document_title: Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives

question_text: the leader of the house of representatives is known as the

question_tokens: the leader of the house of representatives is known as the

text: Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives

text: Job description[edit]

text:
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text: Unlike in Westminster style legislatures or as with the Senate Majority Leader, the House Majority Leader's duties and prominence vary depending upon the style and power of the Speaker of the House. Typically, the Speaker does not participate in debate and rarely votes on the floor. In some cases, Majority Leaders have been more influential than the Speaker; notably Tom DeLay who was more prominent than Speaker Dennis Hastert. In addition, Speaker Newt Gingrich delegated to Dick Armey an unprecedented level of authority over scheduling legislation on the House floor.[2]

text: The current Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, of the United States House of Representatives serves as floor leader of the opposition party, and is the counterpart to the Majority Leader. Unlike the Majority Leader, the Minority Leader is on the ballot for Speaker of the House during the convening of the Congress. If the Minority Leader's party takes control of the House, and the party officers are all re-elected to their seats, the Minority Leader is usually the party's top choice for Speaker for the next Congress, while the Minority Whip is typically in line to become Majority Leader. The Minority Leader usually meets with the Majority Leader and the Speaker to discuss agreements on controversial issues.

text: The Speaker, Majority Leader, Minority Leader, Majority Whip and Minority Whip all receive special office suites in the United States Capitol.

text: Selection[edit]

text: The floor leaders and whips of each party are elected by their respective parties in a closed-door caucus by secret ballot.[3] The Speaker-elect is also chosen in a closed-door session although they are formally installed in their position by a public vote when Congress reconvenes.[1]

text: Like the Speaker of the House, the Minority Leaders are typically experienced lawmakers when they win election to this position. When Nancy Pelosi, D-CA, became Minority Leader in the 108th Congress, she had served in the House nearly 20 years and had served as minority whip in the 107th Congress. When her predecessor, Richard Gephardt, D-MO, became minority leader in the 104th House, he had been in the House for almost 20 years, had served as chairman of the Democratic Caucus for four years, had been a 1988 presidential candidate, and had been majority leader from June 1989 until Republicans captured control of the House in the November 1994 elections. Gephardt's predecessor in the minority leadership position was Robert Michel, R-IL, who became GOP Leader in 1981 after spending 24 years in the House. Michel's predecessor, Republican John Rhodes of Arizona, was elected Minority Leader in 1973 after 20 years of House service.

text: By contrast, party leaders of the United States Senate have often ascended to their position despite relatively few years of experience in that chamber,[citation needed] such as Lyndon B. Johnson, William F. Knowland, and Bill Frist. Former House Majority Leader Eric Cantor also had a comparatively quick rise to the post and was the youngest House Majority Leader in American history.[citation needed]

text: Duties[edit]

text: The House Majority Leader's duties vary, depending upon the political makeup of the majority caucus. In several recent sessions of Congress with the notable exception of the Pelosi speakership, the Majority Leader has been primarily responsible for scheduling the House floor's legislative calendar and direct management for all House committees.

text: One statutory duty, per 19 U.S.C. § 2191(c)(1), stipulates that an implementing bill submitted by the President of the United States for a fast-track negotiating authority (trade promotion authority) trade agreement must be introduced (by request) in the House by the Majority Leader of the House.

text: History[edit]

text: Before 1899, the majority party floor leader had traditionally been the Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, the most powerful committee in the House, as it generates the Bills of Revenue specified in the Constitution as the House's unique power.[4]

text: The office of Majority Leader was created in 1899 and first occupied by Sereno Payne.[5] Speaker David B. Henderson created the position to establish a party leader on the House floor separate from the Speaker, as the role of Speaker had become more prominent, and the size of the House had grown from 105 at the beginning of the century to 356.[citation needed]

text: Starting with Republican Nicholas Longworth in 1925, and continued through the Democrats' control of the House from 1931 to 1995, save for Republican majorities in 1947–49 and 1953–55, all majority leaders have directly ascended to the Speakership brought upon by the retirement of the incumbent. The only exceptions during this period were Charles A. Halleck who became Republican House leader and Minority Leader from 1959 to 1965, Hale Boggs who died in a plane crash, and Dick Gephardt who became the Democrats' House leader but as Minority Leader since his party lost control in the 1994 midterm elections. Since 1995, the only Majority Leader to become Speaker is John Boehner, though indirectly as his party lost control in the 2006 midterms elections. He subsequently served as Republican House leader and Minority Leader from 2007 to 2011 and then was elected Speaker when the House reconvened in 2011. In 1998, with Speaker Newt Gingrich announcing his resignation, both Majority Leader Dick Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay did not contest the Speakership which eventually went to Chief Deputy Whip Dennis Hastert.

text: Traditionally, the Speaker is reckoned as the leader of the majority party in the House, with the Majority Leader as second-in-command. For instance, when the Republicans gained the majority in the House after the 2010 elections, Eric Cantor succeeded Boehner as Majority Leader. Despite this, Cantor and his successor, Kevin McCarthy, have been reckoned as the second-ranking Republicans in the House, since Boehner is still reckoned as the leader of the House Republicans. However, there have been some exceptions. The most recent exception to this rule came when Majority Leader Tom DeLay generally overshadowed Speaker Dennis Hastert from 2003 to 2006.[6] In contrast, the Minority Leader is the undisputed leader of the minority party.

text: When the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally takes a low profile and defers to the President.[citation needed] For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership.

text: When the Majority Leader's party loses control of the House, and if the Speaker and Majority Leader both remain in the leadership hierarchy, convention suggests that they would become the Minority Leader and Minority Whip, respectively. As the minority party has one less leadership position after losing the speaker's chair, there may be a contest for the remaining leadership positions. Nancy Pelosi is the most recent example of an outgoing Speaker seeking the Minority Leader post to retain the House party leadership, as the Democrats lost control of the House in the 2010 elections. She ran successfully for Minority Leader in the 112th Congress.[7][8]

text: In 2014, Eric Cantor became the first House Majority Leader to lose a primary election. Following his primary defeat, Cantor announced his resignation as Majority Leader, effective July 31, 2014,[9][10][11][12][13][14] and he subsequently resigned his seat in Congress.[15]

text: Minority Leader[edit]

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text: Responsibilities[edit]

text: From an institutional perspective, the rules of the House assign a number of specific responsibilities to the minority leader. For example, Rule XII, clause 6, grant the minority leader (or their designee) the right to offer a motion to recommit with instructions; Rule II, clause 6, states the Inspector General shall be appointed by joint recommendation of the Speaker, majority leader, and minority leader; and Rule XV, clause 6, provides that the Speaker, after consultation with the minority leader, may place legislation on the Corrections Calendar. The minority leader also has other institutional duties, such as appointing individuals to certain federal entities.

text: From a party perspective, the minority leader has a wide range of partisan assignments, all geared toward retaking majority control of the House. Five principal party activities direct the work of the minority leader.

text:
The minority leader provides campaign assistance to party incumbents and challengers.
The minority leader devises strategies, in consultation with other partisan colleagues, that advance party objectives. For example, by stalling action on the majority party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress."
The minority leader works to promote and publicize the party's agenda.
The minority leader, if their party controls the White House, confers regularly with the President and the President's aides about issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally.
The minority leader strives to promote party harmony so as to maximize the chances for legislative and political success.

