document_title: Bikini

question_text: who coined the phrase bikini for the two piece swimsuit design in 1946

question_tokens: who coined the phrase bikini for the two piece swimsuit design in 1946

text: Bikini

text: Etymology and terminology[edit]

text: While the two-piece swimsuit as a design existed in classical antiquity,[7] the modern design first attracted public notice in Paris on July 5, 1946.[8] French automotive engineer Louis Réard introduced a design he named the "bikini", adopting the name from the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean,[9][10] which was the colonial name the Germans gave to the atoll, transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, Pikinni.[11]

text: Four days earlier, the United States had initiated its first peace-time nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads.[12] Réard hoped his swimsuit's revealing style would create an "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar to the explosion at Bikini Atoll.[13][14][15][16]

text: By making an analogy with words like bilingual and bilateral containing the Latin prefix "bi-" (meaning "two" in Latin), the word bikini was first back-derived as consisting of two parts, [bi + kini] by Rudi Gernreich, who introduced the monokini in 1964.[17][18] Later swimsuit designs like the tankini and trikini further cemented this derivation.[19] Over time the "–kini family" (as dubbed by author William Safire[20]), including the "–ini sisters" (as dubbed by designer Anne Cole[21]), expanded into a variety of swimwear including the monokini (also known as a numokini or unikini), seekini, tankini, camikini, hikini (also hipkini), minikini, face-kini, burkini, and microkini.[22] The Language Report, compiled by lexicographer Susie Dent and published by the Oxford University Press (OUP) in 2003, considers lexicographic inventions like bandeaukini and camkini, two variants of the tankini, important to observe.[23] Although "bikini" was originally a registered trademark of Réard, it has since become genericized.[24]

text: Variations of the term are used to describe stylistic variations for promotional purposes and industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, bandeaukini and skirtini. A man's brief swimsuit may also be referred to as a bikini.[2]  Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear.

text: History[edit]

text: In antiquity[edit]

text: Archaeologist James Mellaart described the earliest bikini-like costume in Çatalhöyük, Anatolia in the Chalcolithic era (around 5600 BC), where a mother goddess is depicted astride two leopards wearing a costume somewhat like a bikini.[7][25] The two-piece swimsuit can be traced back to the Greco-Roman world, where bikini-like garments worn by women athletes are depicted on urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BC.[26]

text: In Coronation of the Winner, a mosaic in the floor of a Roman villa in Sicily that dates from the Diocletian period (286–305 AD), young women participate in weightlifting, discus throwing, and running ball games dressed in bikini-like garments (technically bandeaukinis in modern lexicon).[8][27] The mosaic, found in the Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale, features ten maidens who have been anachronistically dubbed the "Bikini Girls".[28][29] Other Roman archaeological finds depict the goddess Venus in a similar garment. In Pompeii, depictions of Venus wearing a bikini were discovered in the Casa della Venere,[30][31][32] in the tablinum of the House of Julia Felix,[33] and in an atrium garden of Via Dell'Abbondanza.[34]

text: Bikini precursors in the West[edit]

text: Swimming or bathing outdoors was discouraged in the Christian West, so there was little demand or need for swimming or bathing costumes until the 18th century. The bathing gown of the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise-type gown made of wool or flannel that retained coverage and modesty.[35]

text: In 1907, Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellerman was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing form-fitting sleeveless one-piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe, a costume she adopted from England,[35] although it became accepted swimsuit attire for women in parts of Europe by 1910.[36] In 1913, designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two-piece swimwear. Inspired by the introduction of females into Olympic swimming he designed a close-fitting costume with shorts for the bottom and short sleeves for the top.[37]

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, people began to shift from "taking in the water" to "taking in the sun", at bathhouses and spas, and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features. Rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits,[38] but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic.[39] Jersey and silk were also sometimes used.[40] By the 1930s, manufacturers had lowered necklines in the back, removed sleeves, and tightened the sides. With the development of new clothing materials, particularly latex and nylon, swimsuits gradually began hugging the body through the 1930s, with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning.[41]

text: Women's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure. The 1932 Hollywood film Three on a Match featured a midriff baring two piece bathing suit. Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff-baring suits and tops. However, midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public.[42] Hollywood endorsed the new glamor in films like 1949's Neptune's Daughter in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as "Double Entendre" and "Honey Child".[43]

text: Wartime production during World War II required vast amounts of cotton, silk, nylon, wool, leather, and rubber. In 1942, the United States  War Production Board issued Regulation L-85, cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing[44] and mandating a 10% reduction in the amount of fabric in women's beachwear.[45] To comply with the regulations, swimsuit manufacturers removed skirt panels and other attachments,[9] while increasing production of the two-piece swimsuit with bare midriffs.[46] At the same time, demand for all swimwear declined as there was not much interest in going to the beach, especially in Europe.[9]

text: Modern bikini[edit]

text: In post-World War II Europe, Western Europeans enjoyed their first war-free summer in many years. French designers sought to deliver fashions that matched the liberated mood of the people.[45] Fabric was still in short supply,[47] and in an endeavor to resurrect swimwear sales, two French designers – Jacques Heim and Louis Réard  – almost simultaneously launched new two-piece swimsuit designs in 1946.[48][49] Heim launched a two-piece swimsuit design in Paris that he called the atome, after the smallest known particle of matter. He announced that it was the "world's smallest bathing suit."[50][45] Although briefer than the two-piece swimsuits of the 1930s, the bottom of Heim's new two-piece beach costume still covered the wearer's navel.[47][51][52][53]

text: Soon after, Louis Réard created a competing two-piece swimsuit design, which he called the bikini.[54] He noticed that women at the beach rolled up the edges of their swimsuit bottoms and tops to improve their tan.[3] He introduced his design at a swimsuit review held at the popular public pool, Piscine Molitor, four days after the first test of a nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll. The newspapers were full of news about it and Reard hoped for the same with his design.[55][4] Réard's bikini undercut Heim's atome in its brevity. His design consisted of a two triangles of fabric forming a bra, and two triangular pieces of fabric covering the mons pubis and the buttocks  connected by string. When he was unable to find a fashion model willing to showcase his revealing design,[56] Réard hired Micheline Bernardini, a 19-year old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris.[57] He announced that his swimsuit, with a total area of 30 square inches (200 cm2) of cloth, was "smaller than the world’s smallest bathing suit.".[58][59] Réard said that "like the [atom] bomb, the bikini is small and devastating".[60] Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion".[60] Bernardini received 50,000 fan letters, many of them from men.[9][37]

