document_title: Supply and demand

question_text: the markets first response to a decrease in supply

text: Supply and demand

text: Graphical representations[edit]

text: Although it is normal to regard the quantity demanded  and the quantity supplied as functions of the price of the goods, the standard graphical representation, usually attributed to Alfred Marshall, has price on the vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal axis.

text: Since determinants of supply and demand other than the price of the goods in question are not explicitly represented in the supply-demand diagram, changes in the values of these variables are represented by moving the supply and demand curves (often described as "shifts" in the curves). By contrast, responses to changes in the price of the good are represented as movements along unchanged supply and demand curves.

text: Supply schedule[edit]

text: A supply schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. Under the assumption of perfect competition, supply is determined by marginal cost. That is, firms will produce additional output while the cost of producing an extra unit of output is less than the price they would receive.

text: A hike in the cost of raw goods would decrease supply, shifting costs up, while a discount would increase supply, shifting costs down and hurting producers as producer surplus decreases.

text: By its very nature, conceptualizing a supply curve requires the firm to be a perfect competitor (i.e. to have no influence over the market price). This is true because each point on the supply curve is the answer to the question "If this firm is faced with this potential price, how much output will it be able to and willing to sell?" If a firm has market power, its decision of how much output to provide to the market influences the market price, therefore the firm is not "faced with" any price, and the question becomes less relevant.

text: Economists distinguish between the supply curve of an individual firm and between the market supply curve.  The market supply curve is obtained by summing the quantities supplied by all suppliers at each potential price.  Thus, in the graph of the supply curve, individual firms' supply curves are added horizontally to obtain the market supply curve.

text: Economists also distinguish the short-run market supply curve from the long-run market supply curve.  In this context, two things are assumed constant by definition of the short run: the availability of one or more fixed inputs (typically physical capital), and the number of firms in the industry.  In the long run, firms have a chance to adjust their holdings of physical capital, enabling them to better adjust their quantity supplied at any given price. Furthermore, in the long run potential competitors can enter or exit the industry in response to market conditions.  For both of these reasons, long-run market supply curves are generally flatter than their short-run counterparts.

text: The determinants of supply are:

text:
Production costs: how much a goods costs to be produced.  Production costs are the cost of the inputs; primarily labor, capital, energy and materials.  They depend on the technology used in production, and/or technological advances. See: Productivity
Firms' expectations about future prices
Number of suppliers

text: Demand schedule[edit]

text:
A demand schedule, depicted graphically as the demand curve, represents the amount of some
goods that buyers are willing and able to purchase at various prices, assuming all determinants of demand other than the price of the good in question, such as income, tastes and preferences, the price of substitute goods, and the price of complementary goods, remain the same. Following the law of demand, the demand curve is almost always represented as downward-sloping, meaning that as price decreases, consumers will buy more of the good.[1]

text: Just like the supply curves reflect marginal cost curves, demand curves are determined by marginal utility curves.[2] Consumers will be willing to buy a given quantity of a good, at a given price, if the marginal utility of additional consumption is equal to the opportunity cost determined by the price, that is, the marginal utility of alternative consumption choices. The demand schedule is defined as the willingness and ability of a consumer to purchase a given product in a given frame of time.

text: It is aforementioned that the demand curve is generally downward-sloping, and there may exist rare examples of goods that have upward-sloping demand curves. Two different hypothetical types of goods with upward-sloping demand curves are Giffen goods (an inferior but staple good) and Veblen goods (goods made more fashionable by a higher price).

text: By its very nature, conceptualizing a demand curve requires that the purchaser be a perfect competitor—that is, that the purchaser has no influence over the market price.  This is true because each point on the demand curve is the answer to the question "If this buyer is faced with this potential price, how much of the product will it purchase?" If a buyer has market power, so its decision of how much to buy influences the market price, then the buyer is not "faced with" any price, and the question is meaningless.

text: Like with supply curves, economists distinguish between the demand curve of an individual and the market demand curve.  The market demand curve is obtained by summing the quantities demanded by all consumers at each potential price.  Thus, in the graph of the demand curve, individuals' demand curves are added horizontally to obtain the market demand curve.

text: The determinants of demand are:

text:
Income.
Tastes and preferences.
Prices of related goods and services.
Consumers' expectations about future prices and incomes that can be checked.
Number of potential consumers.

text: Microeconomics[edit]

text: Equilibrium[edit]

text: Generally speaking,  an equilibrium is defined to be the price-quantity pair where the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied. It is represented by the intersection of the demand and supply curves.[3] The analysis of various equilibria is a fundamental aspect of microeconomics:

text: Market equilibrium: A situation in a market when the price is such that the quantity demanded by consumers is correctly balanced by the quantity that firms wish to supply. In this situation, the market clears.[4]

text:
Changes in market equilibrium:
Practical uses of supply and demand analysis often center on the different variables that change equilibrium price and quantity, represented as shifts in the respective curves. Comparative statics of such a shift traces the effects from the initial equilibrium to the new equilibrium.

text: Demand curve shifts:

text: When consumers increase the quantity demanded at a given price, it is referred to as an increase in demand. Increased demand can be represented on the graph as the curve being shifted to the right. At each price point, a greater quantity is demanded, as from the initial curve D1 to the new curve D2. In the diagram, this raises the equilibrium price from P1 to the higher P2. This raises the equilibrium quantity from Q1 to the higher Q2.  A movements along the curve is described as a "change in the quantity demanded" to distinguish it from a "change in demand," that is, a shift of the curve.  there has been an increase in demand which has caused an increase in (equilibrium) quantity.  The increase in demand could also come from changing tastes and fashions, incomes, price changes in complementary and substitute goods, market expectations, and number of buyers. This would cause the entire demand curve to shift changing the equilibrium price and quantity.  Note in the diagram that the shift of the demand curve, by causing a new equilibrium price to emerge, resulted in movement along the supply curve from the point (Q1, P1) to the point (Q2, P2).

text: If the demand decreases, then the opposite happens: a shift of the curve to the left. If the demand starts at D2, and decreases to D1, the equilibrium price will decrease, and the equilibrium quantity will also decrease. The quantity supplied at each price is the same as before the demand shift, reflecting the fact that the supply curve has not shifted; but the equilibrium quantity and price are different as a result of the change (shift) in demand.

text: Supply curve shifts:

text: When technological progress occurs, the supply curve shifts.  For example, assume that someone invents a better way of growing wheat so that the cost of growing a given quantity of wheat decreases.   Otherwise stated, producers will be willing to supply more wheat at every price and this shifts the supply curve S1 outward, to S2—an increase in supply. This increase in supply causes the equilibrium price to decrease from P1 to P2. The equilibrium quantity increases from Q1 to Q2 as consumers move along the demand curve to the new lower price. As a result of a supply curve shift, the price and the quantity move in opposite directions.  If the quantity supplied decreases, the opposite happens. If the supply curve starts at S2, and shifts leftward to S1, the equilibrium price will increase and the equilibrium quantity will decrease as consumers move along the demand curve to the new higher price and associated lower quantity demanded. The quantity demanded at each price is the same as before the supply shift, reflecting the fact that the demand curve has not shifted. But due to the change (shift) in supply, the equilibrium quantity and price have changed.

text: The movement of the supply curve in response to a change in a non-price determinant of supply is caused by a change in the y-intercept, the constant term of the supply equation. The supply curve shifts up and down the y axis as non-price determinants of demand change.

text: Partial equilibrium[edit]

text: Partial equilibrium, as the name suggests, takes into consideration only a part of the market to attain equilibrium.

text: Jain proposes (attributed to George Stigler): "A partial equilibrium is one which is based on only a restricted range of data, a standard example is price of a single product, the prices of all other products being held fixed during the analysis."[5]

text: The supply-and-demand model is a partial equilibrium model of economic equilibrium, where the clearance on the market of some specific goods is obtained independently from prices and quantities in other markets. In other words, the prices of all substitutes and complements, as well as income levels of consumers are constant. This makes analysis much simpler than in a general equilibrium model which includes an entire economy.

text:
Here the dynamic process is that prices adjust until supply equals demand. It is a powerfully simple technique that allows one to study equilibrium, efficiency and comparative statics.  The stringency of the simplifying assumptions inherent in this approach make the model considerably more tractable, but may produce results which, while seemingly precise, do not effectively model real world economic
phenomena.

text: Partial equilibrium analysis examines the effects of policy action in creating equilibrium only in that particular sector or market which is directly affected, ignoring its effect in any other market or industry assuming that they being small will have little impact if any.