text: The roles and responsibilities of the minority leader are not well-defined. To a large extent, the functions of the minority leader are defined by tradition and custom. A minority leader from 1931 to 1939, Representative Bertrand Snell, R-N.Y., provided this "job description": "He is spokesman for his party and enunciates its policies. He is required to be alert and vigilant in defense of the minority's rights. It is his function and duty to criticize constructively the policies and programs of the majority, and to this end employ parliamentary tactics and give close attention to all proposed legislation."[16]

text: Since Snell's description, other responsibilities have been added to the job. These duties involve an array of institutional and party functions. Before examining the institutional and party assignments of the minority leader, it is worth highlighting the historical origin of this position.

text: Origin of the post[edit]

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text: To a large extent, the minority leader's position is a 20th-century innovation. Prior to this time congressional parties were often relatively disorganized, so it was not always evident who functioned as the opposition floor leader. Decades went by before anything like the modern two-party congressional system emerged on Capitol Hill with official titles for those who were its official leaders. However, from the beginning days of Congress, various House members intermittently assumed the role of "opposition leader." Some scholars suggest that Representative James Madison of Virginia informally functioned as the first "minority leader" because in the First Congress he led the opposition to Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton's fiscal policies.[17]

text: During this early period, it was more usual that neither major party grouping (Federalists and Democratic-Republicans) had an official leader. In 1813, for instance, a scholar recounts that the Federalist minority of 36 Members needed a committee of 13 "to represent a party comprising a distinct minority" and "to coordinate the actions of men who were already partisans in the same cause."[18] In 1828, a foreign observer of the House offered this perspective on the absence of formal party leadership on Capitol Hill:

text: Internal party disunity compounded the difficulty of identifying lawmakers who might have informally functioned as a minority leader. For instance, "seven of the fourteen speakership elections from 1834 through 1859 had at least twenty different candidates in the field. Thirty-six competed in 1839, ninety-seven in 1849, ninety-one in 1859, and 138 in 1855."[20] With so many candidates competing for the speakership, it is not at all clear that one of the defeated lawmakers then assumed the mantle of "minority leader." The Democratic minority from 1861 to 1875 was so completely disorganized that they did not "nominate a candidate for Speaker in two of these seven Congresses and nominated no man more than once in the other five. The defeated candidates were not automatically looked to for leadership."[21]

text: In the judgment of political scientist Randall Ripley, since 1883 "the candidate for Speaker nominated by the minority party has clearly been the Minority Leader."[22] However, this assertion is subject to dispute. On December 3, 1883, the House elected Democrat John G. Carlisle of Kentucky as Speaker. Republicans placed in nomination for the speakership J. Warren Keifer of Ohio, who was Speaker the previous Congress.[23] Clearly, Keifer was not the Republicans' minority leader. He was a discredited leader in part because as Speaker he arbitrarily handed out "choice jobs to close relatives ... all at handsome salaries."[24] Keifer received "the empty honor of the minority nomination. But with it came a sting -- for while this naturally involves the floor leadership, he was deserted by his [partisan] associates and his career as a national figure terminated ingloriously."[25] Representative Thomas Reed, R-ME, who later became Speaker, assumed the de facto role of minority floor leader in Keifer's stead. "[A]lthough Keifer was the minority's candidate for Speaker, Reed became its acknowledged leader, and ever after, so long as he served in the House, remained the most conspicuous member of his party.[26]

text: Another scholar contends that the minority leader position emerged even before 1883. On the Democratic side, "there were serious caucus fights for the minority speakership nomination in 1871 and 1873," indicating that the "nomination carried with it some vestige of leadership."[27] Further, when Republicans were in the minority, the party nominated for Speaker a series of prominent lawmakers, including ex-Speaker James Blaine of Maine in 1875, former Appropriations Chairman James A. Garfield of Ohio, in 1876, 1877, and 1879, and ex-Speaker Keifer in 1883. "It is hard to believe that House partisans would place a man in the speakership when in the majority, and nominate him for this office when in the minority, and not look to him for legislative guidance."[27] This was not the case, according to some observers, with respect to ex-Speaker Keifer.

text: In brief, there is disagreement among historical analysts as to the exact time period when the minority leadership emerged officially as a party position. Nonetheless, it seems safe to conclude that the position emerged during the latter part of the 19th century, a period of strong party organization and professional politicians. This era was "marked by strong partisan attachments, resilient patronage-based party organizations, and...high levels of party voting in Congress."[28] Plainly, these were conditions conducive to the establishment of a more highly differentiated House leadership structure.[29]

text: Minority Party Nominees for Speaker, 1865–1897[edit]

text: While the Office of the House Historian only lists Minority Leaders starting in 1899,[30] the minority's nominees for Speaker (at the beginning of each Congress) may be considered their party's leaders before that time.

text:
1865: James Brooks (D-NY)
1867: Samuel S. Marshall (D-IL)
1869: Michael C. Kerr (D-IN)
1871: George W. Morgan (D-OH)
1873: Fernando Wood (D-NY)
1875: James Gillespie Blaine (R-ME)
1877, 1879: James Abram Garfield (R-OH)
1881: Samuel Jackson Randall (D-PA)
1883: Joseph Warren Keifer (R-OH)
1885, 1887: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
1889: John Griffin Carlisle (D-KY)
1891, 1893: Thomas Brackett Reed (R-ME)
1895: Charles F. Crisp (D-GA)
1897: Joseph W. Bailey (D-TX)

text: Sources: Fighting for the Speakership: The House and the Rise of Party Government, by Jeffery A. Jenkins and Charles Haines Stewart and Archive of OurCampaigns.com

text: Trends[edit]

text: Two other points of historical interest merit brief mention. First, until the 61st Congress (1909–1910), "it was the custom to have the minority leader also serve as the ranking minority member on the two most powerful committees, Rules and Ways and Means."[31] Today, the minority leader no longer serves on these committees; however, he or she appoints the minority members of the Rules Committee and influences the assignment of partisan colleagues to the Ways and Means Committee.

text: Second, Democrats have always elevated their minority floor leader to the speakership upon reclaiming majority status. Republicans have not always followed this leadership succession pattern. In 1919, for instance, Republicans bypassed James R. Mann, R-IL, who had been minority leader for eight years, and elected Frederick Gillett, R-MA, to be Speaker. Mann "had angered many Republicans by objecting to their private bills on the floor;" also he was a protégé of autocratic Speaker Joseph Cannon, R-IL (1903–1911), and many Members "suspected that he would try to re-centralize power in his hands if elected Speaker."[32] More recently, although Robert H. Michel was the Minority Leader in 1994 when the Republicans regained control of the House in the 1994 midterm elections, he had already announced his retirement and had little or no involvement in the campaign, including the Contract with America which was unveiled six weeks before voting day.

text: In the instance when the Presidency and both Houses of Congress are controlled by one party, the Speaker normally assumes a lower profile and defers to the President. For that situation the House Minority Leader can play the role of a de facto "leader of the opposition", often more so than the Senate Minority Leader, due to the more partisan nature of the House and the greater role of leadership. Minority Leaders who have played prominent roles in opposing the incumbent President have included Gerald Ford, Richard Gephardt, Nancy Pelosi, and John Boehner.

text: Institutional functions[edit]

text: The style and role of any minority leader is influenced by a variety of elements, including personality and contextual factors, such as the size and cohesion of the minority party, whether his or her party controls the White House, the general political climate in the House, and the controversy that is sometimes associated with the legislative agenda. Despite the variability of these factors, there are a number of institutional obligations associated with this position. Many of these assignments or roles are spelled out in the House rule book. Others have devolved upon the position in other ways. To be sure, the minority leader is provided with extra staff resources—beyond those accorded him or her as a Representative—to assist in carrying out diverse leadership functions. Worth emphasis is that there are limits on the institutional role of the minority leader, because the majority party exercises disproportionate influence over the agenda, partisan ratios on committees, staff resources, administrative operations, and the day-to-day schedule and management of floor activities.

