document_title: Treaty of Versailles

question_text: when was the treaty of versailles signed by germany

question_tokens: when was the treaty of versailles signed by germany

text: Treaty of Versailles

text: Background

text: First World War

text: On 28 June 1914 the Bosnian-Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in the name of Serbian nationalism.[7] This caused a diplomatic crisis, resulting in Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia and sparking the First World War.[8] Due to a variety of reasons, within weeks the major powers of Europe—divided into two alliances known as the Central Powers and the Triple Entente—went to war. As the conflict progressed, additional countries from around the globe became drawn into the conflict on both sides.[9] Fighting would rage across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia for the next four years.[10] In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government and the rise of the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin.[11]

text: US entry and the Fourteen Points

text: On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against the Central Powers. The reasons were twofold: German submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France and Britain, which led to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the loss of 128 American lives; and the interception of the German Zimmerman Telegram, urging for Mexico to declare war against the United States.[citation needed] The American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the sole power with aggressive ambitions.[citation needed]

text: On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy, and self-determination. It also called for a diplomatic end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all states.[12][13] Wilson's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin's Decree on Peace of November 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war and called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexations. The Fourteen Points were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors led by foreign-policy advisor Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference.[14]

text: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918

text: After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, the new Soviet Government of Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany on 3 March 1918.[15] This treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles (3,400,000 km2) of territory and 62 million people.[16] This loss equated to a third of the Russian population, a quarter of its territory, around a third of the country's arable land, three-quarters of its coal and iron, a third of its factories (totalling 54 percent of the nation's industrial capacity), and a quarter of its railroads.[16][17]

text: Armistice

text: During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse.[18] Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production.[19][20] On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive and decisively defeated the German western armies.[21] Sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution.[22][23] The German government tried to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium.[24][25][26]

text: Occupation

text: The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days.[27] In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland. In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation.[28]

text: Blockade

text: Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, which had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The Blockade of Germany (1914–1919) was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers. The German Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people.[29]

text: Polish uprising

text: In late 1918, a Polish government was formed and an independent Poland proclaimed. In December, Poles launched an uprising within the German province of Posen. Fighting lasted until February, when an armistice was signed that left the province in Polish hands, but technically still a German possession.[30]

text: Negotiations

text: Talks between the Allies to establish a common negotiating position started on 18 January 1919, in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris.[31] Initially, 70 delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations.[32] Russia was excluded due to their signing of a separate peace (the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) and early withdrawal from the war. Furthermore, German negotiators were excluded to deny them an opportunity to divide the Allies diplomatically.[33][34]

text: Initially, a "Council of Ten" (comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) met officially to decide the peace terms. This council was replaced by the "Council of Five", formed from each countries foreign ministers, to discuss minor matters. Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of Italy Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Lloyd George, and President of the United States Woodrow Wilson formed the "Big Four" (at one point becoming the "Big Three" following the temporally withdrawal of Vittorio Emanuele Orlando). These four men met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions, which were later ratified by the entire assembly. The minor powers attended a weekly "Plenary Conference" that discussed issues in a general forum but made no decisions. These members formed over 50 commissions that made various recommendations, many of which were incorporated into the final text of the treaty.[35][36][37]

text: French aims

text: France had lost 1.3 million soldiers killed, including 25% of French men aged 18–30 and 400,000 civilians. France had also been more physically damaged than any other nation (the so-called zone rouge (Red Zone)); the most industrialized region and the source of most coal and iron ore in the north-east had been devastated and in the final days of the war mines had been flooded and railways, bridges and factories destroyed.[38] Clemenceau intended to ensure the security of France, by weakening Germany economically, militarily, territorially and by supplanting Germany as the leading producer of steel in Europe.[38][39][40] A position, British economist and Versailles negotiator, John Maynard Keynes summarized as attempting to "set the clock back and undo what, since 1870, the progress of Germany had accomplished."[41]

text: Clemenceau told Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. You are both sheltered; we are not".[42] The French wanted a frontier on the Rhine, to protect France from a German invasion and compensate for French demographic and economic inferiority.[43][44] American and British representatives refused the French claim and after two months of negotiations, the French accepted a British pledge to provide an immediate alliance with France if Germany attacked again, and Wilson agreed to put a similar proposal to the Senate. Clemenceau had told the Chamber of Deputies, in December 1918, that his goal was to maintain an alliance with both countries. Clemenceau accepted the offer, in return for an occupation of the Rhineland for fifteen years and that Germany would also demilitarise the Rhineland.[45]

text: French negotiators wanted reparations, to make Germany pay for the damage caused during the war and to weaken Germany.[38] The French also wanted the iron ore and coal of the Saar Valley, by annexation to France.[46] The French were willing to accept a smaller amount of reparations than the Americans would concede and Clemenceau was willing discuss Germany capacity to pay with the German delegation, before the final settlement was drafted. In April and May 1919, the French and Germans held separate talks, on mutually acceptable arrangements on issues like reparation, reconstruction and industrial collaboration.[47] France, along with the British Dominions and Belgium, opposed mandates and favored annexation of former Germany colonies.[48]

text: British aims

text: Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war.[49] However, the British wartime coalition was re-elected during the so-called Coupon election at the end of 1918, with a policy of squeezing the German "'til the pips squeak".[50][51] Public opinion favoured a "just peace", which would force Germany to pay reparations and be unable to repeat the aggression of 1914, although those of a "liberal and advanced opinion" shared Wilson's ideal of a peace of reconciliation.[24]

text: In private Lloyd George opposed revenge and attempted to compromise between Clemenceau's demands and the Fourteen Points, because Europe would eventually have to reconcile with Germany.[52] Lloyd George wanted terms of reparation that would not cripple the German economy, so that Germany would remain a viable economic power and trading partner.[51][52][49] By arguing that British war pensions and widows' allowances should be included in the German reparation sum, Lloyd George ensured that a large amount would go to the British Empire.[53]

text: Lloyd George also intended to maintain a European balance of power to thwart a French attempt to establish itself as the dominant European Power.[52] A revived Germany would be a counterweight to France and a deterrent to Bolshevik Russia. Lloyd George also wanted to neutralize the German navy to keep the Royal Navy as the greatest naval power in the world; dismantle the German colonial empire with several of its territorial possessions ceded to Britain and others being established as League of Nations mandates, a position opposed by the Dominions.[52][48]

text: American aims

text: Prior to the American entry into the war, Wilson had talked of a 'peace without victory'. This position fluctuated following the US entry into the war. Wilson talked of the German aggressors who there could be no compromised peace with.[54] However, on 8 January 1918, Wilson delivered a speech (known as the Fourteen Points) that declared the American peace objectives: the rebuilding of the European economy, self-determination of European ethnic groups, the promotion of free trade, the creation of appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, the creation of a powerful League of Nations that would ensure the peace.[55] The aim of the latter was to provide a forum to revise the peace treaties as needed, and deal with problems that arose as a result of the peace and the rise of new states.[56][52]

text: Wilson brought along top intellectuals as advisors to the American peace delegation, and the overall American position echoed the Fourteen Points. Wilson firmly opposed harsh treatment on Germany.[57] While the British and French wanted to largely annex the German colonial empire, Wilson saw that as a violation of the fundamental principles of justice and human rights of the native populations, and favored them having the right of self-determination via the creation of mandates. The promoted idea called for the major powers to act as disinterested trustees over a region, aiding the native populations until they could govern themselves.[58] In spite of this position and in order to ensure that Japan did not refuse to join the League of Nations, Wilson favored turning over the former German colony of Shandong, in Eastern China, to Japan rather than return the area to Chinese control.[59] Further confounding the Americans, was US internal partisan politics. In November 1918, the Republican Party won the Senate election by a slim margin. Wilson, a Democrat, refused to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation making his efforts seem partisan, and contributed to a risk of political defeat at home.[60]

text: Treaty content and signing

text: In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231.[nb 1] In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty.[61] On 28 June 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the immediate impetus for the war), the peace treaty was signed.[2] The treaty had clauses ranging from war crimes, the prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations, freedom of navigation on major European rivers, to the returning of a Koran to the king of Hedjaz.[62][63][64][65]

