and Norway in the North Sea and between Greenland and Norwegian Svalbard in the Arctic.

text: The border between Danish and Icelandic EEZ runs along the Denmark Strait between Iceland and Greenland, and between Iceland and Faroer.

text: Hans Island, an island in Nares Strait, is the subject of a territorial dispute between Denmark and Canada.


document_title: Former Presidents Act

question_text: last president to get lifetime secret service protection

text: Former Presidents Act

text: History[edit]

text: Before 1958, the U.S. federal government provided no pension or other retirement benefits to former United States presidents. Andrew Carnegie offered to endow a US$25,000 annual pension for former Chief Executives in 1912, but congressmen questioned the propriety of such a private pension. That prompted legislation to provide benefits to former presidents.[1]

text: When the Former Presidents Act took effect, there were two living former presidents: Herbert Hoover and Harry S. Truman. Dwight D. Eisenhower was the first president to fall under the act upon leaving office.

text: The original act provided for lifetime Secret Service protection for former presidents. In 1997, it was reduced to 10 years for presidents taking office after 1997. The 1997 amendment was reverted by the Former Presidents Protection Act of 2012 (Pub.L. 112–257).[2] All living former presidents and their spouses are now entitled to receive lifetime Secret Service protection.[3]

text: Current status[edit]

text: By law, former presidents are entitled to a pension, staff and office expenses, medical care or health insurance, and Secret Service protection.

text: Pension[edit]

text: The Secretary of the Treasury pays a taxable pension to the president. Former presidents receive a pension equal to the pay that the head of an executive department (Executive Level I) would be paid, as of 2017[update] $207,800 per year.[4] The pension begins immediately after a president's departure from office.[5] A former president's spouse may also be paid a lifetime annual pension of $20,000 if they relinquish any other statutory pension.[1]

text: Transition[edit]

text: Washington Transition funding for the expenses of leaving office is available for seven months. It covers office space, staff compensation, communications services, and printing and postage associated with the transition.[1]

text: Staff and office[edit]

text: Private office staff and related funding is provided by the Administrator of the General Services Administration. Persons employed under this subsection are selected by and responsible only to the former president for the performance of their duties. Each former president fixes basic rates of compensation for persons employed for him, not exceeding an annualized total of $150,000 for the first 30 months and $96,000 thereafter.[1]

text: Medical insurance[edit]

text: Former presidents are entitled to medical treatment in military hospitals; they pay for this at interagency rates set by the Office of Management and Budget. Two-term presidents may buy health insurance under the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program; a GSA legal opinion ruled Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush ineligible.[1][6]

text: Secret Service protection[edit]

text: Former presidents were entitled from 1965 to 1996 to lifetime Secret Service protection, for themselves, spouses, and children under 16. A 1994 statute, (Pub.L. 103–329), limited post-presidential protection to ten years for presidents inaugurated after January 1, 1997.[7] Under this statute, Bill Clinton would still be entitled to lifetime protection, and all subsequent presidents would have been entitled to ten years' protection.[8] On January 10, 2013, President Barack Obama signed the Former Presidents Protection Act of 2012, reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection for his predecessor George W. Bush, himself, and all subsequent presidents.[9]

text: Richard Nixon relinquished his Secret Service protection in 1985, the only president to do so.[10]