text: Under the rules of the House, the minority leader has certain roles and responsibilities. They include the following:

text: Drug Testing. Under Rule I, clause 9, the "Speaker, in consultation with the Minority Leader, shall develop through an appropriate entity of the House a system for drug testing in the House."

text: Inspector General. Rule II, clause 6, states that the "Inspector General shall be appointed for a Congress by the Speaker, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader, acting jointly." This rule further states that the minority leader and other specified House leaders shall be notified of any financial irregularity involving the House and receive audit reports of the inspector general.

text: Questions of Privilege. Under Rule IX, clause 2, a resolution "offered as a question of privilege by the Majority Leader or the Minority Leader ... shall have precedence of all other questions except motions to adjourn." This rule further references the minority leader with respect to the division of time for debate of these resolutions.

text: Oversight Plans. Under Rule X, clause 2, not later "than March 31 in the first session of a Congress, after consultation with the Speaker, the Majority Leader, and the Minority Leader, the Committee on Government Reform shall report to the House the oversight plans" of the standing committees along with any recommendations it or the House leaders have proposed to ensure the effective coordination of committees' oversight plans.

text: Committee on Standards of Official Conduct: Investigative Subcommittees. Rule X, clause 5, stipulates: "At the beginning of a Congress, the Speaker or his designee and the Minority Leader or his designee each shall appoint 10 Members, Delegates, or Resident Commissioners from his respective party who are not members of the Committee on Standards of Official Conduct to be available to serve on investigative subcommittees of that committee during that Congress."

text: Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. "The Speaker and Minority Leader shall be ex officio members of the select committee but shall have no vote in the select committee and may not be counted for purposes of determining a quorum." In addition, each leader may designate a member of his leadership staff to assist him with his ex officio duties. (Rule X, clause 11).

text: Motion to Recommit with Instructions. Under Rule XIII, clause 6, the Rules Committee may not (except in certain specified circumstances) issue a "rule" that prevents the minority leader or a designee from offering a motion to recommit with instructions.

text: In addition, the minority leader has a number of other institutional functions. For instance, the minority leader is sometimes statutorily authorized to appoint individuals to certain federal entities; he or she and the majority leader each name three Members to serve as Private Calendar objectors; he or she is consulted with respect to reconvening the House per the usual formulation of conditional concurrent adjournment resolutions; he or she is a traditional member of the House Office Building Commission; he or she is a member of the United States Capitol Preservation Commission; and he or she may, after consultation with the Speaker, convene an early organizational party caucus or conference. Informally, the minority leader maintains ties with majority party leaders to learn about the schedule and other House matters and forges agreements or understandings with them insofar as feasible.

text: Party functions[edit]

text: The minority leader has a number of formal and informal party responsibilities. Formally, the rules of each party specify certain roles and responsibilities for their leader. For example, under Democratic rules for the 106th Congress, the minority leader may call meetings of the Democratic Caucus. He or she is a member of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee; names the members of the Democratic Leadership Council; chairs the Policy Committee; and heads the Steering Committee. Examples of other assignments are making "recommendations to the Speaker on all Democratic Members who shall serve as conferees" and nominating party members to the Committees on Rules and House Administration. Republican rules identify generally comparable functions for their top party leader.

text: Informally, the minority leader has a wide range of party assignments. Lewis Deschler, the late House Parliamentarian (1928–1974), summarized the diverse duties of a party's floor leader:

text: A party's floor leader, in conjunction with other party leaders, plays an influential role in the formulation of party policy and programs. They are instrumental in guiding legislation favored by his party through the House, or in resisting those programs of the other party that are considered undesirable by his own party. They are instrumental in devising and implementing his party's strategy on the floor with respect to promoting or opposing legislation. They are kept constantly informed as to the status of legislative business and as to the sentiment of his party respecting particular legislation under consideration. Such information is derived in part from the floor leader's contacts with his party's members serving on House committees, and with the members of the party's whip organization.[33]

text: These and several other party roles merit further mention because they influence significantly the leader's overarching objective: retake majority control of the House. "I want to get [my] members elected and win more seats," said Minority Leader Richard Gephardt, D-MO. "That's what [my partisan colleagues] want to do, and that's what they want me to do."[34]

text: Five activities illustrate how minority leaders seek to accomplish this primary goal.

text: Provide Campaign Assistance. Minority leaders are typically energetic and aggressive campaigners for partisan incumbents and challengers. There is hardly any major aspect of campaigning that does not engage their attention. For example, they assist in recruiting qualified candidates; they establish "leadership PACs" to raise and distribute funds to House candidates of their party; they try to persuade partisan colleagues not to retire or run for other offices so as to hold down the number of open seats the party would need to defend; they coordinate their campaign activities with congressional and national party campaign committees; they encourage outside groups to back their candidates; they travel around the country to speak on behalf of party candidates; and they encourage incumbent colleagues to make significant financial contributions to the party's campaign committee. "The amount of time that [Minority Leader] Gephardt is putting in to help the DCCC [Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee] is unheard of," noted a Democratic lobbyist."No DCCC chairman has ever had that kind of support."[35]

text: Devise Minority Party Strategies. The minority leader, in consultation with other party colleagues, has a range of strategic options that he or she can employ to advance minority party objectives. The options selected depend on a wide range of circumstances, such as the visibility or significance of the issue and the degree of cohesion within the majority party. For instance, a majority party riven by internal dissension, as occurred during the early 1900s when Progressive and "regular" Republicans were at loggerheads, may provide the minority leader with greater opportunities to achieve his or her priorities than if the majority party exhibited high degrees of party cohesion. Among the variable strategies available to the minority party, which can vary from bill to bill and be used in combination or at different stages of the lawmaking process, are the following:

text: Cooperation. The minority party supports and cooperates with the majority party in building winning coalitions on the floor.

text: Inconsequential Opposition. The minority party offers opposition, but it is of marginal significance, typically because the minority is so small.

text: Withdrawal. The minority party chooses not to take a position on an issue, perhaps because of intraparty divisions.

text: Innovation. The minority party develops alternatives and agendas of its own and attempts to construct winning coalitions on their behalf.

text: Partisan Opposition. The minority party offers strong opposition to majority party initiatives but does not counter with policy alternatives of their own.

text: Constructive Opposition. The minority party opposes initiatives of the majority party and offers its own proposals as substitutes.

text: Participation. The minority party is in the position of having to consider the views and proposals of their president and to assess their majority-building role with respect to his priorities.[36]

text: A look at one minority leadership strategy—partisan opposition—may suggest why it might be employed in specific circumstances. The purposes of obstruction are several, such as frustrating the majority party's ability to govern or attracting press and media attention to the alleged ineffectiveness of the majority party. "We know how to delay," remarked Minority Leader Gephardt[37] Dilatory motions to adjourn, appeals of the presiding officer's ruling, or numerous requests for roll call votes are standard time-consuming parliamentary tactics. By stalling action on the majority party's agenda, the minority leader may be able to launch a campaign against a "do-nothing Congress" and convince enough voters to put his party back in charge of the House. To be sure, the minority leader recognizes that "going negative" carries risks and may not be a winning strategy if his party fails to offer policy alternatives that appeal to broad segments of the general public.

