document_title: National Command Authority

question_text: who has the power to launch nuclear weapons in the us

root

text: National Command Authority

text: National Command Authority (NCA) is a term used by the Department of Defense of the United States of America to refer to the ultimate source of lawful military orders. The NCA comprises the President of the United States (as commander-in-chief) and the Secretary of Defense jointly, or their duly deputized successors, i.e. the Vice President and the Deputy Secretary of Defense. The term also refers to communications with the commanding officers of the Unified Combatant Commands to put U.S. forces into action.

tag: p

text: Authorization of a nuclear or strategic attack[edit]

text: Only the President can direct the use of nuclear weapons by U.S. armed forces, including the Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP). While the President does have unilateral authority as commander-in-chief to order that nuclear weapons be used for any reason at any time, the actual procedures and technical systems in place for authorizing the execution of a launch order requires a secondary confirmation under a two-man rule, as the President's order is subject to secondary confirmation by the Secretary of Defense. If the Secretary of Defense does not concur, then the President may in his sole discretion fire the Secretary. The Secretary of Defense has legal authority to approve the order, but cannot veto it.[1][2][3]


document_title: AARP

question_text: what group of voters does the aarp generally support

text: AARP

text: History[edit]

text: According to the group's official history, Dr. Ethel Percy Andrus founded AARP in 1958. AARP evolved from the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA), which Andrus had established in 1947 to promote her philosophy of productive aging, and in response to the need of health insurance for retired teachers. After ten years, Andrus opened the organization to all Americans over 50, creating AARP.[9] Today, the NRTA is a division within AARP. Dr. Andrus founded AARP while living in Ojai, California, where she had established an innovative new retirement home named Grey Gables. Ojai served as national headquarters for AARP from 1958 until the mid-1960s. Honors to Dr. Andrus include National Teacher of the Year in 1954, induction into the Women's Hall of Fame and, more recently, a medallion placed on the Points of Light Institute's "Extra Mile Pathway" in downtown Washington, D.C.[10]

text: Critics of AARP offer an alternative version of the group's origins. 60 Minutes reported in a 1978 exposé that AARP had been established as a marketing device by Leonard Davis, founder of the Colonial Penn Group insurance companies, after he met Ethel Percy Andrus.[11] According to critics, until the 1980s AARP was controlled by Mr. Davis, who promoted its image as a non-profit advocate of retirees in order to sell insurance to members.[12] Possibly as a result of the 60 Minutes report, AARP conducted a lengthy competitive bidding process, and, in 1980, shifted the insurance contracts made available to members to Prudential Financial.[13]

text: In the 1990s, the United States Senate investigated AARP's non-profit status, with Republican Senator Alan Simpson, then chairman of the United States Senate Finance Subcommittee on Social Security, Pensions, and Family Policy, questioning the organization's tax-exempt status in congressional hearings. According to Charles Blahous, the investigations did not reveal sufficient evidence to change the organization's status,[14] though in an interview years later by the Des Moines Register, Senator Simpson remained "troubled by AARP's practices", calling AARP "the biggest marketing operation in America and money-maker" and an organization whose practices are "the greatest abuse of American generosity I witnessed in my time in the U.S. Senate".[15]

text: The organization was originally named the American Association of Retired Persons, but in 1999 it officially changed its name to "AARP" (pronounced one letter at a time, "ay ay ar pee") to reflect that its focus was no longer American retirees.[16] AARP no longer requires that members be retired, but they must be at least age 50 (although a membership includes free membership for a spouse or partner who may not yet be 50).

text: All people age 50 and older in every walk of life are eligible for full membership with AARP. For those under the age of 50, AARP offers associate memberships. If you are an associate member, your membership will automatically convert to full membership on your 50th birthday.[17]

text: Activities[edit]

text: Overview[edit]

text: AARP is widely known for addressing issues affecting older Americans through a multitude of initiatives, including lobbying efforts at the state and national governmental level, an activity permitted by its 501(c)(4) status. The organization says that it is non-partisan and does not support, oppose or give money to any candidates or political parties. AARP's total revenue for 2006 was approximately $1 billion and it spent $23 million on lobbying.[18] Middle-class security has been a major focus for the organization in recent years.[19] AARP also provides extensive consumer information, volunteer opportunities, and events including the annual National Event & Expo (2013 in Las Vegas from May 30–June 1 and in Atlanta from October 3–5).

text: AARP launched Life Reimagined in May 2013, calling it a "first-of-its-kind series of online and offline experiences that guide people through life transitions by helping them discover new possibilities and connect with a community of people pursuing similar passions and goals".[20] USA Today called Life Reimagined "the latest step for the AARP (formerly known as the American Association of Retired Persons) as it continues to rebrand itself and become the go-to address for feeling good about aging.[21]

text: AARP Services, Inc. and AARP Financial Incorporated[edit]

text: AARP Services, Inc., founded in 1999, is a wholly owned taxable subsidiary of AARP. AARP Services manages the wide range of products and services that are offered as benefits to AARP's members. The offers span health products, travel and leisure products, and life event services. Specific products include Medicare supplemental insurance; member discounts on rental cars, cruises, vacation packages and lodging; special offers on technology and gifts; pharmacy services; legal services; and long-term care insurance. AARP Services founded AARP Financial Incorporated, a subsidiary that manages AARP-endorsed financial products including AARP Funds. In a filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission in June 2010, AARP Financial announced the discontinuation of AARP Funds[22] AARP Services develops new products, manages and markets products and services, and creates and maintains partnership and sponsorship relationships.

text: AARP Foundation[edit]

text: AARP Foundation[23] is AARP's affiliated charity. Foundation programs provide security, protection and empowerment for older persons in need. Low-income older workers receive the job training and placement they need to re-join the workforce. Free tax preparation is provided for low- and moderate-income individuals, with special attention to those 60 and older. The Foundation's litigation staff protects the legal rights of older Americans in critical health, long-term care, consumer and employment situations. Additional programs provide information, education, and services to ensure that people over 50 lead lives of independence, dignity, and purpose. Foundation programs are funded by grants, tax-deductible contributions and AARP.

text: The AARP Foundation's website claims the nonprofit "wants to win back opportunity for those now in crisis, so thousands of vulnerable low-income Americans 50+ can regain their foothold, continue to serve as anchors for their families and communities and ensure that their best life is still within reach." Key areas of focus are hunger, income, housing, and isolation. The Foundation's vision is "a country that is free of poverty where no older person feels vulnerable."

text: One of the goals of the AARP Foundation is to reduce hunger among seniors through the Drive to End Hunger. In 2011, AARP and AARP Foundation formed a relationship with NASCAR driver Jeff Gordon and Hendrick Motorsports to increase awareness of hunger in America with the No. 24 Drive to End Hunger race car and related food drives.[24] Through the Drive to End Hunger program, AARP also sponsored Hendrick driver Kasey Kahne, beginning in 2016.[25]

text: AARP Driver Safety[edit]

text: In 1979, AARP introduced the nation's first-ever driver safety course geared towards older adults. AARP Driver Safety,[26] which can be completed in a classroom setting or online, teaches defensive driving techniques and provides "added information on age-related cognitive and physical changes that affect driving."[27] The course is instructed and promoted by volunteers throughout the U.S.

text: As of 2017, the cost of the course in the United States is $19.95 for AARP members and $24.95 for non-members. The program is also supported by a grant from the automobile manufacturer, Toyota.[28] Over half million drivers completed the course in 2012 and over 15 million people completed the courses since 1979.[29][30]

text: AARP publications and broadcasts[edit]

text: English language[edit]

text: AARP The Magazine with their approximately 37 million readers and the AARP Bulletin with 29.7 million, make the two magazines the largest-circulation publications in the United States.[31][32]

text:
The organization publishes AARP The Magazine[33] (known until 2002 as Modern Maturity), a lifestyle magazine for people 50+. Established in 1958,[34] the magazine is distributed bi-monthly to AARP members.
AARP Bulletin, subtitled "The Newspaper for 50-Plus America", is published monthly, 10 times per year, and requires membership and an additional subscription fee.[35]
The Journal, released by AARP's International Office, is a policy publication on health and financial security issues facing a global aging population.[36]

tag: ul

text: The organization also produces radio and television programs and has a book division.[citation needed]

text:
Inside E Street, hosted by broadcast journalist Lark McCarthy, takes a "nonpartisan, civil look into issues critical to Americans"[37]
Movies for Grownups, a weekly two-minute program hosted and produced by Bill Newcott, creator of AARP's Movies for Grownups franchise, is heard on stations nationwide and online at the radioprimetime website. Guests have included Julie Andrews, John Cleese, Helen Hunt, Ron Howard, and Alfre Woodard.[citation needed]
Prime Time Focus, hosted by Alyne Ellis, is a 90-second daily feature with a five-minute weekend edition heard on more than 500 stations.[citation needed]
Prime Time Radio, hosted by veteran broadcaster Mike Cuthbert, is a one-hour weekly interview program that focuses on the wide-ranging interests and concerns of Americans aged 50 and older. The program is heard on radio stations mainly in the United States.[38]

text: Spanish language[edit]

text: AARP en Español is the AARP's Spanish-language multimedia platform. Offerings include a Spanish-language website, a Spanish-language YouTube channel, and informational resources.