text: Territorial changes

text: The treaty stripped Germany of 25,000 square miles (65,000 km2) of territory and 7 million people. It also required Germany to give up the gains made via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and grant independence to the protectorates that had been established.[17] In Western Europe Germany was required to recognize Belgian sovereignty over Moresnet and cede control of the Eupen-Malmedy area. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League's decision.[66] To compensate for the destruction of French coal mines, Germany was to cede the output of the Saar coalmines to France and control of the Saar to the League of Nations for 15 years; a plebiscite would then be held to decide sovereignty.[67] The treaty "restored" the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine to France by rescinding the treaties of Versailles and Frankfurt of 1871 as they pertained to this issue.[68] The sovereignty of Schleswig-Holstein was to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at a future time (see Schleswig Plebiscites).[69]

text: In Eastern Europe, Germany was to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia and cede parts of the province of Upper Silesia.[70] Germany had to recognize the independence of Poland and renounce "all rights and title over the territory". Portions of Upper Silesia were to be ceded to Poland, with the future of the rest of the province to be decided by plebiscite. The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality.[71] The province of Posen (now Poznan), which had come under Polish control during the Greater Poland Uprising, was also to be ceded to Poland.[30][72] Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania), on historical and ethnic grounds, was transferred to Poland so that the new state could have access to the sea and became known as the Polish Corridor.[73] The sovereignty of part of southern East Prussia was to be decided via plebiscite while the East Prussian Soldau area, which was astride the rail line between Warsaw and Danzig, was transferred to Poland outright without plebiscite.[74][75] An area of 51,800 square kilometres (20,000 square miles) was granted to Poland at the expense of Germany.[76] Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes.[77] Germany was to cede the city of Danzig and its hinterland, including the delta of the Vistula River on the Baltic Sea, for the League of Nations to establish the Free City of Danzig.[78]

text: Mandates

text: Article 119 of the treaty required Germany to renounce sovereignty over former colonies and Article 22 converted the territories into League of Nations mandates under the control of Allied states.[79] Togoland and German Kamerun (Cameroon) were transferred to France. Ruanda and Urundi were allocated to Belgium, whereas German South-West Africa went to South Africa and the United Kingdom obtained German East Africa.[80][81][82] As compensation for the German invasion of Portuguese Africa, Portugal was granted the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa in northern Mozambique.[83] Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China, to Japan, not to China. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.[81][84]

text: Military restrictions

text: The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces (the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament.[85][86] Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organisation of the divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved.[87] Military schools for officer training were limited to three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and Non-commissioned officers were to be retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave early was limited.[88]

text: The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden.[89] The Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was forbidden.[90] Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland and Düne were to be destroyed.[91] Germany was prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armoured cars, tanks and military aircraft.[92] The German navy was allowed six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)), twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and was forbidden submarines.[93] The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast defences, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men.[94] Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, forty-two destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty-two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to merchant use.[95] Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.[96]

text: Reparations

text: In Article 231 Germany accepted responsibility for the losses and damages caused by the war "as a consequence of the ... aggression of Germany and her allies."[97][nb 2] The treaty required Germany to compensate the Allied powers, and it also established an Allied "Reparation Commission" to determine the exact amount which Germany would pay and the form that such payment would take. The commission was required to "give to the German Government a just opportunity to be heard", and to submit its conclusions by 1 May 1921. In the interim, the treaty required Germany to pay an equivalent of 20 billion gold marks ($5 billion) in gold, commodities, ships, securities or other forms. The money would help to pay for Allied occupation costs and buy food and raw materials for Germany.[102][103]

text: Guarantees

text: To ensure compliance, the Rhineland and bridgeheads east of the Rhine were to be occupied by Allied troops for fifteen years.[104] If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. After ten years, the bridgehead at Coblenz and the territories to the north would be evacuated and after fifteen years remaining Allied forces would be withdrawn.[105] If Germany reneged on the treaty obligations, the bridgeheads would be reoccupied immediately.[106]

text: International organizations

text: Part I of the treaty, as per all the treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference,[nb 3] was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which provided for the creation of the League, an organization for the arbitration of international disputes.[107] Part XIII organized the establishment of the International Labour Officer, to regulate hours of work, including a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of a living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed abroad; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures.[108] The treaty also called for the signatories to sign or ratify the International Opium Convention.[109]

text: Reactions

text: Among the allies

text: Britain

text: The surrender of the German High Seas Fleet following the Armistice and its internment (and eventual scuttling) in Scapa Flow meant that Britain had already accomplished her primary war goal even before the Paris Peace Conference opened. With the German naval threat removed, Britain began focusing on Germany as a bulwark against the threat posed by the new Soviet Union.

text: Thus, British policy towards Germany began diverging from France's almost from the moment the guns fell silent. British officials at the conference declared French policy to be "greedy" and "vindictive," with Ramsay MacDonald later announcing, after Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland in 1936, that he was "pleased" that the treaty was "vanishing", expressing his hope that the French had been taught a "severe lesson".[110] In 1938, Lloyd George published a massive two-volume memoir titled The Truth About the Peace Treaties, in which he effectively repudiated the terms of the treaty that bore his signature.[111]

text: France

text: The signing of the treaty was met with roars of approval, singing, and dancing from a crowd outside the Palace of Versailles. In Paris proper, people rejoiced at the official end of the war.[112] The French people rejoiced that Alsace and Lorraine had been returned to France, and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations.[113]

text: Clemenceau faced a political backlash. The French Right saw the treaty as being too lenient and were dissatisfied with the treaty and saw it as failing to achieve all of France's demands. Left-wing politicians attacked the treaty and Clemenceau for being too harsh (the latter turning into a ritual condemnation of the treaty, for politicians remarking on French foreign affairs, as late as August 1939). Marshal Ferdinand Foch stated "this (treaty) is not peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years."; a criticism over the failure to annex the Rhineland and for compromising French security for the benefit of the United States and Britain.[114][115][116][117][118][119][120] When Clemenceau stood for election as President of France in January 1920, he was defeated.[121]

text: Italy

text: Reaction in Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. The country had suffered high casualties, yet failed to achieve most of its major war goals, notably gaining control of the Dalmatian coast and Fiume. President Wilson rejected Italy's claims on the basis of "national self-determination." For their part, Britain and France—who had been forced in the war's latter stages to divert their own troops to the Italian front to stave off collapse—were disinclined to support Italy's position at the peace conference. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy's position at the conference. A furious Vittorio Orlando suffered a nervous collapse and at one point walked out of the conference (though he later returned). He lost his position as prime minister just a week before the treaty was scheduled to be signed, effectively ending his active political career. Anger and dismay over the treaty's provisions helped pave the way for the establishment of Benito Mussolini's dictatorship three years later.

text: Portugal

text: Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in 1916 primarily to ensure the security of its African colonies, which were threatened with seizure by both Britain and Germany. To this extent, she succeeded in her war aims. The treaty recognized Portuguese sovereignty over these areas and awarded her small portions of Germany's bordering overseas colonies. Otherwise, however, Portugal obtained little at the peace conference. Her promised share of German reparations never materialized, and a seat she coveted on the executive council of the new League of Nations went instead to Spain—which had remained neutral in the war. In the end, Portugal ratified the treaty, but got little out of the war, which cost more than 8,000 Portuguese troops and as many as 100,000 of her African colonial subjects their lives.[122]

text: United States

text: After the Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world!"[123] However, the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the US Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two-thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.[124]

text: A discontent bloc of 12–18 "Irreconcilables", mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge,[125] comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress.[126] All of the Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.[127]

text: The closest the treaty came to passage was on 19 November 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two-thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed to the treaty, saying it favored the British.[128]

text: After Wilson's presidency, his successor Republican President Warren G. Harding continued American opposition to the formation of the League of Nations. Congress subsequently passed the Knox–Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. It was signed into law by President Harding on 2 July 1921.[129][130] Soon after, the US–German Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Berlin on 25 August 1921, the US–Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Vienna on 24 August 1921, and the US–Hungarian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Budapest on 29 August 1921.