text: Promote and Publicize the Party's Agenda. An important aim of the minority leader is to develop an electorally attractive agenda of ideas and proposals that unites his or her own House members and that energizes and appeals to core electoral supporters as well as independents and swing voters. Despite the minority leader's restricted ability to set the House's agenda, there are still opportunities for him to raise minority priorities. For example, the minority leader may employ, or threaten to use, discharge petitions to try and bring minority priorities to the floor.[38] If he or she is able to attract the required 218 signatures on a discharge petition by attracting majority party supporters, he or she can force minority initiatives to the floor over the opposition of the majority leadership. As a GOP minority leader once said, the challenges he confronted are to "keep our people together, and to look for votes on the other side."[39]

text: Minority leaders may engage in numerous activities to publicize their party's priorities and to criticize the opposition's. For instance, to keep their party colleagues "on message," they insure that partisan colleagues are sent packets of suggested press releases or "talking points" for constituent meetings in their districts; they help to organize "town meetings" in Members' districts around the country to publicize the party's agenda or a specific priority, such as health care or education; they sponsor party "retreats" to discuss issues and assess the party's public image; they create "theme teams" to craft party messages that might be raised during the one-minute, morning hour, or special order period in the House; they conduct surveys of party colleagues to discern their policy preferences; they establish websites that highlight and distribute party images and issues to users; and they organize task forces or issue teams to formulate party programs and to develop strategies for communicating these programs to the public.

text: House minority leaders also hold joint news conferences and consult with their counterparts in the Senate—and with the president if their party controls the White House. The overall objectives are to develop a coordinated communications strategy, to share ideas and information, and to present a united front on issues. Minority leaders also make floor speeches and close debate on major issues before the House; they deliver addresses in diverse forums across the country, and they write books or articles that highlight minority party goals and achievements. They must also be prepared "to debate on the floor, ad lib, no notes, on a moment's notice," remarked Minority Leader Michel.[40] In brief, minority leaders are key strategists in developing and promoting the party's agenda and in outlining ways to neutralize the opposition's arguments and proposals.

text: Confer With the White House. If his or her party controls the White House, the minority leader confers regularly with the President and his aides about issues before Congress, the Administration's agenda, and political events generally. Strategically, the role of the minority leader will vary depending on whether the President is of the same party or the other party. In general, minority leaders will often work to advance the goals and aspirations of their party's President in Congress. When Robert Michel, R-IL, was minority leader (1981–1995), he typically functioned as the "point man" for Republican presidents.[41] President Ronald Reagan's 1981 policy successes in the Democratic-controlled House was due in no small measure to Minority Leader Michel's effectiveness in wooing so-called "Reagan Democrats" to support, for instance, the Administration's landmark budget reconciliation bill. There are occasions, of course, when minority leaders will fault the legislative initiatives of their President. On an administration proposal that could adversely affect his district, Michel stated that he might "abdicate my leadership role [on this issue] since I can't harmonize my own views with the administration's."[42] Minority Leader Gephardt, as another example, has publicly opposed a number of President Clinton's legislative initiatives from "fast track" trade authority to various budget issues.[43]

text: When the White House is controlled by the House majority party, then the House minority leader assumes a larger role in formulating alternatives to executive branch initiatives and in acting as a national spokesperson for his or her party. "As Minority Leader during [President Lyndon Johnson's] Democratic administration, my responsibility has been to propose Republican alternatives," said Minority Leader Gerald Ford, R-MI.[44] Greatly outnumbered in the House, Minority Leader Ford devised a political strategy that allowed Republicans to offer their alternatives in a manner that provided them political protection. As Ford explained:

text: "We used a technique of laying our program out in general debate," he said. When we got to the amendment phase, we would offer our program as a substitute for the Johnson proposal. If we lost in the Committee of the Whole, then we would usually offer it as a motion to recommit and get a vote on that. And if we lost on the motion to recommit, our Republican members had a choice: They could vote against the Johnson program and say we did our best to come up with a better alternative. Or they could vote for it and make the same argument. Usually we lost; but when you're only 140 out of 435, you don't expect to win many.[45]

text: Ford also teamed with Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen, R-IL, to act as national spokesmen for their party. They met with the press every Thursday following the weekly joint leadership meeting. Ford's predecessor as minority leader, Charles Halleck, R-IN, probably received more visibility in this role, because the press and media dubbed it the "Ev and Charlie Show." In fact, the "Republican National Committee budgeted $30,000 annually to produce the weekly news conference."[46]

text: Foster Party Harmony. Minority status, by itself, is often an important inducement for minority party members to stay together, to accommodate different interests, and to submerge intraparty factional disagreements. To hold a diverse membership together often requires extensive consultations and discussions with rank-and-file Members and with different factional groupings. As Minority Leader Gephardt said:

text: Gephardt added that "inclusion and empowerment of the people on the line have to be done to get the best performance" from the minority party.[48] Other techniques for fostering party harmony include the appointment of task forces composed of partisan colleagues with conflicting views to reach consensus on issues; the creation of new leadership positions as a way to reach out and involve a greater diversity of partisans in the leadership structure; and daily meetings in the Leader's office (or at breakfast, lunch, or dinner) to lay out floor strategy or political objectives for the minority party.

text: Party whips and assistant party leaders[edit]

text: Whips[edit]

text: A whip manages his or her party's legislative program on the House floor. The whip keeps track of all legislation and ensures that all party members are present when important measures are to be voted upon.

text: The Majority Whip is an elected member of the majority party who assists the Speaker of the House and the majority leader to coordinate ideas on, and garner support for, proposed legislation.

text: The Minority Whip is a member of the minority party who assists the minority leader in coordinating the party caucus in its responses to legislation and other matters. However, the U.S. House of Representatives does not use the term "minority whip," instead calling the position "Republican Whip" or "Democratic Whip" depending on the minority party.

text: The Chief Deputy Whip is the primary assistant to the whip, who is the chief vote counter for his or her party. The current chief deputy majority whip is Republican Patrick McHenry. Within the House Republican Conference, the chief deputy whip is the highest appointed position and often a launching pad for future positions in the House Leadership. The House Democratic Conference has multiple chief deputy whips, led by a Senior Chief Deputy Whip, which is the highest appointed position within the House Democratic Caucus. The current senior chief deputy minority whip, John Lewis, has held his post since 1991.

text:
List of Republican chief deputy whips:

David F. Emery, 1981–1983 (Minority)
Tom Loeffler, 1983–1987 (Minority)
Edward Rell Madigan, 1987–1989 (Minority)
Robert Smith Walker, 1989–1995 (Minority)
Dennis Hastert, 1995–1999 (Majority)
Roy Blunt, 1999–2003 (Majority)
Eric Cantor, 2003–2009 (Majority, 2003–2007) (Minority, 2007–2009)
Kevin McCarthy, 2009–2011 (Minority)
Peter Roskam, 2011–2014 (Majority)
Patrick McHenry, 2014–present (Majority)

