document_title: Florence Baptistery

question_text: who won the 1401 competition to design the doors for the florence baptistery

text: Florence Baptistery

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: It was long believed that the Baptistery was originally a Roman temple dedicated to Mars, the tutelary god of the old Florence.[3] The chronicler Giovanni Villani reported this medieval Florentine legend in his fourteenth-century Nuova Cronica on the history of Florence.[4] However, twentieth-century excavations have shown that there was a first-century Roman wall running through the piazza with the Baptistery, which may have been built on the remains of a Roman guard tower on the corner of this wall, or possibly another Roman building. It is, however, certain that a first octagonal baptistery was erected here in the late fourth or early fifth century. It was replaced or altered  by another early Christian baptistery in the sixth century. Its construction is attributed to  Theodolinda, queen of the Lombards (570-628) to seal the conversion of her husband, King Authari.

text: Octagonal design[edit]

text: The octagon had been a common shape for baptisteries for many centuries since early Christian times. The number eight is a symbol of regeneration in Christianity, signifying the six days of creation, the Day of Rest, and a day of re-creation through the Sacrament of Baptism.[5] Other early examples are the Lateran Baptistery (440) that provided a model for others throughout Italy, the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus (527-536) in Constantinople and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna (548).

text: The earlier baptistery was the city's second basilica after San Lorenzo, outside the northern city wall, and predates the church Santa Reparata. It was first recorded as such on 4 March 897, when the Count Palatine and envoy of the Holy Roman Emperor sat there to administer justice.[citation needed] The granite pilasters were probably taken from the Roman forum sited at the location of the present Piazza della Repubblica. At that time, the baptistery was surrounded by a cemetery with Roman sarcophagi, used by important Florentine families as tombs (now in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo).

text: Construction[edit]

text: The present much larger Baptistery was built in Romanesque style around 1059, evidence of the growing economic and political importance of Florence. It was reconsecrated on 6 November 1059 by Pope Nicholas II, a Florentine. According to legend, the marbles were brought from Fiesole, conquered by Florence in 1078. Other marble came from ancient structures. The construction was finished in 1128.

text: An octagonal lantern was added to the pavilion roof around 1150. It was enlarged with a rectangular entrance porch in 1202, leading into the original western entrance of the building, that became an apse, after the opening of the eastern door, facing the western door by Lorenzo Ghiberti of the cathedral in the 15th century. On the corners, under the roof, are monstrous lion heads with a human head under their claws. They are early representations of Marzocco, the heraldic Florentine lion (the symbol of Mars, the god of war, the original male protector of Florentia, protecting a lily or iris, the symbol of the original female patron of the town (Flora, the fertile agricultural earth goddess).

text: Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, three bronze double doors were added, with bronze and marble statues above them. This gives an indication that the Baptistery, at that time, was at least equal to the neighbouring cathedral in importance.

text: Exterior[edit]

text: Design[edit]

text: The Baptistery has eight equal sides with a rectangular addition on the west side. The sides, originally constructed in sandstone, are clad in geometrically patterned colored marble, white Carrara marble with green Prato marble inlay, reworked in Romanesque style between 1059 and 1128. The pilasters on each corner, originally in grey stone, were decorated with white and dark green marble in a zebra-like pattern by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1293. The style of this church would serve as a prototype, influencing many architects, such as Leone Battista Alberti, in their design of Renaissance churches in Tuscany.

text: The exterior is also ornamented with a number of artistically significant statues by Andrea Sansovino (above the Gates of Paradise), Giovan Francesco Rustici, Vincenzo Danti (above the south doors) and others.

text: The design work on the sides is arranged in groupings of three, starting with three distinct horizontal sections. The middle section features three blind arches on each side, each arch containing a window. These have alternate pointed and semicircular tympani. Below each window is a stylized arch design. In the upper fascia, there are also three small windows, each one in the center block of a three-panel design.

text: The apse was originally semicircular, but it was made rectangular in 1202.

text: Baptistery doors[edit]

text: Andrea Pisano[edit]

text: As recommended by Giotto, Andrea Pisano was awarded the commission to design the first set of doors in 1329. The south doors were originally installed on the east side, facing the Duomo, and were transferred to their present location in 1452. The bronze-casting and gilding was done by the Venetian Leonardo d'Avanzo, widely recognized as one of the best bronze smiths in Europe. This took six years, the doors being completed in 1336. These proto-Renaissance doors  consist of 28 quatrefoil panels, with the twenty top panels depicting scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist. The eight lower panels depict the eight virtues of hope, faith, charity, humility, fortitude, temperance, justice and prudence. The moulded reliefs in the doorcase were added by Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1452. There is a Latin inscription on top of the door: "Andreas Ugolini Nini de Pisis me fecit A.D. MCCCXXX" (Andrea Pisano made me in 1330).

text: The group of bronze statues above the gate depict The Beheading of St John the Baptist. It is the masterwork of Vincenzo Danti from 1571.

text: Lorenzo Ghiberti[edit]

text: In 1401, a competition was announced by the Arte di Calimala (Cloth Importers Guild) to design doors which would eventually be placed on the north side of the baptistery. (The original location for these doors was the east side of the baptistery, but the doors were moved to the north side of the baptistery after Ghiberti completed his second commission, known as the Gates of Paradise.)[6]

text: These north doors would serve as a votive offering to celebrate the sparing of Florence from relatively recent scourges such as the Black Death in 1348. Many artists competed for this commission and a jury selected seven semi-finalists. These finalists include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello and Jacopo della Quercia,[7] with 21-year-old Ghiberti winning the commission. At the time of judging, only Ghiberti and Brunelleschi were finalists, and when the judges could not decide, they were assigned to work together on them.  Brunelleschi's pride got in the way, and he went to Rome to study architecture leaving Ghiberti to work on the doors himself.  Ghiberti's autobiography, however, claimed that he had won, "without a single dissenting voice." The original designs of The Sacrifice of Isaac by Ghiberti and Brunelleschi are on display in the museum of the Bargello.

text: It took Ghiberti 21 years to complete these doors. These gilded bronze doors consist of twenty-eight panels, with twenty panels depicting the life of Christ from the New Testament. The eight lower panels show the four evangelists and the Church Fathers Saint Ambrose, Saint Jerome, Saint Gregory and Saint Augustine. The panels are surrounded by a framework of foliage in the door case and gilded busts of prophets and sibyls at the intersections of the panels. Originally installed on the east side, in place of Pisano's doors, they were later moved to the north side. They are described by the art historian Antonio Paolucci as "the most important event in the history of Florentine art in the first quarter of the 15th century".[8]

text: The bronze statues over the northern gate depict John the Baptist preaching to a Pharisee and Sadducee. They were sculpted by Francesco Rustici and are superior to any sculpture he did before. Rustici may have been aided in his design by Leonardo da Vinci, who assisted him in the choice of his tools.

