document_title: Great Depression in the United States

question_text: who was the hardest hit by the great depression

text: Great Depression in the United States

text: The Stock Market Crash[edit]

text: The Stock Market Crash of 1929 is often cited as the beginning of the Great Depression. It began on October 24, 1929, and was the most devastating stock market crash in the history of the United States. A lot of the stock market crash can be blamed on over exuberance and false expectations. In the years leading up to 1929, the stock market offered the potential for making huge gains in wealth. As share prices rose, people started to borrow money to invest in the stock market. However, on October 24 (Black Thursday), share prices began to fall and panic selling caused prices to fall sharply. On October 29 (Black Tuesday), share prices fell by $14 billion in a single day, more than $30 billion in the week. [9] The value that evaporated the week was 10x more than the entire federal budget and more than all of what the U.S. spent on World War I. By 1930 the value of shares had fallen by 90%. [10]

text: Since many banks had also invested their clients' savings in the stock market, these banks were forced to close when the stock market crashed. After the stock market crash and the bank closures, people were too afraid to lose more money. Because of the fears of further economic challenge, individuals from all classes stopped purchasing and consuming. Thousands of individual investors who believed they could get rich by investing on margin lost everything they had. The stock market crash severely impacted American economy.

text: Banking Failures[edit]

text: A large contribution to the recession is due to the closure and suspension of thousands of banks across the country. The causation of these failing financial institutions come from several reasons including unregulated lending procedures, confidence in the Gold standard, consumer confidence in future economics, and agricultural defaults on outstanding loans. With these compacting issues the banking system struggled to keep up with the high demand of cash withdraws from the public. This impact overall decreased the money supply and forced the banks to result to short sale (real estate) and liquidation of existing loans.[8] In the race to liquidate assets the banking system began to fail on a wide scale. In November 1930 the first major banking crisis begun with over 800 banks closing their doors by January 1931; over 2100 banks will be suspended by October 1931, with the highest suspension rate recorded in the St. Louis Federal Reserve District with 2 out of every 5 banks suspended.[11] The economy in whole experienced a massive reduction in banking footholds across the country amounting to more than nine thousand closed banks by 1933.

text: The closures resulted in a massive withdraw of deposits by millions of Americans estimated near 6.8 billion dollars (equivalent to around 60 billion dollars in today's dollars). During this time the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was not in place resulting in a loss of roughly 1.36 billion dollars (or 20%) of the total 6.8 billion accounted for within the failed banks. These losses will come directly from everyday individuals savings, investments, and daily banking accounts. GDP will fall as a result from the high seven-hundreds in 1929 to the low mid six-hundreds in 1933 before seeing any recovery for the first time in nearly 4 years.[12] Federal leadership intervention is highly debated on its effectiveness and overall participation. The Federal Reserve Act could not effectively tackle the banking crisis as state bank and trust companies were not compelled to be a member, paper eligible discount member banks heavily restricted access to the fed, power between the twelve federal reserve banks was decentralized and federal level leadership were ineffective, inexperienced, and weak.

text: Unregulated Growth[edit]

text: Throughout the early 1900s banking regulations were extremely lax if not non-existent. The Currency Act of 1900 lowered the required capital of investors from 50,000 to 25,000 to create a national bank. As a result of this change nearly two thirds of the banks formed over the next ten years were quite small, averaging just above the 25,000 in required capital.[13] The number of banks will nearly double (number of banks divided by Real GDP) from 1890 to 1920 due to the lack of oversight and qualification when banking charters were being issued in the first two decades of the 1900s.[14]

text: The unregulated growth of small rural banking institutions can be partially attributed to the rising cost of agriculture especially in the Corn Belt and Cotton Belt. Throughout the corn and cotton belts real estate increases drove the demand for more local funding to continue to supply rising agricultural economics. The rural banking structures would supply the needed capital to meet the farm commodity market, however, this came with a price of reliability and low risk lending. Economic growth was promising during the period of 1887-1920 with an on average of 6 percent growth in [GDP]. In particular the participation in World War I (1917-1918) drove a booming agricultural market that drove optimism at the consumer and lending level, which in turn, resulted in a laxer approach in the lending process. Overbanked conditions existed which pressured struggling banking locations to increase their services (specifically to the agricultural customers) without any additional regulatory oversight or qualifications. This dilemma introduced several high risk and marginal business returns to the banking market.[15] Banking growth would continue through the first two decades well outside of previous trends disregarding the current economic and population standards. Banking profitability and loan standards begin to deteriorate as early as 1900 as a result; adding to the agriculture shock and Great Depression to follow.

text: Crop failures beginning in 1921 began to impact this poorly regulated system, the expansion areas of corn and cotton suffered the largest due to the dust bowl era resulting in real estate value reductions. In addition, the year 1921 was the peak for banking expansion with roughly 31,000 banks in activity, however, with the failures at the agricultural level 505 banks would close between 1921 -1930 marking the largest banking system failure on record. Regulatory questions began to hit the debating table around banking qualifications as a result; discussions would continue into the [Great Depression] as not only were banks failing but some would disappear altogether with no rhyme or reason.[16] The panic of financial crisis would increase in the Great Depression due to the lack of confidence in the regulatory and recovery displayed during the 1920s, this ultimately drove a nation of doubts, uneasiness, and lack of consumer confidence in the banking system.

text: Contagion[edit]

text: With a lack of consumer confidence in the economic direction given by the federal government panic started to spread across the country shortly after the Wall Street Crash of 1929. President Hoover retained the Gold Standard as the country’s currency gauge throughout the following years. As a result, the American shareholders with the majority of the gold reserves began to grow wary of the value of gold in the near future. Europe’s decision to move away from the Gold Standard caused individuals to start to withdraw gold shares and move the investments out of the country or began to horde gold for future investment. The market continued to suffer due to these reactions, and in result caused several of the everyday individuals to speculate on the economy in the coming months. Rumors of market stability and banking conditions began to spread, consumer confidence continued to drop and panic begin to set in. Contagion spread like wild fire pushing Americans all over the country to withdraw their deposits in mass. This idea would continue from 1929-1933 causing the greatest financial crisis ever seen at the banking level pushing the economic recovery efforts further from resolution. An increase in the currency-deposit ratio and a money stock determinant forced money stock to fall and income to decline. This panic-induced banking failure took a mild recession to a major recession.[17]

text: Whether this caused the Great Depression is still heavily debated due to many other attributing factors. However, it is evident that the banking system suffered massive reductions across the country due to the lack of consumer confidence. As withdraw requests would exceed cash availability banks began conducting steed discount sales such as fire sales and short sales. Due to the inability to immediately determine current value worth these fire sales and short sales would result in massive losses when recuperating any possible revenue for outstanding and defaulted loans. This would allow healthy banks to take advantage of the struggling units forcing additional losses resulting in banks not being able to deliver on depositor demands and creating a failing cycle that would become wide spread.[18] Investment would continue to stay low through the next half decade as the private sector would horde savings due to uncertainty of the future. The federal government would run additional policy changes such as the Check tax, monetary restrictions (including reduction of money supply by burning), High Wage Policy, and The New Deal through the Hoover and Roosevelt administration.

text: The depression in the cities[edit]

text: One visible effect of the depression was the advent of Hoovervilles, which were ramshackle assemblages on vacant lots of cardboard boxes, tents, and small rickety wooden sheds built by homeless people. Residents lived in the shacks and begged for food or went to soup kitchens.The term was coined by Charles Michelson, publicity chief of the Democratic National Committee, who referred sardonically to President Herbert Hoover whose policies he blamed for the depression.[19]

text: Unemployment reached 25 percent in the worst days of 1932-33, but it was unevenly distributed. Job losses were less severe among women, workers in nondurable industries (such as food and clothing), services and sales workers, and those employed by the government. Unskilled inner city men had much higher unemployment rates. Age also played a factor: young people had a hard time getting their first job, and men over the age of 45, if they lost their job, would rarely find another one because employers had their choice of younger men. Millions were hired in the Great Depression, but men with weaker credentials were never hired, and fell into a long-term unemployment trap. The migration that brought millions of farmers and townspeople to the bigger cities in the 1920s suddenly reversed itself, as unemployment made the cities unattractive, and the network of kinfolk and more ample food supplies made it wise for many to go back.[20] City governments in 1930-31 tried to meet the depression by expanding public works projects, as president Herbert Hoover strongly encouraged. However, tax revenues were plunging, and the cities as well as private relief agencies were totally overwhelmed by 1931; no one was able to provide significant additional relief. People fell back on the cheapest possible relief, soup kitchens which provided free meals for anyone who showed up.[21] After 1933 new sales taxes and infusions of federal money helped relieve the fiscal distress of the cities, but the budgets did not fully recover until 1941.

text: The federal programs launched by Hoover and greatly expanded by President Roosevelt's New Deal used massive construction projects to try to jump start the economy and solve the unemployment crisis. The alphabet agencies ERA, CCC, FERA, WPA and PWA built and repaired the public infrastructure in dramatic fashion, but did little to foster the recovery of the private sector. FERA, CCC and especially WPA focused on providing unskilled jobs for long-term unemployed men.

text: The Democrats won easy landslide victories in 1932 and 1934, and an even bigger one in 1936; the hapless Republican Party seemed doomed. The Democrats capitalized on the magnetic appeal of Roosevelt to urban America. The key groups were low skilled ethnics, especially Catholic, Jewish, and black people. The Democrats promised and delivered in terms of political recognition, labor union membership, and relief jobs. The cities' political machines were stronger than ever, for they mobilized their precinct workers to help families who needed help the most navigate the bureaucracy and get on relief. FDR won the vote of practically every demographic in 1936, including taxpayers, small business and the middle class. However, the Protestant middle class voters turned sharply against him after the recession of 1937-38 undermined repeated promises that recovery was at hand. Historically, local political machines were primarily interested in controlling their wards and citywide elections; the smaller the turnout on election day, the easier it was to control the system. However, for Roosevelt to win the presidency in 1936 and 1940, he needed to carry the electoral college and that meant he needed the largest possible majorities in the cities to overwhelm rural voters. The machines came through for him.[22] The 3.5 million voters on relief payrolls during the 1936 election cast 82% percent of their ballots for Roosevelt. The rapidly growing, energetic labor unions, chiefly based in the cities, turned out 80% for FDR, as did Irish, Italian and Jewish communities. In all, the nation's 106 cities over 100,000 population voted 70% for FDR in 1936, compared to his 59% elsewhere. Roosevelt worked very well with the big city machines, with the one exception of his old nemesis, Tammany Hall in Manhattan. There he supported the complicated coalition built around the nominal Republican Fiorello La Guardia, and based on Jewish and Italian voters mobilized by labor unions.[23]