text: Hence this analysis is considered to be useful in constricted markets.

text: Léon Walras first formalized the idea of a one-period economic equilibrium of the general economic system, but it was French economist Antoine Augustin Cournot and English political economist Alfred Marshall who developed tractable models to analyze an economic system.

text: Other markets[edit]

text: The model of supply and demand also applies to various specialty markets.

text: The model is commonly applied to wages, in the market for labor. The typical roles of supplier and demander are reversed. The suppliers are individuals, who try to sell their labor for the highest price. The demanders of labor are businesses, which try to buy the type of labor they need at the lowest price. The equilibrium price for a certain type of labor is the wage rate.[6] However, economist Steve Fleetwood revisited the empirical reality of supply and demand curves in labor markets and concluded that the evidence is "at best inconclusive and at worst casts doubt on their existence." For instance, he cites Kaufman and Hotchkiss (2006): "For adult men, nearly all studies find the labour supply curve to be negatively sloped or backward bending." [7]

text: In both classical and Keynesian economics, the money market is analyzed as a supply-and-demand system with interest rates being the price. The money supply may be a vertical supply curve, if the central bank of a country chooses to use monetary policy to fix its value regardless of the interest rate; in this case the money supply is totally inelastic. On the other hand,[8] the money supply curve is a horizontal line if the central bank is targeting a fixed interest rate and ignoring the value of the money supply; in this case the money supply curve is perfectly elastic. The demand for money intersects with the money supply to determine the interest rate.[9]

text: Empirical estimation[edit]

text: Demand and supply relations in a market can be statistically estimated from price, quantity, and other data with sufficient information in the model.  This can be done with simultaneous-equation methods of estimation in econometrics.  Such methods allow solving for the model-relevant "structural coefficients," the estimated algebraic counterparts of the theory. The Parameter identification problem is a common issue in "structural estimation." Typically, data on exogenous variables (that is, variables other than price and quantity, both of which are endogenous variables) are needed to perform such an estimation.  An alternative to "structural estimation" is reduced-form estimation, which regresses each of the endogenous variables on the respective exogenous variables.

text: Macroeconomic uses[edit]

text: Demand and supply have also been generalized to explain macroeconomic variables in a market economy, including the quantity of total output and the general price level.  The aggregate demand-aggregate supply model may be the most direct application of supply and demand to macroeconomics, but other macroeconomic models also use supply and demand. Compared to microeconomic uses of demand and supply, different (and more controversial) theoretical considerations apply to such macroeconomic counterparts as aggregate demand and aggregate supply. Demand and supply are also used in macroeconomic theory to relate money supply and money demand to interest rates, and to relate labor supply and labor demand to wage rates.

text: History[edit]

text: The 256th couplet of Tirukkural, which was composed at least 2000 years ago, says that "if people do not consume a product or service, then there will not be anybody to supply that product or service for the sake of price".[10]

text: According to Hamid S. Hosseini, the power of supply and demand was understood to some extent by several early Muslim scholars, such as fourteenth-century Syrian scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, who wrote: "If desire for goods increases while its availability decreases, its price rises. On the other hand, if availability of the good increases and the desire for it decreases, the price comes down."[11]

text:
“

If desire for goods increases while its availability decreases, its price rises. On the other hand, if availability of the good increases and the desire for it decreases, the price comes down.

”

— Ibn Taymiyyah, [11]

text: John Locke's 1691 work Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money.[12] includes an early and clear description of supply and demand and their relationship.  In this description demand is rent: “The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyer and sellers” and “that which regulates the price... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent.”

text: The phrase "supply and demand" was first used by James Denham-Steuart in his Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, published in 1767. Adam Smith used the phrase in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations, and David Ricardo titled one chapter of his 1817 work Principles of Political Economy and Taxation "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price".[13]

text: In The Wealth of Nations, Smith generally assumed that the supply price was fixed but that its "merit" (value) would decrease as its "scarcity" increased, in effect what was later called the law of demand also. Ricardo, in Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, more rigorously laid down the idea of the assumptions that were used to build his ideas of supply and demand. Antoine Augustin Cournot first developed a mathematical model of supply and demand in his 1838 Researches into the Mathematical Principles of Wealth, including diagrams.

text: During the late 19th century the marginalist school of thought emerged. The main innovators of this approach where Stanley Jevons, Carl Menger, and Léon Walras. The key idea was that the price was set by the subjective value of a good at the margin. This was a substantial change from Adam Smith's thoughts on determining the supply price.

text: In his 1870 essay "On the Graphical Representation of Supply and Demand", Fleeming Jenkin in the course of "introduc[ing] the diagrammatic method into the English economic literature"  published the first drawing of supply and demand curves in English,[14] including comparative statics from a shift of supply or demand and application to the labor market.[15] The model was further developed and popularized by Alfred Marshall in the 1890 textbook Principles of Economics.[13]

text: Artificial intelligent buying platforms[edit]

text: Much of the buying and selling are now conducted online using platforms such as Amazon and eBay, where the profiles of the customers are captured and analyzed. Tshilidzi Marwala and Evan Hurwitz in their book [16] observed that the advent of artificial intelligence and related technologies such as flexible manufacturing offers the opportunity for individualized demand and supply curves to be generated. This has been found to reduce the degree of arbitrage in the market, allow for individualized pricing for the same product and brings fairness and efficiency into the market.

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: The philosopher Hans Albert has argued that the ceteris paribus conditions of the marginalist theory rendered the theory itself an empty tautology and completely closed to experimental testing. Fixing the Economists. 27 February 2014. Available at: Hans Albert Expands Robinson’s Critique of Marginal Utility Theory to the Law of Demand</ref> In essence, he argues, the supply and demand curves (theoretical functions which express the quantity of a product which would be offered or requested for a given price) are purely ontological.

text: Cambridge economist Joan Robinson attacked the theory in similar line, arguing that the concept is circular: "Utility is the quality in commodities that makes individuals want to buy them, and the fact that individuals want to buy commodities shows that they have utility"[17]:48 Robinson also pointed out that if we take changes in peoples' behavior in relation to a change in prices or a change in the underlying budget constraint we can never be sure to what extent the change in behavior was due to the change in price or budget constraint and how much was due to a change in preferences.[18][better source needed]

text: Sraffa's critique focused on the inconsistency (except in implausible circumstances) of partial equilibrium analysis and the rationale for the upward slope of the supply curve in a market for a produced consumption good.[19] The notability of Sraffa's critique is also demonstrated by Paul A. Samuelson's comments and engagements with it over many years, for example:


document_title: Gilgamesh flood myth

question_text: the story of gilgamesh might be based on a real king from what ancient civilization

root

text: Gilgamesh flood myth

text: History[edit]

text: Gilgamesh’s supposed historical reign is believed to have been approximately 2700 BCE,[2] shortly before the earliest known written stories. The discovery of artifacts associated with Aga and Enmebaragesi of Kish, two other kings named in the stories, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.[3]

tag: p

text: The earliest Sumerian Gilgamesh poems date from as early as the Third dynasty of Ur (2100–2000 BCE).[4] One of these poems mentions Gilgamesh’s journey to meet the flood hero, as well as a short version of the flood story.[5] The earliest Akkadian versions of the unified epic are dated to ca. 2000–1500 BCE.[6] Due to the fragmentary nature of these Old Babylonian versions, it is unclear whether they included an expanded account of the flood myth; although one fragment definitely includes the story of Gilgamesh’s journey to meet Utnapishtim. The “standard” Akkadian version included a long version of the story and was edited by Sin-liqe-unninni sometime between 1300 and 1000 BCE.[7]

text: Tablet XI[edit]

text: The Gilgamesh flood tablet XI contains additional story material besides the flood. The flood story was included because in it the flood hero Utnapishtim is granted immortality by the gods and that fits the immortality theme of the epic. The main point seems to be that Utnapishtim was granted eternal life in unique, never-to-be-repeated circumstances. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights. However, as soon as Utnapishtim finishes speaking Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread for every day he is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny his failure. Gilgamesh, who wants to overcome death, cannot even conquer sleep.

text: As Gilgamesh is leaving, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to offer a parting gift. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a boxthorn-like plant at the very bottom of the ocean that will make him young again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by binding stones to his feet so he can walk on the bottom of the sea. He recovers the plant and plans to test it on an old man when he returns to Uruk. Unfortunately, when Gilgamesh stops to bathe it is stolen by a serpent that sheds its skin as it departs, apparently reborn. Gilgamesh, having failed both chances, returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls provokes him to praise this enduring work of mortal men. The implication may be that mortals can achieve immortality through lasting works of civilization and culture.