text: China

text: China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic's government and poisoned relations with the West. [131][132]

text: House's views

text: Wilson's former friend Edward Mandell House, present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:

text: I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires cannot be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.[133]

text: In Germany

text: On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau arrived in Versailles. On 7 May, when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so-called "War Guilt Clause", von Brockdorff-Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie."[134] Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour",[135] soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference.

text: Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty—particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war—as an insult to the nation's honor. They referred to the treaty as "the Diktat" since its terms were presented to Germany on a take-it-or-leave-it basis. Germany′s first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 21 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan" and exclaimed,

text: Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.[136]

text: After Scheidemann′s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer. President Friedrich Ebert knew that Germany was in an impossible situation. Although he shared his countrymen's disgust with the treaty, he was sober enough to consider the possibility that the government would not be in a position to reject it. He believed that if Germany refused to sign the treaty, the Allies would invade Germany from the west—and there was no guarantee that the army would be able to make a stand in the event of an invasion. With this in mind, he asked Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies resumed the war. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg—after prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groener—concluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener inform the government that the army would be in an untenable position in the event of renewed hostilities. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). This result was wired to Clemenceau just hours before the deadline. Foreign minister Hermann Müller and colonial minister Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July by a vote of 209 to 116.[137]

text: Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the treaty. Politicians of the Weimar Republic who supported the treaty, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion as persons of questionable loyalty.[citation needed] It was rumored that Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling Germany out to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany and the newly formed Weimar Republic were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back". Those who instigated unrest and strikes in the critical military industries on the home front or who opposed German nationalism were seen to have contributed to Germany's defeat.[citation needed] These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive earlier in 1918.[citation needed] Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of materiel. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.[citation needed]

text: Implementation

text: Territorial changes

text: In February and March 1920, the Schleswig Plebiscites were held. The people of Schleswig were presented with only two choices: Danish or German sovereignty. The northern Danish-speaking area voted for Denmark while the southern German-speaking area voted for Germany, resulting in the province being partitioned.[69] The East Prussia plebiscite was held on 11 July 1920. There was a 90% turn out with 99.3% of the population wishing to remain with Germany. Further plebiscites were held in Eupen, Malmedy, and Prussian Moresnet. On 20 September 1920, the League of Nations allotted these territories to Belgium. These latter plebiscites were followed by a boundary commission in 1922, followed by the new Belgian-German border being recognized by the German Government on on 15 December 1923.[138] The transfer of the Hultschin area, of Silesia, to Czechoslovakia was completed on 3 February 1921.[139]

text: Following the implementation of the treaty, Upper Silesia was initially governed by Britain, France, and Italy.[140] Between 1919-1921, three major outbreaks of violence took place between German and Polish civilians, resulting in German and Polish military forces also becoming involved.[140][141] In March 1921, the Inter-Allied Commission held the Upper Silesia plebiscite, which was peaceful despite the previous violence. The plebiscite resulted in c. 60 per cent of the population voting for the province to remain part of Germany.[142] Following the vote, the League of Nations debated the future of the province.[143] In 1922, Upper Silesia was partitioned: Oppeln, in the north-west, remained with Germany while Silesia Province, in the south-east, was transferred to Poland.[140]

text: Memel remained under the authority of the League of Nations, with a French military garrison, until January 1923.[144] On 9 January 1923, Lithuanian forces invaded the territory during the Klaipėda Revolt.[145] The French garrison withdrew, and in February the Allies agreed to attach Memel as an "autonomous territory" to Lithuania.[144] On 8 May 1924, after negotiations between the Lithuanian Government and the Conference of Ambassadors and action by the League of Nations, the annexation of Memel was ratified.[145] Lithuania accepted the Memel Statute, a power-sharing arrangement to protect non-Lithuanians in the territory and its autonomous status while responsibility for the territory remained with the great powers. The League of Nations mediated between the Germans and Lithuanians on a local level, helping the power-sharing arrangement last until 1939.[144]

text: On 13 January 1935, 15 years after the Saar Basin had been placed under the protection of the League of Nations, a plebiscite was held to determine the future of the area. 528,105 votes were cast, with 477,119 votes (90 per cent of the ballot) in favour of union with Germany; 46,613 votes were cast for the status quo, and 2,124 votes for union with France. The region returned to German sovereignty on 1 March 1935. When the result was announced 4,100 people, including 800 refugees from Germany fled to France.[146][147]

text: Violations

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency.[citation needed] Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy.[citation needed] Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near-collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one-third of the hyper-inflation.[citation needed]

text: In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles.[citation needed] In January 1923, French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance", which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces.[citation needed] Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923.[citation needed] The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the Dawes Plan, which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.[citation needed]

text: Some significant violations of the provisions of the treaty were:

text:
At the time of signing in 1919, the dissolution of the General Staff according to Article 160 appeared to happen; however, the core of the General Staff was reestablished and hidden in the Truppenamt.[148][149]
March 1935, under the government of Adolf Hitler, Germany violated the Part V of the Treaty of Versailles by introducing compulsory military conscription in Germany and rebuilding the armed forces.[150][151]
March 1936, Germany violated Article 43 of the treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland.[90][152]
March 1938, Germany violated Article 80 of the treaty by annexing Austria in the Anschluss.[153][154]

text: Historical assessments

text: According to David Stevenson, since the opening of French archives, most commentators have remarked on French restraint and reasonableness at the conference, though Stevenson notes that "[t]he jury is still out", and that "there have been signs that the pendulum of judgement is swinging back the other way."[155]

text: In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace", a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have ever been responsible."[156] Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris.[157] He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.[158]

text: French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a posthumously published book titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes' claims. More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.[159]

text: It has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms[160]) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II). In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria-Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.[161]

text: The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies". Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist" when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one-half of Russia's industrial undertakings and nine-tenths of Russia's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks.[162] Eventually, even under the "cruel" terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany′s economy had been restored to its pre-war status.

text: Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany′s eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Barnett asserts that its post-war eastern borders were safer, because the former Austrian Empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states, Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, and the newly restored Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the treaty "much enhanced" German power.[163] Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened" Germany by undoing Bismarck's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never have disrupted the peace of Europe again.[164] By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War".[165]

text: The British historian of modern Germany, Richard J. Evans, wrote that during the war the German right was committed to an annexationist program which aimed at Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa. Consequently, any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them.[166] Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles.[166] Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic.[166] Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles caused the premature end of the Republic, instead contending that it was the Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy. He also argued that Versailles was not the "main cause" of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations".[166]

text: Ewa Thompson points out that the treaty allowed numerous nations in Central and Eastern Europe to liberate themselves from oppressive German rule, a fact that is often neglected by Western historiography, more interested in understanding the German point of view. In nations that found themselves free as the result of the treaty—such as Poles or Czechs—it is seen as a symbol of recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by their much larger aggressive neighbours.[167]

text: Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party.[citation needed] The German historian Detlev Peukert wrote that Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and though not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany.[168] Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception" rather than the "reality" of the Versailles treaty that mattered.[168] Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes" created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash.[168] Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that Gustav Stresemann carried out between 1923 and 1929 were constructive policies that might have allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles.[168] Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles.[168]

text: French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen-West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented.[169] Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen-West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment.[169] In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at fewer than 300,000.[citation needed] These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler′s annexations of Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.[169]


document_title: List of the verified oldest people

question_text: who is the oldest living person ever recorded

root

text: List of the verified oldest people

text: This is a list of the 100 verified oldest people, arranged in descending order of each individual's age in years and days. A year typically refers to a calendar year, the time between two dates of the same name. However, years can be of different lengths due to the presence or absence of a leap day within the year, or to the conversion of dates from one calendar to another.

tag: p

text: The oldest person ever whose age has been verified is Jeanne Calment (1875–1997) of France, who died at the age of 122 years, 164 days.

text: There are five living people on this list, all of whom are women and the oldest of whom is Kane Tanaka of Japan, aged 115 years, 239 days.