text: Ghiberti was now widely recognized as a celebrity and the top artist in this field. He was showered with commissions, even from the pope. In 1425 he got a second commission, this time for the east doors of the baptistery, on which he and his workshop (including Michelozzo and Benozzo Gozzoli) toiled for 27 years, excelling themselves. These had ten panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament, and were in turn installed on the east side. The panels are large rectangles and are no longer embedded in the traditional Gothic quatrefoil, as in the previous doors. Ghiberti employed the recently discovered principles of perspective to give depth to his compositions. Each panel depicts more than one episode. In "The Story of Joseph" is portrayed the narrative scheme of Joseph Cast by His Brethren into the Well, Joseph Sold to the Merchants, The merchants delivering Joseph to the pharaoh, Joseph Interpreting the Pharaoh's dream, The Pharaoh Paying him Honour, Jacob Sends His Sons to Egypt and Joseph Recognizes His Brothers and Returns Home. According to Vasari's Lives, this panel was the most difficult and also the most beautiful. The figures are distributed in very low relief in a perspective space (a technique invented by Donatello and called rilievo schiacciato, which literally means "flattened relief".) Ghiberti uses different sculptural techniques, from incised lines to almost free-standing figure sculpture, within the panels, further accentuating the sense of space.

text: The panels are included in a richly decorated gilt framework of foliage and fruit, many statuettes of prophets and 24 busts. The two central busts are portraits of the artist and of his father, Bartolomeo Ghiberti.

text: Although the overall quality of the casting is exquisite, some mistakes have been made. For example, in panel 15 of the north doors (Flagellation) the casting of the second column in the front row has been mistakenly overlaid over an arm, so that one of the flagellators looks trapped in stone, with his hand sticking out of it.[9]

text: Michelangelo referred to these doors as fit to be the Gates of Paradise  (It. Porte del Paradiso), and they are still invariably referred to by this name. Giorgio Vasari described them a century later as "undeniably perfect in every way and must rank as the finest masterpiece ever created". Ghiberti himself said they were "the most singular work that I have ever made".

text: Preservation of original art[edit]

text: The Gates of Paradise situated in the Baptistery are a copy of the originals, substituted in 1990 to preserve the panels after over five hundred years of exposure and damage. To protect the original panels for the future, the panels are being restored and kept in a dry environment in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, the museum of the Duomo's art and sculpture. Some of the original panels are on view in the museum; the remaining original panels are being restored and cleaned using lasers in lieu of potentially damaging chemical baths. Three original panels made a US tour in 2007-2008, and then were reunited in a frame and hermetically sealed with the intention of making the panels appear in the context of the doors for public viewing.[10] One of the few copies made in the 1940s is installed in Grace Cathedral, in San Francisco; copies of the doors are also crafted for the Kazan Cathedral in Saint Petersburg, Russia and in 2017 for the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art[11] in Kansas City, Missouri.

text: Other contributors[edit]

text: The two porphyry columns on each side of the Gates of Paradise were plundered by the Pisans in Majorca and given in gratitude to the Florentines in 1114 for protecting their city against Lucca while the Pisan fleet was conquering the island.

text: The Gates of Paradise are surmounted by a (copy of a) group of statues portraying the Baptism of Christ by Andrea Sansovino. The  originals are in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. He then left to Rome to work on a new commission, leaving these statues unfinished. Work on these statues was continued much later in 1569 by Vincenzo Danti, a sculptor from the school of Michelangelo. At his death in 1576 the group was almost finished. The group was finally completed with the addition of an angel by Innocenzo Spinazzi in 1792.

text: Panels[edit]

text:
South doors (Andrea Pisano):  1. The angel announces to Zachariah. 2. Zachariah is struck mute 3. Visitation 4. Birth of the Baptist. 5. Zachariah writes the boy's name. 6. St John as boy in the desert. 7. He preaches to the Pharisees. 8. He announces Christ. 9. Baptism of his disciples.10. Baptism of Jesus.11. St John reprimands Herod Antipas.12. Incarceration of St. John.13. The disciples visit St. John.14. The disciples visit Jesus.15. Dance of Salome.16. Decapitation of St. John.17. Presentation of St John's head to Herod Antipas.18. Salome takes the head to Herodias19. Transport of the body of St. John.20. Burial. A. Hope B. Faith C. Charity D. Humility E. Fortitude F. Temperance G. Justice H. Prudence

 North doors (Lorenzo Ghiberti):  1. Annunciation. 2. Nativity. 3. Adoration of the magi. 4. Dispute with the doctors. 5. Baptism of Christ. 6. Temptation of Christ 7. Chasing the merchants from the Temple. 8. Jesus walking on water and saving Peter. 9. Transfiguration.10. Resurrection of Lazarus.11. Entry of Jesus in Jerusalem.12. Last Supper.13. Agony in the Garden.14. Christ captured.15. Flagellation.16. Jesus before Pilate.17. Ascent to Calvary.18. Crucifixion.19. Resurrection.20. Pentecost. A. St. John Evangelist. B. St. Matthew C. St. Luke D. St. Mark E. St. Ambrose F. St. Jerome G. St. Gregory H. St. Augustine.

 East doors, the Gates of Paradise (Lorenzo Ghiberti):  1. Adam and Eve 2. Cain and Abel 3. Noah 4. Abraham 5. Isaac with Esau and Jacob 6. Joseph 7. Moses 8. Joshua 9. David10. Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

text: Images from the doors[edit]

text: Reproduction examples in situ

text:
Gates of Paradise, Self-portrait bust of artist

Gates of Paradise, The Story of Joseph

Gates of Paradise, The Story of Abraham

Gates of Paradise, The Story of Adam and Eve

text: A copy of the Gates of Paradise in The Harris Museum, Preston, UK

text: Interior[edit]

text: The interior, which is rather dark, is divided into a lower part with columns and pilasters and an upper part with a walkway. The Florentines didn't spare any trouble or expense in decorating the baptistery. The interior walls are clad in dark green and white marble with inlaid geometrical patterns. The niches are separated by monolithic columns of Sardinian granite. The marble revetment of the interior was begun in the second half of the eleventh century.

text: The building contains the monumental tomb of Antipope John XXIII by  Donatello and Michelozzo Michelozzi.  A gilt statue, with the face turned to the spectator, reposes on a deathbed, supported by two lions, under a canopy of gilt drapery. He had bequeathed several relics and his great wealth to this baptistery. Such a monument with a baldachin was a first in the Renaissance.

text: The mosaic marble pavement was begun in 1209. The geometric patterns in the floor are complex. Some show us oriental zodiac motifs, such as the slab of the astrologer Strozzo Strozzi. There was an octagonal font, its base still clearly visible in the middle of the floor. This font, which once stood in the church of Santa Reparata, was installed here in 1128. Dante is said to have broken one of the lower basins while rescuing a child from drowning. The font was removed in 1571 on orders from the grand duke Francesco I de' Medici. The present, and much smaller, octagonal font stands near the south entrance. It was installed in 1658 but is probably much older. The reliefs are attributed to Andrea Pisano or his school.