text: Flood myth section[edit]

text: Lines 1-203, Tablet XI [8] (note: with supplemental sub-titles and line numbers added for clarity)

text: Ea leaks the secret plan[edit]

text:
Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh a secret story that begins in the old city of Shuruppak on the banks of the Euphrates River.
The "great gods" Anu, Enlil, Ninurta, Ennugi, and Ea were sworn to secrecy about their plan to cause the flood.
But the god Ea (Sumerian god Enki) repeated the plan to Utnapishtim through a reed wall in a reed house.
Ea commanded Utnapishtim to demolish his house and build a boat, regardless of the cost, to keep living beings alive.
The boat must have equal dimensions with corresponding width and length and be covered over like Apsu boats.
Utnapishtim promised to do what Ea commanded.
He asked Ea what he should say to the city elders and the population.
Ea tells him to say that Enlil has rejected him and he can no longer reside in the city or set foot in Enlil's territory.
He should also say that he will go down to the Apsu "to live with my lord Ea".
Note: 'Apsu' can refer to a fresh water marsh near the temple of Ea/Enki at the city of Eridu.[9]
Ea will provide abundant rain, a profusion of fowl and fish, and a wealthy harvest of wheat and bread.

tag: ol

text: Building and launching the boat[edit]

text:
Carpenters, reed workers, and other people assembled one morning.
[missing lines]
Five days later, Utnapishtim laid out the exterior walls of the boat of 120 cubits.
The sides of the superstructure had equal lengths of 120 cubits. He also made a drawing of the interior structure.
The boat had six decks [?] divided into seven and nine compartments.
Water plugs were driven into the middle part.
Punting poles and other necessary things were laid in.
Three times 3,600 units of raw bitumen were melted in a kiln and three times 3,600 units of oil were used in addition to two times 3,600 units of oil that were stored in the boat.
Oxen and sheep were slaughtered and ale, beer, oil, and wine were distributed to the workmen, like at a new year's festival.
When the boat was finished, the launching was very difficult. A runway of poles was used to slide the boat into the water.
Two-thirds of the boat was in the water.
Utnapishtim loaded his silver and gold into the boat.
He loaded "all the living beings that I had."
His relatives and craftsmen, and "all the beasts and animals of the field" boarded the boat.
The time arrived, as stated by the god Shamash, to seal the entry door.

text: The storm[edit]

text:
Early in the morning at dawn a black cloud arose from the horizon.
The weather was frightful.
Utnapishtim boarded the boat and entrusted the boat and its contents to his boatmaster Puzurammurri who sealed the entry.
The thunder god Adad rumbled in the cloud and storm gods Shullar and Hanish went over mountains and land.
Erragal pulled out the mooring poles and the dikes overflowed.
The Annunnaki gods lit up the land with their lightning.
There was stunned shock at Adad's deeds which turned everything to blackness. The land was shattered like a pot.
All day long the south wind blew rapidly and the water overwhelmed the people like an attack.
No one could see his fellows. They could not recognize each other in the torrent.
The gods were frightened by the flood, and retreated up to the Anu heaven. They cowered like dogs lying by the outer wall.
Ishtar shrieked like a woman in childbirth.
The Mistress of the gods wailed that the old days had turned to clay because "I said evil things in the Assembly of the Gods, ordering a catastrophe to destroy my people who fill the sea like fish."
The other gods were weeping with her and sat sobbing with grief, their lips burning, parched with thirst.
The flood and wind lasted six days and six nights, flattening the land.
On the seventh day, the storm was pounding [intermittently?] like a woman in labor.

text: Calm after the storm[edit]

text:
The sea calmed and the whirlwind and flood stopped. All day long there was quiet. All humans had turned to clay.
The terrain was as flat as a roof top. Utnapishtim opened a window and felt fresh air on his face.
He fell to his knees and sat weeping, tears streaming down his face. He looked for coastlines at the horizon and saw a region of land.
The boat lodged firmly on mount Nimush which held the boat for several days, allowing no swaying.
On the seventh day he released a dove which flew away, but came back to him. He released a swallow, but it also came back to him.
He released a raven which was able to eat and scratch, and did not circle back to the boat.
He then sent his livestock out in various directions.

text: The sacrifice[edit]

text:
He sacrificed a sheep and offered incense at a mountainous ziggurat where he placed 14 sacrificial vessels and poured reeds, cedar, and myrtle into the fire.
The gods smelled the sweet odor of the sacrificial animal and gathered like flies over the sacrifice.
Then the great goddess arrived, lifted up her flies (beads), and said
"Ye gods, as surely as I shall not forget this lapis lazuli [amulet] around my neck, I shall be mindful of these days and never forget them! The gods may come to the sacrificial offering. But Enlil may not come, because he brought about the flood and annihilated my people without considering [the consequences]."
When Enlil arrived, he saw the boat and became furious at the Igigi gods. He said "Where did a living being escape? No man was to survive the annihilation!"
Ninurta spoke to Enlil saying "Who else but Ea could do such a thing? It is Ea who knew all of our plans."
Ea spoke to Enlil saying "It was you, the Sage of the Gods. How could you bring about a flood without consideration?"
Ea then accuses Enlil of sending a disproportionate punishment, and reminds him of the need for compassion.
Ea denies leaking the god's secret plan to Atrahasis (= Utnapishtim), admitting only sending him a dream and deflecting Enlil's attention to the flood hero.

text: The flood hero and his wife are granted immortality and transported far away[edit]

text:
He then boards a boat and grasping Utnapishtim's hand, helps him and his wife aboard where they kneel. Standing between Utnapishtim and his wife, he touches their foreheads and blesses them. "Formerly Utnapishtim was a human being, but now he and his wife have become gods like us. Let Utnapishtim reside far away, at the mouth of the rivers."
Utnapishtim and his wife are transported and settled at the "mouth of the rivers".

text: Last third of Tablet XI-Outline[edit]

text: In addition to the flood story material, (lines 1–203), tablet XI contains the following flood story elements:

text: List of titled subparts, Tablet XI-(by Kovacs):[10]

text: Comparison between Atrahasis and Gilgamesh[edit]

text: These are some of the sentences copied more or less directly from the Atrahasis version to the Gilgamesh epic:[11]

text:
Atrahasis Epic
Gilgamesh Epic, tablet XI

"Wall, listen to me." Atrahasis III,i,20
"Wall, pay attention" Gilgamesh XI,22

"Like the apsu you shall roof it" Atrahasis III,i,29
"Like the apsu you shall roof it" Gilgamesh XI,31

"I cannot live in [your city]" Atrahasis III,i,47
"I cannot live in your city" Gilgamesh XI,40

"Ninurta went forth making the dikes [overflow]" Atrahasis U rev,14
"Ninurta went forth making the dikes overflow" Gilgamesh XI,102

"One person could [not] see another" Atrahasis III,iii,13
"One person could not see another" Gilgamesh XI,111

"For seven days and seven nights came the storm" Atrahasis III,iv,24
"Six days and seven nights the wind and storm flood" Gilgamesh XI,127

"He offered [a sacrifice]" Atrahasis III,v,31
"And offered a sacrifice" Gilgamesh XI,155

"the lapis around my neck" Atrahasis III,vi,2
"the lapis lazuli on my neck" Gilgamesh XI,164

"How did man survive the destruction?" Atrahasis III,vi,10
"No man was to survive the destruction" Gilgamesh XI,173

tag: table

text: Material altered or omitted[edit]

text: The Epic of Atrahasis provides additional information on the flood and flood hero that is omitted in Gilgamesh XI and other versions of the Ancient Near East flood myth. According to Atrahasis III ii, lines 40–47 the flood hero was at a banquet when the storm and flood began: "He invited his people ... to a banquet ... He sent his family on board. They ate and they drank. But he (Atrahasis) was in and out. He could not sit, could not crouch, for his heart was broken and he was vomiting gall."[12]

text: According to Tigay, Atrahasis tablet III iv, lines 6–9 clearly identify the flood as a local river flood: "Like dragonflies they [dead bodies] have filled the river. Like a raft they have moved in to the edge [of the boat]. Like a raft they have moved in to the riverbank." The sentence "Like dragonflies they have filled the river." was changed in Gilgamesh XI line 123 to "Like the spawn of fishes, they fill the sea."[13] Tigay holds that we can see the mythmaker's hand at work here, changing a local river flood into an ocean deluge.