text: In 1938, the Republicans made an unexpected comeback, and Roosevelt's efforts to purge the Democratic Party of his political opponents backfired badly. The conservative coalition of Northern Republicans and Southern Democrats took control of Congress, outvoted the urban liberals, and halted the expansion of New Deal ideas. Roosevelt survived in 1940 thanks to his margin in the Solid South and in the cities. In the North the cities over 100,000 gave Roosevelt 60% of their votes, while the rest of the North favored Willkie 52%-48%.[24]

text: With the start of full-scale war mobilization in the summer of 1940, the economies of the cities rebounded. Even before Pearl Harbor, Washington pumped massive investments into new factories and funded round-the-clock munitions production, guaranteeing a job to anyone who showed up at the factory gate.[25] The war brought a restoration of prosperity and hopeful expectations for the future across the nation. It had the greatest impact on the cities of the West Coast, especially Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco, Portland and Seattle.[26]

text: Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929-1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $1.95 million in year 2000 dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide, and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease. [27][28]

text: Global comparison of severity[edit]

text: The Great Depression began in the United States of America and quickly spread worldwide.[29] It had severe effects in countries both rich and poor. Personal income, consumption, industrial output, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%. Unemployment in the U.S. rose to 25%, and in some countries rose as high as 33%.[30]

text: Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially those dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries. Farming and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by approximately 60%.[31][32] Facing plummeting demand with few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as grain farming, mining and logging, as well as construction, suffered the most.[33]

text: Most economies started to recover by 1933–34. However, in the U.S. and some others the negative economic impact often lasted until the beginning of World War II, when war industries stimulated recovery.[34]

text: There is little agreement on what caused the Great Depression, and the topic has become highly politicized. At the time the great majority of economists around the world recommended the "orthodox" solution of cutting government spending and raising taxes. However, British economist John Maynard Keynes advocated large-scale government deficit spending to make up for the failure of private investment. No major nation adopted his policies in the 1930s.[35]

text: Europe[edit]

text:
Europe as a whole was badly hit, in both rural and industrial areas. Democracy was discredited and the left often tried a coalition arrangement between Communists and Socialists, who previously had been harsh enemies. Right wing movements sprang up, often following Italy's fascist mode.[36]
As the Great Depression worsened, Labour lost power in Britain and a coalition government dominated by conservatives came to power in 1931, and remained in power until 1945. There were no programs in Britain comparable to the New Deal.
In France, the "Popular Front" government of Socialists with some Communist support, was in power 1936–1938. It launched major programs favoring labor and the working class, but engendered stiff opposition.
Germany during the Weimar Republic had fully recovered and was prosperous in the late 1920s. The Great Depression hit in 1929 and was severe. The political system descended into violence and the Nazis under Hitler came to power through elections in early 1933. Economic recovery was pursued through autarky, pressure on economic partners, wage controls, price controls, and spending programs such as public works and, especially, military spending.
Spain saw mounting political crises that led in 1936–39 to civil war.
In Benito Mussolini's Italy, the economic controls of his corporate state were tightened. The economy was never prosperous.
The Soviet Union was mostly isolated from the world trading system during the 1930s. To force peasants into industrial jobs in the cities, food was stripped from rural areas, and millions died of starvation. The dictator Joseph Stalin purged nearly all the old Bolsheviks, and killed or imprisoned hundreds of thousands of presumed enemies.

text: Canada and the Caribbean[edit]

text:
In Canada, Between 1929 and 1939, the gross national product dropped 40%, compared to 37% in the U.S. Unemployment reached 28% at the depth of the Depression in 1929 and 1930,[37] while wages bottomed out in 1933.[38] Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of C$396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Families saw most or all of their assets disappear and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Local and provincial government set up relief programs but there was no nationwide New-Deal-like program. The Conservative government of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett retaliated against the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by raising tariffs against the U.S. but lowered them on British Empire goods. Nevertheless, the economy suffered. In 1935, Bennett proposed a series of programs that resembled the New Deal; but was defeated in the elections of that year and no such programs were passed.[39]
Cuba and the Caribbean saw its greatest unemployment during the 1930s because of a decline in exports to the U.S., and a fall in export prices.

text: Asia[edit]

text:
China was at war with Japan during most of the 1930s, in addition to internal struggles between Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists and Mao Zedong's communists.
Japan's economy expanded at the rate of 5% of GDP per year after the years of modernization. Manufacturing and mining came to account for more than 30% of GDP, more than twice the value for the agricultural sector. Most industrial growth, however, was geared toward expanding the nation's military power. Beginning in 1937 much of Japan's energy was focused on a large-scale war and occupation of China.

text: Australia and New Zealand[edit]

text:
In Australia, 1930s conservative and Labor-led governments concentrated on cutting spending and reducing the national debt.
In New Zealand, a series of economic and social policies similar to the New Deal were adopted after the election of the first Labour Government in 1935.[40]

text: Tight Monetary Policy[edit]

text: The stock market crash in the 1929 not only affected the business community and the public’s economic confidence, but also it led to the banking system soon after the turmoil. The boom of the US economy in the 1920s was based on high indebtedness, and the rupture of the debt chain caused by the collapse of the bank had produced widespread and far-reaching adverse effects. It is precisely because of the shaky banking system, the United States was using monetary policy to save the economy that had been severely constrained. The American economist Kindleberger of long-term studying of the Great Depression pointed out that in the 1929, before and after the collapse of the stock market, the Fed lowered interest rates, tried to expand the money supply and eased the financial market tensions for several times, however they were not successful, the fundamental reason was that the relationship between various credit institutions and the community was in a drastic adjustment process, the normal supply channels for money supply were blocked.[41] Later, some economists argued that the Fed should do a large-scale opening market business at that time, but the essence of the statement was that the US government should be quick to implement measures to expand fiscal spending and fiscal deficits, whereas, the essence of this argument was that the US government should be promptly implemented to expand the fiscal spending and the fiscal deficits measures.

text: Hoover Administration Gold Standard[edit]

text: Between the 1920s and 1930s, The United States began to try the tight money policy to promote economic growth. In terms of the fiscal policy, the US government failed to reach a consensus on the fiscal issue. President Hoover began to expand federal spending, he set up a governmental financial revitalization company to provide emergency assistance to banks and financial institutions that were on the verge of bankruptcy. Hoover's fiscal policy had accelerated the recession. In December 1929, as means of showing government confidence of the economy, Hoover reduced all income tax rates by 1% of 1929 due to the continuing budget surplus. By 1930, the surplus turned into a fast-growing deficit of economic contraction. In 1931, the US federal fiscal revenue and expenditure changed from the financial surplus to deficit for the first time (the deficit was less than 2.8% of GDP). By the end of 1931, Hoover had decided to recommend a large increase in taxes to balance the budget; in addition, Congress approved the tax increase in 1932, a substantial reduction in personal immunity to increase the number of taxpayers, and the interest rates had risen sharply, the lowest marginal rate rose from 25% on taxable income in excess of $100,000 to 63% on taxable income in excess of $1 million as the rates were made much more progressive. Hoover changed his approach to fighting the Depression. He justified his call for more federal assistance by noting that "We used such emergency powers to win the war; we can use them to fight the Depression, the misery, and suffering from which are equally great." This new approach embraced a number of initiatives. Unfortunately for the President, none proved especially effective. Just as important, with the presidential election approaching, the political heat generated by the Great Depression and the failure of Hoover's policies grew only more withering.[42]

text: In terms of the financial reform, since the recession, Hoover had been trying to repair the economy. He founded government agencies to encourage labor harmony and support local public works aid which promoted cooperation of government and business, stabilize prices, and strive to balance the budget. His work focused on indirect relief from individual countries and the private sector, which was reflected in the letter emphasizing "more effective supporting for each national committee" and volunteer service -" appealing for funding" from outside the government.[43] The commitment to maintain the gold standard system prevented the Federal Reserve expanded its money supply operations in 1930 and 1931, and it promoted Hoover's destructive balancing budgetary action to avoid the gold standard system overwhelming the dollar. As the Great Depression became worse, the call raised for increasing in federal intervention and spending. But Hoover refused to allow the federal government to force fixed prices, control the value of the business or manipulate the currency, in contrast, he started to control the dollar price. For official dollar prices, he expanded the credit base through free market operations in federal reserve system to ensure the domestic value of the dollar. He also tended to provide indirect aid to banks or local public works projects, refused to use federal funds to give aid to citizens directly, which will reduce public morale. Instead, he focused on volunteering to raise money.[43] Even though Hoover was a philanthropist before becoming president, his opponents regarded him as not responsible for the citizens. During the administration of Hoover, the US economic policies had moved to activism and interventionism. In his re-election campaign, Hoover tried to persuade the Americans to claim that the measures they requested seemed to be helpful in the short term, but it would be devastating in the long run. Eventually, he was defeated by Franklin Roosevelt in 1932.

text: The Consequences of Hoover Policy[edit]

text: 1929: The Great Depression began, the asset bubble burst, the unemployment rate rose.

text: 1930: In this year, most people thought that nothing is worth worrying about, Hoover had taken decisive action on issues such as employment, construction, public construction and agriculture, which backed the public confidence. The unemployed population rose, although it less than 9%.

text: 1931: "the tragic year", politicians and economists were convinced that the economy will recover in 1931, but a serious economic crisis and depression happened this year.

text: 1932: In a critical atmosphere, at the Congress meeting in 1932, Hoover prepared to take more vigorous measures in the government work report that he submitted to the Congress. First, Hoover affirmed his own achievements over the past two years. Due to Hoover policy led financial spending increased and financial difficulties, Hoover decided to increase taxes.

text: 1933: Hoover stepped down and Roosevelt came to power.

text: Roosevelt Administration Gold Standard[edit]

text: At the beginning of 1933, the last few weeks of Hoover's term, the American financial system was paralyzed. The Great Depression was extended by the interventionist policy for four years. Bank crisis caused the serious deflationary pressures. For this phenomenon, Hoover still wanted to stop it. In fact, the worst period of 1932 – the Great Depression had passed, but the recovery was slow and weak. During the financial crisis of 1933 that culminated in the banking holiday in March 1933, a lot of gold flowed out from the Fed, some of them flow out to individuals and companies in the United States. This domestic loss occurred because individuals and businesses like to deposit metal gold into bank deposits or banknotes, some gold flows to foreign countries, and this external loss occurred because foreign investors were worried about the depreciation of the dollar.[44]Roosevelt understands that the traditional political and financial policy cannot save the United States from the "disaster years", he pursued the "New Deal" to attempt to make up for the United States by administrative means. In the spring and summer of 1933, the Roosevelt government suspended the gold standard. The Emergency Banking Act gave the President the power to control international and domestic gold sports. It also gave the treasury secretary the power to surrender of gold coins and certificates. On April 20, President Roosevelt issued a formal announcement of the moratorium on the gold standard. The announcement prohibited gold exports, and prohibited financial institutions from converting money and deposits into gold coins and ingots. The action prevented the gold outflow. Soon, the Roosevelt government weakened the connection with gold once again. Thomas amendment to the Agricultural Relief Act to the gave to the President power to reduce the dollar's gold content by as much as 50%. The President Roosevelt also used the silver standard instead of gold to exchange dollars, it determined by the price of the bank.[44] In April 1933, Roosevelt decided to abolish the gold standard through the New Deal. He abandoned this traditional monetary policy is mainly due to the big crisis to the original monetary policy failure.[45] And the purpose of his action is to prohibit all exports of gold except for foreign countries, so that the United States can maintain an equal monetary base with the vast majority of countries. The Hoover government stubbornly insisted on using the "sound money" policy who against deficit spending and state relief that only make the economic crisis worsen. Because of this situation Roosevelt forced the implementation of inflation, and used the federal deficit spending to promote employment to enforce relief. The abandon of the gold standard made the Wall Street stock prices quickly increased, Wall Street's stock trading was exceptionally active, with a total of 5 million shares delivered on a day, which is the most active day in the past six months.