text: Since all the people on this list have lived past the age of 110, all of them have been, or still are, supercentenarians.

text: 100 verified oldest people[edit]

text:
Deceased
  Living

†^  denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of  today, 29 August 2018

text:
Rank

Name

Sex

Birth date

Death date

Age [†]

Place of death or residence

1

Jeanne Calment[1]

F

21 February 1875

4 August 1997

122 years, 164 days

France

2

Sarah Knauss[2]

F

24 September 1880

30 December 1999

119 years, 97 days

United States

3

Nabi Tajima[3]

F

4 August 1900

21 April 2018

117 years, 260 days

Japan

4

Lucy Hannah[4]

F

16 July 1875

21 March 1993

117 years, 248 days

United States

5

Marie-Louise Meilleur[5]

F

29 August 1880

16 April 1998

117 years, 230 days

Canada

6

Violet Brown[3]

F

10 March 1900

15 September 2017

117 years, 189 days

Jamaica

7

Emma Morano[3][6]

F

29 November 1899

15 April 2017

117 years, 137 days

Italy

8

Chiyo Miyako[3][7][8]

F

2 May 1901

22 July 2018

117 years, 81 days

Japan

9

Misao Okawa[3]

F

5 March 1898

1 April 2015

117 years, 27 days

Japan

10

María Capovilla[9]

F

14 September 1889

27 August 2006

116 years, 347 days

Ecuador

11

Susannah Mushatt Jones[3]

F

6 July 1899

12 May 2016

116 years, 311 days

United States

12

Gertrude Weaver[3]

F

4 July 1898

6 April 2015

116 years, 276 days

United States

13

Tane Ikai[10]

F

18 January 1879

12 July 1995

116 years, 175 days

Japan

14

Elizabeth Bolden[11]

F

15 August 1890

11 December 2006

116 years, 118 days

United States

15

Besse Cooper[3]

F

26 August 1896

4 December 2012

116 years, 100 days

United States

16

Jiroemon Kimura[3]

M

19 April 1897

12 June 2013

116 years, 54 days

Japan

17

Ana María Vela Rubio[3]

F

29 October 1901

15 December 2017

116 years, 47 days

Spain

18

Giuseppina  Projetto[3]

F

30 May 1902

6 July 2018

116 years, 37 days

Italy

19

Jeralean Talley[3]

F

23 May 1899

17 June 2015

116 years, 25 days

United States

20

Maggie Barnes[12]

F

6 March 1882

19 January 1998

115 years, 319 days

United States

21

Dina Manfredini[3]

F

4 April 1897

17 December 2012

115 years, 257 days

United States[a]

22

Christian Mortensen[13]

M

16 August 1882

25 April 1998

115 years, 252 days

United States[b]

23

Kane Tanaka[3]

F

2 January 1903

Living[3]

7004422430000000000♠115 years, 239 days

Japan

24

Charlotte Hughes[14]

F

1 August 1877

17 March 1993

115 years, 228 days

United Kingdom

25

Edna Parker[15]

F

20 April 1893

26 November 2008

115 years, 220 days

United States

26

Mary Ann Rhodes[16]

F

12 August 1882

3 March 1998

115 years, 203 days

Canada

27

Anonymous of Tokyo[3]

F

15 March 1900

27 September 2015

115 years, 196 days

Japan

28

Margaret Skeete[17]

F

27 October 1878

7 May 1994

115 years, 192 days

United States

29

Bernice Madigan[18]

F

24 July 1899

3 January 2015

115 years, 163 days

United States

30

Maria Giuseppa Robucci[3]

F

20 March 1903

Living[3]

7004421660000000000♠115 years, 162 days

Italy

31

Gertrude Baines[19]

F

6 April 1894

11 September 2009

115 years, 158 days

United States

32

Emiliano Mercado del Toro[13]

M

21 August 1891

24 January 2007

115 years, 156 days

Puerto Rico

33

Bettie Wilson[20]

F

13 September 1890

13 February 2006

115 years, 153 days

United States

34

Julie Winnefred Bertrand[21]

F

16 September 1891

18 January 2007

115 years, 124 days

Canada

35

Maria de Jesus[22]

F

10 September 1893

2 January 2009

115 years, 114 days

Portugal

36

Marie Josephine Gaudette[3][23]

F

25 March 1902

13 July 2017

115 years, 110 days

Italy[c]

37

Susie Gibson[24]

F

31 October 1890

16 February 2006

115 years, 108 days

United States

38

Shimoe Akiyama[3]

F

19 May 1903

Living[3]

7004421060000000000♠115 years, 102 days

Japan

39

Augusta Holtz[25]

F

3 August 1871

21 October 1986

115 years, 79 days

United States[d]

40

Hendrikje van Andel-Schipper[26]

F

29 June 1890

30 August 2005

115 years, 62 days

Netherlands

41

Maude Farris-Luse[27]

F

21 January 1887

18 March 2002

115 years, 56 days

United States

42

Marie Brémont[28]

F

25 April 1886

6 June 2001

115 years, 42 days

France

43

Koto Okubo[29]

F

24 December 1897

12 January 2013

115 years, 19 days

Japan

44

Antonia Gerena Rivera[3]

F

19 May 1900

2 June 2015

115 years, 14 days

United States[e]

45

Chiyono Hasegawa[30]

F

20 November 1896

2 December 2011

115 years, 12 days

Japan

46

Annie Jennings[31]

F

12 November 1884

20 November 1999

115 years, 8 days

United Kingdom

47

Eva Morris[32]

F

8 November 1885

2 November 2000

114 years, 360 days

United Kingdom

48

Kama Chinen[33]

F

10 May 1895

2 May 2010

114 years, 357 days

Japan

49

Maria Gomes Valentim[34]

F

9 July 1896

21 June 2011

114 years, 347 days

Brazil

50

Mary Bidwell[35]

F

19 May 1881

25 April 1996

114 years, 342 days

United States

51

Mary Josephine Ray[36]

F

17 May 1895

7 March 2010

114 years, 294 days

United States[f]

52

Goldie Steinberg[3][37][38]

F

30 October 1900

16 August 2015

114 years, 290 days

United States[g]

53

Kiyoko Ishiguro[3]

F

4 March 1901

5 December 2015

114 years, 276 days

Japan

54

Maria do Couto Maia-Lopes[13]

F

24 October 1890

25 July 2005

114 years, 274 days

Portugal

Eudoxie Baboul[3]

F

1 October 1901

1 July 2016

114 years, 274 days

France (French Guiana)

56

Ramona Trinidad Iglesias-Jordan[39]

F

31 August 1889

29 May 2004

114 years, 272 days

Puerto Rico

57

Yukie Hino[3]

F

17 April 1902

13 January 2017

114 years, 271 days

Japan

58

Delphine Gibson[3]

F

17 August 1903

9 May 2018

114 years, 265 days

United States

59

Eugénie Blanchard[40]

F

16 February 1896

4 November 2010

114 years, 261 days

France (Saint Barthélemy)

60

Venere Pizzinato-Papo[41]

F

23 November 1896

2 August 2011

114 years, 252 days

Italy[h]

61

Neva Morris[42]

F

3 August 1895

6 April 2010

114 years, 246 days

United States

62

Hide Ohira[13]

F

15 September 1880

9 May 1995

114 years, 236 days

Japan

63

Blanche Cobb[43][44]

F

8 September 1900

1 May 2015

114 years, 235 days

United States

64

Ethel Lang[3]

F

27 May 1900

15 January 2015

114 years, 233 days

United Kingdom

65

Mathew Beard[13]

M

9 July 1870

16 February 1985

114 years, 222 days

United States

66

Yone Minagawa[45]

F

4 January 1893

13 August 2007

114 years, 221 days

Japan

67

María Antonia Castro[46]

F

10 June 1881

16 January 1996

114 years, 220 days

Spain

68

Carrie Lazenby[13]

F

9 February 1882

14 September 1996

114 years, 218 days

United States

Ura Koyama[47]

F

30 August 1890

5 April 2005

114 years, 218 days

Japan

70

Myrtle Dorsey[48]