text: Most other authorities interpret the Atrahasis flood as universal. A. R. George, and Lambert and Millard make it clear that the gods' intention in Atrahasis is to "wipe out mankind".[14] The flood destroys "all of the earth".[15] The use of a comparable metaphor in the Gilgamesh epic suggests that the reference to "dragonflies [filling] the river" is simply an evocative image of death rather than a literal description of the flood[16] However, the local river flood in Atrahasis could accomplish destruction of all "mankind" and "all of the earth" if the scope of "mankind" is limited to all of the people living on "all of the land" of the flood plains in the lower river valley known to the Atrahasis writer.[citation needed]

text: Other editorial changes were made to the Atrahasis text in Gilgamesh to lessen the suggestion that the gods may have experienced human needs. For example, Atrahasis OB III, 30–31 "The Anunnaki, the great gods [were sitt]ing in thirst and hunger" was changed in Gilgamesh XI, line 113 to "The gods feared the deluge." Sentences in Atrahasis III iv were omitted in Gilgamesh, e.g. "She was surfeited with grief and thirsted for beer" and "From hunger they were suffering cramp."[17]

text: These and other editorial changes to Atrahasis are documented and described in the book by Prof. Tigay (see below) who is associate professor of Hebrew and Semitic languages and literature in the University of Pennsylvania. Prof. Tigay comments: "The dropping of individual lines between others which are preserved, but are not synonymous with them, appears to be a more deliberate editorial act. These lines share a common theme, the hunger and thirst of the gods during the flood."[17]

text: Although the 18th century BC copy of the Atrahasis (Atra-Hasis) epic post-dates the early Gilgamesh epic, we do not know whether the Old-Akkadian Gilgamesh tablets included the flood story, because of the fragmentary nature of surviving tablets. Some scholars argue that they did not.[18] Tigay, for example, maintains that three major additions to the Gilgamesh epic, namely the prologue, the flood story (tablet XI), and tablet XII, were added by an editor or editors, possibly by Sin-leqi-unninni, to whom the entire epic was later attributed. According to this view, the flood story in tablet XI was based on a late version of the Atrahasis story.[19]

text: Alternative translations[edit]

text: As with most translations, especially from an ancient, dead language, scholars differ on the meaning of ambiguous sentences.

text: For example, line 57 in Gilgamesh XI is usually translated (with reference to the boat) "ten rods the height of her sides",[20] or "its walls were each 10 times 12 cubits in height".[21] A rod was a dozen cubits, and a Sumerian cubit was about 20 inches. Hence these translations imply that the boat was about 200 feet high, which would be impractical[22] with the technology in Gilgamesh's time (about 2700 BC).[23] There is no Akkadian word for "height" in line 57. The sentence literally reads "Ten dozen-cubits each I-raised its-walls."[24] A similar example from an unrelated house building tablet reads: "he shall build the wall [of the house] and raise it four ninda and two cubits." This measurement (about 83 feet) means wall length not height.[25]

text: Line 142 in Gilgamesh XI is usually translated "Mount Niṣir held the boat, allowing no motion." Niṣir is often spelled Nimush,[26] which is described as the newer reading.[27] The Akkadian words translated "Mount Niṣir" are "KUR-ú KUR ni-ṣir".[28] The word KUR could mean hill or country; it is capitalized because it is a Sumerian word.[29] The first KUR is followed by a phonetic complement -ú which indicates that KUR-ú is to be read in Akkadian as šadú (hill) and not as mātu (country). Since šadú (hill) could also mean mountain in Akkadian, and scholars knew the Biblical expression Mount Ararat, it has become customary to translate šadú as mountain or mount. The flood hero was Sumerian, according to the WB-62 Sumerian King List,[30] and in Sumerian the word KUR meant hill or country, not mountain. The second KUR lacks a phonetic complement and is therefore read in Akkadian as mātu (country). Hence, the entire clause reads "The hill/mound country niṣir held the boat".

text: Lines 146-147 in Gilgamesh XI are usually translated "I ... made sacrifice, incense I placed on the peak of the mountain."[31] Similarly "I poured out a libation on the peak of the mountain."[32] But Kovacs[33] provides this translation of line 156: "I offered incense in front of the mountain-ziggurat." Parpola provides the original Akkadian for this sentence: "áš-kun sur-qin-nu ina UGU ziq-qur-rat KUR-i"[34] Áš-kun means I-placed; sur-qin-nu means offering; ina-(the preposition) means on-(upon); UGU means top-of; ziq-qur-rat means temple tower; and KUR-i means hilly. Parpola's glossary (page 145) defines ziq-qur-rat as "temple tower, ziggurat" and refers to line 157 so he translates ziq-qur-rat as temple tower in this context. The sentence literally reads "I placed an offering on top of a hilly ziggurat." A ziggurat was an elevated platform or temple tower where priests made offerings to the temple god. Most translators of line 157 disregard ziq-qur-rat as a redundant metaphor for peak. There is no authority for this other than previous translations of line 157.[35] Kovacs' translation retains the word ziggurat on page 102.

text: One of the Sumerian cities with a ziggurat was Eridu located on the southern branch of the Euphrates River next to a large swampy low-lying depression known as the apsû.[36] The only ziggurat at Eridu was at the temple of the god Ea (Enki), known as the apsû-house.[37] In Gilgamesh XI, line 42 the flood hero said "I will go down [the river] to the apsû to live with Ea, my Lord."[38]

text: Lines 189–192 (lines 198–201) in Gilgamesh XI are usually translated "Then godEnlil came aboard the boat. He took hold of my hand and brought me on board. He brought aboard my wife and made her kneel at my side. Standing between us, he touched our foreheads to bless us."[39] In the first sentence "Then dingir-kabtu came aboard the boat" the Akkadian determinative dingir is usually translated as "god", but can also mean "priest"[40] Dingir-kabtu literally means "divine important-person".[41] Translating this as Enlil is the translator's conjecture.


question_text: who burned down the billboards in three billboards

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the town of Ebbing, Missouri, Mildred Hayes is grieving the rape and murder of her teenage daughter, Angela, seven months earlier. Angry over the lack of progress in the investigation, Mildred rents three abandoned billboards near her home, and posts on them: "Raped While Dying", "Still No Arrests?", and "How Come, Chief Willoughby?" The billboards upset the townspeople, including Chief Bill Willoughby and Officer Jason Dixon, the latter being a racist and a violent alcoholic. The open secret that Willoughby suffers from terminal pancreatic cancer adds to everyone's disapproval. Mildred and her son Robbie are harassed and threatened, but to Robbie's chagrin, she stays firm about keeping the billboards up.

text: While Willoughby is sympathetic to Mildred's frustration, he finds the billboards an unfair attack on his character. Angered by Mildred's lack of respect for his authority, Dixon threatens businessman Red Welby, who rented Mildred the billboards, and he arrests her friend and coworker, Denise, on trivial marijuana possession charges. Mildred is also visited by her abusive ex-husband Charlie, who blames her for their daughter's death.

text: Willoughby brings Mildred in for questioning after she drills a hole in her dentist's thumb when he threatens her. During the interview, Willoughby coughs up blood. He leaves the hospital against medical advice and spends an idyllic day with his wife Anne and their two daughters, then commits suicide due to his illness. He leaves suicide notes for several people, including Mildred, in which he explains that she was not a factor in his suicide and that he secretly paid to keep the billboards up for another month, amused at the trouble this will bring her and hope that they will keep attention on the murder. Dixon reacts to the news of Willoughby's death by assaulting Welby and throwing him out of a window. This is witnessed by Willoughby's replacement, Abercrombie, who fires Dixon. In the meanwhile, Mildred is threatened by a crop-haired stranger in her store.

text: The billboards are destroyed by arson. Mildred retaliates by tossing Molotov cocktails at the police station, which she believes is unoccupied for the night. However, Dixon is there to read Willoughby's letter to him, which advises him to let go of hate and learn to love, as the only way to realize his wish to become a detective. Dixon escapes with Angela's case file but suffers severe burns. Mildred's acquaintance James witnesses the incident and provides Mildred with an alibi, claiming they were on a date. Dixon is treated for his burns, and he is temporarily confined in the same hospital room as Welby, to whom he apologizes.