text: Political results of the depression[edit]

text: Hoover's Response[edit]

text: The Hoover Administration attempted to correct the economic situation quickly, but was unsuccessful. Throughout Hoover's presidency, businesses were encouraged to keep wage rates high.[46] President Hoover and many academics believed that high wage rates would maintain a steady level of purchasing power, keeping the economy turning. In December 1929, after the beginning phases of the depression had begun, President Hoover continued to promote high wages. It wasn't until 1931 that business owners began reducing wages in order to stay afloat. Later that year, The Hoover Administration created the Check Tax[47] to generate extra government funding. The tax added a two cent tax to the purchase of all bank checks, directly affecting the common person. This additional cost pushed people away from using checks, so instead the majority of the population increased their usage of cash. Banks had already closed due to cash shortage, but this reaction to the Check Tax rapidly increased the pace.

text: Roosevelt's New Deal[edit]

text: In the "First New Deal" of 1933–34, A wide variety of programs were targeted toward the depression and agriculture in rural areas, in the banking industry, and for the economy as a whole. Relief programs were set up for the long-term unemployed who are routinely passed over whenever new jobs did open up. [48][49] The most popular program was the Civilian Conservation Corps the put young men to work in construction jobs, especially in rural areas. Prohibition was repealed, the filling a campaign pledge and generating new tax revenues for local and state government. A series of relief programs were designed to provide jobs, in cooperation with local governments. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief through increased government spending. To end Deflation the Gold standard was suspended and a series of panels comprising business leaders in each industry set regulations which ended what was called "cut-throat competition," believed to be responsible for forcing down prices and profits nationwide.[50] Several Hoover agencies were continued, most notably the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which provided large-scale financial aid to banks, railroads, and other agencies.[51] Reforms that had never been enacted in the 1920s now took center stage, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) designed to electrify and modernize a very poor, mountainous region in Appalachia.

text: In 1934–36, came the much more controversial"Second New Deal." It featured social security; the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a Very large relief agency for the unemployed run by the federal government; the National Labor Relations Board, Which operated as a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions. Unemployment fell by ⅔ in Roosevelt's first term (from 25% to 9%, 1933–1937). The second set of reforms launched by the Roosevelt Administration during the same period, which is a responsibility for social welfare with the main legislation —— Social Security Act in 1935. Insurance and poor relief (“public assistance” or “welfare”)are constituent parts of the legislation that provided pensions to the aged, benefit payments to dependent mothers, crippled children and blind people, and unemployment insurance.[52] The Social Security Act still plays a significant role of the American health and human service system so far. Much of the economy had recovered by 1936, but persistent, long-term unemployment lasted until rearmament began for World War II in 1940.[53]

text: The New Deal was, and still is, sharply debated.[54] The business community, with considerable support from such conservative Democrats as Al Smith, Launched a crusade against the new deal, warning that dangerous man had seized control of the economy and threatened America's conservative traditions. [55] Scholars remain divided as well. When asked whether "as a whole, government policies of the New Deal served to lengthen and deepen the Great Depression," 74% of American university professors specializing in economic history disagreed, 21% agreed with provisos, and 6% fully agreed. Among respondents who taught or studied economic theory, 51% disagreed, 22% agreed with provisos, and 22% fully agreed. Robert Whaples, "Where Is There Consensus Among American Economic Historians? The Results of a Survey on Forty Propositions," Journal of Economic History, Vol. 55, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), pp. 139–154 in JSTOR see also the summary at "EH.R: FORUM: The Great Depression". Eh.net. Archived from the original on 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2008-10-11. </ref>

text: Recession of 1937–38[edit]

text: By 1936, all the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high. In 1937, the American economy unexpectedly fell, lasting through most of 1938. Production declined sharply, as did profits and employment. Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938.[56] A contributing factor to the Recession of 1937 was a tightening of monetary policy by the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve doubled reserve requirements between August 1936 and May 1937[57] leading to a contraction in the money supply.

text: The Roosevelt Administration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the depression, and appointing Thurman Arnold to break up large trusts; Arnold was not effective, and the campaign ended once World War II began and corporate energies had to be directed to winning the war.[58] By 1939, the effects of the 1937 recession had disappeared. Employment in the private sector recovered to the level of the 1936 and continued to increase until the war came and manufacturing employment leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943.[59]

text: Another response to the 1937 deepening of the Great Depression had more tangible results. Ignoring the pleas of the Treasury Department, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938 in an effort to increase mass purchasing power.

text: Business-oriented observers explained the recession and recovery in very different terms from the Keynesian economists. They argued the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935–37. They said it had encouraged massive strikes which had a negative impact on major industries and had threatened anti-trust attacks on big corporations. But all those threats diminished sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long-term growth.[60]

text: On the other hand, according to economist Robert Higgs, when looking only at the supply of consumer goods, significant GDP growth only resumed in 1946. (Higgs does not estimate the value to consumers of collective goods like victory in war)[61] To Keynesians, the war economy showed just how large the fiscal stimulus required to end the downturn of the Depression was, and it led, at the time, to fears that as soon as America demobilized, it would return to Depression conditions and industrial output would fall to its pre-war levels. The incorrect prediction by Alvin Hansen and other Keynesians that a new depression would start after the war failed to take account of pent-up consumer demand as a result of the Depression and World War.[62]

text: Afterward[edit]

text: The government began heavy military spending in 1940, and started drafting millions of young men that year.[63] By 1945, 17 million had entered service to their country, but that was not enough to absorb all the unemployed. During the war, the government subsidized wages through cost-plus contracts. Government contractors were paid in full for their costs, plus a certain percentage profit margin. That meant the more wages a person was paid the higher the company profits since the government would cover them plus a percentage.[64]

text: Using these cost-plus contracts in 1941–1943, factories hired hundreds of thousands of unskilled workers and trained them, at government expense. The military's own training programs concentrated on teaching technical skills involving machinery, engines, electronics and radio, preparing soldiers and sailors for the post-war economy.[65]

text: Structural walls were lowered dramatically during the war, especially informal policies against hiring women, minorities, and workers over 45 or under 18. (See FEPC) Strikes (except in coal mining) were sharply reduced as unions pushed their members to work harder. Tens of thousands of new factories and shipyards were built, with new bus services and nursery care for children making them more accessible. Wages soared for workers, making it quite expensive to sit at home. Employers retooled so that unskilled new workers could handle jobs that previously required skills that were now in short supply. The combination of all these factors drove unemployment below 2% in 1943.[66]

text: Roosevelt's declining popularity in 1938 was evident throughout the US in the business community, the press, and the Senate and House. Many were labeling the recession the "Roosevelt Recession". In late December 1938, Roosevelt looked to gain popularity with the American people, and try to regain the nation's confidence in the economy. His decision that December to name Harry Hopkins as Secretary of Commerce was an attempt to achieve the confidence he so badly needed. The appointment came as a surprise to most because of Hopkins' lack of business experience, but proved to be vastly important in shaping the years following the recession.[67]

text: Hopkins made it his mission to strengthen ties between the Roosevelt administration and the business community. While Roosevelt believed in complete reform (The New Deal), Hopkins took a more administrative position;[clarification needed] he felt that recovery was imperative and that The New Deal would continue to hinder recovery. With support from Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace and Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr, popular support for recovery, rather than reform, swept the nation. By the end of 1938 reform had been struck down, as no new reform laws were passed.[67]

text: The economy in America was now beginning to show signs of recovery and the unemployment rate was lowering following the abysmal year of 1938. The biggest shift towards recovery, however, came with the decision of Germany to invade France at the beginning of WWII. After France had been defeated, the U.S. economy would skyrocket in the months following. France's defeat meant that Britain and other allies would look to the U.S. for large supplies of materials for the war.[68]

text: The need for these war materials created a huge spurt in production, thus leading to promising amount of employment in America. Moreover, Britain chose to pay for their materials in gold. This stimulated the gold inflow and raised the monetary base, which in turn, stimulated the American economy to its highest point since the summer of 1929 when the depression began.[68]

text: By the end of 1941, before American entry into the war, defense spending and military mobilization had started one of the greatest booms in American history thus ending the last traces of unemployment.[68]

text: Facts and figures[edit]

text:
Fireside Chat 1 On the Banking Crisis

Roosevelt's first Fireside Chat on the Banking Crisis (March 12, 1933)

text: Effects of depression in the U.S.:[69]

text:
13 million people became unemployed. In 1932, 34 million people belonged to families with no regular full-time wage earner.[70]
Industrial production fell by nearly 45% between 1929 and 1932.
Homebuilding dropped by 80% between the years 1929 and 1932.
In the 1920s, the banking system in the U.S. was about $50 billion, which was about 50% of GDP.[71]
From 1929 to 1932, about 5,000 banks went out of business.
By 1933, 11,000 of the US' 25,000 banks had failed.[72]
Between 1929 and 1933, U.S. GDP fell around 30%, the stock market lost almost 90% of its value.[73]
In 1929, the unemployment rate averaged 3%.[74]
In Cleveland, the unemployment rate was 50%; in Toledo, Ohio, 80%.[70]
One Soviet trading corporation in New York averaged 350 applications a day from Americans seeking jobs in the Soviet Union.[75]
Over one million families lost their farms between 1930 and 1934.[70]
Corporate profits had dropped from $10 billion in 1929 to $1 billion in 1932.[70]
Between 1929 and 1932, the income of the average American family was reduced by 40%.[76]
Nine million savings accounts had been wiped out between 1930 and 1933.[70]
273,000 families had been evicted from their homes in 1932.[70]
There were two million homeless people migrating around the country.[70]
Over 60% of Americans were categorized as poor by the federal government in 1933.[70]
In the last prosperous year (1929), there were 279,678 immigrants recorded, but in 1933 only 23,068 came to the U.S.[77][78]
In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than immigrated to it.[79]
With little economic activity there was scant demand for new coinage. No nickels or dimes were minted in 1932–33, no quarter dollars in 1931 or 1933, no half dollars from 1930 to 1932, and no silver dollars in the years 1929–33.
The U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands, including some U.S. citizens, were deported against their will. Altogether about 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated.[80]
New York social workers reported that 25% of all schoolchildren were malnourished. In the mining counties of West Virginia, Illinois, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania, the proportion of malnourished children was perhaps as high as 90%.[70]
Many people became ill with diseases such as tuberculosis (TB).[70]
The 1930 U.S. Census determined the U.S. population to be 122,775,046. About 40% of the population was under 20 years old.[81]


document_title: List of Test cricket records

question_text: who has the most double hundred in test cricket

root

text: List of Test cricket records

text: Listing criteria

text: In general the top five are listed in each category (except when there is a tie for the last place among the five, when all the tied record holders are noted).