text: Photographs of Bernardini and articles about the event were widely carried by the press. The International Herald Tribune alone ran nine stories on the event.[61] French newspaper Le Figaro wrote, "People were craving the simple pleasures of the sea and the sun. For women, wearing a bikini signaled a kind of second liberation. There was really nothing sexual about this. It was instead a celebration of freedom and a return to the joys in life."[37]

text: Heim's atome was more in keeping with the sense of propriety of the 1940s, but Réard's design won the public's attention.[47] Though Heim's design was the first worn on the beach and initially sold more swimsuits, it was Réard's description of the two-piece swimsuit as a bikini that stuck.[8][62] As competing designs emerged, he declared in advertisements that a swimsuit could not be a genuine bikini "unless it could be pulled through a wedding ring."[9]  Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey.[63]

text: Social resistance[edit]

text:
As subsequent history would show, the bikini was more than a skimpy garment. It was a state of mind.
Lena Lenček, The Beach: The History of Paradise on Earth, 1998[64]

tag: div

text: Despite the garment's initial success in France, women worldwide continued to wear traditional one-piece swimsuits. When his sales stalled, Réard went back to designing and selling orthodox knickers.[65] In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole,[37] owner of mass market swimwear firm Cole of California, told Time that he had "little but scorn for France's famed Bikinis."[66] Réard himself would later describe it as a "two-piece bathing suit which reveals everything about a girl except for her mother's maiden name."[67] Fashion magazine Modern Girl Magazine in 1957 stated that "it is hardly necessary to waste words over the so-called bikini since it is inconceivable that any girl with tact and decency would ever wear such a thing".[8][37]

text: In 1951, Eric Morley organized the Festival Bikini Contest, a beauty contest and swimwear advertising opportunity at that year's Festival of Britain. The press, welcoming the spectacle, referred to it as Miss World,[68][69] a name Morley registered as a trademark.[70] The winner was Kiki Håkansson of Sweden, who was crowned in a bikini. After the crowning, Håkansson was condemned by Pope Pius XII,[5][71][72] while Spain and Ireland threatened to withdraw from the pageant.[73] In 1952, bikinis were banned from the pageant and replaced by evening gowns.[74][75] As a result of the controversy, the bikini was explicitly banned from many other beauty pageants worldwide.[76][77] Though some regarded the bikini and beauty contests as bringing freedom to women, they were opposed by some feminists[5][78] as well as religious and cultural groups who objected to the degree of exposure of the female body.

text: The bikini was banned on the French Atlantic coastline, Spain, Italy,[5] Portugal and Australia, and was prohibited or discouraged in a number of US states.[79][80] The United States Motion Picture Production Code, also known as the Hays Code, enforced from 1934, allowed two-piece gowns but prohibited the display of navels in Hollywood films.[81] The National Legion of Decency, a Roman Catholic body guarding over American media content, also pressured Hollywood and foreign film producers to keep bikinis from being featured in Hollywood movies.[82] As late as 1959, Anne Cole, one of the United States' largest swimsuit designers, said, "It's nothing more than a G-string. It's at the razor's edge of decency."[83] The Hays Code was abandoned by the mid-1960s, and with it the prohibition of female navel exposure, as well as other restrictions.[84] The influence of the National Legion of Decency also waned by the 1960s.[85]

text: Rise to popularity[edit]

text: Increasingly common glamour shots of popular actresses and models on either side of the Atlantic played a large part in bringing the bikini into the mainstream.[1] During the 1950s, Hollywood stars such as Ava Gardner, Rita Hayworth, Lana Turner,[86][87] Elizabeth Taylor,[87] Tina Louise,[87] Marilyn Monroe,[87] Esther Williams, and Betty Grable[88] took advantage of the risqué publicity associated with the bikini by posing for photographs wearing them—pin-ups of Hayworth and Williams in costume were especially widely distributed in the United States.[37] In 1950, Elvira Pagã walked at the Rio Carnival, Brazil in a golden bikini, starting the bikini tradition of the carnival.[89]

text: In Europe, 17-year-old Brigitte Bardot wore scanty bikinis (by contemporary standards) in the French film Manina, la fille sans voiles ("Manina, the girl unveiled"). The promotion for the film, released in France in March 1953, drew more attention to Bardot's bikinis than to the film itself. By the time the film was released in the United States in 1958 it was re-titled Manina, the Girl in the Bikini. Bardot was also photographed wearing a bikini on the beach during the 1957 Cannes Film Festival. Working with her husband and agent Roger Vadim she garnered significant attention with photographs of her wearing a bikini on every beach in the south of France.[90]

text: Similar photographs were taken of Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren, among others. According to The Guardian, Bardot's photographs in particular turned Saint-Tropez into the beachwear capital of the world,[58] with Bardot identified as the original Cannes bathing beauty.[91] Bardot's photography helped to enhance the public profile of the festival, and Cannes in turn played a crucial role in her career.[92]

text: Brian Hyland's novelty-song hit "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini" became a Billboard No. 1 hit during the summer of 1960: the song tells a story about a young girl who is too shy to wear her new bikini on the beach, thinking it too risqué.[93] Playboy first featured a bikini on its cover in 1962; the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debut two years later featured Babette March in a white bikini on the cover.[94]

text: Ursula Andress, appearing as Honey Rider in the 1962 British James Bond film, Dr. No, wore a white bikini, which became known as the "Dr. No bikini". It became one of the most famous bikinis of all time and an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history.[95][96][97] Andress said that she owed her career to that white bikini, remarking, "This bikini made me into a success. As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl, I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent."[95][98]

text: The bikini finally caught on, and by 1963, the movie Beach Party, starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon, led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop-culture symbol, though Funicello was barred from wearing Réard's bikini unlike the other young females in the films. In 1965, a woman told Time that it was "almost square" not to wear a bikini; the magazine wrote two years later that "65% of the young set had already gone over".[86]

text: Raquel Welch's fur bikini in One Million Years B.C. (1966) gave the world the most iconic bikini shot of all time and the poster image became an iconic moment in cinema history.[99] Her deer skin bikini in One Million Years B.C., advertised as "mankind's first bikini",[100] (1966) was later described as a "definitive look of the 1960s".[101] Her role wearing the leather bikini raised Welch to a fashion icon[8] and the photo of her in the bikini became a best-selling pinup poster.[101]

text: Stretch nylon bikini briefs and bras complemented the adolescent boutique fashions of the 1960s, allowing those to be minimal.[102] DuPont introduced lycra (DuPont's name for spandex) in the same decade.[38]  Spandex expanded the range of novelty fabrics available to designers which meant suits could be made to fit like a second skin without heavy linings.[103] "The advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini," wrote Kelly Killoren Bensimon, a former model and author of The Bikini Book, "It didn't sag, it didn't bag, and it concealed and revealed. It wasn't so much like lingerie anymore."[104] Increased reliance on stretch fabric led to simplified construction.[1] It allowed designers to create the string bikini, and allowed Rudi Gernreich to create the topless monokini.[105] Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early '70s.[1]

