document_title: Indian rupee

question_text: where is the currency notes are printed in india

text: Indian rupee

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word "rupee" was derived from the Sanskrit word (rūpyakam) or rupaya (meaning "wrought silver, a coin of silver").[citation needed] [11] Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as rūpyarupa, other types of coins including gold coins (Suvarṇarūpa), copper coins (Tāmrarūpa) and lead coins (Sīsarūpa) are also mentioned. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, rūpa — form.[12]

text: However, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency.[13] In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold and silver coins as taka instead of the dinar. Today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also commonly used generically to mean any money, currency, or notes. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use "taka" to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in. Thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা (ṭaka). Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is similarly known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka (meaning "money"),[14] টকা (ṭôka) in Assamese and ଟଙ୍କା (taṅkā) in Odia.

text: Large values of rupees are counted in terms of thousands, 1 lakh (100 thousand), 10 lakhs (1 million), 1 crore (10 million) and 100 crores (1 billion) or 1 Arab (1 billion).

text: History[edit]

text: The history of the Indian rupee traces back to Ancient India in circa 6th century BCE, ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world,[15] along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters.

text: During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains (or 11.53 grams), which was termed the Rupiya.[16][17] During Babar's time, the brass to silver exchange ratio was roughly 50:2.[18] The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India.[19] Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include; the Bank of Hindustan (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–75, established by Warren Hastings), and the Bengal Bank (1784–91).

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
[show]INDIAN SILVER RUPEE VALUE 1850-1900[20]

year
exchange rate
melt value

(pence per Rupee)
(pence per Rupee)

1850
24.3
22.7

1851
24.1
22.7

1852
23.9
22.5

1853
24.1
22.8

1854
23.1
22.8

1855
24.2
22.8

1856
24.2
22.8

1857
24.6
22.9

1858
25.7
22.8

1859
26.0
23.0

1860
26.0
22.9

1861
23.9
22.6

1862
23.9
22.8

1863
23.9
22.8

1864
23.9
22.8

1865
23.8
22.7

1866
23.1
22.7

1867
23.2
22.5

1868
23.2
22.5

1869
23.3
22.5

1870
22.5
22.5

1871
23.1
22.5

1872
22.7
22.4

1873
22.3
22.0

1874
22.1
21.6

1875
21.6
21.1

1876
20.5
19.6

1877
20.8
20.4

1878
19.8
19.5

1879
20.0
19.0

1880
19.9
19.4

1881
19.9
19.2

1882
19.5
19.3

1883
19.5
18.7

1884
19.3
18.8

1885
18.2
18.0

1886
17.4
16.8

1887
16.9
16.6

1888
16.4
15.9

1889
16.5
15.8

1890
18.0
17.7

1891
16.7
16.7

1892
15.0
14.8

1893
14.5
13.2

1894
13.1
10.7

1895
13.6
11.1

1896
14.4
11.5

1897
15.3
10.2

1898
16.0
10.0

1899
16.0
10.2

1900
16.0
10.4

text: Historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of silver relative to gold, devaluing India's standard currency. This event was known as "the fall of the rupee."

text: India was unaffected by the imperial order-in-council of 1825, which attempted to introduce British sterling coinage to the British colonies. British India, at that time, was controlled by the British East India Company. The silver rupee continued as the currency of India through the British Raj and beyond. In 1835, British India adopted a mono-metallic silver standard based on the rupee; this decision was influenced by a letter written by Lord Liverpool in 1805 extolling the virtues of mono-metallism.

text: Following the Indian Mutiny in 1857, the British government took direct control of British India. Since 1851, gold sovereigns were produced en masse at the Royal Mint in Sydney, New South Wales. In an 1864 attempt to make the British gold sovereign the "imperial coin", the treasuries in Bombay and Calcutta were instructed to receive gold sovereigns; however, these gold sovereigns never left the vaults. As the British government gave up hope of replacing the rupee in India with the pound sterling, it realised for the same reason it could not replace the silver dollar in the Straits Settlements with the Indian rupee (as the British East India Company had desired). Since the silver crisis of 1873, a number of nations adopted the gold standard; however, India remained on the silver standard until it was replaced by a basket of commodities and currencies in the late 20th century.[citation needed]

text: India Council Bill[edit]

text: Around 1875, Britain started paying India for exported goods in India Council Bills (instead of silver).

text: Problems caused by the gold standard[edit]

text: At the onset of the First World War, the cost of gold was very low and therefore the pound sterling had high value. But during the First World War, the value of the pound fell alarmingly due to rising war expenses. At the conclusion of the war, the value of the pound was only a fraction of what it used to be prior to the commencement of the war. It remained low until 1925, when the then Chancellor of the Exchequer (finance minister) of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill, restored it to pre-War levels. As a result, the price of gold fell rapidly. While the rest of Europe purchased large quantities of gold from the United Kingdom, there was little increase in her gold reserves. This dealt a blow to an already deteriorating British economy. The United Kingdom began to look to its possessions as India to compensate for the gold that was sold.[23]

text: In 1939, Dickson H. Leavens wrote in his book 'Silver Money': "In recent years the increased price of gold, measured in depreciated paper currencies, has attracted to the market (of London) large quantities (of gold) formerly hoarded or held in the form of ornaments in India and China".[25]

text: The Indian rupee replaced the Danish Indian rupee in 1845, the French Indian rupee in 1954 and the Portuguese Indian escudo in 1961. Following the independence of British India in 1947 and the accession of the princely states to the new Union, the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states (although the Hyderabadi rupee was not demonetised until 1959).[26] Some of the states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the Travancore rupee). Other currencies (including the Hyderabadi rupee and the Kutch kori) had different values.

text: The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during British rule (and in the first decade of independence) were:

text:
1 rupee = 16 anna (later 100 naye paise)
1 ardharupee = 8 anna, or 1⁄2 rupee (later 50 naye paise)
1 pavala = 4 anna, or 1⁄4 rupee (later 25 naye paise)
1 beda = 2 anna, or 1⁄8 rupee (later equivalent to 12.5 naye paise)
1 anna = 1⁄16 rupee (later equivalent to 6.25 naye paise)
1 paraka = 1⁄2 anna (later equivalent to 3.125 naye paise)
1 kani (pice) = 1⁄4 anna (later equivalent to 1.5625 naye paise)
1 damari (pie) = 1⁄12 anna (later equivalent to 0.520833 naye paise)
1 rupee = 16 anna
1 Athanni (dheli) = 1⁄2 rupee
1 Chawanni = 1⁄4 rupee
1 Dawanni = 1⁄8 rupee
1 Anna/Ekanni = 1⁄16 rupee
1 Taka/Adhanni = 1⁄32 rupee
Paisa = 1⁄64 rupee
Dhela = 1⁄128 rupee (1⁄2 paisa)
Pie = 1⁄3 paisa = 1⁄192 rupee
Damari = 1⁄4 paisa = 1⁄256 rupee.

text: In 1957, the rupee was decimalised and divided into 100 naye paise (Hindi for "new paise"); in 1964, the initial "naye" was dropped. Many still refer to 25, 50 and 75 paise as 4, 8 and 12 annas respectively, similar to the usage of "two bits" in American English for a quarter-dollar.

text: International use[edit]

text: As the Straits Settlements were originally an outpost of the British East India Company, In 1837, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency in the Straits Settlements, as it was administered as part of British India. This attempt was resisted by the locals. However, Spanish dollars continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 cents = 1 dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or Mexican peso. In 1867, administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India and the Straits dollar was made the standard currency, and attempts to reintroduce the rupee were finally abandoned.[27]

text: After the Partition of India, the Pakistani rupee came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply overstamped with "Pakistan". Previously the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including Aden, Oman, Dubai, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial States, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, the Seychelles and Mauritius.

text: The Indian government introduced the Gulf rupee – also known as the Persian Gulf rupee (XPGR) – as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act of 1 May 1959. The creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain on India's foreign reserves from gold smuggling. After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it – Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the United Arab Emirates in 1971) – replaced the Gulf rupee with their own currencies. Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 with Kuwaiti dinar and in 1965 with Bahraini dinar, respectively.[28]

text: The Bhutanese ngultrum is pegged at par with the Indian rupee; both currencies are accepted in Bhutan. The Nepalese rupee is pegged at ₹0.625; the Indian rupee is accepted in Bhutan and Nepal, except ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes, which are not legal tender in Bhutan and Nepal and are banned by their respective governments, though accepted by many retailers.[29] On 29 January 2014, Zimbabwe added the Indian rupee as a legal tender to be used.[1][30]

text: Coins[edit]

text: Pre-independence issues[edit]

text:
Indian rupee (1862).

Obverse: Crowned bust of Queen Victoria surrounded by name.
Reverse: Face value, country and date surrounded by wreath.

