document_title: Stress (biology)

question_text: the adaptive physiologic response to stressful events is called

text: Stress (biology)

text: Overview[edit]

text: This article or section may need to be cleaned up. It has been merged from Stress (psychology)#Impact on health.

text: There likely is a connection between stress and illness. Several studies have suggested such a link,[4] theories of the stress–illness link suggest that both acute and chronic stress can cause illness. According to these studies, both acute and chronic stress can lead to changes in behavior and in physiology. Behavioral changes can include smoking, changes in eating habits and physical activity. Physiological changes can include changes in sympathetic activation or HPA activity, and immunological function.[5] However, there is much variability in the link between stress and illness.[6]

text: The HPA axis regulates many bodily functions, both behavioral and physiological, through the release of glucocorticoid hormones. The HPA axis activity varies according to the circadian rhythm, with a spike in the morning. The axis involves the release of corticotropin releasing hormone and vasopressin from the hypothalamus which stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH. ACTH may then stimulate the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol. The HPA axis is subject to negative feedback regulation as well. The release of CRH and VP are regulated by descending glutaminergic and GABAergic pathways from the amygdala, as well as noradrenergic projections. Increased cortisol usually acts to increase blood glucose, blood pressure, and surpasses lysosomal, and immunological activity. Under other circumstances, however, the activity may differ. Increased cortisol also favors habit based learning, by favoring memory consolidation of emotional memories.[7]

text: Selye demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy.[8] In recent works, it is considered as an internal coordinate on the "dominant path" in the model of adaptation.[9] Stress can make the individual more susceptible to physical illnesses like the common cold.[10] Stressful events, such as job changes, may result in insomnia, impaired sleeping, and physical and psychological health complaints.[11] Research indicates the type of stressor (whether it's acute or chronic) and individual characteristics such as age and physical well-being before the onset of the stressor can combine to determine the effect of stress on an individual.[4] An individual's personality characteristics (such as level of neuroticism),[12] genetics, and childhood experiences with major stressors and traumas[13] may also dictate their response to stressors.[4]

text: Chronic stress and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as delusions[14] depression and anxiety (see below for further information).[15] This is particularly true regarding chronic stressors. These are stressors that may not be as intense as an acute stressor like a natural disaster or a major accident, but they persist over longer periods of time. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative effect on health because they are sustained and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This depletes the body's energy more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when these microstressors cannot be avoided (i.e. stress of living in a dangerous neighborhood). See allostatic load for further discussion of the biological process by which chronic stress may affect the body. For example, studies have found that caregivers, particularly those of dementia patients, have higher levels of depression and slightly worse physical health than noncaregivers.[16]

text: It has long been believed that negative affective states, such as feelings of anxiety and depression, could influence the pathogenesis of physical disease. However recent studies done by the University of Wisconsin-Madison and other places have shown this to be untrue, it isn't stress itself that causes the increased risk of illness or death, it is actually the perception that stress is harmful.[17] For example, when humans are under chronic stress, permanent changes in their physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses are most likely to occur[18][19] and such changes could lead to disease. Chronic stress can include events such as caring for a spouse with dementia, or results from brief focal events that with long term effects, such as experiencing a sexual assault. Studies have also showed that psychological stress may directly contribute to the disproportionately high rates of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality and its etiologic risk factors. Specifically, acute and chronic stress have been shown to raise serum lipids and are associated with clinical coronary events.[20]

text: However, it is possible for individuals to exhibit hardiness—a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy.[21] Even though psychological stress is often connected with illness or disease, most healthy individuals can still remain disease-free after being confronted with chronic stressful events. This suggests that there are individual differences in vulnerability to the potential pathogenic effects of stress; individual differences in vulnerability arise due to both genetic and psychological factors. In addition, the age at which the stress is experienced can dictate its effect on health. Research suggests chronic stress at a young age can have lifelong effects on the biological, psychological, and behavioral responses to stress later in life.[22] Recent studies have shown that severe psychological stress resulting in PTSD can also significantly affect parenting perception, behavior, neural activity and HPA-axis physiology in response to stressful parent-infant interactions.[23] These recent studies support the existence of intergenerational effects of early chronic psychological stress.[24]

text: In animals, stress contributes to the initiation, growth, and metastasis of select tumors, but studies that try to link stress and cancer incidence in humans have had mixed results. This can be due to practical difficulties in designing and implementing adequate studies.[19]

text: Etymology and historical usage[edit]

text: The term "stress" had none of its contemporary connotations before the 1920s. It is a form of the Middle English destresse, derived via Old French from the Latin stringere, "to draw tight".[25] The word had long been in use in physics to refer to the internal distribution of a force exerted on a material body, resulting in strain. In the 1920s and '30s, biological and psychological circles occasionally used the term to refer to a mental strain or to a harmful environmental agent that could cause illness.

text: Walter Cannon used it in 1926 to refer to external factors that disrupted what he called homeostasis.[26] But "...stress as an explanation of lived experience is absent from both lay and expert life narratives before the 1930s".[27] Physiological stress represents a wide range of physical responses that occur as a direct effect of a stressor causing an upset in the homeostasis of the body. Upon immediate disruption of either psychological or physical equilibrium the body responds by stimulating the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems. The reaction of these systems causes a number of physical changes that have both short- and long-term effects on the body.[citation needed]

text: The Holmes and Rahe stress scale was developed as a method of assessing risk of disease from life changes.[28] The scale lists both positive and negative changes that elicit stress. These include things such as a major holiday or marriage, or death of a spouse and firing from a job.

text: Biological need for equilibrium[edit]

text: Homeostasis is a concept central to the idea of stress.[29] In biology, most biochemical processes strive to maintain equilibrium (homeostasis), a steady state that exists more as an ideal and less as an achievable condition. Environmental factors, internal or external stimuli, continually disrupt homeostasis; an organism's present condition is a state of constant flux moving about a homeostatic point that is that organism's optimal condition for living.[30] Factors causing an organism's condition to diverge too far from homeostasis can be experienced as stress. A life-threatening situation such as a major physical trauma or prolonged starvation can greatly disrupt homeostasis. On the other hand, an organism's attempt at restoring conditions back to or near homeostasis, often consuming energy and natural resources, can also be interpreted as stress.[31]

text: The ambiguity in defining this phenomenon was first recognized by Hans Selye (1907–1982) in 1926. In 1951 a commentator loosely summarized Selye's view of stress as something that "...in addition to being itself, was also the cause of itself, and the result of itself".[32][33]

text: First to use the term in a biological context, Selye continued to define stress as "the non-specific response of the body to any demand placed upon it". As of 2011[update] neuroscientists such as Bruce McEwen and Jaap Koolhaas believe that stress, based on years of empirical research, "should be restricted to conditions where an environmental demand exceeds the natural regulatory capacity of an organism".[34]

text: Biological background[edit]

text: Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems.[35] Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a psychobiological sensory system operates. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body's stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body's response to a stressor or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is. Nevertheless, the central nervous system works closely with the body's endocrine system to regulate these mechanisms. The sympathetic nervous system becomes primarily active during a stress response, regulating many of the body's physiological functions in ways that ought to make an organism more adaptive to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of neuroanatomy and neurochemistry and how they relate to stress.[citation needed]

text: Stress, either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress may induce abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body: serotonin systems, catecholamine systems, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Aggressive behavior has also been associated with abnormalities in these systems.[36]

text: Biology of stress[edit]

text: The brain endocrine interactions are relevant in the translation of stress into physiological and psychological changes. The autonomic nervous system (ANS), as mentioned above, plays an important role in translating stress into a response. The ANS responds reflexively to both physical stressors (for example baroreception), and to higher level inputs from the brain.[37] The ANS is composed of the parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system, two branches that are both tonically active with opposing activities. The ANS directly innervates tissue through the postganglionic nerves, which is controlled by preganglionic neurons originating in the intermediolateral cell column. The ANS receives inputs from the medulla, hypothalamus, limbic system, prefrontal cortex, midbrain and monoamine nuclei.[38] The activity of the sympathetic nervous system drives what sometimes called the "fight or flight" response. The fight or flight response to emergency or stress involves mydriasis, increased heart rate and force contraction, vasoconstriction, bronchodilation, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, sweating, decreased motility of the digestive system, secretion of the epinephrine and cortisol from the adrenal medulla, and relaxation of the bladder wall. The parasympathetic nervous response, "rest and digest", involves return to maintaining homeostasis, and involves miosis, bronchoconstriction, increased activity of the digestive system, and contraction of the bladder walls.[37] Complex relationships between protective and vulnerability factors on the effect of childhood home stress on psychological illness, cardiovascular illness and adaption have been observed.[39] ANS related mechanisms are thought to contribute to increased risk of cardiovascular disease after major stressful events[40]

text: The HPA axis is a neuroendocrine system that mediates a stress response. Neurons in the hypothalamus, particularly the paraventricular nucleus, release vasopressin and corticotropin releasing hormone, which travels through the hypophysial portal vessel where it travels to and binds to corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor on the anterior pituitary gland. Multiple CRH peptides have been identified, and receptors have been identified on multiple areas of the brain, including the amygdala. However, CRH is the main regulatory molecule of the release of ACTH. The secretion of ACTH into systemic circulation allows it to bind to and activate Melanocortin receptor, where it stimulates the release of steroid hormones. Steroid hormones bind to glucocorticoid receptors in the brain, providing negative feedback by reducing ACTH release. Some evidence supports a second long term feedback that is non-sensitive to cortisol secretion. The PVN of the hypothalamus receives inputs from the nucleus of the solitary tract, and lamina terminalis. Through these inputs, it receives and can respond to changes in blood. The PVN innervation from the brain stem nuclei, particularly the noradrenergic nuclei stimulate CRH release. Other regions of the hypothalamus both directly and indirectly inhibit HPA axis activity. Hypothalamic neurons involved in regulating energy balance also influence HPA axis activity through the release of the neurotransmitters such as neuropeptide Y, which stimulates HPA axis activity. Generally, the amygdala stimulates, and the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus attenuate HPA axis activity, however complex relationships do exist between the regions.[41]

text: The immune system may be heavily influenced by stress. The sympathetic nervous system innervates various immunological structures, such as bone marrow and the spleen, allowing for it to regulate immune function. The adrenergic substances released by the sympathetic nervous system can also bind to and influence various immunological cells, further providing a connection between the systems. The HPA axis ultimately results in the release of cortisol, which generally has immunosuppressive effects. However, the effect of stress on the immune system is disputed, and various models have been proposed in an attempt to account for both the supposedly "immunodeficiency" linked diseases and diseases involving hyper activation of the immune system. The most recent model proposed to account for this suggests an push towards an imbalance of cellular immunity(Th1) and humoral immunity(Th2). The proposed imbalance involved hyperactivity of the Th2 system leading to some forms of immune hypersensitivity, while also increasing risk of some illnesses associated with decreased immune system function, such as infection and cancer.[3]

text: Effects of chronic stress[edit]

text: Chronic stress is a term sometimes used to differentiate between acute stress. Definitions differ, and may be along the lines of continual activation of the stress response,[42] stress that causes an allostatic shift in bodily functions,[2] or just as "prolonged stress".[43] For example, results of one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationship conflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk of developing illness and show slower wound healing. Similarly, the effects that acute stressors have on the immune system may be increased when there is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. For example, students who are taking exams show weaker immune responses if they also report stress due to daily hassles.[44] While responses to acute stressors typically do not impose a health burden on young, healthy individuals, chronic stress in older or unhealthy individuals may have long-term effects that are detrimental to health.[45]