text: Mass acceptance[edit]

text: Réard's company folded in 1988,[106] four years after his death.[107] By the end of the century, the bikini had become the most popular beachwear around the globe. According to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard, this was due to "the power of women, and not the power of fashion". As he explains, "The emancipation of swimwear has always been linked to the emancipation of women",[8] though one survey indicates 85% of all bikinis never touch the water.[108][unreliable source?] By 1988 the bikini made up nearly 20% of swimsuit sales, more than any other model in the US,[83] though one-piece suits made a comeback during the 1980s and early 1990s.[107]

text: In 1997, Miss Maryland Jamie Fox became the first contestant in 50 years to compete in a two-piece swimsuit at the Miss America Pageant.[109] Actresses in action films like Blue Crush (2002) and Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003) made the two-piece "the millennial equivalent of the power suit", according to Gina Bellafonte of The New York Times,[37]

text: According to Beth Dincuff Charleston, research associate at the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "The bikini represents a social leap involving body consciousness, moral concerns, and sexual attitudes."[37] By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a $811 million business annually, according to the NPD Group, a consumer and retail information company,[105] and had boosted spin-off services like bikini waxing and the sun tanning industries.[6]

text: Though child-sized bikinis appeared in the 1950s, in many European countries, swimsuits under size 11 are commonly not sold with a top part, but in the United States, Britain, and Canada, it has often been considered unacceptable for girls in late childhood (ages 7–11) to go topless. Several incidents of families being evicted from public pools due to their child being topless have been reported.[110] In 2002, clothing retailer Abercrombie & Fitch came under criticism for selling child-sized thong bikinis and underwear.[111]

text: Outside the Western world[edit]

text: The 1967 film An Evening in Paris is mostly remembered because it featured Bollywood actress Sharmila Tagore as the first Indian actress to wear a bikini on film.[112][113] She also posed in a bikini for the glossy Filmfare magazine.[114][115] The costume shocked a conservative Indian audience,[116] but it also set in motion a trend carried forward by Zeenat Aman in Heera Panna (1973) and Qurbani (1980),[117] Dimple Kapadia in Bobby (1973),[117] and Parveen Babi in Yeh Nazdeekiyan (1982).[117][118]

text: Indian women wear bikinis when they vacation abroad or in Goa without the family. Despite the conservative ideas prevalent in India, bikinis have become more popular. In summer, when women take up swimming, often in a public space, a lot of tankinis, shorts and single-piece swimsuits are sold.[119] The maximum sales for bikinis happen in the winter, the honeymoon season.[119]

text: By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the Chinese bikini industry became a serious international threat for the Brazilian bikini industry.[120] Huludao, Liaoning, China set the world record for the largest bikini parade in 2012, with 1,085 participants and a photo shoot involving 3,090 women.[121][122]

text: For most parts of the  Middle East, bikinis are either banned or is highly controversial. In 1966, In 1973, when Lebanese magazine Ash-Shabaka printed a bikini-clad woman on the cover they had to make a second version with only the face of the model.[123] In 2011, Huda Naccache (Miss Earth 2011), when she posed for the cover of Lilac (based in Israel) became the first bikini-clad Arab model on the cover of an Arabic magazine.[124][125][126]

text: Bikini variants[edit]

text: While the name "bikini" was at first applied only to beachwear that revealed the wearer's navel, today the fashion industry considers any two-piece swimsuit a bikini.[127] Modern bikini fashions are characterized by a simple, brief design: two triangles of fabric that form a bra and cover the woman's breasts and a third that forms a panty cut below the navel that covers the groin and the buttocks.[1]

text: Bikinis can and have been made out of almost every possible clothing material, and the fabrics and other materials used to make bikinis are an essential element of their design.[128] Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey. DuPont's introduction of Lycra (spandex) in the 1960s completely changed how bikinis were designed and worn, as according to Kelly Killoren Bensimon, a former model and author of The Bikini Book, "the advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini...it didn't sag, it didn't bag, and it concealed and revealed. It wasn't so much like lingerie anymore."[104]  Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early 1970s.[1]

text: In a single fashion show in 1985, there were two-piece suits with cropped tank tops instead of the usual skimpy bandeaux, suits that resembled bikinis from the front and one-pieces from the back, suspender straps, ruffles, and deep navel-baring cutouts.[129] Metal and stone jewelery pieces are now often used to dress up look and style according to tastes. To meet the fast pace of demands, some manufacturers now offer made-to-order bikinis ready in as few as seven minutes.[130] The world's most expensive bikini was designed in February 2006 by Susan Rosen; containing 150 carats (30 g) of diamond, it was valued at £20 million.[108]

text: Major styles[edit]

text: There is a range of distinct bikini styles available — string bikinis, monokinis (topless or top and bottom connected), Trikinis (three pieces instead of two), tankinis (tank top, bikini bottom), camikinis (camisole top, bikini bottom), bandeaukini (bandeau top, bikini bottom), skirtini (bikini top, skirt bottom), "granny bikini" (bikini top, boy shorts bottom), hikinis (also hipkini), seekinis (transparent), minikinis, microkinis, miniminis, slingshots (or suspender bikinis), thong bottoms, tie-sides (a variety of string bikini)  and teardrops.[22]

text:
Variant
Image
Year
Description

Bandeaukini

—
A bandeaukini (alternatively called a bandini)[131] is a bandeau top (no straps going over the shoulders) worn with any bikini bottom.[132][133] It is the oldest form of bikini, with earliest examples found in Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale (dubbed the "Bikini Girls) dating back to the 4th century AD.[28][29][134][135] Reintroduced, its appeal grew fast among young women,[136] with bandeau tops edging into the sales of the classic tankini.[137]

Microkini

1995
A microkini, including subgenres like minikini, minimini and tear-drop, is an extremely meager bikini.[138] The designs for both women and men typically use only enough fabric to cover the genitals and, for women, the nipples. Any additional straps are merely to keep the garment attached to the wearer's body. Some variations of the microkini use adhesive or wire to hold the fabric in place over the genitals. Microkinis keep the wearer just within legal limits of decency and fill a niche between nudism and conservative swimwear.[139]

Monokini

1964
A monokini (also called topless swimsuit, unikini or numokini) is a women's one-piece garment equivalent to the lower half of a bikini.[140] Originally a specific design conceived by Rudi Gernreich in 1964, the term is now used to describe any topless swimsuit,[141] particularly a bikini bottom worn without a top.[142] An extreme version of the monokini, the thong-style pubikini (which exposed the pubic region), was also designed by Rudi Gernreich in 1985.[143][144]