Coin made of 91.7% silver.

text: East India Company, 1835[edit]

text: The three Presidencies established by the British East India Company (Bengal, Bombay and Madras) each issued their own coinages until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to 1⁄8- and 1⁄16-rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins.

text: Copper denominations were more varied. Bengal issued one-pie, 1⁄2-, one- and two-paise coins. Bombay issued 1-pie, 1⁄4-, 1⁄2-, 1-, 11⁄2-, 2- and 4-paise coins. In Madras there were copper coins for two and four pies and one, two and four paisa, with the first two denominated as 1⁄2 and one dub (or 1⁄96 and 1⁄48) rupee. Madras also issued the Madras fanam until 1815.

text: All three Presidencies issued gold mohurs and fractions of mohurs including 1⁄16, 1⁄2, 1⁄4 in Bengal, 1⁄15 (a gold rupee) and 1⁄3 (pancia) in Bombay and 1⁄4, 1⁄3 and 1⁄2 in Madras.

text: In 1835, a single coinage for the EIC was introduced. It consisted of copper 1⁄12, 1⁄4 and 1⁄2 anna, silver 1⁄4, 1⁄3 and 1 rupee and gold 1 and 2 mohurs. In 1841, silver 2 annas were added, followed by copper 1⁄2 pice in 1853. The coinage of the EIC continued to be issued until 1862, even after the Company had been taken over by the Crown.

text: Regal issues, 1862–1947[edit]

text: In 1862, coins were introduced (known as "regal issues") which bore the portrait of Queen Victoria and the designation "India". Their denominations were 1⁄12 anna, 1⁄2 pice, 1⁄4 and 1⁄2 anna (all in copper), 2 annas, 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and one rupee (silver), and five and ten rupees and one mohur (gold). The gold denominations ceased production in 1891, and no 1⁄2-anna coins were issued after 1877.

text: In 1906, bronze replaced copper for the lowest three denominations; in 1907, a cupro-nickel one-anna coin was introduced. In 1918–1919 cupro-nickel two-, four- and eight-annas were introduced, although the four- and eight-annas coins were only issued until 1921 and did not replace their silver equivalents. In 1918, the Bombay mint also struck gold sovereigns and 15-rupee coins identical in size to the sovereigns as an emergency measure during the First World War.

text: In the early 1940s, several changes were implemented. The 1⁄12 anna and 1⁄2 pice ceased production, the 1⁄4 anna was changed to a bronze, holed coin, cupro-nickel and nickel-brass 1⁄2-anna coins were introduced, nickel-brass was used to produce some one- and two-annas coins, and the silver composition was reduced from 91.7 to 50 percent. The last of the regal issues were cupro-nickel 1⁄4-, 1⁄2- and one-rupee pieces minted in 1946 and 1947, bearing the image of George VI, King and Emperor on the obverse and an Indian Lion on the reverse.

text: Post independence issues[edit]

text: Independent predecimal issues, 1950–1957[edit]

text: India's first coins after independence were issued in 1950 in 1 pice, 1⁄2, one and two annas, 1⁄4, 1⁄2 and one-rupee denominations. The sizes and composition were the same as the final regal issues, except for the one-pice (which was bronze, but not holed).

text: Independent decimal issues, 1957–present[edit]

text: The first decimal-coin issues in India consisted of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 naye paise, and 1 rupee. The 1 naya paisa was bronze; the 2, 5 & 10 naye paise were cupro-nickel, and the 25 naye paise (nicknamed chawanni; 25 naye paise equals 4 annas), 50 naye paise (also called athanni; 50 naye paise equalled 8 old annas) and 1-rupee coins were nickel. In 1964, the word naya(e) was removed from all coins. Between 1957 and 1967, aluminium one-, two-, three-, five- and ten-paise coins were introduced. In 1968 nickel-brass 20-paise coins were introduced, and replaced by aluminium coins in 1982. Between 1972 and 1975, cupro-nickel replaced nickel in the 25- and 50-paise and the 1-rupee coins; in 1982, cupro-nickel two-rupee coins were introduced. In 1988 stainless steel 10-, 25- and 50-paise coins were introduced, followed by 1- and 5-rupee coins in 1992. Five-rupee coins, made from brass, are being minted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

text: Between 2005 and 2008 new, lighter fifty-paise, one-, two- and five-rupee coins were introduced, made from ferritic stainless steel. The move was prompted by the melting-down of older coins, whose face value was less than their scrap value. The demonetisation of the 25-(chawanni) paise coin and all paise coins below it took place, and a new series of coins (50 paise – nicknamed athanni – one, two, five and ten rupees, with the new rupee symbol) were put into circulation in 2011. Coins commonly in circulation are one, two, five and ten rupees.[31][32] Although it is still legal tender, the 50-paise (athanni) coin is rarely seen in circulation.[33]

text:
Circulating Coins [31][34]

Value
Technical parameters
Description
Year of

Diameter
Mass
Composition
Shape
Obverse
Reverse
First minting
Last minting

50 paise
19 mm
3.79 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, the word "PAISE" in English and Hindi, floral motif and year of minting
2011

50 paise
22 mm
3.79 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, hand in a fist
2008

₹1
25 mm
4.85 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India, value
Value, two stalks of wheat
1992
2004

₹1
25 mm
4.95 g
Ferritic
stainless steel

Circular
Unity from diversity,
cross dividing 4 dots

Value, Emblem of India, Year
of minting

2004
2007

₹1
25 mm
4.85 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, hand showing thumb (an expression in the Bharata Natyam Dance)
2007
2011

₹1
22 mm
3.79 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting
2011

₹2
26 mm
6 g
Cupro-Nickel
Eleven Sided
Emblem of India, Value
National integration
1982
2004

₹2
26.75mm
5.8 g
Ferritic
stainless steel

circular
Unity from diversity,
cross dividing 4 dots

Value, Emblem of India, Year
of minting

2005
2007

₹2
27 mm
5.62 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India, year of minting
Value, hand showing two fingers (Hasta Mudra — hand gesture from the dance Bharata Natyam)
2007
2011

₹2
25 mm
4.85 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting
2011

₹5
23 mm
9 g
Cupro-Nickel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value
1992
2006

₹5
23 mm
6 g
Ferritic stainless steel
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, wavy lines
2007
2009

₹5
23 mm
6 g
Brass
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, wavy lines
2009
2011

₹5
23 mm
6 g
Nickel- Brass
Circular
Emblem of India
Value, new rupee sign, floral motif and year of minting
2011

₹10
27 mm
5.62 g
Bimetallic
Circular
Emblem of India and
year of minting

Value with outward radiating pattern of 15 spokes
2006
2010

₹10
27 mm
5.62 g
Bimetallic
Circular
Emblem of India and year of minting
Value with outward radiating pattern of 10 spokes, new rupee sign
2011
present

text: The coins are minted at the four locations of the India Government Mint. The ₹1, ₹2, and ₹5 coins have been minted since independence. Coins minted with the "hand picture" were minted from 2005 onwards.

text: Minting[edit]

text: The Government of India has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the five India Government Mints at Mumbai, Alipore (Kolkata), Saifabad (Hyderabad), Cherlapally (Hyderabad) and NOIDA (UP). The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of the RBI Act.[35]

text: Commemorative coins[edit]

text: After independence, the Government of India mint, minted coins imprinted with Indian statesmen, historical and religious figures. In the years 2010 and 2011 for the first time ever ₹75, ₹150 and ₹1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of the Reserve Bank of India, the 150th birth anniversary of the birth of Rabindranath Tagore and 1000 years of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, respectively. In 2012 a ₹60 coin was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India Mint, Kolkata. ₹100 coin was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi's return to India.[36] Commemorative coins of ₹125 were released on 4 September 2015 and 6 December 2015 to honour the 125th anniversary of the births of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and B. R. Ambedkar, respectively.[37][38]

text: Banknotes[edit]

text: Pre independence issues[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In 1861, the government of India introduced its first paper money: ₹10 note in 1864, ₹5 note in 1872, ₹10,000 note in 1899, ₹100 note in 1900, ₹50 note in 1905, ₹500 note in 1907 and ₹1,000 note in 1909. In 1917, ₹1 and ₹21⁄2 notes were introduced. The Reserve Bank of India began banknote production in 1938, issuing ₹2, ₹5, ₹10, ₹50, ₹100, ₹1,000 and ₹10,000 notes while the government continued issuing ₹1 note but demonetized the ₹500 and ₹21⁄2 notes.

text: Post independence issues[edit]

text: After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of George VI. The government continued issuing the ₹1 note, while the Reserve Bank issued other denominations (including the ₹5,000 and ₹10,000 notes introduced in 1949). All pre-independence banknotes were officially demonetised with effect from 28 April 1957.[39][40]

text: During the 1970s, ₹20 and ₹50 notes were introduced; denominations higher than ₹100 were demonetised in 1978. In 1987, the ₹500 note was introduced, followed by the ₹1,000 note in 2000 while ₹1 and ₹2 notes were discontinued in 1995.

text: The design of banknotes is approved by the central government, on the recommendation of the central board of the Reserve Bank of India.[3] Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in Nashik, the Bank Note Press in Dewas, the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran (P) Ltd at Salboni and Mysore and at the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Hoshangabad. The Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi. Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes of the Lion capital series. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with ₹10 and ₹500 banknotes. At present, the RBI issues banknotes in denominations from ₹5 to ₹2,000. The printing of ₹5 notes (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.