text: AARP Awards[edit]

text:
The Inspire Awards pay tribute to outstanding individuals who inspire others to action through their innovative thinking, passion and perseverance. Honorees are profiled in the December/January issue of AARP's bi-monthly magazine and awards are presented in Washington, D.C.
The Movies for Grownups Awards spotlights films that resonate with a 50-plus audience and celebrate the work of actors and filmmakers 50 and older. The awards are featured in the February/March issue of AARP's bi-monthly magazine and presented each February in Beverly Hills, California.

text: Health care[edit]

text: AARP has been active in health care policy debates since c. 1960 and its recent engagement is a reflection of this long-standing involvement.[39]

text: AARP's public stances influenced the United States Congress' passage of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, which authorized the creation of Medicare Part D, in 2003, and also influenced the Congress by resisting radical changes to Social Security in 2005.[40][41] AARP also addressed health care issues in their campaign targeting the 2008 elections with Divided We Fail.

text: In an editorial column within the Los Angeles Times, critic Dale Van Atta wrote that AARP does unauthorized lobbying for its membership, and lobbies against the best interests of its membership. Van Atta says that by lobbying for the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, AARP leaders betrayed the membership.[42]

text: In early 2017, AARP strongly opposed the American Health Care Act of 2017 they believe that older Americans would be unfairly burdened with higher premiums and smaller tax credits.[43]

text: Health insurance[edit]

text: Approximately seven million people have AARP-branded health insurance, including drug coverage and Medigap, as of April 2007[44] and AARP earns more income from selling insurance to members than it does from membership dues.[45] In 2008, AARP plans to begin offering several new health insurance products: an HMO for Medicare recipients, in partnership with UnitedHealth Group; and a PPO and "a high-deductible insurance policy that could be used with a health savings account" to people aged 50–64, in partnership with Aetna. AARP will likely become the largest source of health insurance for Medicare recipients, and AARP estimates the new products will increase its health insurance customers to 14 million by 2014.[44][46]

text: While AARP is not an insurer, in that it does not pay insurance claims, it does allow its name to be used by insurance companies in the sale of insurance products, for which it is paid a commission.[47]

text: Senator Charles E. Grassley (R-Iowa), senior Republican on the Senate Finance Committee, said in 2008 that the "limited benefit" insurance plans offered by AARP through UnitedHealth provided inadequate coverage and were marketed deceptively. One plan offered $5,000 for surgery that may cost two or three times that amount.[48]

text: AARP conducts a thriving business in marketing branded Medigap policies. As of October 2009, Medical care reform contained a proposal to trim an associated program Medicare Advantage, which was expected to increase demand for Medigap policies.[49] However, as cited above, AARP also brands a Medicare Advantage plan (MedicareComplete), and would also be subject to cuts under health care reform.[50]

text: According to an Annenberg Public Policy Center report, critics have said AARP had a conflict of interest in supporting the Act, because AARP "derives income from the sale of health and life insurance policies", by licensing its brand to insurance dealers such as New York Life,[51] and would benefit financially from passage of the legislation.[52]

text: In 2004 BusinessWeek said questions have arisen in the past about whether AARP's commercial interests may conflict with those of its membership, and characterizes many of the funds and insurance policies that AARP markets as providing considerably less benefit than seniors could get on their own.[53]

text: Single payer[edit]

text: Single-payer advocates have criticized AARP for not supporting the single-payer or public option during the health care debate.[54] Single-payer advocates supported H.R. 676, proposed by Rep. John Conyers (D-MI). AARP released a statement explaining to its members why the organization was not supporting H.R. 676:

text: Starting over with a new, "single-payer" program will not eliminate the problems Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP currently face, such as the spiraling costs of procedures and prescription medications, as well as technological advances that are often not comprehensively tested to be proven safe or effective before marketing. H.R. 676 does not address the problem of increasing health-care costs. Rather, it allows costs to continue to grow, which will result in unaffordable coverage.

text: John Rother, AARP's former chief lobbyist, said the single-payer model would "disrupt the system that is currently in place" and "would require a very significant tax increase." But Rother admitted that it would be possible to design a system that would avoid these problems and function well. AARP's priorities now are to protect the current programs and implement the Affordable Care Act. Rother said that any effort to promote single payer would be undercutting health reform. Rother said. "To go to a single-payer you do have to trust government. The climate we're in right now is a very hostile climate for something like that."[54]

text: Rother also thought that an educational effort on the benefits of single payer would undercut the ACA. AARP has not published any material relating to single-payer health insurance on its website, in its several hundred page policy book, or through its Public Policy Institute.[54]

text: Approximately 60,000 AARP members quit AARP between July 1 and August 18, 2009, in a controversy that arose over AARP's support for U.S. health care reform. FOX News stated, "The Atlanta-based American Seniors Association, which is opposed to President Obama's health care plan, is trying to capitalize on growing public dissatisfaction with the AARP." AARP spokesman Drew Nannis responded that AARP loses about 300,000 members a month on average, and the controversial 60,000 of those that had left had specified leaving over the Health Care debate. Nannis also stated that the AARP gained 400,000 members and that 1.5 million members renewed their memberships within the same period of time.[55] The American Seniors Association is a for-profit organization operated by the American Seniors Association Holding Group, Inc (ASAHG, Inc).[56][57]

text: Social Security[edit]

text: Since March 2012, AARP's You've Earned a Say campaign has sought to foster nonpartisan conversations about how to strengthen Social Security and Medicare. The Richmond (VA) Times-Dispatch reported, "AARP took the debate about Medicare and Social Security from what it called behind closed doors in Washington to a series of town hall meetings around the country to make sure retirees have a voice in the discussion."[58]

text: In June 2011, AARP dropped its longstanding opposition to cutting Social Security benefits. A news release[59] emphasized "AARP has not changed its position on Social Security." In 2005 AARP led the effort to kill President George W. Bush's plan for partial privatization. AARP now has concluded that change is inevitable, and it wants to be at the table to try to minimize the pain. John Rother, AARP's policy chief and a prime mover for the new position, said "The ship was sailing. I wanted to be at the wheel when that happens." AARP declined to join a coalition of about 300 unions, women's groups and liberal advocacy organizations created to fight Social Security benefit cuts. Rother said, "The coalition's role was to kind of anchor the left, and our role is going to be to actually get something done".[60]

text: Executive compensation, benefits, and travel[edit]

text: According to AARP's IRS annual return, Chief Executive Officer Addison B. Rand received $1,698,289 of salary and benefits in 2014 from AARP and its subsidiaries.[61]

text: All board members, officers, and key employees fly first class on flights longer than five hours unless business class is available.[61] The Chief Executive Officer flies first-class on all flights longer than 90 minutes.[61]

text: AARP reported that it had spent $8,694,890 on compensation of its officers, directors, and key employees during 2014.[61]

text: Charity Watch rated the AARP Foundation overall at 81.07 out of 100 possible points for fiscal year 2014, but gave the organization a Financial score of only 73.53 out of 100 for the same time period.[62]


document_title: AFL Grand Final

question_text: who has kicked the most goals in afl grand final

question_tokens: who has kicked the most goals in afl grand final

text: AFL Grand Final

text: Game history[edit]

text: 1897–1901: Origins[edit]

text: The concept of a "grand" final gradually evolved from experimentation by the Victorian Football League (VFL) in the initial years of competition following its inception in 1897. During the 19th century, Australian football competition adopted the approach that the team on top of the ladder at the end of the home-and-away series was declared the premiers. However, the fledgling VFL decided that a finals series played between the top four teams at the end of the season would generate more interest and gate money. For 1897, the VFL scheduled a round robin tournament whereby the top four played each other once and the team that won the most matches was declared the winner.