text: Mosaic ceiling[edit]

text: The Baptistery is crowned by a magnificent mosaic ceiling. It was created over the course of a century in several different phases. The oldest parts are the upper zone of the dome with the hierarchy of angels (2,3), the Last Judgment on the three western segments of the dome (1) and the mosaic above the rectangular chapel on the western side. An inscription in the mosaic above the western rectangular chapel states the date of the beginning of the work and the name of the artist. According to this inscription, work on the mosaic began in 1225 by the Franciscan friar Jacobus. The artist was previously falsely identified to be the Roman mosaicist Jacopo Torriti, who was active around 1300. In accordance with his style, Jacobus was trained in Venice and strongly influenced by the Byzantine art of the early to mid-thirteenth century. Since the inscription also names Emperor Frederick II, the inscription and the completion of the first phase of mosaics must fall within the Ghibelline phase of Florentine rule between 1238 and 1250.[12]

text: The Last Judgment, created by Jacobus and his workshop, was the largest and most important spiritual image created in the Baptistery. It shows a gigantic majestic Christ and angels with the instruments of the passion at each side (formerly attributed to the painter Coppo di Marcovaldo), the rewards of the saved leaving their tomb in joy (at Christ's right hand), and the punishments of the damned (at Christ's left hand). This last part is particularly famous: evil doers are burnt by fire, roasted on spits, crushed with stones, bitten by snakes, gnawed and chewed by hideous beasts.

text: The other scenes on the lower zones of the five eastern sections of the dome depict different stories in horizontal tiers of mosaic : (starting at the top) stories from the Book of Genesis; stories of Joseph; stories of Mary and the Christ and finally in the lower tier : stories of Saint John the Baptist, patron saint of the church. A total of sixty pictures originated in the last decade of the thirteenth century. The key artists employed were Corso di Buono and Cimabue. It is the most important narrative cycle of Florentine art before Giotto.[12]

text: In the drum under the dome many heads of prophets are depicted. Some chapels of the gallery are also decorated with mosaic. These parts were executed around 1330 by mosaicists from Siena.


document_title: High School Musical 2

question_text: who does miley cyrus play in high school musical 2

root

text: High School Musical 2

text: Plot

text: The school year ends with everyone at East High School looking forward to summer vacation ("What Time Is It"). Troy Bolton is still dating Gabriella Montez, who decides to stay in Albuquerque with her mother. Troy eventually decides to look for a summer job to gain money for college.

tag: p

text: Sharpay and Ryan Evans plan to spend part of the summer at their family's country club, Lava Springs ("Fabulous"), but Sharpay's summer plans also include pursuing Troy, whom she has arranged to be hired at the club. However, Troy convinces the club's manager, Mr. Fulton, into hiring Gabriella and their close group of friends as well; including Taylor and Chad. Sharpay is enraged upon learning that Gabriella is working as one of the lifeguards, but is unable to get her fired. So she orders Fulton to give them difficult tasks so they would be best to quit. Fulton attempts to intimidate the group, but Troy rebuilds their confidence and convinces them that they can persevere ("Work This Out").

text: Troy continues to worry about funding for college. Sharpay senses his need and arranges for Troy to be promoted, hoping that this will convince him to sing with her at the talent show. Meanwhile, Kelsi writes a ballad for Troy and Gabriella. Troy agrees to sing with his friends in the show ("You Are The Music In Me"), not knowing that Sharpay is vying for his attention. (In the extended version, Sharpay and Ryan trap Troy as he prepares for a date with Gabriella, and perform their potential show-stopper ("Humuhumunukunukuapua'a").)

text: Ryan realizes he does not mean much to Sharpay anymore, as she is ready to blow her brother aside for the opportunity to perform with Troy. This leads to tension between the twin siblings and Ryan angrily informs Sharpay that he will no longer obey her orders. Taylor and Gabriella invite Ryan to the baseball game, where he persuades the Wildcats to take part in the talent show ("I Don't Dance").

text: Troy and Gabriella's relationship is strained when Troy sees Ryan with Gabriella, sparking jealousy. Owing to a "promise" from Troy, he and Sharpay practice their song for the Midsummer Night's Talent Show ("You Are The Music In Me (Sharpay Version)").

text: When Sharpay discovers that Ryan and the Wildcats are putting together their own performance in the show, she orders Mr. Fulton to ban all junior staff members from performing. Gabriella angrily confronts Sharpay about her interference and quits her job at Lava Springs. Troy overhears the exchange and tries to persuade Gabriella to change her mind. Gabriella expresses her loss of trust with Troy ("Gotta Go My Own Way") and leaves Lava Springs, and gives him the necklace back. It also seems that they broke up.

text: Troy returns to work the next day to find that his friends refuse to talk to him. Kelsi silently shows Troy the notice from Mr. Fulton, causing Troy to question his own motivations ("Bet On It"). He begins to reconcile with Chad and his other friends. Then Troy confronts Sharpay, informing her that he will not sing with her. The Wildcats and Chad forgive Troy for his absence and convince him to sing in the talent show, which he does only under the condition that they are all allowed to perform as well.

text: At Sharpay's supposed instruction, Ryan gives Troy a new song to learn moments before the show. As Troy goes onstage, he asks Sharpay why she switched the song, and Sharpay is shocked to find that her brother tricked her. Troy sings the song ("Everyday") alone until Gabriella surprisingly joins him onstage. In the end, Sharpay proudly presents her brother, Ryan, with the award for the talent show. After the talent show, all the Wildcats go to the golf course to enjoy the fireworks.

text: Everyone celebrates the end of the summer with a pool party ("All for One") which features a cameo appearance by Miley Cyrus.

text: Cast

text:
Troy Bolton (Zac Efron) is Gabriella's boyfriend, the most popular male student at East High School and the captain of the varsity basketball team. For this movie, Efron did all of his own singing, whereas, in the first High School Musical, his singing was blended with singer Drew Seeley's voice.[citation needed]
Gabriella Montez (Vanessa Hudgens) is Troy's girlfriend who is relieved that she will still be attending East High. She is the lifeguard at the Lava Springs Country Club until Sharpay's actions cause her to quit and break up with Troy.
Ryan Evans (Lucas Grabeel) is Sharpay's twin brother who lives in the shadow of his primadonna sister.
Sharpay Evans (Ashley Tisdale) is Ryan's primadonna twin sister determined to win the talent show while also vying for Troy's attention and doing anything to help him.
Chad Danforth (Corbin Bleu) is Troy's best friend and is very good friends with Jason and Zeke.
Taylor McKessie (Monique Coleman) is Gabriella's best friend. She is also friends with Kelsi Nielsen and Martha Cox and is dating Chad. She is captain of the school Scholastic Decathlon team. She has a summer job at Lava Springs as an Activities Coordinator.
Thomas Fulton (Mark L. Taylor) is the manager of Lava Springs.
Coach Jack Bolton (Bart Johnson) is Troy's father and East High's basketball coach.
Darby Evans (Jessica Tuck) is Sharpay and Ryan's mother and president of the Lava Springs Board.
Vance Evans (Robert Curtis Brown) is Sharpay and Ryan's father.
Ms. Darbus (Alyson Reed) is the stern drama teacher at East High.
Zeke Baylor (Chris Warren Jr.) is friends with Troy and Chad and plays for the basketball team.
Jason Cross (Ryne Sanborn) is friends with Troy, Chad, and Zeke and plays on the basketball team.
Kelsi Nielsen (Olesya Rulin) is friends with Gabriella and Taylor and a pianist and composer.
Martha Cox (Kaycee Stroh) is friends with Gabriella, Kelsi, and Taylor.
Jackie (Tanya Chisholm) is one of Sharpay’s friends (a.k.a. The Sharpettes).
Lucille Bolton (Leslie Wing Pomeroy) is Troy's mother.
Lea (Kelli Baker) is another Sharpette.
Emma (McCall Clark) is another Sharpette.
Unknown Wildcats player (Shane Harper) is the principal dancer.
Girl At Pool (Miley Cyrus) is an unknown dancer at the end (cameo).

