document_title: Periodic table

question_text: what's the atomic number on the periodic table

question_tokens: what 's the atomic number on the periodic table

text: Periodic table

text: Overview

text:
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Periodic table

Group
1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals

Pnictogens
Chalcogens
Halogens
Noble gases

Period
1

Hydrogen1H

Helium2He

2
Lithium3Li
Beryllium4Be

Boron5B
Carbon6C
Nitrogen7N
Oxygen8O
Fluorine9F
Neon10Ne

3
Sodium11Na
Magnesium12Mg

Aluminium13Al
Silicon14Si
Phosphorus15P
Sulfur16S
Chlorine17Cl
Argon18Ar

4
Potassium19K
Calcium20Ca
Scandium21Sc

Titanium22Ti
Vanadium23V
Chromium24Cr
Manganese25Mn
Iron26Fe
Cobalt27Co
Nickel28Ni
Copper29Cu
Zinc30Zn
Gallium31Ga
Germanium32Ge
Arsenic33As
Selenium34Se
Bromine35Br
Krypton36Kr

5
Rubidium37Rb
Strontium38Sr
Yttrium39Y

Zirconium40Zr
Niobium41Nb
Molybdenum42Mo
Technetium43Tc
Ruthenium44Ru
Rhodium45Rh
Palladium46Pd
Silver47Ag
Cadmium48Cd
Indium49In
Tin50Sn
Antimony51Sb
Tellurium52Te
Iodine53I
Xenon54Xe

6
Caesium55Cs
Barium56Ba
Lanthanum57La

Hafnium72Hf
Tantalum73Ta
Tungsten74W
Rhenium75Re
Osmium76Os
Iridium77Ir
Platinum78Pt
Gold79Au
Mercury80Hg
Thallium81Tl
Lead82Pb
Bismuth83Bi
Polonium84Po
Astatine85At
Radon86Rn

7
Francium87Fr
Radium88Ra
Actinium89Ac

Rutherfordium104Rf
Dubnium105Db
Seaborgium106Sg
Bohrium107Bh
Hassium108Hs
Meitnerium109Mt
Darmstadtium110Ds
Roentgenium111Rg
Copernicium112Cn
Nihonium113Nh
Flerovium114Fl
Moscovium115Mc
Livermorium116Lv
Tennessine117Ts
Oganesson118Og

Cerium58Ce
Praseodymium59Pr
Neodymium60Nd
Promethium61Pm
Samarium62Sm
Europium63Eu
Gadolinium64Gd
Terbium65Tb
Dysprosium66Dy
Holmium67Ho
Erbium68Er
Thulium69Tm
Ytterbium70Yb
Lutetium71Lu

Thorium90Th
Protactinium91Pa
Uranium92U
Neptunium93Np
Plutonium94Pu
Americium95Am
Curium96Cm
Berkelium97Bk
Californium98Cf
Einsteinium99Es
Fermium100Fm
Mendelevium101Md
Nobelium102No
Lawrencium103Lr

black=solid
green=liquid
red=gas
gray=unknown
Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)

Primordial

From decay

Synthetic
Border shows natural occurrence of the element

Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:

Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Unknown
chemical
properties

Alkali metal
Alkaline earth metal
Lanthanide
Actinide
Transition metal
Post-transition metal
Polyatomic nonmetal
Diatomic nonmetal
Noble gas

text: Each chemical element has a unique atomic number (Z) representing the number of protons in its nucleus.[n 2] Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being referred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atomic masses of their most stable isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.[4]

text: In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number Z (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (period) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.[5]

text: As of 2016, the periodic table has 118 confirmed elements, from element 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson). Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118, the most recent discoveries, were officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in December 2015. Their proposed names, nihonium (Nh), moscovium (Mc), tennessine (Ts) and oganesson (Og) respectively, were announced by the IUPAC in June 2016 and made official in November 2016.[6][7][8][9]

text: The first 94 elements occur naturally; the remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118) occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements.[3] No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has astatine (element 85); francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms).[10]

text: Grouping methods

text: Groups

text: A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually have more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks, explained below. Modern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by proposing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron configurations in their valence shell.[11] Consequently, elements in the same group tend to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with increasing atomic number.[12] However, in some parts of the periodic table, such as the d-block and the f-block, horizontal similarities can be as important as, or more pronounced than, vertical similarities.[13][14][15]

text: Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases).[16] Previously, they were known by roman numerals. In America, the roman numerals were followed by either an "A" if the group was in the s- or p-block, or a "B" if the group was in the d-block. The roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB, and the group 14 elements were group IVA). In Europe, the lettering was similar, except that "A" was used if the group was before group 10, and "B" was used for groups including and after group 10. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use, and the old group names were deprecated.[17]

text: Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in the table below, although some are rarely used. Groups 3–10 have no trivial names and are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first member of their group (such as "the scandium group" for group 3), since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.[16]

text: Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization energy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electrons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element has a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top-to-bottom decrease in electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.[18] There are exceptions to these trends, however: for example, in group 11, electronegativity increases farther down the group.[19]

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Groups in the periodic table

IUPAC group
1
2
3a
a
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Mendeleev (I–VIII)
IA
IIA
IIIB

IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
b

CAS (US, A-B-A)
IA
IIA
IIIB

IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIA

old IUPAC (Europe, A-B)
IA
IIA
IIIA

IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIB
IB
IIB
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB
0

Trivial name
Alkali metals
Alkaline earth metalsr

Coinage metals
Volatile metals
Icosagens
Crystallogens
Pnictogensr
Chalcogensr
Halogensr
Noble gasesr

Name by elementr
Lithium group
Beryllium group
Scandium group

Titanium group
Vanadium group
Chromium group
Manganese group
Iron group
Cobalt group
Nickel group
Copper group
Zinc group
Boron group
Carbon group
Nitrogen group
Oxygen group
Fluorine group
Helium or Neon group

Period 1
h H h

He

Period 2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

Period 3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

Period 4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

Period 5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

Period 6
Cs
Ba
La
Ce–Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

Period 7
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th–Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

a Group 3 has scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y). For the rest of the group, sources differ as either being (1) lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr), or (2) lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or (3) the whole set of 15+15 lanthanides and actinides. IUPAC has initiated a project to standardize the definition as either (1) Sc, Y, Lu and Lr, or (2) Sc, Y, La and Ac.[20]

b Group 18, the noble gases, were not discovered at the time of Mendeleev's original table. Later (1902), Mendeleev accepted the evidence for their existence, and they could be placed in a new "group 0", consistently and without breaking the periodic table principle.

r Group name as recommended by IUPAC.

h Hydrogen (H), while placed in group 1, is not considered to be part of the alkali metals.

text: Periods

text: A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally have more significant periodic trends, there are regions where horizontal trends are more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f-block, where the lanthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.[21]

text: Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left to right across a period, atomic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron, which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the nucleus.[22] This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Electronegativity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerted on the electrons by the nucleus.[18] Electron affinity also shows a slight trend across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower electron affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period), with the exception of the noble gases.[23]

text: Blocks

text: Specific regions of the periodic table can be referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in which the "last" electron notionally resides.[24][n 3] The s-block comprises the first two groups (alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises the last six groups, which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC group numbering (3A to 8A in American group numbering) and contains, among other elements, all of the metalloids. The d-block comprises groups 3 to 12 (or 3B to 2B in American group numbering) and contains all of the transition metals. The f-block, often offset below the rest of the periodic table, has no group numbers and comprises lanthanides and actinides.[25]

text: Metals, metalloids and nonmetals

text: According to their shared physical and chemical properties, the elements can be classified into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals. Metals are generally shiny, highly conducting solids that form alloys with one another and salt-like ionic compounds with nonmetals (other than the noble gases). The majority of nonmetals are coloured or colourless insulating gases; nonmetals that form compounds with other nonmetals feature covalent bonding. In between metals and nonmetals are metalloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.[26]

text: Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into subcategories that show a gradation from metallic to non-metallic properties, when going left to right in the rows. The metals are subdivided into the highly reactive alkali metals, through the less reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides and actinides, via the archetypal transition metals, and ending in the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. The nonmetals are simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals, which, being nearest to the metalloids, show some incipient metallic character; the diatomic nonmetals, which are essentially nonmetallic; and the monatomic noble gases, which are nonmetallic and almost completely inert. Specialized groupings such as the refractory metals and the noble metals, which are subsets (in this example) of the transition metals, are also known[27] and occasionally denoted.[28]

text: Placing the elements into categories and subcategories based on shared properties is imperfect. There is a spectrum of properties within each category and it is not hard to find overlaps at the boundaries, as is the case with most classification schemes.[29] Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth metal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compounds are both attributes of a chemically weak or post-transition metal. Radon is classified as a nonmetal and a noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is more characteristic of a metal. Other classification schemes are possible such as the division of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. Categorizing the elements in this fashion dates back to at least 1869 when Hinrichs[30] wrote that simple boundary lines could be drawn on the periodic table to show elements having like properties, such as the metals and the nonmetals, or the gaseous elements.