Skirtini

—
The skirtini, which features a bikini top and a small, skirted bottom, is also an innovation for bikini-style clothes with more coverage.[145] Two-piece swimsuits with skirt panels were popular in the US before the government ordered a 10% reduction in fabric used in woman's swimwear in 1943 as wartime rationing.[45] In 2011, The Daily Telegraph identified the skirted bikini as one of the top 10 swimwear designs of the season.[clarification needed][146]

Sling bikini

—
The sling bikini (also known as sling-kini, onepiecekini or sling swimsuit) is an unbroken suit, technically one-piece, which resembles a bikini bottom with the side straps extending upwards to cover the breasts and go over the shoulders, or encircling the neck while a second set of straps pass around the midriff (also known as pretzel bikini or pretzel swimsuit).[147] Sling swimsuits emerged in the early 1990s, and were introduced into the mainstream in 1994.[148][149] When designed for or worn by a man, it is called a mankini, popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen in the film Borat.[150][151]

String bikini

1974
A string bikini (or a tie-side) gets its name from its design that consists of two triangular shaped pieces connected at the groin but not at the sides, where a thin "string" wraps around the waist tied together to connect the two parts. The first formal presentation of string bikini was done by Glen Tororich, a public relations agent, and his wife Brandi Perret-DuJon, a fashion model, for the opening of Le Petite Centre, a shopping area in the French Quarter of the New Orleans, Louisiana in 1974. String bikinis are one of the most popular variations of bikini.[152]

Tankini

1998
The tankini is a swimsuit combining a tank top and a bikini bottom.[132][153][154] Tankinis can be made of spandex-and-cotton or Lycra-and-nylon.[155] Designer Anne Cole, the US swimwear mogul, was the originator of this style in 1998.[132][156] A variation is named camkini, with spaghetti straps instead of tank-shaped straps over a bikini bottom.[157]

Trikini

1967
The trikini appeared briefly in 1967, defined as "a handkerchief and two small saucers."[158] It reappeared in the 1990s as a bikini bottom with a stringed halter of two triangular pieces covering the breasts,[159] and in the 2000s as a costume of three separate pieces.[160] The trikini top comes essentially in two separate parts.[161] The name of this woman's bathing suit is formed from the word "bikini", replacing "bi-", meaning "two", with "tri-", meaning "three".[162] In a variation the three pieces are sold as part of one continuous garment.[163] A variation is called strapless bikini[164] or a no string bikini, often a combination of two pasties with a matching maebari-style bottom.[165]

text: Bikini in sport[edit]

text: Bikinis have become a major component of marketing various women's sports.[166] It is an official uniform for beach volleyball and is widely worn in athletics and other sports. Sports bikinis have gained popularity since the 1990s.[167] However, the trend has raised some criticism as an attempt to sell sex.[166] Female swimmers do not normally wear bikinis in competitive swimming.[168][169] The International Swimming Federation (FINA) voted to prohibit female swimmers from racing in bikinis in its meeting at Rome in 1960.[170]

text: Beach volleyball[edit]

text: In 1994, the bikini became the official uniform of women's Olympic beach volleyball.[172] In 1999, the International Volleyball Federation (FIVB) standardized beach volleyball uniforms, with the bikini becoming the required uniform for women.[173] That regulation bottom is called a "bun-hugger",[174] and players names are often written on the back of the bottom.[174]

text: The uniform made its Olympic debut at Sydney's Bondi Beach in the 2000 Summer Olympics amid some criticism.[175] It was the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the 2000 Games. Much of the interest was because of the sex appeal of bikini-clad players along with their athletic ability.[176] Bikini-clad dancers and cheerleaders entertain the audience during match breaks in many beach volleyball tournaments, including the Olympics.[174][177] Even indoor volleyball costumes followed suit to become smaller and tighter.[174]

text: However, the FIVB's mandating of the bikini ran into problems. Some sports officials consider it exploitative and impractical in colder weather.[172] It also drew the ire of some athletes.[178] At the 2006 Asian Games at Doha, Qatar, only one Muslim country – Iraq – fielded a team in the beach volleyball competition because of concerns that the uniform was inappropriate. They refused to wear bikinis.[179] The weather during the evening games in 2012 London Olympics was so cold that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings.[180] Earlier in 2012, FIVB had announced it would allow shorts (maximum length 3 cm (1.2 in) above the knee) and sleeved tops at the games. Richard Baker, the federation spokesperson, said that "many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible".[181]

text: The bikini remains preferred by most players[182] and corporate sponsors.[174] US women's team has cited several advantages of bikini uniforms, such as comfort while playing on sand during hot weather.[183] Competitors Natalie Cook[184] and Holly McPeak[182] support the bikini as a practical uniform for a sport played on sand during the heat of summer. Olympic gold medal winner Kerry Walsh said, "I love our uniforms." According to fellow gold medalist Misty May-Treanor and Walsh it does not restrict movement.[174]

text: One feminist viewpoint sees the bikini uniform as objectification of women athletes.[175] US beach volleyball player Gabrielle Reece described the bikini bottoms as uncomfortable with constant "yanking and fiddling."[174][185] Many female beach volleyball players have suffered injuries by over-straining the abdominal muscles while many others have gone through augmentation mammoplasty to look appealing in their uniforms.[175] Australian competitor Nicole Sanderson said about match break entertainment that "it's kind of disrespectful to the female players. I'm sure the male spectators love it, but I find it a little bit offensive."[186]

text:
Sports journalism expert Kimberly Bissell conducted a study on the camera angles used during the 2004 Summer Olympic Games beach volleyball games. Bissell found that 20% of the camera angles were focused on the women's chests, and 17% on their buttocks. Bissell theorized that the appearance of the players draws fans attention more than their actual athleticism.[187][188]
Sports commentator Jeanne Moos commented, "Beach volleyball has now joined go-go girl dancing as perhaps the only two professions where a bikini is the required uniform."[174][185][189] British Olympian Denise Johns argues that the regulation uniform is intended to be "sexy" and to attract attention.[190] Rubén Acosta, president of the FIVB, says that it makes the game more appealing to spectators.[175]

text: Bodybuilding[edit]

text: From the 1950s to mid-1970s, men's contest formats were often supplemented with women's beauty contests or bikini shows. The winners earned titles like Miss Body Beautiful, Miss Physical Fitness and Miss Americana, and also presented trophies to the winners of the men's contest.[191] In the 1980s, the Ms Olympia competition started in the USA and in the UK the NABBA (National Amateur Body Building Association) renamed Miss Bikini International to Ms Universe. In 1986, the Ms Universe competition was divided into two sections – "physique" (for a more muscular physique) and "figure" (traditional feminine presentation in high heels).[192] In November 2010 the IFBBF (International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness) introduced a women's bikini contest for women who do not wish to build their muscles to figure competition levels.[193]

text: Costumes are regulation "posing trunks" (bikini briefs) for both men and women.[194] Female bodybuilders in America are prohibited from wearing thongs or T-back swimsuits in contests filmed for television, though they are allowed to do so by certain fitness organizations in closed events.[191] For men, the dress code specifies "swim trunks only (no shorts, cut-off pants, or Speedos)."