text: As of January 2012, the new '₹' sign has been incorporated into banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100, ₹500 and ₹1,000.[41][42][43][44] In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1 January 2015. The dead line was further extended to 30 June 2016.[45]

text: There had been discussions on the necessity to withdraw notes of higher denominations such as the ₹1000 and ₹500 banknotes, considering their role in perpetuating unaccounted money. This move was taken to further curb the problem of fake currency circulation.[46][47][48] While noting that the withdrawal of high denomination notes can lead to an increase in printing costs for RBI, there was an opinion that these costs should be weighed against the misuse of high-value notes.[49] On 8 November 2016 Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the demonetization of ₹500 and ₹1,000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series, with a detailed step-down program. This program would stop all usage of ₹500 and ₹1,000 rupee notes by 11 November 2016.[50] Citizens with valid identification will have until 30 December 2016 to exchange the notes for lower tender at any bank or post office, and until 31 March 2017 to exchange them at designated RBI offices by filling in a declaration form.[51]

text: On 8 November 2016, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced the issuance of new ₹500 and ₹2,000 banknotes in the Mahatma Gandhi New Series of banknotes.[52][53][54] The new ₹2,000 banknote has a magenta base colour, with a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi as well as the Ashoka Pillar Emblem on the front. The denomination also has a motif of the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) on the back, depicting the country's first venture into interplanetary space. The new ₹500 banknote has a stone grey base colour with an image of the Red Fort along with the Indian flag printed on the back. Both the banknotes also have the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan logo printed on the back. The banknote denominations of ₹200, ₹100 and ₹50 are also expected to be introduced in the new Mahatma Gandhi New Series, in the coming months, intended to replace all banknotes of the previous Mahatma Gandhi Series.[55] On 13 June 2017, RBI introduced new ₹500 notes, but the old ones continue being legal tender. The design is similar to the current notes in the Mahatma Gandhi (New) Series, except they will come with an inset 'A'.

text: Current circulating banknotes[edit]

text: As of 10 November 2016, the current circulating banknotes are in denominations of ₹5, ₹10, ₹20, ₹50 and ₹100 are of the Mahatma Gandhi Series, while the denominations of ₹50, ₹200, ₹500 and ₹2,000 are of the new Mahatma Gandhi New Series, and the denomination of ₹1 is of the Lion Capital Series.

text:
Current circulating banknotes

Image
Value
Dimensions
Main colour
Description
Date of Issue
Circulation

Obverse
Reverse
Obverse
Reverse
Watermark

₹1
97 × 63 mm
Blue
One-rupee coin
Sagar Samrat oil rig
Pillars of Ashoka
1994 / 2015[56]
Limited

₹5
117 × 63 mm
Green
Mahatma Gandhi
Tractor
Mahatma Gandhi
2002 / 2009
Limited

₹10
137 × 63 mm
Orange-violet
Rhinoceros, elephant, tiger
1996 / 2006
Wide

₹20
147 × 63 mm
Red-orange
Mount Harriet, Port Blair
2001 / 2006
Wide

₹50
135 × 66 mm
Aqua
Hampi with Chariot
1997 / 2005/ 2017
Wide

₹100
157 × 73 mm
purple-green-blue
Himalaya Mountains
1996 / 2005
Wide

₹200
146 × 66 mm
Orange
Sanchi Stupa
2017
Wide

₹500
150 × 66 mm
Dark Green
Red Fort
2016
Wide

₹2000
166 × 66 mm
Magenta
Mangalyaan
2016
Wide

For table standards, see the banknote specification table.

text: Convertibility[edit]

text:
Most traded currencies by value
Currency distribution of global foreign exchange market turnover[57]

Rank
Currency
ISO 4217 code
(symbol)
 % daily share
(April 2016)

1

 United States dollar

USD ($)

80.6%

2

 Euro

EUR (€)

37.4%

3

 Japanese yen

JPY (¥)

21.6%

4

 Pound sterling

GBP (£)

12.8%

5

 Australian dollar

AUD (A$)

6.9%

6

 Canadian dollar

CAD (C$)

5.1%

7

 Swiss franc

CHF (Fr)

4.8%

8

 Renminbi

CNY (元)

4.0%

9

 Swedish krona

SEK (kr)

2.2%

10

 New Zealand dollar

NZD (NZ$)

2.1%

11

 Mexican peso

MXN ($)

1.9%

12

 Singapore dollar

SGD (S$)

1.8%

13

 Hong Kong dollar

HKD (HK$)

1.7%

14

 Norwegian krone

NOK (kr)

1.7%

15

 South Korean won

KRW (₩)

1.7%

16

 Turkish lira

TRY (₺)

1.4%

17

 Russian ruble

RUB (₽)

1.1%

18

 Indian rupee

INR (₹)

1.1%

19

 Brazilian real

BRL (R$)

1.0%

20

 South African rand

ZAR (R)

1.0%

Other
7.1%

Total[58]
200.0%

text: Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the RBI trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact effective exchange rates. Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the US dollar is a de facto controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "managed float". Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of floating exchange rates, and often create persistent arbitrage opportunities against the RBI.[59] Unlike China, successive administrations (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate. RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation to other currencies.[60]

text: Also affecting convertibility is a series of customs regulations restricting the import and export of rupees. Legally, foreign nationals are forbidden from importing or exporting rupees; Indian nationals can import and export only up to ₹7,500 at a time, and the possession of ₹500 and ₹1,000 rupee notes in Nepal is prohibited.[61][62]

text: RBI also exercises a system of capital controls in addition to (through active trading) in currency markets. On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist). On the capital account, foreign institutional investors have convertibility to bring money into and out of the country and buy securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local firms are able to take capital out of the country in order to expand globally. However, local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full de facto convertibility.

text: There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity;[citation needed] therefore, money cannot be changed into gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.

text: Reserve Bank of India clarifies its position regarding the promissory clause printed on each banknote:

text: "As per Section 26 of Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the Bank is liable to pay the value of banknote. This is payable on demand by RBI, being the issuer. The Bank's obligation to pay the value of banknote does not arise out of a contract but out of statutory provisions.The promissory clause printed on the banknotes i.e., "I promise to pay the bearer an amount of X" is a statement which means that the banknote is a legal tender for X amount. The obligation on the part of the Bank is to exchange a banknote for coins of an equivalent amount." [63]

text: Chronology[edit]

text:
1991 – India began to lift restrictions on its currency. A number of reforms removed restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments and remittances and some capital asset-based transactions). Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) (a dual-exchange-rate system) introduced partial convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.[64]
1997 – A panel (set up to explore capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the 1997–1998 East Asian financial crisis.
2006 – Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked the Finance Minister and the Reserve Bank of India to prepare a road map for moving towards capital account convertibility.[65]
On 8 November 2016, the Government of India announced the demonetisation of all ₹500 (US$7.80) and ₹1,000 (US$16) banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series.[66] The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.[67][68]

text: Exchange rates[edit]

text: Historic exchange rates[edit]

text: For almost a century since the Great Recoinage of 1816 until the outbreak of World War I, the Indian rupee sustained parity with the US dollar while pegged to the pound sterling that was exchanged at ₹4 12a 10ps (or 50 old pence per rupee). Effectively, the rupee bought 1s 4d (or ₹15 per sterling) during 1899–1914. The gold silver ratio expanded during 1870–1910. Unlike India, her colonial master Britain was on gold standard. To meet the Home Charges (i.e., expenditure in England) the colonial government had to remit a larger number of rupees and this necessitated increased taxation, unrest and nationalism.

text: Thereafter, both the rupee and the sterling gradually declined in worth against the US dollar due to deficits in trade, capital and budget. In 1966, the rupee was devalued and pegged to the dollar. The peg to the pound was at ₹13.33 to a pound (approx. 40 rupees to £3), and the pound itself averaged US$2.79.[70] That means officially speaking the USD to INR rate would be closer to ₹4.78. In 1966, India changed the peg to dollar at ₹7.50.[71]

text:
Indian rupees per currency unit averaged over the year[72][73][74]

Currency
ISO code
1947
1966
1995
1996
2000
2004
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2013
2014
2015
2016

Australian dollar
AUD

27.69
26.07
3.28
3.02
3.60
3.81
3.22
4.00
5.36
5.91
4.21
0.96

Bahraini Dinar
BHD
–
13.35
91.75
91.24
117.78
120.39
120.40
109.59
115.65
128.60
121.60
155.95
164.55
170.6
178.3

Bangladeshi taka
BDT
–
–
0.84
0.84
0.77
0.66
0.63
0.57
0.71
0.66
0.68
0.80
0.88
0.84
0.85

Canadian dollar
CAD

0.90
2.63
2.00
3.28
3.91
4.09
4.92
4.59
5.17
4.39
5.88
4.53
4.94
5.32

Chinese Yuan
CNY
–

0.80

0.93
1.19
1.15

Emirate dirham
AED
–
–

1.47
1.26

Euroa
EUR
–
–
4.41
4.40
4.52
5.38
6.12
6.03
6.59
6.69

7.21
7.60
7.84

Israeli shekelb
ILS
1.33
2.97
1.45
0.76
1.83

1.08
1.57
1.47

Japanese Yenc
JPY
0.6
0.08
3.66
3.96
4.79
4.87
3.93
3.50
4.27
5.73
5.23
6.07
5.79
5.01
6.36

