document_title: Virginia Plan

question_text: during the constitutional convention which plan of government proposed a bicameral legislature

root

text: Virginia Plan

text:
Virginia Plan

Front side of the Virginia Plan 1787

Created
May 29, 1787

Location
National Archives

Author(s)
James Madison

Purpose
Propose a structure of government to the Philadelphia Convention

tag: table

text: The Virginia Plan (also known as the Randolph Plan, after its sponsor, or the Large-State Plan) was a proposal by Virginia delegates for a bicameral legislative branch.[1] The plan was drafted by James Madison while he waited for a quorum to assemble at the Constitutional Convention of 1787.[2][3] The Virginia Plan was notable for its role in setting the overall agenda for debate in the convention and, in particular, for setting forth the idea of population-weighted representation in the proposed national legislature.

tag: p

text: Background[edit]

text: The Constitutional Convention gathered in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. The Virginia delegation took the initiative to frame the debate by immediately drawing up and presenting a proposal, for which delegate James Madison is given chief credit. However, it was Edmund Randolph, the Virginia governor at the time, who officially put it before the convention on May 29, 1787, in the form of 15 resolutions.[4]

text: The scope of the resolutions, going well beyond tinkering with the Articles of Confederation, succeeded in broadening the debate to encompass fundamental revisions to the structure and powers of the national government. The resolutions proposed, for example, a new form of national government having three branches (legislative, executive and judicial). One contentious issue facing the convention was the manner in which large and small states would be represented in the legislature: proportionate to population, with larger states having more votes than less-populous states, or by equal representation for each state, regardless of its size and population. The latter system more closely resembled that of the Articles of Confederation, under which each state was represented by one vote in a unicameral legislature.[citation needed]

text: Principles[edit]

text: The Virginia Plan proposed a legislative branch consisting of two chambers (bicameral legislature), with the dual principles of rotation in office and recall applied to the lower house of the national legislature.[5] Each of the states would be represented in proportion to their “Quotas of contribution, or to the number of free inhabitants.”[6] States with a large population, like Virginia (which was the most populous state at the time), would thus have more representatives than smaller states. Large states supported this plan, and smaller states generally opposed it, preferring an alternative put forward on June 15. The New Jersey Plan proposed a single-chamber legislature in which each state, regardless of size, would have one vote, as under the Articles of Confederation. In the end, the convention settled on the Connecticut Compromise, creating a House of Representatives apportioned by population and a Senate in which each state is equally represented.

text: In addition to dealing with legislative representation, the Virginia Plan addressed other issues as well, with many provisions that did not make it into the Constitution that emerged. It called for a national government of three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. Members of one of the two legislative chambers would be elected by the people; members of that chamber would then elect the second chamber from nominations submitted by state legislatures. The executive would be chosen by the legislative branch.

text: Terms of office were not specified, but the executive and members of the popularly elected legislative chamber could not be elected for an undetermined time afterward. The legislative branch would have the power to negate state laws if they were deemed incompatible with the articles of union. The concept of checks and balances was embodied in a provision that legislative acts could be vetoed by a council composed of the executive and selected members of the judicial branch; their veto could be overridden by an unspecified legislative majority.


document_title: Inflight smoking

question_text: when did they stop allowing smoking on planes

text: Inflight smoking

text: The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Inflight smoking is prohibited by almost all airlines. Smoking on domestic U.S. airliners, for instance, was banned on all domestic flights with a duration of two hours or less beginning in 1988, with all planes being smoke-free by the end of the 1990s.[1] According to FAA regulations, smoking lit cigarettes or anything else that produces smoke or flame is prohibited onboard most commercial aircraft.[2] As of October 2015, the USDOT prohibits the use of electronic cigarettes on flights, as well as such devices from being transported in checked luggage.[3]

text: Advocate Ralph Nader was among the first to call for a smoking ban on airlines. United Airlines was the first to implement a nonsmoking section, in 1971.[4] However, both tobacco companies and airlines fought any regulation.[4] Significantly, the Civil Aeronautics Board banned and then unbanned smoking in 1984, with chairman Dan McKinnon saying, "Philosophically, I think nonsmokers have rights, but it comes into market conflict with practicalities and the realities of life."[5] After years of debate over health concerns,[6][7] Congressional action in 1987 led to a ban on inflight smoking.[8][9][10][11]

text: The U.S. ban on inflight smoking began with domestic flights of two hours or less in April 1988,[12][13][14] extended to domestic flights of six hours or less in February 1990,[15][16][17] and to all domestic and international flights in 2000.[18][19][20] The 1990 ban applied only to the passengers and the cabin of the aircraft and not the flight deck. Pilots were allowed to continue smoking after the 1990 ban due to concerns over potential flight safety issues caused by nicotine withdrawal in chronic smokers.[21]

text: Normally, passengers found to be smoking on non-smoking flights will at least face a fine (up to $5,000) and at worst be arrested and detained upon landing. Due to stringent security measures, this often causes disruption such as having to land the flight early in order to escort the smoker from the plane.

text: Such regulations have on occasion met with defiance; in 2010 a Qatari diplomat was arrested upon arrival at Denver International Airport for smoking in the onboard lavatory on United Airlines Flight 663 and for making threats; when confronted by airline staff, he jokingly suggested that he was attempting to set his shoes on fire.[22] On February 3, 2013, a family of four were accused of smoking during a Sunwing Airlines flight from Halifax to the Dominican Republic. They caused the flight to make an emergency landing at Bermuda L.F. Wade International Airport. The two eldest of the family were arrested by Bermuda Police Service and subsequently sentenced to a $500 fine or 10 days in prison.[23][24]

text: Due to the ubiquitous prohibition of in-flight smoking and the increasingly widespread use of electronic devices, the illuminated no-smoking signs have sometimes been re-purposed to inform passengers to switch devices off for take-off and landing. Where this is the case, the no-smoking sign is permanently printed on the overhead panels.[citation needed]


document_title: Petri dish

question_text: why do inoculated plates need to be incubated in the inverted position

text: Petri dish

text: Microbiology[edit]

text: Petri dishes are often used to make agar plates for microbiology studies. The dish is partially filled with warm liquid containing agar and a mixture of specific ingredients that may include nutrients, blood, salts, carbohydrates, dyes, indicators, amino acids or antibiotics. Once the agar cools and solidifies, the dish is ready to be inoculated ("plated") with a microbe-laden sample. Virus or phage cultures require a two-stage inoculation: after the agar preparation, bacteria are grown in the dish to provide hosts for the viral inoculum.

text: Petri plates are incubated upside-down to lessen the risk of contamination from airborne particles settling on them and to prevent the accumulation of any water condensation that may otherwise disturb or compromise a culture.

text: While Petri dishes are widespread in microbiological research, smaller dishes tend to be used for large-scale studies in which growing cells in Petri dishes can be relatively expensive and labor-intensive.[5][6]

text: A special type of petri dishes are Replicate Organism Detection And Counting often also referred to as rodac plates or contact plates. Those are petri dishes in which the medium protrudes (raised agar level) the edges of the dish to make it easier to take samples on hard objects. The plates are also divided in squares to make counting of CFUs easier. They are often used to monitor how clean certain areas (e.g. in kitchens) are.[7]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Petri dishes are also used for eukaryotic cell culture in a liquid medium or on solid agar. They are used in immunodiffusion studies when partially filled with agar or agarose gel.[8] Empty Petri dishes may be used to observe plant germination, the behavior of very small animals or for other day-to-day laboratory practices such as drying fluids in an oven and carrying or storing samples. Their transparency and flat profile also mean they are commonly used as temporary receptacles for viewing samples, especially liquids, under a low-power microscope.


document_title: Decolonisation of Africa

question_text: leader of the first sub saharan african nation to gain independence

text: Decolonisation of Africa

text: Background[edit]

text:
Belgian

  Italian

  British

  Portuguese

  French

  Spanish

  German

  Independent

text: The "Scramble for Africa" between 1870 and 1900 ended with almost all of Africa being controlled by European states. Racing to secure as much land as possible, but wanting to avoid conflict amongst themselves, without regard to local differences leaders divided up the continent, the partition of Africa was confirmed in the Berlin Agreement of 1885.[6][7] By 1905, control of almost all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, with the only exceptions being Liberia (which had been settled by African-American former slaves) and Ethiopia (which had successfully resisted colonisation by Italy).[8] Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor.[9] Progress towards independence was slow up until the mid-20th century. By 1977, 54 African countries had seceded from European colonial rulers.[10]

text: Causes[edit]

text: External causes[edit]

text: During WWI and WWII, African soldiers were conscripted into imperial militaries.[11] This led to a deeper political awareness and the expectation of greater respect and self-determination, which was left largely unfulfilled.[12] During the 1941 Atlantic Conference, the British and the US leaders met to discuss ideas for the post-war world. One of the provisions added by President Roosevelt was that all people had the right to self-determination, inspiring hope in British colonies.[10]

text: On February 12, 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss the postwar world. The result was the Atlantic Charter.[13] It was not a treaty and was not submitted to the British Parliament or the Senate of the United States for ratification, but it turned to be a widely acclaimed document.[14] One of the provisions, introduced by Roosevelt, was the autonomy of imperial colonies. After World War II, the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter. After the war, some British considered African colonies to be childish and immature; British colonisers introduced democratic government at local levels in the colonies. Britain was forced to agree but Churchill rejected universal applicability of self-determination for subject nations. He also stated that the Charter was only applicable to German occupation states, not to the British Empire.[10]