text: Immunological[edit]

text: Acute time limited stressors, or stressors that lasted less than two hours, results in an up regulation of natural immunity and down regulation of specific immunity. This type of stress saw in increase in granulocytes, natural killer cells, IgA, Interleukin 6, and an increase in cell cytotoxicity. Brief naturalistic stressors elicit a shift from Th1(cellular) to Th2(humoral) immunity, while decreased T-cell proliferation, and natural killer cell cytotoxicity. Stressful event sequences did not elicit a consistent immune response, however some observations such as decreased T-Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity, increase or decrease in natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and an increase in mitogen PHA. Chronic stress elicited a shirt toward Th2 immunity, as well as decreased interleukin 2, T cell proliferation, and antibody response to the influenza vaccine. Distant stressors did not consistently elicit a change in immune function.[3]

text: Infectious[edit]

text: Some studies have observed increased risk of upper respiratory tract infection during chronic life stress. In patients with HIV, increased life stress and cortisol was associated with poorer progression of HIV.[42]

text: Chronic disease[edit]

text: A link has been suggested between chronic stress and cardiovascular disease.[42] Stress appears to play a role in hypertension, and may further predispose people to other conditions associated with hypertension.[46] Stress may also precipitate a more serious, or relapse into abuse of alcohol.[2] Stress may also contribute to aging and chronic diseases in aging, such as depression and metabolic disorders.[7] The immune system also plays a role in stress and the early stages of wound healing. It is responsible for preparing the tissue for repair and promoting recruitment of certain cells to the wound area.[44] Consistent with the fact that stress alters the production of cytokines, Graham et al. found that chronic stress associated with care giving for a person with Alzheimer's disease leads to delayed wound healing. Results indicated that biopsy wounds healed 25% more slowly in the chronically stressed group, or those caring for a person with Alzheimer's disease.[47]

text: Development[edit]

text: Chronic stress has also been shown to impair developmental growth in children by lowering the pituitary gland's production of growth hormone, as in children associated with a home environment involving serious marital discord, alcoholism, or child abuse.[48]

text: More generally, prenatal life, infancy, childhood, and adolescence are critical periods in which the vulnerability to stressors is particularly high.[49][50]

text: Psychopathology[edit]

text: Chronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain where memories are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is made up of glucocorticoids, including cortisol, which are steroid hormones that the adrenal gland releases, although this can increase storage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentation (LTP).[51][52] The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain kinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause trouble in storing new memories but old memories, memories stored before the damage, are not lost.[53] Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many older adults start to experience with age.[52]

text: Chronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic systems.[38] Stress may also increase reward associated with food, leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits.[54] Stress may contribute to various psychosomatic disorders, such as fibromyalgia,[55] chronic fatigue syndrome,[56] depression,[57] and functional somatic syndromes.[58]

text: Psychological concepts[edit]

text: Eustress[edit]

text: Selye published in year 1975 a model dividing stress into eustress and distress.[59] Where stress enhances function (physical or mental, such as through strength training or challenging work), it may be considered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression) behavior.

text: The difference between experiences that result in eustress and those that result in distress is determined by the disparity between an experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, and resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.[60]

text: Coping[edit]

text: Responses to stress include adaptation, psychological coping such as stress management, anxiety, and depression. Over the long term, distress can lead to diminished health and/or increased propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be managed.

text: Stress management encompasses techniques intended to equip a person with effective coping mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, with stress defined as a person's physiological response to an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-or-flight response. Stress management is effective when a person uses strategies to cope with or alter stressful situations.

text: There are several ways of coping with stress,[61] such as controlling the source of stress or learning to set limits and to say "no" to some of the demands that bosses or family members may make.

text: A person's capacity to tolerate the source of stress may be increased by thinking about another topic such as a hobby, listening to music, or spending time in a wilderness.

text: A way to control stress is first dealing with what is causing the stress if it is something the individual has control over. Other methods to control stress and reduce it can be: to not procrastinate and leave tasks for last minute, do things you like, exercise, do breathing routines, go out with friends, and take a break. Having support from a loved one also helps a lot in reducing stress.[52]

text: A study was done and it showed that the power of having support from a loved one or just social support, lowered stress in the individuals. They gave painful shocks to married women's ankles. On some trials women were able to hold their husbands hand, on other trials they held a strangers hand, and then held no one's hand. When the women were holding their husbands hand, the response reduced in many brain areas. When holding the strangers hand the response reduced a little but not as much as when they were holding their husbands hand. Social support helps reduce stress but even more if the support is from a loved one.[52]

text: Cognitive appraisal[edit]

text: Lazarus[62] argued that, in order for a psychosocial situation to be stressful, it must be appraised as such. He argued that cognitive processes of appraisal are central in determining whether a situation is potentially threatening, constitutes a harm/loss or a challenge, or is benign.

text: Both personal and environmental factors influence this primary appraisal, which then triggers the selection of coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at managing the problem, whereas emotion-focused coping processes are directed at managing the negative emotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation of the resources available to cope with the problem, and may alter the primary appraisal.

text: In other words, primary appraisal includes the perception of how stressful the problem is and the secondary appraisal of estimating whether one has more than or less than adequate resources to deal with the problem that affects the overall appraisal of stressfulness. Further, coping is flexible in that, in general, the individual examines the effectiveness of the coping on the situation; if it is not having the desired effect, s/he will, in general, try different strategies.[63]

text: Assessment[edit]

text: Assessment[edit]

text: A renewed interest in salivary alpha amylase as a marker for stress has surfaced. Yamaguchi M, Yoshida H (2005) have analyzed a newly introduced hand-held device called the Cocorometer developed by Nipro Corporation of Japan. They state that this can be reliably used to analyze the amylase levels and is definitely a cheaper alternative as compared to the more expensive ELISA kits. The working consists of a meter and a saliva collecting chip, which can be inserted into the meter to give the readings. The levels of amylase obtained have been calibrated according to standard population, and can be categorized into four levels of severity.[64]

text: Measuring stress levels independent of differences in people's personalities has been inherently difficult: Some people are able to process many stressors simultaneously, while others can barely address a few. Such tests as the Trier Social Stress Test attempted to isolate the effects of personalities on ability to handle stress in a laboratory environment. Other psychologists, however, proposed measuring stress indirectly, through self-tests.

text: Because the amount of stressors in a person's life often (although not always) correlates with the amount of stress that person experiences, researchers combine the results of stress and burnout self-tests. Stress tests help determine the number of stressors in a person's life, while burnout tests determine the degree to which the person is close to the state of burnout. Combining both helps researchers gauge how likely additional stressors will make him or her experience mental exhaustion.[65]

text: Health risk factors[edit]

text: Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress. The intensity and duration of stress changes depending on the circumstances and emotional condition of the person suffering from it (Arnold. E and Boggs. K. 2007). Some common categories and examples of stressors include:

text:
Sensory input such as pain, bright light, noise, temperatures, or environmental issues such as a lack of control over environmental circumstances, such as food, air and/or water quality, housing, health, freedom, or mobility.
Social issues can also cause stress, such as struggles with conspecific or difficult individuals and social defeat, or relationship conflict, deception, or break ups, and major events such as birth and deaths, marriage, and divorce.
Life experiences such as poverty, unemployment, clinical depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, heavy drinking,[66] or insufficient sleep can also cause stress. Students and workers may face performance pressure stress from exams and project deadlines.
Adverse experiences during development (e.g. prenatal exposure to maternal stress,[67][68] poor attachment histories,[69] sexual abuse)[70] are thought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual's stress response systems. One evaluation of the different stresses in people's lives is the Holmes and Rahe stress scale.

text: General adaptation syndrome[edit]

text: Physiologists define stress as how the body reacts to a stressor, real or imagined, a stimulus that causes stress. Acute stressors affect an organism in the short term; chronic stressors over the longer term. The general adaptation syndrome (GAS), developed by Hans Selye, is a profile of how organisms respond to stress; GAS is characterized by three phases: a nonspecific mobilization phase, which promotes sympathetic nervous system activity; a resistance phase, during which the organism makes efforts to cope with the threat; and an exhaustion phase, which occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes its physiological resources.[71]

text: Stage 1[edit]

text: Alarm is the first stage, which is divided into two phases: the shock phase and the antishock phase.[72]

text:
Shock phase: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as hypovolemia, hypoosmolarity, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, hypoglycemia—the stressor effect. This phase resembles Addison's disease. The organism's resistance to the stressor drops temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g. circulatory shock) may be experienced.
Antishock phase: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body starts to respond and is in a state of alarm. During this stage, the locus coeruleus/sympathetic nervous system is activated and catecholamines such as adrenaline are being produced, hence the fight-or-flight response. The result is: increased muscular tonus, increased blood pressure due to peripheral vasoconstriction and tachycardia, and increased glucose in blood. There is also some activation of the HPA axis, producing glucocorticoids (cortisol, aka the S-hormone or stress-hormone).

text: Stage 2[edit]

text: Resistance is the second stage and increased secretion of glucocorticoids play a major role, intensifying the systemic response—they have lipolytic, catabolic and antianabolic effects: increased glucose, fat and amino acid/protein concentration in blood. Moreover, they cause lymphocytopenia, eosinopenia, neutrophilia and polycythemia. In high doses, cortisol begins to act as a mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and brings the body to a state similar to hyperaldosteronism. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.

text: Stage 3[edit]

text: The third stage could be either exhaustion or recovery:

text:
Recovery stage follows when the system's compensation mechanisms have successfully overcome the stressor effect (or have completely eliminated the factor which caused the stress). The high glucose, fat and amino acid levels in blood prove useful for anabolic reactions, restoration of homeostasis and regeneration of cells.
Exhaustion is the alternative third stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body's resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate, etc.). If stage three is extended, long-term damage may result (prolonged vasoconstriction results in ischemia which in turn leads to cell necrosis), as the body's immune system becomes exhausted, and bodily functions become impaired, resulting in decompensation.

text: The result can manifest itself in obvious illnesses, such as general trouble with the digestive system (e.g. occult bleeding, melena, constipation/obstipation), diabetes, or even cardiovascular problems (angina pectoris), along with clinical depression and other mental illnesses.[citation needed]

text: History in research[edit]

text: The current usage of the word stress arose out of Selye's 1930s experiments. He started to use the term to refer not just to the agent but to the state of the organism as it responded and adapted to the environment. His theories of a universal non-specific stress response attracted great interest and contention in academic physiology and he undertook extensive research programs and publication efforts.[73]

text: While the work attracted continued support from advocates of psychosomatic medicine, many in experimental physiology concluded that his concepts were too vague and unmeasurable. During the 1950s, Selye turned away from the laboratory to promote his concept through popular books and lecture tours. He wrote for both non-academic physicians and, in an international bestseller entitled Stress of Life, for the general public.

text: A broad biopsychosocial concept of stress and adaptation offered the promise of helping everyone achieve health and happiness by successfully responding to changing global challenges and the problems of modern civilization. Selye coined the term "eustress" for positive stress, by contrast to distress. He argued that all people have a natural urge and need to work for their own benefit, a message that found favor with industrialists and governments.[73] He also coined the term stressor to refer to the causative event or stimulus, as opposed to the resulting state of stress.