text: Periodic trends and patterns

text: Electron configuration

text: The electron configuration or organisation of electrons orbiting neutral atoms shows a recurring pattern or periodicity. The electrons occupy a series of electron shells (numbered shell 1, shell 2, and so on). Each shell consists of one or more subshells (named s, p, d, f and g). As atomic number increases, electrons progressively fill these shells and subshells more or less according to the Madelung rule or energy ordering rule, as shown in the diagram. The electron configuration for neon, for example, is 1s2 2s2 2p6. With an atomic number of ten, neon has two electrons in the first shell, and eight electrons in the second shell—two in the s subshell and six in the p subshell. In periodic table terms, the first time an electron occupies a new shell corresponds to the start of each new period, these positions being occupied by hydrogen and the alkali metals.[31][32]

text: Since the properties of an element are mostly determined by its electron configuration, the properties of the elements likewise show recurring patterns or periodic behaviour, some examples of which are shown in the diagrams below for atomic radii, ionization energy and electron affinity. It is this periodicity of properties, manifestations of which were noticed well before the underlying theory was developed, that led to the establishment of the periodic law (the properties of the elements recur at varying intervals) and the formulation of the first periodic tables.[31][32]

text: Atomic radii

text: Atomic radii vary in a predictable and explainable manner across the periodic table. For instance, the radii generally decrease along each period of the table, from the alkali metals to the noble gases; and increase down each group. The radius increases sharply between the noble gas at the end of each period and the alkali metal at the beginning of the next period. These trends of the atomic radii (and of various other chemical and physical properties of the elements) can be explained by the electron shell theory of the atom; they provided important evidence for the development and confirmation of quantum theory.[33]

text: The electrons in the 4f-subshell, which is progressively filled from cerium (element 58) to ytterbium (element 70), are not particularly effective at shielding the increasing nuclear charge from the sub-shells further out. The elements immediately following the lanthanides have atomic radii that are smaller than would be expected and that are almost identical to the atomic radii of the elements immediately above them.[34] Hence hafnium has virtually the same atomic radius (and chemistry) as zirconium, and tantalum has an atomic radius similar to niobium, and so forth. This is known as the lanthanide contraction. The effect of the lanthanide contraction is noticeable up to platinum (element 78), after which it is masked by a relativistic effect known as the inert pair effect.[35] The d-block contraction, which is a similar effect between the d-block and p-block, is less pronounced than the lanthanide contraction but arises from a similar cause.[34]

text: Ionization energy

text: The first ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove one electron from an atom, the second ionization energy is the energy it takes to remove a second electron from the atom, and so on. For a given atom, successive ionization energies increase with the degree of ionization. For magnesium as an example, the first ionization energy is 738 kJ/mol and the second is 1450 kJ/mol. Electrons in the closer orbitals experience greater forces of electrostatic attraction; thus, their removal requires increasingly more energy. Ionization energy becomes greater up and to the right of the periodic table.[35]

text: Large jumps in the successive molar ionization energies occur when removing an electron from a noble gas (complete electron shell) configuration. For magnesium again, the first two molar ionization energies of magnesium given above correspond to removing the two 3s electrons, and the third ionization energy is a much larger 7730 kJ/mol, for the removal of a 2p electron from the very stable neon-like configuration of Mg2+. Similar jumps occur in the ionization energies of other third-row atoms.[35]

text: Electronegativity

text: Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons.[36] An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance between the valence electrons and the nucleus. The higher its electronegativity, the more an element attracts electrons. It was first proposed by Linus Pauling in 1932.[37] In general, electronegativity increases on passing from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements,[n 5] while caesium is the least, at least of those elements for which substantial data is available.[19]

text: There are some exceptions to this general rule. Gallium and germanium have higher electronegativities than aluminium and silicon respectively because of the d-block contraction. Elements of the fourth period immediately after the first row of the transition metals have unusually small atomic radii because the 3d-electrons are not effective at shielding the increased nuclear charge, and smaller atomic size correlates with higher electronegativity.[19] The anomalously high electronegativity of lead, particularly when compared to thallium and bismuth, appears to be an artifact of data selection (and data availability)—methods of calculation other than the Pauling method show the normal periodic trends for these elements.[38]

text: Electron affinity

text: The electron affinity of an atom is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negative ion. Although electron affinity varies greatly, some patterns emerge. Generally, nonmetals have more positive electron affinity values than metals. Chlorine most strongly attracts an extra electron. The electron affinities of the noble gases have not been measured conclusively, so they may or may not have slightly negative values.[41]

text: Electron affinity generally increases across a period. This is caused by the filling of the valence shell of the atom; a group 17 atom releases more energy than a group 1 atom on gaining an electron because it obtains a filled valence shell and is therefore more stable.[41]

text: A trend of decreasing electron affinity going down groups would be expected. The additional electron will be entering an orbital farther away from the nucleus. As such this electron would be less attracted to the nucleus and would release less energy when added. However, in going down a group, around one-third of elements are anomalous, with heavier elements having higher electron affinities than their next lighter congenors. Largely, this is due to the poor shielding by d and f electrons. A uniform decrease in electron affinity only applies to group 1 atoms.[42]

text: Metallic character

text: The lower the values of ionization energy, electronegativity and electron affinity, the more metallic character the element has. Conversely, nonmetallic character increases with higher values of these properties.[43] Given the periodic trends of these three properties, metallic character tends to decrease going across a period (or row) and, with some irregularities (mostly) due to poor screening of the nucleus by d and f electrons, and relativistic effects,[44] tends to increase going down a group (or column or family). Thus, the most metallic elements (such as caesium and francium) are found at the bottom left of traditional periodic tables and the most nonmetallic elements (oxygen, fluorine, chlorine) at the top right. The combination of horizontal and vertical trends in metallic character explains the stair-shaped dividing line between metals and nonmetals found on some periodic tables, and the practice of sometimes categorizing several elements adjacent to that line, or elements adjacent to those elements, as metalloids.[45][46]

text: Linking or bridging groups

text:
Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

32-column periodic table showing, from left to right, the location of group 3; lutetium and lawrencium; groups 11–12; and the noble gases

text: From left to right across the four blocks of the long- or 32-column form of the periodic table are a series of linking or bridging groups of elements, located approximately between each block.[47] These groups, like the metalloids, show properties in between, or that are a mixture of, groups to either side. Chemically, the group 3 elements, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium behave largely like the alkaline earth metals[48] or, more generally, s block metals[49][50] but have some of the physical properties of d block transition metals.[51] Lutetium and lawrencium, at the end of the end of the f block, may constitute another linking or bridging group. Lutetium behaves chemically as a lanthanide but shows a mix of lanthanide and transition metal physical properties.[52][53] Lawrencium, as an analogue of lutetium, would presumable display like characteristics.[n 6] The coinage metals in group 11 (copper, silver, and gold) are chemically capable of acting as either transition metals or main group metals.[56] The volatile group 12 metals, zinc, cadmium and mercury are sometimes regarded as linking the d block to the p block. Notionally they are d block elements but they have few transition metal properties and are more like their p block neighbors in group 13.[57][58] The relatively inert noble gases, in group 18, bridge the most reactive groups of elements in the periodic table—the halogens in group 17 and the alkali metals in group 1.[47]

text: History

text: First systemization attempts

text: In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements, grouping them into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths.[59] Chemists spent the following century searching for a more precise classification scheme. In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be grouped into triads based on their chemical properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were grouped together in a triad as soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the third;[60] this became known as the Law of Triads.[61] German chemist Leopold Gmelin worked with this system, and by 1843 he had identified ten triads, three groups of four, and one group of five. Jean-Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various groups of metals. Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.[60]