text: However, this method had flaws, so the VFL continued to experiment, playing "section" matches after the regular season and then a finals series where first on the ladder played the third team and second met fourth. The winners of these "semi" finals then met in a final to decide the premiership. The first such final was contested in 1898 between the Essendon Football Club and Fitzroy Football Club at the St Kilda Cricket Ground, which Fitzroy won scoring 5.8 (38) to Essendon's 3.5 (23).

text: The second finals format was ultimately discarded by the VFL after the unsatisfactory conclusion to the 1900 VFL season, where Melbourne won the premiership after having finished sixth out of the eight teams after the home-and-away season (ahead of Carlton and St Kilda) with a record of 6-8.

text: The new finals system caused problems in 1901 when Geelong finished on top of the ladder but was immediately eliminated when defeated in the semi final. A "right of challenge" was introduced, giving the team that finished on top at the end of the regular season (the minor premier) the right to challenge if they lost the semi final or the final. This challenge match came to be called the "grand final". The first four grand finals were scattered around various Melbourne venues: one at Albert Park, two at St Kilda's Junction Oval and one at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground. The selection of the venue could depend on the portion of the gate demanded by the ground's landlords.

text: 1902–1914: MCG move[edit]

text: The public remained ambivalent to the concept of finals football until the VFL pulled off a coup in 1902. Previously, the MCG was unavailable to football in the early spring months as it was being prepared for the coming cricket season. The VFL convinced the Melbourne Cricket Club (MCC) to rent the ground for the finals series and the first grand final at what is today considered the home of the game attracted more than 35,000 people to watch Collingwood down Essendon. The success of the finals at the MCG was proven with big attendances every year, and soon all the major competitions around Australia were employing what was known as the "amended Argus system" of finals. The "original Argus system" had been instituted by the VFL in 1901, the amended system was instituted by the VFL in 1902.

text: By 1908, a new record attendance of 50,261 was set, on a day when the crowd was so huge that it broke through the fence and filed onto the ground, sitting around the boundary line to watch the action. This figure was beaten in the 1912 Grand Final when 54,463 saw Essendon defeat South Melbourne. The big finals crowds (and increasing cricket attendances) prompted the MCC to cut down the eleven fifty-year-old elm trees inside the ground and turn the stadium into a concrete bowl, complete with extra stands and standing room. The record fell again in the last grand final before World War I, when the excitement of St Kilda's first premiership attempt drew 59,479 spectators.

text: 1915–1930: World War I and the end of the challenge final system[edit]

text: The war had a considerable effect on the impact of the grand final and attendances plummeted. One critic called for the Carlton team to receive the Iron Cross after they defeated Collingwood in the thrilling 1915 Grand Final, ironically dubbed a "glorious contest" by famous coach Jack Worrall. But many diggers supported the continuance of the game, and both the 1918 and 1919 grand finals were notable for the large number of Australian servicemen in attendance, many of whom wore uniform.

text: During the 1920s, the VFL grappled with the problems associated with the "amended Argus system", specifically that a true grand final was not played if the minor premier won both the semi final and the final. Although new attendance records were set in 1920 and 1922, these were for the semi finals, which often drew bigger crowds than the grand final.

text: There was no grand final in 1924; a once-off finals system was trialled, in which the top four contested a round robin, with the top team from the round robin to face the minor premiers in a grand final if required; but, when minor premiers Essendon also won the round robin, no grand final was staged.[3]

text: The league reverted to the "amended Argus system" for 1925, when the grand final attracted a new record crowd of 64,288: the match was Geelong's first VFL premiership win, and a huge contingent from Victoria's second city descended on the MCG to watch their team make history. From 1927 until 1930, Collingwood won four premierships in a row, which remains the league record.

text: In 1927, 1928 and 1930, the biggest crowd of the year was again drawn to the semi final and not to the grand final. This, coupled with the perception that the minor premier could find losing its semi-final to be advantageous, resulted in the league abandoning the amended Argus system after 1931, replacing it with the Page–McIntyre system.[4]

text: 1931–1939: New finals system and start of a golden age[edit]

text: The Page playoff system (or 'final four") was introduced for 1931, whereby the semi finals (1 v 2 and 3 v 4) were followed by the preliminary final and then the grand final, with the right of challenge abolished. This proved satisfactory to all, and the new system ushered in a golden age for the grand final.

text: New records were constantly set and when 75,754 attended the 1933 Grand Final between South Melbourne and Richmond, it started the MCC thinking of expansion again. Just months earlier, cricket attendance records were shattered during the "bodyline" series between Australia and England. The MCC decided to build the southern stand, which enclosed almost half the ground and was completed in 1937. That year, the Geelong-Collingwood Grand Final attracted 88,540 and the spectators were sitting five deep along the boundary line. Somehow, the following year, 96,834 people turned up and squashed in to watch the Magpies take on Carlton. At the time, Melbourne's population was about one million, which meant that on grand final day, almost one tenth of the city was at the game.

text: 1940–1953: World War II and after[edit]

text: Football served as a distraction for people on the home front during the war, particularly during the darkest days between 1941 and 1943. The Australian government requisitioned a number of VFL grounds, including the MCG. Therefore, the grand final was staged at Princes Park (Carlton) in 1942, 1943 and 1945, and at St Kilda's Junction Oval in 1944 when Fitzroy won its last premiership on the second hottest grand final day on record. The 1943 clash was a thrilling contest, Richmond defeating Essendon by five points. The 1942 and 1945 matches were marred by violence, and the latter game has gone down in history as "the "Bloodbath". An amazing crowd of 62,986 crammed into the Carlton ground for this game, which was played just weeks after the armistice with Japan was declared.

text: So when the MCG was finally relinquished by the government in August 1946, there was great expectation in the buildup to the grand final, where Essendon booted a record score to defeat Melbourne. Attendances were back to 1930s levels by 1947 and 85,815 turned up to see Carlton beat Essendon by a solitary point; a similar crowd a year later watched the Bombers and Demons play the first draw in grand final history. Melbourne won the replay the following week. The sight of thousands sitting between the fence and the boundary line, first seen in the late 1930s, was now usual at the grand final. Spectators were admitted on a first-come basis, and thousands took to lining up outside the stadium in the days before the match to gain the best vantage point when the gates opened on the morning of the match. Some reservations were raised about spectator safety as the MCG was clearly being filled above its capacity.

text: 1954–1961: Melbourne Olympic Games and ticketing[edit]

text: As the MCG would be used as the main stadium for the 1956 Olympic Games, the ground was upgraded again with a new stand and extra capacity. Construction work restricted the crowd at the 1954 Grand Final when 80,897 people saw Footscray win their historic first flag. Eight thousand more witnessed the 1955 Grand Final, before the stand was fully completed. The 1956 Grand Final was seen as a dry run for the opening ceremony of the games two months later, but no one was prepared for the outcome. Officially, 115,802 fans turned out to see Melbourne take on Collingwood for the second year in a row, but contemporary reports state that anywhere between twenty and thirty thousand people were turned away. Some gained admittance by storming the gates, while others perched precariously on the roof of the southern stand. The old record had been shattered by almost 19,000 but the chaos outside the ground prompted the VFL to introduce a ticketing system for the first time.

text: Attendances now hovered around the 100,000 mark during the coming years. Melbourne dominated the era with seven straight grand final appearances (for five flags), playing Collingwood three times and Essendon twice. The 1958 Grand Final, when Collingwood upset a Melbourne team attempting to equal the Magpies' proud record of four consecutive premierships, was arguably the greatest upset recorded in the biggest game of all. The Demons made amends by winning the next year, when the premiership cup was presented for the first time. Previously, the crowd descended on the arena at the end of the game, and the players were variously chaired off the ground or walked to the dressing room. The presentation of the cup gave the after-match a ceremonial focus and allowed the attention to settle on the premier team.