F

22 November 1885

25 June 2000

114 years, 216 days

United States

71

Iso Nakamura[3]

F

23 April 1903

23 November 2017

114 years, 214 days

Japan

72

Anna Eliza Williams[49]

F

2 June 1873

27 December 1987

114 years, 208 days

United Kingdom

73

Walter Breuning[13]

M

21 September 1896

14 April 2011

114 years, 205 days

United States

74

Lucile Randon[3]

F

11 February 1904

Living[3]

7004418380000000000♠114 years, 199 days

France

75

Eunice Sanborn[50]

F

20 July 1896

31 January 2011

114 years, 195 days

United States

76

Grace Clawson[51]

F

15 November 1887

28 May 2002

114 years, 194 days

United States[i]

77

Mitsue Toyoda[3]

F

15 February 1902

25 August 2016

114 years, 192 days

Japan

78

Tase Matsunaga[52]

F

11 May 1884

18 November 1998

114 years, 191 days

Japan

79

Yukichi Chuganji[13]

M

23 March 1889

28 September 2003

114 years, 189 days

Japan

80

Kame Nakamura[53]

F

8 March 1898

12 September 2012

114 years, 188 days

Japan

81

Lydie Vellard[13]

F

18 March 1875

17 September 1989

114 years, 183 days

France

Wilhelmina Kott[54]

F

7 March 1880

6 September 1994

114 years, 183 days

United States

Adelina Domingues[55]

F

19 February 1888

21 August 2002

114 years, 183 days

United States[j]

84

Mitoyo Kawate[56]

F

15 May 1889

13 November 2003

114 years, 182 days

Japan

85

Charlotte Benkner[57]

F

16 November 1889

14 May 2004

114 years, 180 days

United States[k]

Camille Loiseau[58]

F

13 February 1892

12 August 2006

114 years, 180 days

France

87

Anne Primout[59]

F

5 October 1890

26 March 2005

114 years, 172 days

France[l]

88

Ettie Mae Greene[60]

F

8 September 1877

26 February 1992

114 years, 171 days

United States

89

Dominga Velasco[3]

F

12 May 1901

11 October 2015

114 years, 152 days

United States[m]

Shin Matsushita[3]

F

30 March 1904

Living[3]

7004417900000000000♠114 years, 152 days

Japan

91

Toshie Yorimitsu[3]

F

30 September 1901

28 February 2016

114 years, 151 days

Japan

92

Irene Frank[13]

F

1 October 1881

28 February 1996

114 years, 150 days

United States

93

Christina Cock[61]

F

25 December 1887

22 May 2002

114 years, 148 days

Australia[n]

94

Olivia Patricia Thomas[62]

F

29 June 1895

16 November 2009

114 years, 140 days

United States

95

Tae Ito[3]

F

11 July 1903

13 November 2017

114 years, 125 days

Japan

96

Anna Henderson[63]

F

5 March 1900

1 July 2014

114 years, 118 days

United States

97

Emma Verona Johnston[64]

F

6 August 1890

1 December 2004

114 years, 117 days

United States

Mamie Rearden[65]

F

7 September 1898

2 January 2013

114 years, 117 days

United States

99

Bettie Chatmon[13]

F

30 April 1884

16 August 1998

114 years, 108 days

United States

100

Odie Matthews[13]

F

28 December 1878

14 April 1993

114 years, 107 days

United States

tag: table

text:
a^  Manfredini was born in Italy.
b^  Mortensen was born in Denmark.
c^  Gaudette was born in the United States.
d^  Holtz was born in the German Empire; her birthplace is now in Poland.
e^  Gerena was born in Puerto Rico.
f^  Ray was born in Canada.
g^  Steinberg was born in Kishinev, then part of the Russian Empire. It is now the capital of Moldova.
h^  Pizzinato-Papo was born in Ala, which was then part of Austria-Hungary; it is now located in Italy.
i^  Clawson was born in the United Kingdom.
j^  Domingues was born in Cape Verde, at that time a colony of Portugal.
k^  Benkner was born in Germany.
l^  Primout was born in French Algeria; it is now Algeria.
m^  Velasco was born in Mexico.
n^  Cock was born in the former British colony Victoria, which is now part of Australia.


document_title: List of Presidents of India

question_text: who was the president of india in 1977

question_tokens: who was the president of india in 1977

text: List of Presidents of India

text: Presidents[edit]

text: This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who served as Acting President, are therefore not numbered. The President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following:

text:
№
Name
(birth–death)
Photograph
Elected
Took office
Left office
Term
(in months)
Vice President
Candidate of[11]
Notes

1
Rajendra Prasad
(1884–1963)

1952
1957
26 January 1950
12 May 1962
120
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Indian National Congress
Prasad, from Bihar, was the first President of independent India and also the longest-serving President, as the only president to serve two terms in office.[6][12][13] He was also a freedom fighter during the Indian independence movement.[14]

2
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
(1888–1975)

1962
13 May 1962
13 May 1967
60
Zakir Husain

Independent
Radhakrishnan was a prominent philosopher and writer and also held the position of vice-chancellor of the Andhra University and Banaras Hindu University.[15]. He received the Bharat Ratna award in 1954 before becoming the President.[16] He was the first President from South India.[17]

3
Zakir Husain
(1897–1969)

–

1967
13 May 1967
3 May 1969
24
Varahagiri Venkata Giri

Independent
Husain was vice-chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University and a recipient of Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna.[18] He died in office, the first to do so. He was also the shortest-serving President. He was also the first Muslim President.[19]

–
Varahagiri Venkata Giri*
(1894–1980)

–

–
3 May 1969
20 July 1969
3
–

–
He was elected Vice President of India in 1967. Following the death of President Zakir Husain, Giri was appointed as Acting President.[20] He resigned after a few months to take part in the presidential elections.[8]

–
Mohammad Hidayatullah*
(1905–1992)

–

–
20 July 1969
24 August 1969
1
–

–
Hidayatullah served as the Chief Justice of India and was also a recipient of the Order of the British Empire.[21] He served as Acting President until the election of Giri as the President of India.[22]

4
Varahagiri Venkata Giri
(1894–1980)

–

1969
24 August 1969
24 August 1974
60
Gopal Swarup Pathak

Independent
Giri was the first person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna, and served as Indian Minister of Labour and High Commissioner to Ceylon (Sri Lanka).[23]

5
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
(1905–1977)

1974
24 August 1974
11 February 1977
36
Gopal Swarup Pathak (1974)

Basappa Danappa Jatti (1974–1977)

Indian National Congress
Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to die in office.[24] He was also president during Emergency.[25]

–
Basappa Danappa Jatti*
(1912–2002)

–

–
11 February 1977
25 July 1977
6
–

–
Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as Acting President upon Ahmed's death. He earlier served as the Chief Minister for the State of Mysore State.[24][26]

6
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
(1913–1996)

1977
25 July 1977
25 July 1982
60
Basappa Danappa Jatti (1977–1979)

Mohammad Hidayatullah (1979–1982)

Janata Party
Reddy was the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. Reddy was the only Member of Parliament from the Janata Party to get elected from Andhra Pradesh.[27] He was unanimously elected Speaker of the Lok Sabha on 26 March 1977 and relinquished this office on 13 July 1977 to become the 6th President of India.[22]

7
Zail Singh
(1916–1994)

1982
25 July 1982
25 July 1987
60
Mohammad Hidayatullah (1982–1984)

Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1984–1987)

Indian National Congress
In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of Chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister. He was also secretary general to Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) from 1983 to 1986[28]

8
Ramaswamy Venkataraman
(1910–2009)

1987
25 July 1987
25 July 1992
60
Shankar Dayal Sharma

Indian National Congress
In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in the Indian independence movement.[29] After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence.[30]

9
Shankar Dayal Sharma
(1918–1999)

1992
25 July 1992
25 July 1997
60
Kocheril Raman Narayanan

Indian National Congress
Sharma was Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, and the Indian Minister for Communications. He also served as the governor of Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Maharashtra.[31]