text: Selye was in contact with the tobacco industry from 1958 and they were undeclared allies in litigation and the promotion of the concept of stress, clouding the link between smoking and cancer, and portraying smoking as a 'diversion', on in Selye's concept a 'deviation', from environmental stress.[74]

text: From the late 1960s, academic psychologists started to adopt Selye's concept; they sought to quantify "life stress" by scoring "significant life events", and a large amount of research was undertaken to examine links between stress and disease of all kinds. By the late 1970s, stress had become the medical area of greatest concern to the general population, and more basic research was called for to better address the issue. There was also renewed laboratory research into the neuroendocrine, molecular, and immunological bases of stress, conceived as a useful heuristic not necessarily tied to Selye's original hypotheses. The US military became a key center of stress research, attempting to understand and reduce combat neurosis and psychiatric casualties.[73]

text: The psychiatric diagnosis post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was coined in the mid-1970s, in part through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, and Chaim F. Shatan. The condition was added to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as posttraumatic stress disorder in 1980.[75] PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often associated with soldiers, police officers, and other emergency personnel. The stressor may involve threat to life (or viewing the actual death of someone else), serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity. In some cases, it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm or threat. Often, however, the two are combined.

text: By the 1990s, "stress" had become an integral part of modern scientific understanding in all areas of physiology and human functioning, and one of the great metaphors of Western life. Focus grew on stress in certain settings, such as workplace stress, and stress management techniques were developed. The term also became a euphemism, a way of referring to problems and eliciting sympathy without being explicitly confessional, just "stressed out". It came to cover a huge range of phenomena from mild irritation to the kind of severe problems that might result in a real breakdown of health. In popular usage, almost any event or situation between these extremes could be described as stressful.[25][73]

text: The American Psychological Association's 2015 Stress In America Study[76] found that nationwide stress is on the rise and that the three leading sources of stress were "money", "family responsibility", and "work".


document_title: Purchase and Sale Agreement

question_text: what is an agreement of purchase and sale

root

text: Purchase and Sale Agreement

text: A Purchase and Sale Agreement (typically referred to in the shorthand "PSA"), is an agreement between a buyer and a seller of real estate property, company stock, or other assets.

tag: p

text: The person or company acquiring, receiving and purchasing the property, stock or assets is referred to as the "Buyer" and the person or company disposing, conveying and selling the stock or assets is referred to as "Seller".[1] The PSA will set out the various rights and obligations of both the Buyer and Seller, and may also require other documents be executed and recorded in the public records, such as an Assignment, Deed of Trust, or Farmout Agreement.[2]

text: In the oil and natural gas industries, a PSA is the primary legal contract by which companies exchange oil and gas assets or stock in an oil and gas business entity, for cash, debt, stock, or other assets.[3]


document_title: Far from the Madding Crowd (2015 film)

question_text: who played gabriel oak in far from the madding crowd

text: Far from the Madding Crowd (2015 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1870 Victorian England, Bathsheba Everdene (Carey Mulligan) is working on her aunt's farm in Dorset. Gabriel Oak (Matthias Schoenaerts), a new neighbour, sees Bathsheba riding her horse and falls in love with her. He proposes, but the headstrong Bathsheba declines, saying she is too independent and he would grow to despise her. One night a new sheepdog chases Gabriel's entire flock off a cliff. He settles his debts and is left penniless. He leaves in search of work. In contrast, Bathsheba inherits a farm from her uncle and leaves to take charge of it.

text: While Gabriel is at a fair trying to find employment, local soldiers attempt to recruit him and other townsmen. A young girl, Fanny Robin, notices him and points out one of the soldiers, Sergeant Frank Troy, her sweetheart. She suggests Gabriel seek employment at a farm in Weatherbury. Gabriel arrives to find several buildings on fire and saves the barn from destruction. At dawn the next day he is introduced to the farm's new mistress: Bathsheba. She hires him as a shepherd. In the meantime, Fanny goes to the wrong church for her wedding and Troy, apparently jilted, is devastated.

text: In town, Bathsheba proves to be a shrewd trader when selling her seed. She immediately is drawn to her neighbor William Boldwood (Michael Sheen), a prosperous and mature bachelor. Bathsheba sends Boldwood a Valentine as a joke, and he, both offended and intrigued, soon proposes marriage. Bathsheba says she does share his feelings but delays giving him a final answer. Gabriel admonishes Bathsheba for being foolish and unkind by playing with Boldwood's affections. She is stung by his criticism, and fires him, but the next day, given a crisis with the sheep that only he can manage, she sends after him and then pursues him to ask him to return. After her personal appeal, he comes back, saves some of the sheep, and stays on the farm.

text: One night while walking around her land, Bathsheba meets Troy, who is mesmerized by her beauty. Uncomfortable, she tells him he should not be there, but the next day he returns to help with the harvest. Bathsheba learns he is of a noble family, but tells him to leave. He flirts with her and flatters her, and arranges a secret meeting. At their rendezvous in the woods, he shows off his swordplay, telling her not to flinch as he swings his sword around her head and body. He finally embraces her in a passionate kiss and Bathsheba is left in a daze. Gabriel warns her that Frank is dangerous and dishonourable, but she nevertheless elopes with him, and they share their wedding night together.

text: Returning to the farm, the newly married couple celebrate with all the workers. Gabriel warns of an approaching storm, but the belligerent and drunk Frank interrupts him and insists that the party will not allow it to rain. Gabriel attempts by himself to cover the harvest with tarpaulins and Bathsheba, ashamed of Frank's drunken behavior with the other men, comes out into the wind and rain to help. Chastened, she tells Gabriel that she was a fool to fall prey to Frank's flattery.

text: One day in town, Frank sees Fanny begging. She tells him she had gone to the wrong church, and that she is pregnant with his baby. He promises her he will find a home for them, and that she should stay in the workhouse in the meantime. Frank, a degenerate gambler, asks Bathsheba for £20 and she refuses, saying the money is for farm expenses.

text: Fanny and her baby die in childbirth. Their coffin is delivered to Bathsheba's farm, which was her last known address. Bathsheba recognizes the name as one of her uncle's loyal servants and says the coffin should be brought inside for mourning. The words "Fanny Robin and child" are written on the coffin, but Gabriel surreptitiously erases "and child" from the slate while bringing it in. Bathsheba reads the erasure, opens the coffin, and discovers the mother and baby within. Frank, upon seeing Fanny and his dead baby, bends over the coffin and kisses Fanny's lips. Bathsheba protests that she is still his wife, but he coldly responds that even in death Fanny means more to him than Bathsheba ever had meant or ever could mean. In grief Frank goes to the beach, where he strips off his uniform and swims far into the ocean. The next day the constable arrives to inform Bathsheba that Frank has apparently drowned.

text: Left with Frank's gambling debts, Bathsheba worries she may lose the farm. Boldwood offers to buy it and merge it with his property, offering Gabriel a position as bailiff, and again proposes marriage. Bathsheba agrees to consider his offer. On the eve of the Christmas party he plans to throw, Boldwood shares with Gabriel that he knows of the affection he feels for Bathsheba, but adds he appreciates that he has been such a gentleman in the entire matter, and shows Gabriel the engagement ring he plans to offer her.

text: At the party, Boldwood graciously invites Gabriel and Bathsheba to share at least one dance. As they dance, she again asks Gabriel what she should do, and he answers simply to "Do what is right". She breaks off the dance and leaves, only to discover Frank, alive and well, slumbering up the pathway, outside. He was rescued from drowning but has faked his death for some weeks, preferring the idea of being 'dead'; now, regretting his decision, he has decided to return and demands money from Bathsheba, saying it is not fair that he gave up his profession as a soldier for her and that she has money and a house, whilst he lives off nothing. She insists she has no money, to which he demands she sell the farm and come home with him. When she refuses, he grabs her roughly and screams that she is still his wife and that she will obey him! Enraged, Boldwood emerges from the house and kills Frank with a single blast from his rifle, for which he is promptly imprisoned. As Gabriel witnesses all the finery, many dresses and jewellery, that Boldwood had already laid out upstairs in anticipation of Bathsheba's 'yes' answer, Bathsheba is remorseful and guiltridden. Gabriel tells her that if it's any consolation Boldwood is bound to be spared his life, for acting in a 'crime of passion'.

text: Some time later, Gabriel announces that since the farm is now secure, he'll be emigrating to America in four days time. As he leaves on foot early in the morning, Bathsheba stays at the farm battling her feelings and stubbornness. Finally, she chases after him on horseback and begs him not to leave, thanking him for all he's done for her, and always believing in her. Gabriel tells her, if only she would accept his love, then asks her if she would agree were he to propose again. Bathsheba smiles and tells him he needs ask once more. Gabriel kisses her passionately in response, and they walk back hand in hand.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Carey Mulligan as Bathsheba Everdene
Matthias Schoenaerts as Gabriel Oak
Michael Sheen as William Boldwood
Tom Sturridge as Sergeant Frank Troy
Juno Temple as Fanny Robin
Jessica Barden as Liddy
Sam Phillips as Sergeant Doggett
Tilly Vosburgh as Mrs. Hurst
Rowan Hedley as Maryann Money
Chris Gallarus as Billy Smallbury
Connor Webb as Merchant
Penny-Jane Swift as Mrs. Coggan
Rosie Masson as Soberness Miller
Alex Channon as Temperance Miller
Shaun Ward as Farmer
Roderick Swift as Everdene farmer
Don J. Whistance as Constable
Jamie Lee-Hill as Laban Tall

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: David Nicholls became attached to the film in 2008.[6] In April 2013, it was reported that Matthias Schoenaerts had been offered the role of Gabriel Oak alongside Carey Mulligan as Bathsheba Everdene.[7] Their casting was official in May 2013 with the participation of director Thomas Vinterberg.[8]

text: Principal photography started on 16 September 2013.[9] The film was shot in Dorset (Sherborne, Mapperton, and Beaminster),[10][11] Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and London.[9]

text: Mulligan claimed, in an appearance on The Graham Norton Show, that she hand-picked Schoenaerts to play Gabriel Oak after she saw him in the French film Rust and Bone.[12]

text: Thomas Vinterberg invented the scene in which Sergeant Troy clutches Bathsheba's crotch after the sword tricks because he wanted it to get more drastically sexual.[13] The British crew called it 'the Danish handshake'.[14] Vinterberg suggested that he would have gone much further if it had been a Danish film.[15]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on 1 May 2015.[16][17]

text: The first teaser trailer debuted on 23 November 2014. It features the song "Let No Man Steal Your Thyme" performed by Carey Mulligan and Michael Sheen. A teaser poster was also revealed to mark the 140th anniversary of the novel of the same name.[18]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Far from the Madding Crowd grossed $12.2 million in North America and $17.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $30.2 million.[4]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Far from the Madding Crowd received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 86%, based on 166 reviews, with the site's critical consensus reading, "Far from the Madding Crowd invites tough comparisons to Thomas Hardy's classic novel – and its previous adaptation – but stands on its own thanks to strong direction and a talented cast."[19] Metacritic gave the film a score of 71 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[20]

text: Carey Mulligan's performance was critically praised and some considered it better than the 1967 adaptation starring Julie Christie.[21][22] Rolling Stone's Peter Travers, in his three out of four star review, said "Vinterberg may rush the final act, but he brings out the wild side in Mulligan, who can hold a close-up like nobody's business. She's a live wire in a movie that knows how to stir up a classic for the here and now."[23]


document_title: List of medical abbreviations: Latin abbreviations

question_text: how do you write twice a day in medical terms

text: The main discussion of these abbreviations in the context of drug prescriptions and other medical prescriptions is at List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions. Some of these abbreviations are best not used, as marked and explained here.

text:
Abbrev.