tag: p

text: Listing notation

text:
(300–3) indicates that a team scored 300 runs for three wickets and the innings was closed, either due to a successful run chase or if no playing time remained
(300–3 d) indicates that a team scored 300 runs for three wickets, and declared its innings closed
(300) indicates that a team scored 300 runs and was all out

tag: ul

text:
(100) indicates that a batsman scored 100 runs and was out
(100*) indicates that a batsman scored 100 runs and was not out

text: (5–100) indicates that a bowler has captured 5 wickets while conceding 100 runs

text: indicates a current Test cricketer

text: Cricket is played during the summer months in most countries. Domestic cricket seasons in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Zimbabwe and the West Indies may therefore span two calendar years, and are by convention said to be played in (e.g.) "2008–09". A cricket season in England is described as a single year. e.g. "2009". An international Test series may be for a much shorter duration, and Cricinfo treats this issue by stating "any series or matches which began between May and September of any given year will appear in the relevant single year season and any that began between October and April will appear in the relevant cross-year season".[23] In the record tables, a two-year span generally indicates that the record was set within a domestic season in one of the above named countries.

text: Team records

text: Team wins, losses and draws

text:
Team
First Test match
Matches
Won
Lost
Tied
Drawn
% Won

 Australia
000000001877-03-15-000015 March 1877
804
379
216
2
207
47.13

 Bangladesh
000000002000-11-10-000010 November 2000
104
10
79
0
15
9.62

 England
000000001877-03-15-000015 March 1877
991
356
292
0
343
35.92

 India
000000001932-06-25-000025 June 1932
517
143
158
1
215
27.65

 New Zealand
000000001930-01-10-000010 January 1930
422
89
170
0
163
21.09

 Pakistan
000000001952-10-16-000016 October 1952
412
132
122
0
158
32.03

 South Africa
000000001889-03-12-000012 March 1889
417
155
138
0
124
37.17

 Sri Lanka
000000001982-02-17-000017 February 1982
266
84
100
0
82
31.57

 West Indies
000000001928-06-23-000023 June 1928
528
168
185
1
174
31.81

 Zimbabwe
000000001992-10-18-000018 October 1992
104
11
66
0
27
10.57

ICC World XI
000000002005-10-14-000014 October 2005
1
0
1
0
0
0.00

Note:  Ireland and  Afghanistan were granted Test status on 22 June 2017; both are yet to play a Test match.

Last updated: 30 November 2017[24]

tag: table

text: Result records

text: Greatest win margins (by innings)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

Innings and 579 runs
 England (903-7 d) beat  Australia (201 & 123)
The Oval, London
1938

Innings and 360 runs
 Australia (652–7 d) beat  South Africa (159 & 133)
New Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2001–02

Innings and 336 runs
 West Indies (614–5 d) beat  India (124 & 154)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata
1958–59

Innings and 332 runs
 Australia (645) beat  England (141 & 172)
Brisbane Cricket Ground
1946–47

Innings and 324 runs
 Pakistan (643) beat  New Zealand (73 & 246)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore
2002

Last updated: 12 December 2016[25]

text: Greatest win margin (by runs)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

675 runs
 England (521 & 342–8 d) beat  Australia (122 & 66)
Brisbane Exhibition Ground
1928–29

562 runs
 Australia (701 & 327) beat  England (321 & 145)
The Oval, London
1934

530 runs
 Australia (328 & 578) beat  South Africa (205 & 171)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1910–11

491 runs
 Australia (381 & 361–5 d) beat  Pakistan (179 & 72)
WACA Ground, Perth
2004–05

465 runs
 Sri Lanka (384 & 447–6 d) beat  Bangladesh (208 & 158)
Chittagong Divisional Stadium
2008–09

Last updated: 12 December 2016[26]

text: Matches that finished with scores level

text:
Result
Teams
Venue
Season

Tie
 Australia (505 & 232) vs  West Indies (453 & 284)
The Gabba
1960–61

Tie
 India (397 & 347) vs  Australia (574–7 d & 170–5 d)
MA Chidambaram Stadium, Madras
1986–87

Draw
 Zimbabwe (376 & 234) vs  England (406 & 204–5)
Queens Sports Club, Bulawayo
1996–97

Draw
 India (482 & 242–9) vs  West Indies (590 & 134)
Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai
2011–12

Last updated: 15 June 2016[27][28][29]

text: Narrowest win margin (by wickets)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

1 wicket
 England (183 & 263–9) beat  Australia (324 & 121)
The Oval, London
1902

 South Africa (91 & 287–9) beat  England (184 & 190)
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1905–06

 England (382 & 282–9) beat  Australia (266 & 397)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1907–08

 England (183 & 173–9) beat  South Africa (113 & 242)
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1922–23

 Australia (216 & 260–9) beat  West Indies (272 & 203)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1951–52

 New Zealand (249 & 104–9) beat  West Indies (140 & 212)
Carisbrook, Dunedin
1979–80

 Pakistan (256 & 315–9) beat  Australia (337 & 232)
National Stadium, Karachi
1994–95

 West Indies (329 & 311–9) beat  Australia (490 & 146)
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
1998–99

 West Indies (273 & 216–9) beat  Pakistan (269 & 219)
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1999–00

 Pakistan (175 & 262–9) beat  Bangladesh (281 & 154)
Ibn-e-Qasim Bagh Stadium, Multan
2003

 Sri Lanka (321 & 352–9) beat  South Africa (361 & 311)
Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium, Colombo
2006

 India (405 & 216–9) beat  Australia (428 & 192)
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali
2010–11

Last updated: 15 June 2016[30]

text: Narrowest win margin (by runs)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

1 run
 West Indies (252 & 146) beat  Australia (213 & 184)
Adelaide Oval
1992–93

2 runs
 England (407 & 182) beat  Australia (308 & 279)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
2005

3 runs
 Australia (299 & 86) beat  England (262 & 120)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1902

 England (284 & 294) beat  Australia (287 & 288)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1982–83

5 runs
 South Africa (169 & 239) beat  Australia (292 & 111)
Sydney Cricket Ground
1993–94

Last updated: 15 June 2016[31]

text: Victory after following-on

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

10 runs
 England (325 & 437) beat  Australia (586 & 166)
Sydney Cricket Ground
1894–95

18 runs
 England (174 & 356) beat  Australia (401–9 d & 111)
Headingley, Leeds
1981

171 runs
 India (171 & 657–7 d) beat  Australia (445 & 212)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata
2000–01

Last updated: 15 June 2016[32]

text: Most consecutive wins

text:
Wins
Team
First win
Last win

16
 Australia
 Zimbabwe at Harare, 14 October 1999
 India at Mumbai, 27 February 2001

16
 Australia
 South Africa at Melbourne, 26 December 2005
 India at Sydney, 2 January 2008

11
 West Indies
 Australia at Bridgetown, 30 March 1984
 Australia at Adelaide, 7 December 1984

9
 Sri Lanka
 India at Colombo, 29 August 2001
 Pakistan at Lahore, 6 March 2002

9
 South Africa
 Australia at Durban, 15 March 2002
 Bangladesh at Dhaka, 1 May 2003

Last updated: 15 June 2016[33]

text: Team scoring records

text:
Most runs in an innings

Runs
Teams
Venue
Season

952-6 d
 Sri Lanka (v  India)
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997

903-7 d
 England (v  Australia)
The Oval, London
1938

849
 England (v  West Indies)
Sabina Park, Kingston
1929–30

790–3 d
 West Indies (v  Pakistan)
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58

765–6 d
 Pakistan (v  Sri Lanka)
National Stadium, Karachi
2008–09

Last updated: 14 September 2017[34]

text:
Fewest runs in a completed innings

Runs
Teams
Venue
Date

26
 New Zealand (v  England)
Eden Park, Auckland
25 March 1955

30
 South Africa (v  England)
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
13 February 1896

 South Africa (v  England)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
14 June 1924

35
 South Africa (v  England)
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1 April 1899

36
 Australia (v  England)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
29 May 1902

 South Africa (v  Australia)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
12 February 1932

Last updated: 14 September 2017[35]

text:
Highest fourth-innings totals to win

Runs
Teams
Venue
Season

418–7
 West Indies (v  Australia)
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2002–03

414–4
 South Africa (v  Australia)
WACA Ground, Perth
2008–09

406–4
 India (v  West Indies)
Queen's Park Oval, Port of Spain
1975–76

404–3
 Australia (v  England)
Headingley, Leeds
1948

391–6
 Sri Lanka (v  Zimbabwe)
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
2017

Last updated: 14 September 2017[36]

text: Individual records

text: Individual records (batting)

text: Career runs

text:
Most career runs

Runs
Player
Period

15,921 (329 innings)
 Sachin Tendulkar
1989–2013

13,378 (287 innings)
 Ricky Ponting
1995–2012

13,289 (280 innings)
 Jacques Kallis
1995–2013

13,288 (286 innings)
 Rahul Dravid
1996–2012

12,400 (233 innings)
 Kumar Sangakkara
2000–2015

Last updated: 15 June 2016[37]

text:
Most career runs – progression of record

Runs
Player
Record held until
Duration of record

239
 Charles Bannerman
4 January 1882
4 years, 295 days

676
 George Ulyett[a]
13 August 1884
2 years, 222 days

860
 Billy Murdoch[b]
14 August 1886
2 years, 1 day

1,277
 Arthur Shrewsbury
23 January 1902
15 years, 162 days

1,293
 Joe Darling[c]
18 February 1902
26 days

1,366
 Syd Gregory[d]
14 June 1902
116 days

1,531
 Archie MacLaren[e]
13 August 1902
60 days

3,412
 Clem Hill
27 December 1924
22 years, 136 days

5,410
 Jack Hobbs
29 June 1937
12 years, 184 days

7,249
 Wally Hammond
27 November 1970
33 years, 151 days

7,459
 Colin Cowdrey[f]
23 March 1972
1 year, 117 days

8,032
 Garfield Sobers
23 December 1981
9 years, 275 days

8,114
 Geoffrey Boycott
12 November 1983
1 year, 324 days

10,122
 Sunil Gavaskar
25 February 1993
9 years, 105 days

11,174
 Allan Border
25 November 2005
12 years, 273 days

11,953
 Brian Lara
17 October 2008
2 years, 327 days

15,921
 Sachin Tendulkar
current
9 years, 163 days

Last updated: 15 June 2016[38]