Kuwaiti Dinar
KWD
–
1.80
1.5
1.5
1.9
1.3
1.5
4.6
6.7
7.7
9.2
2.5
2.3
2.1
2.4

Malaysian Ringgit
MYR
–
2.07
1.97
1.11
1.84
1.91
1.36
1.98
1.02
1.72
1.22
1.59
1.65
1.47
1.37

Maldivian rufiyaa
MVR
1.00
1.33
2.93
2.91

0.58
0.76
0.01
0.23

Pakistani rupee
PKR
0.000006
0.0000033
0.008
0.95
0.80
0.77
0.75
0.67
0.61
0.59
0.53
0.57
0.60
0.62
0.64

Pound sterling
GBP
0.30003
0.76
0.14
0.38
0.11
0.06
0.63
0.38
0.33
0.63
0.63
0.08
1.51
0.11
2.00

Russian rubled
RUB
6.60
5.00
7.56
6.69
1.57

1.05
0.99

Saudi riyal
SAR

1.41

1.11
1.88

Singapore dollar
SGD
–
–
2.13
2.16
2.07
2.83
3.93
3.60
3.51
1.27
3.58
4.84
4.86
4.67
4.86

Sri Lankan rupee
LKR

1.33
0.63
0.64
0.58

0.47
0.46
0.45
0.46

Swiss franc
CHF

1.46
2.48

4.95
1.95
1.71
1.70
1.40

U.S. dollar
USD
3.30
2.50
3.45
3.44
1.20
1.34
3.95
3.50
4.76
4.33
4.00
1.80
2.07
2.73
3.19

a Before 1 January 1999, the European Currency Unit (ECU)
b Before 1980, the Israeli pound (ILP)
c 100 Japanese Yen
d Before 1993, the Soviet ruble (SUR), in 1995 and 1996 - per 1000 rubles

text: Current exchange rates[edit]

text:
Current INR exchange rates

From Google Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD RUB CNY AED

From Yahoo! Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD RUB CNY AED

From XE:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD RUB CNY AED

From OANDA:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD RUB CNY AED

From fxtop.com:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD RUB CNY AED


document_title: List of Sonny with a Chance characters

question_text: who plays sonny in sonny with a chance

question_tokens: who plays sonny in sonny with a chance

root

text: List of Sonny with a Chance characters

text: Main characters[edit]

text: Sonny Munroe[edit]

text: Allison "Sonny" Munroe[1] (Demi Lovato). The newest member of comedy sketch TV show So Random!, She is from Appleton, Wisconsin. "Sonny" is Allison's nickname. Sonny used to dislike her nickname when she was little, but now she thinks it suits her (as she says when she met Chad in "West Coast Story").

tag: p

text: She also plays a guitar, the piano, and sings. She's usually eccentric, goofy and a bit childish, often admitting to do things that may seem strange to others. Friendly, sweet, and caring towards those around her, she is known as the nice girl of the group and does her best to help other people with their problems and achieve her dreams, but earns mixed results often due to some situations involving her meddling problems. Whenever Sonny lies, her voice becomes high pitch.

text: Sonny had a love/hate relationship with Chad Dylan Cooper, but eventually falls in love with him. In season 2, Chad asks her out, beginning their relationship. But she breaks up with Chad towards the end of season 2. It is shown in the last episode, "New Girl", that she still has feelings for Chad. In the sequel to Sonny with a Chance, So Random!, Demi Lovato leaves the cast for health problems. It is not known why Sonny seems to be missing from the show.

text: Tawni Hart[edit]

text: Tawni Hart (Tiffany Thornton). Tawni is obsessed with fashion, pink, and herself. She becomes upset if she does not get her way. In the beginning, Tawni was openly jealous of Sonny to the point that she committed mail fraud by stealing all of Sonny's fan mail, but later grew more accepting of her as a member of the show.

text: Tawni is probably the only person who initially knew about Sonny and Chad's mutual feelings for each other, but never mentioned it to anybody. Tawni has a secret - she likes Sonny. She is jealous of Sonny's fans. Despite their rocky beginnings, she has since begun to care about Sonny as a friend and eventually as a best friend.

text: She is often seen giving her advice and is shown to be nicer than before, such as the instance of driving Sonny all the way back to Wisconsin in "Sonny with a Secret", but she tells Sonny to do projects for her, shown in "Falling for the Falls (Part 1)". Also, she still doesn't like it that Sonny's boyfriend is Chad, as do all of the So Random! cast. She has been on So Random! for five years. She says that she was homeschooled, and that her mother Tammy (also her manager) was very strict.

text: Chad Dylan Cooper[edit]

text: Chad Dylan Cooper (Sterling Knight). He is the teen heart-throb of Tween Weekly and Mackenzie Falls. He is the arch-rival of Sonny and the cast of So Random! early in the series, as well as Sonny's love/hate interest as developed later. He seems to have liked Sonny since the beginning of the show, and in one episode tries to force her to kiss him, before they were dating.

text: He is a spoiled and bratty egomaniac and thinks that he is better than everyone else, and can be seen as effeminate in his obsession with his own appearance. Despite this arrogant, childish behavior, he has moments where he shows he is very kind and deep, especially when he's around Sonny. He became more friendly towards the cast of So Random! because of his feelings towards Sonny, and later, he eventually falls in love with her and starts dating her. However, in "My Two Chads", it is revealed that Chad has a stunt double named Chaz, who he has to go on dates with Sonny that he deems dangerous. When Sonny finds out about this, she dumps him, but they get back together at the end.

text: In "Sonny with a Choice", when he discovers that So Random! won the Tween Choice Awards, his ego and jealousy get the better of him, leading him to recount the votes so that Mackenzie Falls wins instead, which he later tells Sonny. Sonny is disgusted at his inability to put others before himself, causing them to break up for good. In "New Girl", it is revealed that he still has feelings for Sonny. Sonny writes a song about him and hums it at the end, hinting that she still has feelings for him as well. He later joins So Random! when Sonny leaves the show.

text: Nico Harris[edit]

text: Nico Harris (Brandon Mychal Smith). One of the primary cast members of So Random!, Nico is Grady's best friend and they always do pranks and wacky things together. He and Grady attempt many pranks but they often fail because (in Tawni's words) they are "full of loud music, bad choreography and things being thrown" as they often copy the movies. The two are shown to be a little immature. He always comes up with ideas that later turn crazy.

text: Nico seems to think he's quite the womanizer, he hardly ever succeeds in getting dates. He also has a crush on Mackenzie Falls star Penelope, but she constantly turns him down, and not very nicely. He and Grady manage to make a body-spray that attracts girls but in the wrong way. He was on a one-man show called NICO.

text: His dad is a lawyer. He also shares a birthday with Grady. At the very beginning of Sonny with a Chance, he had a slight crush on Sonny but he grows to only like her as a friend. Whenever he has a project, he tries to find a way to get Sonny to do it for him.

text: Nico is absent for 2 episodes: "Sonny: So Far" (but appeared in the flashbacks) and "Sonny with a Grant".

text: Grady Mitchell[edit]

text: Grady Mitchell (Doug Brochu). A cast member of So Random!, Grady is best friends with Nico. They can be shown to be a little immature. He is also wacky and full of silliness and is always eager to eat. Together, he and Nico hatch plans such as making money by selling Tawni's trash on the Internet or getting girls by creating an extremely attractive cologne. He has also been shown to believe in the existence of fictional worlds such as Narnia and Pandora.

text: On the Disney Channel site, it says that he is from Orlando, Florida. His father was in the military, and he has a brother, Grant, who constantly teases him for having no girlfriend. He also shares a birthday with Nico. Grady is shown to try to find a way to get Sonny to do his project homework, like Nico and Tawni. In the last episode of the series, he manages to impress Sonny's new friend, Mel. The finale ends with Mel admitting to herself she loves him.

text: Grady is absent for 1 episode "Sonny: So Far" (but appeared in the flashbacks). He was present for all episodes in season 2.

text: Zora Lancaster[edit]

text: Zora Lancaster (Allisyn Ashley Arm). The youngest cast member of So Random!. She was 11 in season 1 and 12 in season 2. Zora has a genius IQ of 155 and is the smartest member of the group. She is known to be "the weird one" because Zora has a quirky personality and always seems to be up to something suspicious and weird. Sometimes, she is shown to be a little dangerous as seen in the title sequence to be driving a monster machine. She is also a prankster. She hates Dakota Condor and insists that she's "Evil". She also is comfortable in small spaces.

text: Zora, Tawni, and Sonny all share one room but Zora prefers to hide up in the air vent and the sarcophagus in the prop house, eavesdropping on private conversations. She tends to wear extremely bright, unique clothes. She has a short temper and when provoked will often try to physically attack the other person to express her anger at the other person. In season two, she is shown to become more mature and a little less weird.

text: Zora is absent for 20 episodes, and she appeared in 26 of 46 episodes.

text: Recurring characters[edit]

text: Marshall Pike (Michael Kostroff) is the executive producer of So Random! and Mackenzie Falls. He also seems to be optimistic most of the time but not when it comes to talking about his bald patch. He lives with his mother.