text: Following the 1956 introduction of television to Australia, there were repeated calls for the grand final to be telecast live, but the VFL refused on the basis that the crowd numbers might be affected. A delayed telecast was allowed for the 1961 Grand Final, when Hawthorn won for the first time, but thereafter only a videotaped replay was shown.

text: 1962–1983: Second golden age[edit]

text: In contrast to the 1950s when a few teams were monopolising grand final places, the 1960s was a decade of variety. Between 1961 and 1968, seven teams won the flag and a number of classic encounters were played. In the 1964 grand final, a thrilling finish enabled Melbourne to win their last premiership to date by four points. Two years later, in arguably one of the most famous grand finals of them all, St Kilda won their only premiership by one point, and their players went for an impromptu lap of honour with the cup, a tradition that endures. In the 1967 grand final, Geelong and Richmond played a match of the highest standard, with the Tigers winning in the last minutes to end a long premiership drought. The next season, Carlton also ended a long run without success and set a record as the only winning team to score fewer goals than the opposition as they defeated Essendon by three points.

text: By now, the MCG had been expanded again so that record crowds were set in 1968, 1969 and 1970. In what is commonly referred to as the greatest of all-time, the 1970 grand final saw Carlton come back from a 44-point half time deficit to beat Collingwood; it was watched by an all-time record crowd of 121,696 people. Most of the matches during this period had something to remember: Hawthorn's comeback to win in 1971, Carlton's record score in the highest scoring grand final ever played in 1972, Richmond's two wins over Carlton in 1969 and 1973 in very physical encounters, and North Melbourne's first grand final victory in 1975 . In the memorable 1977 grand final, North Melbourne came from 27 points down at three quarter time to play the second drawn grand final in history (the first since 1948). The momentum continued on the first Saturday in October 1977, when they defeated Collingwood in the replay.

text: After the 1981 grand final, the old scoreboard was removed to Manuka Oval. The MCG installed a new electronic colour scoreboard in 1982.[5]

text: By the start of the early 1980s, Collingwood had lost eight grand finals in a row since winning its 1958 premiership. The term "Colliwobbles" began to be used at this time to describe the team's inability to win grand finals.

text: 1982–1999: National team competition[edit]

text: The 1980s saw a sustained period of dominance by Hawthorn, who appeared in every grand final from 1983 to 1989, winning four of them in 1983, 1986, and back to back in 1988 and in 1989 contest. The 1989 Grand Final, a high scoring and very physical encounter in which Hawthorn defeated Geelong by six points, is considered to be one of the greatest of all time.

text: With the transformation of the VFL into the Australian Football League in 1990, and the move to a truly national competition, there emerged a new era in which non-Victorian based clubs now competed for the Premiership. Between 1992 and 2006, non-Victorian clubs won ten out of fifteen premierships. The first club to achieve the feat was West Coast in 1992 and 1994, and Adelaide won back-to-back premierships in 1997 and 1998. North Melbourne was the only other club to win two grand finals in the 1990s, 1996 and 1999 respectively, as no team dominated the era.

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Between 2001 and 2003, the Brisbane Lions won three consecutive grand finals, with its nine-point win against Collingwood in 2002 the closest of the three matches. In 2004, Port Adelaide defeated Brisbane Lions in the first grand final ever played between two non-Victorian teams. The 2005 and 2006 grand finals were played between Sydney and West Coast, with each winning one premiership by less than a goal; the 2005 match is remembered for the strong defensive mark taken by Sydney's Leo Barry in the dying seconds.

text: The years 2007 to 2011 saw a dominant Geelong appear in four out of five grand finals, winning three premierships. The only match to not feature Geelong was in 2010, when Collingwood and St Kilda played the third draw in grand final history, with Collingwood winning the subsequent replay by 56 points.

text: After 2011, Hawthorn established itself as a dominant force, finishing runners up to Sydney in 2012 then winning the 2013, 2014 and 2015 premierships against Fremantle, Sydney and West Coast.

text: On 19 April 2016, the AFL announced that drawn grand finals will be resolved by the use of two five minute extra time periods, with the siren not being sounded to end the second period until the tie is broken, abolishing the use of a full replay.[6]

text: Notable grand finals[edit]

text:
1903 – Late in the last quarter, Fitzroy skipper Gerald Brosnan marked a pass from teammate Percy Trotter about thirty metres from goal with his team three points behind Collingwood. As he went back to line up his kick, the final bell rang. Brosnan's shot missed, but was so close that a Collingwood defender later claimed that he could hear the ball's lace brush the goal post.
1910 – A massive brawl broke out between Collingwood and Carlton players during the last quarter. A number of players were felled and four players were reported (the first in grand Final history), yet the fight kept going. Umpire Jack Elder settled matters by blowing his whistle and bouncing the ball. Most of the combatants looked on, stunned, as the game recommenced without them, so they had no option but to forget about the fight. The match is generally considered to have initiated the long-standing rivalry between the two clubs.
1913 – Playing in their first grand final, St Kilda struggled, kicking just one goal in the first three quarters against Fitzroy. But they came charging home in the last by closing a 25-point gap to one point with a few minutes remaining. A St Kilda player marked very close to goal on an angle and made a bad mistake by following a pre-game tactic of handballing. His intended target was covered, the Saints lost the ball and Fitzroy booted two goals to seal the match.
1914 – With South Melbourne making a late charge at Carlton, the Blues led by six points when a long kick into South's goal square was contested by a pack of players. Just metres from the goal mouth, Ern Jamieson, Carlton's full back leaped straight into Tom Bollard's back, but Umpire Harry Rawle called play on and the ball was cleared. Moments later, the final bell rang. Had Bollard received a free and kicked it from point-blank range, the game would have ended in the first finals draw.
1918 – Collingwood had hit the front by a single point. In the final minute of play, South Melbourne went forward and a long kick into the teeth of goal by Gerald Ryan of South spilled from a pack of players. South Melbourne rover Chris Laird came rushing through and rather than attempt to pick the ball up, soccered it off the ground for a goal that won the game.
1921 – Richmond led Carlton by four points in a low scoring game played on a very wet day. Both teams were covered in mud as Carlton mounted a series of attacks in an attempt to get a winning goal. In the dying minute, a Carlton player passed toward teammate Alec Duncan, who was close to goal. Somehow, Richmond's Max Hislop hurtled across to Duncan and punched the ball from his grasp to save the premiership for the Tigers.
1927 – Collingwood defeated Richmond in atrocious conditions, 2.13 (25) to 1.7 (13). It was the lowest scoring game, grand final or otherwise, played during the 20th century.
1930 – Collingwood won its record fourth consecutive VFL grand final in succession, the 'Machine Team', under the tutelage of the legendary Jock McHale, creating a record which has not been matched in ensuing seasons.
1935 – Star full forward Bob Pratt was forced to withdraw from the grand final after he was hit by a truck in trying to cross the road the day before the game. Pratt had booted 362 in three seasons. Without him the Swans lost to Collingwood by 20 points, despite having as many scoring shots as the Magpies.
1945 – Known as 'the bloodbath', the game was marred by constant brawling and fighting. Carlton defeated South Melbourne 15.13 (103) to 10.15 (75); ten players were reported and received a combined 73 weeks of suspension.
1948 – In the first drawn grand final, Essendon's inaccurate kicking led them to draw 7.27 (69) to Melbourne's 10.9 (69). Melbourne easily won the replay 13.11 (89) to Essendon's 7.8 (50).
1958 – A Collingwood outfit which had been badly beaten by Melbourne only two weeks earlier held sway in an 18-point victory over Melbourne to deny the Demons a fourth consecutive premiership, successfully defending their club's record of four consecutive premierships.
1960 – After an historic six consecutive years at the top of the ladder at the end of the home-and-away season, Melbourne won their 5th premiership in seven years, with a convincing win over Collingwood in wet conditions, in which the Demons more than quadrupled the Magpies' score 8.14 (62) to Collingwood's 2.2 (14).
1961 – In their first ever grand final, Hawthorn defeated Footscray to claim their first VFL/AFL premiership. This was until 2016 the last Grand Final for the Bulldogs.
1964 – Collingwood, playing Melbourne, looked set for a victory in the last quarter after Ray Gabelich's goal put them up by two points. Back pocket Neil Crompton kicked his first goal in 5 years to snatch back the lead and the match for Melbourne by 4 points, just moments from the final siren.
1966 – St Kilda won their first premiership in 69 years of competition, defeating Collingwood by a solitary point. With only moments left, the two sides were locked level. Finally, Barry Breen snapped the point that gave the club its first and to date only premiership in its history.
1970 – Carlton makes history by overcoming a 44-point deficit at half-time to defeat Collingwood by 10 points by the final siren. Alex Jesaulenko takes the Mark of the Year late in the second quarter, and the attendance of 121,696 remains the largest crowd of all time.
1972 – Carlton and Richmond scored a combined 50.27 (327) under the changing brand of football, then the highest scoring game of all time, and still the highest-scoring grand final of all-time.
1975 – North Melbourne win their first grand final – the last of the 12 VFL teams to do so.
1977 – The first ever grand final to be televised live resulted in a draw between North Melbourne and Collingwood. In a grand final replay the following week, North Melbourne was victorious.
1979 – Carlton defeats Collingwood by five points. Wayne Harmes (Carlton) was awarded the inaugural Norm Smith Medal as best on field; Harmes famously tapped the ball from the boundary line to the goal square for his teammate, Ken Sheldon, to kick the winning goal.
1982 – Maurice Rioli (Richmond) became the first player to win the Norm Smith Medal despite being on the losing team.
1989 – The grand final between Hawthorn and Geelong was one of the closest and hardest fought in years, and nicknamed the "Battle of '89". Noted for its toughness, the game saw injuries and incidents involving Dermott Brereton (famously knocked out by a solid shirtfront from Mark Yeates but continued to play) and Robert DiPierdomenico (played three quarters with a punctured lung), and many players were hospitalised after the game.
1990 – Collingwood broke a 32-year drought and ended the famous "Colliwobbles", winning the first grand final of the new AFL era.
1991 – Due to the major construction of the Southern Stand at the MCG, the grand final was played at VFL Park.
1992 – West Coast became the first non-Victorian team to win a premiership, defeating Geelong by 28 points.
1996 – North Melbourne defeat the Sydney Swans and receive the only gold-coloured premiership cup in history when the league commemorates the AFL/VFL's 100th season.
1998 – In defeating North Melbourne, Adelaide won back-to-back premierships in their second year under Malcolm Blight, becoming first club in modern times[7] to win the premiership after finishing lower than fourth on the premiership ladder after the home-and-away season. Andrew McLeod won the Norm Smith Medal for the second consecutive year, the first to achieve the feat.
2003 – Brisbane defeated Collingwood by 50 points to win its third premiership in a row, the first club to achieve the feat since Melbourne in 1955–1957, and the first interstate club to achieve this.
2004 – Port Adelaide defeated Brisbane by 40 points in the first grand final not to include a Victorian team.
2005 – Sydney defeated West Coast by four points in a tight, low scoring game to win their first premiership since 1933 (when they were South Melbourne), ending a record drought of 72 years. A late, game-saving pack mark in defence by Leo Barry became an iconic finals moment.
2006 – West Coast defeated Sydney by one point in a match similar to the previous year. This continued a run of very close games between the two clubs and mirrored the qualifying final result a month earlier.
2007 – Geelong defeated Port Adelaide by a grand final record margin of 119 points to win their first premiership since 1963.
2010 – The grand final between St Kilda and Collingwood was drawn, the third drawn grand final in VFL/AFL history. Collingwood won the grand final replay the following week by 56 points, breaking a 20-year premiership drought in the process.
2015 – Hawthorn became just the second club in the modern era to win three premierships in a row, defeating the West Coast Eagles in the hottest conditions ever recorded for a VFL/AFL grand final.
2016 – The Western Bulldogs (Footscray) appeared in their first grand final since 1961 against the Sydney Swans, winning three consecutive finals from a record seventh position on the ladder to progress through to the grand final. The Western Bulldogs defeated the Sydney Swans by 22 points, winning their first premiership since 1954.