text: Discharged from the hospital, Dixon overhears the man who threatened Mildred bragging in a bar of an incident similar to Angela's murder. He notes the Idaho license plate number of the man's vehicle, then provokes a fight by scratching the man's face. At home later, he removes a sample of the man's DNA from under his fingernails. Meanwhile, Mildred goes on a date with James to thank him for the alibi. Charlie enters with his 19-year-old girlfriend Penelope and admits to burning the billboards while intoxicated. After accidentally causing James to leave, Mildred tells Charlie to treat Penelope well and leaves.

text: Though commending him, Abercrombie informs Dixon that the DNA sample does not match DNA found on Angela's body, and that the man was overseas on military duty at the time of the murder. Dixon concludes that the man must be guilty of some other rape, and joins Mildred on a trip to Idaho in order to kill him. On the way, Mildred confesses to Dixon that she set the police station on fire. He indicates that he knew already. They express reservations about their mission but agree to decide what to do along the way.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Frances McDormand as Mildred Hayes
Woody Harrelson as William 'Bill' Willoughby
Sam Rockwell as Jason Dixon
Abbie Cornish as Anne Willoughby
John Hawkes as Charlie Hayes
Peter Dinklage as James
Caleb Landry Jones as Red Welby
Kerry Condon as Pamela
Darrell Britt-Gibson as Jerome
Lucas Hedges as Robbie Hayes
Željko Ivanek as Desk Sergeant
Amanda Warren as Denise
Kathryn Newton as Angela Hayes
Samara Weaving as Penelope
Clarke Peters as Chief Abercrombie

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: While traveling through the Southern United States in around 1998, Martin McDonagh came across a couple of accusatory billboards about an unsolved crime, which he described as "raging and painful and tragic [sic]". The billboards highlighted the incompetence of police work and deeply affected McDonagh; he said that the image "stayed in my mind [...] kept gnawing at me" and presumed that they were put up by the victim's mother.[5][a] This incident, combined with his desire to create strong female characters, inspired him to write the story for Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.[5] McDonagh discussed the creative process, saying that it took him about ten years to "[decide] that it was a mother who had taken these things out. It all became fiction [...] based on a couple of actual billboards".[7][8]

text: Casting and filming[edit]

text: The character of Mildred was written with Frances McDormand in mind, and likewise the character of Dixon was written specifically for Rockwell.[9] McDormand initially felt that she was older than the character as it was written, and suggested that Mildred instead be Angela's grandmother; McDonagh disagreed, feeling that it would change the story too much.[9][10] McDormand's husband Joel Coen persuaded her to take the part regardless.[9] McDormand took inspiration for her character from John Wayne; and Rockwell, wanting to make his character "the exact opposite" of Mildred, took inspiration for his character in part from Wayne's co-star in The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, Lee Marvin.[9]

text: Principal photography began on May 2, 2016, in Sylva, North Carolina,[11] and ran for 33 days.[12] Allison Outdoor Advertising of Sylva built the actual billboards, which were put in a pasture near Black Mountain, North Carolina because that location was better. Most of the time the billboards were covered because people in the area found them upsetting. David Penix of Arden, North Carolina bought the billboards and used the wood for a roof in Douglas Lake in Tennessee, though the messages are no longer in order.[13] Town Pump Tavern in Black Mountain, which had appeared in The World Made Straight, was used as a set and was closed for three days during filming. A pool table and booths were added. The bar's actual sign appeared in the movie.[14]

text: Music[edit]

text: The musical score was written by Carter Burwell, who had also supplied the score for McDonagh's films In Bruges and Seven Psychopaths. As well as Burwell's score, the film features songs by ABBA, Joan Baez, The Felice Brothers, the Four Tops, Monsters of Folk and Townes Van Zandt. [15]

text: Release[edit]

text: Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri premiered in competition at the 74th Venice International Film Festival on September 4, 2017.[16] It also had screenings at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival,[17] the 2017 San Sebastián International Film Festival (where it won the Audience Award),[18] the BFI London Film Festival,[19] and the 2017 Zurich Film Festival.[20] It was also screened at the Mar del Plata International Film Festival.[21]

text: In the United States, the film was released, by Fox Searchlight Pictures, on November 10, 2017, beginning with a limited release, before "going wide" on December 1.[4] The film was released on 4K Ultra HD, Blu-ray and DVD on February 27, 2018.[22] Six Shooter, McDonagh's Academy Award-winning short film, is included as a bonus.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri grossed $54.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $104.1 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $158.6 million.[4]

text: In its limited opening weekend, the film made $322,168 from four theaters for a per-theater average of $80,542, the fourth best of 2017.[23] The film made $1.1 million from 53 theaters in its second weekend and $4.4 million from 614 in its third, finishing a respective 9th and 10th at the box office.[24] In the weekend following its four Golden Globe wins the film was added to 712 theaters (for a total of 1,022) and grossed $2.3 million, and increase of 226% from the previous week's $706,188.[25] The weekend of January 27, 2018, following the announcement of the film's seven Oscar nominations, it made $3.6 million (an increase of 87% over the previous week's $1.9 million), finishing 13th.[26] The weekend of March 9–11, following its two Oscar wins, the film made $705,000, down 45% from the previous week's $1.3 million.[27]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2018)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 317 reviews, and an average rating of 8.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri deftly balances black comedy against searing drama – and draws unforgettable performances from its veteran cast along the way."[28] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film had a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "universal acclaim."[29] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[30]

text: Owen Gleiberman of Variety praised the film's performances, stating "It's Mildred's glowering refusal to back down that defines her, and McDormand brilliantly spotlights the conflicted humanity beneath the stony façade," and called Rockwell's performance a "revelation."[31] Steve Pond, writing for TheWrap, praised McDonagh's writing, calling it "Very funny, very violent and surprisingly moving."[32]

text: Some criticized the script for McDonagh's insincere or incorrect portrayal of small town America. The New York Times columnist Wesley Morris called McDonagh's portrayal of America a caricature: "a set of postcards from a Martian lured to America by a cable news ticker and by rumors of how easily flattered and provoked we are."[33] Tim Parks in The New Yorker praised the “magnificently photographed images” but wrote that the plot contained “a thousand cheap coincidences”. He concluded that the film is "empty of emotional intelligence" and "devoid of any remotely honest observation of the society it purports to serve." [34] In her review for The New York Times, Manohla Dargis wrote "[McDonagh's] jokes can be uninterestingly glib with tiny, bloodless pricks that are less about challenging the audience than about obscuring the material's clichés and overriding theatricality."[35]

text: The film was also controversial for its insensitive handling of racial themes, particularly surrounding the redemptive arc of Officer Dixon. In The Daily Beast, blogger Ira Madison III called the treatment of Rockwell's character "altogether offensive...McDonagh's attempts to script the black experience in America are often fumbling and backward and full of outdated tropes."[36] Alyssa Rosenberg noted in The Washington Post that "[Dixon's] redemption doesn’t merely defang his previous venomous bigotry; it softens Mildred’s character development."[37]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri won for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Actress – Drama (McDormand), Best Supporting Actor (Rockwell), and Best Screenplay, and was nominated for Best Director and Best Original Score.[38] At the 71st British Academy Film Awards, it received nine nominations, including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Actress in a Leading Role (McDormand), and Best Actor in a Supporting Role for both Rockwell and Harrelson.[39][40] It won five awards, including Best Film and Outstanding British Film (making it the only film along with The King's Speech to win both awards since the latter category was reintroduced in 1992)[41] while both McDormand and Rockwell won the Lead Actress and Supporting Actor awards respectively.[42] It was nominated for four awards at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards, winning three, including Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. At the 90th Academy Awards it received seven nominations, including Best Picture, Best Actress for Frances McDormand, Best Original Screenplay for Martin McDonagh and two Best Supporting Actor nominations for both Sam Rockwell and Woody Harrelson. McDormand and Rockwell took home their respective awards.