Notes:

^[a] Ulyett finished his career with 949 runs
^[b] Murdoch finished his career with 908 runs
^[c] Darling finished his career with 1,657 runs
^[d] Gregory finished his career with 2,282 runs
^[e] MacLaren finished his career with 1,931 runs
^[f] Cowdrey finished his career with 7,624 runs

text: Most runs in each batting position

text:
Batting position
Player
Runs
Average

Opener
 Alastair Cook
11378
45.88

Number 3
 Kumar Sangakkara
11679
60.83

Number 4
 Sachin Tendulkar
13492
54.40

Number 5
 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
6883
56.42

Number 6
 Steve Waugh
3165
51.05

Number 7
 Adam Gilchrist
3948
46.45

Number 8
 Daniel Vettori
2227
39.77

Number 9
 Stuart Broad
1292
20.51

Number 10
 Dale Steyn
518
12.95

Number 11
 Muttiah Muralitharan
623
11.33

Last updated: 17 January 2018[39]

text: Highest career batting average

text:
Average
Player
Period

99.94 (80 innings)
 Donald Bradman
1928–1948

64.02 (108 innings)
 Steve Smith
2010–

61.87 (31 innings)
 Adam Voges
2015–2016

60.97 (41 innings)
 Graeme Pollock
1963–1970

60.83 (40 innings)
 George Headley
1930–1954

60.73 (84 innings)
 Herbert Sutcliffe
1924–1935

Qualification: 20 innings.

Note: If the qualification is removed, the record Test batting average is  Andy Ganteaume's 112.00; Ganteaume was dismissed for 112 runs in his only Test innings.[40] A very few one-Test wonders have never been dismissed, leaving them without a defined Test batting average. Notable players who played only a single Test innings without a dismissal are  Stuart Law (54*, innings declared) and  Andy Lloyd (10*, retired hurt).[41][42]

Last updated: 6 January 2017[43]

text: Innings or series

text:
Highest individual score (see also List of Test cricket triple centuries)

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04

380
 Matthew Hayden
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground, Perth
2003–04

375
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1993–94

374
 Mahela Jayawardene
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

365*
 Garfield Sobers
 Pakistan
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58

Last updated: 15 June 2015[44]

text:
Highest individual score – progression of record

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season
Test match Number

165*
 Charles Bannerman
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77
Test No. 1

211
 Billy Murdoch
 England
The Oval, London
1884
Test No. 16

287
 R. E. Foster
 Australia
Sydney Cricket Ground
1903–04
Test No. 78

325
 Andy Sandham
 West Indies
Sabina Park, Kingston
1929–30
Test No. 193

334
 Don Bradman
 England
Headingley, Leeds
1930
Test No. 196

336*
 Wally Hammond
 New Zealand
Eden Park, Auckland
1932–33
Test No. 226

364
 Len Hutton
 Australia
The Oval, London
1938
Test No. 266

365*
 Garfield Sobers
 Pakistan
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58
Test No. 452

375
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1993–94
Test No. 1259

380
 Matthew Hayden
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground, Perth
2003–04
Test No. 1661

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04
Test No. 1696

Last updated: 15 June 2016[45]

text:
Most runs in a match

Runs
Scores
Player
Match

456
333 and 123
 Graham Gooch
v  India at Lord's, 1990

426
334* and 92
 Mark Taylor
v  Pakistan at Peshawar, 1998–99

424
319 and 105
 Kumar Sangakkara
v  Bangladesh at Chittagong, 2013–14

400
400*
 Brian Lara
v  England at St John's, Antigua, 2003–04

380
247* and 133
 Greg Chappell
v  New Zealand at Wellington, 1973–74

380
 Matthew Hayden
v  Zimbabwe at Perth, 2003–04

Last updated: 15 June 2016[46]

text:
Most runs in a series

Runs
Player
Series

974 (7 innings)
 Donald Bradman
v  England, 1930

905 (9 innings)
 Wally Hammond
v  Australia, 1928–29

839 (11 innings)
 Mark Taylor
v  England, 1989

834 (9 innings)
 Neil Harvey
v  South Africa, 1952–53

829 (7 innings)
 Viv Richards
v  England, 1976

Last updated: 15 June 2016[47]

text: Calendar year and between dismissals

text:
Most runs in a calendar year

Runs
Player
Average
Year

1788
 Mohammad Yousuf
99.33
2006

1710
 Vivian Richards
90.00
1976

1656
 Graeme Smith
72.00
2008

1595
 Michael Clarke
106.33
2012

1562
 Sachin Tendulkar
78.10
2010

Last updated: 15 June 2015[48]

text:
Most runs between consecutive dismissals

Runs
Player
Innings
Sequence
Season

614
 Adam Voges
3
269*, 106*, 239
2015-16

497
 Sachin Tendulkar
4
241*, 60*, 194*, 2
2003-04

490
 Garfield Sobers
2
365*, 125
1957-58

489
 Michael Clarke
2
259*, 230
2012-13

473
 Rahul Dravid
4
41*, 200*, 70*, 162
2000-01

Last updated: 21 December 2017[49][50]

text: Highest scores at each batting position

text:
Batting position
Player
Score
Opponent
Venue
Date

Opener
 Matthew Hayden
380
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground
9 October 2003

Number 3
 Brian Lara
400*
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground
10 April 2004

Number 4
 Mahela Jayawardene
374
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground
27 July 2006

Number 5
 Michael Clarke
329*
 India
Sydney Cricket Ground
3 January 2012

Number 6
 Ben Stokes
258
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground
2 January 2016

Number 7
 Donald Bradman
270
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1 January 1937

Number 8
 Wasim Akram
257*
 Zimbabwe
Sheikhupura Stadium
17 October 1996

Number 9
 Ian Smith
173
 India
Eden Park
22 February 1990

Number 10
 Walter Read
117
 Australia
Kennington Oval
11 August 1884

Number 11
 Ashton Agar
98
 England
Trent Bridge
10 July 2013

Last updated: 18 November 2017[51]

text: Innings as captain

text:
Highest individual score as captain

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04

374
 Mahela Jayawardene
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

334*
 Mark Taylor
 Pakistan
Arbab Niaz Stadium, Peshawar
1998

333
 Graham Gooch
 India
Lord's, London
1990

329*
 Michael Clarke
 India
Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney
2012

Last updated: 15 June 2015[52]

text: Innings carrying the bat

text:
Highest individual score (see also List of cricketers who have carried the bat in international cricket)

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

244*
 Alastair Cook
 Australia
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne
2017-18

223*
 Glenn Turner
 West Indies
Sabina Park, Kingston
1972

216*
 Marvan Atapattu
 Zimbabwe
Queens Sports Club, Bulawayo
1999-00

206*
 Bill Brown
 England
Lord's, London
1931

202*
 Len Hutton
 West Indies
The Oval, London
1950

Last updated: 29 December 2017[53]

text: Most runs in an over

text:
Runs
Sequence
Batsman
Bowler
Venue
Season

28
4–6–6–4–4–4
 Brian Lara
 Robin Peterson
Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2003–04

4–6–2–4–6–6
 George Bailey
 James Anderson
WACA, Perth
2013–14

27
6–6–6–6–2–1
 Shahid Afridi
 Harbhajan Singh
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore
2005–06

26
4–4–6–0–6–6
 Mitchell Johnson
 Paul Harris
Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2008–09

4–0–6–6–6–4
 Brian Lara
 Danish Kaneria
Multan Cricket Stadium
2006–07

4–4–4–4–6–4
 Craig McMillan
 Younis Khan
Seddon Park, Hamilton
2000–01

4–6–6–0–4–6
 Brendon McCullum
 Suranga Lakmal
Hagley Oval, Christchurch, New Zealand
2014–15

4–4–6–6–6–0
 Hardik Pandya
 Malinda Pushpakumara
Pallekele International Cricket Stadium,Sri Lanka
2017

Last updated: 14 August 2017[54]

text: Centuries

text: Most Test centuries

text:
Centuries
Player
Matches
Innings
Inns/Century

51
 Sachin Tendulkar
200
329
6.4

45
 Jacques Kallis
166
280
6.2

41
 Ricky Ponting
168
287
7.0

38
 Kumar Sangakkara
132
229
6.0

36
 Rahul Dravid
164
286
7.9

Last updated: 15 June 2016[55]

text:
Fastest Test centuries

No. of balls
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

54
 Brendon McCullum
 Australia
Hagley Oval, Christchurch
2015–16

56
 Viv Richards
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1985–86

 Misbah-ul-Haq
 Australia
Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Abu Dhabi
2014

57
 Adam Gilchrist
 England
WACA Ground, Perth
2006–07

67
 Jack Gregory
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1921–22

Last updated: 15 June 2016[56]

text:
Most Test double centuries

Double centuries
Player
Matches

12
 Donald Bradman
52

11
 Kumar Sangakkara
130

9
 Brian Lara
131

7
 Wally Hammond
85

 Mahela Jayawardene
149

Last updated: 15 June 2016[57]

text:
Most Test triple centuries

Triple centuries
Player
Matches

2
 Donald Bradman
52

 Virender Sehwag
104

 Chris Gayle
103

 Brian Lara
131

Last updated: 11 December 2016[58]

Note:
21 other players have scored a triple century in a Test: see List of Test cricket triple centuries for more details[59]

text:
Most Test quadruple centuries

Quadruple centuries
Player
Matches

1
 Brian Lara
131

Last updated: 15 June 2016[60]

text: Half Centuries

text: Most Test 50+

text:
50+
Player
Matches
Innings

119
 Sachin Tendulkar
200
329

103
 Jacques Kallis
166
280

103
 Ricky Ponting
168
287

99
 Rahul Dravid
164
286

96
 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
164
280

Last updated: 15 June 2016[61]

text:
Fastest Test half-centuries

No. of balls
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

21
 Misbah-ul-Haq
 Australia
Sheikh Zayed Stadium, Abu Dhabi
2014/15

24
 Jacques Kallis
 Zimbabwe
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
2004/05

25
 Shane Shillingford
 New Zealand
Sabina Park, Kingston
2014

26
 Shahid Afridi
 India
M Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore
2004/05

 Mohammad Ashraful
 India
Sher-e-Bangla Cricket Stadium, Mirpur
2007

 Dale Steyn
 West Indies
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
2014/15