text: Furthermore, colonies such as Nigeria, Senegal and Ghana pushed for self-governance as colonial powers were exhausted by war efforts.[15]

text: Internal causes[edit]

text: For early African nationalists, decolonization was a moral imperative. In 1945 the Fifth Pan-African Congress demanded the end of colonialism. Delegates included future presidents of Ghana, Kenya, Malawi and national activists.[16]

text: Colonial economic exploitation led to European extraction of Ghana’s mining profits to shareholders, instead of internal development, causing major local socioeconomic grievances.[17] Nevertheless, local African industry and towns expanded when U-boats patrolling the Atlantic Ocean reduced raw material transportation to Europe.[10] In turn, urban communities, industries and trade unions grew, improving literacy and education, leading to pro-independence newspaper establishments.[10]

text: Indeed, in the 1930s, the colonial powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently, a small elite of leaders educated in Western universities and familiar with ideas such as self-determination. In some cases where the road to independence was fought, settled arrangements with the colonial powers were also being placed.[9] These leaders came to lead the struggles for independence, and included leading nationalists such as Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, now Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika, now Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), and Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d'Ivoire).[citation needed]

text: Economic legacy[edit]

text: The economic legacy of colonialism is difficult to quantify but is likely to have been negative. Modernisation theory emphasises that colonial powers built infrastructure to integrate Africa into the world economy, however, this was built mainly for extraction purposes. African economies were structured to benefit the coloniser and any surplus was likely to be ‘drained’, thereby stifling capital accumulation.[18] Dependency theory suggests that most African economies continued to occupy a subordinate position in the world economy after independence with a reliance on primary commodities such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya.[19] Despite this continued reliance and unfair trading terms, a meta-analysis of 18 African countries found that a third of countries experienced increased economic growth post-independence.[18]

text: Effects of debt[edit]

text: The debts of African economies are external and one-sided. While the USA and the UK have gross external debts of 95% and 400% respectively, these debts are balanced by the countries being major lenders.[20] This is not the case for African nations which do not own as many assets or debts to balance the burden. The debt situation in sub-Saharan Africa means that the world’s poorest countries were transferring $3 billion US dollars to developed countries between 1995 and 2000.[21] This is exacerbated by interest and principal arrears which made up over 27% of total external debt for sub-Saharan nations in 1998.[21] This causes two main problems: firstly, servicing the debt means less money is available for importing goods, secondly debt creates uncertainty and risk which puts off investors and reduces business confidence.[22]

text: Social legacy[edit]

text: Language[edit]

text: Over 2,000 distinct languages are spoken in the continent. Along with Africa’s indigenous dialects - Afro-Asiatic, Kordofanian and Khoisan languages, many colonial languages are spoken today. For example, English is spoken in Ghana, Gambia and Kenya, French in Benin, Burkina-Faso and Cameroon, and Portuguese in Guinea-Bissau, Angola, São Tomé and Príncipe.[23] Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa’s linguistic diversity has been eroded. Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and tensions between African nations.[24]

text: Land[edit]

text: Today, 93% of South Africa's land is still owned by ‘descendants of white settlers’ despite the political negotiation of the Native Land Act in 1913.[25][dubious – discuss] King (1990) argued that ‘space’ is a mode of segregations, creating forms of inclusions and exclusions. Evidence is represented through different architecture designs, and distinct segregation of spaces (Zonification) in cities are still a feature in the colonial present. For example, the new development of the business improvement district in Cape Town portrays a similar image of the colonial era with embedded struggles in class, race, ethnicity and hierarchical differences.[26] Decolonization marks one of the historical moments in which African countries increased its autonomous status from the impetus Western colonial powers. Echoes of the colonial past are still visible in the African society today because Ferguson (2006) stated there are still widespread social stigmas associated with the continent such as phrases of ‘darkness’ and ‘troubled’. The representation of Africa, therefore, reveals the continual Western legacies of the colonial past and the struggles embedded in the countries.

text: Transition to Independence[edit]

text: Following World War II, rapid decolonization swept across the continent of Africa as many territories gained their independence from European colonization.

text: In August 1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met to discuss their post-war goals. In that meeting, they agreed to the Atlantic Charter, which in part stipulated that they would, "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them."[27] This agreement became the post-WWII stepping stone toward independence as nationalism grew throughout Africa.[citation needed]

text: Consumed with post-war debt, European powers were no longer able to afford the resources needed to maintain control of their African colonies. This allowed for African nationalists to negotiate decolonization very quickly and with minimal casualties. Some territories, however, saw great death tolls as a result of their fight for independence.[citation needed]

text: Ghana Independence[edit]

text: On May 6, 1957, Ghana (formerly Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence from European colonization in the twentieth century.[citation needed]

text: Starting as early as the 1945 Pan-African Congress, Gold Coast’s American-educated, independence leader Kwame Nkrumah made his focus clear.  In the conference’s declaration, he wrote, “we believe in the rights of all peoples to govern themselves. We affirm the right of all colonial peoples to control their own destiny. All colonies must be free from foreign imperialist control, whether political or economic.”[28]

text: Four years later in 1949, the conflict would ramp up when British troops opened fire on African protesters.  Riots broke out across the territory and while Nkrumah and other leaders ended up in prison, the event became a catalyst for the independence movement.  After being released from prison, Nkrumah founded the, Convention People’s Party (CPP), which launched a mass-based campaign for independence with the slogan ‘Self Government Now!’”[29] Heightened nationalism within the country grew their power and the political party widely expanded.  In February of 1951, the Convention People's Party gained political power by winning 34 of 38 elected seats, including one for Nkrumah who was imprisoned at the time.[30] While the movement started with violence, it would end with political cooperation.[citation needed]

text: Gold Coast finally gained its independence in 1957, which would become a symbol of the possibilities for colonized Africa.[citation needed]

text: Algerian War for Independence[edit]

text: In Algeria, anti-colonialism sentiment grew following World War II until it reached a boiling point. Unlike many territories that gained their independence through a smooth transition, France believed the African colony was important and never met their promise of self-governance in Algeria. As a result the Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) began a guerrilla-style attack to win their freedom.[31] Lasting more than eight years, the estimated death toll typically falls between 300,000 and 400,000 people.[32] By 1958, the FLN was able to negotiate peace accord with French President Charles de Gaulle and nearly 90% of all Europeans had left the territory.

text: Timeline[edit]

text: This table is the arranged by the earliest date of independence in this graph; 58 countries have seceded.

text:
Country[a]
Colonial name
Colonial power[b]
Independence date[c]
First head of state[d]
Independence won through

 Liberia
 Liberia
 United States
26 July 1847[e]
Joseph Jenkins Roberts[f]
Liberian Declaration of Independence

 South Africa[g]
 Cape Colony
 Colony of Natal
 Orange River Colony
 Transvaal Colony
 United Kingdom
31 May 1910[h]
Louis Botha
South Africa Act 1909

 Egypt[i]
 Sultanate of Egypt
28 February 1922[j]
Fuad I[k]
Egyptian revolution of 1919

 Eritrea
 Italian Eritrea
 Italy[l]
10 February 1947[m]
Haile Selassie[n]
-

 Libya[o]
 British Military Administration[p]
 Military Territory of Fezzan-Ghadames
 United Kingdom
 France
24 December 1951
Idris
-

 Sudan
 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
 United Kingdom[q]
 Republic of Egypt
1 January 1956
Ismail al-Azhari
-

 Tunisia[r]
 French Protectorate of Tunisia
 France
20 March 1956
Muhammad VIII al-Amin
Habib Bourguiba
-[s]

 Morocco
 French Protectorate in Morocco
 Tangier International Zone
 Spanish Protectorate in Morocco
 Spanish West Africa
Ifni
 France
 Spain
2 March 1956[t]
7 April 1956
10 April 1958
4 January 1969
Mohammed V
Ifni War

 Ghana[u]
 Gold Coast
 United Kingdom
6 March 1957[v]
Kwame Nkrumah[w]
Gold Coast legislative election, 1956

 Guinea
 French West Africa
 France
2 October 1958
Sékou Touré
Guinean constitutional referendum, 1958

 Cameroon
French Cameroons
 France
1 January 1960[x]
Ahmadou Ahidjo
-[y]

 Togo
 French Togoland
 France
27 April 1960
Sylvanus Olympio
-

 Mali
 French West Africa
20 June 1960[z]
Modibo Keita
-

 Senegal
Léopold Senghor
-

 Madagascar[aa]
 French Madagascar
26 June 1960
Philibert Tsiranana
-[ab]

 Democratic Republic of the Congo[ac]
 Belgian Congo
 Belgium
30 June 1960
Patrice Lumumba[ad]
Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference[ae]

 Somalia[af]
 British Somaliland
 Trust Territory of Somaliland
 United Kingdom
 Italy
26 June 1960
1 July 1960[ag]
Aden Abdullah Osman Daar
-