text: It was named one of the top 10 films of the year by the American Film Institute.[43] At the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival,[17] the film won its top prize, the People's Choice Award.[44] At the 2017 San Sebastián International Film Festival, it won the Audience Award.[18]

text: Impact[edit]

text: On February 15, 2018, Justice4Grenfell, an advocacy group created in response to the Grenfell Tower fire, hired three vans with electronic screens in a protest against perceived inaction in response to the fire.[45] The vans were driven around London, and displayed messages in the style of the billboards in the film: '71 Dead', 'And Still No Arrests?', 'How Come?'[46]

text: In response to the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting that took place on February 14, 2018, in Parkland, Florida, activist group Avaaz had three vans circle Florida senator Marco Rubio's offices displaying 'Slaughtered in School', 'And Still No Gun Control?', 'How Come, Marco Rubio?'[47][48]

text: On the night of February 15, 2018, the movement #OccupyJustice set up three billboards and a number of banners in Malta, marking the four-month anniversary of the murder of the journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia. The billboards bore the text 'A Journalist Killed. No Justice.', 'A Country Robbed. No Justice.', and 'No Resignations. No Justice.'[49][50] The authorities removed the billboards the following day,[51] stating that they were illegal.[52] The government was criticized for this move,[53][54] and a day after their removal, activists laid down banners with similar text near Auberge de Castille, the Office of the Prime Minister.[52]

text: Outside the Bristol city centre on February 3, 2018, a mural was erected depicting three billboards reading 'Our NHS is dying', 'And still no more funding', and 'How come, Mrs May'. It was installed by the groups People’s Republic of Stokes Croft and Protect Our NHS in response to the alleged privatization of the National Health Service (NHS) and the death of a 15-year-old girl attributed by some to a purported lack of resources by the NHS.[55]

text: On February 22, 2018, the Union of Medical Care and Relief Organizations, protesting the inaction of the UN's role within the Syrian Civil War, set up three billboards outside the United Nations building in New York that read '500,000 Dead in Syria', 'And still no action?', and 'How come, Security Council'.[56][57]

text: On or around March 1, around the time of the 2018 Oscars, three billboards were taken out in Los Angeles, stating "WE ALL KNEW AND STILL NO ARRESTS", "AND THE OSCAR FOR BIGGEST PEDOPHILE GOES TO..." and "NAME NAMES ON STAGE OR SHUT THE HELL UP!", as an attempt to protest both the Oscars and the #MeToo movement.[58]

text: On March 8, on International Women's Day, three billboards were put in downtown Pristina, Kosovo,[59] to protest the death of two women as a result of domestic violence.[60]

text: Both McDormand and McDonagh have responded positively to the protests, with McDonagh saying "You couldn't ask for anything more than for an angry film to be adopted by protests,"[61][62] and McDormand saying she is “thrilled that activists all over the world have been inspired by the set decoration of the three billboards in Martin’s film.”[63]

text: On March 24, 2018, signs inspired by Three Billboards appeared at March for Our Lives gun safety rallies across the US and around the world.[64][65]

text: Explanatory notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The billboards were later found along the Interstate 10, and had been put by James Fulton, whose daughter Kathy Page was assaulted and killed in 1991.[6]


document_title: Pixel

question_text: the number of bits of data describing each pixel in a display is referred to as ____

question_tokens: the number of bits of data describing each pixel in a display is referred to as -- -- -- --

text: Pixel

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word "pixel" was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the picture elements of video images from space probes to the Moon and Mars.[5] Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, who in turn said he did not know where it originated. McFarland said simply it was "in use at the time" (circa 1963).[6]

text: The word is a combination of pix, for picture, and element.  The word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies.[7] By 1938, "pix" was being used in reference to still pictures by photojournalists.[6]

text: The concept of a "picture element" dates to the earliest days of television, for example as "Bildpunkt" (the German word for pixel, literally 'picture point') in the 1888 German patent of Paul Nipkow. According to various etymologies, the earliest publication of the term picture element itself was in Wireless World magazine in 1927,[8] though it had been used earlier in various U.S. patents filed as early as 1911.[9]

text: Some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972.[10] In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel.[11] For example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC.

text: Pixels, abbreviated as 'px,' are also a unit of measurement commonly used in graphic and web design, equivalent to roughly 1⁄96 inch (0.26 mm). This measurement is used to make sure a given element will display as the same size no matter what screen resolution views it.[12]

text: Pixilation, spelled with a second i, is an unrelated filmmaking technique that dates to the beginnings of cinema, in which live actors are posed frame by frame and photographed to create stop-motion animation. An archaic British word meaning "possession by spirits (pixies)", the term has been used to describe the animation process since the early 1950s; various animators, including Norman McLaren and Grant Munro, are credited with popularizing it.[13]

text: Technical[edit]

text: A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image. However, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be "printed pixels" in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera (photosensor elements). This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, and spot. Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as: 2400 pixels per inch, 640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart.

text: The measures dots per inch (dpi) and pixels per inch (ppi) are sometimes used interchangeably, but have distinct meanings, especially for printer devices, where dpi is a measure of the printer's density of dot (e.g. ink droplet) placement.[14]  For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer.[15]  Even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution.[16]

text: The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original. The number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition. Pixel counts can be expressed as a single number, as in a "three-megapixel" digital camera, which has a nominal three million pixels, or as a pair of numbers, as in a "640 by 480 display", which has 640 pixels from side to side and 480 from top to bottom (as in a VGA display), and therefore has a total number of 640×480 = 307,200 pixels or 0.3 megapixels.

text: The pixels, or color samples, that form a digitized image (such as a JPEG file used on a web page) may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels, depending on how a computer displays an image. In computing, an image composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image. The word raster originates from television scanning patterns, and has been widely used to describe similar halftone printing and storage techniques.

text: Sampling patterns[edit]

text: For convenience, pixels are normally arranged in a regular two-dimensional grid. By using this arrangement, many common operations can be implemented by uniformly applying the same operation to each pixel independently. Other arrangements of pixels are possible, with some sampling patterns even changing the shape (or kernel) of each pixel across the image. For this reason, care must be taken when acquiring an image on one device and displaying it on another, or when converting image data from one pixel format to another.

text: For example:

text:
LCD screens typically use a staggered grid, where the red, green, and blue components are sampled at slightly different locations.  Subpixel rendering is a technology which takes advantage of these differences to improve the rendering of text on LCD screens.
The vast majority of color digital cameras use a Bayer filter, resulting in a regular grid of pixels where the color of each pixel depends on its position on the grid.
A clipmap uses a hierarchical sampling pattern, where the size of the support of each pixel depends on its location within the hierarchy.
Warped grids are used when the underlying geometry is non-planar, such as images of the earth from space.[17]
The use of non-uniform grids is an active research area, attempting to bypass the traditional Nyquist limit.[18]
Pixels on computer monitors are normally "square" (that is, have equal horizontal and vertical sampling pitch); pixels in other systems are often "rectangular" (that is, have unequal horizontal and vertical sampling pitch – oblong in shape), as are digital video formats with diverse aspect ratios, such as the anamorphic widescreen formats of the Rec. 601 digital video standard.

text: Resolution of computer monitors[edit]

text:
Computers can use pixels to display an image, often an abstract image that represents a GUI. The resolution of this image is called the display resolution and is determined by the video card of the computer. LCD monitors also use pixels to display an image, and have a native resolution. Each pixel is made up of triads, with the number of these triads determining the native resolution. On some CRT monitors, the beam sweep rate may be fixed, resulting in a fixed native resolution. Most CRT monitors do not have a fixed beam sweep rate, meaning they do not have a native resolution at all - instead they have a set of resolutions that are equally well supported.
To produce the sharpest images possible on an LCD, the user must ensure the display resolution of the computer matches the native resolution of the monitor.

text: Resolution of telescopes[edit]

text:
The pixel scale used in astronomy is the angular distance between two objects on the sky that fall one pixel apart on the detector (CCD or infrared chip). The scale s measured in radians is the ratio of the pixel spacing p and focal length f of the preceding optics, s=p/f. (The focal length is the product of the focal ratio by the diameter of the associated lens or mirror.)
Because p is usually expressed in units of arcseconds per pixel, because 1 radian equals 180/π*3600≈206,265 arcseconds, and because diameters are often given in millimeters and pixel sizes in micrometers which yields another factor of 1,000, the formula is often quoted as s=206p/f.

text: Bits per pixel[edit]

text: The number of distinct colors that can be represented by a pixel depends on the number of bits per pixel (bpp). A 1 bpp image uses 1-bit for each pixel, so each pixel can be either on or off. Each additional bit doubles the number of colors available, so a 2 bpp image can have 4 colors, and a 3 bpp image can have 8 colors:

text:
1 bpp, 21 = 2 colors (monochrome)
2 bpp, 22 = 4 colors
3 bpp, 23 = 8 colors

text:
8 bpp, 28 = 256 colors
16 bpp, 216 = 65,536 colors ("Highcolor" )
24 bpp, 224 = 16,777,216 colors ("Truecolor")

text: For color depths of 15 or more bits per pixel, the depth is normally the sum of the bits allocated to each of the red, green, and blue components. Highcolor, usually meaning 16 bpp, normally has five bits for red and blue each, and six bits for green, as the human eye is more sensitive to errors in green than in the other two primary colors. For applications involving transparency, the 16 bits may be divided into five bits each of red, green, and blue, with one bit left for transparency. A 24-bit depth allows 8 bits per component. On some systems, 32-bit depth is available: this means that each 24-bit pixel has an extra 8 bits to describe its opacity (for purposes of combining with another image).