10
Kocheril Raman Narayanan
(1920–2005)

1997
25 July 1997
25 July 2002
60
Krishan Kant

Independent
Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America. He received doctorates in Science and Law and was also a chancellor in several universities.[32] He was also the vice-chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University.[33] He was the first Dalit President.[34]

11
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam
(1931–2015)

2002
25 July 2002
25 July 2007
60
Krishan Kant (2002)

Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (2002–2007)

Independent
Kalam was an educator and engineer who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs.[35] He also received the Bharat Ratna. Kalam died following a heart attack while delivering a speech in Shillong.[36][37][38]

12
Pratibha Patil
(1934–)

2007
25 July 2007
25 July 2012
60
Mohammad Hamid Ansari

Indian National Congress
Patil was the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female governor of Rajasthan.[39][40]

13
Pranab Mukherjee
(1935–)

2012
25 July 2012
25 July 2017
60
Mohammad Hamid Ansari

Indian National Congress
Mukherjee held various posts in the cabinet ministry for the Government of India such as Finance Minister, Foreign Minister, Defence Minister and Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission.[41]

14
Ram Nath Kovind
(1945–)

2017
25 July 2017
Incumbent

–

Venkaiah Naidu

Bharatiya Janata Party
Kovind was governor of Bihar from 2015 to 2017 and a Member of Parliament from 1994 to 2006. He is the second Dalit president after K. R. Narayanan. He originally belongs to BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) and is an active member of RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) since his youth.[42]

text:
-Died in office
-Did not complete assigned term
*-Acting President


document_title: Internet television

question_text: delivers it enabled services via internet that are built for the end user to be in control

text: Internet television

text: Elements[edit]

text: Internet television is a type of over-the-top content. "Over-the-top" (OTT) is the delivery of audio, video, and other media over the Internet without the involvement of a multiple-system operator (such as a cable television provider) in the control or distribution of the content. It has several elements:

text: Content provider[edit]

text: Examples include:

text:
An independent service, such as Netflix or Amazon Video, Hotstar, Google Play Movies, myTV (Arabic), Sony LIV, Viewster, or Qello (which specializes in concerts).
A service owned by a traditional cable, or satellite TV provider, such as DittoTV, Sling TV (owned by Dish Network) or DirecTV (owned by AT&T)
An international movies brand, such as Eros International or Eros Now
A service owned by a traditional film or television network, television channel, or content conglomerate, such as BBC Three since 17 Jan 2016, CBSN, CNNGo, HBO Now, Now TV (UK) (owned by Sky), PlayStation Vue (owned by Sony), or Hulu (a joint venture)
A peer-to-peer video hosting service such as YouTube, Vimeo, or Crunchyroll
Combination services like TV UOL which combines a Brazilian Internet-only TV station with user-uploaded content, or Crackle, which combines content owned by Sony Pictures with user uploaded content
Audio-only services like Spotify, though not "Internet television" per se, are sometimes accessible through video-capable devices in the same way

tag: ul

text: For a more complete list, see List of Internet television providers and List of video hosting services.

text: Internet[edit]

text: The public Internet is used for transmission from the streaming servers to the consumer end-user.

text: Receiver[edit]

text: The receiver must have an Internet connection, typically by Wi-fi or Ethernet, and could be:

text:
A web browser running on a personal computer (typically controlled by mouse and keyboard) or mobile device, such as Firefox, Google Chrome, or Internet Explorer
A mobile app running on a smartphone or tablet computer
A dedicated digital media player, typically with remote control. These can take the form of a small box, or even a stick that plugs directly into an HDMI port. Examples include Roku, Amazon Fire, Apple TV, Google TV, Boxee, and WD TV. Sometimes these boxes allow streaming of content from the local network or storage drive, typically providing an indirect connection between a television and computer or USB stick
A SmartTV which has Internet capability and built-in software accessed with the remote control
A Video Game Console connected to the internet such as the Xbox One and PS4.
A DVD player or Blu-ray disc player with Internet capabilities in addition to its primary function of playing content from physical discs
A set-top box or digital video recorder (DVR) provided by the cable or satellite company or an independent party like TiVo, which has Internet capabilities in addition to its primary function of receiving and recording programming from the non-Internet cable or satellite connection

text: Not all receiver devices can access all content providers. Most have websites that allow viewing of content in a web browser, but sometimes this is not done due to digital rights management concerns or restrictions. While a web browser has access to any website, some consumers find it inconvenient to control and interact with content with a mouse and keyboard, inconvenient to connect a computer to their television, or confusing.[1] Manufacturers of SmartTVs, boxes, sticks, and players must decide which providers to support, typically based either on popularity, common corporate ownership, or receiving payment from the provider.

text: Display device[edit]

text: A display device, which could be:

text:
A television set or video projector linked to the receiver with a video connector (typically HDMI)
A smart TV screen
A computer monitor
The built-in display of a smartphone or tablet computer

text: Comparison with IPTV[edit]

text: IPTV delivers television content using signals based on the Internet protocol (IP), through the open, unmanaged Internet with the "last-mile" telecom company acting only as the Internet service provider (ISP). As described above, "Internet television" is "over-the-top technology" (OTT). Both IPTV and OTT use the Internet protocol over a packet-switched network to transmit data, but IPTV operates in a closed system—a dedicated, managed network controlled by the local cable, satellite, telephone, or fiber-optic company.[2] In its simplest form, IPTV simply replaces traditional circuit switched analog or digital television channels with digital channels which happen to use packet-switched transmission. In both the old and new systems, subscribers have set-top boxes or other customer-premises equipment that communicates directly over company-owned or dedicated leased lines with central-office servers. Packets never travel over the public Internet, so the television provider can guarantee enough local bandwidth for each customer's needs.

text: The Internet protocol is a cheap, standardized way to enable two-way communication and simultaneously provide different data (e.g., TV-show files, email, Web browsing) to different customers. This supports DVR-like features for time shifting television: for example, to catch up on a TV show that was broadcast hours or days ago, or to replay the current TV show from its beginning. It also supports video on demand—browsing a catalog of videos (such as movies or television shows) which might be unrelated to the company's scheduled broadcasts.

text: IPTV has an ongoing standardization process (for example, at the European Telecommunications Standards Institute).

text: Comparison tables[edit]

text:
IPTV
Over-the-top technology

Content provider
Local telecom
Studio, channel, or independent service

Transmission network
Local telecom - dedicated owned or leased network
Public Internet + local telecom

Receiver
Local telecom provides (set-top box)
Purchased by consumer (box, stick, TV, computer, or mobile)

Display device
Screen provided by consumer
Screen provided by consumer

text:
OTT (Over the Top Technology)
IPTV (Internet Protocol Television)

Examples
Video on demand services like PlayStation Vue, Sky Go, YouTube, Netflix, Amazon, DittoTV, YuppTV, Lovefilm, BBC iPlayer, Hulu, Sony Liv, myTV, Now TV, Emagine, SlingTV
Service Example includes U-verse (AT&T)

Protocol[citation needed]
Delivered using HTTP (TCP), a connected transport protocol. Emerging trends using adaptive streaming technologies like HLS (Apple), Smooth Streaming (Microsoft) and HDS (Adobe). Delivered content over UDP in combination with FEC
Traditional IPTV uses TS (transport stream) transmission technology. Delivers content over UDP in combination with FEC, connectionless protocol

Content Catalog[citation needed]
Widely used for freemium and economical VOD delivery models
Used primarily for premium content and real time content delivery like broadcasting TV

Routing Topology[citation needed]
Unicast (Based on HTTP) or Simulated Multicast (UDP/TCP)
Multicast, Unicast burst during channel change leading multicast join

Major Players[citation needed]
Huawei OTT solutions, Accenture, Piksel, OVP (Kaltura, Brightcove, Ooyala, Mobibase), CDN Players (Akamai, Level 3, Limelight, Octoshape, Tata Communications) and Content Aggregators
TSP and IPTV Platform vendors - Huawei, Accenture, Piksel, Microsoft Mediaroom (Ericsson), Alu, Cisco,ZTE