 Benin[ah]
 French West Africa
 France
1 August 1960
Hubert Maga
-

 Niger
3 August 1960
Hamani Diori
-

 Burkina Faso[ai]
5 August 1960
Maurice Yaméogo
-

 Ivory Coast
7 August 1960
Félix Houphouët-Boigny
-

 Chad
 French Equatorial Africa
11 August 1960
François Tombalbaye
-

 Central African Republic
13 August 1960
David Dacko
-

 Republic of the Congo
15 August 1960
Fulbert Youlou
-

 Gabon
17 August 1960
Léon M'ba
-

 Nigeria
 Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria
 British Cameroons
 United Kingdom
1 October 1960
1 June 1961
1 October 1961[aj]
Nnamdi Azikiwe
-

 Mauritania
 French Equatorial Africa
 France
28 November 1960
Moktar Ould Daddah
-

 Sierra Leone
 Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone
 United Kingdom
27 April 1961
Milton Margai
-

 Tanganyika[ak]
 Tanganyika Territory
9 December 1961
Julius Nyerere
-

 Burundi[al]
 Ruanda-Urundi
 Belgium
1 July 1962
Mwambutsa IV of Burundi
-

 Rwanda
Grégoire Kayibanda
Rwandan Revolution

 Algeria
 French Algeria
 France
5 July 1962
Ahmed Ben Bella[am]
Algerian War

 Uganda
 Protectorate of Uganda
 United Kingdom
9 October 1962
Milton Obote
-

 Kenya
 Colony and Protectorate of Kenya
12 December 1963[an]
Jomo Kenyatta[w]
-[ao]

 Sultanate of Zanzibar[ak]
 Sultanate of Zanzibar
10 December 1963
Jamshid bin Abdullah
-[ap]

 Malawi
 Nyasaland
6 July 1964[aq]
Hastings Banda[w]
-

 Zambia
 Northern Rhodesia
24 October 1964
Kenneth Kaunda
-

 The Gambia
 Gambia Colony and Protectorate
18 February 1965[ar]
Dawda Jawara[w]
-

 Rhodesia
 Zimbabwe
 Southern Rhodesia
11 November 1965
17 April 1980[as]
Ian Smith
Robert Mugabe
Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence
Lancaster House Agreement

 Botswana
 Bechuanaland Protectorate
30 September 1966[at]
Seretse Khama
-

 Lesotho
 Territory of Basutoland
4 October 1966
Leabua Jonathan[au]
-

 Mauritius
 Mauritius
12 March 1968
Veerasamy Ringadoo
-

 Swaziland
Swaziland
6 September 1968
Sobhuza II
-

 Equatorial Guinea
 Spanish Territories of the Gulf of Guinea
 Spain
12 October 1968
Francisco Macías Nguema
-

 Guinea-Bissau
 Overseas Province of Guinea
 Portugal
10 September 1974[av]
Luís Cabral
Guinea-Bissau War of Independence

 Mozambique[aw]
 State of Mozambique
25 June 1975
Samora Machel
Mozambican War of Independence

 Cape Verde
 Overseas Province of Cape Verde
5 July 1975
Aristides Pereira[ax]
Guinea-Bissau War of Independence[ay]

 Comoros
 French Comoros
 France
6 July 1975
Ahmed Abdallah
Comorian independence referendum, 1974

 São Tomé and Príncipe
 Overseas Province of São Tomé and Príncipe
 Portugal
12 July 1975
Manuel Pinto da Costa
-

 Angola[az]
 State of Angola
11 November 1975
Agostinho Neto
Angolan War of Independence

 Seychelles
 Seychelles
 United Kingdom
29 June 1976
James Richard Marie Mancham
-

 Djibouti
 French Territory of the Afars and the Issas
 France
27 June 1977
Hassan Gouled Aptidon
Afars and Issas independence referendum, 1977

 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic[ba]
 Spanish Sahara
Southern Provinces
 Spain
 Morocco
27 February 1976
independence not yet effectuated
El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed
Mohamed Abdelaziz
Western Sahara War
Western Sahara conflict

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonization was achieved jointly by multiple countries or where the current country is formed by the merger of previously decolonized countries. Although Ethiopia was administered as a colony in the aftermath of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and was recognized by the international community as such at the time, it is not listed here as its brief period under Italian rule (which lasted for a little more than five years and ended with the return of the previous native government) is now usually seen as a military occupation.
Jump up ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and UN Trust Territories.
Jump up ^ The dates of decolonization for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonized independent countries are given in separate notes, as are dates when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day.
Jump up ^ For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm, a monarchy with a strong Prime Minister, or a parliamentary republic the head of government is listed instead.
Jump up ^ Liberia would later annexed the Republic of Maryland, another settler colony made up of former African-American slaves, in 1857. Liberia would not be recognized by the United States until 5 February 1862.
Jump up ^ Stephen Allen Benson was President on the date of the United States' recognition.
Jump up ^ As Union of South Africa.
Jump up ^ The Union of South Africa was constituted through the South Africa Act entering into force on 31 May 1910. On 11 December 1931 it got increased self-governance powers through the Statute of Westminster which was followed by transformation into republic after the 1960 referendum. Afterwards, South Africa was under apartheid until elections resulting from the negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa on 27 April 1994 when Nelson Mandela became president.
Jump up ^ As the Kingdom of Egypt. Transcontinental country, partially located in Asia.
Jump up ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence with the exception of four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[33] The Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until 23 July 1952. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956. For this, the 23 July date, celebrated as Revolution Day, serves as Egypt's national day.
Jump up ^ Although the leaders of the 1952 revolution (Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) became the de facto leaders of Egypt, neither would assume office until September 17 of that year when Naguib became Prime Minister, succeeding Aly Maher Pasha who was sworn in on the day of the revolution. Nasser would succeeded Naguib as Prime Minister on 25 February 1954.
Jump up ^ From 1 April 1941 to its eventual transfer to Ethiopia, Italian Eritrea was occupied by the  United Kingdom.
Jump up ^ Date marking the de jure end of Italian rule. Not celebrated as a holiday. The transfer of Eritrea to the Ethiopian Empire occurred on 15 September 1952. On 24 May 1993 after decades of fighting starting from 1 September 1961, Eritrea formally seceded from Ethiopia. The 24 May date is celebrated as Eritrea's date of independence.
Jump up ^ Emperor of Ethiopia on the date of the transfer. Isaias Afwerki became President of Eritrea upon independence.
Jump up ^ As the United Kingdom of Libya.
Jump up ^ Part of the British Military Administration originally gained independence as the Cyrenaica Emirate; it was only recognized by the United Kingdom. The Cyrenaica Emirate also merged to form the United Kingdom of Libya.
Jump up ^ Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.[34]
Jump up ^ As the Kingdom of Tunisia.
Jump up ^ See Tunisian independence.
Jump up ^ Cape Juby was ceded by Spain to Morocco on 2 April 1958. Ifni was returned from Spain to Morocco on 4 January 1969.
Jump up ^ As the Dominion of Ghana.
Jump up ^ The British Togoland mandate and trust territory was integrated into Gold Coast colony on 13 December 1956. On 1 July 1960 Ghana formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Originally as Prime Minister; became President upon the monarchy's abolition.
Jump up ^ After the French Cameroun mandate and trust territory gained independence it was joined by part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961. The other part of British Cameroons joined Nigeria.
Jump up ^ Minor armed insurgency from Union of the Peoples of Cameroon.
Jump up ^ Senegal and French Sudan gained independence on 20 June 1960 as the Mali Federation, which dissolved a few months later into present day Senegal and Mali.
Jump up ^ As the Malagasy Republic.
Jump up ^ The Malagasy Uprising was an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from France.
Jump up ^ As the Republic of the Congo.
Jump up ^ Joseph Kasa-Vubu became President upon independence.
Jump up ^ The Congo Crisis occurred after independence.
Jump up ^ As the Somali Republic.
Jump up ^ The Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) united with the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) on 1 July 1960 to form the Somali Republic (Somalia).
Jump up ^ As the Republic of Dahomey.
Jump up ^ As Upper Volta.
Jump up ^ Part of the British Cameroons mandate and trust territory on 1 October 1961 joined Nigeria. The other part of British Cameroons joined the previously decolonized French Cameroun mandate and territory.
^ Jump up to: a b After both gained independence Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged on 26 April 1964 as Tanzania.
Jump up ^ As the Kingdom of Burundi.
Jump up ^ Assumed office on September 27, 1962 as Prime Minister. From the date of independence to Ben Bella's inauguration, Abderrahmane Farès served as President of the Provisional Executive Council.
Jump up ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly one year later; Jamhuri Day ("Republic Day") is a celebration of both dates.
Jump up ^ The Mau Mau Uprising was an earlier armed uprising that failed to gain independence from the United Kingdom.
Jump up ^ The Sultanate of Zanzibar would later be overthrown within a month of sovereignty by the Zanzibar Revolution.
Jump up ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy exactly two years later.
Jump up ^ Abolished its commonwealth monarchy on 24 April 1970.
Jump up ^ Due the Rhodesia's unwillingness to accommodate the British government's request for black majority rule, the United Kingdom (along with the rest of the international community) refused to recognize the white-minority led government. The former self-governing colony would not be recognized as an independent state until the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, under the name Zimbabwe.
Jump up ^ Botswana Day Holiday is the second day of the two-day celebration of Botswana's independence. The first day is also referred to as Botswana Day.
Jump up ^ Moshoeshoe II became King upon independence.
Jump up ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. The date 24 September 1973 (when the PAIGC formally declared Guinea's independence) is celebrated as Guinea-Bissau's date of independence.
Jump up ^ As the People's Republic of Mozambique
Jump up ^ Pedro Pires was sworn in as Prime Minister three days after independence.
Jump up ^ Although the fight for Cape Verdean independence was linked to the liberation movement occurring in Guinea-Bissau, the island country itself saw little fighting.
Jump up ^ As the People's Republic of Angola
Jump up ^ The Spanish colonial rule de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Spanish Sahara), when the territory was passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexed the entire territory in 1979). The decolonization of Western Sahara is still pending, while a declaration of independence has been proclaimed by the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic, which controls only a small portion east of the Moroccan Wall. The UN still considers Spain the legal administrating country of the whole territory,[35] awaiting the outcome of the ongoing Manhasset negotiations and resulting election to be overseen by the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara. However, the de facto administrator is Morocco (see United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories).