tag: ul

text: (First appearance: "Sketchy Beginnings", Last appearance: "Marshall with a Chance")

text: Connie Munroe (Nancy McKeon) is Sonny's mother. She is a bit strange, but gives good advice and cares a lot for Sonny, always wanting the best for her and is very supportive. She is happy that Sonny is on the show, but wants her to keep her priorities in order and keep her school work satisfactory as mentioned in Cheater Girls. She lives with Sonny in their apartment and apparently does needlepoint and is addicted to Mackenzie Falls. She only appeared in 7 episodes.

text: (First appearance: "Sketchy Beginnings", Last appearance: "Falling for the Falls Part 2")

text: Mr. Condor (Daniel Roebuck) is the head of "Condor Studios". He cancels the show of any actor who ticks him off. He also doesn't know that his own daughter, Dakota Condor, is evil and has a crush on Chad.

text: (First appearance: "Sonny and the Studio Brat", Last appearance: "Sonny with a Grant")

text: Dakota Condor (G. Hannelius) is the daughter of the founder of Condor Studios, Mr. Condor, A sassy, selfish and bratty girl who is obsessed with and has a crush on Chad Dylan Cooper. She is rivals with Zora (who always calls her "evil"). She loves bullying Zora. Her father thinks she is an "angel", but often disobeys him behind his back, such as crushing on the star of a show she's certainly not allowed to watch. Dakota appears more often in season 2 than she appears in season 1.

text: (First appearance: "Sonny and the Studio Brat", Last appearance: "Dakota's Revenge")

text: Joy Bitterman[2] (Vicki Lewis) is the on set teacher for the cast of So Random!. She claims she has not laughed since she left the United States Navy, which may explain why she is so tense and bitter. She lives alone with her 16 cats.

text: (First appearance: "Cheater Girls", Last appearance: "The Problem with Pauly")

text: Murphy (Steve Hytner) is the offbeat security guard who works by the So Random! sets door. He takes his job a little too seriously and enjoys taking Nico and Grady's pizzas, biting into each slice and putting them back in the box. It is unknown why he hates Nico and Grady so much.

text: (First appearance: "Three's Not Company", Last appearance: "Dakota's Revenge")

text: Trevor (Devaughn Nixon) - Trevor in Mackenzie Falls.

text: (First appearance: "Walk a Mile in My Pants", Last appearance: "Sonny with a Choice")

text: Chloe (Ashley Jackson) - Chloe in Mackenzie Falls she replaces Portlyn for season 2.

text: Penelope (Leslie-Anne Huff) - Penelope in Mackenzie Falls. Penelope has a larger role in "Sonny with a Secret" where she frames Sonny for crimes she did not commit so that she can date Chad Dylan Cooper. She became so insane that she nearly killed Sonny by a bomb. She gets arrested at the end when Tawni found she was Vicki Sickowitz.

text: (First appearance: "The Legend of Candy Face", Last appearance: "Sonny with a Secret")

text: Devin (William Georges) - Devon in Mackenzie Falls. It is known that he possesses an "Electronic Man Scaper".

text: (First appearance: "The Legend of Candy Face", Last appearance: "The Legend of Candy Face")

text: Portlyn Maddison (Jillian Murray) is a cast member of Mackenzie Falls. She is the rich mean girl of Mackenzie Falls and her character has the same first name as her own in the drama. Portlyn is also shown to be a quite dumb at times. She always wears the Mackenzie Falls cast uniform.

text: (First appearance: "West Coast Story", Last appearance: "Tales from the Prop House")

text:
Bart (Andrew Parker) is Chad's personal assistant. (First appearance: "Sonny with a Chance of Dating")
Gassie the Toot'n Pooch (Gassie) is the titular character in the sketch. He is a Rough Collie. (First appearance: "Battle of the Networks' Stars")
Howie (Lanny Horn) is the cafeteria's sandwich guy who gives out sandwich orders. He is shown to be a fan of Chad Dylan Cooper. (First appearance: "Sonny in the Kitchen with Dinner")
Grant Mitchell (Preston Jones) is Grady's big-headed and bullying brother who constantly teases Grady about his life, career and his ill fortune with women. Grant is the president of his fraternity, ΔΝ (Delta Nu) and says the name of his fraternity when leaving the current scene. He is also portrayed as violent, with Grady constantly preparing for beatings throughout his visit. He is portrayed as a womanizer but later admits that he has no good friends like Grady and that despite how he acts he believes that he should be more like Grady, they become friends at the end of the episode. He gets a job at Condor Studios and replaces Chad as Mackenzie on Mackenzie Falls. (First appearance: "Grady with a Chance of Sonny"), (Last appearance: "Sonny with a Grant")
Mel Winters (Skyler Day) is a waitress at The Patio, a cool coffee shop, and Sonny's neighbour. In the third season Mel was supposed to become a regular recurring character and be the love interest of Grady.


document_title: List of National Basketball Association annual scoring leaders

question_text: who scored the most points in the nba last year

text: Key[edit]

text:
^

Denotes player who is still active in the NBA

*

Inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Denotes player who won the MVP award that year

Player (X)

Denotes the number of times the player had been the scoring leader up to and including that season

G
Guard
F
Forward
C
Center

tag: table

text: Scoring leaders[edit]

text:
Season

Player

Age[a]

Pos[b]

Team

Gamesplayed

Field goalsmade

3-pointfield goalsmade

Free throwsmade

Totalpoints

Points pergame

Ref

1946–47

Joe Fulks*

25

F/C

Philadelphia Warriors

60

475

—

439

1,389

23.2

[11][12]

1947–48

Max Zaslofsky[c]

22

G/F

Chicago Stags

48

373

—

261

1,007

21.0

[14][15]

1948–49

George Mikan*

24

C

Minneapolis Lakers

60

583

—

532

1,698

28.3

[16][17]

1949–50

George Mikan* (2)

25

C

Minneapolis Lakers

68

649

—

567

1,865

27.4

[17][18]

1950–51

George Mikan* (3)

26

C

Minneapolis Lakers

68

678

—

576

1,932

28.4

[17][19]

1951–52

Paul Arizin*

23

F/G

Philadelphia Warriors

66

548

—

578

1,674

25.4

[20][21]

1952–53

Neil Johnston*

23

C

Philadelphia Warriors

70

504

—

556

1,564

22.3

[22][23]

1953–54

Neil Johnston* (2)

24

C

Philadelphia Warriors

72

591

—

577

1,759

24.5

[23][24]

1954–55

Neil Johnston* (3)

25

C

Philadelphia Warriors

72

521

—

589

1,631

22.7

[23][25]

1955–56

Bob Pettit*

23

F/C

St. Louis Hawks

72

646

—

557

1,849

25.7

[26][27]

1956–57

Paul Arizin* (2)

28

F/G

Philadelphia Warriors

71

613

—

591

1,817

25.6

[21][28]

1957–58

George Yardley*

29

F/G

Detroit Pistons

72

673

—

655

2,001

27.8

[29][30]

1958–59

Bob Pettit* (2)

26

F/C

St. Louis Hawks

72

719

—

667

2,105

29.2

[27][31]

1959–60

Wilt Chamberlain*[d]

23

C

Philadelphia Warriors

72

1,065

—

577

2,707

37.6

[32][33]

1960–61

Wilt Chamberlain* (2)

24

C

Philadelphia Warriors

79

1,251

—

531

3,033

38.4

[33][34]

1961–62

Wilt Chamberlain* (3)[e]

25

C

Philadelphia Warriors

80

1,597

—

835

4,029

50.4

[33][35]

1962–63

Wilt Chamberlain* (4)

26

C

San Francisco Warriors

80

1,463

—

660

3,586

44.8

[33][36]

1963–64

Wilt Chamberlain* (5)

27

C

San Francisco Warriors

80

1,204

—

540

2,948

36.9

[33][37]

1964–65

Wilt Chamberlain* (6)

28

C

San Francisco WarriorsPhiladelphia 76ers

73

1,063

—

408

2,534

34.7

[33][38]

1965–66

Wilt Chamberlain* (7)

29

C

Philadelphia 76ers

79

1,074

—

501

2,649

33.5

[33][39]

1966–67

Rick Barry*

22

F

San Francisco Warriors

78

1,011

—

753

2,775

35.6

[40][41]

1967–68

Dave Bing*[f]

24

G

Detroit Pistons

79

835

—

472

2,142

27.1

[44][45]

1968–69

Elvin Hayes*[g]

23

F/C

San Diego Rockets

82

930

—

467

2,327

28.4

[46][47]

1969–70

Jerry West*[h]

31

G

Los Angeles Lakers

74

831

—

647

2,309

31.2

[49][50]

1970–71

Lew Alcindor*[i]

23

C

Milwaukee Bucks

82

1,063

—

470

2,596

31.7

[52][53]

1971–72

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar* (2)

24

C

Milwaukee Bucks

81

1,159

—

504

2,822

34.8

[53][54]

1972–73

Nate Archibald*

24

G

Kansas City-Omaha Kings

80

1,028

—

663

2,719

34.0

[55][56]