Last updated: 15 June 2016[62]

text: Most fours in career

text:
Fours
Player
Innings

2058+
 Sachin Tendulkar
329

1654
 Rahul Dravid
286

1559
 Brian Lara
232

1509
 Ricky Ponting
287

1491
 Kumar Sangakkara
233

Key: + means the complete career records aren't known
Last updated: 15 February 2016[63]

text: Individual records (bowling)

text: Career

text:
Most wickets in a career

Wickets
Player
Matches
Average

800
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133
22.72

708
 Shane Warne
145
25.41

619
 Anil Kumble
132
29.65

563
 Glenn McGrath
124
21.64

523
 James Anderson
133
27.40

Last updated: 8 January 2018[64]

text:
Most wickets in a career – Progression of record

Wickets
Player
Matches
Average
Record held until
Duration of record

8[a]
 Alfred Shaw
1
10.75
31 March 1877
16 days

14
 Tom Kendall
2
15.35
4 January 1879
1 year, 279 days

94[b]
 Fred Spofforth
18
18.41
12 January 1895
16 years, 8 days

118
 Johnny Briggs
33
17.75
2 January 1904
8 years, 355 days

141
 Hugh Trumble
32
21.78
13 December 1913
9 years, 345 days

189
 Sydney Barnes
27
16.43
4 January 1936
22 years, 22 days

216
 Clarrie Grimmett
37
24.21
24 July 1953
17 years, 201 days

236
 Alec Bedser
51
24.89
26 January 1963
9 years, 186 days

242[c]
 Brian Statham
67
24.27
15 March 1963
48 days

307
 Fred Trueman
67
21.57
1 February 1976
12 years, 323 days

309
 Lance Gibbs
79
29.09
27 December 1981
5 years, 329 days

355
 Dennis Lillee
70
23.92
21 August 1986
4 years, 237 days

373[d]
 Ian Botham
94
27.86
12 November 1988
2 years, 83 days

431
 Richard Hadlee
86
22.29
8 February 1994
5 years, 88 days

434
 Kapil Dev
131
29.64
27 March 2000
6 years, 48 days

519
 Courtney Walsh
132
24.44
8 May 2004
4 years, 42 days

532[e]
 Muttiah Muralitharan
91
22.87
15 October 2004
160 days

708
 Shane Warne
145
25.41
3 December 2007
3 years, 49 days

800
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133
22.72
Current
10 years, 116 days

Notes
^[a] Allen Hill took the first Test wicket, but only two in the First Test match. Alfred Shaw (3/51 & 5/35) and Tom Kendall (1/54 & 7/55) both took eight wickets, but as Australia batted first Shaw was the first to take five wickets in an innings and the first to take eight Test wickets. Kendall overtook him in the Second Test and Shaw subsequently increased his total to 12 wickets (15.35) in seven Tests[65]
^[b] Johnny Briggs equalled Fred Spofforth's record of 94 Test wickets on 29 December 1894 in the Second Test at Melbourne, as did Charles Turner two days later. Briggs overook Turner and Spofforth in the Third Test at Adelaide, which Turner missed, and became the first man to claim 100 Test wickets on 1 February 1895 in the Fourth Test at Sydney. Turner became the second three days later and ended with a total of 101 wickets (16.53) in 17 Tests[66]
^[c] Fred Trueman overtook Brian Statham's then record of 242 Test wickets and Statham subsequently increased his total to 252 wickets (24.84) in 70 Tests
^[d] Richard Hadlee overtook Ian Botham's then record of 373 Test wickets and Botham subsequently increased his total to 383 wickets (28.40) in 102 Tests
^[e] Shane Warne overtook Muttiah Muralitharan's then record of 532 Test wickets and Muralitharan subsequently increased his total to 800 wickets (22.72) in 133 Tests[67]

text:
Best career average

Average
Player
Balls
Wickets

10.75
 George Lohmann
3,830
112

12.70
/ John Ferris[a]
2,302
61

15.54
 Billy Barnes
2,289
51

16.42
 Billy Bates
2,364
50

16.43
 Sydney Barnes
7,873
189

Qualification: 2000 balls bowled
Last updated: 15 June 2016[68]

Note: If the qualification is removed, the best career average record is at 0.00 runs per wicket (i.e. no runs were conceded). This record is shared by Englishmen A N Hornby, Wilf Barber and New Zealander, Bruce Murray who took one wicket without conceding a run[69]

^[a] John Ferris was one of a few cricketers to play Test cricket for more than one country. He played in eight Tests for Australia from 1886–87 and a single Test for England in South Africa in 1891–92.[70]

text:
Best career strike rate

Strike rate
Player
Balls
Wickets

34.1
 George Lohmann
3,830
112

37.7
 /  J. J. Ferris
2,302
61

38.7
 Shane Bond
3,372
87

41.4
 Dale Steyn
17,286
417

41.6
 Sydney Barnes
7,873
189

Qualification: 2000 balls bowled
Last updated: 2 September 2017[71]

text:
Most 5 wickets in an innings

5 wickets in an innings
Player
Matches

67
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133

37
 Shane Warne
145

36
 Richard Hadlee
86

35
 Anil Kumble
132

29
 Glenn McGrath
124

Last updated: 15 June 2016[72]

text:
Most 10 wickets in a match

10 wickets in a match
Player
Matches

22
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133

10
 Shane Warne
145

9
 Richard Hadlee
86

 Rangana Herath
83

8
 Anil Kumble
132

Last updated: 2 September 2017[73]

text: Series

text:
Most wickets in a series

Wickets
Player
Series

49 (4 Tests)
 Sydney Barnes
v  South Africa 1913–14

46 (5 Tests)
 Jim Laker
v  Australia, 1956

44 (5 Tests)
 Clarrie Grimmett
v  South Africa 1935–36

42 (6 Tests)
 Terry Alderman
v  England, 1981

41 (6 Tests)
 Terry Alderman
v  England, 1989

 Rodney Hogg
v  England, 1978–79

Last updated: 15 June 2016[74]

text: Innings

text:
Best figures in an innings

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

10–53
 Jim Laker
 Australia (2nd innings)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

10–74
 Anil Kumble
 Pakistan
Feroz Shah Kotla Ground, Delhi
1998–99

9–28
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1895–96

9–37
 Jim Laker
 Australia (1st innings)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

9–51
 Muttiah Muralitharan
 Zimbabwe
Asgiriya Stadium, Kandy
2001–02

Last updated: 15 June 2016[75]

text:
Best figures in an innings – progression of record

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

7–55
 Tom Kendall
(in the inaugural Test match)
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77

7–44
 Fred Spofforth
 England
The Oval, London
1882

7–28
 Billy Bates
 Australia
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1882–83

8–35
 George Lohmann
 Australia
Sydney Cricket Ground
1886–87

8–11
 Johnny Briggs
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1888–89

8–7
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
1895–96

9–28
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1895–96

10–53
 Jim Laker
 Australia
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

Calculated at the conclusion of each Test
Last updated: 15 June 2016

text: Match records

text:
Best figures in a match

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

19–90
 Jim Laker
 Australia
Manchester, England,
1956

17–159
 Sydney Barnes
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1913–14

16–136
 Narendra Hirwani
 West Indies
M. A. Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai
1987–88

16–137
 Bob Massie
 England
Lord's, London
1972

16–220
 Muttiah Muralitharan
 England
The Oval, London
1998

Last updated: 15 June 2016[76]

text: Innings as captain

text:
Best figures in an innings as captain

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

9–83
 Kapil Dev
 West Indies
Sardar Patel Stadium, Ahmedabad
1983

8–60
 Imran Khan
 India
National Stadium, Karachi, Karachi
1982

8–63
 Rangana Herath
 Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare
2016

8–106
 Kapil Dev
 Australia
Adelaide Oval, Adelaide
1985

7–37
 Courtney Walsh
 New Zealand
Basin Reserve, Wellington
1995

Last updated: 16 March 2017[77]

text: Match records as captain

text:
Best figures in a match

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

13–55
 Courtney Walsh
 New Zealand
Basin Reserve, Wellington, New Zealand
1995

13–135
 Waqar Younis
 Zimbabwe
Southend Club Cricket Stadium, Karachi, Pakistan
1993

13–152
 Rangana Herath
 Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare, Zimbabwe
2016

12–100
 Fazal Mahmood
 West Indies
Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka, Bangladesh
1959

11–79
 Imran Khan
 India
National Stadium, Karachi, Pakistan
1982

Last updated: 15 June 2016[78]

text: Individual records (fielding)

text: Most catches in Test career

text:
Catches
Player
Matches

210
 Rahul Dravid
164

205
 Mahela Jayawardene
149

200
 Jacques Kallis
166

196
 Ricky Ponting
168

181
 Mark Waugh
128

Note:The list excludes catches made as wicket-keeper[79] Last updated: 15 June 2016

text: Individual records (wicket-keeping)

text:
Most dismissals

Dismissals
Player
Matches

555 (532 catches + 23 stumpings)
 Mark Boucher
147

416 (379 catches + 37 stumpings)
 Adam Gilchrist
96

395 (366 catches + 29 stumpings)
 Ian Healy
119

355 (343 catches + 12 stumpings)
 Rod Marsh
96

294 (256 catches + 38 stumpings)
 MS Dhoni
90

Last updated: 15 June 2016[80]

text:
Most catches

Catches
Player
Matches

532
 Mark Boucher
147

379
 Adam Gilchrist
96

366
 Ian Healy
119

343
 Rod Marsh
96

265
 Jeff Dujon
81

Last updated: 15 June 2016[81]

text:
Most stumpings

Stumpings
Player
Matches

52
 Bert Oldfield
54

46
 Godfrey Evans
91

38
 Syed Kirmani
88

 MS Dhoni
90

37
 Adam Gilchrist
96

Last updated: 15 June 2016[82]

text: Individual records (as an all-rounder)

text:
10 Wickets and a Century in a Test match

Player
Runs
Wickets
Date
Opponent
Venue

 Ian Botham[83]
114
13/109
15 February 1980
 India
Mumbai, India

 Imran Khan[83]
117
11/180
3 January 1983
 India
Faisalabad, Pakistan

 Shakib Al Hasan[83]
137
10/124
3 November 2014
 Zimbabwe
Khulna, Bangladesh

Last updated: 15 June 2016[84]

text: Individual records (other)

text:
Most matches played

Matches
Player
Period

200
 Sachin Tendulkar
1989–2013

168
 Steve Waugh
1985–2004

 Ricky Ponting
1995–2012

166
 Jacques Kallis
1995–2013

164
 Rahul Dravid
1996–2012

 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
1994–2015

Last updated: 15 June 2016[85]

text:
Most matches played as captain

Matches
Player
Won
Lost
Drawn
Tied

109
 Graeme Smith
53
29
27
0

93
 Allan Border
32
22
38
1

80
 Stephen Fleming
28
27
25
0

77
 Ricky Ponting
48
16
13
0

74
 Clive Lloyd
36
12
26
0

Last updated: 15 June 2016[86]

text:
Most matches won as captain

Won
Player
Lost
Drawn
Ties
Matches

53
 Graeme Smith
26
26
0
109

48
 Ricky Ponting
16
13
0
77

41
 Steve Waugh
9
7
0
57

36
 Clive Lloyd
12
26
0
74

32
 Allan Border
22
38
1
93

Last updated: 15 June 2016[87]

text: Partnership records

text: Highest partnership for each wicket

text:
Partnership
Runs
Team
Players
Opposition
Venue
Season

1st wicket
415
 South Africa
Graeme Smith (232)
Neil McKenzie (226)
 Bangladesh
Chittagong Divisional Stadium
2008