text: Subpixels[edit]

text: Many display and image-acquisition systems are, for various reasons, not capable of displaying or sensing the different color channels at the same site. Therefore, the pixel grid is divided into single-color regions that contribute to the displayed or sensed color when viewed at a distance. In some displays, such as LCD, LED, and plasma displays, these single-color regions are separately addressable elements, which have come to be known as subpixels.[19] For example, LCDs typically divide each pixel vertically into three subpixels. When the square pixel is divided into three subpixels, each subpixel is necessarily rectangular. In display industry terminology, subpixels are often referred to as pixels,[by whom?] as they are the basic addressable elements in a viewpoint of hardware, and hence pixel circuits rather than subpixel circuits is used.

text: Most digital camera image sensors use single-color sensor regions, for example using the Bayer filter pattern, and in the camera industry these are known as pixels just like in the display industry, not subpixels.

text: For systems with subpixels, two different approaches can be taken:

text:
The subpixels can be ignored, with full-color pixels being treated as the smallest addressable imaging element; or
The subpixels can be included in rendering calculations, which requires more analysis and processing time, but can produce apparently superior images in some cases.

text: This latter approach, referred to as subpixel rendering, uses knowledge of pixel geometry to manipulate the three colored subpixels separately, producing an increase in the apparent resolution of color displays. While CRT displays use red-green-blue-masked phosphor areas, dictated by a mesh grid called the shadow mask, it would require a difficult calibration step to be aligned with the displayed pixel raster, and so CRTs do not currently use subpixel rendering.

text: The concept of subpixels is related to samples.

text: Megapixel[edit]

text: A megapixel (MP) is a million pixels; the term is used not only for the number of pixels in an image, but also to express the number of image sensor elements of digital cameras or the number of display elements of digital displays. For example, a camera that makes a 2048×1536 pixel image (3,145,728 finished image pixels) typically uses a few extra rows and columns of sensor elements and is commonly said to have "3.2 megapixels" or "3.4 megapixels", depending on whether the number reported is the "effective" or the "total" pixel count.[20]

text: Digital cameras use photosensitive electronics, either charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, consisting of a large number of single sensor elements, each of which records a measured intensity level. In most digital cameras, the sensor array is covered with a patterned color filter mosaic having red, green, and blue regions in the Bayer filter arrangement, so that each sensor element can record the intensity of a single primary color of light. The camera interpolates the color information of neighboring sensor elements, through a process called demosaicing, to create the final image. These sensor elements are often called "pixels", even though they only record 1 channel (only red, or green, or blue) of the final color image. Thus, two of the three color channels for each sensor must be interpolated and a so-called N-megapixel camera that produces an N-megapixel image provides only one-third of the information that an image of the same size could get from a scanner. Thus, certain color contrasts may look fuzzier than others, depending on the allocation of the primary colors (green has twice as many elements as red or blue in the Bayer arrangement).

text: DxO Labs invented the Perceptual MegaPixel (P-MPix) to measure the sharpness that a camera produces when paired to a particular lens – as opposed to the MP a manufacturer states for a camera product which is based only on the camera's sensor. The new P-MPix claims to be a more accurate and relevant value for photographers to consider when weighing-up camera sharpness.[21] As of mid-2013, the Sigma 35mm f/1.4 DG HSM lens mounted on a Nikon D800 has the highest measured P-MPix. However, with a value of 23 MP, it still wipes-off more than one-third of the D800's 36.3 MP sensor.[22]

text: One new method to add Megapixels has been introduced in a Micro Four Thirds System camera which only uses 16MP sensor, but can produce 64MP RAW (40MP JPEG) by making two exposures, shifting the sensor by a half pixel between them. Using a tripod to take level multi-shots within an instance, the multiple 16MP images are then generated into a unified 64MP image.[23]


document_title: Growing Pains

question_text: who played the part of the homeless person who came to live with siblings mike carol ben and chrissy

text: Growing Pains

text: Premise[edit]

text: The Seaver family resides at 15 Robin Hood Lane in Huntington, Long Island, New York.[2]

text: Dr. Jason Seaver (portrayed by Alan Thicke), a psychiatrist, works from home because his wife, Maggie (Joanna Kerns), has gone back to work as a reporter. Jason has to take care of the kids: ladies' man Mike (Kirk Cameron), bookish honors student Carol (Tracey Gold), and rambunctious Ben (Jeremy Miller). A fourth child, Chrissy Seaver (twins Kelsey and Kirsten Dohring; Ashley Johnson), is born in October 1988. In the middle of season four (1988–89), she was first played in her infant stage by an uncredited set of twin sisters. Then, by season five (1989–90), she was played in her toddler stage by alternating twins Kristen and Kelsey Dohering. In seasons six and seven (1990–92), Chrissy's age was advanced to six years old. By the seventh and final season, homeless teen Luke Brower (Leonardo DiCaprio) is brought into the Seaver family to live with them until nearly the end of season seven.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Alan Thicke as Dr. Jason Roland Seaver
Joanna Kerns as Margaret Katherine "Maggie" (née Malone) Seaver
Kirk Cameron as Michael Aaron "Mike" Seaver
Tracey Gold as Carol Anne Seaver
Jeremy Miller as Benjamin Hubert Horatio Humphrey "Ben"  Seaver
Ashley Johnson as Christine Ellen "Chrissy" Seaver (seasons 6–7)
Kelsey and Kristen Dohring as Christine Ellen "Chrissy" Seaver (toddler) (season 5, alternating)
Leonardo DiCaprio as Luke Brower (season 7)

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Andrew Koenig as Richard Milhous "Boner" Stabone (seasons 1–4), Mike's friend; left to join the United States Marine Corps
Jamie Abbott as Stinky Sullivan (seasons 2–6), Ben's friend
K. C. Martel as Eddie (seasons 1–7), Mike's friend
Chelsea Noble as Kate MacDonald (seasons 5–7), Mike's girlfriend
Heather Langenkamp as Marie Lubbock (season 3; starred in spin-off Just the Ten of Us), Coach Graham Lubbock's daughter / Amy Boutilier (season 6), Mike's love interest
Gordon Jump as Ed Malone (seasons 1–7); Maggie's father
Lisa Capps as Debbie (seasons 2–4), Carol's friend
Rachael Jacobs as Shelley (seasons 2–4), Carol's friend
Julie McCullough as Julie Costello (seasons 4–5), Mike's former girlfriend
Sam Anderson as Principal Willis DeWitt (season 1–7), Mike's history teacher in season one and principal from season two onward
Betty McGuire as Kate Malone (seasons 1–7); Maggie's mother
Bill Kirchenbauer as Coach Graham Lubbock (seasons 2–5; starred in spin-off Just the Ten of Us), gym teacher
Jodi Peterson as Laura Lynn (seasons 4–6), Ben's girlfriend / love interest
Evan Arnold as Richie Flanscopper (seasons 2–4)
Jane Powell as Irma Seaver (seasons 1–3), Jason's mother
Steven Hartley as Francis X. Tedesco (season 7), principal of the learning annex where Mike teaches
Matthew Perry  as Sandy (season 4), Carol's boyfriend

text: Opening sequences[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The season one main opening features various works of art and vintage photography depicting family life, closing with a shot of the cast.

text: The opening credits from seasons two through five features an opening shot of the cast in front of the Seaver house exterior. This is followed by a series of photos of each cast member from their childhood onward ending with a clip from the show. The credits closed with another shot of the cast in front of the Seaver house before they all run inside. Starting in the fourth season, several different versions of the opening sequence were filmed. Whoever was the last to go into the house would usually be the focus of that week's episode.[citation needed]

text: The opening used in seasons six and seven featured opening and shot of the mantle on the Seavers' fireplace panning over photos of the cast. The photos of the cast from childhood remained but instead of clips from the show, current still photos were used. Some versions of these credits end with another shot of the mantle while others close with a montage of group shots from the same family photo shoot which the current photos used in the rest of the credits come from.