text: In 1857, German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.[62] This concept eventually became known as valency; different elements bond with different numbers of atoms.[63]

text: In 1862, Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois, a French geologist, published an early form of periodic table, which he called the telluric helix or screw. He was the first person to notice the periodicity of the elements. With the elements arranged in a spiral on a cylinder by order of increasing atomic weight, de Chancourtois showed that elements with similar properties seemed to occur at regular intervals. His chart included some ions and compounds in addition to elements. His paper also used geological rather than chemical terms and did not include a diagram; as a result, it received little attention until the work of Dmitri Mendeleev.[64]

text: In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer, a German chemist, published a table with 44 elements arranged by valency. The table showed that elements with similar properties often shared the same valency.[65] Concurrently, William Odling (an English chemist) published an arrangement of 57 elements, ordered on the basis of their atomic weights. With some irregularities and gaps, he noticed what appeared to be a periodicity of atomic weights among the elements and that this accorded with "their usually received groupings".[66] Odling alluded to the idea of a periodic law but did not pursue it.[67] He subsequently proposed (in 1870) a valence-based classification of the elements.[68]

text: English chemist John Newlands produced a series of papers from 1863 to 1866 noting that when the elements were listed in order of increasing atomic weight, similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music.[69][70] This so termed Law of Octaves, however, was ridiculed by Newlands' contemporaries, and the Chemical Society refused to publish his work.[71] Newlands was nonetheless able to draft a table of the elements and used it to predict the existence of missing elements, such as germanium.[72] The Chemical Society only acknowledged the significance of his discoveries five years after they credited Mendeleev.[73]

text: In 1867, Gustavus Hinrichs, a Danish born academic chemist based in America, published a spiral periodic system based on atomic spectra and weights, and chemical similarities. His work was regarded as idiosyncratic, ostentatious and labyrinthine and this may have militated against its recognition and acceptance.[74][75]

text: Mendeleev's table

text: Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Mendeleev and German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their periodic tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively.[76] Mendeleev's table was his first published version; that of Meyer was an expanded version of his (Meyer's) table of 1864.[77] They both constructed their tables by listing the elements in rows or columns in order of atomic weight and starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.[78]

text: The recognition and acceptance afforded to Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made. The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element had not yet been discovered.[79] Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he was the first to be recognized as using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those missing elements, such as gallium and germanium.[80] The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic weights and switch adjacent elements, such as tellurium and iodine, to better classify them into chemical families. Later in 1913, Henry Moseley determined experimental values of the nuclear charge or atomic number of each element, and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually corresponds to the order of increasing atomic number.[81]

text: The significance of atomic numbers to the organization of the periodic table was not appreciated until the existence and properties of protons and neutrons became understood. Mendeleev's periodic tables used atomic weight instead of atomic number to organize the elements, information determinable to fair precision in his time. Atomic weight worked well enough in most cases to (as noted) give a presentation that was able to predict the properties of missing elements more accurately than any other method then known. Substitution of atomic numbers, once understood, gave a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements, and Moseley predicted (in 1913) that the only elements still missing between aluminium (Z=13) and gold (Z=79) were Z = 43, 61, 72 and 75, all of which were later discovered. The sequence of atomic numbers is still used today even as new synthetic elements are being produced and studied.[82]

text: Second version and further development

text: In 1871, Mendeleev published his periodic table in a new form, with groups of similar elements arranged in columns rather than in rows, and those columns numbered I to VIII corresponding with the element's oxidation state. He also gave detailed predictions for the properties of elements he had earlier noted were missing, but should exist.[83] These gaps were subsequently filled as chemists discovered additional naturally occurring elements.[84] It is often stated that the last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939.[85] However, plutonium, produced synthetically in 1940, was identified in trace quantities as a naturally occurring element in 1971.[86]

text: The popular[87] periodic table layout, also known as the common or standard form (as shown at various other points in this article), is attributable to Horace Groves Deming. In 1923, Deming, an American chemist, published short (Mendeleev style) and medium (18-column) form periodic tables.[88][n 7] Merck and Company prepared a handout form of Deming's 18-column medium table, in 1928, which was widely circulated in American schools. By the 1930s Deming's table was appearing in handbooks and encyclopaedias of chemistry. It was also distributed for many years by the Sargent-Welch Scientific Company.[89][90][91]

text: With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each period (row) in the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. Larger atoms have more electron sub-shells, so later tables have required progressively longer periods.[92]

text: In 1945, Glenn Seaborg, an American scientist, made the suggestion that the actinide elements, like the lanthanides, were filling an f sub-level. Before this time the actinides were thought to be forming a fourth d-block row. Seaborg's colleagues advised him not to publish such a radical suggestion as it would most likely ruin his career. As Seaborg considered he did not then have a career to bring into disrepute, he published anyway. Seaborg's suggestion was found to be correct and he subsequently went on to win the 1951 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his work in synthesizing actinide elements.[93][94][n 8]

text: Although minute quantities of some transuranic elements occur naturally,[3] they were all first discovered in laboratories. Their production has expanded the periodic table significantly, the first of these being neptunium, synthesized in 1939.[95] Because many of the transuranic elements are highly unstable and decay quickly, they are challenging to detect and characterize when produced. There have been controversies concerning the acceptance of competing discovery claims for some elements, requiring independent review to determine which party has priority, and hence naming rights.[96] In 2010, a joint Russia–US collaboration at Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russia, claimed to have synthesized six atoms of tennessine (element 117), making it the most recently claimed discovery. It, along with nihonium (element 113), moscovium (element 115), and oganesson (element 118), are the four most recently named elements, whose names all became official on 28 November 2016.[97]

text: Different periodic tables

text: The long- or 32-column table

text: The modern periodic table is sometimes expanded into its long or 32-column form by reinstating the footnoted f-block elements into their natural position between the s- and d-blocks. Unlike the 18-column form this arrangement results in "no interruptions in the sequence of increasing atomic numbers".[98] The relationship of the f-block to the other blocks of the periodic table also becomes easier to see.[99] Jensen advocates a form of table with 32 columns on the grounds that the lanthanides and actinides are otherwise relegated in the minds of students as dull, unimportant elements that can be quarantined and ignored.[100] Despite these advantages the 32-column form is generally avoided by editors on account of its undue rectangular ratio (compared to a book page ratio),[101] and the familiarity of chemists with the modern form (as introduced by Seaborg).[102]

text: Tables with different structures

text: Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869 it has been estimated that around 700 different periodic table versions were published.[103] As well as numerous rectangular variations, other periodic table formats have been shaped, for example,[n 9] like a circle, cube, cylinder, building, spiral, lemniscate,[104] octagonal prism, pyramid, sphere, or triangle. Such alternatives are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables.[103]

text: A popular[105] alternative structure is that of Theodor Benfey (1960). The elements are arranged in a continuous spiral, with hydrogen at the centre and the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides occupying peninsulas.[106]

text: Most periodic tables are two-dimensional;[3] however, three-dimensional tables are known to as far back as at least 1862 (pre-dating Mendeleev's two-dimensional table of 1869). More recent examples include Courtines' Periodic Classification (1925),[107] Wringley's Lamina System (1949),[108] Giguère's Periodic helix (1965)[109] and Dufour's Periodic Tree (1996).[110] Going one further, Stowe's Physicist's Periodic Table (1989)[111] has been described as being four-dimensional (having three spatial dimensions and one colour dimension).[112]

text: The various forms of periodic tables can be thought of as lying on a chemistry–physics continuum.[113] Towards the chemistry end of the continuum can be found, as an example, Rayner-Canham's "unruly"[114] Inorganic Chemist's Periodic Table (2002),[115] which emphasizes trends and patterns, and unusual chemical relationships and properties. Near the physics end of the continuum is Janet's Left-Step Periodic Table (1928). This has a structure that shows a closer connection to the order of electron-shell filling and, by association, quantum mechanics.[116] A somewhat similar approach has been taken by Alper,[117] albeit criticized by Eric Scerri as disregarding the need to display chemical and physical periodicity.[118] Somewhere in the middle of the continuum is the ubiquitous common or standard form of periodic table. This is regarded as better expressing empirical trends in physical state, electrical and thermal conductivity, and oxidation numbers, and other properties easily inferred from traditional techniques of the chemical laboratory.[119] Its popularity is thought to be a result of this layout having a good balance of features in terms of ease of construction and size, and its depiction of atomic order and periodic trends.[67][120]