List of Democratic Chief Deputy Whips

(1977–1981) Dan Rostenkowski
(1981–1987) Bill Alexander
(1987–1991) David Bonior
(1991–1993) Barbara Kennelly, Butler Derrick, & John Lewis
(1993–1995) Barbara Kennelly, Butler Derrick, John Lewis, & Bill Richardson
(1995–1997) Rosa DeLauro, John Lewis, & Bill Richardson
(1997–1999) Rosa DeLauro, Chet Edwards, John Lewis, & Robert Menendez
(1999–2002) Chet Edwards, John Lewis, Ed Pastor & Maxine Waters
(2002–2003) John Lewis, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin & Maxine Waters
(2003–2005) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Baron Hill, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Max Sandlin, Jan Schakowsky, & Maxine Waters
(2005–2007) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ron Kind, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, John Tanner & Maxine Waters
(2007–2011) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), G.K. Butterfield, Joe Crowley, Diana DeGette, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, John Tanner, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, & Maxine Waters
(2011–2013) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip), Maxine Waters, Ed Pastor, Jan Schakowsky, Joseph Crowley, Diana DeGette, G. K. Butterfield, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Jim Matheson, & Peter Welch
(2013–2015) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip) Ben Ray Lujan, Terri Sewell, Jan Schakowsky, Keith Ellison, Diana DeGette, G. K. Butterfield, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Jim Matheson, & Peter Welch
(2015–present) John Lewis (Senior Chief Deputy Whip) Jan Schakowsky, Diana DeGette, G. K. Butterfield, Debbie Wasserman Schultz, Keith Ellison, Terri Sewell, Kyrsten Sinema, Joaquin Castro & Peter Welch

text: Assistant party leaders[edit]

text: The position of Assistant Democratic Leader was established on January 3, 2011 and filled by Jim Clyburn to avoid a battle for whip between then-Majority Leader Steny Hoyer and then-Majority Whip Jim Clyburn. It is said to replace the Assistant to the Leader post previously held by Chris Van Hollen, who had attended all leadership meetings but was not in the leadership hierarchy.

text: List of party leaders and whips[edit]

text: (≥ and names in Bold indicate the Majority Leader and Majority whip)

text:
Congress
Years
Democratic whip
Democratic leader

Speaker

Republican leader
Republican whip

56
1899–1901
Oscar Underwood[49]
(Alabama)
James D. Richardson
(Tennessee)
David B. Henderson
(R, Iowa)
≥ Sereno E. Payne
(New York)
≥ James Albertus Tawney
(Minnesota)

57
1901–1903
James Tilghman Lloyd
(Missouri)

58
1903–1905
John Sharp Williams
(Mississippi)
Joe Cannon
(R, Illinois)

59
1905–1907
≥ James E. Watson
(Indiana)

60
1907–1908

1908–1909

61
1909–1911
None
Champ Clark
(Missouri)
≥ John W. Dwight
(New York)

62
1911–1913
None
≥ Oscar Underwood
(Alabama)
Champ Clark
(D, Missouri)
James Mann
(Illinois)
John W. Dwight
(New York)

63
1913–1915
≥ Thomas M. Bell
(Georgia)
Charles H. Burke
(South Dakota)

64
1915–1917
None
≥ Claude Kitchin
(North Carolina)
Charles M. Hamilton
(New York)

65
1917–1919

66
1919–1921
None
Champ Clark
(Missouri)
Frederick H. Gillett
(R, Massachusetts)
≥ Frank W. Mondell
(Wyoming)
≥ Harold Knutson
(Minnesota)

67
1921–1923
William A. Oldfield
(Arkansas)
Claude Kitchin
(North Carolina)

68
1923–1925
Finis J. Garrett
(Tennessee)
≥ Nicholas Longworth
(Ohio)
≥ Albert H. Vestal
(Indiana)

69
1925–1927
Nicholas Longworth
(R, Ohio)
≥ John Q. Tilson
(Connecticut)

70
1927–1929

71
1929–1931
John McDuffie
(Alabama)
John Nance Garner
(Texas)

72
1931–1933
≥ John McDuffie
(Alabama)
≥ Henry T. Rainey
(Illinois)
John Nance Garner
(D, Texas)
Bertrand Snell
(New York)
Carl G. Bachmann
(West Virginia)

73
1933–1935
≥ Arthur H. Greenwood
(Indiana)
≥ Jo Byrns
(Tennessee)
Henry T. Rainey
(D, Illinois)
Harry L. Englebright
(California)

74
1935–1936
≥ Patrick J. Boland
(Pennsylvania)
≥ William Bankhead
(Alabama)
Jo Byrns
(D, Tennessee)

1936–1937
≥ Sam Rayburn
(Texas)
William B. Bankhead
(D, Alabama)

75
1937–1939

76
1939–1940
Joe Martin
(Massachusetts)

1940–1941
≥ John W. McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(D, Texas)

77
1941–1942

1942–1943
≥ Robert Ramspeck
(Georgia)

78
1943–1943

1943–1945
Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

79
1945–1945

1946–1947
≥ John Sparkman
(Alabama)

80
1947–1949
John McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(Texas)
Joe Martin
(R, Massachusetts)
≥ Charles Halleck
(Indiana)
≥ Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

81
1949–1951
≥ Percy Priest
(Tennessee)
≥ John W. McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(D, Texas)
Joe Martin
(Massachusetts)
Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

82
1951–1953

83
1953–1955
John McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(Texas)
Joe Martin
(R, Massachusetts)
≥ Charles Halleck
(Indiana)
≥ Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

84
1955–1957
≥ Carl Albert
(Oklahoma)
≥ John W. McCormack
(Massachusetts)
Sam Rayburn
(D, Texas)
Joe Martin
(Massachusetts)
Leslie Arends
(Illinois)

85
1957–1959

86
1959–1961
Charles Halleck
(Indiana)

87
1961–1962

1962–1963
≥ Hale Boggs
(Louisiana)
≥ Carl Albert
(Oklahoma)
John W. McCormack
(D, Massachusetts)

88
1963–1965

89
1965–1967
Gerald Ford
(Michigan)

90
1967–1969

91
1969–1971

92
1971–1973
≥ Tip O'Neill
(Massachusetts)
≥ Hale Boggs
(Louisiana)
Carl Albert
(D, Oklahoma)

93
1973–1973
≥ John J. McFall
(California)
≥ Tip O'Neill
(Massachusetts)

1973–1975
John Rhodes
(Arizona)

94
1975–1977
Bob Michel
(Illinois)

95
1977–1979
≥ John Brademas
(Indiana)
≥ Jim Wright
(Texas)
Tip O'Neill
(D, Massachusetts)

96
1979–1981

97
1981–1983
≥ Tom Foley
(Washington)
Bob Michel
(Illinois)
Trent Lott
(Mississippi)

98
1983–1985

99
1985–1987

100
1987–1989
≥ Tony Coelho
(California)
≥ Tom Foley
(Washington)
Jim Wright
(D, Texas)

101
1989–1989
Dick Cheney
(Wyoming)

1989–1991
≥ William H. Gray III
(Pennsylvania)
≥ Dick Gephardt
(Missouri)
Tom Foley
(D, Washington)
Newt Gingrich
(Georgia)

102
1991–1991

1991–1993
≥ David Bonior
(Michigan)

103
1993–1995

104
1995–1997
David Bonior
(Michigan)
Dick Gephardt
(Missouri)
Newt Gingrich
(R, Georgia)
≥ Dick Armey
(Texas)
≥ Tom DeLay
(Texas)

105
1997–1999

106
1999–2001
Dennis Hastert
(R, Illinois)

107
2001–2002

2002–2003
Nancy Pelosi
(California)

108
2003–2005
Steny Hoyer
(Maryland)
Nancy Pelosi
(California)
≥ Tom DeLay
(Texas)
≥ Roy Blunt
(Missouri)