text: Qualification and prize[edit]

text: The two grand finalists qualify via finals series play-offs at the end of the season. In the current system, the eight teams finishing highest on the ladder after all the home and away rounds qualify for the four-week-long finals series culminating in the grand final. The team that finishes the regular season at the top of the ladder is said to have won the minor premiership and, since 1991, has been awarded the McClelland Trophy.

text: Flag[edit]

text: The premiers are awarded the "premiership flag", a large pennant which is unfurled at the premiers' first home game of the following season. The current flag is blue with the AFL logo, the word "premiers" and the year of the premiership. Although the cup features much more prominently in celebrations immediately following the grand final, the flag has far greater symbolic significance.

text: This is reflected in football parlance, in which speaking of a team winning the flag rather than the cup is much more common: this is possibly the result of history, as the presentation of a flag first occurred in 1895 when the VFA recognised Fitzroy's first premiership win, while the cup was not introduced until 1959 (retrospective cups were awarded by the AFL in 2010 for VFL/AFL premierships in 1897 to 1958).

text: Trophies[edit]

text: The winner of the grand final is presented with the AFL premiership cup. The current premiership cup is silver (with the exception of 1996, when a gold cup was awarded instead of the usual silver one in recognition of the AFL/VFL's 100th season) and manufactured by Cash's International at their metalworks in Frankston, Victoria.

text: The cup was first introduced in 1959 by the VFL, and the AFL has since retrospectively awarded all prior premiership winners trophies based on the current design. Before the 1960s, premiership players received a personal premiership trophy instead of a medallion.

text: The premier is also recorded on the perpetual E. L. Wilson Shield, which resides at AFL House.[8] The shield, inaugurated in 1929, was named after Edwin Lionel Wilson, who was the secretary of the Victorian Football League from its inception in 1897 until his retirement in 1929. It was initially discontinued after 1978, when there was no room remaining on the shield for more teams.

text: In 2016, the shield was rediscovered under a stairwell at AFL House. It was refurbished, with extra space being added to bring the shield up to date, and it was reintroduced as a premiership trophy.[9]

text: Prize money[edit]

text: Prize money is awarded to the victorious club.

text: However the amount is probably not reflective of the magnitude of participating in the event. It is often assumed simply that the winner of the premiership typically experiences an increase in revenue through increases in membership and merchandise sales.

text: The current cash prize for the winning club is A$1 million. Before 2006, a cash prize to the winning club of A$200,000 was awarded (In contrast, the winner of the NAB Cup, the far less important pre-season competition, is currently awarded a similar amount, A$210,000). Following the Sydney Swans premiership in 2005, many clubs publicly questioned the prize money,[10] which had not increased significantly for many years and barely covered the cost of participation in the finals series.

text: Brownlow Medal[edit]

text: The Chas Brownlow Trophy, better known as the Brownlow Medal, is the medal awarded to the "fairest and best" player in the Australian Football League during the regular season (i.e. not including finals matches) as decided upon by umpires. It was named after a Geelong player and long-serving administrator who was the main advocate in establishing the Victorian Football League, Charles Brownlow. It is awarded at a special dinner on the Monday night before the grand final, recently at the Crown Casino in Melbourne.

text: Grand final parade[edit]

text: Since 1977, a traditional grand final parade featuring the players from each team has been held around midday on the Friday before each grand final. The parade was adopted from a tradition which had begun decades earlier in the amateur VAFA, and it became increasingly popular during the 1980s.

text: From its inception until 2014, the parade was based in the Melbourne city centre, usually proceeding from St Kilda Road along the city's main thoroughfares Swanston Street, turning into Collins Street, and ending at the steps outside the Old Treasury Building. The parade featured the players from the competing sides. The players have in the past appeared on parade floats; in recent times it has become a motorcade of open-top vehicles (weather permitting).[11]

text: When the Friday of the parade was declared a public holiday in Victoria in 2015, the AFL determined that the traditional city route no longer made sense with most office buildings set to be vacant. The new route will begin at the Old Treasury Building, head south down Spring St, east along Wellington Parade, and end within Yarra Park outside the MCG.[12]

text: Since 2007, the parades have generally attracted in excess of 100,000 fans each year (except in inclement weather).[13][14] Crowds have historically been smaller in years when no Victorian clubs contested the grand final – such as between 2004 and 2006, when crowds ranged only from 40,000 to 75,000.[15][16][17] A record crowd of 150,000 people attended the first public holiday parade in 2015.[18]

text: Pre-match entertainment[edit]

text: Over the years many big Australian and international stars have performed or appeared as pre-match entertainment at the grand final. The game has often been criticised for poor pre-game entertainment; in particular, performances by Angry Anderson in 1991 and Meat Loaf in 2011 have been singled out as poor performances by the entertainers involved.[19][20]

text: Each team's club song is performed live as part of the pre-match entertainment (with the recorded version also played as the team enters the field, in the traditional fashion). For a time, many or all of a selection of traditional football and Australian songs (Up There Cazaly, One Day in September, That's the Thing About Football, Holy Grail and Waltzing Matilda) were performed each year, although this has fallen out of favour.