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Left-step periodic table (by Charles Janet)

f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f7
f8
f9
f10
f11
f12
f13
f14
d1
d2
d3
d4
d5
d6
d7
d8
d9
d10
p1
p2
p3
p4
p5
p6
s1
s2

1s

H
He

2s

Li
Be

2p 3s

B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg

3p 4s

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca

3d 4p 5s

Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr

4d 5p 6s

Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
 I
Xe
Cs
Ba

4f 5d 6p 7s
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra

5f 6d 7p 8s
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
119
120

f-block
d-block
p-block
s-block

This form of periodic table is more congruent with the order in which electron shells are ideally filled according to Madelung's rule, as shown in the accompanying sequence in the left margin (read from top to bottom, left to right). In reality, the filling of electron shells is characterized by a number of irregularities.

text: Open questions and controversies

text: Placement of hydrogen and helium

text: Simply following electron configurations, hydrogen (electronic configuration 1s1) and helium (1s2) should be placed in groups 1 and 2, above lithium ([He]2s1) and beryllium ([He]2s2).[24] However, such placing is rarely used outside of the context of electron configurations: When the noble gases (then called "inert gases") were first discovered around 1900, they were known as "group 0", reflecting no chemical reactivity of these elements known at that point, and helium was placed on the top that group, as it did share the extreme chemical inertness seen throughout the group. As the group changed its formal number, many authors continued to assign helium directly above neon, in group 18; one of the examples of such placing is the current IUPAC table.[121]

text: Hydrogen's chemical properties are not very close to those of the alkali metals, which occupy group 1, and on that basis hydrogen is sometimes placed elsewhere: one of the most common alternatives is in group 17;[118] one of the factors behind it is the strictly univalent predominantly non-metallic chemistry of hydrogen, and that of fluorine (the element placed on the top of group 17) is strictly univalent and non-metallic. Sometimes, to show how hydrogen has properties both corresponding to those of the alkali metals and the halogens, it may be shown in two columns simultaneously.[122] Another suggestion is above carbon in group 14: placed that way, it fits well into the trends of increasing ionization potential values and electron affinity values, and is not too far from the electronegativity trend, even though hydrogen cannot show the tetravalence characteristic of the heavier group 14 elements.[123] Finally, hydrogen is sometimes placed separately from any group; this is based on how general properties of hydrogen differ from that of any group. The other period 1 element, helium, is sometimes placed separately from any group as well.[124] The property that distinguishes helium from the rest of the noble gases (even though the extraordinary inertness of helium is extremely close to that of neon and argon[125]) is that in its closed electron shell, helium has only two electrons in the outermost electron orbital, while the rest of the noble gases have eight.

text: Group 3 and its elements in periods 6 and 7

text: Although scandium and yttrium are always the first two elements in group 3, the identity of the next two elements is not completely settled. They are commonly lanthanum and actinium, and less often lutetium and lawrencium. The two variants originate from historical difficulties in placing the lanthanides in the periodic table, and arguments as to where the f block elements start and end.[126][n 10][n 11] It has been claimed that such arguments are proof that, "it is a mistake to break the [periodic] system into sharply delimited blocks".[128] A third variant shows the two positions below yttrium as being occupied by the lanthanides and the actinides.

text: Chemical and physical arguments have been made in support of lutetium and lawrencium[129][130] but the majority of authors seem unconvinced.[131] Most working chemists are not aware there is any controversy.[132] In December 2015 an IUPAC project was established to make a recommendation on the matter.[133]

text: Lanthanum and actinium

text: La and Ac below Y

text: Lanthanum and actinium are commonly depicted as the remaining group 3 members.[134][n 12] It has been suggested that this layout originated in the 1940s, with the appearance of periodic tables relying on the electron configurations of the elements and the notion of the differentiating electron. The configurations of caesium, barium and lanthanum are [Xe]6s1, [Xe]6s2 and [Xe]5d16s2. Lanthanum thus has a 5d differentiating electron and this establishes "it in group 3 as the first member of the d-block for period 6".[135] A consistent set of electron configurations is then seen in group 3: scandium [Ar]3d14s2, yttrium [Kr]4d15s2 and lanthanum [Xe]5d16s2. Still in period 6, ytterbium was assigned an electron configuration of [Xe]4f135d16s2 and lutetium [Xe]4f145d16s2, "resulting in a 4f differentiating electron for lutetium and firmly establishing it as the last member of the f-block for period 6".[135] Later spectroscopic work found that the electron configuration of ytterbium was in fact [Xe]4f146s2. This meant that ytterbium and lutetium—the latter with [Xe]4f145d16s2—both had 14 f-electrons, "resulting in a d- rather than an f- differentiating electron" for lutetium and making it an "equally valid candidate" with [Xe]5d16s2 lanthanum, for the group 3 periodic table position below yttrium.[135] Lanthanum, however, has the advantage of incumbency since the 5d1 electron appears for the first time in its structure whereas it appears for the third time in lutetium, having also made a brief second appearance in gadolinium.[136]

text: In terms of chemical behaviour,[137] and trends going down group 3 for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius,[138][139] scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium are similar to their group 1–2 counterparts. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f-block elements consistently matches their position in the f-block.[140] For example, the f-electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f-block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3.[141]

text: Lutetium and lawrencium

text: Lu and Lr below Y

text: In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are the remaining group 3 members.[n 13] Early techniques for chemically separating scandium, yttrium and lutetium relied on the fact that these elements occurred together in the so-called "yttrium group" whereas La and Ac occurred together in the "cerium group".[135] Accordingly, lutetium rather than lanthanum was assigned to group 3 by some chemists in the 1920s and 30s.[n 14] Several physicists in the 1950s and 60s favoured lutetium, in light of a comparison of several of its physical properties with those of lanthanum.[135] This arrangement, in which lanthanum is the first member of the f-block, is disputed by some authors since lanthanum lacks any f-electrons. However, it has been argued that this is not valid concern given other periodic table anomalies—thorium, for example, has no f-electrons yet is part of the f-block.[142] As for lawrencium, its gas phase atomic electron configuration was confirmed in 2015 as [Rn]5f147s27p1. Such a configuration represents another periodic table anomaly, regardless of whether lawrencium is located in the f-block or the d-block, as the only potentially applicable p-block position has been reserved for nihonium with its predicted configuration of [Rn]5f146d107s27p1.[143][n 15]

text: Chemically, scandium, yttrium and lutetium (and presumably lawrencium) behave like trivalent versions of the group 1–2 metals.[145] On the other hand, trends going down the group for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius, are similar to those found among their group 4–8 counterparts.[135] In this variant, the number of f electrons in the gaseous forms of the f-block atoms usually matches their position in the f-block. For example, the f-electron counts for the first five f-block elements are La 0, Ce 1, Pr 3, Nd 4 and Pm 5.[135]

text: Lanthanides and actinides

text: Markers below Y

text: A few authors position all thirty lanthanides and actinides in the two positions below yttrium (usually via footnote markers). This variant emphasizes similarities in the chemistry of the 15 lanthanide elements (La–Lu), possibly at the expense of ambiguity as to which elements occupy the two group 3 positions below yttrium, and a 15-column wide f block (there can only be 14 elements in any row of the f block).[n 16]

text: Groups included in the transition metals

text: The definition of a transition metal, as given by IUPAC, is an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell.[146] By this definition all of the elements in groups 3–11 are transition metals. The IUPAC definition therefore excludes group 12, comprising zinc, cadmium and mercury, from the transition metals category.