tag: ul

text: Release

text: The premiere of High School Musical 2 aired at 8 PM Eastern Time on August 17, 2007, and included a telecast hosted by Kenny Ortega and the movie's cast. On Saturday, August 18, Disney Channel aired "High School Musical 2: Wildcat Chat", in which the stars of the movie answered questions posed by fans. On August 19, Disney aired a sing-along version of the movie.[6] On May 23, DirecTV announced that they would be hosting an exclusive high-definition airing of the movie a few days after the August 17 premiere on its network-only channel, The 101.[7]

text: Disney Channel aired a weekly program called Road to High School Musical 2, beginning on June 8, 2007, and leading up to the premiere of High School Musical 2 in August. The show offered viewers a behind-the-scenes look into the production of the movie. The world premiere of the opening number "What Time Is It" was on Radio Disney May 25, 2007,[8] and similarly "You Are The Music In Me" premiered on July 13, 2007.[9]

text: On December 11, 2007, the movie was released on DVD and Blu-ray titled High School Musical 2: Extended Edition. On September 15, 2008, a 2-disc special edition of the movie was released titled High School Musical 2: Deluxe Dance Edition.

text: Songs

text:
Song
Chiefly sung by
Other singers
Scene

What Time Is It?
Troy, Gabriella, Sharpay, Ryan, Chad, Taylor
Wildcats
East High's Classroom, Hallways, Cafeteria

What Time Is It (Reprise)
Troy, Gabriella, Sharpay, Ryan, Chad, Taylor
Wildcats
East High's School Grounds

Fabulous
Sharpay
Ryan & Sharpettes
Lava Springs Pool

Work This Out
Troy, Gabriella, Chad, Taylor, Kelsi, Zeke, Martha, Jason
Wildcats and Kitchen Workers
Lava Springs Kitchen

You Are the Music in Me
Troy and Gabriella
Kelsi and Wildcats
Lava Springs Dining Room

Humuhumunukunukuapua'a
Sharpay and Ryan
Sharpettes
Lava Springs Backstage Room

I Don't Dance
Chad and Ryan
Baseball Players, Wildcats, and Company
Lava Springs Baseball Field

You Are the Music in Me (Reprise)
Sharpay and Troy
Sharpettes
Lava Springs Stage

Gotta Go My Own Way
Gabriella
Troy
Lava Springs Pool, Locker Room, Grounds

Bet On It
Troy
None
Lava Springs Golf Course

Everyday
Troy and Gabriella
Wildcats and Company
Lava Springs Stage

All for One
Troy, Gabriella, Sharpay, Ryan, Chad, Taylor
Kelsi, Zeke, Martha, Jason, Wildcats, Company
Lava Springs Pool

tag: table

text: Reception

text: The first broadcast of the film on August 17, 2007 broke records, receiving 17.2 million viewers.[4] This number made it, at the time, the most-watched basic-cable telecast in history (the previous record was held by an edition of ESPN's Monday Night Football between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys on October 23, 2006, which attracted 16 million viewers), the most-watched made-for-cable movie ever (the previous record was held by TNT's January 21, 2001 airing of Crossfire Trail, which brought in 12.5 million viewers), and the largest audience of any program on broadcast or cable in the 2007 summer television season, along with Friday nights for the past five years. Ratings for the second showing of the movie fell to 8.4 million, and the third showing fell to 7.4 million, totaling the premiere weekend to 33.04 million viewers.[10]

text: In Latin America, the premiere of High School Musical 2 was seen by 3.3 million viewers in the north region. The film was the most-watched in its schedule, among all cable channels, and produced the highest rating of the channel, surpassing all original films of Disney Channel. Among other records, the premiere in Argentina surpassed the debut of High School Musical the last year, in a 107 percent, while in Brazil the sequel reached 208 percent, and Mexico did so with 61 percent.[11] In the United Kingdom, the movie became Disney Channel UK's most viewed program ever, totaling 1.2 million viewers in its first showing.[12]

text: The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics, gaining a score of 57% on Rotten Tomatoes while gaining a score of 72/100 at Metacritic.[13][14] USA Today's Robert Bianco awarded the film three stars out of four, saying High School Musical 2 was "sweet, smart, bursting with talent and energy, and awash in innocence".[15] While critics enjoyed the film, they noted that the timing of the movie's premiere seemed odd, premiering just when school was about to start up again, while the movie's plot involved the gang going on summer vacation.[16] High School Musical 2 won the "So Hot Right Now" award at the Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards 2007, in which High School Musical castmate Zac Efron hosted with The Veronicas.

text: High School Musical 2: On Stage!

text: Like the original High School Musical, the sequel has been adapted into two different theatrical productions: a one-act, 70-minute version and a two-act full-length production. This stage production includes the song "Hummuhummunukunukuapua'a" that was left out of the original movie but included in the DVD. Through Music Theater International, Disney Theatrical began licensing the theatrical rights in October 2008. MTI had originally recruited 7 schools to serve as tests for the new full-length adaptation, but due to complications with multiple drafts of both the script and the score, all but two schools were forced to drop out of the pilot program.

text:
On May 18, 2008, Woodlands High School became the first school to produce High School Musical 2.
From July 17-August 3, 2008, Harrell Theatre, in Collierville, Tennessee, was the first community theatre to perform the production, which featured both a senior cast and a junior cast.
From January 15 - February 15, 2009, the West Coast premiere production was presented by Pacific Repertory Theatre's School of Dramatic Arts. The production was directed by PacRep founderStephen Moorer, who previously directed the California premiere of the first High School Musical.[17]
From 6–18 April 2009, the UK Premiere was performed by StageDaze Theatre Company in Cardiff.[18]

text: Awards

text:
Year

Award

Category

Result

2007

American Music Award

Favorite Soundtrack(High School Musical 2 (soundtrack))

Won

Bravo Magazine Award

Bravo Otto for TV Star – Male(Zac Efron)

Won

CMA Wild and Young Awards

Best Single International(You Are the Music in Me by Zac Efron and Vanessa Hudgens and written by Jamie Houston)

Won

Family Television Awards

Best Actor(Zac Efron)

Won

Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards

Fave Movie Star(Zac Efron)

Won

So Hot Right Now!