Key Challenges[citation needed]
Low quality, Non Premium Content No Live Broadcast, Unicast model
Expensive, Competition from Cable/ DTH industry, Bandwidth and Infrastructure

Key Benefits[citation needed]
Low cost, Flexibility of content consumption across devices
Interactive Service, Quality of Service and Quality of Experience

text: Technologies used[edit]

text: The Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) consortium of industry companies (such as SES, Humax, Philips, and ANT Software) is currently promoting and establishing an open European standard (called HbbTV) for hybrid set-top boxes for the reception of broadcast and broadband digital television and multimedia applications with a single-user interface.[3]

text: As of the 2010s, providers of Internet television use various technologies to provide a service such as peer-to-peer (P2P) technologies, VoD systems, and live streaming. BBC iPlayer makes use of the Adobe Flash Player to provide streaming-video clips and other software provided by Adobe for its download service. CNBC, Bloomberg Television and Showtime use live-streaming services from BitGravity to stream live television to paid subscribers using the HTTP protocol. DRM (digital rights management) software is also incorporated into many Internet television services. Sky Go has software that is provided by Microsoft to prevent content being copied. Internet television is also cross platform, the Sky Player service has been expanded to the Xbox 360 on 27 October 2009 and to Windows Media Center and then to Windows 7 PCs on 19 November 2009. The BBC iPlayer is also available through Virgin Media's on-demand service and other platforms such as FetchTV and games consoles including the Wii and the PlayStation 3. Other Internet-television platforms include mobile platforms such as the iPhone and iPod Touch, Nokia N96, Sony Ericsson C905 and many other mobile devices.[4]

text: Samsung TV has also announced their plans to provide streaming options including 3D Video on Demand through their Explore 3D service.[5]

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)

text: Stream quality[edit]

text: Stream quality refers to the quality of the image and audio transferred from the servers of the distributor to the user's home screen. Higher-quality video such as video in high definition (720p+) requires higher bandwidth and faster connection speeds. The generally accepted kbit/s download rate needed to stream high-definition video that has been encoded with H.264 is 3500 kbit/s, whereas standard-definition television can range from 500 to 1500 kbit/s depending on the resolution on screen. In the UK, the BBC iPlayer deals with the largest amount of traffic yet it offers HD content along with SD content. As more people have gotten broadband connections which can deal with streaming HD video over the Internet, the BBC iPlayer has tried to keep up with demand and pace. However, as streaming HD video takes around 1.5 GB of data per hour of video the BBC has had to invest a lot of money collected from License Fee payers to implement this on a large scale.[6]

text: For users who do not have the bandwidth to stream HD video or even high-SD video, which requires 1500 kbit/s, the BBC iPlayer offers lower bitrate streams which in turn lead to lower video quality. This makes use of an adaptive bitrate stream so that if the user's bandwidth suddenly drops, iPlayer will lower its streaming rate to compensate. A diagnostic tool offered on the BBC iPlayer site measures a user's streaming capabilities and bandwidth.[7]

text: In the last few years[when?], Channel 4 has started providing HD content on its On Demand platforms such as iOS App, Android App and Channel4.com website. Although competitors in the UK such as Demand Five have not yet offered HD streaming[when?], the technology to support it is fairly new and widespread HD streaming is not an impossibility. The availability of Channel 4 and Five content on YouTube is predicted to prove incredibly popular as series such as Skins, Green Wing, The X Factor and others become available in a simple, straightforward format on a website which already attracts millions of people every day.

text: Usage[edit]

text: Internet television is common in most US households as of the mid 2010s. About one in four new televisions being sold is now a smart TV.[8]

text: Considering the vast popularity of smart TVs and devices such as the Roku and Chromecast, much of the US public can watch television via the internet. Internet-only channels are now established enough to feature some Emmy-nominated shows, such as Netflix's House of Cards.[9] Many networks also distribute their shows the next day to streaming providers such as Hulu[10] Some networks may use a proprietary system, such as the BBC utilizes their iPlayer format. This has resulted in bandwidth demands increasing to the point of causing issues for some networks. It was reported in February 2014 that Verizon is having issues coping with the demand placed on their network infrastructure. Until long-term bandwidth issues are worked out and regulation such at net neutrality Internet Televisions push to HDTV may start to hinder growth.[11]

text: Before 2006, most services used peer-to-peer (P2P) networking, in which users downloaded an application and data would be shared between the users rather than the service provider giving the now more commonly used streaming method. Now most service providers have moved away from the P2P systems and are now using the streaming media. The old P2P service was selected because the existing infrastructure could not handle the bandwidth necessary for centralized streaming distribution. Some consumers didn't like their upload bandwidth being consumed by their video player, which partially motivated the roll-out of centralized streaming distribution.[12]

text: Aereo was launched in March 2012 in New York City (and subsequently stopped from broadcasting in June 2014). It streamed network TV only to New York customers over the Internet. Broadcasters filed lawsuits against Aereo, because Aereo captured broadcast signals and streamed the content to Aereo's customers without paying broadcasters. In mid-July 2012, a federal judge sided with the Aereo start-up. Aereo planned to expand to every major metropolitan area by the end of 2013.[13] The Supreme Court ruled against Aero June 24, 2014.[14]

text: Market competitors[edit]

text: Many providers of Internet television services exist—including conventional television stations that have taken advantage of the Internet as a way to continue showing television shows after they have been broadcast, often advertised as "on-demand" and "catch-up" services. Today, almost every major broadcaster around the world is operating an Internet television platform.[15] Examples include the BBC, which introduced the BBC iPlayer on 25 June 2008 as an extension to its "RadioPlayer" and already existing streamed video-clip content, and Channel 4 that launched 4oD ("4 on Demand") (now All 4) in November 2006 allowing users to watch recently shown content. Most Internet television services allow users to view content free of charge; however, some content is for a fee.

text: Control[edit]

text: Controlling content on the Internet presents a challenge for most providers; to try to ensure that a user is allowed to view content such as content with age certificates, providers use methods such as parental controls that allows restrictions to be placed upon the use and access of certificated material. The BBC iPlayer makes use of a parental control system giving parents the option to "lock" content, meaning that a password would have to be used to access it. Flagging systems can be used to warn a user that content may be certified or that it is intended for viewing post-watershed. Honour systems are also used where users are asked for their dates of birth or age to verify if they are able to view certain content.

text: Archives[edit]

text: An archive is a collection of information and media much like a library or interactive-storage facility. It is a necessity for an on-demand media service to maintain archives so that users can watch content that has already been aired on standard-broadcast television. However, these archives can vary from a few weeks to months to years, depending on the curator and the type of content. For example, the BBC iPlayer's shows are in general available for up to seven days after their original broadcast.[16] This so-called "seven-day catch-up" model seems to become an industry standard for Internet television services in many countries around the world.[17] However, some shows may only be available for shorter periods. Others, such as the BBC's Panorama, may be available for an extended period because of the show's documentary nature or its popularity.

text: In contrast, All 4, Channel 4's on-demand service[18] offers many of its television shows that were originally aired years ago. An example of this is the comedy The IT Crowd where users can view the full series on the Internet player. The same is true for other hit Channel 4 comedies such as The Inbetweeners and Black Books. The benefit of large archives is that they bring in far more users who, in turn, watch more media, leading to a wider audience base and more advertising revenue. Large archives will also mean the user will spend more time on that website rather than a competitors, leading to "starvation" of demand for the competitors. Having an extensive archive, however, can bring problems along with benefits. Large archives are expensive to maintain and large server farms and mass storage is needed, along with ample bandwidth to transmit it all. Vast archives can be hard to catalogue and sort so that they are accessible to users.

text: Broadcasting rights[edit]

text: Broadcasting rights vary from country to country and even within provinces of countries. These rights govern the distribution of copyrighted content and media and allow the sole distribution of that content at any one time. An example of content only being aired in certain countries is BBC iPlayer. The BBC checks a user's IP address to make sure that only users located in the UK can stream content from the BBC. The BBC only allows free use of their product for users within the UK as those users have paid for a television license that funds part of the BBC. This IP address check is not foolproof as the user may be accessing the BBC website through a VPN or proxy server. Broadcasting rights can also be restricted to allowing a broadcaster rights to distribute that content for a limited time. Channel 4's online service All 4 can only stream shows created in the US by companies such as HBO for thirty days after they are aired on one of the Channel 4 group channels. This is to boost DVD sales for the companies who produce that media.