Meaning

Latin (or New Latin) origin

a.c.

before meals

ante cibum

a.d., ad, AD

right ear

auris dextra

a.m., am, AM

morning

ante meridiem

nocte

every night

Omne Nocte

a.s., as, AS

left ear

auris sinistra

a.u., au, AU

both ears together or each ear

aures unitas or auris uterque

b.d.s, bds, BDS

2 times a day

bis die sumendum

b.i.d., bid, bd

twice a day / twice daily / 2 times daily

bis in die

gtt., gtt

drop(s)

gutta(e)

h., h

hour

hora

h.s., hs

at bedtime or half strength

hora somni

ii

two tablets

duos doses

iii

three tablets

trēs doses

n.p.o., npo, NPO

nothing by mouth / not by oral administration

nil per os

o.d., od, OD

once a day  right eye

omne in die  oculus dexter

o.s., os, OS

left eye

oculus sinister

o.u., ou, OU

both eyes

oculus uterque

p.c.

after food

post cibum

p.m., pm, PM

afternoon or evening

post meridiem

p.o., po, PO

orally / by mouth / oral administration

per os / nonstandard form per orem

p.r., pr, PR

rectally

per rectum

p.r.n., prn, PRN

as needed, (also Pertactin - a key antigen of ac.Pertussis vaccine)

pro re nata

q.

every

quaque

q.1.d., q1d

every day

quaque die

q.1.h., q1h

every hour

quaque hora

q.2.h., q2h

every 2 hours

quaque secunda hora

q.4.h., q4h

every 4 hours

quaque quarta hora

q.6.h., q6h

every 6 hours

quaque sexta hora

q.8.h., q8h

every 8 hours

quaque octava hora

q.a.m., qAM, qam

every morning

quaque ante meridiem

q.d., qd

every day / daily

quaque die

q.h.s., qhs

every night at bedtime

quaque hora somni

q.d.s, qds, QDS

4 times a day

quater die sumendum

q.i.d, qid

4 times a day

quater in die

q.h., qh

every hour, hourly

quaque hora

q.o.d., qod

every other day / alternate days

quaque altera die

q.p.m., qPM, qpm

every afternoon or evening

quaque post meridiem

q.s., qs

a sufficient quantity (enough)

quantum sufficiat

Rx, Rx, , ℞

prescription

recipe

Sig., S.

directions

signa

Stat.

immediately, with no delay, now

statim

t.d.s, tds, TDS

3 times a day

ter die sumendum

t.i.d., tid

3 times a day

ter in die

u.d., ud

as directed

ut dictum

tag: table

text: Lists of medical abbreviations


document_title: Walk a Mile in My Shoes

question_text: who wrote walk a mile in my shoes

question_tokens: who wrote walk a mile in my shoes

text: Walk a Mile in My Shoes

text:
"Walk A Mile In My Shoes"

Single by Joe South

from the album Don't It Make You Want To Go Home

B-side
"Shelter"

Released
December 1969

Recorded
1969, Atlanta, GA

Genre
Rock

Length
3:42

Label
Capitol 2704

Songwriter(s)
Joe South

Producer(s)
Joe South

Joe South singles chronology

"Don't It Make You Want To Go Home"
(1969)
"Walk A Mile In My Shoes"
(1969)
"Children"
(1970)

"Don't It Make You Want To Go Home"
(1969)
"Walk A Mile In My Shoes"
(1969)
"Children"
(1970)

text: "Walk a Mile in My Shoes" is a song written by Joe South, who had a hit with it in 1970. South was also producer and arranger of the track, and of its B-side, "Shelter". The single was credited to "Joe South and the Believers"; the Believers included his brother Tommy South and his sister-in-law Barbara South.

text: The song's highest position on the Billboard Hot 100 was #12, which was also its highest position in the Cashbox chart. It also reached highs of #56 country and #3 Adult Contemporary in Billboard, and made #10 in the RPM chart in Canada. It was South's second and final record to reach the top 20 of the Billboard chart.

text: The song concerns racial tolerance and the need for perspective and compassion.

text: Notable covers and references[edit]

text:
Elvis Presley on his 1970 live album On Stage
Harry Belafonte and Lena Horne when they presented an entertaining hour-long television special.
Cliff Waldron on his 1970 bluegrass album Right On
Billy Eckstine on his 1971 album Feel the Warm
[(Marian Montgomery)] on her 1972 album "Marian in the Morning"
Jerry Lee Lewis on his 1972 album The Killer Rocks On
Bryan Ferry on his 1974 album Another Time, Another Place.
Otis Clay on his 2007 album "Walk a Mile in my Shoes"
Coldcut on their 2006 album Sound Mirrors, featuring vocals from Robert Owens.
De Dijk on their 2002 album Muzikanten dansen niet (Dutch version of the song)
Greg Page in his 2004 Nashville concert
Kentucky Headhunters on their 2011 album Midnight Special

text:
This 1960s song–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

v
t
e

text: 1960s song stubs1969 songsElvis Presley songsSongs written by Joe South

text: Articles with hAudio microformatsAll stub articles


document_title: U.S. Open (golf)

question_text: when does the us open start for golf

question_tokens: when does the us open start for golf

text: U.S. Open (golf)

text: History[edit]

text: The first U.S. Open was played on October 4, 1895, on a nine-hole course at the Newport Country Club in Newport, Rhode Island. It was a 36-hole competition and was played in a single day. Ten professionals and one amateur entered. The winner was Horace Rawlins, a 21-year-old Englishman, who had arrived in the U.S. earlier that year to take up a position at the host club. He received $150 cash out of a prize fund of $335, plus a $50 gold medal; his club received the Open Championship Cup trophy, which was presented by the USGA.[1][2]

text: In the beginning, the tournament was dominated by experienced British players until 1911, when John J. McDermott became the first native-born American winner. American golfers soon began to win regularly and the tournament evolved to become one of the four majors.

text: Since 1911, the title has been won mostly by players from the United States. Since 1950, players from only six countries other than the United States have won the championship, most notably South Africa, which has won five times since 1965. A streak of four consecutive non-American winners occurred from 2004 to 2007 for the first time since 1910. These four players, South African Retief Goosen (2004), New Zealander Michael Campbell (2005), Australian Geoff Ogilvy (2006) and Argentine Ángel Cabrera (2007), are all from countries in the Southern Hemisphere. Northern Ireland's Graeme McDowell (2010) became the first European player to win the event since Tony Jacklin of England in 1970; three more Europeans won in the next four editions, making it only three American wins in the 11 tournaments from 2004-2014.

text: U.S. Open play is characterized by tight scoring at or around par by the leaders, with the winner usually emerging at around even par. A U.S. Open course is seldom beaten severely, and there have been many over-par wins (in part because par is usually set at 70, except for the very longest courses). Normally, an Open course is quite long and will have a high cut of primary rough (termed "Open rough" by the American press and fans); undulating greens (such as at Pinehurst No. 2 in 2005, which was described by Johnny Miller of NBC as "like trying to hit a ball on top of a VW Beetle"); pinched fairways (especially on what are expected to be less difficult holes); and two or three holes that are short par fives under regular play would be used as long par fours during the tournament (often to meet that frequently used par of 70, forcing players to have accurate long drives). Some courses that are attempting to get into the rotation for the U.S. Open will undergo renovations to develop these features. Rees Jones is the most notable of the "Open Doctors" who take on these projects; his father Robert Trent Jones had filled that role earlier. As with any professional golf tournament, the available space surrounding the course (for spectators, among other considerations) and local infrastructure also factor into deciding which courses will host the event.

text: Qualification[edit]

text: The U.S. Open is open to any professional, or to any amateur with an up-to-date men's USGA Handicap Index not exceeding 1.4.[3] Players (male or female)[3] may obtain a place by being fully exempt or by competing successfully in qualifying. The field is 156 players.

text: About half of the field is made up of players who are fully exempt from qualifying. As of the U.S. Open in 2014, the exemption categories are:[4]

text:
Winners of the U.S. Open for the last ten years
Winner and runner-up from the previous year's U.S. Amateur
Winner of the previous year's Amateur Championship[5]
The previous year's Mark H. McCormack Medal winner for the top-ranked amateur golfer in the world[5]
Winners of each of Masters Tournament, Open Championship and PGA Championship for the last five years
Winners of the last three Players Championships
Winner of the current year's BMW PGA Championship
Winner of the last U.S. Senior Open
Top 10 finishers and ties from the previous year's U.S. Open
Players who qualified for the previous year's Tour Championship
The top 60 in the Official World Golf Ranking (OWGR) as of two weeks before the start of the tournament
The top 60 in the OWGR as of the tournament date
Special exemptions selected by the USGA
All remaining spots after the second top 60 OWGR cutoff date filled by alternates from qualifying tournaments.

text: The exemptions for amateurs apply only if the players remain amateurs as of the tournament date.

text: Before 2011, the sole OWGR cutoff for entry was the top 50 as of two weeks before the tournament. An exemption category for the top 50 as of the tournament date was added for 2011, apparently in response to the phenomenon of golfers entering the top 50 between the original cutoff date and the tournament (such as Justin Rose and Rickie Fowler in 2010).[6]

text: Through 2011, exemptions existed for leading money winners on the PGA, European, Japanese, and Australasian tours, as well as winners of multiple PGA Tour events in the year before the U.S. Open. These categories were eliminated in favor of inviting the top 60 on the OWGR at both relevant dates.[6] Starting with the 2012 championship, an exemption was added for the winner of the current year's BMW PGA Championship, the European Tour's equivalent of The Players Championship.[7]

text: Potential competitors who are not fully exempt must enter the Qualifying process, which has two stages. Firstly there is Local Qualifying, which is played over 18 holes at more than 100 courses around the United States. Many leading players are exempt from this first stage, and they join the successful local qualifiers at the Sectional Qualifying stage, which is played over 36 holes in one day at several sites in the U.S., as well as one each in Europe and Japan. There is no lower age limit and the youngest-ever qualifier was 14-year-old Andy Zhang of China, who qualified in 2012 after Paul Casey withdrew days before the tournament.

text: USGA special exemptions[edit]

text: The USGA has granted a special exemption to 34 players 52 times since 1966.[8] Players with multiple special exemptions include: Arnold Palmer (1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1994), Seve Ballesteros (1978, 1994), Gary Player (1981, 1983), Lee Trevino (1983, 1984), Hale Irwin (1990, 2002, 2003), Jack Nicklaus (1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000), Tom Watson (1993, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2010).[9]

text: Irwin won the 1990 U.S. Open after accepting a special exemption. The last time a special exemption was extended was for the 2016 U.S. Open in which Retief Goosen accepted.[10]

text: Prizes[edit]

text: The purse at the 2017 U.S. Open was $12 million, and the winner's share was $2.16 million. The European Tour uses conversion rates at the time of the tournament to calculate the official prize money used in their Race to Dubai (€10,745,927 in 2017).