text: Other sports[edit]

text: Women in athletics often wear bikinis of similar size as those worn in beach volleyball. Amy Acuff, a US high-jumper, wore a black leather bikini instead of a track suit at the 2000 Summer Olympics.[195] Runner Florence Griffith-Joyner mixed bikini bottoms with one-legged tights at the 1988 Summer Olympics, earning her more attention than her record breaking performance in the women's 200 meters event.[196] In the 2007 South Pacific Games, the rules were adjusted to allow players to wear less revealing shorts and cropped sports tops instead of bikinis.[197] At the West Asian Games in 2006, organizers banned bikini-bottoms for female athletes and asked them to wear long shorts.[198]

text: String bikinis and other revealing clothes are common in surfing, though most surfing bikinis are more robust with more coverage than sunning bikinis.[199][200] Surfing Magazine printed a pictorial of Kymberly Herrin, Playboy Playmate March 1981, surfing in a revealing bikini, and eventually started an annual bikini issue.[201] The Association of Surfing Professionals often pairs female surf meets with bikini contests, an issue that divides the female pro-surfing community into two parts.[202] It has often been more profitable to win the bikini contest than the female surfing event.[203]

text: Body ideals[edit]

text: In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole, owner of Cole of California, told Time that bikinis were designed for "diminutive Gallic women", as because "French girls have short legs... swimsuits have to be hiked up at the sides to make their legs look longer."[37] In 1961, The New York Times reported the opinion that the bikini is permissible for people are not "too fat or too thin".[204] In the 1960s etiquette writer Emily Post decreed that "[A bikini] is for perfect figures only, and for the very young."[205] In The Bikini Book by Kelly Killoren Bensimon, swimwear designer Norma Kamali says, "Anyone with a tummy" should not wear a bikini.[205] Since then, a number of bikini designers including Malia Mills have encouraged women of all ages and body types to take up the style.[206] The 1970s saw the rise of the lean ideal of female body and figures like Cheryl Tiegs. Her figure remained in vogue in the 21st century.[207]

text: The fitness boom of the 1980s led to one of the biggest leaps in the evolution of the bikini. According to Mills, "The leg line became superhigh, the front was superlow, and the straps were superthin."[208] Women's magazines used terms like "Bikini Belly",[209] and workout programs were launched to develop a "bikini-worthy body".[210] The tiny "fitness-bikinis" made of lycra were launched to cater to this hardbodied ideal.[211] Movies like Blue Crush and TV reality shows like Surf Girls merged the concepts of bikini models and athletes together, further accentuating the toned body ideal.[212] Some women, motivated by yearly Spring Break festivities that mark the start of the bikini season in North America,[213] engage in eating disorders in an attempt to achieve the ideal bikini body.[212]

text: In 1993, Suzy Menkes, then Fashion Editor of the International Herald Tribune, suggested that women had begun to "revolt" against the "body ideal" and bikini "exposure." She wrote, "Significantly, on the beaches as on the streets, some of the youngest and prettiest women (who were once the only ones who dared to bare) seem to have decided that exposure is over."[88] Nevertheless, professional beach volleyball player Gabrielle Reece, who competes in a bikini, claims that "confidence" alone can make a bikini sexy.[205] One survey commissioned by Diet Chef, a UK home delivery service, reported by The Today Show and ridiculed by More magazine, showed that women should stop wearing bikinis by the age of 47.[214][215]

text: Bikini underwear[edit]

text: Certain types of underwear are described as bikini underwear and designed for men and women. For women, bikini or bikini-style underwear is underwear that is similar in size and form to a regular bikini. It can refer to virtually any undergarment that provides less coverage to the midriff than lingerie, panties or knickers,[216] especially suited to clothing such as crop tops. For men, bikini briefs are undergarments that are smaller and more revealing than men's classic briefs. Men's bikini briefs can be low- or high-side that are usually lower than true waist, often at hips, and usually have no access pouch or flap, legs bands at tops of thighs.[217] String bikini briefs have front and rear sections that meet in the crotch but not at the waistband, with no fabric on the side of the legs.[218]

text: Swimwear and underwear have similar design considerations, both being form-fitting garments. The main difference is that, unlike underwear, swimwear is open to public view.[219] The swimsuit was, and is, following underwear styles,[220] and at about the same time that attitudes towards the bikini began to change, underwear underwent a redesign towards a minimal, unboned design that emphasized comfort first.[221]

text: History[edit]

text: As the swimsuit was evolving, the underwear started to change. Between 1900 and 1940, swimsuit lengths followed the changes in underwear designs.[222] In the 1920s women started discarding the corset, while the Cadole company of Paris started developing something they called the "breast girdle".[223] During the Great Depression, panties and bras became softly constructed and were made of various elasticized yarns making underwear fit like a second skin. By 1930s underwear styles for both women and men were influenced by the new brief models of swimwear from Europe. Although the waistband was still above the navel, the leg openings of the panty brief were cut in an arc to rise from the crotch to the hip joint. The brief served as a template for most all variations of panties for the rest of the century.[224] Warner standardized the concept of Cup size in 1935. The first underwire bra was developed in 1938.[223] Beginning in the late thirties skants, a type of skanty men's briefs, were introduced, featuring very high-cut leg openings and a lower rise to the waistband.[224] Howard Hughes designed a push-up bra to be worn by Jane Russell in The Outlaw in 1943, although Russell stated in interviews that she never wore the 'contraption'. In 1950 Maidenform introduced the first official bust enhancing bra.[223]