text: Some companies pay very large amounts for broadcasting rights with sports and US sitcoms usually fetching the highest price from UK-based broadcasters. A trend among major content producers in North America[when?] is the use of the "TV Everywhere" system. Especially for live content, the TV Everywhere system restricts viewership of a video feed to select Internet service providers, usually cable television companies that pay a retransmission consent or subscription fee to the content producer. This often has the negative effect of making the availability of content dependent upon the provider, with the consumer having little or no choice on whether they receive the product.

text: Profits and costs[edit]

text: With the advent of broadband internet Connections multiple streaming providers have come onto the market in the last couple of years. The main providers are Netflix, Hulu and Amazon. Some of these providers such as Hulu advertise and charge a monthly fee. Other such as Netflix and Amazon charge users a monthly fee and have no commercials. Netflix is the largest provider; it has over 43 million members and its membership numbers are growing[when?][citation needed]. The rise of internet TV has resulted in cable companies losing customers to a new kind of customer called "cord cutters". Cord cutters are consumers who are cancelling their cable TV or satellite TV subscriptions and choosing instead to stream TV shows, movies and other content via the Internet. Cord cutters are forming communities. With the increasing availability of video sharing websites (e.g., YouTube) and streaming services, there is an alternative to cable and satellite television subscriptions. Cord cutters tend to be younger people.

text: Overview of platforms and availability[edit]

text:
Service
Supporting company/companies
Regional availability
Website-based
Windows application
Mac application
Linux application
iOS application
Android application
Console application
TV set application
Set Top Box application
Free

BBC iPlayer
BBC
UK
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes[19]
Wii, PS3, Xbox 360
Samsung, Sony, Panasonic, Philips
Virgin Media On Demand, Freesat, Roku
Yes

NBC
NBC

Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes[20]
PS3, Xbox 360

Yes[21]

Jio TV
LYF
India
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
LYF Android Player
Yes
No
Jio on Demand
Yes

Tivibu
Argela
TR
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Argela Android Player
Pending
None
Ttnet on Demand
No

Sky Go
Sky
UK & Ireland
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
Xbox 360

No

Eros Now
Eros
India
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Eros Android Player
No
Yes
Bollywood on Demand
Yes

ITV Hub
ITV
UK
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
PS3

Virgin Media On Demand
Yes

ABC iview
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
Australia
Yes

iPad

PS3, Xbox 360
Samsung, Sony

Yes

All 4
Channel 4
UK & Ireland
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
PS3, Xbox 360

Virgin Media On Demand
Yes

OZee
Zee Entertainment Enterprises
India,USA,UK,Isrel,Russia,France
Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Zee TV Android,ios,Windows,Java
Yes
Yes
DittoTV on Demand
Yes

SeeSaw
Arqiva
UK
Yes
Yes
Yes

No

Hulu
FOX, NBC Universal, ABC, Time Warner
US & Japan
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

PS3, Xbox 360
Samsung, Vizio
Roku
No[22]

RTÉ Player
RTÉ
Ireland
Yes

Yes
Yes

Yes

TG4 Beo
TG4
Ireland and Worldwide/International
Yes

Yes

TV3 Catch Up
TV3
Ireland
Yes

Yes

Yes

Global Video
Global
Canada
Yes

Yes

No

Global Video
SBNTV1, The Sumlin Broadcasting Network, Classic Soul Channel.....
US
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes

PS3, Xbox 360
Samsung, Vizio

Yes

myTV
OSN, Rotana Group, SNA Corp.....
North America, Canada, South America, New Zealand, Australia
No
Not Yet
Not Yet
No
Yes
Yes
Not Yet
Samsung Smart TV, LG Smart TV, Google TV
Western Digital, Boxee Box, Netgear NTV 300, Google TV devices, Samsung and Android tablets
No

PTCL Smart TV App
PTCL
Pakistan
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
None
Standalone PTCL Smart Settop Box
No


document_title: DC vs. Marvel

question_text: who did batman fight in marvel vs dc

question_tokens: who did batman fight in marvel vs dc

text: DC vs. Marvel

text: Plot

text: Two godly brothers who personify the DC and Marvel Universes become aware of the other's existence, and challenge one another to a series of duels involving each universe's respective superheroes. The losing universe would cease to exist. The story had an "out of universe" component in that the outcomes of primary battles were determined by readers voting.[3]

text: Numerous smaller, story-driven skirmishes occur throughout the series, not counted with the primary duels meant to determine the outcome between the brothers.[4]

text: There were eleven battles fought between the two universes:

text:
Aquaman (DC) vs. Namor (Marvel). Aquaman wins by summoning a whale to leap out of the water and land on Namor. Since Namor is pinned and unable to move, he is declared the loser.
Elektra (Marvel) vs. Catwoman (DC). Elektra won by cutting off Catwoman's whip as she hung from a girder on a building under construction, but Catwoman survived by falling into a dumpster filled with sand.
Flash (DC) vs. Quicksilver (Marvel). The Flash wins using superior speed.
Robin (DC) vs. Jubilee (Marvel). Robin won by using his cape as a decoy and then tying up Jubilee.
Silver Surfer (Marvel) vs. Green Lantern (DC). Silver Surfer won when both collided with each other and released a huge explosion which knocked out Green Lantern but left Silver Surfer unfazed.
Thor (Marvel) vs. Captain Marvel (DC). Thor won when Captain Marvel was forced to change back to his alter ego Billy. Billy tried to change back, but Thor used Mjolnir to intercept the lightning-bolt that would have transformed him back to normal, the resulting impact knocking Billy out and sending Thor's hammer flying off.
Superman (DC) vs. Hulk (Marvel). After exchanging punches and a burst of heat-vision, Superman wins eventually.
Spider-Man (Marvel) vs. Superboy (DC). With the advantage of his spider-sense, Spider-Man wins by tying up Superboy with impact webbing and electrocuting him with high voltage.
Batman (DC) vs. Captain America (Marvel). The match ends in uncertainty—though both are evenly matched after hours of combat, a sudden flushing of the sewer knocks Cap off balance as Batman manages to strike him with a Batarang. Batman rescues Cap from certain death via drowning, but Cap's unconsciousness from nearly drowning causes him to lose.
Wolverine (Marvel) vs. Lobo (DC). Wolverine beats Lobo in a brutal barfight which was largely off panel.
Storm (Marvel) vs. Wonder Woman (DC). After Diana drops Thor's hammer in order to allow the fight to happen as it was intended, Storm wins the battle after repeatedly hitting Diana with her lightning after a brief melee encounter.

text: Although the fight ends with the apparent "victory" of Marvel, the new entity of Access, a being capable of traversing the two universes, infuses Batman and Captain America with fragments of the true universes before the Spectre and the Living Tribunal attempt to create a compromise by fusing the two universes together. This resulted in the publication of the twelve-issue Amalgam universe, which sees various amalgamated versions of the heroes and villains acting as though they have been in existence for years.

text: Access is eventually able to find Dark Claw and Super-Soldier - versions of Batman and Captain America who have been 'amalgamated' with Wolverine and Superman respectively - and use the essence of the original universe in them to return the universes to normal. As the Brothers engage in direct battle, the Spectre and the Living Tribunal attempt to stop the conflict, but Batman and Captain America convince Access to take them to the conflict as well. Witnessing the minds of Batman and Captain America as they try to stop the fight, the Brothers realize that the two men are essentially the brothers in miniature, each one unique among their worlds, but with no interest in the conflict that the brothers have engaged in. Acknowledging the pointlessness of their conflict, the Brothers withdraw.

text: Collection edition

text: The series was collected into a trade paperback titled DC versus Marvel Comics (collects mini-series and Doctor Strangefate #1; 163 pages; September 1996; ISBN 1-56389-294-4).