text: In line with the other majors, winning the U.S. Open gives a golfer several privileges that make his career much more secure if he is not already one of the elite players of the sport. U.S. Open champions are automatically invited to play in the other three majors (the Masters, The Open Championship (British Open), and the PGA Championship) for the next five years, as well as The Players Championship, and they are exempt from qualifying for the U.S. Open itself for 10 years.

text: Winners may also receive a five-year exemption on the PGA Tour, which is automatic for regular members. Non-PGA Tour members who win the U.S. Open have the choice of joining the PGA Tour either within 60 days of winning, or prior to the beginning of any one of the next five tour seasons.

text: Finally, U.S. Open winners receive automatic invitations to three of the five senior majors once they turn 50; they receive a five-year invitation to the U.S. Senior Open and a lifetime invitation to the Senior PGA Championship and Senior British Open.

text: The top 10 finishers at the U.S. Open are fully exempt from qualifying for the following year's Open, and the top four are automatically invited to the following season's Masters.

text: Playoff format[edit]

text: The U.S. Open is the only one of the four major championships which retains a full 18-hole playoff the following day (Monday). If a tie exists after that fifth round, then the playoff continues as sudden-death on the 91st hole. The U.S. Open has advanced to sudden-death three times (1990, 1994, 2008), most recently when Tiger Woods defeated Rocco Mediate on the first additional playoff hole in 2008. Before sudden-death was introduced in the 1950s, additional 18-hole rounds were played (1925, 1939, and 1946) to break the tie. When the playoff was scheduled for 36 holes and ended in a tie, as in 1931, a second 36-hole playoff was required.

text: Champions[edit]

text: Willie Anderson, Bobby Jones, Ben Hogan and Jack Nicklaus hold the record for the most U.S. Open victories, with four victories each.[11] Hale Irwin is the oldest winner of the U.S. Open at 45 years and 15 days in 1990.[12] The youngest winner of the U.S. Open is John McDermott at 19 years, 10 months and 14 days in 1911.[12]

text:
Year
Champion
Country
Venue
Location
Score
Winning
margin
Runner(s)-up
Winner's
share ($)

2017
Brooks Koepka
 United States
Erin Hills
Erin, Wisconsin
272 (−16)
4 strokes
 Hideki Matsuyama
 Brian Harman
2,160,000

2016
Dustin Johnson
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
276 (−4)
3 strokes
 Jim Furyk
 Shane Lowry
 Scott Piercy
1,800,000

2015
Jordan Spieth
 United States
Chambers Bay
University Place, Washington
275 (−5)
1 stroke
 Dustin Johnson
 Louis Oosthuizen
1,800,000

2014
Martin Kaymer
 Germany
Pinehurst Resort, Course No. 2
Pinehurst, North Carolina
271 (–9)
8 strokes
 Erik Compton
 Rickie Fowler
1,620,000

2013
Justin Rose
 England
Merion Golf Club, East Course
Ardmore, Pennsylvania
281 (+1)
2 strokes
 Jason Day
 Phil Mickelson
1,440,000

2012
Webb Simpson
 United States
Olympic Club, Lake Course
San Francisco, California
281 (+1)
1 stroke
 Graeme McDowell
 Michael Thompson
1,440,000

2011
Rory McIlroy
 Northern Ireland
Congressional Country Club, Blue Course
Bethesda, Maryland
268 (–16)
8 strokes
 Jason Day
1,440,000

2010
Graeme McDowell
 Northern Ireland
Pebble Beach Golf Links
Pebble Beach, California
284 (E)
1 stroke
 Grégory Havret
1,350,000

2009
Lucas Glover
 United States
Bethpage State Park, Black Course
Farmingdale, New York[N 1]
276 (–4)
2 strokes
 Ricky Barnes
 David Duval
 Phil Mickelson
1,350,000

2008
Tiger Woods (3)
 United States
Torrey Pines Golf Course, South Course
La Jolla, California[N 2]
283 (–1)
Playoff
 Rocco Mediate
1,350,000

2007
Ángel Cabrera
 Argentina
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
285 (+5)
1 stroke
 Jim Furyk
 Tiger Woods
1,260,000

2006
Geoff Ogilvy
 Australia
Winged Foot Golf Club, West Course
Mamaroneck, New York
285 (+5)
1 stroke
 Jim Furyk
 Phil Mickelson
 Colin Montgomerie
1,225,000

2005
Michael Campbell
 New Zealand
Pinehurst Resort, Course No. 2
Pinehurst, North Carolina
280 (E)
2 strokes
 Tiger Woods
1,170,000

2004
Retief Goosen (2)
 South Africa
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
Shinnecock Hills, New York
276 (–4)
2 strokes
 Phil Mickelson
1,125,000

2003
Jim Furyk
 United States
Olympia Fields Country Club, North Course
Olympia Fields, Illinois
272 (–8)
3 strokes
 Stephen Leaney
1,080,000

2002
Tiger Woods (2)
 United States
Bethpage State Park, Black Course
Farmingdale, New York[N 1]
277 (–3)
3 strokes
 Phil Mickelson
1,000,000

2001
Retief Goosen
 South Africa
Southern Hills Country Club
Tulsa, Oklahoma
276 (–4)
Playoff
 Mark Brooks
900,000

2000
Tiger Woods
 United States
Pebble Beach Golf Links
Pebble Beach, California
272 (–12)
15 strokes
 Ernie Els
 Miguel Ángel Jiménez
800,000

1999
Payne Stewart (2)
 United States
Pinehurst Resort, Course No. 2
Pinehurst, North Carolina
279 (–1)
1 stroke
 Phil Mickelson
625,000

1998
Lee Janzen (2)
 United States
Olympic Club, Lake Course
San Francisco, California[N 3]
280 (E)
1 stroke
 Payne Stewart
535,000

1997
Ernie Els (2)
 South Africa
Congressional Country Club, Blue Course
Bethesda, Maryland
276 (–4)
1 stroke
 Colin Montgomerie
465,000

1996
Steve Jones
 United States
Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
278 (–2)
1 stroke
 Tom Lehman
 Davis Love III
425,000

1995
Corey Pavin
 United States
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
Shinnecock Hills, New York
280 (E)
2 strokes
 Greg Norman
350,000

1994
Ernie Els
 South Africa
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
279 (–5)
Playoff
 Colin Montgomerie
 Loren Roberts
320,000

1993
Lee Janzen
 United States
Baltusrol Golf Club, Lower Course
Springfield, New Jersey
272 (–8)
2 strokes
 Payne Stewart
290,000

1992
Tom Kite
 United States
Pebble Beach Golf Links
Pebble Beach, California
285 (–3)
2 strokes
 Jeff Sluman
275,000

1991
Payne Stewart
 United States
Hazeltine National Golf Club
Chaska, Minnesota
282 (–6)
Playoff
 Scott Simpson
235,000

1990
Hale Irwin (3)
 United States
Medinah Country Club, Course No. 3
Medinah, Illinois
280 (–8)
Playoff
 Mike Donald
220,000

1989
Curtis Strange (2)
 United States
Oak Hill Country Club, East Course
Rochester, New York[N 4]
278 (–2)
1 stroke
 Chip Beck
 Mark McCumber
 Ian Woosnam
200,000

1988
Curtis Strange
 United States
The Country Club, Composite Course
Brookline, Massachusetts
278 (–6)
Playoff
 Nick Faldo
180,000

1987
Scott Simpson
 United States
Olympic Club, Lake Course
San Francisco, California[N 3]
277 (–3)
1 stroke
 Tom Watson
150,000

1986
Raymond Floyd
 United States
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
Shinnecock Hills, New York
279 (–1)
2 strokes
 Chip Beck
 Lanny Wadkins
115,000

1985
Andy North (2)
 United States
Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
279 (–1)
1 stroke
 Dave Barr
 Chen Tze-chung
 Denis Watson
103,000

1984
Fuzzy Zoeller
 United States
Winged Foot Golf Club, West Course
Mamaroneck, New York
276 (–4)
Playoff
 Greg Norman
94,000

1983
Larry Nelson
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
280 (–4)
1 stroke
 Tom Watson
72,000

1982
Tom Watson
 United States
Pebble Beach Golf Links
Pebble Beach, California
282 (–6)
2 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
60,000

1981
David Graham
 Australia
Merion Golf Club, East Course
Ardmore, Pennsylvania
273 (–7)
3 strokes
 George Burns
 Bill Rogers
55,000

1980
Jack Nicklaus (4)
 United States
Baltusrol Golf Club, Lower Course
Springfield, New Jersey
272 (–8)
2 strokes
 Isao Aoki
55,000

1979
Hale Irwin (2)
 United States
Inverness Club
Toledo, Ohio
284 (E)
2 strokes
 Jerry Pate
 Gary Player
50,000

1978
Andy North
 United States
Cherry Hills Country Club
Cherry Hills Village, Colorado
285 (+1)
1 stroke
 J. C. Snead
 Dave Stockton
45,000

1977
Hubert Green
 United States
Southern Hills Country Club
Tulsa, Oklahoma
278 (–2)
1 stroke
 Lou Graham
45,000

1976
Jerry Pate
 United States
Atlanta Athletic Club, Highlands Course
Duluth, Georgia[N 5]
277 (–3)
2 strokes
 Al Geiberger
 Tom Weiskopf
42,000

1975
Lou Graham
 United States
Medinah Country Club, Course No. 3
Medinah, Illinois
287 (+3)
Playoff
 John Mahaffey
40,000

1974
Hale Irwin
 United States
Winged Foot Golf Club, West Course
Mamaroneck, New York
287 (+7)
2 strokes
 Forrest Fezler
35,000

1973
Johnny Miller
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
279 (–5)
1 stroke
 John Schlee
35,000

1972
Jack Nicklaus (3)
 United States
Pebble Beach Golf Links
Pebble Beach, California
290 (+2)
3 strokes
 Bruce Crampton
30,000

1971
Lee Trevino (2)
 United States
Merion Golf Club, East Course
Ardmore, Pennsylvania
280 (E)
Playoff
 Jack Nicklaus
30,000

1970
Tony Jacklin
 England
Hazeltine National Golf Club
Chaska, Minnesota
281 (–7)
7 strokes
 Dave Hill
30,000

1969
Orville Moody
 United States
Champions Golf Club, Cypress Creek Course
Houston, Texas
281 (+1)
1 stroke
 Deane Beman
 Al Geiberger
 Bob Rosburg
30,000

1968
Lee Trevino
 United States
Oak Hill Country Club, East Course
Rochester, New York[N 4]
275 (–5)
4 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
30,000

1967
Jack Nicklaus (2)
 United States
Baltusrol Golf Club, Lower Course
Springfield, New Jersey
275 (–5)
4 strokes
 Arnold Palmer
30,000

1966
Billy Casper (2)
 United States
Olympic Club, Lake Course
San Francisco, California[N 3]
278 (–2)
Playoff
 Arnold Palmer
26,500

1965
Gary Player
 South Africa
Bellerive Country Club
St. Louis, Missouri[N 6]
282 (+2)
Playoff
 Kel Nagle
26,000

1964
Ken Venturi
 United States
Congressional Country Club, Blue Course
Bethesda, Maryland
278 (–2)
4 strokes
 Tommy Jacobs
17,000

1963
Julius Boros (2)
 United States
The Country Club, Composite Course
Brookline, Massachusetts
293 (+9)
Playoff
 Jacky Cupit
 Arnold Palmer
17,500