Won

Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards

Best TV Actress(Ashley Tisdale)

Won

Best TV Actor(Zac Efron)

Nominated

People's Choice Awards

Favorite Star Under 35(Zac Efron)

Won

Teen Choice Awards

Choice TV: Movie

Won

2008

ALMA Award

Outstanding Director of a Made–for–TV Movie(Kenny Ortega)

Won

ASTRA Awards

Favourite International Program

Won

Favourite International Personality or Actor(Zac Efron)

Nominated

Cinema Audio Society Awards

Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for Television Movies and Miniseries(Douglas Cameron, Terry O'Bright and Keith Rogers)

Nominated

Directors Guild of America Award

Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Children's Program(Kenny Ortega)

Nominated

Golden Reel Award

Best Sound Editing – Music for Long Form Television(Michael Dittrick and Amber Funk)

Won

Image Award

Outstanding Children's Program

Nominated

PGA Awards

Outstanding Producer for Long–Form Television(Bill Borden and Barry Rosenbush)

Nominated

Primetime Emmy Award

Outstanding Choreography(Kenny Ortega, Bonnie Story and Charles Klapow)

Nominated

Outstanding Children's Program(Don Schain, Bill Borden and Barry Rosenbush)

Nominated

Television Critics Association Awards

Outstanding Achievement in Children's Programming

Nominated


document_title: Sensory neuron

question_text: where are the sensory neurons that detect taste

text: Sensory neuron

text: Types and function[edit]

text: External[edit]

text: Smell[edit]

text: The sensory neurons involved in smell are called olfactory receptor neurons. These receptor neurons contain receptors, called olfactory receptors, that are activated by the odor molecules in the air. The perception of these odor molecules is called a scent.

text: Taste[edit]

text: Similarly to olfactory receptor neurons, taste receptors (gustatory receptors) in taste buds interact with chemicals in food to produce an action potential.

text: Vision[edit]

text: Photoreceptor cells are capable of phototransduction, a process which converts light (electromagnetic radiation) into electrical signals. These signals are refined and controlled by the interactions with other types of neurons in the retina.

text: The five basic classes of neurons within the retina are photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells.

text: The basic circuitry of the retina incorporates a three-neuron chain consisting of the photoreceptor (either a rod or cone), bipolar cell, and the ganglion cell.

text: The first action potential occurs in the retinal ganglion cell. This pathway is the most direct way for transmitting visual information to the brain.

text: There are three primary types of photoreceptors: Cones are photoreceptors that respond significantly to color.  In humans the three different types of cones correspond with a primary response to short wavelength (blue), medium wavelength (green), and long wavelength (yellow/red).[2] Rods are photoreceptors that are very sensitive to the intensity of light, allowing for vision in dim lighting.  The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal.  In humans, rods outnumber cones by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000:1.[2] Retinal ganglion cells are involved in the sympathetic response. Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1-2% are believed to be photosensitive.[3]

text: Problems and decay of sensory neurons associated with vision lead to disorders such as:

text:
Macular degeneration – degeneration of the central visual field due to either cellular debris or blood vessels accumulating between the retina and the choroid, thereby disturbing and/or destroying the complex interplay of neurons that are present there.[4]
Glaucoma – loss of retinal ganglion cells which causes some loss of vision to blindness.[5]
Diabetic retinopathy – poor blood sugar control due to diabetes damages the tiny blood vessels in the retina.[6]

text: Auditory[edit]

text: The auditory system is responsible for converting pressure waves generated by vibrating air molecules or sound into signals that can be interpreted by the brain.

text: This mechanoelectrical transduction is mediated with hair cells within the ear. Depending on the movement, the hair cell can either hyperpolarize or depolarize. When the movement is towards the tallest stereocilia, the Na+ cation channels open allowing Na+ to flow into cell and the resulting depolarization causes the Ca++ channels to open, thus releasing its neurotransmitter into the afferent auditory nerve. There are two types of hair cells: inner and outer. The inner hair cells are the sensory receptors .[7]

text: Problems with sensory neurons associated with the auditory system leads to disorders such as:

text:
Auditory processing disorder – Auditory information in the brain is processed in an abnormal way. Patients with auditory processing disorder can usually gain the information normally, but their brain cannot process it properly, leading to hearing disability.[8]
Auditory verbal agnosia – Comprehension of speech is lost but hearing, speaking, reading, and writing ability is retained. This is caused by damage to the posterior superior temporal lobes, again not allowing the brain to process auditory input correctly.[9]

text: Temperature[edit]

text:
Thermoreceptors are sensory receptors, which respond to varying [temperature]s. While the mechanisms through which these receptors operate is unclear, recent discoveries have shown that mammals have at least two distinct types of thermoreceptors.[10]
The bulboid corpuscle, is a cutaneous receptor a cold-sensitive receptor, that detects cold temperatures. The other type is a warmth-sensitive receptor.

text: Mechanoreceptors[edit]

text: Mechanoreceptors are sensory receptors which respond to mechanical forces, such as pressure or distortion.[11]

text: Specialized sensory receptor cells called mechanoreceptors often encapsulate afferent fibers to help tune the afferent fibers to the different types of somatic stimulation. Mechanoreceptors also help lower thresholds for action potential generation in afferent fibers and thus make them more likely to fire in the presence of sensory stimulation.[12]

text: Some types of mechanoreceptors fire action potentials when their membranes are physically stretched.

text: Proprioceptors are another type of mechanoreceptors which literally means "receptors for self". These receptors provide spatial information about limbs and other body parts.[13]

text: Nociceptors are responsible for processing pain and temperature changes. The burning pain and irritation experienced after eating a chili pepper (due to its main ingredient, capsaicin), the cold sensation experienced after ingesting a chemical such as menthol or icillin, as well as the common sensation of pain are all a result of neurons with these receptors.[14]

text: Problems with mechanoreceptors lead to disorders such as:

text:
Neuropathic pain - a severe pain condition resulting from a damaged sensory nerve [14]
Hyperalgesia - an increased sensitivity to pain caused by sensory ion channel, TRPM8, which is typically responds to temperatures between 23 and 26 degrees, and provides the cooling sensation associated with menthol and icillin [14]
Phantom limb syndrome - a sensory system disorder where pain or movement is experienced in a limb that does not exist [15]

text: Internal[edit]

text: Internal receptors that respond to changes inside the body are known as interoceptors.

text: Blood[edit]

text: The aortic bodies and carotid bodies contain clusters of glomus cells – peripheral chemoreceptors that detect changes in chemical properties in the blood such as oxygen concentration.[16] These receptors are polymodal responding to a number of different stimuli.

text: Nociceptors[edit]

text: Nociceptors respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending signals to the spinal cord and brain. This process, called nociception, usually causes the perception of pain.[17] They are found in internal organs as well as on the surface of the body. Nociceptors detect different kinds of damaging stimuli or actual damage. Those that only respond when tissues are damaged are known as "sleeping" or "silent" nociceptors.