1973–74

Bob McAdoo*

22

C/F

Buffalo Braves

74

901

—

459

2,261

30.6

[57][58]

1974–75

Bob McAdoo* (2)

23

C/F

Buffalo Braves

82

1,095

—

641

2,831

34.5

[58][59]

1975–76

Bob McAdoo* (3)

24

C/F

Buffalo Braves

78

934

—

559

2,427

31.1

[58][60]

1976–77

Pete Maravich*

29

G

New Orleans Jazz

73

886

—

501

2,273

31.1

[61][62]

1977–78

George Gervin*[j]

25

G/F

San Antonio Spurs

82

864

—

504

2,232

27.2

[68][69]

1978–79

George Gervin* (2)

26

G/F

San Antonio Spurs

80

947

—

471

2,365

29.6

[69][70]

1979–80

George Gervin* (3)

27

G/F

San Antonio Spurs

78

1,024

32

505

2,585

33.1

[69][71]

1980–81

Adrian Dantley*

24

F/G

Utah Jazz

80

909

2

632

2,452

30.7

[72][73]

1981–82

George Gervin* (4)

29

G/F

San Antonio Spurs

79

993

10

555

2,551

32.3

[69][74]

1982–83

Alex English*

29

F

Denver Nuggets

82

959

2

406

2,326

28.4

[75][76]

1983–84

Adrian Dantley* (2)

27

F/G

Utah Jazz

79

802

1

813

2,418

30.6

[73][77]

1984–85

Bernard King*[k]

28

F

New York Knicks

55

691

1

426

1,809

32.9

[79][80]

1985–86

Dominique Wilkins*[l]

26

F

Atlanta Hawks

78

888

13

577

2,366

30.3

[82][83]

1986–87

Michael Jordan*

23

G

Chicago Bulls

82

1,098

12

833

3,041

37.1

[84][85]

1987–88

Michael Jordan* (2)

24

G

Chicago Bulls

82

1,069

7

723

2,868

35.0

[85][86]

1988–89

Michael Jordan* (3)

25

G

Chicago Bulls

81

966

27

674

2,633

32.5

[85][87]

1989–90

Michael Jordan* (4)

26

G

Chicago Bulls

82

1,034

92

593

2,753

33.6

[85][88]

1990–91

Michael Jordan* (5)

27

G

Chicago Bulls

82

990

29

571

2,580

31.5

[85][89]

1991–92

Michael Jordan* (6)

28

G

Chicago Bulls

80

943

27

491

2,404

30.1

[85][90]

1992–93

Michael Jordan* (7)

29

G

Chicago Bulls

78

992

81

476

2,541

32.6

[85][91]

1993–94

David Robinson*[m]

28

C

San Antonio Spurs

80

840

10

693

2,383

29.8

[93][94]

1994–95

Shaquille O'Neal*

22

C

Orlando Magic

79

930

0

455

2,315

29.3

[95][96]

1995–96

Michael Jordan* (8)

32

G

Chicago Bulls

82

916

111

548

2,491

30.4

[85][97]

1996–97

Michael Jordan* (9)

33

G

Chicago Bulls

82

920

111

480

2,431

29.6

[85][98]

1997–98

Michael Jordan* (10) [n]

34

G

Chicago Bulls

82

881

30

565

2,357

28.7

[85][101]

1998–99[o]

Allen Iverson*[p]

23

G

Philadelphia 76ers

48

435

58

356

1,284

26.8

[104][105]

1999–00

Shaquille O'Neal* (2)

27

C

Los Angeles Lakers

79

956

0

432

2,344

29.7

[96][106]

2000–01

Allen Iverson* (2)[q]

25

G

Philadelphia 76ers

71

762

98

585

2,207

31.1

[105][108]

2001–02

Allen Iverson* (3)[r]

26

G

Philadelphia 76ers

60

665

78

475

1,883

31.4

[105][110]

2002–03

Tracy McGrady*[s]

23

G/F

Orlando Magic

75

829

173

576

2,407

32.1

[112][113]

2003–04

Tracy McGrady* (2)[t]

24

G/F

Orlando Magic

67

653

174

398

1,878

28.0

[113]

2004–05

Allen Iverson* (4)

29

G

Philadelphia 76ers

75

771

104

656

2,302

30.7

[105]

2005–06

Kobe Bryant

27

G

Los Angeles Lakers

80

978

180

696

2,832

35.4

[115]

2006–07

Kobe Bryant (2)

28

G

Los Angeles Lakers

77

813

137

667

2,430

31.6

[115]

2007–08

LeBron James^[u]

23

F

Cleveland Cavaliers

75

794

113

549

2,250

30.0

[117]

2008–09

Dwyane Wade^

27

G

Miami Heat

79

854

88

590

2,386

30.2

[118]

2009–10

Kevin Durant^[v]

21

F

Oklahoma City Thunder

82

794

128

756

2,472

30.1

[120]

2010–11

Kevin Durant^ (2)

22

F

Oklahoma City Thunder

78

711

145

594

2,161

27.7

[120]

2011–12[w]

Kevin Durant^ (3)[x]

23

F

Oklahoma City Thunder

66

643

133

431

1,850

28.0

[120]

2012–13

Carmelo Anthony^[y]

28

F

New York Knicks

67

669

157

425

1,920

28.7

[124]

2013–14

Kevin Durant^ (4)

25

F

Oklahoma City Thunder

81

849

192

703

2,593

32.0

[120]

2014–15

Russell Westbrook^[z]

26

G

Oklahoma City Thunder

67

627

86

546

1,886

28.1

[126]

2015–16

Stephen Curry^[aa]

28

G

Golden State Warriors

79

805

402

363

2,375

30.1

[128]

2016–17

Russell Westbrook^ (2)

28

G

Oklahoma City Thunder

81

824

200

710

2,558

31.6

[126]

2017–18

James Harden[ab]

28

G

Houston Rockets

72

651

265

624

2,191

30.4

[130]

text: Multiple-time leaders[edit]

text:
Ranking
Player
Team
Times leader
Years

1
Michael Jordan
Chicago Bulls
10
1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998

2
Wilt Chamberlain
Philadelphia Warriors/San Francisco Warriors (5) / Philadelphia 76ers (2)
7
1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966

3
Kevin DurantGeorge GervinAllen Iverson
Oklahoma City ThunderSan Antonio SpursPhiladelphia 76ers
4
2010, 2011, 2012, 20141978, 1979, 1980, 19821999, 2001, 2002, 2005

6
Neil JohnstonBob McAdooGeorge Mikan
Philadelphia WarriorsBuffalo BravesMinneapolis Lakers
3
1953, 1954, 19551974, 1975, 19761949, 1950, 1951

9
Kareem Abdul-JabbarPaul ArizinKobe BryantAdrian DantleyTracy McGradyShaquille O'NealBob PettitRussell Westbrook
Milwaukee BucksPhiladelphia WarriorsLos Angeles LakersUtah JazzOrlando MagicOrlando Magic (1) / Los Angeles Lakers (1)St. Louis HawksOklahoma City Thunder
2
1971, 19721952, 19572006, 20071981, 19842003, 20041995, 20001956, 19592015, 2017


document_title: List of The Killing episodes

question_text: how many episodes are there in season 1 of the killing

text: List of The Killing episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired
Network

1
13
April 3, 2011 (2011-04-03)
June 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)
AMC

2
13
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
June 17, 2012 (2012-06-17)

3
12
June 2, 2013 (2013-06-02)
August 4, 2013 (2013-08-04)

4
6
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
Netflix

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2011)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Pilot"
Patty Jenkins
Teleplay by : Veena Sud
April 3, 2011 (2011-04-03)
BDH179/S179
2.72[5]

2
2
"The Cage"
Ed Bianchi
Veena Sud
April 3, 2011 (2011-04-03)
BDH101/S101
2.72[5]

3
3
"El Diablo"
Gwyneth Horder-Payton
Dawn Prestwich & Nicole Yorkin
April 10, 2011 (2011-04-10)
BDH102/S102
2.56[6]

4
4
"A Soundless Echo"
Jennifer Getzinger
Soo Hugh
April 17, 2011 (2011-04-17)
BDH103/S103
2.51[7]

5
5
"Super 8"
Phil Abraham
Jeremy Doner
April 24, 2011 (2011-04-24)
BDH104/S104
2.25[8]

6
6
"What You Have Left"
Agnieszka Holland
Nic Pizzolatto
May 1, 2011 (2011-05-01)
BDH105/S105
1.81[9]

7
7
"Vengeance"
Ed Bianchi
Linda Burstyn
May 8, 2011 (2011-05-08)
BDH106/S106
1.83[10]

8
8
"Stonewalled"
Dan Attias
Aaron Zelman
May 15, 2011 (2011-05-15)
BDH107/S107
1.98[11]

9
9
"Undertow"
Agnieszka Holland
Dan Nowak
May 22, 2011 (2011-05-22)
BDH108/S108
1.69[12]

10
10
"I'll Let You Know When I Get There"
Ed Bianchi
Nicole Yorkin & Dawn Prestwich
May 29, 2011 (2011-05-29)
BDH109/S109
1.97[13]