text: Some chemists treat the categories "d-block elements" and "transition metals" interchangeably, thereby including groups 3–12 among the transition metals. In this instance the group 12 elements are treated as a special case of transition metal in which the d electrons are not ordinarily involved in chemical bonding. The 2007 report of mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF4), a compound in which mercury would use its d electrons for bonding, has prompted some commentators to suggest that mercury can be regarded as a transition metal.[147] Other commentators, such as Jensen,[148] have argued that the formation of a compound like HgF4 can occur only under highly abnormal conditions; indeed, its existence is currently disputed. As such, mercury could not be regarded as a transition metal by any reasonable interpretation of the ordinary meaning of the term.[148]

text: Still other chemists further exclude the group 3 elements from the definition of a transition metal. They do so on the basis that the group 3 elements do not form any ions having a partially occupied d shell and do not therefore exhibit any properties characteristic of transition metal chemistry.[149] In this case, only groups 4–11 are regarded as transition metals. However, though the group 3 elements show few of the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals, they do show some of their characteristic physical properties (on account of the presence in each atom of a single d electron).[51]

text: Elements with unknown chemical properties

text: Although all elements up to oganesson have been discovered, of the elements above hassium (element 108), only copernicium (element 112), nihonium (element 113), and flerovium (element 114) have known chemical properties, and only for the copernicium is there enough evidence for a conclusive categorisation at present. The other elements may behave differently from what would be predicted by extrapolation, due to relativistic effects; for example, flerovium has been predicted to possibly exhibit some noble-gas-like properties, even though it is currently placed in the carbon group.[150] More recent experiments have suggested, however, that flerovium behaves chemically like lead, as expected from its periodic table position.[151]

text: Further periodic table extensions

text:
Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum

Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium

Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Ununennium
Unbinilium
Unbiunium

Unquadquadium
Unquadpentium
Unquadhexium
Unquadseptium
Unquadoctium
Unquadennium
Unpentnilium
Unpentunium
Unpentbium
Unpenttrium
Unpentquadium
Unpentpentium
Unpenthexium
Unpentseptium
Unpentoctium
Unpentennium
Unhexnilium
Unhexunium
Unhexbium
Unhextrium
Unhexquadium
Unhexpentium
Unhexhexium
Unhexseptium
Unhexoctium
Unhexennium
Unseptnilium
Unseptunium
Unseptbium

Unbibium
Unbitrium
Unbiquadium
Unbipentium
Unbihexium
Unbiseptium
Unbioctium
Unbiennium
Untrinilium
Untriunium
Untribium
Untritrium
Untriquadium
Untripentium
Untrihexium
Untriseptium
Untrioctium
Untriennium
Unquadnilium
Unquadunium
Unquadbium
Unquadtrium

Periodic table with eight rows, extended to element 172[152]

text: It is unclear whether new elements will continue the pattern of the current periodic table as period 8, or require further adaptations or adjustments. Seaborg expected the eighth period to follow the previously established pattern exactly, so that it would include a two-element s-block for elements 119 and 120, a new g-block for the next 18 elements, and 30 additional elements continuing the current f-, d-, and p-blocks, culminating in element 168, the next noble gas.[153] More recently, physicists such as Pekka Pyykkö have theorized that these additional elements do not follow the Madelung rule, which predicts how electron shells are filled and thus affects the appearance of the present periodic table. There are currently several competing theoretical models for the placement of the elements of atomic number less than or equal to 172.[154]

text: Element with the highest possible atomic number

text: The number of possible elements is not known. A very early suggestion made by Elliot Adams in 1911, and based on the arrangement of elements in each horizontal periodic table row, was that elements of atomic weight greater than 256± (which would equate to between elements 99 and 100 in modern-day terms) did not exist.[155] A higher—more recent—estimate is that the periodic table may end soon after the island of stability,[156] which is expected to centre around element 126, as the extension of the periodic and nuclides tables is restricted by proton and neutron drip lines.[157] Other predictions of an end to the periodic table include at element 128 by John Emsley,[3] at element 137 by Richard Feynman,[158] and at element 155 by Albert Khazan.[3][n 17]

text: The Bohr model exhibits difficulty for atoms with atomic number greater than 137, as any element with an atomic number greater than 137 would require 1s electrons to be travelling faster than c, the speed of light.[159] Hence the non-relativistic Bohr model is inaccurate when applied to such an element.

text: The relativistic Dirac equation has problems for elements with more than 137 protons. For such elements, the wave function of the Dirac ground state is oscillatory rather than bound, and there is no gap between the positive and negative energy spectra, as in the Klein paradox.[160] More accurate calculations taking into account the effects of the finite size of the nucleus indicate that the binding energy first exceeds the limit for elements with more than 173 protons. For heavier elements, if the innermost orbital (1s) is not filled, the electric field of the nucleus will pull an electron out of the vacuum, resulting in the spontaneous emission of a positron;[161] however, this does not happen if the innermost orbital is filled, so that element 173 is not necessarily the end of the periodic table.[158]

text: Optimal form

text: The many different forms of periodic table have prompted the question of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of periodic table. The answer to this question is thought to depend on whether the chemical periodicity seen to occur among the elements has an underlying truth, effectively hard-wired into the universe, or if any such periodicity is instead the product of subjective human interpretation, contingent upon the circumstances, beliefs and predilections of human observers. An objective basis for chemical periodicity would settle the questions about the location of hydrogen and helium, and the composition of group 3. Such an underlying truth, if it exists, is thought to have not yet been discovered. In its absence, the many different forms of periodic table can be regarded as variations on the theme of chemical periodicity, each of which explores and emphasizes different aspects, properties, perspectives and relationships of and among the elements.[n 18]


document_title: Basilica of San Vitale

question_text: whose portrait appears on the choir call to the right of the apse of san vitale ravenna

root

text: Basilica of San Vitale

text: History[edit]

text: The church was begun by Bishop Ecclesius in 526, when Ravenna was under the rule of the Ostrogoths and completed by the 27th Bishop of Ravenna, Maximian, in 547 preceding the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna.

tag: p

text: The construction of the church was sponsored by Julius Argentarius, a banker and architect, of whom very little is known, except that he also sponsored the construction of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe at around the same time.[1] (A donor portrait of Julius Argentarius may appear among the courtiers on the Justinian mosaic.) The final cost amounted to 26,000 solidi (gold pieces).[2] It has been suggested that Julian originated in the eastern part of the Byzantine Empire, where there was a long-standing tradition of public benefactions.

text: The central vault used a western technique of hollow tubes inserted into each other, rather than bricks. This method was the first recorded structural use of terra-cotta forms, which later evolved into modern structural clay tile. The ambulatory and gallery were vaulted only later in the Middle Ages.[3]

text: The Baroque fresco on the dome was made between 1778 and 1782 by S. Barozzi, U. Gandolfi and E. Guarana.[4]

text: Architecture[edit]

text: The church has an octagonal plan. The building combines Roman elements: the dome, shape of doorways, and stepped towers; with Byzantine elements: polygonal apse, capitals, narrow bricks, and an early example of flying buttresses. The church is most famous for its wealth of Byzantine mosaics, the largest and best preserved outside of Constantinople. The church is of extreme importance in Byzantine art, as it is the only major church from the period of the Emperor Justinian I to survive virtually intact to the present day. Furthermore, it is thought to reflect the design of the Byzantine Imperial Palace Audience Chamber, of which nothing at all survives. The belltower has four bells, the tenor one dates to the 16th century. According to legends, the church was erected on the site of the martyrdom of Saint Vitalis.[5] However, there is some confusion as to whether this is the Saint Vitalis of Milan, or the Saint Vitale whose body was discovered together with that of Saint Agricola, by Saint Ambrose in Bologna in 393.

text: Mosaic art[edit]

text: The central section is surrounded by two superposed ambulatories. The upper one, the matrimoneum, was possibly reserved for married women. A series of mosaics in the lunettes above the triforia depict sacrifices from the Old Testament:[6] the story of Abraham and Melchizedek, and the Sacrifice of Isaac; the story of Moses and the Burning Bush, Jeremiah and Isaiah, representatives of the twelve tribes of Israel, and the story of Abel and Cain. A pair of angels, holding a medallion with a cross, crowns each lunette. On the side walls the corners, next to the mullioned windows, have mosaics of the Four Evangelists, under their symbols (angel, lion, ox and eagle), and dressed in white. Especially the portrayal of the lion is remarkable in its ferocity.

text: The cross-ribbed vault in the presbytery is richly ornamented with mosaic festoons of leaves, fruit and flowers, converging on a crown encircling the Lamb of God. The crown is supported by four angels, and every surface is covered with a profusion of flowers, stars, birds and animals, including many peacocks. Above the arch, on both sides, two angels hold a disc and beside them a representation of the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. They symbolize the human race (Jerusalem representing the Jews, and Bethlehem the Gentiles).