text:
Thermal nociceptors are activated by noxious heat or cold at various temperatures.
Mechanical nociceptors respond to excess pressure or mechanical deformation.
Chemical nociceptors respond to a wide variety of chemicals, some of which are signs of tissue damage. They are involved in the detection of some spices in food.

text: Connection with the central nervous system[edit]

text: Information coming from the sensory neurons in the head enters the central nervous system (CNS) through cranial nerves. Information from the sensory neurons below the head enters the spinal cord and passes towards the brain through the 31 spinal nerves.[18] The sensory information traveling through the spinal cord follows well-defined pathways. The nervous system codes the differences among the sensations in terms of which cells are active.

text: Classification[edit]

text: Adequate stimulus[edit]

text: A sensory receptor's adequate stimulus is the stimulus modality for which it possesses the adequate sensory transduction apparatus. Adequate stimulus can be used to classify sensory receptors:

text:
Baroreceptors respond to pressure in blood vessels
Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli
Electromagnetic radiation receptors respond to electromagnetic radiation[19]
Infrared receptors respond to infrared radiation
Photoreceptors respond to visible light
Ultraviolet receptors respond to ultraviolet radiation[citation needed]
Electroreceptors respond to electric fields
Ampullae of Lorenzini respond to electric fields, salinity,  and to temperature, but function primarily as electroreceptors
Hydroreceptors respond to changes in humidity
Magnetoreceptors respond to magnetic fields
Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stress or mechanical strain
Nociceptors respond to damage, or threat of damage, to body tissues, leading (often but not always) to pain perception
Osmoreceptors respond to the osmolarity of fluids (such as in the hypothalamus)
Proprioceptors provide the sense of position
Thermoreceptors respond to temperature, either heat, cold or both

text: Location[edit]

text: Sensory receptors can be classified by location:

text:
Cutaneous receptors are sensory receptors found in the dermis or epidermis.[20]
Muscle spindles contain mechanoreceptors that detect stretch in muscles.

text: Morphology[edit]

text: Somatic sensory receptors near the surface of the skin can usually be divided into two groups based on morphology:

text:
Free nerve endings characterize the nociceptors and thermoreceptors and are called thus because the terminal branches of the neuron are unmyelinated and spread throughout the dermis and epidermis.
Encapsulated receptors consist of the remaining types of cutaneous receptors.  Encapsulation exists for specialized functioning.

text: Rate of adaptation[edit]

text:
A tonic receptor is a sensory receptor that adapts slowly to a stimulus[21] and continues to produce action potentials over the duration of the stimulus.[22] In this way it conveys information about the duration of the stimulus. Some tonic receptors are permanently active and indicate a background level. Examples of such tonic receptors are pain receptors, joint capsule, and muscle spindle.[23]
A phasic receptor is a sensory receptor that adapts rapidly to a stimulus. The response of the cell diminishes very quickly and then stops.[24]It does not provide information on the duration of the stimulus;[22] instead some of them convey information on rapid changes in stimulus intensity and rate.[23] An example of a phasic receptor is the Pacinian corpuscle.

text: Drugs[edit]

text: There are many drugs currently on the market that are used to manipulate or treat sensory system disorders. For instance, Gabapentin is a drug that is used to treat neuropathic pain by interacting with one of the voltage-dependent calcium channels present on non-receptive neurons.[14] Some drugs may be used to combat other health problems, but can have unintended side effects on the sensory system. Ototoxic drugs are drugs which affect the cochlea through the use of  a toxin like aminoglycoside antibiotics, which poison hair cells. Through the use of these toxins, the K+ pumping hair cells cease their function. Thus, the energy generated by the endocochlear potential which drives the auditory signal transduction process is lost, leading to hearing loss.[25]

text: Neuroplasticity[edit]

text: Ever since scientists observed cortical remapping in the brain of Taub's Silver Spring monkeys, there has been a lot of research into sensory system plasticity. Huge strides have been made in treating disorders of the sensory system. Techniques such as constraint-induced movement therapy developed by Taub have helped patients with paralyzed limbs regain use of their limbs by forcing the sensory system to grow new neural pathways.[26] Phantom limb syndrome is a sensory system disorder in which amputees perceive that their amputated limb still exists and they may still be experiencing pain in it. The mirror box developed by V.S. Ramachandran, has enabled patients with phantom limb syndrome to relieve the perception of paralyzed or painful phantom limbs. It is a simple device which uses a mirror in a box to create an illusion in which the sensory system perceives that it is seeing two hands instead of one, therefore allowing the sensory system to control the "phantom limb". By doing this, the sensory system can gradually get acclimated to the amputated limb, and thus alleviate this syndrome.[27]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Hydrodynamic reception is a form of mechanoreception used in a range of animal species.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Illustration of Tactile Receptors in the Skin

Illustration of Lamellated Corpuscle

Illustration of Ruffini Corpuscle

Illustration of Skin Merkel Cell

Illustration of Tactile Corpuscle

Illustration of Root Hair Plexus

Illustration of Free Nerve Endings


document_title: Hecate

question_text: what was the roman name for the goddess hecate

question_tokens: what was the roman name for the goddess hecate

text: Hecate

text: Name and origin[edit]

text: The etymology of the name Hecate (Ἑκάτη, Hekátē) is not known. Suggested derivations include:

text:
From the Greek word for 'willing' (ἑκών).[9]
From Ἑκατός Hekatos, an obscure epithet of Apollo.[8] This has been translated as "she that operates from afar", "she that removes or drives off",[10] "the far reaching one" or "the far-darter".[11]
R. S. P. Beekes rejected a Greek etymology and suggested a Pre-Greek origin.[12]
The name of the Egyptian goddess of childbirth, Heqet, has been compared to Hecate.[13]

text: In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced disyllabically (as /ˈhɛkɪt/) and sometimes spelled Hecat. It remained common practice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final e, well into the 19th century.[citation needed]

text: The spelling Hecat is due to Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses,[14] and this spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the Elizabethan-Jacobean period.[15] Webster's Dictionary of 1866 particularly credits the influence of Shakespeare for the then-predominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name.[16]

text: Hecate may have originated among the Carians of Anatolia, where variants of her name are found as names given to children. Hecate was also worshipped in the ancient city of Colchis. William Berg observes, "Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving hekat- refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens."[17] In particular, there is some evidence that she might be derived from the local sun goddesses (see also Arinna), based on similar attributes.[18] She also closely parallels the Roman goddess Trivia, with whom she was identified in Rome.

text: Her most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs.[4] Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city's patroness.[19] In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a governess of liminal regions (particularly gates) and the wilderness.