1962
Jack Nicklaus
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
283 (–1)
Playoff
 Arnold Palmer
17,500

1961
Gene Littler
 United States
Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
281 (+1)
1 stroke
 Bob Goalby
 Doug Sanders
14,000

1960
Arnold Palmer
 United States
Cherry Hills Country Club
Cherry Hills Village, Colorado
280 (–4)
2 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus (a)
14,400

1959
Billy Casper
 United States
Winged Foot Golf Club, West Course
Mamaroneck, New York
282 (+2)
1 stroke
 Bob Rosburg
12,000

1958
Tommy Bolt
 United States
Southern Hills Country Club
Tulsa, Oklahoma
283 (+3)
4 strokes
 Gary Player
8,000

1957
Dick Mayer
 United States
Inverness Club
Toledo, Ohio
282 (+2)
Playoff
 Cary Middlecoff
7,200

1956
Cary Middlecoff (2)
 United States
Oak Hill Country Club, East Course
Rochester, New York[N 4]
281 (+1)
1 stroke
 Julius Boros
 Ben Hogan
6,000

1955
Jack Fleck
 United States
Olympic Club, Lake Course
San Francisco, California[N 3]
287 (+7)
Playoff
 Ben Hogan
6,000

1954
Ed Furgol
 United States
Baltusrol Golf Club, Lower Course
Springfield, New Jersey
284 (+4)
1 stroke
 Gene Littler
6,000

1953
Ben Hogan (4)
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
283 (–5)
6 strokes
 Sam Snead
5,000

1952
Julius Boros
 United States
Northwood Club
Dallas, Texas
281 (+1)
4 strokes
 Ed Oliver
4,000

1951
Ben Hogan (3)
 United States
Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
287 (+7)
2 strokes
 Clayton Heafner
4,000

1950
Ben Hogan (2)
 United States
Merion Golf Club, East Course
Ardmore, Pennsylvania
287 (+7)
Playoff
 Lloyd Mangrum (2nd),
 George Fazio (3rd)
4,000

1949
Cary Middlecoff
 United States
Medinah Country Club, Course No. 3
Medinah, Illinois
286 (+2)
1 stroke
 Clayton Heafner
 Sam Snead
2,000

1948
Ben Hogan
 United States
Riviera Country Club
Pacific Palisades, California[N 7]
276 (–8)
2 strokes
 Jimmy Demaret
2,000

1947
Lew Worsham
 United States
St. Louis Country Club
Ladue, Missouri
282 (–2)
Playoff
 Sam Snead
2,500

1946
Lloyd Mangrum
 United States
Canterbury Golf Club
Beachwood, Ohio
284 (–4)
Playoff
 Vic Ghezzi (T2)
 Byron Nelson (T2)
1,833

1942–1945: Cancelled due to World War II

1941
Craig Wood
 United States
Colonial Country Club
Fort Worth, Texas
284 (+4)
3 strokes
 Denny Shute
1,000

1940
Lawson Little
 United States
Canterbury Golf Club
Beachwood, Ohio
287 (–1)
Playoff
 Gene Sarazen
1,000

1939
Byron Nelson
 United States
Philadelphia Country Club, Spring Mill Course
Gladwyne, Pennsylvania
284 (–4)
Playoff
 Craig Wood (2nd),
 Denny Shute (3rd)
1,000

1938
Ralph Guldahl (2)
 United States
Cherry Hills Country Club
Cherry Hills Village, Colorado
284 (E)
6 strokes
 Dick Metz
1,000

1937
Ralph Guldahl
 United States
Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
281 (+1)
2 strokes
 Sam Snead
1,000

1936
Tony Manero
 United States
Baltusrol Golf Club, Upper Course
Springfield, New Jersey
282 (–2)
2 strokes
 Harry Cooper
1,000

1935
Sam Parks, Jr.
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
299 (+11)
2 strokes
 Jimmy Thomson
1,000

1934
Olin Dutra
 United States
Merion Golf Club, East Course
Ardmore, Pennsylvania
293 (+9)
1 stroke
 Gene Sarazen
1,000

1933
Johnny Goodman (a)
 United States
North Shore Country Club
Glenview, Illinois
287 (–1)
1 stroke
 Ralph Guldahl
0

1932
Gene Sarazen (2)
 United States
Fresh Meadow Country Club
Queens, New York
286 (+2)
3 strokes
 Bobby Cruickshank
 Philip Perkins
1,000

1931
Billy Burke
 United States
Inverness Club
Toledo, Ohio
292 (+4)
Playoff
 George Von Elm
1,750

1930
Bobby Jones (a) (4)
 United States
Interlachen Country Club
Edina, Minnesota
287 (–1)
2 strokes
 Macdonald Smith
0

1929
Bobby Jones (a) (3)
 United States
Winged Foot Golf Club, West Course
Mamaroneck, New York
294
Playoff
 Al Espinosa
0

1928
Johnny Farrell
 United States
Olympia Fields Country Club, North Course
Olympia Fields, Illinois
294
Playoff
 Bobby Jones (a)
500

1927
Tommy Armour
 Scotland
 United States
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
301
Playoff
 Harry Cooper
500

1926
Bobby Jones (a) (2)
 United States
Scioto Country Club
Columbus, Ohio
293
1 stroke
 Joe Turnesa
0

1925
Willie Macfarlane
 Scotland
Worcester Country Club
Worcester, Massachusetts
291
Playoff
 Bobby Jones (a)
500

1924
Cyril Walker
 England
Oakland Hills Country Club, South Course
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
297
3 strokes
 Bobby Jones (a)
500

1923
Bobby Jones (a)
 United States
Inwood Country Club
Inwood, New York
296
Playoff
 Bobby Cruickshank
0

1922
Gene Sarazen
 United States
Skokie Country Club
Glencoe, Illinois
288
1 stroke
 John Black
 Bobby Jones (a)
500

1921
Jim Barnes
 England
Columbia Country Club
Chevy Chase, Maryland
289
9 strokes
 Walter Hagen
 Fred McLeod
500

1920
Ted Ray
 Jersey
Inverness Club
Toledo, Ohio
295
1 stroke
 Jack Burke Sr.
 Leo Diegel
 Jock Hutchison
 Harry Vardon
500

1919
Walter Hagen (2)
 United States
Brae Burn Country Club, Main Course
West Newton, Massachusetts
301
Playoff
 Mike Brady
500

1917–1918: Cancelled due to World War I

1916
Chick Evans (a)
 United States
The Minikahda Club
Minneapolis, Minnesota
286
2 strokes
 Jock Hutchison
0

1915
Jerome Travers (a)
 United States
Baltusrol Golf Club, Revised Course
Springfield, New Jersey
297
1 stroke
 Tom McNamara
0

1914
Walter Hagen
 United States
Midlothian Country Club
Midlothian, Illinois
290
1 stroke
 Chick Evans (a)
300

1913
Francis Ouimet (a)
 United States
The Country Club
Brookline, Massachusetts
304
Playoff
 Harry Vardon (2nd),
 Ted Ray (3rd)
0

1912
John McDermott (2)
 United States
Country Club of Buffalo
Buffalo, New York
294
2 strokes
 Tom McNamara
300

1911
John McDermott
 United States
Chicago Golf Club
Wheaton, Illinois
307
Playoff
 Mike Brady (2nd),
 George Simpson (3rd)
300

1910
Alex Smith (2)
 Scotland
Philadelphia Cricket Club, St. Martin's Course
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
298
Playoff
 John McDermott (2nd),
 Macdonald Smith (3rd)
300

1909
George Sargent
 England
Englewood Golf Club
Englewood, New Jersey
290
4 strokes
 Tom McNamara
300

1908
Fred McLeod
 Scotland
Myopia Hunt Club
South Hamilton, Massachusetts
322
Playoff
 Willie Smith
300

1907
Alec Ross
 Scotland
Philadelphia Cricket Club, St. Martin's Course
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
302
2 strokes
 Gilbert Nicholls
300

1906
Alex Smith
 Scotland
Onwentsia Club
Lake Forest, Illinois
295
7 strokes
 Willie Smith
300

1905
Willie Anderson (4)
 Scotland
Myopia Hunt Club
South Hamilton, Massachusetts
314
2 strokes
 Alex Smith
200

1904
Willie Anderson (3)
 Scotland
Glen View Club
Golf, Illinois
303
4 strokes
 Gilbert Nicholls
200

1903
Willie Anderson (2)
 Scotland
Baltusrol Golf Club, Original Course
Springfield, New Jersey
307
Playoff
 David Brown
200

1902
Laurie Auchterlonie
 Scotland
Garden City Golf Club
Garden City, New York
307
6 strokes
 Stewart Gardner
 Walter Travis (a)
200

1901
Willie Anderson
 Scotland
Myopia Hunt Club
South Hamilton, Massachusetts
331
Playoff
 Alex Smith
200

1900
Harry Vardon
 Jersey
Chicago Golf Club
Wheaton, Illinois
313
2 strokes
 J.H. Taylor
200

1899
Willie Smith
 Scotland
Baltimore Country Club, Roland Park Course
Baltimore, Maryland
315
11 strokes
 Val Fitzjohn
 George Low
 Bert Way
150

1898
Fred Herd
 Scotland
Myopia Hunt Club
South Hamilton, Massachusetts
328
7 strokes
 Alex Smith
150

1897
Joe Lloyd
 England
Chicago Golf Club
Wheaton, Illinois
162
1 stroke
 Willie Anderson
150

1896
James Foulis
 Scotland
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
Shinnecock Hills, New York
152
3 strokes
 Horace Rawlins
150

1895
Horace Rawlins
 England
Newport Country Club
Newport, Rhode Island
173
2 strokes
 Willie Dunn
150

text: (a) denotes amateur

text: Summary by course, state and region[edit]

text:
Legend

State totals – preceding courses are in that state

Division totals – Divisions as defined by U.S. Census Bureau

Region totals – each is composed of 2 or 3 divisions

Total U.S. Opens

text:
Col. 4 shows larger region which contains entity in col. 1

Course/State/Region
No.
Years hosted
Geog.
sort

026 !Myopia Hunt Club
010 !4
1908,1905,1901,1898
001 !MA

046 !The Country Club
017 !3
1988,1963,1913
002 !MA

050 !Worcester Country Club
037 !1
1925
003 !MA

006 !Brae Burn Country Club
041 !1
1919
004 !MA

056 !Total Massachusetts
055 !9

005 !NewEng

027 !Newport Country Club
050 !1
1895
006 !RI

066 !Total Rhode Island
067 !1

007 !NewEng

072 !Total New England
071 !10

008 !NEast

049 !Winged Foot Golf Club
007 !5
2006,1984,1974,1959,
1929
009 !NY

042 !Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
008 !4
2004,1995,1986,1896
010 !NY

030 !Oak Hill Country Club
015 !3
1989,1968,1956
011 !NY

005 !Bethpage State Park
019 !2
2009,2002
012 !NY

016 !Fresh Meadow Country Club
034 !1
1932
013 !NY

022 !Inwood Country Club
038 !1
1923
014 !NY

014 !Country Club of Buffalo
044 !1
1912
015 !NY

017 !Garden City Golf Club
048 !1
1902
016 !NY

061 !Total New York
051 !18

017 !MidAtl

032 !Oakmont Country Club
001 !9
2016, 2007,1994,1983,1973,
1962,1953,1935,1927
018 !PA