text: All these mosaics are executed in the Hellenistic-Roman tradition: lively and imaginative, with rich colors and a certain perspective, and with a vivid depiction of the landscape, plants and birds. They were finished when Ravenna was still under Gothic rule. The apse is flanked by two chapels, the prothesis and the diaconicon, typical for Byzantine architecture.

text: Inside, the intrados of the great triumphal arch is decorated with fifteen mosaic medallions, depicting Jesus Christ, the twelve Apostles and Saint Gervasius and Saint Protasius, the sons of Saint Vitale. The theophany was begun in 525 under bishop Ecclesius. It has a great gold fascia with twining flowers, birds, and horns of plenty. Jesus Christ appears, seated on a blue globe in the summit of the vault, robed in purple, with his right hand offering the martyr's crown to Saint Vitale. On the left, Bishop Ecclesius offers a model of the church.

text: Justinian and Theodora panels[edit]

text: At the foot of the apse side walls are two famous mosaic panels, completed in 547. On the right is a mosaic depicting the East Roman Emperor Justinian I, clad in Tyrian purple with a golden halo, standing next to court officials, Bishop Maximian, palatinae guards and deacons. The halo around his head gives him the same aspect as Christ in the dome of the apse, but is part of the tradition of rendering the imperial family with haloes describe by Ernst Kantorowicz in the King's Two Bodies. Justinian himself stands in the middle, with soldiers on his right and clergy on his left, emphasizing that Justinian is the leader of both church and state of his empire. The later insertion of the Bishop Maximian's name above his head suggests that the mosaic may have been modified in 547, replacing the representation of the prior bishop with that of the Maximian.

text: The gold background of the mosaic shows that Justinian and his entourage are inside the church. The figures are placed in a V shape; Justinian is placed in the front and in the middle to show his importance with Bishop Maximian on his left and lesser individuals being placed behind them. This placement can be seen through the overlapping feet of the individuals present in the mosaic.[7]

text: Another panel shows Empress Theodora solemn and formal, with golden halo, crown and jewels, and a group of court women as well as eunuchs. The Empress holds the Eucharistic vessel for wine, and her panel differs from that of Justinian in having a more complex background, with a fountain, cupola, and lavish hangings.


document_title: A Love So Beautiful

question_text: a love so beautiful xiao xi real name

question_tokens: a love so beautiful xiao xi real name

text: A Love So Beautiful

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: It starts off with high school classmates Chen Xiaoxi and Jiang Chen who are also neighbors since kindergarten.  Chen Xiaoxi, a cheerful girl who doesn't study much, is expressive about her admiration towards Jiang Chen, the popular guy known for his looks and high grades. Jiang Chen is also a guy who is very distant and indifferent towards people because of his father’s early death. Together, Jiang Chen and Chen Xiaoxi prepare for their Gao Kao, a university Entry Examination during their senior years in secondary school. Together with their classmates—the funny yet dirty-minded Lu Yang, athletic but blunt Lin Jingxiao, and cool national swimmer Wu Bo Song, they embark on high school life to university until their adult life.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text: Shen Yue as Chen Xiaoxi

tag: ul

text: Hu Yitian as Jiang Chen

text: Supporting[edit]

text: Gao Zhiting as Wu Bosong

text: Wang Ziwei as Lin Jingxiao

text: Sun Ning as Lu Yang

text: Lü Yan as Li Wei

text: Zhang He Hao Zhen as Li Shu

text: Wang Jiahui as Qiao Lu

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: No.TitleLyricsMusicSingerLength1."How Much I Like You, You Would Know" (我多喜欢你，你会知道)Yin KaiyiYin KaiyiWang Junqi3:202."It's a Dream" (是梦吧)Yin KaiyiYin KaiyiHu Yitian 3."Little Beauty" (小美好)Yin KaiyiJie NanFeng Jiaqi

tag: table

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominated work
Result
Ref.

2017
8th Macau International Television Festival
Best Web Series
A Love So Beautiful
Nominated
[6]

2017
3rd China Pan-Entertainment Annual Ceremony
Top 10 Web Series
A Love So Beautiful
Won
[7]

text: International broadcast[edit]

text:
Taiwan: CHOCO TV[8]
Malaysia: Astro Shuang Xing
Philippines: ABS-CBN[9][10][11]
Netflix
Korea: KTH
Vietnam
USA, Australia
Rakuten Viki


document_title: Triborough Bridge

question_text: how much is robert f kennedy bridge toll

text: Triborough Bridge

text: History[edit]

text: Planning and construction[edit]

text: Plans for connecting Manhattan, Queens and the Bronx were first announced by Edward A. Byrne, chief engineer of the New York City Department of Plant and Structures, in 1916.[7] While such a bridge complex's construction had long been recommended by local officials, the project failed to receive funding until 1925, when the city appropriated money for surveys, test borings and structural plans.[3]

text: Construction began on October 25, 1929 – Black Friday – but soon the Triborough project's outlook began to look bleak. Chief engineer Othmar Ammann, who had collapsed the original design's two-deck roadway into one, requiring lighter towers, and thus, lighter piers, saving $10 million on the towers alone, was enlisted again to help guide the project, but the combination of Tammany Hall graft, the stock market crash, and the Great Depression which followed it, brought the project to a virtual halt,[8] as investors shied away from purchasing the municipal bonds needed to fund it.[5] By the spring of 1932, the project was moribund.[9]

text: The project was resurrected by Robert Moses, who pushed the state legislature to create the Triborough Bridge Authority (TBA) to fund, build and operate it. Moses was confronted by a situation where the city had not planned any of the necessary approaches to the structure, or even bought up the property that would clearly be needed to build those roads, property which they could have gotten at bargain prices early on.[8] Moses solved this problem in typical fashion by proposing new roads and parkways to feed into the bridge, which would connect it to the existing ones he had already built. The complex of roads included the Grand Central Parkway and Astoria Boulevard in Queens, an extension to the East River Drive (now the FDR Drive) in Manhattan, and Whitlock Avenue and Eastern Boulevard in the Bronx.[4]

text: While reformers embraced Moses' plans, state and city officials were overwhelmed by their scale, and slow to move to provide financing for the vast system.[8] Moses leveraged his leadership of the Authority – after he wrenched control of it away from Tammany – as well as the state and city positions he also held, to start the project up again, with construction resuming in November 1933.[9] Eventually, funding would come from the city and from the Federal government under New Deal programs such as the Public Works Administration (PWA), the latter of which involved complex political infighting between Moses, PWA Administrator Harold L. Ickes, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and New York City Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia, over which Moses almost lost his job.[10] The other major source of funding was from interest-bearing bonds issued by the Triborough Bridge Authority itself, and not by the city. These bonds were secured by future toll revenue.[11][12]

text: The scale of the Triborough Bridge project, including its approaches, was such that hundreds of large apartment buildings were demolished to make way for it. The structure used concrete from factories "from Maine to the Mississippi", and steel from 50 mills in Pennsylvania. To make the formwork for pouring the concrete, a forest's worth of trees on the Pacific Coast was cut down.[4] Robert Caro, the biographer of Moses, said about it:

text: Triborough was not a bridge so much as a traffic machine, the largest ever built. The amount of human energy expended in its construction gives some idea of its immensity: more than five thousand men would be working at the site, and these men would only be putting into place the materials furnished by the labor of many times five thousand men; before the Triborough Bridge was completed, its construction would have generated more than 31,000,000-man hours of work in 134 cities in twenty states.[4]

text: The completed structure, described by The New York Times as a "Y-shaped sky highway", was dedicated on July 11, 1936, at ceremonies held on the central span which were attended by President Roosevelt, Mayor La Guardia, New York State Governor Herbert H. Lehman, Public Works Administrator Ickes, Postmaster General James A. Farley and Moses, who acted as master of ceremonies.[13][3][14] Due to the previous conflicts between himself and Moses, the attendance of Roosevelt was not certain until the last minute. The ceremonies were broadcast via a nationwide radio connection.[14]

text: The total cost of the bridge, the largest PWA project in the East, was more than $60 million (equivalent to $1035.54 million in 2016) – one of the largest public works projects of the Great Depression, more expensive than the Hoover Dam.[15][3][14] Of this, $16 million came from the city and $9 million directly from the PWA, which also purchased $35 million worth of TBA bonds, which were eventually bought back and resold to the public.[9] In the first year of the bridge's operation it generated $2.72 million (equivalent to $45.31 million in 2016) – produced by 9.65 million vehicles.[5]