tag: ol


document_title: List of South Carolina weather records

question_text: what is the highest recorded temperature in south carolina

text: List of South Carolina weather records

text: Temperature[edit]

text:
Event
Measurement
Date
Location
County

Highest Temperature[1][2]
113 °F (45.0 °C)
Jun. 29, 2012
USC Columbia
Richland, South Carolina

Lowest Temperature[3][4]
−19 °F (−28.3 °C)
000000001985-01-21-0000January 21, 1985
Caesars Head
Greenville

text: Rain[edit]

text:
Event
Measurement
Date
Location
County

Greatest 24-Hour Rainfall[5][6][7]
17.00 inches (432 mm)
000000001995-08-27-0000August 27, 1995
Antreville
Abbeville

text: Snow[edit]

text:
Event
Measurement
Date
Location
County

Greatest 24-Hour Snowfall[8]
24 inches (61 cm)
February 10–11, 1973
Rimini
Clarendon

Most Snowfall from one storm [9]
28.9 inches (73 cm)
February 15–17, 1969
Caesars Head
Greenville

text: Hurricanes[edit]

text:
Event
Measurement
Date
Location
County

Wettest Tropical Cyclone[7]
17.00 inches (432 mm)
Tropical Storm Jerry
(1995)
Antreville
Abbeville


document_title: Brain on Fire (film)

question_text: who is the boyfriend in brain on fire

question_tokens: who is the boyfriend in brain on fire

text: Brain on Fire (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Susannah Cahalan (Moretz) is a New York Post writer, who works with her boss Richard (Perry) and desk neighbor/co-worker Margo (Slate). She meets a sound producer named Stephen (Mann) and they become friends. Susannah begins to experience strange things (such as being in a trance state, seeing people—who are not actually present—who talk about her, and hypersensitiveness to annoying noises and tactile sensations).  Susannah's behavior becomes unusually erratic. After several days of mishaps made by her in the office due to her altered behavior, including talking to Stephen while under her desk, as well as insulting a Senator, his public relations person and firm, Susannah suffers a seizure and seeks treatment.

text: After consulting with a clinic, her father Tom (Armitage) confronts Stephen about not calling her parents regarding the incident. Tom suggests that she stay with her parents, which Susannah refuses to do, but in the end she leaves to stay with her mother and stepfather. At her mother's house, Susannah has another seizure. She is taken to a clinic where Susannah undergoes an MRI. The doctor advises her mother, Rhona (Moss), that Susannah has been partying too much, working too hard and not getting enough sleep. While at one of her doctor's appointments, Susannah expresses she has bipolar disorder, since she is creative and "creative people are bipolar". Another doctor prescribes an anti-psychotic medication which, after reading of their side effects and believing them as causing her symptoms, she refuses. Rhona gets her to take the pills anyway, and asks her father to watch her because she is too difficult to handle. During dinner with her father, she becomes violent, yelling at her father to stay away. Her parents demand that she is hospitalized despite MRI,  EEG and physical tests all showing normal results.

text: One of the doctors says to her parents that she is possibly suffering from schizophrenia. The doctor tells them that if Susannah's behavior does not improve, she will be transferred to another hospital, where they can deal with psychological problems. Susannah becomes catatonic, and Dr. Souhel Najjar is asked to help in investigating her case. Najjar has Susannah draw a clock. She draws it with all of the numbers (1–12) on the right side of the clock, leading the doctor to believe that the right hemisphere of her brain is swollen and inflamed. Najjar has her undergo a brain biopsy in order to take cells from her brain for diagnosis. It is found that Susannah has anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and Najjar describes it to her parents and Stephen as her "brain is on fire". Dr. Najjar prescribes her a treatment, which leads to a slow, but full recovery of her cognitive abilities.

text: Seven months later, Susannah is back at work and presents her first written piece to Richard since her recovery. A grateful Richard tells her to start writing a book about her experience. Sitting at her desk, she begins to write the story, entitled Brain on Fire.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Chloë Grace Moretz as Susannah Cahalan, a young woman who one day wakes up in restraints in a hospital a month after suffering from a mysterious illness that doctors are unable to diagnosis[2]
Jenny Slate as Margo, a friend and co-worker[3]
Thomas Mann as Stephen, Cahalan's boyfriend[3]
Tyler Perry as Richard, Cahalan's boss at the New York Post[4]
Carrie-Anne Moss as Rhona Nack, Cahalan's mother[5]
Richard Armitage as Tom Cahalan, Cahalan's father[5]
Navid Negahban as Dr. Souhel Najjar
Alex Zahara as Allen
Jenn MacLean-Angus as Giselle

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: On May 1, 2014, Deadline reported that Charlize Theron had acquired the film rights to Susannah Cahalan's 2012 memoir Brain on Fire: My Month of Madness.[6] Dakota Fanning was set to play Cahalan, a young woman who one day wakes up in a hospital with no memory of the events of the previous month.[6][7] Theron would produce along with Beth Kono and A.J. Dix through her banner Denver and Delilah Productions.[6] On January 22, 2015, Gerard Barrett was set to write and direct the adaptation, while Rob Merilees of Foundation Features would produce and finance the film.[8] London-based Mister Smith Entertainment sold the film to international distributors at 2015 Berlin Film Festival.[9] Will Poulter was added to the cast on February 4, 2015, to play Cahalan's boyfriend.[10] On May 26, 2015, Thomas Mann and Jenny Slate were reportedly in talks to join the film, where Mann would play Cahalan's boyfriend, replacing Poulter.[3] On June 26, 2015, it was announced that Dakota Fanning had left the project due to scheduling issues, and Chloë Grace Moretz replaced her for the lead role.[2] On July 7, 2015, it was announced that Broad Green Pictures had come on board to produce and finance the film as well as distribute the film in the United States, while Lindsay Macadam would also produce along with producing partner Merilees.[11] On July 16, 2015, Carrie-Anne Moss and Richard Armitage were cast as Cahalan's parents, Rhona Nack and Tom Cahalan, respectively.[5] On July 20, 2015, Tyler Perry joined the film to play Richard, Cahalan's boss at the New York Post.[4]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film began on July 13, 2015 in Vancouver, British Columbia.[5][11][12] Moretz was spotted filming at the Vancouver General Hospital.[13] On July 18, Moretz was filming a scene of a near-miss by a taxicab and the Vancouver street was transformed into Manhattan.[14] Production on the film concluded on August 10, 2015.[15]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 14, 2016.[1][16] Shortly after, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film.[17] It was released on June 22, 2018.[18]

text: Reception[edit]

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 13%, based on 15 critics, and an average rating of 4.5/10.[19] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 34 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[20]


document_title: 2018 Asian Games medal table

question_text: who won maximum medal in asian games 2018

text: 2018 Asian Games medal table

text: Medal table[edit]

text: *   Host nation (Indonesia)[3]

text: NOCs without medal[edit]

text:
Bangladesh (BAN)
 Bhutan (BHU)
 Brunei (BRU)
 East Timor (TLS)
 Maldives (MDV)
 Oman (OMA)
 Palestine (PLE)
 Sri Lanka (SRI)
 Yemen (YEM)

text: Visualization[edit]

text: Change in medal standings[edit]

text: On 3 September 2018, it was announced that Pürevdorjiin Orkhon of team Mongolia had tested positive for Stanozolol in a urine test conducted on 20 August 2018. Violating the anti-doping rules, Orkhon was stripped of her gold medal.[4]


document_title: 45 rpm adapter

question_text: what is the name of the plastic insert on a 45 record

text: 45 rpm adapter

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A 45 rpm adapter (also 45 rpm record insert, 45 rpm spindle adapter, or 7 inch adapter, the common size of 45 RPM records) is a small plastic or metal insert that goes in the middle of a 45-rpm record so it can be played on the LP or 78 rpm size spindle of a turntable. The adapter could be a small solid circle that fits onto the bottom of the spindle (meaning only one 45 could be played at a time) or a larger adapter that fits over the entire spindle, permitting a stack of 45s to be played.