024 !Merion Golf Club
004 !5
2013,1981,1971,1950,
1934
019 !PA

038 !Philadelphia Cricket Club
023 !2
1910,1907
020 !PA

037 !Philadelphia Country Club
032 !1
1939
021 !PA

065 !Total Pennsylvania
052 !17

022 !MidAtl

003 !Baltusrol Golf Club
002 !7
1993,1980,1967,1954,
1936,1915,1903
023 !NJ

015 !Englewood Golf Club
045 !1
1909
024 !NJ

060 !Total New Jersey
056 !8

025 !MidAtl

070 !Total Mid-Atlantic
068 !43

026 !NEast

078 !Total Northeast
077 !53

027 !USA

013 !Congressional Country Club
012 !3
2011,1997,1964
028 !MD

002 !Baltimore Country Club
049 !1
1899
029 !MD

012 !Columbia Country Club
040 !1
1921
030 !MD

055 !Total Maryland
059 !5

031 !SthAtl

039 !Pinehurst Resort
011 !3
2014,2005,1999
032 !NC

062 !Total North Carolina
062 !3

033 !SthAtl

001 !Atlanta Athletic Club
025 !1
1976
034 !GA

053 !Total Georgia
066 !1

035 !SthAtl

074 !Total South Atlantic
072 !9

036 !South

069 !Total East South Central
076 !0

037 !South

044 !Southern Hills Country Club
013 !3
2001,1977,1958
038 !OK

064 !Total Oklahoma
063 !3

039 !WSC

008 !Champions Golf Club
026 !1
1969
040 !TX

011 !Colonial Country Club
031 !1
1941
041 !TX

029 !Northwood Club
028 !1
1952
042 !TX

067 !Total Texas
064 !3

043 !WSC

076 !Total West South Central
074 !6

044 !South

079 !Total South
080 !15

045 !USA

023 !Medinah Country Club
014 !3
1990,1975,1949
046 !IL

010 !Chicago Golf Club
018 !3
1911,1900,1897
047 !IL

033 !Olympia Fields Country Club
020 !2
2003,1928
048 !IL

028 !North Shore Country Club
033 !1
1933
049 !IL

043 !Skokie Country Club
039 !1
1922
050 !IL

025 !Midlothian Country Club
043 !1
1914
051 !IL

035 !Onwentsia Club
046 !1
1906
052 !IL

018 !Glen View Club
047 !1
1904
053 !IL

054 !Total Illinois
053 !13

054 !ENC

021 !Inverness Club
009 !4
1979,1957,1931,1920
055 !OH

007 !Canterbury Golf Club
022 !2
1946,1940
056 !OH

041 !Scioto Country Club
036 !1
1926
057 !OH

063 !Total Ohio
057 !7

058 !ENC

031 !Oakland Hills Country Club
003 !6
1996,1985,1961,1951,
1937,1924
059 !MI

057 !Total Michigan
058 !6

060 !ENC

068 !Total East North Central
069 !26

061 !Midwest

019 !Hazeltine National Golf Club
021 !2
1991,1970
062 !MN

020 !Interlachen Country Club
035 !1
1930
063 !MN

047 !The Minikahda Club
042 !1
1916
064 !MN

058 !Total Minnesota
060 !4

065 !WNC

004 !Bellerive Country Club
027 !1
1965
066 !MO

045 !St. Louis Country Club
030 !1
1947
067 !MO

059 !Total Missouri
065 !2

068 !WNC

075 !Total West North Central
073 !6

069 !Midwest

077 !Total Midwest
078 !32

070 !USA

009 !Cherry Hills Country Club
016 !3
1978,1960,1938
071 !CO

052 !Total Colorado
061 !3

072 !Mtn

071 !Total Mountain
075 !3

073 !West

034 !Olympic Club
005 !5
2012,1998,1987,1966,
1955
074 !CA

036 !Pebble Beach Golf Links
006 !5
2010,2000,1992,1982,
1972
075 !CA

048 !Torrey Pines Golf Course
024 !1
2008
076 !CA

040 !Riviera Country Club
029 !1
1948
077 !CA

051 !Total California
054 !12

078 !Pac

007a !Chambers Bay
023a !1
2015
078a !WA

067a !Total Washington
067a !1

078b !Pac

073 !Total Pacific
070 !13

079 !West

080 !Total West
079 !16

080 !USA

081 !Total U.S. Opens
081 !116

081 !

text: The seventeenth state to host the tournament was North Carolina in 1999, followed by Washington in 2015; Wisconsin is scheduled to be the nineteenth, in 2017.

text: Records[edit]

text:
Oldest champion: Hale Irwin in 1990 at 7004164510000000000♠45 years, 15 days.
Youngest champion: John McDermott in 1911 at 19 years, 315 days.
Oldest player to make the cut: Sam Snead in 1973 at 61 years old. He tied for 29th place.
Most victories: 4 by Willie Anderson 1901, 1903-05; Bobby Jones 1923, 1926, 1929-30; Ben Hogan 1948, 1950-51, 1953; Jack Nicklaus 1962, 1967, 1972, 1980. NOTE: Hogan also won the 1942 Hale America National Open which was held jointly by the USGA, PGA and Chicago GA for the benefit of the Navy Relief Society and the USO.
Most consecutive victories: 3 by Willie Anderson 1903–05.
Most consecutive victorious attempts: 3 by Ben Hogan 1948, 1950-51
Most consecutive attempts in top 2: 5 by Bobby Jones 1922-26
Most consecutive attempts in top 5: 6 by Willie Anderson 1901-06
Most consecutive attempts in top 10: 16 by Ben Hogan 1940-56 (next highest streak 7)
Most consecutive Opens started: 44 by Jack Nicklaus from 1957 to 2000.
Largest margin of victory: 15 strokes by Tiger Woods, 2000. This is the all-time record for all majors.
Lowest score for 36 holes: 130 – Martin Kaymer (65–65), rounds 1–2, 2014.
Lowest score for 54 holes: 199 – Rory McIlroy (65–66–68), rounds 1–3, 2011; Louis Oosthuizen (66-66-67), rounds 2-4, 2015.
Lowest score for 72 holes: 268 – Rory McIlroy (65–66–68–69), rounds 1–4, 2011.
Most strokes under par for 72 holes: 16-under (268) by Rory McIlroy, 2011; 16-under (272) by Brooks Koepka, 2017.
Most strokes under par at any point in the tournament: 17 by Rory McIlroy, final round, 2011.[13]
Lowest score for 18 holes: 63 – Johnny Miller, 4th round, 1973; Jack Nicklaus, 1st, 1980; Tom Weiskopf, 1st, 1980; Vijay Singh, 2nd, 2003; Justin Thomas, 3rd, 2017.
Lowest score for 18 holes in relation to par: −9 Justin Thomas, 3rd round, 2017.
All four rounds under par (golfers who did not win the tournament in italics):[14]

Lee Trevino, 1968 (69–68–69–69, par 70)
Tony Jacklin, 1970 (71-70-70-70, par 72)
Lee Janzen, 1993 (67-67-69-69, par 70)
Curtis Strange, 1994 (70-70-70-70, par 71)
Rory McIlroy (65-66-68-69, par 71) and Robert Garrigus (70-70-68-70), 2011
Brooks Koepka (67-70-68-67, par 72), Charley Hoffman (70-70-68-71), and Brandt Snedeker (70-69-70-71), 2017

All four rounds under 70: Trevino, 1968; Janzen, 1993; McIlroy, 2011.[13]
Most frequent venues:

9 Opens: Oakmont Country Club – 1927, 1935, 1953, 1962, 1973, 1983, 1994, 2007, and 2016
7 Opens: Baltusrol Golf Club – 1903, 1915, 1936, 1954, 1967, 1980, and 1993
6 Opens: Oakland Hills Country Club – 1924, 1937, 1951, 1961, 1985, and 1996
5 Opens: Winged Foot Golf Club – 1929, 1959, 1974, 1984, and 2006

Pebble Beach Golf Links – 1972, 1982, 1992, 2000, and 2010
Olympic Club – 1955, 1966, 1987, 1998, and 2012
Merion Golf Club – 1934, 1950, 1971, 1981, and 2013

4 Opens: Myopia Hunt Club – 1898, 1901, 1905, and 1908

Inverness Club – 1920, 1931, 1957, and 1979
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club – 1896, 1986, 1995, and 2004

Most runner-up finishes: Phil Mickelson – 6 (1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2009, 2013)

text: There is an extensive records section on the official site [1].

text: Broadcasting[edit]

text: As of 2015, Fox Sports is the official broadcaster of the U.S. Open[15], as the result of a 12-year deal with the USGA for exclusive rights to its tournaments through 2026. Coverage will be telecast by Fox (over-the-air) and Fox Sports 1 (cable).[16]

text: The 2017 edition of the U.S. Open featured a total of 38.5 hours of coverage in the United States, with 20 hours being on Thursday and Friday, and 18.5 hours being on Saturday and Sunday; the Fox Sports 1 cable network carried a total of 14 hours of coverage on Thursday and Friday. The Fox broadcast network had a total of 24.5 hours of coverage Thursday through Sunday, with 6 hours Thursday and Friday, and 18.5 hours Saturday and Sunday. The overall 38.5–hour total is up two hours from last year's total of 36.5 hours, due to the Fox broadcast network's coverage having 24.5 hours this year, compared to the 22.5 hours it had last year; the Fox Sports 1 cable network's 14 hours this year remained unchanged from last year.

text: Coverage was previously televised by NBC and ESPN through 2014. NBC's most recent period as rightsholder began in 1995; ABC held the broadcast rights from 1966 through 1994.[17]

text: In Australia, from 2015 Fox Sports Australia is the exclusive broadcaster of the U.S. open until 2018.[18]

text: Future sites[edit]

text:
Year
Edition
Course
Location
Dates
Times hosted

2018
118th
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
Shinnecock Hills, New York
June 14–17
1896, 1986, 1995, 2004

2019
119th
Pebble Beach Golf Links
Pebble Beach, California
June 13–16
1972, 1982, 1992, 2000, 2010

2020
120th
Winged Foot Golf Club, West Course
Mamaroneck, New York
June 18–21
1929, 1959, 1974, 1984, 2006

2021
121st
Torrey Pines Golf Course, South Course
La Jolla, California
June 17–20
2008

2022
122nd
The Country Club, Composite Course
Brookline, Massachusetts
June 16–19
1913, 1963, 1988

2023
123rd
Los Angeles Country Club
Los Angeles, California
June 15–18
Never

2024
124th
Pinehurst Resort, Course No. 2
Pinehurst, North Carolina
June 13–16
1999, 2005, 2014

2025
125th
Oakmont Country Club
Oakmont, Pennsylvania
June 12–15
1927, 1935, 1953, 1962, 1973, 1983, 1994, 2007, 2016