text: A by-product of the Triborough project was the creation of parks and playgrounds in the lands underneath the bridges and approaches on Ward's and Randall's Island (see Randall's Island Park), in Astoria, and in Manhattan.[9]

text: Recent events[edit]

text: Motorists were first able to pay with E‑ZPass in lanes for automatic coin machines at the Randalls Island toll plazas on August 21, 1996.[16]

text: At some point in the past, a sign on the bridge informed travelers, "In event of attack, drive off bridge," New York Times columnist William Safire wrote in 2008. The "somewhat macabre sign", he wrote, must have "drawn a wry smile from millions of motorists."[17]

text: On November 19, 2008, the Triborough Bridge was officially renamed after Robert F. Kennedy at the request of the Kennedy family.[18] Forty years had passed since the New York United States Senator and former U.S. Attorney General had been assassinated during a 1968 presidential bid.[19][20][21] Traffic and news reports have come to commonly refer to the bridge as the "RFK Triborough Bridge" and at times simply the "Triborough Bridge" to avoid confusion among residents long accustomed to its original name.[22]

text: In 2015, the MTA started two reconstruction projects on different parts of the bridge[23] as part of a $1 billion, 15-year program to renovate the bridge complex.[24] The MTA commenced construction on a $213 million rehabilitation of the 1930s-era toll plaza between the Queens and Bronx spans, which included a rebuilding of the roadway and the supporting structure underneath. The new tollbooth structure is to be completed in 2019.[23] In addition, a ramp from the Manhattan span to the northbound Harlem River Drive was being built for $68.3 million, with the ramp to be finished by December 2017. [23] Cashless tolling, a program that eliminates toll gates and allows drivers to maintain highway speeds across the span, was implemented on June 15, 2017. Tolls are either collected electronically by EZ Pass transponder or by mail using data collected by license plate readers. [23]

text: Usage[edit]

text: The toll revenues from the Triborough Bridge pay for a portion of the public transit subsidy for the New York City Transit Authority and the commuter railroads.[25] The bridge had annual average daily traffic of 164,116 in 2014. For that year, the bridge saw annual toll-paying traffic rise by 2.9% to 59.9 million, generating $393.6 million in revenue at an average toll of $6.57.[26]

text: The bridge has sidewalks in all three legs where the TBTA officially requires bicyclists to walk their bicycles across[27] due to safety concerns.[28] However, the signs stating this requirement have been usually ignored by bicyclists,[29] while the New York City Government has recommended that the TBTA should reassess this kind of bicycling ban.[30] Stairs on the 2 km (1.2 mi) Queens leg impede handicapped access. The Queens stairway along the southern side was demolished at the beginning of the 21st century, thus isolating that walkway, but the ramp of the Wards Island end of the walkway along the northern side was improved in 2007.[citation needed] The two sidewalks of the Bronx span are connected to only one ramp at the Randalls Island end.[citation needed]

text: Tolls[edit]

text: Beginning on March 19, 2017, drivers will pay $8.50 per car or $3.50 per motorcycle for tolls by mail. E‑ZPass users with transponders issued by the New York E‑ZPass Customer Service Center pay $5.76 per car or $2.51 per motorcycle. All E-ZPass users with transponders not issued by the New York E-ZPass CSC will be required to pay Toll-by-mail rates.[31]

text: Open-road cashless tolling began on June 15, 2017. The tollbooths were dismantled, and drivers are no longer able to pay cash at the bridge. Instead, there are cameras mounted onto new overhead gantries near where the booths were formerly located.[32][33] Drivers without E-ZPass will have a picture of their license plate taken, and the toll will be mailed to them. For E-ZPass users, sensors will detect their transponders wirelessly.[32][33]

text: Public transportation[edit]

text: The Triborough Bridge carries the M35, M60, X80 bus routes operated by MTA New York City Transit, and nine express bus routes operated by the MTA Bus Company: BxM1, BxM2, BxM6, BxM7, BxM8, BxM9, BxM10, BxM11, BxM18.

text: In the 1920s, New York's Transit Commission considered extending the BMT Astoria Line along the same route the Triborough now follows. The proposal would have created a crosstown subway line along 125th Street.[34]

text: Statistics[edit]

text: East River suspension bridge (I-278)[edit]

text:
Span crosses the East River at the Hell Gate between Queens and Wards Island
Connects to Grand Central Parkway and Brooklyn–Queens Expressway
Length of main span: 1,380 feet (421 m)
Length of each side span: 700 feet (213 m)
Length, anchorage to anchorage: 2,780 feet (847 m)[3]
Width of bridge: 98 feet (30 m)
Number of traffic lanes: 8 lanes
Height of towers above mean high water: 315 feet (96 m)
Clearance at center above mean high water: 143 feet (44 m)
Number of sidewalks: 1

text: Harlem River lift bridge (NY 900G)[edit]

text:
Span crosses the Harlem River between Manhattan and Randalls Islands
Connects to Harlem River Drive, FDR Drive, and 125th Street
Length of main lift-truss span: 310 feet (94 m)
Length of each side truss span: 195 feet (59 m)
Length, anchorage to anchorage: 700 feet (213 m)[3]
Height of towers: 210 feet (64 m)
Clearance of lift span above mean high water: 55 feet (17 m)
Clearance of lift span in raised position: 135 feet (41 m)
Number of traffic lanes: 6 lanes
Number of sidewalks: 2 (1 on each side)

text: Bronx Kill crossing (I-278)[edit]

text:
Span crosses the Bronx Kill between The Bronx and Randalls Island
Connects to Major Deegan Expressway and Bruckner Expressway
Length of main truss span: 383 feet (117 m)
Length of approach truss span: 1,217 feet (371 m)[3]
Length, anchorage to anchorage: 1,600 feet (488 m)
Clearance of truss span above mean high water: 55 feet (17 m)
Number of traffic lanes: 8 lanes
Number of sidewalks: 2 (1 on each side)


document_title: Flushed Away

question_text: who is the voice of roddy in flushed away

text: Flushed Away

text: Plot

text: Roddy St. James (Hugh Jackman) is an upper class pet rat who makes his home in a posh Kensington flat. While his owners are away on holiday, Roddy plays around the house. A common sewer rat named Sid (Shane Richie) comes spewing out of the sink and decides to stay, especially as England are playing against Germany in the World Cup final. Roddy schemes to get rid of Sid by luring him into the "jacuzzi", which is actually the toilet. Sid isn't fooled and instead throws Roddy in and flushes him away into the sewer. There, Roddy discovers a city resembling London made out of various bits of junk, and meets Rita Malone (Kate Winslet), an enterprising scavenger rat who works the drains in her faithful boat, the Jammy Dodger. Rita despises Roddy initially, but ends up taking him along, while her arch enemy The Toad (Ian McKellen) sends his rat henchmen, Spike (Andy Serkis) and Whitey (Bill Nighy), after her because she had stolen back her father's prized ruby a long time ago. The Toad loathes all rodents to the point of hateful obsession, and plans to have Roddy and Rita frozen with liquid nitrogen inside an icemaker. The pair escape, and Rita takes a unique electrical cable that, unknown to everyone but the Toad, is required to control the floodgates.

text: Roddy finds that the ruby is a fake and breaks it in front of Rita, enraging her, for she cannot now get the money she needs for her large family. Roddy offers her a real ruby if she takes him back to Kensington. Accepting the offer, the pair first stop to visit her family before setting off. During Roddy's stay, he overhears a conversation that causes him to think that Rita had double-crossed him, so he steals the Jammy Dodger. When Rita catches up to him, she is able to clear up the misunderstanding. The pair evade Spike and Whitey pursuing in a remote-controlled toy boat, with their accomplices on eggbeater jet skis. Incensed at his minions’ repeated failures, The Toad sends for his French cousin; an infamous, if somewhat laid back, mercenary known as Le Frog (Jean Reno). During this scene, it is revealed that The Toad was once Prince Charles' pet, but was replaced by a pet rat, and subsequently flushed down a toilet, resulting in his hatred of rodents. Le Frog and his subordinates intercept Roddy and Rita and retrieve the cable, but the duo use a plastic bag to lift themselves out of the sewer (snatching away the cable during the ascent) and get Roddy home, though the Jammy Dodger is destroyed.