text: The first 45 rpm inserts were introduced by the Webster-Chicago Corporation, also known as Webcor.  They were made of solid zinc, difficult to insert into a record and almost impossible to remove without breaking the disc.  A differently shaped, but similarly difficult-to-use metal adapter was made by Fidelitone.  Capitol Records for a time produced what they called "Optional Center" or "O.C. 45" records.  These had a triangular cardboard insert with an LP-size spindle hole; the cardboard center could be punched out for playing on 45 rpm spindles, but could not be replaced.

text: The Spider[edit]

text: The former RCA Corporation introduced a snap-in plastic insert known as a spider [1] to make 45 rpm records compatible with the smaller spindle size of a 33⅓ rpm LP record player.  Commissioned by RCA president David Sarnoff and invented by Thomas Hutchison, spiders were prevalent in the 1960s and sold tens of millions per year.  The Hutchison adapter included small bumps called "drive pins," which locked the adapters together while revolving, thus preventing the stacked records from slipping against each other.  Several manufacturers made "spider" adapters in slightly varying shapes and many different colors, though yellow and red were most frequently used.

text: The SX2[edit]

text: The SX2 and The Extender were designed and manufactured by Mark McLaughlan (adopted surname - changed back to his birth name, Mark Grant, in 1997) between the early 1980s and early 1990s.[2]  McLaughlan, a Boston area nightclub DJ came up with the design to make 7" discs easier to handle when mixing.  The original design (The Extender) was made up of a platter die-cut from sheets of plastic that McLaughlan would drive on the hood of his car from the supplier in Cambridge, MA to the die-cutter in Ipswich, MA.  He would then do the final assembly (bonding a lathe cut acrylic center piece and a foam pad) and packaging by hand.  The SX2 (Single Extender, Rev 2) was manufactured by plastic injection at Spirit, Inc. in Wakefield, Massachusetts.  One of the main design revisions required for the manufacturing process was a series of 'ribs' on the underside of the platter to prevent warping from the extreme changes in temperature during the plastic injection process.  McLaughlan also incorporated a raised barrier to contain the head (in the event of miscuing) and a polished surface inside the barrier to minimize damage to the stylus.  Due to its limited manufacturing run the SX2 has become a sought after rarity among pro DJs.[3]


document_title: Express trains in India

question_text: which is the second fastest train in india

text: Express trains in India

text: Non reserved travelling on Express trains[edit]

text: Indian railways run non-reserved train as have unreserved/general compartment on Express/Mail trains.

text: Indian railways run non reserved trains under the brand Jan Sadharan Express. These trains have all Unreserved/General coaches. A new series of Antyodaya Express is also proposed in rail budget 2016 - 2017 which will operate on peak routes having more rush. These trains will have all non reserved coaches.

text: The following Jan Sadharan Express run in India:

text:
13257/13258 - Rajendranagar Anand Vihar Jan Sadharan Express (Daily)
12597/12598 - Gorakhpur Mumbai Jan Sadharan Express (Weekly)
15101/15102 - Tirora - Mumbai (Weekly)
13257/13258 - Danapur - Anand Vihar (Delhi) (Daily)
15559/15560 - Darbhanga - Ahmedabad (Weekly)
15269/15270 - Muzaffarpur - Ahmedabad (Monthly- Twice)

text: The following trains are proposed under Antyodaya brand:[2]

text:
22877/22877 Howrah - Ernakulam Antyodaya Express
22841/22841 Santragachi - Chennai Central Antyodaya Express
22921/22922 Bandra Terminus - Gorakhpur Antyodaya Express
22895/22896 Bilaspur - Firozpur Antyodaya Express
15563/15564 Jaynagar - Udhna Antyodaya Express
22885/22886 Lokmanya Tilak Terminus - Tatanagar Antyodaya Express
15567/15568 Darbhanga - Jalandhar City Antyodaya Express
22631/22632 - Bikaner - Chennai Antyodaya Express
16355/16356 - Kochuveli - Mangaluru Jn Antyodaya Express

text: Apart from Antyodaya and Jan Sadharan trains, unreserved/general coaches are non reserved coaches on normal Express / Mail. The restriction on such coaches is for 24 hours journey. A new series of Deen Dayalu coaches has also been proposed in rail budget 2016 - 2017 for long distance trains. The Deen Dayalu coaches will be more comfortable than the old coaches

text: Competition[edit]

text: Like elsewhere, railways in India compete with air travel and road transport. The advantages of travelling by air between cities are the greater frequency of flights, and shorter travel time. Rail travel, with few exceptions (if any), offers lower cost.

text: Rail transport also faces competition from the use of roads improved under National Highways Development Project. People owning cars can, for short distances, benefit in terms of shorter travel time, given the lack of commute to and from a railway station at both ends of a journey. This is also balanced against the need to maintain one's vehicle and its security during such trips.

text: Tracks[edit]

text: Duronto, Shatabdi, and Rajdhani trains run on Indian broad-gauge which is 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm). These tracks are multi-purpose supporting all passenger and freight traffic, and are not made exclusively for lighter load fast-express passenger trains. They run on tracks with classifications Group A, permitting speed up to 160 km/h, and Group B for speed up to 130 km/h. Lower speed limits apply when they are on tracks or railway switches, which have lower speed limits. The design of the railway switches, with a speed limit of 50–90 km/h, is the major bottleneck to higher speed.[3] Another constraint is the need to accommodate freight trains at the current top speed of 70 km/h.[4] These constraints to speed are consequences of sharing tracks with freight and lower speed suburban passenger trains. But currently, as of 2010, a separate freight corridor construction work is in progress with land acquisitions and other hurdles being slowly overcome.

text: Locomotives[edit]

text: Duronto, Shatabdi, and Rajdhani trains are hauled by powerful electric locomotives built by the Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, such as WAP-4, WAP-5, or WAP-7, each with an output of more than 5,000 hp.

text:
WAP-4 hauling Rajdhani Express

WAP-5 hauling Rajdhani Express

WAP-7 hauling Rajdhani Express

WCAM-2 hauling Rajdhani Express

WDP-4 loco hauling Rajdhani Express

WDP-3A loco hauling Trivandrum Rajdhani Express

text: Coaches[edit]

text: The coaches in these trains are of crash-worthy design from Alstom-LHB, built by Rail Coach Factory at Kapurthala.[5][6] These Alstom-LHB coaches can be pulled to a speed of 160 km/h without any modification.[7] New fast-express coaches are made partly or completely of stainless steel, primarily motivated by lower maintenance, and higher availability. Stainless steel construction also reduces empty weight, enabling more passengers per coach.[8] The bogies, design from Fiat, has 2 disk brakes per axle[7] essential for safe operations especially at the speed of fast-express trains.

text: Speed[edit]

text: The average speed of super-fast trains, range from 55 kilometres per hour (34 mph) to 112 kilometres per hour (70 mph). Of this, counting up and down trains separately, 23 trains have an average speed more than 80 km/h, whereas, 72 trains have an average speed between 70 and 80 km/h. The speed of express trains is calculated from the latest Indian Railways Time-Table.

text: Regular unbranded express trains on the same route are only slightly slower, since the same locomotives haul them.

text:
Fastest train in India: 12049/50: Agra Cantonment - H. Nizamuddin Gatimaan Express- maximum speed 160 km/h, average speed 112 km/h
Second-fastest train in India: 12002 New Delhi - Bhopal Habibganj Shatabdi Express - maximum speed 150 km/h, average speed 92 km/h
Third-fastest train in India: 09003/4 New Delhi - Bandra Rajdhani Express - maximum speed 150 km/h, average speed is between 95 and 100 km/h
Fourth-fastest train in India (tie): Delhi Metro's Airport Express Line- maximum speed 135 km/h, average speed is between 90 and 95 km/h
Fourth-fastest train in India (tie): 12259/60Sealdah - New Delhi Duronto Express - maximum speed 135 km/h, average speed is between 85 and 90 km/h
Fifth-fastest train in India: 12302 New Delhi - Howrah Rajdhani Express

text:
Fastest Rajdhani: 09003/4 New Delhi - Bandra Rajdhani Express - 140 km/h
Fastest Shatabdi: 12001/02 New Delhi - Bhopal Habibganj Shatabdi Express - 150 km/h
Fastest Suvidha: 22355/56 Patna - Mumbai CST Suvidha Superfast Express - 110 km/h
Fastest Duronto: 12259/60 New Delhi - Sealdah Duronto Express - 135 km/h
Fastest Yuva: 12249/50 Howrah New Delhi Yuva Express - 130 km/h
Fastest Garib Rath: 12910 H. Nizamuddin – Bandra Garib Rath - 130 km/h
Fastest Jan Shatabdi: 12059 Kota - H. Nizamuddin Jan Shatabdi Express - 110 km/h
Fastest Sampark Kranti: 12908 Maharashtra Sampark Kranti Express - 110 km/h
Fastest Double Decker: 12932 Mumbai Central - Ahmedabad AC Double Decker Express - 130 km/h
Fastest Air-Conditioned Superfast: 22109 Mumbai LTT - H. Nizamuddin AC SF Express - 130 km/h
Fastest Superfast train: 12908 Maharashtra Sampark Kranti Express - 110 km/h
Fastest Passenger train: 56719 Nagercoil – Kanyakumari Passenger – 62 km/h
Fastest EMU/MEMU/DEMU train: 31213 Sealdah – Barrackpore EMU – 66 km/h
Fastest fully diesel hauled Shatabdi: 12041 Howrah - Njp Howrah NJP Shatabdi Express - 130kmph maximum permissible speed, 72kmph average speed
Fastest Metro: Delhi Metro's Airport Express Line- 135 km/h

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
A WAP 5 hauled Gatimaan express.