text: Theme song[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The show's theme song is "As Long as We've Got Each Other", which was written and composed by John Bettis (lyrics) and Steve Dorff (music). It was performed by:

text:
B.J. Thomas (singing solo); season 1
B.J. Thomas & Jennifer Warnes; seasons 2, 3, 5, part of 7
B.J. Thomas & Dusty Springfield; season 4
Joe Chemay, Jim Haas, Jon Joyce and George Merrill (singing a capella); season 6, part of 7, series finale

text: There were nine versions of the theme song used; others included a Halloween-themed version not sung by Thomas or Warnes used in a two-part Halloween episode in 1990. A shorter version of the Thomas/Warnes version was used starting in season five.

text: There was also an a cappella version of the song which was used for all of season six, but this version was abandoned for most of season seven in favor of the reinstatement of Thomas' and Warnes' duet version, although the a cappella theme returned for three episodes as well as the series finale. A full-length version by Thomas and Springfield was released as a single in 1988.

text: A soundtrack was released in 1988 titled Steve Dorff and Friends: Growing Pains and Other Hit TV Themes.  The soundtrack contains songs penned by Dorff from his television series theme songs and three tracks from Growing Pains:

text:
Theme Song "As Long As We Got Each Other" (B.J. Thomas and Dusty Springfield)
Aloha Episode – "Swept Away" by Christopher Cross
Graduation Day Episode – "This Is The Day" performed by B.J. Thomas

text: The Theme for Growing Pains got airplay on the Adult Contemporary format in early 1989 and peaked at #5 on the Radio & Records AC chart and #7 on the Billboard AC chart.

text: Another version of "As Long As We Got Each Other" was performed by Louise Mandrell and Eric Carmen in 1988.  Their version peaked at #51 on the U.S. Billboard Country chart.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Tied with Knots Landing

Jump up ^ Tied with L.A. Law

Jump up ^ Tied with Baby Talk and Davis Rules

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Association

Category

Nominee / episode

Result

1985
Young Artist Awards
Best Young Actor Starring in a New Television Series
Kirk Cameron
Won

1985
Best Young Actress Starring in a New Television Series
Tracey Gold
Nominated

1985
Best Young Supporting Actor in a New Television Series
Jeremy Miller
Won

1986
Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Achievement in Music and Lyrics
"As Long As We Got Each Other"
Nominated

1986
Outstanding Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Series
George Spiro Dibie (director of photography) / "My Brother, Myself"[citation needed]
Won

1986
Young Artist Awards
Exceptional Performance by a Young Actor Starring in a Television Comedy or Drama Series
Kirk Cameron
Won

1986
Exceptional Performance by a Young Actor in a Long Running Series Comedy or Drama
Jeremy Miller
Nominated

1986
Exceptional Performance by a Young Actress, Guest Starring in a Television, Comedy or Drama Series
April Lerman
Nominated

1987
Young Artist Awards
Best Young Superstar in Television
Kirk Cameron
Won

1987
Exceptional Performance by a Young Actor in a Television Comedy Series
Jeremy Miller
Won

1987
Best Young Actress Guest Starring in a Television Comedy Series
Candace Cameron / "The Long Goodbye"
Nominated

1987
Best Family Comedy Series
Growing Pains
Won

1988
Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Achievement in Music and Lyrics
Song: "Swept Away" / episode: "Aloha"
Nominated

1988
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Actor
Kirk Cameron
Nominated

1988
Favorite TV Show
Growing Pains
Nominated

1988
Golden Globe Awards
Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical
Alan Thicke
Nominated

1988
Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV
Kirk Cameron
Nominated

1989
Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV
Kirk Cameron
Nominated

1989
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show
Growing Pains
Nominated

1989
Favorite TV Actor
Kirk Cameron
Nominated

1989
Favorite TV Actress
Tracey Gold
Nominated

1989
Young Artist Awards
Best Family Television Series
Growing Pains
Nominated

1990
Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Series
Jeremy Miller
Nominated

1990
Best Young Actor Guest Starring in a Television Series
Kenny Morrison
Nominated

1990
Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Actor
Kirk Cameron
Won

1991
Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Lighting Direction (Electronic) for a Comedy Series
George Spiro Dibie / "Happy Halloween"
Won

1991
Young Artist Awards
Exceptional Performance by a Young Actress Under Nine
Ashley Johnson
Nominated

1992
Best Young Actor Co-starring in a Television Series
Leonardo DiCaprio
Nominated

1992
Exceptional Performance by a Young Actress Under Ten
Ashley Johnson
Nominated

1993
Outstanding Actress Under Ten in a Television Series
Ashley Johnson
Nominated

text: Spin-off[edit]

text: Growing Pains spawned the spin-off series, Just the Ten of Us, which featured Coach Graham Lubbock, Mike and Carol's gym teacher, moving to California with his large family to teach at an all-boys Catholic school after he was fired from Thomas Dewey High School.

text: Reunion movies[edit]

text: In 2000, the cast reunited for The Growing Pains Movie, followed by  Growing Pains: Return of the Seavers in 2004.

text: DVD Releases[edit]

text: Warner Home Video has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1.[6] Seasons 3–7 are manufacture-on-demand (MOD) releases, available exclusively through Warner's online store and Amazon.com.

text: On December 6, 2011, Warner Bros. released The Growing Pains Movie and Growing Pains: Return of the Seavers on DVD in Region 1 via their Warner Archive Collection.  Similar to the subsequent season sets, these are manufacture-on-demand (MOD) releases, available exclusively through Warner's online store and amazon.com.

text:
DVD name

Ep #

Release dates

Region 1

Region 4

Season 1

22

February 7, 2006

June 5, 2007

Season 2

22

April 26, 2011

N/A

Season 3

26

May 21, 2013

Season 4

22

April 14, 2015

Season 5

26

July 14, 2015

Season 6

24

October 20, 2015

Season 7

24

January 26, 2016

text: Syndication[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: ABC aired reruns of the show on its daytime schedule from July 1988 to August 1989. The show originally aired at 11:00 am (EST) until January 1989, when with the cancellation of Ryan's Hope and the expansion of Home to an hour (from 11:00am-noon), the reruns moved to 12:00 pm.

text: In the fall of 1989, the show was sold to local syndication, which continued until 1997. The show also aired on TBS for several years.

text: Reruns aired on the Disney Channel from September 1997 to September 2001. The cable rights for the show moved to sister network ABC Family, where it ran from 2001 to 2004. It has also aired on ION Television during the fall of 2006 into the spring of 2007.

text: Nick at Nite began airing Growing Pains on February 12, 2007, launching with a marathon from 9:00 pm ET-1:00 am ET. It was pulled from the line-up shortly after, and later moved to sister network The N/TeenNick, where it aired up until early 2010. TeenNick re-aired the series on Monday, September 13, 2010, in a 5:00 am hour block, and aired its final showings on December 27, 2010.

text: Growing Pains aired on Up TV from January 2015-July 2017. Antenna TV will start airing the series in December 2017.

text: Asia[edit]

text: This show was dubbed in Chinese by the Shanghai Television in the late 1980s with the title of Chéngzhǎng de Fánnǎo (成长的烦恼; literally "Growing vexation")

text: This show was dubbed in Chinese by Chinese Television System in the 1980s–1990s, and was given a Chinese title called Huānlè Jiātíng (歡樂家庭; Happy Family)

text: Growing Pains was dubbed in Japanese, and broadcast by the NHK of Japan in the title of "Yukai na Shiba Ke (愉快なシーバー家)" (Happy Seaver family) from 1997 to 2000

text: Europe[edit]

text: The show aired with the title of Unser lautes Heim (Our noisy home) on ProSieben from 1993.

text: Two books published in French exclusively about Growing Pains: Cyrille Rollet, PhD (EHESS, Paris),

text:
Physiologie d'un sitcom américain (voyage au cœur de Growing Pains), (volume 1) – Physiology of an American Sitcom (Journey to the Heart of Growing Pains)
Circulation culturelle d'un sitcom américain (volume 2) – The Cultural Circulation of an American Sitcom

text: In Italy the series aired in 1987 with the title Genitori in blue jeans (Parents in blue jeans)[7].

text: Australasia[edit]

text:
Digital free-to-air channel 7TWO began  airing reruns of Growing Pains in October 2010, and reached the final episode in June 2011, replacing it with Night Court. The Nine Network first aired the show back in the 1980s and 1990s.
The show aired on TVNZ's TV2 on Saturday afternoons in the late 1980s-early 1990s.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: The show aired in the beginning of the 1990s in Turkey's first private TV channel, Star TV.

text: Latin America[edit]

text: The show was previously aired on Nickelodeon's block, Nick at Nite from 2006 until 2009.