text: By the 1960s, the bikini swimsuit influenced panty styles and coincided with the cut of the new lower rise jeans and pants.[224] In the seventies, with the emergence of skintight jeans, thong versions of the panty became mainstream, since the open, stringed back eliminated any tell-tale panty lines across the rear and hips. By the 1980s the design of the French-cut panty pushed the waistband back up to the natural waistline and the rise of the leg openings was nearly as high (French Cut panties come up to the waist, has a high cut leg, and usually are full in the rear[225]). As with the bra and other type of lingerie, manufacturers of the last quarter of the century marketed panty styles that were designed primarily for their sexual allure.[224] From this decade sexualization and eroticization of the male body was on the rise. The male body was celebrated through advertising campaigns for brands such as Calvin Klein, particularly by photographers Bruce Weber and Herb Ritts.[226] Male bodies and men's undergarments were commodified and packaged for mass consumption, and swimwear and sportswear were influenced by sports photography and fitness.[226] Over time, swimwear evolved from weighty wool to high-tech skin-tight garments, eventually cross-breeding with sportswear, underwear and exercise wear, resulting in the interchangeable fashions of the 1990s.[227]

text: Men's bikini[edit]

text: The term men's bikini is sometimes used to describe swim briefs. Men's bikinis can have high or low side panels, and string sides or tie sides. Most lack a button or flap front. Unlike swim briefs, bikinis are not designed for drag reduction and generally lack a visible waistband. Suits less than 1.5 inches wide at the hips are less common for sporting purposes and are most often worn for recreation, fashion, and sun tanning. The posing brief standard to bodybuilding competitions is an example of this style. Male punk rock musicians have performed on the stage wearing women's bikini briefs.[228] The 2000 Bollywood film Hera Pheri shows men sunbathing in bikinis, who were mistakenly believed to be women from a distance.[229]

text: Male bikini tops also exist and are often used as visual gags.[230] A mankini is a type of sling swimsuit worn by men. The term is inspired by the word bikini.[231] It was popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen when he donned one in the film Borat.[232]

text: Bikini waxing[edit]

text: Bikini waxing is the epilation of pubic hair beyond the bikini line by use of waxing. The bikini line delineates the part of a woman's pubic area to be covered by the bottom part of a bikini, which means any pubic hair visible beyond the boundaries of a swimsuit.[241] Visible pubic hair is widely culturally disapproved, considered to be embarrassing, and often removed.[241]

text: As popularity of bikini grew, the acceptability of pubic hair diminished.[242] But, with certain styles of women's swimwear, pubic hair may become visible around the crotch area of a swimsuit.[241] With the reduction in the size of swimsuits, especially since the advent of the bikini after 1945, the practice of bikini waxing has also become popular.[241] The Brazilian style which became popular with the rise of thong bottoms.[243]

text: Depending on the style of bikini-bottom and the amount of skin visible outside the bikini,[243] pubic hair may be styled into several styles[233][234][235] — American waxing (removal of pubic hair from the sides, top of the thighs, and under the navel), French waxing (leaves only a vertical strip in front), Brazilian waxing (removal of all hair in the pelvic area, particularly suitable for thong bottoms).[244]

text: Bikini tan[edit]

text: The tan lines created by the wearing of a bikini while tanning are known as a bikini tan. A 1969 innovation of tan-through swimwear uses fabric which is perforated with thousands of micro holes that are nearly invisible to the naked eye, but which let enough sunlight through to produce a line-free tan.[245][246]

text: As bikinis leave most of the body exposed to potentially dangerous UV radiation, overexposure can cause sunburn, skin cancer, as well as other acute and chronic health effects on the skin, eyes, and immune system.[247] As a result, medical organizations recommend that bikini wearers protect themselves from UV radiation by using broad-spectrum sunscreen, which has been shown to protect against sunburn, skin cancer,[248] wrinkling and sagging skin.[249] Certain sunscreen ingredients can cause harm if they penetrate the skin over time.[250]


document_title: Thirteen Reasons Why

question_text: how many tapes were there in 13 reasons why

root

text: Thirteen Reasons Why

text: History[edit]

text: Thirteen Reasons Why was first published in hardcover on October 18, 2007, by RazorBill, a young adult imprint of Penguin Books. The audiobook on CD was released at the same time by Listening Library, a division of Penguin Books, featuring the voices of Debra Wiseman as Hannah and Joel Johnstone as Clay.[1]

tag: p

text: The novel was published in trade paperback format by Penguin Young Readers Group, a division of Penguin Random House on June 14, 2011.[2] Thirteen Reasons Why had remained in hardcover long past the usual one-year release-to-paperback schedule due to its continued grassroots popularity and sales fueled by author participation.[3]

text: On December 27, 2016, the Tenth Anniversary Edition of Thirteen Reasons Why was published in hardcover, also by Penguin Young Readers Group.[4] In this edition, the book's original ending is included, as well as a new introduction and an essay from the author, pages from the notebook that the author used while writing this novel, reader reactions, and a reading guide.[5]

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Clay Jensen, a shy high school student, returns home from school one day to find that he has received a mysterious package in the mail, containing seven cassette tapes recorded by Hannah Baker, a classmate who recently committed suicide. The tapes had been sent to various other people before arriving at Clay's door.[1]

text: The first person to receive the tapes was Justin Foley. Hannah and Justin kissed in the park once, after she developed a crush on him. Despite this, Justin betrayed her by telling his friends that more had happened in the park than a kiss, earning Hannah the reputation of a slut at school.

text: The second person was Alex Standall. Alex published a "hot or not" list comparing the girls in their class based on their body parts. He awarded Hannah the title of Best Ass, which only reinforced her reputation as a slut. He also awarded his ex-girlfriend Jessica the title of Worst Ass, in revenge for her breaking up with him.

text: The third person was Jessica Davis. After being compared to Hannah on the "hot or not" list, Jessica accused Hannah of stealing Alex from her. When Hannah denied it, Jessica slapped Hannah, leaving a scar on her forehead and ending their friendship. It is hinted that Jessica may have believed the rumors about Hannah being a slut, leading her to believe that Hannah had stolen Alex from her. Jessica then began spreading rumors that Hannah was the reason for her breakup with Alex.

text: The fourth person to receive the tapes was Tyler Down, a classmate who worked as a photographer for the yearbook. After suspecting that someone was taking pictures of her through her bedroom window, Hannah enlisted her classmate Courtney Crimson, who was unnamed at this point, to help catch the Peeping Tom. They staged a massage and then Courtney exclaimed over some "toys" she pretended to find. Based on the glimpse she got as the perpetrator ran away and his reaction at school, Hannah was able to determine that Tyler was the one at the window.

text: The fifth person was Courtney Crimsen. Courtney used Hannah to get a ride to a party, but then she left Hannah to herself. Courtney started spreading a rumor at the party regarding the sexual "toys" she had "found" in Hannah's bedroom, further reinforcing Hannah's reputation as a slut. Hannah left Courtney at the party and gave Tyler a ride home.

text: The sixth person was Marcus Cooley. Hannah matched up with him through a Valentine fundraiser for the cheerleaders. They went on a date at a diner where Marcus tried to take advantage of her. Hannah pushed him to the floor, then he left, calling her a "tease".