12302 Howrah Rajdhani Express - AC First Class

12259 Sealdah - New Delhi Duronto Express

12322 Mumbai Mail Superfast Express at Barddhaman Junction

12510 Kaziranga Superfast Express (SBC-Guwahati) at Bagnan

12105 Vidarbha Superfast Express at Chandur

12073 (Howrah-Bhubaneswar) Jan Shatabdi Express (pic by Sarbamit Chowdhury)

12727 Godavari Superfast Express at Marripalem

Howrah Duronto Express

12113 Garib Rath Express at Nagpur

17036 Telangana Express at Moulali

Deccan Queen Express

18237 Chhattisgarh Express

15483 Mahananda Express at Siliguri Town

18625 (Patna-Hatia) Express

12864 Yesvantpur-Howrah Superfast Express at Marripalem

text: Stops[edit]

text: Frequent stops reduce the average running speed of a train greatly by preventing it from gaining higher speed. Duronto, Shatabdi, and Rajdhani express trains have very few stops. The distance between stops is as short as 2 km between New Bongaigaon-Bongaigaon on the Howrah-Dibrugarh Kamrup Express, and as long as 528 km between Vadodara-kota on the Thiruvananthapuram Rajdhani Express.


document_title: Avatar (band)

question_text: when does the new avatar album come out

question_tokens: when does the new avatar album come out

text: Avatar (band)

text: History[edit]

text: Formation and early releases (2001−2010)[edit]

text: The band was formed in 2001 by drummer John Alfredsson and guitarist Jonas Jarlsby, who at the time were in separate bands.[1] After several lineup changes, the band released two 4 song EP demos in 2004: Personal Observations released on January 18, 2004[2] and 4 Reasons to Die on November 19, 2004.[3] Avatar's first studio album, Thoughts Of No Tomorrow was released on January 25, 2006[4] and peaked at #47 on the Sweden Albums Top 60.[5] Several European tours as a supporting act for Impaled Nazarene, Evergrey, and In Flames.[6]

text: Their second album, Schlacht, was released in October 24, 2007,[7] reaching spot 27 on the Swedish album chart.[8] Björn Gelotte from In Flames contributed a guitar solo on the track Letters From Neverend. The subsequent set of tours saw them perform at the 2008 Sweden Rock Festival[9] as well as shows in support of Obituary (January - February 2008), and Hardcore Superstar (October - November 2009). The band's third album, the self-titled Avatar, was released in Sweden in November 2009 reaching the 36th position on the national album chart.[10] In January 2010 the music video for the song Queen of Blades was released on the band's website. Around that time, the band signed with Sony Music for the German and Swiss release of the latest album on March 26, 2010.[11] In April of the same year a deal was signed with the Japanese label Art Union, for a May 19 launch of the album.[12] They then launched into an ambitious touring schedule appearing at the 2010 Storsjöyran,[13] and also with Warrior Soul (March - April 2010), Dark Tranquillity (October - November 2010), and Helloween (December 2010 - January 2011).

text: Black Waltz and Hail the Apocalypse (2011−2015)[edit]

text: In December 2011 guitarist Simon Andersson left the band, being replaced by Tim Öhrström. On January 25, 2012 the album Black Waltz was released in Europe. It reached position 25 on the album list in Avatar's native Sweden.[14] The album was released in the US on February 14.[15] Black Waltz marks the first appearance of the "Clown" face paint now worn regularly by Eckerström.[16][17] To support the American release of Black Waltz, Avatar embarked on its first ever U.S. tour alongside Lacuna Coil and Sevendust in February 2013.[18]

text: In August 2013, after the wife of Device and Disturbed vocalist David Draiman gave birth and Draiman opted to bow out of his tour schedule, Avatar was picked by Avenged Sevenfold to replace Device and continue to tour with them and Five Finger Death Punch.[19] The following fall, the band spent a month in Thailand recording for a new album, planned for release in March 2014. On March 11, 2014 it was announced that Avatar's fifth album would be titled Hail the Apocalypse and was released May 13, 2014 via eOne Music. The album's first single, the title track, was released March 17, 2014 and was accompanied by a video.[20] The new album is produced by Tobias Lindell and mixed by Jay Ruston. Since the release of Hail the Apocalypse, Avatar has conducted several tours of the U.S. and Europe as both a supporting and headline act, as well as performing at festivals such as Rock on the Range 2014 and the inaugural Louder Than Life.[21][22] The music video for 'Vultures Fly' premiered on January 26, 2015[23] and earned distinction by being voted #1 for five weeks in a row in Loudwire's Battle Royal video countdown, as well as their 2015 Best Rock Video.[24][25] Avatar then began a U.S. tour in April 2015 consisting of headline performances, and supporting Five Finger Death Punch and Mushroomhead.[26][27][28]

text: On May 6, 2015 it was announced that Avatar would be included in the lineup of Shiprocked 2016.[29] Avatar returned to the U.S. for another headline tour in August and September 2015 with Gemini Syndrome First Decree and January/ February 2016 with September Mourning [30] prior to returning to Sweden to complete writing on the follow up to Hail The Apocalypse.[31] Sylvia Massy was announced as producer of that album, which was then recorded in three studios across Europe.[32][33] Towards the end of 2015, it was announced Avatar would be scheduled to appear at several festivals in 2016, to include Rock on the Range[34] and Carolina Rebellion.[35]

text: Feathers & Flesh (2016−2017)[edit]

text: After several tours supporting 2014's Hail the Apocalypse, Avatar entered the studio in December 2015 to begin recording a then unnamed follow-up studio album. The band split their time between three European studios — Castle Studios in Rohrsdorf, Germany, Finnvox Studios in Helsinki, Finland and Spinroad Studios in Lindome, Sweden. Acclaimed producer Sylvia Massy, noted for her work with Tool and Red Hot Chili Peppers, praised Avatar as 'relentless', noting singer Johannes Eckerström as having 'wild energy and charisma'. The start of recording sessions also coincided with multiple updates via the band's Instagram account, chronicling their time in the studio.[36] Once recording finished, Avatar took part in Shiprocked 2016, then toured the southern United States with September Mourning and Saint Diablo.[37][38] On January 30, 2016 in Dallas, Texas, Avatar performed the song For The Swarm, for the first time, the first original song since the release of their previous album.[39]

text: On March 3, 2016, Avatar revealed the name of the new album, Feathers & Flesh, via their official website, and through social media.[40][41] A release date of May 13, 2016 was also announced, as well as several pre-ordering merchandise bundles that would be available to order on March 17, 2016. One bundle offers a 60-page, 109-verse poem hardcover book described on the band's Facebook as 'a story too extensive for any booklet'. The first single, For The Swarm, was released as a reward for those pre-ordering the album on iTunes. A music video of this single was also released.[42] Fan reception of the new song and video were high, as evidenced in For The Swarm being voted #1 in Loudwire's Battle Royale for the week ending March 11, 2016.[43] On March 17th, 2016 the singles, Regret and House of Eternal Hunt were released to help kick off pre-ordering of merchandise bundles for Feathers & Flesh. A video directed by Johan Carlén was released featuring the two songs playing sequentially as the view pans around a darkened art gallery, with many paintings of birds, primarily owls, mirroring some of the artwork that the band has created for the individual songs on their album. Regret, as the opening track on the album, is described by the band as “an intense journey through epicness” and, “...by far the most different album intro we ever written.” The song introduces 'The Owl', the protagonist of the album as she lays dying, reflecting on her past. House of Eternal Hunt, described by the band as "the definition of metal", starts the tale of The Owl, a "predator ruling the sky" according to Eckerström.[44] The first 'official' single, The Eagle Has Landed, was released March 25, 2016. As with the previously released singles, this track was an instant gratification reward for pre-ordering Feathers & Flesh. The song introduces 'The Eagle', "...crashing into the world of his adversary", according to Eckerström. No new music video was released with this track, though the band did upload the song to its official YouTube channel with the same video featured for the release of Regret and House of Eternal Hunt.[45]

text: On June 12, 2017, Avatar were awarded the Breakthrough Band Award at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods.[46]

text: Avatar Country (2017−present)[edit]

text: On October 24, 2017, Avatar released a new single called "A Statue of the King", along with the announcement that they will release their seventh album, "Avatar Country", on January 12, 2018. It was also announced the dates of the new Avatar tour, Called "Avatar Country Tour", which starts in January 2018 in North America and arrives in Europe in March of the same year.[47]

text: On December 13 the song "The King Wants You" was released on SiriusXM Octane radio, and soon available on digital platforms, being the second single from the album "Avatar Country". The official music video was released on December 19.

text: On the January 12, "Avatar Country" was released worldwide, available both through streaming services such as Spotify, and in physical formats from music stores throughout the world.