text: Advance Australia Fair is performed when teams and the umpires are on the field, and lined up on the wing.

text: Halftime and post-match entertainment[edit]

text: The 2012 AFL Grand Final and 2013 AFL Grand Final, in addition to having pre-match entertainment, also included half-time and post-match entertainment. The post-match entertainment that follows the grand final takes place after the presentations and player celebrations have concluded, and unlike the main match, is free and open to the general public, with anybody invited to attend, regardless of whether they attended the match or not.[21] As of 2012, the half-time and post-match shows are sponsored by Virgin Australia, with the half-time show known as the Virgin Australia Half-Time Show and the post-match shown named the Virgin Australia Premiership Party as a result.[22] In 2012, the half-time and post-match entertainment was provided by Paul Kelly and The Temper Trap, while in 2013, this consisted of Hunters and Collectors and Birds of Tokyo.[23]

text: Half-time entertainment was absent from the 2014 AFL Grand Final, with the entertainment occurring pre-match. However, it retained the post-match entertainment concert, which featured Tom Jones and Ed Sheeran.[24] This was repeated for the 2015 AFL Grand Final, with Ellie Goulding and Bryan Adams providing both pre-match and post-match entertainment, and Chris Isaak providing pre-match entertainment alone.

text: Sprint race[edit]

text: Since 1977 a running race has taken place on grand final day between various players who are not taking part in the game. In 1977–78 it was a long-distance race run over a mile with each league club able to nominate up to two entrants. In 1979 the race was changed to a 100 m sprint with one player per club taking part.

text: Between 1979–87 the two clubs participating in the grand final had the option of providing one of their players who missed selection in the match, but generally chose not to do so, meaning the sprint was usually contested by a field of 10 players during this era.

text: The race was not held from 1988 to 2001 but was reintroduced in 2002 (along with a goalkicking contest, which only lasted one year). With the number of league clubs having grown to 16 during the break in competition, a new format was adopted with the players now split into two groups of eight for the heats (held before the grand final), with the top four from each heat advancing to the final (held at half-time of the grand final). In recent years a handicapping system has also been introduced; however this was not used in the 2014 Grand Final.

text:
Year
Sprint Winner
Football Club

1979
Geoff Ablett
Hawthorn Hawks

1980
Geoff Ablett
Hawthorn Hawks

1981
Geoff Ablett
Hawthorn Hawks

1982
Michael Conlan
Fitzroy Lions

1983
Frank Marchesani
Carlton Blues

1984
Douglas Cox
Essendon Bombers

1985
Geoff Ablett
St Kilda Saints

1986
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1987
Russell Richards
Melbourne Demons

1988
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1989
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1990
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1991
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1992
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1993
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1994
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1995
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1996
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1997
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1998
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

1999
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

2000
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

2001
Sprint not held
Sprint not held

2002
Jared Crouch
Sydney Swans

2003
James Walker
Fremantle Dockers

2004
James Walker
Fremantle Dockers

2005
Brett Deledio
Richmond Tigers

2006
Brendan Fevola
Carlton Blues

2007
Jake King
Richmond Tigers

2008
Matthew White
Richmond Tigers

2009
Rhys Stanley
St Kilda Saints

2010
Luke Miles
St Kilda Saints

2011
Patrick Dangerfield
Adelaide Crows

2012
Patrick Dangerfield
Adelaide Crows

2013
Patrick Dangerfield
Adelaide Crows

2014
Jordan Murdoch
Geelong Cats

2015
Majak Daw
North Melbourne Kangaroos

2016
James Shirley
Murrumbeena Lions

tag: table

text: Venue and schedule[edit]

text: The grand final has always been played in Melbourne on a Saturday afternoon, and all but nine have been played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground.

text: The venues used on the other nine occasions were:

text:
St Kilda Cricket Ground – 1898, 1899 and 1944 (due to the MCG housing US troops during World War II)
East Melbourne Cricket Ground – 1900
South Melbourne Cricket Ground – 1901
Princes Park – 1942, 1943 and 1945 (due to the MCG housing US troops during World War II)
Waverley Park – 1991 (due to construction work on the Great Southern Stand at the MCG)

text: Under an agreement between the Melbourne Cricket Club, the MCG Trust, the AFL and the Victorian State Government, the AFL Grand Final will be played at the MCG every year until at least 2037.

text: The Grand Final has traditionally been played on the last Saturday in September each year, and is often referred to in popular Australian culture as the "One day in September".

text: In this regard, 24 Grand Finals have been played in October (most recently in 2016), and 10 Grand Finals have been played on another Saturday in September (most recently in 2000 to avoid a clash with the Sydney Olympics).

text: In 2015, the Friday before the grand final became a gazetted public holiday in Victoria, following an election promise by the incoming state government, under the premiership of Daniel Andrews.[25]

text: Numbering of grand finals[edit]

text: Officially, the AFL gives its grand finals the same ordinal number as the season: e.g. the 1996 Grand Final was regarded as the 100th grand final, due to it being the 100th season.

text: This is anachronistic to some extent:

text:
There was no grand final match in 1897 and 1924, as the finals systems in use in those seasons allowed the premiership to be awarded after a round-robin finals tournament without a grand final being required.
Under the finals system in use from 1898 to 1900 and the Argus finals systems in use from 1902 to 1923 and 1925 to 1930, "Grand Final" was a term given to a challenge match between the minor premiers and whichever team won the knock-out section of the finals. In 1899, 1904, 1906-08, 1911, 1918 and 1927-28, the minor premiers also won the knock-out phase, meaning that they were awarded the premiership without a true grand final being required. In these cases, the last knock-out match has been retrospectively considered to be the grand final.
There were three Grand Final Replays played after drawn grand finals: these occurred in 1948, 1977 and 2010. In 2016, the AFL replaced grand final replays with two five-minute halves of extra time, followed by an untimed third period of golden point extra time if required.

text: Individual awards[edit]

text: Norm Smith Medal[edit]

text: The Norm Smith Medal is presented to the player judged as best on the ground during the grand final by a panel of experts. The award is named in honour of Melbourne premiership player and coach Norm Smith, who died in 1973. It was first awarded in 1979, to Carlton's Wayne Harmes, a great nephew of Smith. In time the award has come to carry great prestige as an individual prize.

text: Other awards[edit]

text: The coach of the winning team receives the Jock McHale Medal, named in honour of Collingwood coach Jock McHale who holds the record of winning eight premierships as coach. The medal was first awarded in 2001, and was retrospectively awarded to all premiership-winning coaches starting from 1950, the first season after McHale's retirement from coaching.

text: The leading goalkicker or goalkickers in the grand final receive the Jack Collins Medal, named after Jack Collins who kicked seven goals in Footscray's grand final victory in 1954. The award was first presented by the AFL Premiership Players' Club in 2010,[26] and was also awarded retrospectively to leading goalkickers from previous grand finals.[27]

text: Grand final records[edit]

text:
Individual Records

Most matches (player)
11: Michael Tuck (Hawthorn)
10: Gordon Coventry (Collingwood), Albert Collier (Collingwood), Dick Reynolds (Essendon), Bill Hutchison (Essendon)

Most matches (captain)
9: Dick Reynolds (Essendon)
5: John Nicholls (Carlton), Michael Tuck (Hawthorn)

Most matches (coach)
17: Jock McHale (Collingwood)
12: Dick Reynolds (Essendon)
11: Frank 'Checker' Hughes (Richmond/Melbourne)
10: Tom Hafey (Richmond/Collingwood)

Most matches (umpire)
10: Jack Elder (1908–22)
9: Ian Robinson(1973–87)
7: Bob Scott (1929–35), Henry 'Ivo' Crapp (1898–1905) Brett Rosebury 2009, 2010 + replay, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015