text: Other names and epithets[edit]

text:
Apotropaia (that turns away/protects)[20]
Chthonia (of the earth/underworld)[21]
Enodia (on the way)[22]
Klêidouchos (holding the keys)[23]
Kourotrophos (nurse of children)[23]
Melinoe[24]
Phosphoros, Lampadephoros (bringing or bearing light)[23]
Propolos (who serves/attends)[23]
Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate)[25]
Soteria (savior)[26]
Trimorphe (three-formed)[23]
Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads)[23]
Trivia (mythology) (Roman form)

text: As Hecate Phosphorus (Venus) she is said to have lit the sky during the Siege of Philip II in 340, revealing the attack to its inhabitants. The Byzantines dedicated a statue to her as the "lamp carrier."[27]

text: Representations[edit]

text:
Greek deities
series

Primordial deities
Titans and Twelve Olympians
Mycenaean deities
Aquatic deities
Personified concepts
Other deities

Chthonic deities

Angelos
Demeter
Erinyes
Gaia
Hades
Hecate
Melinoe
Persephone
Triptolemus
Trophonius

v
t
e

text: The earliest Greek depictions of Hecate were not three-formed. Farnell states: "The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate is almost as full as that of to express her manifold and mystic nature."[28]

text: The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the main historical value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier form, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion.[28]

text: The 2nd-century travel writer Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alkamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BCE[3] which was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens. Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art resisted representing her with three faces: a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BCE (illustration, left), shows three single images against a column; round the column of Hecate dance the Charites. Some classical portrayals show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch, a key, serpents, daggers and numerous other items.[29] Depictions of both a single form Hekate and triple formed, as well as occasional four headed descriptions continued throughout her history.

text: In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in magical papyri of Late Antiquity she is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar.[30] Hecate's triplicity is elsewhere expressed in a more Hellenic fashion in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon." (Description of Greece 2.22.7)

text: In the Argonautica, a 3rd-century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material,[31] Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of an ewe, sacrificing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the pit as a holocaust. He is told to sweeten the offering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs.[32] All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity.

text: A 4th-century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner.[33] It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. She is commonly attended by a dog or dogs, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Images of her attended by a dog[34] are also found at times when she is shown as in her role as mother goddess with child, and when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Kybele in reliefs.[35]

text: Mythology[edit]

text: Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess.

text: The first literature mentioning Hecate is the Theogony by Hesiod:

text: And she conceived and bore Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea.[36]

text: According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things:

text: Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother's only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honours.[37]

text: Hesiod emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, a star-goddess who was the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon.

text: Hesiod's inclusion and praise of Hecate in the Theogony has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have been the exception. One theory is that Hesiod's original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers.[38] Another theory is that Hekate was mainly a household god and humble household worship could have been more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple worship.[39] In Athens Hecate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Hestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as they were the main gods of the household.[5][40] However, it is clear that the special position given to Hecate by Zeus is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on coins depicting Hecate on the hand of Zeus[41] as highlighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and Rankine.[42]

text: Hecate possibly originated among the Carians of Anatolia,[4] the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested,[43] and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled[44] cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that "Hecate must have been a Greek goddess."[45] The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date.[46]

text: If Hecate's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage, or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan who aided Zeus in the battle of gods and Titans, she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians.[citation needed]

text: One surviving group of stories suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis.[38] Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigeneia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal's suicide. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi, officiated.[47]

text: Hecate also came to be associated with ghosts, infernal spirits, the dead and sorcery. Shrines to Hecate were placed at doorways to both homes and cities with the belief that it would protect from restless dead and other spirits. Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils.[48]

text: A medieval commentator has suggested a link connecting the word "jinx" with Hecate: "The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus [...] speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a iunx (hence "jinx"), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate."[49]

text: Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the Chaldean Oracles (2nd-3rd century CE),[50] where she is associated in fragment 194 with a strophalos (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) "Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate."[51] This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus.[52]

text: Variations in interpretations of Hecate's role or roles can be traced in 5th-century Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres.

text: In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hecate is called the "tender-hearted", a euphemism perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the sun, Helios. Subsequently she became Persephone's companion on her yearly journey to and from the realms of Hades; serving as a psychopomp. Because of this association, Hecate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone.[1]

text: The modern understanding of Hecate has been strongly influenced by syncretic Hellenistic interpretations. Many of the attributes she was assigned in this period appear to have an older basis. For example, in the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the 'she-dog' or 'bitch', and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. However, her association with dogs predates the conquests of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Hellenistic world. When Philip II laid siege to Byzantium she had already been associated with dogs for some time; the light in the sky and the barking of dogs that warned the citizens of a night time attack, saving the city, were attributed to Hecate Lampadephoros (the tale is preserved in the Suda). In gratitude the Byzantines erected a statue in her honor.[53]

text: As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla.[54]

text: Hecate was generally represented as three-formed, which probably has some connection with the appearance of the full moon, half moon, and new moon.[55] Triple Hecate was the goddess of the moon with three forms: Selene the Moon in heaven, Artemis the Huntress on earth, and Persephone the Destroyer in the underworld.[56][57][58] Although associated with other moon goddesses such as Selene, she ruled over three kingdoms: the earth, the sea, and the sky. She had the power to create or hold back storms, which influenced her patronage of shepherds and sailors.[59]

text: Animals[edit]

text: Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. "In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament."[60] The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens.[8]

text: It has been claimed that her association with dogs is "suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Although in later times Hecate's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog's connection with birth than the dog's underworld associations."[61] The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth. The friendly looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hekabe, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar.[62]

text: Another metamorphosis myth explains why the polecat is also associated with Hecate. From Antoninus Liberalis: "At Thebes Proitos had a daughter Galinthias. This maiden was playmate and companion of Alkmene, daughter of Elektryon. As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alkmene, the Moirai (Fates) and Eileithyia (Birth-Goddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alkmene in continuous birth pangs. They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed. Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alkmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eleithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alkmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished.

text: At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms. Alkmene’s pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born. The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods. They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating. She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat. Hekate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself."[63]

text: Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat: ""I have heard that the polecat was once a human being. It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (Pharmakis); that she was extremely incontinent, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires. Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature. May the goddess be gracious to me : fables and their telling I leave to others."[64]

text: Athenaeus (writing in the 1st or 2nd century BCE, and drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens) notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, "on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is trimorphos, of a triple form". The Greek word for mullet was trigle and later trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse "O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets".[65] In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, "The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things,' and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep."[66] At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate Triglathena, to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice.[67] After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes, "Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire. The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change."[68]

text: The frog, which was also the symbol of the similarly-named Egyptian goddess Heqet,[69] has also become sacred to Hecate in modern Pagan literature, possibly due in part to its ability to cross between two elements.[70]

text: In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse.[71]

text: Plants[edit]

text: Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, "I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs."[72]

text: The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles' lost play The Root Diggers (or The Root Cutters), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak.[73]

text: The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate.

text: "Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate... Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today, taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, toxos, which is hauntingly similar to toxon, their word for bow and toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison."[74]

text: Hecate was said to favor offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult.[75] She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities.[76]

text: A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate.[77] These include aconite (also called hecateis),[78] belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic.[79]

text: Places[edit]

text: Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal" goddess. "Hecate mediated between regimes—Olympian and Titan—but also between mortal and divine spheres."[81] This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: Apotropaia (that turns away/protects); Enodia (on the way); Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate); Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads); Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc.