text: Musical style and influences[edit]

text: Avatar has been described as melodic death metal,[48] groove metal,[49] and progressive metal.[50] Originally a pure melodic death metal band, Avatar later began to play a different style of music, moving to a more avant-garde metal style.[51] Avatar's influences include In Flames, Dark Tranquility, the Haunted, Marilyn Manson, Ministry, Strapping Young Lad, Devin Townsend, Iron Maiden, Rammstein, Beethoven, Helloween, the Beatles, Ozzy Osbourne, Thin Lizzy, and Cryptopsy.[52][53][54][55][56]

text: Band members[edit]

text: Current

text:
Johannes Eckerström - lead vocals (2001–present)
Jonas "Kungen" Jarlsby - guitars (2001–present)
Tim Öhrström - guitars, backing vocals (2012–present)
Henrik Sandelin - bass, backing vocals (2001–present)
John Alfredsson - drums (2001–present)

text: Past members

text: Simon Andersson - guitar (2001-2011)

text: Discography[edit]

text: Studio albums[edit]

text:
Year
Album details
Peak chart positions

SWE
[57]
US
[58]
US
Ind.[59]

2006
Thoughts of No Tomorrow

Released: September 15, 2006
Label: Gain Music Entertainment
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

—
—
—

2007
Schlacht

Released: October 29, 2007
Label: Gain
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

—
—
—

2009
Avatar

Released: November 20, 2009
Label: Gain
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

36
—
—

2012
Black Waltz

Released: January 25, 2012
Label: Gain
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

25
—
—

2014
Hail the Apocalypse

Released: May 13, 2014
Label: Entertainment One
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

—
97
18

2016
Feathers & Flesh

Released: May 13, 2016
Label: eOne
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

—
88
—

2018
Avatar Country

Released: January 12, 2018
Label: eOne, Century Media
Formats: CD, CS, LP, DL

—
132
2

text: EP[edit]

text: 2011 - Black Waltz EP

text: Demos[edit]

text:
2003 - Personal Observations
2004 - 4 Reasons to Die

text: Singles[edit]

text:
Year
Song
US
Main.
Album

2009
"The Great Pretender"
—
Avatar

2012
"Let it Burn"
—
Black Waltz

"Smells Like a Freakshow"
32

2014
"Hail the Apocalypse"
—
Hail the Apocalypse

"Bloody Angel"
25

"Vultures Fly"
—

2016
"The Eagle Has Landed"
16
Feathers & Flesh

"Night Never Ending"
31

2017
"New Land"
20

"A Statue of the King"
—
Avatar Country

"The King Wants You"
27


document_title: 40-yard dash

question_text: who has the fastest time in the nfl combine

text: 40-yard dash

text: Timing method and track comparisons[edit]

text: In terms of judging a person's speed, the best method of timing is through lasers which start and stop the times when passed through. A laser start (from a stationary position) is more accurate for measuring pure speed as it does not register a runner's reaction time. However, the method of timing a 40-yard dash can affect the accuracy by as much 0.5 seconds (with the manual stopwatch method). The National Football League (NFL) did not begin using partial electronic timing (started by hand, stopped electronically) at the NFL Scouting Combine until 1999.[2] [3] For purposes of measurement at the Combine, the run is made along the lower sideline from the 40 yard-line to the end zone, which has built-in rundown space.

text: In track and field races, the runner must react to the starting gun, which takes approximately 0.24 seconds, based on FAT timing. A runner with a reaction time less than .100 is subject to disqualification as that is deemed too fast of a reaction time. In contrast, for electronically timed 40-yard dashes, the runner is allowed to start when he wishes, and a timer hand-starts the clock. This aspect means that comparisons with track times are impossible given that a reaction time is not factored in. Furthermore, the use of hand-timing in the 40-yard dash can considerably alter a runner's time; the methods are not comparable to the rigorous electronic timing used in track and field.

text: Jacoby Ford, who ran a 4.28 s in the 2010 NFL Combine, had a collegiate best of 6.51 s in the 60-meter dash (outside the top-40 of the all-time lists).[4] This highlights the difficulties in comparing track running times to football 40-yard times due to the different timing methods.[5]

text: Records[edit]

text: Auburn's Bo Jackson claims to have run a 40-yard dash with a time of 4.13 s.[6][7] A time of 4.18 run by Jackson within the same week added some support to the legitimacy of the times.[8][9] Texas Tech's Jakeem Grant was hand-timed by a New Orleans Saints scout as running a 4.10 in 2016, potentially beating Jackson's record.[10] Deion Sanders ran a 4.27-second 40-yard dash in 1989.[11]

text: In 2013, Carlin Isles recorded a time of 4.22 at a Detroit Lions facility during a workout.[12]

text: In 2017 Olympic sprinter Christian Coleman ran a time of 4.12 seconds on turf in response to claims that NFL players are as fast as Usain Bolt.[13]

text: Records at the NFL Scouting Combine[edit]

text: This is a list of the official 40-yard dash results of 4.30 seconds or better recorded at the NFL Scouting combine since 1999, the first year electronic timing was implemented at the NFL Scouting Combine.[14][15]

text:
Time
Name
Height
Weight
Position
College
Year
Draft
R

4.22
John Ross
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
190 lb (86 kg)
Wide receiver
Washington
2017
No. 9 overall by Cincinnati Bengals
[16]

4.24
Rondel Menendez
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
192 lb (87 kg)
Wide receiver
Eastern Kentucky
1999
No. 247 overall by Atlanta Falcons

Chris Johnson
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
192 lb (87 kg)
Running back
East Carolina
2008
No. 24 overall by Tennessee Titans

4.26
Jerome Mathis
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
184 lb (83 kg)
Wide receiver
Hampton
2005
No. 114 overall by Houston Texans

Dri Archer
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
173 lb (78 kg)
Running back
Kent State
2014
No. 97 overall by Pittsburgh Steelers

4.27
Stanford Routt
6 ft 2 in (188 cm)
193 lb (88 kg)
Cornerback
Houston
2005
No. 38 overall by Oakland Raiders

Marquise Goodwin
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
181 lb (82 kg)
Wide receiver
Texas
2013
No. 78 overall by Buffalo Bills

4.28
Champ Bailey
6 ft 0 in (183 cm)
192 lb (87 kg)
Cornerback
Georgia
1999
No. 7 overall by Washington Redskins

Jacoby Ford
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
190 lb (86 kg)
Wide receiver
Clemson
2010
No. 108 overall by Oakland Raiders

Jalen Myrick
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
200 lb (91 kg)
Cornerback
Minnesota
2017
No. 222 overall by Jacksonville Jaguars
[17]

J. J. Nelson
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
156 lb (71 kg)
Wide receiver
UAB
2015
No. 159 overall by Arizona Cardinals
[18]

DeMarcus Van Dyke
6 ft 1 in (185 cm)
187 lb (85 kg)
Cornerback
Miami
2011
No. 81 overall by Oakland Raiders

4.29
Fabian Washington
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
188 lb (85 kg)
Cornerback
Nebraska
2005
No. 23 overall by Oakland Raiders

Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie
6 ft 2 in (188 cm)
184 lb (83 kg)
Cornerback
Tennessee State
2008
No. 16 overall by the Arizona Cardinals

Josh Robinson
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
199 lb (90 kg)
Cornerback
UCF
2012
No. 66 overall by Minnesota Vikings

4.30
Darrent Williams
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
176 lb (80 kg)
Cornerback
Oklahoma State
2005
No. 56 overall by Denver Broncos

Tye Hill
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
185 lb (84 kg)
Cornerback
Clemson
2006
No. 15 overall by St. Louis Rams

Yamon Figurs
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
174 lb (79 kg)
Wide receiver
Kansas State
2007
No. 74 overall by Baltimore Ravens

Darrius Heyward-Bey
6 ft 2 in (188 cm)
210 lb (95 kg)
Wide receiver
Maryland
2009
No. 7 overall by Oakland Raiders
[19]

text: Average time by position[edit]

text: According to a five-year NFL combine report, wide receivers and cornerbacks had the fastest average times at 4.55, followed by running backs at 4.59. The following average times were measured between 2008 and 2012 at the NFL combine.[20]

text:
Position
Time

Wide receiver
4.55

Cornerback
4.55

Running back
4.59

Safety
4.62

Outside linebacker
4.74

Tight end
4.77

Fullback
4.80

Inside linebacker
4.80

Quarterback
4.87

Defensive end
4.88

Defensive tackle
5.13

Center
5.30

Offensive tackle
5.32

Offensive guard
5.36


document_title: Mass flow

question_text: the movement of water in the xylem relies upon the

text: Mass flow

text: Plant Biology[edit]

text: In general, bulk flow in plant biology typically refers to the movement of water from the soil up through the plant to the leaf tissue, but can also be applied to the transport of larger solutes (e.g. sucrose) through the phloem.

text: Xylem[edit]

text: According to cohesion-tension theory, water transport in xylem relies upon the cohesion of water molecules to each other and adhesion to the vessel's wall via hydrogen bonding combined with the high water pressure of the plant's substrate and low pressure of the extreme tissues (usually leaves).[2]

text: As in blood circulation in animals, (gas) embolisms may form within one or more xylem vessels of a plant. If an air bubble forms, the upward flow of xylem water will stop because the pressure difference in the vessel cannot be transmitted. Once these embolisms are nucleated[definition needed], the remaining water in the capillaries begins to turn to water vapor. When these bubbles form rapidly by cavitation, the "snapping" sound can be used to measure the rate of cavitation within the plant .[3] Plants[which?] do, however, have physiological mechanisms to reestablish the capillary action within their cells [clarification needed][citation needed].