2nd wicket
576
 Sri Lanka
Sanath Jayasuriya (340)
Roshan Mahanama (225)
 India
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997–98

3rd wicket
624
 Sri Lanka
Kumar Sangakkara (287)
Mahela Jayawardene (374)
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

4th wicket
449
 Australia
Adam Voges (269*)
Shaun Marsh  (182)
 West Indies
Bellerive Oval, Hobart
2015–16

5th wicket
405
 Australia
Sid Barnes (234)
Donald Bradman (234)
 England
Sydney Cricket Ground
1946–47

6th wicket
399
 England
Ben Stokes  (258)
Jonny Bairstow  (150*)
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
2015–16

7th wicket
347
 West Indies
Denis Atkinson (219)
Clairmonte Depeiaza (122)
 Australia
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
1954–55

8th wicket
332
 England
Jonathan Trott (184)
Stuart Broad  (169)
 Pakistan
Lord's, London
2010

9th wicket
195
 South Africa
Mark Boucher (78)
Pat Symcox (108)
 Pakistan
New Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
1997–98

10th wicket
198
 England
Joe Root  (154*)
James Anderson  (81)
 India
Trent Bridge, Nottingham
2014

Last updated: 15 June 2016[88]

text: Highest partnerships

text:
Runs
Team
Players
Opposition
Venue
Season

624 (3rd wicket)
 Sri Lanka
Kumar Sangakkara (287)
Mahela Jayawardene (374)
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

576 (2nd wicket)
 Sri Lanka
Sanath Jayasuriya (340)
Roshan Mahanama (225)
 India
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997–98

467 (3rd wicket)
 New Zealand
Andrew Jones (186)
Martin Crowe (299)
 Sri Lanka
Basin Reserve, Wellington
1990–91

451 (2nd wicket)
 Australia
Bill Ponsford (266)
Donald Bradman (244)
 England
The Oval, London
1934

451 (3rd wicket)
 Pakistan
Mudassar Nazar (231)
Javed Miandad (280*)
 India
Niaz Stadium, Hyderabad
1982–83

Last updated: 15 June 2016[89]


document_title: History of Arizona

question_text: what is the name of the most famous gunfight in arizonas history

text: History of Arizona

text: Mexican Arizona[edit]

text: Arizona was a part of northern Mexico in the 1840s; it was remote and poor and seldom had outside contacts. The Mexican population, based in Tucson, was a few hundred, in addition to a presidio garrison of about 100 soldiers. The mission was deactivated in 1828. South of the Gila River it was mostly in the province of Sonora, and a fragment of Chihuahua in the east. To the north Arizona was nominally part of Alta California and a fragment of Santa Fe de Nuevo México in the east. Together with help from Pima and Papago militia the garrison providing a little protection from a hostile Apache population to the east of the San Pedro River and north of the Gila. In the Mexican–American War, the garrison commander avoided conflict with Lieutenant Colonel Cooke and the Mormon Battalion, withdrawing from the town while the Americans marched through the town on their way to California. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), Mexico ceded to the U.S. the northern 70% of modern-day Arizona above the Sonora border along the Gila River. During the California Gold Rush upwards of 50,000 men traveled through on the Southern Emigrant Trail pioneered by Cooke, to reach the gold fields in 1849.[1] The Pima Villages often sold fresh food and provided relief to distressed travelers among this throng and to others in subsequent years.

text: American Arizona[edit]

text: Starting in 1853, the entirety of present-day Arizona was part of the New Mexico Territory. In 1849, the California Gold Rush led as many as 50,000 miners to travel across the region, leading to a boom in Arizona's population. In 1850, Arizona and New Mexico formed the New Mexico Territory. In 1853, President Franklin Pierce sent James Gadsden to Mexico City to negotiate with Santa Anna, and the United States bought the remaining southern strip area of Arizona and New Mexico in the Gadsden Purchase.

text: Before 1846 the Apache raiders expelled most Mexican ranchers. One result was that large herds of wild cattle roamed southeastern Arizona, By 1850, the herds were gone, killed by Apaches, American sportsmen, contract hunting for the towns of Fronteras and Santa Cruz, and roundups to sell to hungry Mexican War soldiers. and forty-niners en route to California.[2]

text: Civil War[edit]

text: During the Civil War, on March 16, 1861, citizens in southern New Mexico Territory around Mesilla (now in New Mexico) and Tucson invited take-over by the Confederacy. They especially wanted restoration of mail service. These secessionists hoped that a Confederate Territory of Arizona (CSA) would take control, but in March 1862, Union troops from California captured the Confederate Territory of Arizona and returned it to the New Mexico Territory.

text: The Battle of Picacho Pass, April 15, 1862, was a battle of the Civil War fought in the CSA and one of many battles to occur in Arizona during the war among three sides—Apaches, Confederates and Union forces. In 1863, the U.S. split up New Mexico along a north-south line to create the Arizona Territory. Prescott was a small village when it was replaced by Tucson as the territorial capital in 1877.

text: Native American relations[edit]

text: In the late 19th century the Army built a series of forts to encourage the Natives to stay in their territory and to act as a buffer from the settlers. The first was Fort Defiance. It was established on September 18, 1851, by Col. Edwin V. Sumner to create a military presence in Diné bikéyah (Navajo territory). Sumner broke up the fort at Santa Fe for this purpose, creating the first military post in what is now Arizona.[3] He left Major Electus Backus in charge.[3] Small skirmishes were common between raiding Navajo and counter raiding citizens. In April 1860 one thousand Navajo warriors under Manuelito attacked the fort and were beaten off.[4]

text: The fort was abandoned at the start of the Civil War but was reoccupied in 1863 by Colonel Kit Carson and the 1st New Mexico Infantry. Carson was tasked by Brigadier-General James H. Carleton, Commander of the Federal District of New Mexico, to kill Navajo men, destroy crops, wells, houses and livestock. These tactics forced 9000 Navajos to take the Long Walk to a reservation at Bosque Redondo, New Mexico. The Bosque was a complete failure. In 1868 the Navajo signed another treaty and were allowed to go back to part of their former territory. The returning Navajo were restocked with sheep and other livestock.[5] Fort Defiance was the agency for the new Navajo reservation until 1936; today it provides medical services to the region.[6]

text: Fort Apache was built on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation by soldiers from the 1st Cavalry and 21st Infantry in 1870. Only one small battle took place, in September 1881, with three soldiers wounded. When the reservation Indians were granted U.S. citizenship in 1924, the fort was permanently closed down.[7] Fort Huachuca, east of Tucson, was founded in 1877 as the base for operations against Apaches and raiders from Mexico. From 1913-33 the fort was the base for the "Buffalo Soldiers" (black soldiers) of the 10th Cavalry Regiment. During World War II, the fort expanded to 25,000 soldiers, mostly in segregated all-black units. Today the fort remains in operation and houses the U.S. Army Intelligence Center and the U.S. Army Network.[8]

text: The Pueblos in Arizona were relatively peaceful through the Navajo and Apache Wars. However, in June 1891, the army had to bring in troops to stop Oraibi from preventing a school from being built on their mesa.

text: Ranching[edit]

text: After the Civil War, Texans brought large-scale ranching to southern Arizona. They introduced their proven range methods to the new grass country. Texas rustlers also came, and brought lawlessness. Inexperienced ranchers brought poor management, resulting in overstocking, and introduced destructive diseases. Local cattleman organizations were formed to handle these problems.[9] The Territory experienced a cattle boom in 1873-91, as the herds were expanded from 40,000 to 1.5 million head. However the drought of 1891-93 killed off over half the cattle and produced severe overgrazing. Efforts to restore the rangeland between 1905 and 1934 had limited success, but ranching continued on a smaller scale.[10]

text: Arizona's last major drought occurred during Dust Bowl years of 1933–34. This time Washington stepped in as the Agricultural Adjustment Administration spent $100 million to buy up the starving cattle. The Taylor Grazing Act placed federal and state agencies in control of livestock numbers on public lands.[11] Most of the land in Arizona is owned by the federal government which leased grazing land to ranchers at low cost. Ranchers invested heavily in blooded stock and equipment. James Wilson states that after 1950, higher fees and restrictions in the name of land conservation caused a sizable reduction in available grazing land. The ranchers had installed three-fifths of the fences, dikes, diversion dams, cattleguards, and other improvements, but the new rules reduced the value of that investment. In the end, Wilson believes, sportsmen and environmentalists maintained a political advantage by denouncing the ranchers as political corrupted land-grabbers who exploited the publicly owned natural resources.[12]

text: Copper[edit]

text: In 1885 Lewis Williams opened a copper smelter in Bisbee and the copper boom began, as the nation turned to copper wires for electricity. The arrival of railroads in the 1880s made mining even more profitable, and national corporations bought control of the mines and invested in new equipment.[13] Mining operations flourished in numerous boom towns, such as Bisbee, Douglas, Ajo and Miami.