11
11
"Missing"
Nicole Kassell
Veena Sud
June 5, 2011 (2011-06-05)
BDH110/S110
1.98[14]

12
12
"Beau Soleil"
Keith Gordon
Jeremy Doner & Soo Hugh
June 12, 2011 (2011-06-12)
BDH111/S111
1.83[15]

13
13
"Orpheus Descending"
Brad Anderson
Veena Sud & Nic Pizzolatto
June 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)
BDH112/S112
2.32[16]

text: Season 2 (2012)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

14
1
"Reflections"
Agnieszka Holland
Veena Sud
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
BDH201/S201
1.80[17]

15
2
"My Lucky Day"
Dan Attias
Dawn Prestwich & Nicole Yorkin
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
BDH202/S202
1.80[17]

16
3
"Numb"
Brad Anderson
Eliza Clark
April 8, 2012 (2012-04-08)
BDH203/S203
1.81[18]

17
4
"Ogi Jun"
Phil Abraham
Jeremy Doner
April 15, 2012 (2012-04-15)
BDH204/S204
1.65[19]

18
5
"Ghosts of the Past"
Ed Bianchi
Wendy Riss
April 22, 2012 (2012-04-22)
BDH205/S205
1.59[20]

19
6
"Openings"
Kevin Bray
Aaron Zelman
April 29, 2012 (2012-04-29)
BDH206/S206
1.35[21]

20
7
"Keylela"
Nicole Kassell
Dan Nowak
May 6, 2012 (2012-05-06)
BDH207/S207
1.34[22]

21
8
"Off the Reservation"
Veena Sud
Nathaniel Halpern
May 13, 2012 (2012-05-13)
BDH208/S208
1.61[23]

22
9
"Sayonara, Hiawatha"
Phil Abraham
Nicole Yorkin & Dawn Prestwich
May 20, 2012 (2012-05-20)
BDH209/S209
1.31[24]

23
10
"72 Hours"
Nicole Kassell
Eliza Clark
May 27, 2012 (2012-05-27)
BDH210/S210
1.31[25]

24
11
"Bulldog"
Ed Bianchi
Jeremy Doner
June 3, 2012 (2012-06-03)
BDH211/S211
1.67[26]

25
12
"Donnie or Marie"
Keith Gordon
Aaron Zelman & Wendy Riss
June 10, 2012 (2012-06-10)
BDH212/S212
1.84[27]

26
13
"What I Know"
Patty Jenkins
Veena Sud & Dan Nowak
June 17, 2012 (2012-06-17)
BDH213/S213
1.45[28]

text: Season 3 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)

27
1
"The Jungle"
Ed Bianchi
Veena Sud
June 2, 2013 (2013-06-02)
BDH301/S301
1.76[29]

28
2
"That You Fear the Most"
Lodge Kerrigan
Dan Nowak
June 2, 2013 (2013-06-02)
BDH302/S302
1.76[29]

29
3
"Seventeen"
Kari Skogland
Eliza Clark
June 9, 2013 (2013-06-09)
BDH303/S303
1.47[30]

30
4
"Head Shots"
Michael Rymer
Dawn Prestwich & Nicole Yorkin
June 16, 2013 (2013-06-16)
BDH304/S304
1.36[31]

31
5
"Scared and Running"
Dan Attias
Coleman Herbert
June 23, 2013 (2013-06-23)
BDH305/S305
1.67[32]

32
6
"Eminent Domain"
Keith Gordon
David Wiener
June 30, 2013 (2013-06-30)
BDH306/S306
1.37[33]

33
7
"Hope Kills"
Tricia Brock
Brett Conrad
July 7, 2013 (2013-07-07)
BDH307/S307
1.62[34]

34
8
"Try"
Lodge Kerrigan
Nic Sheff & Aaron Slavik
July 14, 2013 (2013-07-14)
BDH308/S308
1.52[35]

35
9
"Reckoning"
Jonathan Demme
Dan Nowak
July 21, 2013 (2013-07-21)
BDH309/S309
1.35[36]

36
10
"Six Minutes"
Nicole Kassell
Veena Sud
July 28, 2013 (2013-07-28)
BDH310/S310
1.47[37]

37
11
"From Up Here"
Phil Abraham
Eliza Clark
August 4, 2013 (2013-08-04)
BDH311/S311
1.48[38]

38
12
"The Road to Hamelin"
Dan Attias
Dawn Prestwich & Nicole Yorkin
August 4, 2013 (2013-08-04)
BDH312/S312
1.48[38]

text: Season 4 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

39
1
"Blood in the Water"
Nicole Kassell
Veena Sud
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH401

40
2
"Unraveling"
Lodge Kerrigan
Dan Nowak
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH402

41
3
"The Good Soldier"
Ed Bianchi
Nicole Yorkin & Dawn Prestwich
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH403

42
4
"Dream Baby Dream"
Gregory Middleton
Sean Whitesell
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH404

43
5
"Truth Asunder"
Coky Giedroyc
Dan Nowak
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH405

44
6
"Eden"
Jonathan Demme
Veena Sud
August 1, 2014 (2014-08-01)
BDH406


document_title: Digestion

question_text: where are fats broken down in the digestive system

text: Digestion

text: Digestive system

text: Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it.[2] In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.[3]

text: Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup". In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac-like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.

text: Secretion systems

text: Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.

text: Channel transport system

text: In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP)[specify]. This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 – 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.[4]

text: Molecular syringe

text: A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.[5]

text: Conjugation machinery

text: The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor).[6] The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.[7]

text: The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

text: The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.

text: Release of outer membrane vesicles

text: In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram-negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles.[8][9]  Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials.  Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells.  While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.[10]

text: Gastrovascular cavity

text: The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body.  Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth/anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.

text: In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.[11]

text: Phagosome

text: A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis.  The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.[12]

text: Specialised organs and behaviours

text: To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.

text: Beaks

text: Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.

text: The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species.[13] The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.

text: Tongue

text: The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.

text: The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.

text: Teeth

text: Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it cannot be chewed, so we stop trying.

text: The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.

text: Crop

text: A crop, or croup, is a thin-walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.[14]

text: Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.

text: Abomasum

text: Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore-stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material.  Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.

text: Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi-cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo-rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.

text: The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine.  Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo-rumen are also digested in the small intestine.

text: Specialised behaviours

text: Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.[15]

text: Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).

text: Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours – eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.

text: Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.

text: In earthworms

text: An earthworm's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.

text: Overview of vertebrate digestion

text: In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:

text:
Ingestion: placing food into the mouth (entry of food in the digestive system),
Mechanical and chemical breakdown:  mastication and the mixing of the resulting bolus with water, acids, bile and enzymes in the stomach and intestine to break down complex molecules into simple structures,
Absorption: of nutrients from the digestive system to the circulatory and lymphatic capillaries through osmosis, active transport, and diffusion, and
Egestion (Excretion): Removal of undigested materials from the digestive tract through defecation.

tag: ol

text: Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge" on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).

text: The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.

text: In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach.  Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches.  The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.[1]

text: Human digestion process

text: The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.[16]

text: Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.  The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

text: In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.

text: Neural and biochemical control mechanisms

text: Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.

text: The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40% of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.

text: The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid.  Gastric acid is about 0.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1-3.  Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.

text: The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.

text: Breakdown into nutrients

text: This section needs expansion with: digestion of other substances. You can help by adding to it. (August 2011)

text: Protein digestion

text: Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids.  The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens.  For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin.  Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.

text: Fat digestion

text: Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine.[17]  The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids.[17]  Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of  fatty acids, mono- and di-glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.[17]

text: Carbohydrate digestion

text: In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose.  This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.

text: Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose.  Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine.  Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk-based foods.  This is commonly known as lactose intolerance.  Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage;  more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.[18]

text: Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.

text: DNA and RNA digestion

text: DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.

text: Non-destructive digestion

text: Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B12) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups.  To digest vitamin B12 non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B12 molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.[19]

text: After the B12-haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B12 molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF).  These B12-IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B12-IF complexes in the blood.[20]

text: Digestive hormones

text: There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose-insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.

text:
Gastrin – is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH.
Secretin – is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver.  This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) – is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion.
Motilin – is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.

text: Significance of pH

text: Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.

text: The stomach's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.[citation needed]

text: In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.[citation needed]


document_title: Blood In Blood Out

question_text: who set up montana in blood in blood out

text: Blood In Blood Out

text: Plot[edit]

text: Miklo is a man of Mexican and White American ethnicity who grew up in El Pico Aliso barrio in east Los Angeles. Upon moving back home from Las Vegas, Nevada, Miklo goes to stay with his two cousins Paco and Cruz. Miklo tells Cruz that he wants to join their gang Vatos Locos. While Paco is initially skeptical, Miklo later proves himself when he performs an attack on a rival gang, Tres Puntos. Afterwards he is made a member of Vatos Locos.

text: However, the Tres Puntos gang soon takes revenge by brutally attacking Cruz who is a budding artist, and damages his back for life. When Vatos Locos learn of the attack, they perform a well-planned counterattack. However, things go wrong when Miklo ends up getting shot by their rival gang's leader, "Spider". Miklo is able to shoot and kill Spider, but has to be rushed to the hospital by Paco while being chased by police. Paco crashes into another car at the El Pino tree and they are both arrested.