text: As a goddess expected to avert harmful or destructive spirits from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also refuse to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals.[82]

text: It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate's identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia's very name ("In-the-Road") suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants.[83]

text: This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. "In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions."[84] This suggests that Hecate's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans.[85]

text: Goddess of the crossroads[edit]

text: Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three-way crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates).[8] In this form she came to be known as the goddess Trivia ("the three ways") in Roman mythology. In what appears to be a 7th-century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his Sermo warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting "devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads",[86] and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...".[87]

text: Like Hecate, "[t]he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it."[88]

text: Festivals[edit]

text: Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her.

text: The Deipnon[edit]

text: The Athenian Greeks honored Hekate during the Deipnon. In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day. Hekate's Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hekate and the restless dead once a lunar month[89] during the new moon. The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia,[90] when the first sliver of moon is visible, and then the Agathos Daimon the day after that.

text: The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honor Hekate and to placate the souls in her wake who “longed for vengeance.”[91] A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hekate, causing her to withhold her favor from them. The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home[92] 2) an expiation sacrifice,[93] and 3) purification of the household.[94]

text: Cross-cultural parallels[edit]

text: The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of Isis in Egyptian myth. Lucius Apuleius (c. 123—170 CE) in his work The Golden Ass associates Hecate with Isis:

text: “I am she that is the natural mother of all things, mistress and governess of all the elements, the initial progeny of worlds, chief of powers divine, Queen of heaven, the principal of the Gods celestial, the light of the goddesses: at my will the planets of the air, the wholesome winds of the Seas, and the silences of hell be disposed; my name, my divinity is adored throughout all the world in divers manners, in variable customs and in many names, [...] Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis. [...]”[95]

text: In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic and late Babylonian ("Chaldean") elements, Hecate was identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography. In the Michigan magical papyrus (inv. 7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE, Hecate Ereschigal is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife.[96]

text: Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with Artemis (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies)[97]

text: Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead. They played a similar symbolic role in ancient China, where dogs were conceived as representative of the household sphere, and as protective spirits appropriate when transcending geographic and spatial boundaries. Dogs were also sacrificed to the road. As Roel Sterckx observes, "The use of dog sacrifices at the gates and doors of the living and the dead as well as its use in travel sacrifices suggest that dogs were perceived as daemonic animals operating in the liminal or transitory realm between the domestic and the unknown, danger-stricken outside world".[98]

text: This can be compared to Pausanias' report that in the Ionian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as "the wayside goddess", and Plutarch's observation that in Boeotia dogs were killed in purificatory rites. Dogs, with puppies often mentioned, were offered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess.[99]

text: Survival in pre-modern folklore[edit]

text: Strmiska notes that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an "emerging legend complex" associated with gatherings of women, the moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans."[100] This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807[101] and is reflected in numerous etymological claims by lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, deriving "hag" and/or "hex" from Hecate by way of haegtesse (Anglo-Saxon) and hagazussa (Old High German).[102] Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority[103] since being refuted by Grimm, who was skeptical of theories proposing non-Germanic origins for German folklore traditions.[104]

text: Modern etymology reconstructs Proto-Germanic *hagatusjon- from haegtesse and hagazussa;[105] the first element is probably cognate with hedge, which derives from PIE *kagh- "hedge, enclosure",[106] and the second perhaps from *dhewes- "fly about, be smoke, vanish."[105]

text: Modern expressions[edit]

text: Hecate is now firmly established as a figure in Neopaganism,[107] which draws heavily on folkloric traditions[108] associating Hecate with 'The Wild Hunt',[109] witches, hedges and 'hedge-riding',[110] and other themes that parallel, but are not explicitly attested in, Classical sources.

text: Hecate is worshiped by people who have reconstructed and revived the indigenous polytheist religion of Greece, Hellenismos, such as groups like Hellenion (Hellenion is a 501c3 religious organization based in the USA dedicated to reviving the religions indigenous to Greece)[111] and YSEE. The Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes is an umbrella group based in Greece that is a legally recognized Non Profit Organization (NPO) and was "founded in June of 1997 aiming to the morale and physical protection and restoration of the Polytheistic, Ethnic Hellenic religion, tradition and way of life in the "modern" Greek Society from which is oppressed due to its institutional intolerance and theocracy".[citation needed]

text: Shakespeare mentions Hecate both before the turn of the 16th century (A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1594-96), and just after, in Macbeth (1605): specifically, in the title character's "dagger" soliloquy: "Witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate's offerings..."[112] Hecate also appears as a main character in the British theater company Punchdrunk's New York-based site-specific theatre work, Sleep No More, an adaptation of Macbeth. The character functions as a villain of the work, silently conducting the three witches who prophesy Macbeth's rise to power, and leading certain audience members into private interactions and stories in her small grotto. Many of Hecate's dominions are represented in various ways throughout the show, such as one of her familiars behaving in a dog-like manner around her; her grotto being connected to an herb-filled apothecary space; and watching from the shadows as the witches give their prophecies to Macbeth.

text: Catweazle often calls upon Hecate in the British television series of the same name.

text: Hecate is also one of the "patron" goddesses of many Wiccans, who in some traditions identify her with the Triple Goddess' aspect of the "Crone". In other circles Wiccan witches associate her with the "Maiden", or the "Mother" aspects as well, for Hecate has three faces, or phases. Her role as a tripartite goddess, which many modern-day Wiccans associate with the concept of "the Maiden, the Mother and the Crone",[113] was made popular in modern times by writers such as Robert Graves in The White Goddess, and many others, such as the 20th century occultist and author, Aleister Crowley. Historical depictions and descriptions show her facing in three different directions, a clear and precise reference to the tripartite nature of this ancient Goddess; the later Greek Magical Papyri sometimes refer to her as also having the heads of animals, and this can be seen as a reference to her aspect of Motherhood; in this portrayal she is known as "Mistress of Animals". Modern Hellenic polytheists honor Hecate during the Deipnon.[114]

text: In 1929, Dr. Lewis Brown, an expert on religious cults, connected the 1920s Blackburn Cult (also known as, "The Cult of the Great Eleven,") with Hecate worship rituals. He noted that the cult regularly practiced dog sacrifice and had secretly buried the body of one of its "queens" with seven dogs.[115] Researcher Samuel Fort noted additional parallels, to include the cult’s focus on mystic and typically nocturnal rites, its female dominated membership, the sacrifice of other animals (to include horses and mules), a focus on the mystical properties of roads and portals, and an emphasis on death, healing, and resurrection.[116]

text: Hecate is also the namesake of the hundredth numbered asteroid, which was discovered by American astronomer James Craig Watson on July 11, 1868. Its adopted name commemorates it as the hundredth asteroid, especially as 'hekaton' is Greek for 'hundred.' The name may also be explained as the derivation of the prefix hecto- commonly used in the metric system, or within the decimal system as three digits (e.g. as 100) therefore reflecting her later mythological trinary form.