text: Back home, Roddy pays Rita the promised ruby and an emerald, then proceeds to show her around his house. She at first believes he has family in the home, but noticing his cage, she realises he's a pet. Roddy tries to pass Sid off as his brother, but Sid and Rita know each other. Rita tries to persuade Roddy to come with her, but he is too proud to admit that he is lonely. By now, they have fallen in love but have not told each other their feelings. She departs, both of them broken-hearted, but is soon captured by The Toad. Talking to Sid about half-time, Roddy pieces together The Toad's plan: to open the gates during halftime of the World Cup, when all the humans will most likely be using their toilets, causing a great flood and drowning the rats and their underground city in sewage. Toby could then use the depopulated city as a home for his own tadpole offspring. He gives Sid his cushy position and has him flush him back to the sewers to find Rita and save the city. Together, they defeat The Toad and freeze the wave of sewage generated by the flushing of countless toilets during half-time with liquid nitrogen before it drowns the entire rat population.

text: Rita and Roddy build the Jammy Dodger Mark Two and set off in her with Rita's entire brood. A newspaper article reveals England had lost on penalties. Later while the credits start, Roddy's former owner Tabitha returns home with a new pet cat, which scares Sid.

text: Voice cast

text:
Hugh Jackman as Roderick "Roddy" St. James, a pampered but lonely pet rat living in a Kensington apartment with a wealthy English family. He is flushed down the toilet by Sid into the sewers.
Kate Winslet as Rita Malone, a street-wise scavenger rat and the oldest child of a large family. She is the captain of The Jammy Dodger.
Ian McKellen as The Toad, a haughty amphibian wanting the entire rat population to be killed off so he can make room for his hundreds of offspring.
Jean Reno as Le Frog, The Toad's French cousin. He masters martial arts and is the leader of a team of hench-frogs.
Andy Serkis as Spike, one of the Toad's two top hench-rats. Being the Toad's hench-rat is Spike's first job, despite him being only a teenager. He is the quicker-witted and most aggressive of the two.
Bill Nighy as Whitey, another of the Toad's two top hench-rats. Whitey is an albino rat, once working in a lab and he is Spike's partner. Unlike Spike, Whitey is sympathetic and less vicious, but is also ignorant and gullible.
Shane Richie as Sid, an over-weight and lazy rat from the sewers. He is an acquaintance of Rita and her family, and the one who flushed Roddy down the toilet into the sewers.

text: Production

text: The idea for a film about rats which fall in love in a sewer was proposed by animator Sam Fell during the production of Aardman Animation's Chicken Run (2000).[4] At the time, Aardman encouraged everyone at the company to come up with ideas for features for the DreamWorks partnership.[4] Fell, development executive Mike Cooper, and producer Peter Lord then developed the concept into a story before pitching it to DreamWorks.[4] Lord described the pitch as "The African Queen with the gender roles reversed."[4] Comic writing duo, Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais were contracted to write the script for the film,[4] which went under the working title of Ratropolis.[5]

text: Traditionally, Aardman have used stop-motion for their animated features, but it is complex to render water with this technique, and using real water can damage plasticine models. It would have been expensive to composite CGI into shots that include water, of which there are many in the movie, so they chose to make Flushed Away their first all-CGI production.[6] This is the third of three Aardman-produced films released by DreamWorks. Aardman's experience with DreamWorks during the making of the film led to a split between the two studios.[7]

text: Marketing

text: Soundtrack

text: On Halloween (31 October) of 2006, the Flushed Away: Music from the Motion Picture soundtrack was released.[8]

text:
No.
Title
Artist
Length

1.
"Be Seeing You My Friend"

3:49

2.
"Dancing with Myself"
Billy Idol
4:49

3.
"Are You Gonna Be My Girl"
Jet
3:34

4.
"She's a Lady"
Tom Jones
2:54

5.
"Ice Cold Rita"
Hugh Jackman & The Slugs
0:44

6.
"Bohemian Like You"
The Dandy Warhols
3:32

7.
"Marcel / That's Not Rice You're Eating"
Harry Gregson-Williams & The Slugs
0:55

8.
"What's New Pussycat?"
Tom Jones
2:17

9.
"Yakety Sax"
Boots Randolph
2:01

10.
"Mr. Lonely"
The Slugs
0:27

11.
"Don't Worry, Be Happy (with The Slugs intro)"
Bobby McFerrin
4:22

12.
"Proud Mary"
Tina Turner
5:25

13.
"Wonderful Night"
Fatboy Slim
2:37

14.
"Life in the Sewer"
Harry Gregson-Williams
4:40

15.
"Beware...Beware"
The Slugs
0:35

Total length:
36:16

text: Video game

text: Coinciding with the film's release, a video game adaptation was released on the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, Game Boy Advance, and on the Nintendo DS. Although having heavily negative reviews from critics, the game received an Annie Award for best animated video game.[9]

text: Home video

text: Flushed Away was released on DVD 20 February 2007. It included behind the scenes, deleted info, Jammy Dodger videos and all new slug songs.[10] It was released in the UK on 2 April 2007,[11] where it was also packaged with a plasticine 'Slug Farm' kit.[12]

text: Reception

text: Critical response

text: Flushed Away has a 72% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 6.7/10 based on 130 reviews. The site's critical consensus reads "Clever and appealing for both children and adults, Flushed Away marks a successful entry into digital animated features for Aardman Animations."[13] Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 74, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[14]

text: Todd McCarthy of Variety gave the film a negative review, saying "As directed by David Bowers and Sam Fell, first-time feature helmers with long-term Aardman affiliations, the film boasts undeniably smart and eye-catching qualities that are significantly diluted by the relentlessly frantic and overbearing behavior of most characters; someone is always loudly imposing himself upon another, to diminishing returns of enjoyment."[15] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+, saying "Flushed Away lacks the action-contraption dottiness of a Wallace and Gromit adventure, but it hits its own sweet spot of demented delight."[16] James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It's better than 90% of the animated fare of the last few years. It's refreshing not to have to qualify the movie's appeal by appending the words, 'for the kids'."[17] Jan Stuart of Newsday gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Despite the efforts of five writers and Aardman's trademark puppets, with their malleable eyebrows and cheeks bulging like those of a mumps sufferer, none of these characters are particularly endearing."[18] Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, saying "Flushed Away, Aardman's first computer-generated cartoon, does away with the clay but leaves the craft and emotion intact, resulting in a film that earns its place among the Aardman classics."[19] Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The short attention spans of directors David Bowers and Sam Fell are mostly forgivable because the movie is filled with so many entertaining characters."[20]

text: Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a negative review, saying "Deficient in the comedy of reticence discouragement that is Aardman's (or maybe just Nick Park's) unique strength. I don't want to say the Englishmen were corrupted, but I think they allowed their strongest, quirkiest instincts to be tethered."[21] Ted Fry of The Seattle Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying "Fans of Wallace and Gromit may be puzzled by a visual disconnect in Flushed Away. They will certainly, however, be delighted by the unrelenting whimsy and fast-paced gags of a story that never slows down to think about where it's going next."[22] Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying "Kids will probably be in stinky-sewage heaven with the new computer-animated critter comedy Flushed Away, but even they may realize they're up the proverbial creek in a boat with a faulty motor."[23] Jack Mathews of the New York Daily News gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Though Flushed Away duplicates the stop-motion, clay animation look of Aardman's earlier Chicken Run and Wallace & Gromit, it was made using computer software and its liberated action sequences are truly dazzling."[24] Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "How this thing got made in Hollywood is a mystery, but I laughed at most of it, especially the mean stereotypes about the French and the even meaner stereotype about England's soccer team."[25]

text: Box office

text: Flushed Away collected $64,488,856 in the United States, which was below the average of other CGI films from DreamWorks Animation, and $111,814,663 from international markets for a worldwide total of $176,319,242.[2] The film opened to number three in its first weekend, with $18,814,323, behind Borat and The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause.[26] Produced on a budget of $149 million, poor box office reception resulted in a $109-million write-down for DreamWorks Animation,[27] and in a termination of the partnership with Aardman Animations.[28]

text: Notes

text: ^ In July 2014, the film's distribution rights were purchased by DreamWorks Animation from Paramount Pictures.[29]

tag: ol