text: From here, the trio's paths diverges: Miklo is sent to San Quentin State Prison for murder, Paco volunteers for military service in the United States Marine Corps as an alternative choice to prison, and Cruz continues his passion for art. He also becomes a heroin addict due to the recurring back pain. His addiction leads to him being disowned by his family after his 12-year-old brother, Juanito, dies from injecting heroin into his veins thinking it's Cruz's heroin supply. Paco becomes an L.A.P.D. narcotics detective after leaving the Marine Corps.

text: Miklo finds trouble adapting to prison life. The prison is run by three prison gangs, all of whom are based on their racial backgrounds. The Black Guerrilla Army (B.G.A.) is led by "Bonafide", the Aryan Vanguard is led by "Red Ryder", and La Onda is led by Montana Segura. La Onda's members do not initially accept Miklo and one of them, Popeye, tries to rape Miklo at knife-point, but is stopped by Montana. After meeting Montana, he is told the only way into La Onda is killing an enemy inmate, in Miklo's case a white inmate named Big Al who runs the gambling in San Quentin. After gaining Big Al's trust, Miklo stabs him to death during a sexual encounter in the prison kitchen. Miklo is initiated into La Onda, is later promoted to its Ruling Council, and is granted parole after serving nine years in prison.

text: On the outside, Miklo is disgusted by his menial job on which his supervisor is extorting money from him, so he joins in an armed robbery. The heist goes poorly and Miklo is intercepted by Paco, now a decorated cop. Miklo tries to run away, but Paco shoots him in the leg, which later has to be amputated. Miklo is sent back to prison where he notices the cocaine addictions of several inmates. Onda Council Member Carlos has entered the cocaine trade and is competing with the B.G.A. for customers. The Aryan Vanguard want to partner with Carlos in the cocaine business by becoming his new supplier. In return, Carlos moves on the B.G.A. and take them out of the cocaine business. Montana, however, is fiercely against allowing La Onda to enter the drug trade, saying that drugs will destroy La Onda and that the Aryan Vanguard want to start a war between the Black and Chicano inmates. The other Council members agree with Montana and vote against it. This causes Carlos to leave La Onda to work with the Aryan Vanguard, causing other members to follow him. Carlos murders a B.G.A. soldier named "Pockets" who is running the B.G.A.'s cocaine operation. He also contacts his brother, Smokey, outside of prison to bomb a B.G.A. hangout where they move their drugs. After all of this happens, Carlos' usefulness has come to an end and the Aryan Vanguard drops their protection of him. The B.G.A. then takes the opportunity to murder Carlos. Despite his death, Miklo agrees with Carlos's outlook after being convinced by Carlos's old drug supplier.

text: With hostility high between the Black and Hispanic inmates, Montana and Bonafide meet in the prison yard. Montana convinces Bonafide to agree to a truce if Montana reaches out to La Onda leaders in the Folsom and Chino prisons to end the violence. The warden grants Montana special permission to visit the Chino and Folsom prisons and Miklo is left in charge during his absence. Montana is granted a special request, and he gets to stay overnight at Delano penitentiary where he can see his daughter. On the morning of the visit, Montana is stabbed to death outside his cell by a member of the B.G.A.. Believing that the Aryan Vanguard sent forged orders to the hitman, Paco arranges a peace conference between La Onda and the B.G.A. However, Miklo, La Onda's new leader, manipulates the peace talks in order to build an alliance with the B.G.A. and they agree to kill the Aryan Vanguard leaders.

text: Later, enforcers for La Onda and the B.G.A. sweep through the walls of San Quentin, killing the leaders of the Aryan Vanguard. After the killings are done, however, Miklo's men promptly exterminate the B.G.A. leaders as well. Paco is enraged that his own cousin has played him for a fool and angrily confronts Miklo in the prison visiting room. Paco leaves his cousin in disgust, disowning him forever.

text: The members of La Onda hold a final gathering after the warden vows to split the council up transporting some members to their home states. Miklo plans on using this to expand La Onda to other states in the South West. Later, Miklo and his cellmate "Magic" destroy the mold which they used to send the forged orders to the B.G.A. hit man to kill Montana. Magic says "We both loved him, but we did what we had to do for La Onda." Back in East Los Angeles, Paco visits one of Cruz's murals after the family re-accepts him to see a portrait of his former life. In a pep talk with Cruz, Paco realizes that by ordering Miklo to go after Spider, Paco is responsible for all of the things that have happened to Miklo. This causes Paco to feel guilty for his actions and ultimately forgive Miklo.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Damian Chapa as Miklo Velka
Jesse Borrego as Cruz Candelaria
Benjamin Bratt as Paco Aguilar
Enrique Castillo as Montana Segura
Delroy Lindo as Bonafide
Victor Rivers as Magic
Geoffrey Rivas as Carlos
Tom Towles as Red Ryder
Carlos Carrasco as Popeye
Theodore Wilson as Wallace
Raymond Cruz as Chuey
Valente Rodriguez as Frankie
Lanny Flaherty as Big Al
Billy Bob Thornton as Lightning
Danny Trejo as Geronimo
Victor Mohica as Mano
Luis Contreras as Realthing
Paulo Tocha as Apache
Ving Rhames as Ivan
Richard Masur (uncredited) as Prison librarian
Thomas F. Wilson as Rollie McCann
Lupe Ontiveros as Carmen
Ashley Judd as Paco's Girlfriend ("deleted scene")
Peter Mark Vasquez as Chivo
Mark Rich as Miklo's Stunt Double

text: Production[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The three prison gangs in the film are fictional creations of screenwriter Jimmy Santiago Baca and director Taylor Hackford. However, they were all loosely based on actual prison gangs, with the Aryan Vanguard, Black Guerrilla Army and La Onda representing the Aryan Brotherhood, Black Guerrilla Family, and the Mexican Mafia, respectively.

text: Actor Theodore Wilson died shortly after filming his scenes in the film.

text: Artist Adan Hernandez was hired to create the paintings the character of Cruz Candelaria was supposed to have painted. All of the paintings that were used in the film were created by him. The mural in the reservoir seen in the film's climax has unfortunately been painted over. Hernandez made a cameo appearance in the film as the drug dealer Gilbert in the art gallery scene.

text: The film was shot in and around Los Angeles and East Los Angeles and inside the walls of San Quentin State Prison. The main character Miklo is sent to San Quentin, where much of the film's plot takes place. Several of the then-inmates appear in the film as extras. In addition, several of the prison staff members also appear as others and some facilitated the production of the film by serving as technical advisors. Many members of the staff were given small lines in the film, with the warden giving an extended cameo in a part that is somewhat integral to the plot. In addition, actor Danny Trejo, who appears in the film as Geronimo, had served time in San Quentin before deciding to become an actor.

text: In addition to prison inmates and staff and artist Hernandez, screenwriter and barrio poet Jimmy Santiago Baca cameos as a prison inmate and member of the La Onda council.

text: The film was initially entitled Blood in Blood Out but was retitled Bound by Honor before the film's release. Blood in blood out refers to the initiation ritual of having to kill someone to enter a gang and, on the reverse end, not being able to leave the gang unless killed. This is a common initiation in many gangs, including prison gangs, and is also the motto of La Onda in the film. Hollywood Pictures insisted on the name change as the studio felt that it would incite violence in East Los Angeles. In addition, executives at Hollywood Pictures, a subsidiary of Disney, were cautious about the potential effect the film would have following the 1992 LA Riots and the attribution given to Boyz N the Hood as a partial cause/inspiration of the riots. Director Taylor Hackford has stated that he was very unhappy with this decision as the film's message was the exact opposite of the one that the studio feared would be transmitted.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. It holds a 55% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 11 reviews.[2] On IMDb it holds an 8/10. The TV Guide review stated "similarity to Edward James Olmos' American Me, in which a tormented drug dealer travels the same route through prison society as Miklo. The principal difference between the two films is that Bound By Honor is by far the glossier effort, relentlessly picturesque in the seamlessly anesthetized manner of mainstream Hollywood films."[3] Film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum for the Chicago Reader wrote that this "ugly three-hour snoozefest is apparently supposed to do for East Los Angeles Chicanos what the Godfather movies did for New York mafiosi…"[4] Roger Ebert wrote "The East Los Angeles milieu and some of the characters seem familiar, because some of the same ground was covered by American Me... Bound by Honor covers similar material in a less passionate and finally less meaningful way."[5] Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4. A critic from Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave Bound By Honor a B-, falling on the high end of the movie spectrum. He states "Bound By Honor comes fully alive when it moves behind bars. There's an exploitative thrill built into the genre…"[6] This film critic was definitely more interested in the second half of the movie once Miklo was in jail running La Onda. Vincent Canby from the New York Times wrote "The film is big and long, passionate and flat. It's full of heroic and tragic incident, but skimpy about the details of quotidian lives."[7] Giving a very detailed review on the plot of the story he later exalts some of the characters in the movie one in particular, Enrique Castillo. Although Vincent Canby does not give an official rating for the film, he concludes "Though it's not the epic it means to be, it is not a failure."[8]