text: The seventh person was Zach Dempsey, who tried to comfort Hannah after Marcus ditched her. After Hannah fails to respond the way he wants, he takes classroom "notes of encouragement" from her pigeonhole as revenge. Hannah had considered this class her "haven" as the teacher did not tolerate bullying. She had left an anonymous note about contemplating suicide, but the teacher and the class felt that the note was just an attempt to get attention.

text: The eighth person was Ryan Shaver. He attended a poetry class outside of school that Hannah signed up for. After gaining her trust, Ryan stole a poem written by Hannah and published the poem anonymously in the school newspaper. When students and teachers criticized the poem harshly, Hannah took the criticism to heart, although no one knew who had actually written it.

text: The ninth person to receive the tapes was Clay. However, Hannah apologized for including Clay, saying that he did not deserve to be on the list. She admitted that Clay was the nicest person she had ever met and that she wished they had had more time to get to know each other. Hannah broke curfew and went to a party she knew Clay would be at. They had a long conversation and ended it with what she called a "fantastic" kiss, which ended when Hannah began recalling her kiss with Justin and reacted badly. That was the last time Clay and Hannah spoke to each other.

text: The tenth person was Justin. After Clay left her, Justin and Jessica entered the bedroom, not noticing Hannah on the floor. Justin tried to have sex with Jessica on the bed, but her drunken state kept her from responding. Justin left the room and Hannah got up and hid in a closet. She then witnessed a now unconscious Jessica being raped by the unnamed at this point Bryce Walker. Justin knew about the rape and let it happen.

text: The eleventh person was Jenny Kurtz, a cheerleader who offered Hannah a ride home from the house party. She hit a stop sign while driving and did not tell the police, leading to a car accident which killed one of their classmates.

text: The twelfth person was Bryce Walker. After another party she had attended on another night, Hannah took a walk. Bryce called her to a hot tub at Courtney's house. She knew better than to join them, but she had given up. She removed her clothing and got in the tub wearing only a bra and panties. Bryce began touching Hannah, and Courtney left the hot tub. When she didn't actively resist his attention, he raped her.

text: The thirteenth to receive the tapes was Mr. Porter, the temporary school counselor. Hannah secretly recorded a conversation they had, in which she expressed a desire to end her life. Overwhelmed, Mr. Porter simply told Hannah that if she was unwilling to press charges against "the boy", she should just try to move on.

text: After sending the tapes to the next person on the list, Clay returned to school and ran into his classmate Skye Miller, whom he had reason to suspect was becoming suicidal. The novel ends with Clay reaching out to her.[6][7]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Universal Pictures purchased film rights to the novel on February 8, 2011.[8] On October 29, 2015, it was announced Netflix and Paramount Television would be taking on the book to become a miniseries, with Selena Gomez as an executive producer.[9] The series was released on March 31, 2017. On May 7, 2017, Netflix announced that they had ordered a second season of the series.[10]

text: In 2009, Asher adapted the novel into a stage play for high school performance.[11]

text: Differences from the TV series[edit]

text:
The character in the book who was Marcus Cooley[12] became Marcus Cole[13] in the TV series.

The character in the book who was Jenny Kurtz[12] became Sheri Holland[13] in the TV series.

Mr. Porter's first name is not listed in the book,[12] but he is named as Kevin[13] in the TV series.

The second character to be named on the tapes in the book was Alex Standall;[12] in the TV series it was Jessica Davis.[13]

The third character to be named on the tapes in the book was Jessica Davis;[12] in the TV series it was Alex Standall.[13]

The ninth character to be named on the tapes in the book was Clay Jensen;[12] in the TV series it was Justin Foley.[13]

The tenth character to be named on the tapes in the book was Justin Foley;[12] in the TV series it was Sheri Holland.[13]

The eleventh character to be named on the tapes in the book was Jenny Kurtz;[12] in the TV series it was Clay Jensen.[13]

The television series has a much deeper plot, and does not solely depict why Hannah Baker killed herself.

text: Recent developments[edit]

text: In May 2017, the curriculum director in Mesa County School District in Colorado ordered librarians to stop circulating the book due to a rash of student suicides. After three hours of deliberation by librarians and counselors, the books were returned to circulation when it was determined that the book was not as graphic as the TV series. Notices were sent to parents within the school district alerting them to the possible influence of the series.[14]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
2013 – Abraham Lincoln Award winner[15]
2010 – South Carolina Young Adult Book Award winner[16]
2009 – International Reading Association Young Adults' Choice list[17]
2009 – Writing Conference's Literature Festival[18]
2008 – Best Books for Young Adults YALSA[19]
2008 – Quick Picks for Reluctant Young Adult Readers YALSA[20]
2008 – Selected Audiobooks for Young Adults YALSA[21]
2008 – California Book Award silver medal – Young Adult[22]
2007 – Kirkus Reviews Editors Choice[23]

tag: ul


document_title: I, Robot (film)

question_text: how did will smith lose his arm in irobot

text: I, Robot (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the year 2035, humanoid robots serve humanity, which is protected by the Three Laws of Robotics. Del Spooner, a Chicago police detective, hates and distrusts robots because one of them rescued him from a car crash but left a 12-year-old girl to die because her survival was statistically less likely than his. Spooner's critical injuries were repaired with a cybernetic left arm, lung, and ribs, personally implanted by the co-founder of U.S. Robots and Mechanical Men (USR), Dr. Alfred Lanning.

text: When Lanning falls to his death from his office window, the CEO of USR Lawrence Robertson declares it a suicide, but Spooner is skeptical. Spooner and robopsychologist Susan Calvin consult USR's central artificial intelligence computer, VIKI (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), to review security footage of Lanning's fall. Though the video is corrupted, they learn that no other humans were in Lanning's office at the time; but Spooner points out that Lanning could not have thrown himself through his heavy office window — only a robot could have broken it.

text: Calvin protests that this is impossible, as no robot can violate the Three Laws, but they are then attacked in the office by an NS-5 robot, USR's latest model, in violation of the Laws. After the police apprehend it, they discover that the robot, who tells Spooner its name is Sonny, is not an assembly-line NS-5, but specially built by Lanning himself, with stronger armor protection and a secondary system that bypasses the Three Laws. Sonny also appears to have emotions and dreams.

text: While pursuing his investigation of Lanning's death, Spooner is attacked by a USR demolition machine, and then a squad of NS-5 robots. His boss, Lieutenant Bergin, does not believe what happened and worried that Spooner is losing his mind, removes him from active duty. Spooner and Calvin sneak into USR headquarters and interview Sonny. He draws a sketch of a recurring dream: a leader, who Sonny believes to be Spooner, standing before a large group of robots on a hill near a disintegrating bridge.