text: Phloem[edit]

text: Solute flow is driven by a difference in hydraulic pressure created from the unloading of solutes in the sink tissues.[4] That is, as solutes are off-loaded into sink cells (by active or passive transport), the density of the phloem liquid decreases locally, creating a pressure gradient.


document_title: Deaths of philosophers

question_text: which greek philosopher was sentenced to death by poision

text: Deaths of philosophers

text: The documented history of philosophy is often said to begin with the notable death of Socrates. Since that time, there have been many other noteworthy deaths of philosophers.

text:
435 BCE According to legend, Empedocles leapt to his death into the crater of Etna.
420 BCE According to some reports, Protagoras died in a shipwreck.
399 BCE Socrates, condemned to death for corrupting the young, drank hemlock amongst his friends as described in Plato’s Phaedo.
348 BCE Plato either died while being serenaded by a Thracian flute-playing girl, or at a wedding feast.
338 BCE According to legend, Isocrates starved himself to death.
323 BCE Accounts differ regarding the death of Diogenes of Sinope. He is alleged to have died from eating raw octopus, from being bitten by a dog, and from holding his breath. He left instructions for his corpse to be left outside the city walls as a feast for the animals and birds.
320 BCE Ancient sources tell us that Nicocreon the tyrant had Anaxarchus pounded to death in a mortar with iron pestles; Anaxarchus is said to have made light of the punishment.
314 BCE Xenocrates died when he hit his head after tripping over a bronze pot.
270 BCE Epicurus died of kidney stones.
262 BCE Zeno of Citium founder of the Stoic philosophical school tripped and broke his toe and then died from holding his breath.
207 BCE Chrysippus is said to have died from laughter after giving wine to his donkey and seeing it attempt to eat figs.
52 BCE Lucretius is alleged to have killed himself after being driven mad by taking a love potion.
65 CE Seneca was forced to commit suicide after falling out with Emperor Nero.
415 Hypatia was killed by a mob of Christians.
430 Saint Augustine died in Hippo while the city was under siege by the Vandals.
526 Boethius was strangled on the orders of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric by whom he was employed.
1141 Judah Halevi was killed on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
1180 Abraham ibn Daud was martyred.
1277 Pope John XXI (usually identified with the logician Peter of Spain) was killed by the collapse of a roof.
1284 Siger of Brabant was stabbed to death by his clerk.
1415 Jan Hus was executed at the Council of Constance.
1535 Thomas More was executed by beheading in 1535 after he had fallen out of favour with King Henry VIII.
1572 Girolamo Maggi was executed by strangulation on the orders of a prison captain in Constantinople; Maggi had been incarcerated after being arrested during the Turkish siege of Famagusta.
1572 Peter Ramus was killed in the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.
1600 Giordano Bruno was burnt by the Inquisition.
1619 Lucilio Vanini was also burnt by the Inquisition.
1626 Francis Bacon died of pneumonia, contracted while stuffing snow into a chicken as an experiment in refrigeration.
1640 Uriel da Costa, after being beaten and trampled by a religious group he had offended, went home and shot himself.
1650 René Descartes was killed by a cold acquired through his rising early to instruct Queen Christina of Sweden.
1677 Baruch Spinoza died of a pulmonary ailment, thought to be either tuberculosis or silicosis, brought on by inhaling glass dust while working as a lens grinder.
1683 Algernon Sidney was executed for treason.
1716 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz died in Hanover on 14 November 1716 after a prolonged case of arthritis and gout. The only one to attend his funeral was his secretary, Johann Georg von Eckhart.
1794 The Marquis de Condorcet died in prison.
1814 Johann Gottlieb Fichte died of typhus in Berlin, during the campaign against Napoleon.
1831 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel died of a gastrointestinal disease during a cholera outbreak in Berlin.
1837 Giacomo Leopardi died in Naples during a cholera epidemic, maybe by pulmonary edema.
1866 William Whewell was thrown from his horse and sustained fatal injuries.
1876 Philipp Mainländer hanged himself in his residence in Offenbach, using a pile of copies of The Philosophy of Redemption as a platform.
1882 William Jevons was drowned while bathing.
1900 Friedrich Nietzsche died after a mental breakdown.
1901 Paul Rée fell to his death from a mountain.
1903 Otto Weininger committed suicide by shooting himself.
1906 Ludwig Boltzmann hanged himself.
1910 Carlo Michelstaedter killed himself with a pistol he had in his house.
1911 Paul Lafargue died with his wife, Laura Marx, in a suicide pact.
1915 Emil Lask was killed in action as soldier in World War I.
1917 Adolf Reinach fell outside Diksmuide in Flanders during World War I.
1928 Alexander Bogdanov died as a result of one of his experiments in blood transfusion.
1930 Frank P. Ramsey died after "contracting jaundice" at the age of 26. (Jaundice by itself is not a cause of death but instead indicates hemolytic or hepatic disease.)
1931 Jacques Herbrand died in a mountaineering accident in the Alps at the age of 23.
1936 Moritz Schlick was murdered by an insane student.
1937 Gustav Shpet was executed after being accused of involvement in an anti-Soviet organization.
1937 Antonio Gramsci died during his imprisonment by Benito Mussolini.
1939 Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz committed suicide by taking an overdose of Veronal and trying to slit his wrists a day after the Soviet invasion of Poland; it was planned to be a joint suicide with a close friend of his but she survived the attempt.
1940 Walter Benjamin committed suicide at the Spanish-French border, after attempting to flee from the Nazis.
1940 Leon Trotsky was assassinated on Stalin's orders in Mexico, by Soviet agent Ramón Mercader, along with most of his family.
1941 Henri Bergson died of pneumonia in occupied Paris, which he supposedly contracted after standing in a queue for several hours in order to register as a Jew.
1941 Kurt Grelling was killed by the Nazis.
1941 Edith Stein died in a gas chamber in the Auschwitz concentration camp.
1943 Simone Weil starved herself to death.
1944 Jean Cavaillès was shot by the Gestapo.
1944 Marc Bloch was shot by the Gestapo for his work in the French Resistance.
1944 Giovanni Gentile was murdered by communist partisans.
1945 Dietrich Bonhoeffer was executed by hanging.
1945 Gerhard Gentzen was detained in a prison camp by the Russian forces, where he died of malnutrition.
1945 Ernst Bergmann committed suicide after the Allied forces captured Leipzig.
1945 Johan Huizinga died in De Steeg in Gelderland, near Arnhem, where he was held in detention by the Nazis.
1945 Miki Kiyoshi died in prison; he had been imprisoned after helping a friend on the run from the authorities.
1948 Mohandas Gandhi was shot and killed by a Hindu zealot.
1954 Alan Turing ate a cyanide-poisoned apple. He was believed at the time to have committed suicide due to chemical depression, but his death was possibly just an accident.[1]
1960 Albert Camus died in an automobile accident.
1961 Maurice Merleau-Ponty died of a stroke while preparing a lecture on Descartes.
1969 Theodor Adorno developed heart palpitations after attempting to climb a 3000-metre mountain, and subsequently suffered a heart attack.
1971 Richard Montague was beaten to death, presumably by a male prostitute.
1973 Amílcar Cabral was assassinated while fighting for the independence of Portuguese colonies in Africa.
1977 Jan Patočka died of an apoplexy after having been interrogated by the Czechoslovak secret police for eleven hours.
1978 Kurt Gödel starved himself to death by refusing to eat for fear of being poisoned.
1979 Evald Ilyenkov committed suicide.
1979 Nicos Poulantzas committed suicide by jumping out of the twentieth floor of his apartment building.
1980 Roland Barthes was struck in the street by a laundry van after leaving a luncheon with French President François Mitterrand.
1983 Arthur Koestler committed joint suicide with his third wife, Cynthia, by taking an overdose of drugs after a painful struggle with disease.
1984 Michel Foucault was the first high-profile French personality to die of AIDS after contracting HIV.
1994 David Stove committed suicide by hanging himself after a painful struggle with disease.
1994 Sarah Kofman committed suicide on Nietzsche’s birthday.
1994 Guy Debord committed suicide by shooting himself after a painful struggle with polyneuritis.
1995 Gilles Deleuze committed suicide by jumping out of his fourth-story apartment window.
1998 Dimitris Liantinis committed suicide on the mountains of Taygetos.
2001 David Lewis died of diabetes related complications.
2004 Jacques Derrida died of pancreatic cancer.
2007 André Gorz committed joint suicide with his wife by lethal injection.

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Ava Chitwood, Death by philosophy; University of Michigan Press, 2004.
Simon Critchley, Book of Dead Philosophers; Vintage, 2009.
David Palfrey, How Philosophers Die, British Academy Review, Issue 10 (2007)
Anthony Quinton, 'Deaths of philosophers', The Oxford Companion to Philosophy; Oxford, 1995, 2005.