2026
126th
Shinnecock Hills Golf Club
Shinnecock Hills, New York
June 18–21
1896, 1986, 1995, 2004, (2018)


document_title: Gina Rodriguez

question_text: where did gina rodriguez go to high school

text: Gina Rodriguez

text: Early years[edit]

text: Gina Alexis Rodriguez was born in Chicago, Illinois, the youngest daughter of Puerto Rican[5] parents: Magali and Genaro Rodríguez, a boxing referee.[6][7] She is the youngest of three sisters.[8] She was raised in the Belmont Cragin neighborhood on Chicago's Northwest Side.[9][10] At the age of seven, Rodriguez performed at the salsa dance company Fantasia Juvenil.[11] Rodriguez was raised Catholic, and attended high school at St. Ignatius College Prep. She continued dancing salsa until age 17.[5]

text: At the age of 16, she was among thirteen teenagers to be accepted into Columbia University's Theatrical Collaboration.[11] She attended NYU's Tisch School of the Arts.[5] She had four years of training at the Atlantic Theater Company and Experimental Theatre Wing, graduating with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 2005.[11][12] She portrayed Frida Kahlo in the world premiere of Casa Blue in the United Kingdom in the play called The Last Moments in the Life of Frida Kahlo at the American Stage Theatre.[11]

text: Career[edit]

text: Rodriguez made her screen debut appearing in an episode of Law & Order in 2004. She later has appeared on Eleventh Hour, Army Wives and The Mentalist. On October 19, 2011, Rodriguez landed the recurring role, Beverly, in the soap opera series The Bold and the Beautiful.[13] She received a role in the musical film Go for It!, for which she received a 2011 Imagen Awards nomination.[11]

text: In 2012, Rodriguez played young hip-hop artist Majo Tenorio in the independent musical-drama film Filly Brown, for which she won an Imagen Award.[3] She received good reviews for her performance in film.[14] She also was the recipient of the Best Actor Award at the First Run Film Festival in New York.[11][15] On June 9, 2013, Gina won the Inaugural Lupe Award.[16] On April 16, 2013, during an interview, she revealed she was offered a role in the Lifetime television series Devious Maids, but turned it down.[17][18]  On October 16, 2013, she joined the cast of the movie Sleeping With The Fishes.[19] She is also working on an album.[3][when?]

text: On February 27, 2014, Entertainment Weekly announced that Rodriguez would play the titular role of Jane Villanueva in Jane the Virgin.[20][21] On June 4, 2014, Rodriguez joined the cast of the upcoming drama film Sticky Notes.[22][23][24] In August 2015, she co-hosted the 2015 Teen Choice Awards with Ludacris and Josh Peck.[25] She voiced Mary in the animated film The Star, which was released in November 2017,[26] and played Anya in the science fiction thriller film Annihilation, opposite Natalie Portman.[27] She will also voice Carmen Sandiego when Netflix releases the show in 2019.[28]

text: Rodriguez owns the production company I Can & I Will Productions.[29] She developed projects at CBS and The CW that are centered around the Latino community.[30] In 2018, she will produce and star Netflix romantic comedy film Someone Great.[31]

text: In March 2018, Netflix announced that they had acquired the live-action film rights for Carmen Sandiego and that Gina Rodriguez, who is already set to voice the character in an animated series, would star as Sandiego in the film.[32]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: In an interview, Rodriguez revealed that she has suffered from Hashimoto's disease, a thyroid condition, since the age of 19.[33][34] In a 2014 interview, she said, "I grew up Catholic. I have Jewish in my family and I attend a Christian church in Hollywood. I am basically all over the place". Rodriguez and her partner Joe LoCicero have been dating since 2016. On August 7, 2018, Rodriguez  confirmed in a interview with Us Weekly that she and LoCicero are engaged.[35]

text: Philanthropy[edit]

text: Rodriguez has been increasingly involved with various charities and philanthropic efforts, made possible by her rising visibility as a film and television actress.[36] Most notably, she became involved with various organizations in 2015, ranging from CustomInk to Naja Lingerie, all of which Rodriguez has stated have a special connection to her life and experiences.[37][38]

text:
On March 16, 2015, she was announced as a new member of the HSF’s (Hispanic Scholarship Fund) Board of Directors. The HSF is the United States’ biggest non-profit organization which supports
Hispanic American higher education. Because attaining an education was the biggest priority in Rodriguez’s household, coupled with her determination to work towards a degree, she was able to work towards receiving a HSF scholarship.[39] For her placement on the Board of Directors, Rodriguez will help to support HSF in a matchless and meaningful way, therefore making sure that HSF’s mission will continue to support the original values and commitment to education.[40] Rodriguez has stated that this is a great opportunity to say thank you [to the HSF] and to help open doors for Latino students to follow.[39]

text: Later in 2015, PACER's (The Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights) National Bullying Prevention Center teamed up with CustomInk and enlisted the help of various celebrities, Rodriguez among them, to raise money for their fifth annual "Be Good to Each Other Campaign".[37] Throughout the month of October 2015, people were encouraged to purchase a celebri-tee from CustomInk, who would donate all the proceeds from bullying prevention t-shirts to PACER.[41] Rodriguez, in designing a celebri-tee which featured the phrase "Kindness Is Always In Style" in cursive print, took a stand for kindness, acceptance, and inclusion in support of bullying prevention, and stated that her parents always taught [her] the power of thinking positively and treating others with respect. She also hopes that through the Be Good to Each Other Campaign, such a message could be continued to be spread to younger generations.[37][42]

text: Also in October 2015, Rodriguez was announced as a partner of Naja, a lingerie line founded in 2014 with ambitions to help women and the environment. Because Naja is vertically-integrated, thereby shortening manufacturing lead times by up to eighty percent, it allows the company’s savings to go towards school books, lunches, and uniforms for employees’ children, and there’s also an emphasis on a flexible work environment.[38] Having seen the hardships of single mothers through a close friend from college, Rodriguez wanted to support a company that primarily employed single mothers and allowed them to work from home and provide for their families.[43]  She also cites Naja’s commitment to creating lingerie for women of all shapes and sizes and encouraging body confidence as a factor for becoming involved with the lingerie line; admitting that it was a process for her to fall in love with her own body, Rodriguez also spoke on the importance of empowering women to love their own bodies and what they wear.[44] Naja is also environmentally-conscious in its production, as more than half of all of its pieces are made of synthetics (like nylon)—that have been fabricated from recycled plastic bottles—and makes use of digital printing as a more environmentally-friendly measure.[38]

text: Partnering with Clinique in 2016, Rodriguez was 1 of 6 inspiring women to join the Clinique Difference Initiative as a Difference Maker,[45] with an aim to provide support for the education and healthcare of women globally. Also in 2016, Rodriguez was named to Oprah's SuperSoul 100 list of visionaries and influential leaders.[46] In 2017, Rodriguez, among several other artists, sang on the single "Almost Like Praying". Sparked by Lin-Manuel Miranda, creator of Broadway's Hamilton, all proceeds from the song benefited those affected by Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico.[47]

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Role

Notes

2008

Calling It Quits

Day player

Ten: Thirty One

Neighborhood Girl

Short film

2009

Osvaldo's

Ana Daisy

2010

Our Family Wedding

Bridesmaid

Little Spoon

Mandy

Short film

2011

Go for It!

G

2012

Filly Brown

Majo Tenorio

California Winter

Ofelia Ramirez

2013

Interstate

Nayeli

Short film

Enter the Dangerous Mind

Adrienne

The Price We Pay

Medic (voice)

Short film

Sleeping with the Fishes

Alexis Fish

Una Y Otra Y Otra Ve

Girlfriend

Short film

2014

Since I Laid Eyes

Ilene

C'est Jane

Jane

2016

Sticky Notes

Natalia

Deepwater Horizon

Andrea Fleytas

2017

Sharon 1.2.3.

Cindy

The Star

Mary (voice)

Ferdinand

Una (voice)

2018

Annihilation

Anya Thorensen

Smallfoot

Kolka (voice)

Post-production

2019

Miss Bala

Gloria Meyer

Post-production

Someone Great

Also producer; Post-production

Untitled Miranda July Project

Post-production

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year

Title

Role

Notes

2004

Law & Order

Yolanda

Episode: "Enemy"

2005

Jonny Zero

Rose

Episode: "La Familia"

2008

Law & Order

Inez Soriano

Episode: "Illegal"

2009

Eleventh Hour

Robin

Episode: "Subway"

2010

10 Things I Hate About You

Danica

Episode: "Meat Is Murder"

2010

Army Wives

Marisol Evans

3 episodes

2010

My Super Psycho Sweet 16: Part 2

Courtney Ramirez

Television film

2011

Happy Endings

Rita

Episode: "Why Can't You Read Me?"

2011

The Mentalist

Elvia

Episode: "Pink Tops"

2011–2012

The Bold and the Beautiful

Beverly

Recurring role; 15 episodes

2012

No Names

Megan

3 episodes

2013

Longmire

Lorna Dove

Episode: "Party's Over"

2013

Rizzoli & Isles

Lourdes Santana

Episode: "Built for Speed"

2014

Wild Blue

Pilar Robles

Movie

2014–present

Jane the Virgin

Jane Villanueva

Lead role

2016

Lip Sync Battle

Herself

Episode: "Gina Rodriguez vs. Wilmer Valderrama"

2018

Brooklyn Nine-Nine

Alicia

Episode: "Jake & Amy"

2018

Big Mouth

Gina

Voice

2019

Carmen Sandiego

Carmen Sandiego

Voice

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Association

Category

Nominated work

Result

Ref.

2011

Imagen Award

Best Supporting Actress - Feature Film

Go for It!

Nominated

[48]

2012

Imagen Award

Best Actress - Feature Film

Filly Brown

Won

[49]

2013

ALMA Award

Achievement in Film (with Edward James Olmos, Michael D. Olmos, and Lou Diamond Phillips)

Won

[50]

2014

Imagen Award

Best Actress/Supporting Actress - Feature Film

Sleeping with the Fishes

Nominated

[51]

Young Hollywood Award

Rising Star of the Year

N/A

Won

[52]

2015

Golden Globe Award

Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy

Jane the Virgin

Won

[53]

Critics' Choice Award

Best Actress in a Comedy Series

Nominated

[54]

EWwy Award

Best Actress – Comedy

Won

[55]

Television Critics Association

Individual Achievement in Comedy

Nominated

[56]

Gold Derby Award

Breakthrough Performer of the Year

Won

[57]

Comedy Lead Actress

Nominated

Teen Choice Award

Choice TV Actress - Comedy

Nominated

[58]

Choice TV Breakout Star

Nominated

Choice TV Liplock (with Justin Baldoni)

Nominated

Imagen Awards

Best Actress – Television

Won

[59]

Online Film & Television Association Award

Best Actress in a Comedy Series

Nominated

[60]

Women's Image Network Award

Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series

Nominated

[61]

Dorian Award

Rising Star Award

N/A

Won

[62]

2016

Golden Globe Award

Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy

Jane the Virgin

Nominated

[63]

NAACP Image Award

Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series

Nominated

[64]

Critics' Choice Award

Best Actress in a Comedy Series

Nominated

[65]

Satellite Award

Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy

Nominated

[66]

Imagen Award

Best Actress – Television

Won

[67]

CinemaCon Award

Female Star of Tomorrow

N/A

Won

[68]

2017

Golden Globe Award

Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy

Jane the Virgin

Nominated

[69]

People's Choice Award

Favorite Comedic TV Actress

Nominated

[70]

Black Reel Award

Outstanding Actress, Comedy Series

Nominated

MTV Award

Best Actor in a Show

Nominated

[71]

Teen Choice Award

Choice TV Actress - Comedy

Nominated

[72]

2018

MTV Award

Best Kiss (with Justin Baldoni)

Nominated

[73]

Teen Choice Award

Choice TV Actress - Comedy

Won

[74]

Choice TV Liplock (with Justin Baldoni)

Nominated