109
2005–2005

2005–2006
≥ Roy Blunt
(Missouri) (acting)

2006–2007
≥ John Boehner
(Ohio)

110
2007–2009
≥ Jim Clyburn
(South Carolina)
≥ Steny Hoyer
(Maryland)
Nancy Pelosi
(D, California)
John Boehner
(Ohio)
Roy Blunt
(Missouri)

111
2009–2011
Eric Cantor
(Virginia)

112
2011–2013
Steny Hoyer
(Maryland)
Nancy Pelosi
(California)
John Boehner
(R, Ohio)
≥ Eric Cantor
(Virginia)
≥ Kevin McCarthy
(California)

113
2013–2014

2014–2015
≥ Kevin McCarthy
(California)
≥ Steve Scalise
(Louisiana)

114
2015–2015

2015–2017
Paul Ryan
(R, Wisconsin)

115
2017–2019

Congress
Years
Democratic whip
Democratic leader
Speaker
Republican leader
Republican whip


document_title: Harlots (TV series)

question_text: how many episodes in season 1 of harlots

root

text: Harlots (TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: London in 1763 is booming, and one in five women makes a living selling sex. Women's opportunity for economic advancement is to marry well or be a prostitute. The city’s brothels are run by canny, cruel businesswomen such as Margaret Wells and Lydia Quigley. The prostitutes are reviewed in Harris's List of Covent Garden Ladies, which some of the women are seen reading in the premiere episode.

tag: p

text: But there is a new morality in the air as religious crusaders demand the closure of brothels, and the constables are happy to launch brutal raids.[1]

text: Episodes revolve round Mrs Wells' determination to improve her life and fortune by moving her brothel to Greek Street in Soho and serve a better class of Georgian society. To finance the move, after receiving a £100 fine, she auctions the virginity of her younger daughter Lucy as she had done before with her older daughter Charlotte when she was 12 years old. Charlotte is the lover of the besotted Sir George Howard, who wants her to sign a contract with him that makes him her "keeper."

text: Margaret's move to Greek Street puts her into conflict with Lydia Quigley, for whom she had previously worked as a prostitute. Lydia Quigley operates a high class brothel in Golden Square, serving rich, highly influential people in the judiciary and police, and blackmails a religious reformer into opposing Margaret.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[a][edit]

text:
Samantha Morton as Margaret Wells, madam of a low-class brothel seeking to improve her fortune, and former prostitute of Lydia Quigley
Lesley Manville as Lydia Quigley, madam of a high-class brothel with clients from the judiciary, nobility, and upper echelons of Georgian society
Jessica Brown Findlay as Charlotte Wells, eldest daughter of Margaret Wells, prostitute and lover of Sir George Howard whom she views as a path to a better life
Dorothy Atkinson as Florence Scanwell, religious campaigner beholden to Lydia Quigley who provides her and her daughter with lodgings
Pippa Bennett-Warner as Harriet Lennox, comes to England as Nathaniel's wife with two children, former slave
Rory Fleck Byrne as Daniel Marney
Kate Fleetwood as Nancy Birch, neighbour of Margaret Wells, specialises in flagellation.
Edward Hogg as Thomas Haxby, manservant and much put upon by Sir George
Richard McCabe as Justice Cunliffe
Tim McInnerny as Lord Repton
Con O'Neil as Nathaniel Lennox, plantation and slave owner, former lover of Margaret Wells
Danny Sapani as William North, partner, protector, and lover of Margaret Wells, born a free man in England
Hugh Skinner as Sir George Howard, soon to be a member of Parliament, generally under the spell of Charlotte Wells
Eloise Smyth as Lucy Wells, youngest daughter of Margaret Wells, inexperienced prostitute learning the trade
Fenella Woolgar as Lady Repton
Sebastian Armesto as Josiah Hunt (season 2)
Liv Tyler as Lady Isabella Fitzwilliam (season 2)

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Holli Dempsey as Emily Lacey, prostitute who deserts Margaret Wells for better prospects at Lydia Quigley's brothel and later ends up at Nancy's.
Rosalind Eleazar as Violet Cross, prostitute, one of Nancy's girls.
Roy Beck as Mr. Abbadon
Bronwyn James as Fanny Lambert, prostitute of Margaret Wells described as a fat jolly girl in the Harris's list.
Jordon Stevens as Amelia Scanwell, daughter of Florence Scanwell, her innocence is of interest to Lydia Quigley.
Alexa Davies as Betsey Fletcher, prostitute, one of Nancy's girls
Poppy Corby-Tuech as Marie-Louise D’Aubigne, French-speaking prostitute of Lydia Quigley's house
Douggie McMeekin as Charles Quigley, son and aide of Lydia Quigley who takes to sampling the girls his mother employs, especially Emily Lacey
Josef Altin as Prince Rasselas, a young molly boy who plies his trade on the streets of Covent Garden
Jordan A. Nash as Jacob Wells North, son of Margaret Wells and William North
Ellie Heydon as Anne Pettifer, one of Lydia Quigley's girls
Steven Robertson as Robert Oswald
Timothy Innes as Benjamin Lennox, eldest child from Nathaniel's former marriage
Ziggy Heath as Sam Holland
Ben Lambert as Lord Fallon, an aristocrat who takes an interest in Margaret Well’s youngest daughter Lucy.
Gerard Monaco as Mr. Armitage
Sean Hart as Sir Christopher Rutledge
Amy Dawson as Mary Cooper
Eleanor Yates as Lady Caroline Howard, wife of Sir George who understands his dalliances can be used to her advantage.
Lottie Tolhurst as Kitty Carter, prostitute of Margaret Wells

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Stephen Beckett as Mr. Lynch
Michael Simkins as Justice Poulson

text: Notes

text: Jump up ^ Actors credited among the main cast only in the episodes in which they appear.

tag: ol

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeriesEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired1827 March 2017 (2017-03-27)15 May 2017 (2017-05-15)2811 July 2018 (2018-07-11)22 August 2018 (2018-08-22)