Most matches (player/coach)
20: Jock McHale (Collingwood)
17: Ron Barassi (Melbourne/Carlton/N Melbourne)
14: F 'Checker' Hughes (Richmond/Melbourne), Norm Smith (Melbourne) 14

Most wins (player)
7: Michael Tuck (Hawthorn)
6: Albert Collier (Collingwood), Harry Collier (Collingwood), Frank 'Bluey' Adams (Melbourne), Ron Barassi (Melbourne)

Most wins (captain)
4: Dick Reynolds (Essendon), Syd Coventry (Collingwood), Michael Tuck (Hawthorn)

Most wins (coach)
8: Jock McHale (Collingwood)
6: Norm Smith (Melbourne)
5: Jack Worrall (Carlton/Essendon), F 'Checker' Hughes (Richmond/Melbourne)

Most losses (player)
6: Jack Titus (Richmond)
5: Dick Reynolds (Essendon), Bill Hutchison (Essendon), Rene Kink (Collingwood/Essendon), Thomas O'Halloran (Richmond), Jack Dyer (Richmond), Jack Bissett (Richmond/South Melbourne)

Most losses (captain)
4: Dick Reynolds (Essendon)
3: Jack Bissett (South Melbourne), Jack Dyer (Richmond)

Most losses (coach)
9: Jock McHale (Collingwood)
7: Dick Reynolds (Essendon)
5: Allan Jeans (St Kilda/Hawthorn), Tom Hafey (Richmond/Collingwood)

First game in GF
Harry Prout (Essendon) 1908, Bill James (Richmond) 1920, George Rawle (Essendon) 1923, F 'Pop' Vine (Melbourne) 1926, Ken Batchelor (Collingwood) 1952

Most games before first GF
313: Paul Roos (Fitzroy/Sydney) 1996
304: Shane Crawford (Hawthorn) 2008
293: Paul Williams (Collingwood/Sydney) 2005
290: Matthew Pavlich (Fremantle) 2013
281: Matthew Boyd (Western Bulldogs) 2016

Most Norm Smith Medals[note 1]
2: Gary Ayres (Hawthorn), Andrew McLeod (Adelaide), Luke Hodge (Hawthorn)

Most possessions in a match
39: Simon Black (Brisbane) 2003
37: Kane Cornes (Port Adelaide) 2007, Jordan Lewis (Hawthorn) 2014
36: Geoff Raines (Richmond) 1980, Robert Harvey (St Kilda) 1997, Peter Burgoyne (Port Adelaide) 2007
35: Daryn Cresswell (Sydney) 1996, Luke Hodge (Hawthorn) 2014

Most goals
35: Gordon Coventry (Collingwood)
25: Dermott Brereton (Hawthorn)
23: Jason Dunstall (Hawthorn), Jack Mueller (Melbourne)

Most goals in a match
9: Gordon Coventry (Collingwood) 1928, Gary Ablett, Sr. (Geelong) 1989
8: Dermott Brereton (Hawthorn) 1985

Most goals in a quarter
5: Darren Jarman (Adelaide) 1997-4Q

Most behinds in a match
10: Ron Todd (Collingwood) 1936
8: Bob Pratt (South Melbourne) 1933, John Hendrie (Hawthorn) 1976

text:
Game records

Highest score
28.9 (177)
by Carlton vs Richmond 1972

Lowest score
1.7 (13)
by Richmond vs Collingwood 1927

Highest aggregate
327 points
Carlton vs Richmond 1972

Lowest aggregate
38 points
Collingwood vs Richmond 1927

Highest winning margin
119 points
by Geelong vs Port Adelaide 2007

Lowest winning margin
1 point
by Fitzroy vs South Melbourne 1899, by Carlton vs Essendon 1947, by St Kilda vs Collingwood 1966, by West Coast vs Sydney 2006

Drawn games
1948
1977
2010

Essendon vs Melbourne (Melbourne won replay)
Collingwood vs North Melbourne (North Melbourne won replay)
Collingwood vs St Kilda (Collingwood won replay)

Postponed games
1923
Essendon vs Fitzroy postponed one week due to bad weather

Highest attendance
121,696
Collingwood vs Carlton 1970

Lowest attendance
4,823
Fitzroy vs South Melbourne 1899

Highest score – 1st Qtr
8.4 (52)
by Hawthorn vs Geelong 1989, by Carlton vs Richmond 1972

Highest score – 2nd Qtr
10.2 (62)
by Carlton vs Richmond 1972

Highest score – 3rd Qtr
11.8 (74)
by Essendon vs Melbourne 1946

Highest score – 4th Qtr
11.3 (69)
by Essendon vs Hawthorn 1985

Biggest comeback – Quarter time
29
by Carlton vs Collingwood 1970

Biggest comeback – 2nd Half
44
by Carlton vs Collingwood 1970

Biggest comeback – 4th Qtr
23
by Essendon vs Hawthorn 1984

Biggest comeback – Overall
44
by Carlton vs Collingwood 1970

Premiership from lowest ladder position
7th
by Western Bulldogs vs Sydney 2016

text: Audience[edit]

text: Attendance[edit]

text: The event has been sold out every year for decades and once drew a crowd of 121,696 spectators for Collingwood vs Carlton in 1970, primarily due to the presence of standing room (areas of the stadium without seats). However attendances have wavered due to redevelopment and reduced capacity of the main venue, the Melbourne Cricket Ground; being favoured by increased seating of approximately 110,000.[28] AFL members and nominated members of the participating clubs are given first rights to tickets, as are Melbourne Cricket Club members.

text: The 2005 AFL Grand Final was watched by a television audience of more than 3.3 million people across five of Australia's most highly populated cities, including 1.2 million in Melbourne and 991,000 in Sydney.[29] The worldwide audience has grown substantially to a potential 170 million viewers from 72 countries, although the actual audience is likely to be around 30 million.[30]

text: The AFL Grand Final has been in the top five TV programmes across the five Australian mainland state capitals in 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2005, and was the top-rating sports programme in both 2004 and 2005 and in 2005, AFL Grand Final related shows (Final, wrap up and pre-match) were the top 3 rating television programmes for the year. The program was second in the 2006 ratings after the coverage of the 2006 Commonwealth Games Opening Ceremony.

text: Australian metropolitan television viewers[edit]

text: NOTE: OzTAM figures for five-city metropolitan audience (SYD-MEL-BRI-ADE-PER), does not include regional viewers

text:
Season
Date
Winning team
Runner-up
Network
Viewers (metropolitan Australia)

2003
27 September
Brisbane
Collingwood
Network Ten
2,965,600[31]

2004
25 September
Port Adelaide
Brisbane
Network Ten
2,796,000[32]

2005
24 September
Sydney
West Coast
Network Ten
3,386,000[29]

2006
30 September
West Coast
Sydney
Network Ten
3,145,000[33]

2007
29 September
Geelong
Port Adelaide
Network Ten
2,563,000[34]

2008
27 September
Hawthorn
Geelong
Seven Network
2,491,000[35]

2009
26 September
Geelong
St Kilda
Network Ten
2,878,000[36]

20101
25 September
Collingwood
St Kilda
Seven Network
2,768,000[37]

2 October
2,687,000[38]

2011
1 October
Geelong
Collingwood
Network Ten
2,641,000[39]

2012
29 September
Sydney
Hawthorn
Seven Network
3,196,000[40]

2013
28 September
Hawthorn
Fremantle
Seven Network
2,717,000[41]

2014
27 September
Hawthorn
Sydney
Seven Network
2,813,000[42]

2015
3 October
Hawthorn
West Coast
Seven Network
2,640,000[43]

2016
1 October
Western Bulldogs
Sydney
Seven Network
3,030,000[44]

text: In the past (2007–2011) AFL domestic broadcast arrangement, Network Ten and the Seven Network had exclusive hosting rights for the decider with the 2007, 2009 and 2011 AFL Grand Final on Network Ten and the 2008 and 2010 deciders on the Seven Network. In the event of a grand final replay, the network that televised the first match would also broadcast the second match.

text: With the new television broadcasting deal announced in April 2011, the Seven Network have exclusive rights to televising the AFL Grand Final for the next five years (i.e. 2012–2016).

text: 1 Figures include both drawn grand final and replay.