text: Wild West[edit]

text: Arizona's "wild west" reputation was well deserved. Tombstone was a notorious mining town that flourished longer than most, from 1877 to 1929.[14] Silver was discovered in 1877, and by 1881 the town had a population of over 10,000. Western story tellers and Hollywood film makers made as much money in Tombstone as anyone, thanks to the arrival of Wyatt Earp and his brothers in 1879.[15] They bought shares in the Vizina mine, water rights, and gambling concessions, but Virgil, Morgan and Wyatt were soon appointed as federal and local marshals. They killed three outlaws in the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, the most famous gunfight of the Old West. In the aftermath, Virgil Earp was maimed in an ambush and Morgan Earp was assassinated while playing billiards. Walter Noble Burns's novel Tombstone (1927) made Earp famous. Hollywood celebrated Earp's Tombstone days with John Ford's My Darling Clementine (1946), John Sturges's Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) and Hour of the Gun (1967), Frank Perry's Doc (1971), George Cosmatos's Tombstone (1993), and Lawrence Kasdan's Wyatt Earp (1994). They solidified Earp's modern reputation as the Old West's deadliest gunman.[16]

text: Jennie Bauters (1862–1905) operated brothels in the Territory from 1896-1905. She was an astute businesswoman with an eye for real estate appreciation, and a way with the town fathers of Jerome regarding taxes and restrictive ordinances. She was not always sitting pretty; her brothels were burned in a series of major fires that swept the business district; her girls were often drug addicts. As respectability closed in on her, in 1903 she relocated to the mining camp of Acme. In 1905, she was murdered by a man who had posed as her husband.[17][18]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: By 1869 Americans were reading John Wesley Powell's reports of his explorations of the Colorado River. In 1901, the Santa Fe Railroad[19] reached Grand Canyon's South Rim. With railroad, restaurant and hotel entrepreneur Fred Harvey leading the way, large-scale tourism began that has never abated.[20] The Grand Canyon has become an iconic symbol of the West and the nation as a whole.[21]

text: Chinese[edit]

text: The Chinese came to Arizona with the construction of the Southern Pacific Railroad in 1880. Tucson was the main railroad center[22] and soon had a Chinatown with laundries for the general population and a rich mix of restaurants, groceries and services for the residents. Chinese and Mexican merchants and farmers transcended racial differences to form 'guanxi,' which were relations of friendship and trust. Chinese leased land from Mexicans, operated grocery stores, and aided compatriots attempting to enter the United States from Mexico after the Mexican Revolution in 1910. Chinese merchants helped supply General John Pershing's army in its expedition against Pancho Villa. Successful Chinese in Tucson led a viable community based on social integration, friendship, and kinship.[23]

text: Statehood[edit]

text: In 1912, Arizona almost entered the Union as part of New Mexico in a Republican plan to keep control of the U.S. Senate. The plan, while accepted by most in New Mexico, was rejected by most Arizonans. Progressives in Arizona favored inclusion in the state constitution of initiative, referendum, recall, direct election of senators, woman suffrage, and other reforms. Most of these proposals were included in the constitution that was submitted to Congress in 1912. Taft signed the statehood bill on February 14, 1912, and state residents promptly put the provision back in.[24] Hispanics had little voice or power. Only one of the 53 delegates at the constitutional convention was Hispanic, and he refused to sign.[25] In 1912 women gained suffrage (the vote) in the state, eight years before the country as a whole.

text: Arizona's first Congressman was Carl Hayden (1877–1972).[26] He was the son of a Yankee merchant who had moved to Tempe because he needed dry heat for his bad lungs. Carl attended Stanford University and moved up the political ladder as town councilman, county treasurer and Maricopa County sheriff, where he nabbed Arizona's last train robbers. He also started building a coalition to develop the state's water resources, a lifelong interest. A liberal Democrat his entire career, Hayden was elected to Congress in 1912 and moved to the Senate in 1926. Reelection followed every six years as he advanced toward the chairmanship of the powerful Appropriations Committee, which he finally reached in 1955. His only difficult campaign came in 1962, at age 85, when he defeated a young conservative. He retired in 1968 after a record 56 years in Congress. His great achievement was his 41-year battle to enact the Central Arizona Project that would provide water for future growth.[27]

text: The Great Depression[edit]

text: The Great Depression of 1929-39 hit Arizona hard. At first local, state and private relief efforts focused on charity, especially by the Community Chest and Organized Charities programs. Federal money started arriving with the Federal Emergency Relief Committee in 1930. Different agencies promoted aid to the unemployed, tuberculosis patients, transients, and illegal immigrants. The money ran out by 1931 or 1932, and conditions were bad until New Deal relief operations began on a large scale in 1933.[28] Construction programs were important, especially Hoover Dam (originally called Boulder Dam), begun by President Herbert Hoover. It is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border with Nevada. It was constructed by the Federal Bureau of Reclamation between 1931 and 1936. It operationalized a schedule of water use set by the Colorado River Compact of 1922 that gave Arizona 19% of the river's water, with 25% to Nevada and the rest to California.[29]

text: World War II[edit]

text: Construction of military bases in Arizona was a national priority because of the state's excellent flying weather and clear skies, large amounts of unoccupied land, good railroads, cheap labor, low taxes, and its proximity to California's aviation industry. Arizona was attractive to both the military and private firms and they stayed after the war.

text: Fort Huachuca became one of the largest nearly-all-black Army forts, with quarters for 1,300 officers and 24,000 enlisted soldiers. The 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions, composed of African-American troops, trained there.[30]

text: During the war Mexican-American community organizations were very active in patriotic efforts to support American troops abroad, and made efforts to support the war effort materially and to provide moral support for the young American men fighting the war, especially the young Mexican-American men from local communities. Some of the community projects were cooperative ventures in which members of both the Mexican-American and Anglo communities participated. Most efforts made in the Mexican-American community, however, represented localized American home front activities that were separate from the activities of the Anglo community.[31] Mexican-American women organized to assist their servicemen and the war effort. An underlying goal of the Spanish-American Mothers and Wives Association was the reinforcement of the woman's role in Spanish-Mexican culture. The organization raised thousands of dollars, wrote letters, and joined in numerous celebrations of their culture and their support for Mexican-American servicemen. Membership reached over 300 during the war and eventually ended its existence in 1976.[32]

text: Heavy government spending during World War II revitalized the Arizona economy, which was still based on copper mining, citrus and cotton crops and cattle ranching, with a growing tourist business.

text: Military installations peppered the state, such as Davis-Monthan Field in Tucson, a main training center for air force bomber pilots. Two relocation camps opened for Japanese and Japanese Americans brought in from the West Coast.[33]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1860
6,482

—

1870
9,658

49.0%

1880
40,440

318.7%

1890
88,243

118.2%

1900
122,931

39.3%

1910
204,354

66.2%

1920
334,162

63.5%

1930
435,573

30.3%

1940
499,261

14.6%

1950
749,587

50.1%

1960
1,302,161

73.7%

1970
1,745,944

34.1%

1980
2,718,215

55.7%

1990
3,665,228

34.8%

2000
5,130,632

40.0%

2010
6,392,017

24.6%

Sources: 1910-2010[34]

text: After 1945[edit]

text: The population grew rapidly after 1945, exploding by almost ten times from 700,000 in 1950 to over 5 million in 2000. Most of the growth was in the Phoenix area, with Tucson a distant second. Urban growth doomed the state's citrus industry, as the groves were turned into housing developments.[35] The cost of water made cotton growing less and less profitable, so the state's production steadily declined. By contrast, manufacturing employment jumped from 49,000 in 1960 to 183,000 by 1985, with half the workers in well-paid high tech firms such as Motorola, Hughes Aircraft, and Goodyear Aircraft, Honeywell, and IBM in the Phoenix area.[36] By 1959, Hughes Aircraft built advanced missiles with five thousand workers in Tucson.[37]

text: National leadership[edit]

text: Although a small state, Arizona produced numerous national leaders for both parties. Two Republican Senators were presidential nominees: Barry Goldwater[38] in 1964 and John McCain in 2008. Both carried Arizona and lost the national election. Senator Ernest McFarland, a Democrat, was the Majority Leader of the U.S. Senate 1951-52, and Congressman John Rhodes was the Republican Minority Leader in the House, 1973-81. Democrats Bruce Babbitt (Governor 1978-87)[39] and Morris Udall (Congressman 1961-90)[40] were contenders for their party's presidential nomination. In 1981 Sandra Day O'Connor became the first woman on the Supreme Court, serving until 2006.[41]

text: Retirement communities[edit]

text: The warm winters and low cost of living attracted retirees from the snow belt who moved permanently to Arizona after 1945, bringing their pensions, Social Security and savings with them. Trolander shows that real estate entrepreneurs catered to them with new communities with amenities pitched to older people, and with few facilities for children. Typically they are "gated" (with controlled access), and have pools, recreation centers, and sometimes a golf course. In 1954, two developers bought 320 acres (1.3 km2) of farmland near Phoenix and opened the nation's first master-planned, adult community dedicated exclusively to retirees at Youngtown. In 1960, developer Del Webb, inspired by the amenities in trailer parks in Florida, added facilities for "active adults" in his new Sun City planned community near Phoenix. In 1962 Ross Cortese opened the first of his gated Leisure Worlds. Other developers copied the popular model so that by 2000, 18% of the retirees in the state lived in "lifestyle" communities.[42]

text: Environmental issues[edit]

text: The issues of the fragile natural environment, compounded by questions of water shortage and distribution, led to numerous debates. The debate crossed traditional lines, so that the leading conservative, Senator Barry Goldwater, was also keenly concerned. For example, Goldwater supported the controversial Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP). He wrote:

text: I feel very definitely that the [Nixon] administration is absolutely correct in cracking down on companies and corporations and municipalities that continue to pollute the nation's air and water. While I am a great believer in the free competitive enterprise system and all that it entails, I am an even stronger believer in the right of our people to live in a clean and pollution-free environment. To this end, it is my belief that when pollution is found, it should be halted at the source, even if this requires stringent government action against important segments of our national economy.[43]

text: Water issues were central. Agriculture consumed 89% of the state's strictly limited water supply, while generating only 3% of the state's income. The Groundwater Management Act of 1980, sponsored by Governor Babbitt, raised the price of water to farmers, while cities had to reach a "safe yield" so that the groundwater usage did not exceed natural replenishment. New housing developments had to prove they had enough water for the next hundred years. Desert foliage suitable for a dry region soon replaced water-guzzling grass in Arizona lawns.[44]

text: Cotton acreage declined dramatically, freeing up land for suburban sprawl as well as releasing large amounts of water and ending the need for expensive specialized machinery. Cotton acreage plunged from 120,000 acres in 1997 to only 40,000 acres in 2005, even as the federal treasury gave the state's farmers over $678 million in cotton subsidies. Many farmers collect the subsidies but no longer grow cotton. About 80% of the state's cotton is exported to textile factories in China and (since the passage of NAFTA) to Mexico.[45]

text: Recent events[edit]

text: Super Bowl XXX was played in Tempe in 1996 and Super Bowl XLII was held in Glendale in 2008. Super Bowl XLIX was also held in Glendale in 2015.

text: Illegal immigration continued to be a prime concern within the state, and in April 2010, Arizona SB1070 was passed and signed into law by Governor Jan Brewer.[46] The measure attracted national attention as the most thorough anti-illegal immigration measure in decades within the United States.[46]

text: On June 30, 2013, nineteen members of the Prescott Fire Department were killed fighting the Yarnell Hill Fire.[47] The fatalities were members of the Granite Mountain Hotshots, a hotshot crew,[48] of whom only one survived as they were working in another location.[48]

text: In June 2017, a heat wave grounded more than 40 airline flights of small aircraft, with American Airlines reducing sales on certain flights to prevent the vehicles from being over the maximum weight permitted for safe takeoff.[49][50]