tag: table

text: Series 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseriesTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateUS release date11"Episode 1"Coky GiedroycMoira Buffini27 March 2017 (2017-03-27)29 March 2018
Brothel owner Margaret Wells plans to move up in the world by taking her daughters and her brothel to a house in Greek Street. Rival high class brothel owner Lydia Quigley enlists religious crusaders and constables to raid the brothel. After paying a £100 fine, Margaret cannot make the final payment on her new house, so she plans to auction off the virginity of her youngest daughter, Lucy, to the highest bidder, just as she did with her oldest daughter Charlotte. Sir George Howard expects Charlotte to sign a contract to become her "keeper," but she refuses to sign; in a fit of jealousy, he successfully bids for Lucy's virginity. Charlotte makes the acquaintance of an aspiring male gigolo. Emily Lacey deserts Margaret to work for Lydia.
22"Episode 2"Coky GiedroycMoira Buffini3 April 2017 (2017-04-03)5 April 2018
Margaret discovers one of Lydia's girls, Mary Cooper, on the streets dying of French pox and plans to use her as revenge against Lydia. On the behest of Justice Cunliffe, Lydia illegally procures an untouched girl against her will for a secret group of high born men referred to as "the Spartans" so they can rape her. Margaret's old lover, plantation owner Nathaniel Lennox, returns from America with his wife and children and agrees to invest in her new house. Sir George leaves his servant, Haxby, to watch over his property, including Charlotte. Lucy's virginity is sold thrice.
33"Episode 3"Coky GiedroycCat Jones10 April 2017 (2017-04-10)12 April 2018
Margaret's move to the Greek Street house is initially thwarted by thugs hired by Lydia. Nathaniel Lennox dies, which reveals that his marriage is a sham, his wife Harriet's freedom is a lie, and his bastard are children enslaved and unprovided for. Lucy is hired to spend a few days with the sadistic Lord and Lady Repton at their country estate and finds herself the quarry in a hunt and out of her depth. Sir George Howard's wife tries to come to an agreement with Charlotte. Lydia has left a dead body as a surprise in Margaret's new house for her to find. Emily Lacey, having earned Lydia's displeasure for her attitude, is starved and later required to service Lydia's most feared client, Mr. Osborne. Justice Cunliffe is looking for a new, untouched girl for a royal client, but Lydia is reluctant to provide without some assurances.
44"Episode 4"China Moo-YoungDebbie O'Malley17 April 2017 (2017-04-17)19 April 2018
Margaret's trade suffers from Florence Scanwell's endless religious tirades, ordered by Lydia. Charlotte suggests a masquerade party to save her mother's business and goes to The Cocoa Tree seeking potential guests, especially Lord Fallon. Lucy is failing to thrive in her new role and can't attract a keeper; she turns to her sister, Charlotte, for help, but continues to seem out of place. Emily tries to run away and rejoin Margaret's brothel, but realises she is the prisoner of Lydia's son, Charles. A rift between Charlotte and Sir George widens due to jealous spite and he beds Lucy. The 'hellish' bacchanal brings together many unexpected guests and girls. Harriet Lennox, now a maid in Margaret's house, uses her charms on Lord Repton to promote herself to harlot. Charles stands up to his mother and bans Osborne. Amelia Scanwell, befriended by Violet, joins the party for a glimpse of Margaret's brothel. Lydia finds and illegally imprisons another virgin for the Spartans in exchange for a name.
55"Episode 5"China Moo-YoungJane English24 April 2017 (2017-04-24)26 April 2018
The wildly successful party leaves the coffers flush, and Margaret visits Lydia to offer a resentful truce and pay the debts of Marie-Louise, who has deserted Lydia for Margaret's brothel. Beaten and bloodied by Lydia, Emily manages to escape the brothel by drugging Charles with laudanum, but can find nowhere to go. Charlotte is desperate to attract a new keeper, while Sir George's outrageous behaviour escalates to violence and social scandal when Charlotte tries to leave him. Harriet Lennox excels in her new position, but her former stepson puts an impossible price on her children that he has inherited. Lydia is in a panic when the only trace of the latest virgin is blood on the door after the Spartans had visited. Lord Fallon wishes to be Lucy's keeper, to the delight of Margaret, but his strange aggression alarms Lucy even as her mother encourages her to accept. Violet and Amelia continue to meet. Emily is taken in by Nancy. Lydia refuses to procure more girls when she realises Justice Cunliffe is just a lackey.
66"Episode 6"China Moo-YoungMoira Buffini1 May 2017 (2017-05-01)3 May 2018
Margaret is faced with an ever mounting tide of problems, and she is left with her finger in the dam to try and stop the flow. Benjamin Lennox demands immediate repayment on the loan his father gave the brothel and plans to leave for Virginia, taking Harriet's children with him. Charlotte has left Sir George, penniless, and wishes for the freedom of America. Lucy refuses to take Lord Fallon as her keeper, without whom they will not have the money to pay Lennox. Lydia is spying the house night and day for signs of Emily Lacey. Fanny is pregnant and too far gone to have an abortion. To spite Charlotte, Sir George appears and demands to be a reluctant Lucy's keeper, paying Margaret handsomely for the privilege and seemingly solving all of their problems. Lucy lashes out and Margaret takes responsibility to keep her daughter safe, putting all of the house occupants in danger. Lydia recaptures Emily after Margaret betrays her whereabouts to gain time to save Lucy. Florence confesses her past as a prostitute to Amelia in an effort to break free from Lydia, to no avail. Lydia is back on board with providing girls for the Spartans, who have grown blood thirsty.
77"Episode 7"Jill RobertsonCat Jones8 May 2017 (2017-05-08)10 May 2018
Decisions and consequences. Saving one daughter may have condemned the other: Sir George is found murdered and Charlotte and Daniel Marney are arrested in place of the true culprits. Margaret's world starts to crumble as William and Jacob have disappeared, the harlots in her house rebel, and Margaret comes closer than ever to becoming what she despises most. Lydia has captured Emily Lacey with foul intentions in mind. Charles grows disillusioned with his mother and chooses to grow more independent and act behind his mother's back. Charlotte must decide whether to throw Daniel Marney to the wolves to walk free, or trust that he won't betray her in turn for his own freedom. Florence seeks an alliance with Margaret to save Amelia from Lydia's threats. Justice Cunliffe seeks reassurance and a seat at the table from The Spartans behind Lydia's back. Harriet Lennox blackmails Margaret for the money to recover her children before they are taken to America by Benjamin. Lydia discovers where Sir George was murdered. Fanny is about to give birth.
88"Episode 8"Jill RobertsonMoira Buffini and Jane English15 May 2017 (2017-05-15)17 May 2018
Betrayals and new alliances. Lydia's motivations for saving Charlotte are revealed: she wants Charlotte to abandon her mother and join her house instead. Lady Howard, now free as a widow, sides with Charlotte over Haxby and arranges Daniel's freedom. Justice Cunliffe betrays Lydia for acceptance by The Spartans. They'll take him, on condition he produces a girl who is a virgin. William and Harriet team up to recover her children, and end up doing so. Emily Lacey returns to pair with Charles against his mother and they find a new independence together. Margaret must decide if she'll do the right thing, or take the final step to becoming like Lydia and deliver Amelia to the Spartans to save herself. Lydia pulls off a double cross with an unexpected outcome for Justice Cunliffe, who is murdered by Fallon. Charlotte has decided to disown Margaret and Daniel and remain with Lydia, although she reveals to Daniel that she aims to take down Lydia's house from the inside. Fanny gives birth to a daughter. Lucy remains at her mother's brothel newly wiser.

text: Series 2 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseriesTitle [2]Directed byWritten byOriginal air date [2]91"Episode 1"Coky GiedroycMoira Buffini11 July 2018 (2018-07-11)[3]
102"Episode 2"Coky GiedroycCat Jones11 July 2018 (2018-07-11)[3]
113"Episode 3"Coky GiedroycJane English18 July 2018 (2018-07-18)
124"Episode 4"Philippa LangdaleEmer Kenny25 July 2018 (2018-07-25)
135"Episode 5"Philippa LangdaleJane English1 August 2018 (2018-08-01)
146"Episode 6"Philippa LangdaleMoira Buffini8 August 2018 (2018-08-08)
157"Episode 7"Jill RobertsonCat Jones15 August 2018 (2018-08-15)
168"Episode 8"Jill RobertsonMoira Buffini22 August 2018 (2018-08-22)