text: International telecasts[edit]

text: The AFL Grand Final is televised into many countries and grand final parties are held around the world. The following are television details for the 2009 AFL Grand Final.[45]

text:
Papua New Guinea – EM TV, Australia Plus (live)
New Zealand – Sky Sport (live) and Freeview (live)
Asia-Pacific – Australia Plus (live) (includes China, Hong Kong/Macau, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, North Korea, Vietnam, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Palau, Malaysia, Cambodia, Burma/Myanmar, Laos, Brunei, Fiji, Western Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Timor-Leste(East Timor), Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Micronesia, Kiribati)
Indian subcontinent (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan) – Australia Network (live)
Middle East – Australia Plus and Showtime Arabia (ShowSports) (live)
Israel – Fox Sports Israel (live)
North America[46]
United States – ESPN3.com and ESPN2 (live), MHz Worldview (delayed).
Canada – TSN (live).
United Kingdom and Ireland – ESPN UK (live)
ALL of Europe – Eurosport 2 (live/delayed coverage to be confirmed)
Africa – ESPN International (Pan-Africa channel) (live)
Latin America and Caribbean – ESPN International (to be confirmed)


document_title: Electron transport chain

question_text: where is atp made during the electron transport chain

text: Electron transport chain

text: Background[edit]

text: The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

text: The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions.[1] If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP,[2] which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate-level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.[citation needed]

text: In mitochondria[edit]

text: Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.

text: A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.

text: Mitochondrial redox carriers[edit]

text: Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨM). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H+ through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.

text: Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:

text: Complex I[edit]

text: In Complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6.5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH2), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H+) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.[3]

text: The pathway of electrons is as follows:

text: NADH is oxidized to NAD+, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH2 in one two-electron step. FMNH2 is then oxidized in two one-electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH2 to an Fe-S cluster, from the Fe-S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free-radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH2. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. [4] As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.[5]

text: Complex II[edit]

text: In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate-CoQ reductase; EC 1.3.5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] iron-sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.

text: Complex III[edit]

text: In Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex or CoQH2-cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10.2.2), the Q-cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption/release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH2 at the QO site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water-soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Qi site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H+2e-) oxidations at the Qo site to form one quinone (2H+2e-) at the Qi site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).

text: When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.

text: Complex IV[edit]

text: In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9.3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O2), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.

text: Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation[edit]

text:
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the FOF1 ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain.[6] The FO component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits.[7] The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the FO turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required.[8] After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix.[7] This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD+ and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F1 component of the complex.[9]
Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin—present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue—provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production.[10] Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2,4-dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.[citation needed]

text: Summary[edit]

text: In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH2) to a terminal electron acceptor (O2) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.

text: The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.[11]

text: In bacteria[edit]

text: In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is

text: NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O2 where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.

text: In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:

text: Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.

text: Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.

text: A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.

text: Electron donors[edit]

text: In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.

text: Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock-eater"). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.

text: The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.

text: Dehydrogenases[edit]

text: Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, H2 dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.[citation needed]

text: Quinone carriers[edit]

text: Quinones are mobile, lipid-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.

text: Proton pumps[edit]

text: A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).

text: Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc1 is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc1 is similar to mitochondrial bc1 (Complex III).

text: Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.

text: Cytochrome electron carriers[edit]

text: Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.

text: Some cytochromes are water-soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.

text: Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid-state environment.

text: Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher-energy molecule.

text: Terminal oxidases and reductases[edit]

text: When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O2) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.

text: In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc1 complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.

text: Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.

text: Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.

text: Electron acceptors[edit]

text: Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.[citation needed]

text: In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.

text: Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD+/NADH redox pair and the O2/H2O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O2 is the electron acceptor.

text: Not every donor-acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen-evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10−4 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard" conditions.[citation needed]

text: Summary[edit]

text: Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.

text: Photosynthetic[edit]

text: In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O2) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.

text: Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.

text: Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction.

text: Summary[edit]

text: Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.


document_title: Commissioners' court

question_text: what does a county commissioner do in texas

text: Commissioners' court

text: In Arkansas[edit]

text: In Arkansas the quorum court of a county is the legislative body of that county.[1] The chief executive officer of each county is the county judge, who sits on the quorum court primarily as a moderator but enjoys the power of veto. The county judge is in charge of the county road system, and can fill in for circuit court judges in their absence.[2] Each quorum court is elected from single-member districts, with the number of commissioners (called justices of the peace[3]) depending on the population of the county.[4]

text: In Texas[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The governing body of each of Texas' 254 counties is the commissioners court (spelled without the apostrophe). In Texas, the court has five members: the county judge and four commissioners. A sixth official, the county clerk, is an ex officio member of the court.

text: In most instances, a simple majority of court members is sufficient to take action. Three voting members of the court constitute a quorum. The commissioners court operates similar to the "weak" mayor-council system; the county judge has no veto power over the court and votes along with the other commissioners.

text: Counties are constitutional subdivisions of the state. As a principal institution of county government, the court's role combines elements of judicial, legislative, and executive functions. Other institutions of county government include independent elected and appointed officials, such as the sheriff, and independent boards, such as the board of judges. The Commissioners Courts in Texas are served and provided continued education by the County Judges and Commissioners Association[5] events and the official association publication County Progress[6].

text: In Texas, the relationship between institutions of county government is designed to be independent and adversarial. In this framework, the principal power of the court is the power of the purse. Each year, the court adopts the county tax rate and the county budget, setting the salary and budget for independent elected officials, as well as outlining expenditures for departments under the direct control of the court. As the administrative head of county government, the court has the authority to enact county-wide policies, and to the extent provided by law, to enact legislation in the form of court orders. The court also exercises varying degrees of oversight over subsidiary county boards and commissioners, which may differ from county to county, but which commonly include drainage districts, irrigation districts, housing authorities and the like. In some instances, the court may also serve as the board of directors for these special districts or authorities, as well as fulfill the role of county school board.

text: Each voting member of the court has one vote. The county judge serves as the presiding officer of the commissioners court, while the county clerk is charged with keeping the minutes of the court, and attesting any actions it make take. State law requires, except in cases of emergency, that an agenda of the items to be considered by the court be posted at least 72 hours prior to its meeting. Among counties, the process for placing items on the agenda, and posting it, varies widely, with the task most often falling to the county judge, the county clerk, or a specially appointed court clerk.

text: Additionally, state law provides that the court must designate its term, or the time, place, and interval at which it will sit, at the beginning of each fiscal year. Any meeting not held according to the term is considered a special meeting. Legal precedent also provides that no action taken by the court may bind the county beyond the term of the court.

text: In addition to their roles on the court, the county judge, county commissioners and county clerk each have independent roles to play within county government.

text: The county judge serves as the chief administrator of the county, and as the presiding judge for justice and county courts. In some counties, the county judge exercises judicial functions as a probate and/or county court judge. Even in cases where county judges do not conduct judicial functions, they retain the power to conduct marriages and may also be called upon to conduct administrative hearings, such as those pertaining to liquor license applications.

text: Additionally, the county judge is a statutory member of several important boards, including the juvenile board and the county election commission. Finally, the judge is designated by a long-standing executive order of the governor, pursuant to the Texas Disaster Act of 1974, as the executive officer for civil defense within the county. The county judge is elected county wide to a four-year term coinciding with the term of the governor.

text: Each of the four county commissioners represents an area of the county, or precinct, that is designed to be roughly equal in population to each of the other such areas. In addition to serving as voting members of the court, county commissioners are often charged with overseeing county roads and bridges within their precinct, and are sometimes also responsible for solid waste collection, parks and other services within the precinct. In rural counties, the role of the county commissioner outside of the commissioners court tends to be quite substantial, while in urban counties, the delivery of county services is frequently consolidated in county-wide departments, with the bulk of a commissioner's time being devoted to the commissioners court. The commissioners are elected to staggered, four-year terms, with two taking office every other year, and are elected by the votes of the precinct represented.

text: The county clerk is responsible for recording legal instruments, including birth certificates, marriage licenses, deeds and titles, and for keeping the records of county and justice courts. The county clerk is also a statutory member of certain boards and commissions, such as the elections commission, and may also serve in other capacities as provided by law or local practice. He or she is elected county-wide to a four-year term.

text: In Missouri[edit]

text: In 1939, Missouri enacted legislation changing from a county court system to a "county commission" in which the county commission is composed of three elected commissioners.

text: US President Harry S. Truman, began his political career as a county judge in Jackson County, Missouri.