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On 26 May 2016, it was announced that Hulu and ITV had given the co-production a series order for a first season consisting of eight episodes. The series was set to be written by Moira Buffini and based upon an original idea by Buffini and Alison Newman. Directors were expected to include Coky Giedroyc and China Moo-Young. Lawrence Till was set as producer, with Alison Owen and Debra Hayward also on board to executive produce alongside Alison Carpenter, Buffini, and Newman. Production companies involved with the series include Monumental Pictures.[4][5][6]

text: On 27 July 2017, it was announced at the annual Television Critics Association summer press tour that the series had been renewed for a second season.[7] On 23 April 2018, it was announced that the second season would premiere in the United States on 11 July, 2018.[3]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Alongside the initial series order announcement, it was confirmed that the series would star Samantha Morton, Lesley Manville, and Jessica Brown Findlay.[4] On 7 July 2016, it was announced that Eloise Smyth had been cast in a series regular role.[8]

text: On 16 October 2017, it was announced that Liv Tyler was joining the main cast in season two.[9]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography for season one was expected to commence in June 2016 in London.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The first season of Harlots received a positive response from critics. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a 95% approval rating with an average rating of 7.05 out of 10 based on 41 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Harlots uses its titillating subject matter to draw the viewer into a deeper drama about the intersection of survival, business, and family."[10] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 74 out of 100 based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[11]


document_title: Welsh rarebit

question_text: what is added to welsh rarebit to make buck rarebit

text: Welsh rarebit

text: Sauce[edit]

text: Recipes for Welsh rarebit include the addition of ale, mustard, ground cayenne pepper or ground paprika[6][7][8] and Worcestershire sauce.[9][10] The sauce may also be made by blending cheese and mustard into a Béchamel sauce.[4][11] Some recipes for Welsh rarebit have become textbook savoury dishes listed by culinary authorities including Auguste Escoffier, Louis Saulnier and others, who tend to use the form Welsh rarebit, emphasizing that it is not a meat dish.

text: Acknowledging that there is more than one way to make a rarebit, some cookbooks have included two recipes: the Boston Cooking-School Cook Book of 1896 provides one béchamel-based recipe and another with beer,[11] Le Guide Culinaire of 1907 has one with ale and one without,[6] and the Constance Spry Cookery Book of 1956 has one with flour and one without.[4]

text: Variants[edit]

text: Hannah Glasse, in her 1747 cookbook The Art of Cookery, gives recipes for "Scotch rabbit", "Welch rabbit" and two versions of "English rabbit".[12]

text: To make a Scotch rabbit, toast the bread very nicely on both sides, butter it, cut a slice of cheese about as big as the bread, toast it on both sides, and lay it on the bread.

text: To make a Welch rabbit, toast the bread on both sides, then toast the cheese on one side, lay it on the toast, and with a hot iron brown the other side. You may rub it over with mustard.

text: To make an English rabbit, toast the bread brown on both sides, lay it in a plate before the fire, pour a glass of red wine over it, and let it soak the wine up. Then cut some cheese very thin and lay it very thick over the bread, put it in a tin oven before the fire, and it will be toasted and browned presently. Serve it away hot.

text: Or do it thus. Toast the bread and soak it in the wine, set it before the fire, rub butter over the bottom of a plate, lay the cheese on, pour in two or three spoonfuls of white wine, cover it with another plate, set it over a chafing-dish of hot coals for two or three minutes, then stir it till it is done and well mixed. You may stir in a little mustard; when it is enough lay it on the bread, just brown it with a hot shovel.

text: Served with an egg on top, a Welsh rarebit is known as a buck rabbit[13] or a golden buck.[14]

text: Welsh rarebit blended with tomato (or tomato soup) is known as Blushing Bunny.[15]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The first recorded reference to the dish was "Welsh rabbit" in 1725, but the origin of the term is unknown.[5]

text: There is some suggestion that Welsh Rabbit derives from a South Wales Valleys staple, in which a generous lump of cheese is placed into a mixture of beaten eggs and milk, seasoned with salt and pepper, and baked in the oven until the egg mixture has firmed and the cheese has melted. Onion may be added and the mixture would be eaten with bread and butter and occasionally with the vinegar from pickled beetroot.[16][17]

text: Welsh[edit]

text: The word Welsh may have been adopted because it was used by the English to mean "foreign" or "inferior".[18] It is also possible that the dish was attributed to the Welsh because they were considered particularly fond of cheese, as evidenced by Andrew Boorde in his Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge (1542), when he wrote "I am a Welshman, I do love cause boby, good roasted cheese."[19] In Boorde's account, "cause boby" is the Welsh caws pobi, meaning "baked cheese", but whether it implies a recipe like Welsh rarebit is a matter of speculation.

text: Rarebit[edit]

text: The word rarebit is a corruption of rabbit, "Welsh rabbit" being first recorded in 1725 and the variant "Welsh rarebit" being first recorded in 1785 by Francis Grose. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, 'Welsh rarebit' is an "etymologizing alteration. There is no evidence of the independent use of rarebit". The word rarebit has no other use than in Welsh rabbit.[5][20]

text: "Eighteenth-century English cookbooks reveal that it was then considered to be a luscious supper or tavern dish, based on the fine cheddar-type cheeses and the wheat breads [...] . Surprisingly, it seems there was not only a Welsh Rabbit, but also an English Rabbit, an Irish and a Scotch Rabbit, but nary a rarebit."[21]

text: Michael Quinion writes: "Welsh rabbit is basically cheese on toast (the word is not 'rarebit' by the way, that's the result of false etymology; 'rabbit' is here being used in the same way as 'turtle' in 'mock-turtle soup', which has never been near a turtle, or 'duck' in 'Bombay duck', which was actually a dried fish called bummalo)".[22]

text: The entry in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage is "Welsh rabbit, Welsh rarebit" and states: "When Francis Grose defined Welsh rabbit in A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue in 1785, he mistakenly indicated that rabbit was a corruption of rarebit. It is not certain that this erroneous idea originated with Grose...."[23]

text: In his 1926 edition of the Dictionary of Modern English Usage, the grammarian H. W. Fowler states a forthright view: "Welsh Rabbit is amusing and right. Welsh Rarebit is stupid and wrong."[24]

text: In culture[edit]

text: The notion that toasted cheese was a favourite dish irresistible to the Welsh has existed since the Middle Ages. In A C Merie Talys (100 Merry Tales), a printed book of jokes of 1526 AD (of which William Shakespeare made some use), it is told that God became weary of all the Welshmen in heaven, 'which with their krakynge and babelynge trobelyd all the others', and asked the Porter of Heaven Gate, St Peter, to do something about it. So St Peter went outside the gates and called in a loud voice ' Cause bobe, yt is as moche to say as rostyd chese ': at which all the Welshmen ran out, and when St Peter saw they were all outside, he went in and locked the gates, which is why there are no Welshmen in heaven. The 1526 compiler says he found this story 'Wryten amonge olde gestys'.[25]

text: A legend mentioned in Betty Crocker's Cookbook claims that Welsh peasants were not allowed to eat rabbits caught in hunts on the estates of the nobility, so they used melted cheese as a substitute. The author also claims that Ben Jonson and Charles Dickens ate Welsh rarebit at Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese, a pub in London.[26] There is no good evidence for any of this; what is more, Ben Jonson died almost a century before the term Welsh rabbit is first attested.[5]

text: According to the American satirist Ambrose Bierce, the continued use of rarebit was an attempt to rationalise the absence of rabbit, writing in his 1911 Devil's Dictionary: "RAREBIT n. A Welsh rabbit, in the speech of the humorless, who point out that it is not a rabbit. To whom it may be solemnly explained that the comestible known as toad in the hole is really not a toad, and that ris de veau à la financière is not the smile of a calf prepared after the recipe of a she-banker."[27]

text: "Gomer, the Welsh Rarebit Fiend" Season 3 Episode 24 of Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C., indulging in Welsh rarebit causes Gomer (and later Sgt. Carter) to sleepwalk. [28]