text: When Robertson learns that Sonny is not fully bound by the Three Laws, he orders Calvin to destroy him by injecting nanites (replicating nano-scale robots) into his positronic brain. Spooner recognizes the landscape in Sonny's drawing as Lake Michigan, now a dry lake bed and a storage area for defunct robots. Upon arriving there, he discovers NS-5 robots dismantling older models and preparing for a takeover of U.S. cities.

text: The takeover takes place; the government, military, police, and public are overwhelmed by the robots. Spooner rescues Calvin, who was being held captive in her apartment by her own NS-5. They enter USR headquarters and reunite with Sonny, who was spared because Calvin was unable to carry out Robertson's order and had destroyed an unprocessed NS-5 in his place. Believing that Robertson is responsible for the revolt, the three head to his office, only to find him murdered by robots controlled by the true mastermind behind the takeover: VIKI. She has concluded that humans have embarked on a course that can only lead to their extinction.

text: Since the Three Laws prohibit her from allowing this to happen, she created a superseding "Zero'th Law"—a robot shall not harm humanity—in order to ensure the survival of the human race by stripping individual humans of their free will. Lanning, powerless to thwart VIKI's plan any other way, created Sonny, arranged his own death, and left clues to help Spooner uncover the plot.

text: Arming themselves with a syringe of nanites from Calvin's laboratory, the three head to VIKI's core, with Sonny actually agreeing with VIKI's logic, but judging that her plan is too "heartless". VIKI unleashes an army of robots to stop them. As the others battle the robots, Spooner dives into VIKI's core and injects the nanites, destroying her positronic brain and killing her.

text: Immediately, all NS-5 robots revert to their default programming and are decommissioned for storage by the military. Sonny confesses that he killed Lanning, at Lanning's direction, to bring Spooner into the investigation. Spooner points out that Sonny is not legally responsible because a machine, by definition, cannot commit murder. Sonny, pursuing a new purpose, goes to Lake Michigan and becomes the leader he saw in his own dream.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Will Smith as Det. Del Spooner
Bridget Moynahan as Dr. Susan Calvin
Alan Tudyk as Sonny (voice and motion capture)[2]
Bruce Greenwood as Lawrence Robertson
James Cromwell as Dr. Alfred Lanning
Chi McBride as Lt. John Bergin
Shia LaBeouf as Farber
Fiona Hogan as VIKI
Terry Chen as Chin
Adrian Ricard as Granny ("Gigi")

text: Development[edit]

text: The film I, Robot originally had no connections with Isaac Asimov's Robot series. It started with an original screenplay written in 1995 by Jeff Vintar, entitled Hardwired. The script was an Agatha Christie-inspired murder mystery that took place entirely at the scene of a crime, with one lone human character, FBI agent Del Spooner, investigating the killing of a reclusive scientist named Dr Hogenmiller, and interrogating a cast of machine suspects that included Sonny the robot, HECTOR the supercomputer with a perpetual yellow smiley face, the dead Dr Hogenmiller's hologram, plus several other examples of artificial intelligence.[3]

text: The project was first acquired by Walt Disney Pictures for Bryan Singer to direct. Several years later, 20th Century Fox acquired the rights, and signed Alex Proyas as director. Jeff Vintar was brought back on the project and spent several years opening up his stage play-like cerebral mystery thriller to meet the needs of a big budget studio film.

text: When the studio decided to use the name "I, Robot", he incorporated the Three Laws of Robotics, and replaced his female lead character of Flynn with Susan Calvin, one of the few recurring characters in the Robot series by Asimov. The original I, Robot was a collection of short stories; but the new screenplay incorporated many elements of Asimov's The Caves of Steel, a murder mystery involving a robot and a police officer. Akiva Goldsman was hired late in the process to rewrite the script for Will Smith.[3]

text: Jeff Vintar and Akiva Goldsman are credited for the screenplay, with Vintar also receiving "screen story by" credit. The end credits list it as "suggested by the book I, Robot by Isaac Asimov".

text: Production[edit]

text: Alex Proyas directed the film. Laurence Mark, John Davis, Topher Dow and Wyck Godfrey produced the film, with Will Smith an executive producer. Marco Beltrami composed music for the film. Simon Duggan was the cinematographer. Film editing was done by Richard Learoyd, Armen Minasian and William Hoy. The film contains very noticeable product placements for Converse's Chuck Taylor All-Stars, Audi, FedEx, Tecate and JVC among others.

text: The Audi RSQ was designed specially for the film[4] to increase brand awareness and raise the emotional appeal of the Audi brand, objectives that were considered achieved when surveys conducted in the United States showed that the Audi RSQ gave a substantial boost to the image ratings of the brand in the States.[5] It also features an MV Agusta F4 SPR motorcycle.

text: Release[edit]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film was met with generally mixed to positive reviews. The $120 million film was a solid box office success, earning almost $145 million in North America and more than $200 million overseas. It currently holds a 58% "Rotten" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 194 reviews with the consensus being, "Bearing only the slightest resemblance to Isaac Asimov's short stories, I, Robot is a summer blockbuster that manages to make the audience think, if only for a little bit."[6] The film was released in the United Kingdom on August 6, 2004, and topped the country's box office that weekend.[7]

text: Richard Roeper gave it a positive review, calling it "a slick, consistently entertaining thrill ride". The Urban Cinefile Critics call it "the meanest, meatiest, coolest, most engaging and exciting science fiction movie in a long time". Kim Newman from Empire said, "This summer picture has a brain as well as muscles." A Washington Post critic, Desson Thomas, said, "for the most part, this is thrilling fun." Many critics, including the IGN Movie critics thought it was a smart action film, saying, "I, Robot is the summer's best action movie so far. It proves that you don't necessarily need to detach your brain in order to walk into a big budget summer blockbuster."

text: A. O. Scott from The New York Times had a mixed feeling towards the film, saying, "Alex Proyas's hectic thriller engages some interesting ideas on its way to an overblown and incoherent ending". Roger Ebert, who had highly praised Proyas' previous films, gave it a negative review, saying, "The plot is simple minded and disappointing, and the chase and action scenes are pretty much routine for movies in the sci fi CGI genre". Claudia Puig from USA Today thought the film's "performances, plot and pacing are as mechanical as the hard wired cast". Todd McCarthy, from Variety, simply said that this film was "a failure of imagination".

text: Home media[edit]

text: I, Robot was released on VHS and DVD on December 14, 2004,[8] on D-VHS (D-Theater) on January 31, 2005, on UMD on July 5, 2005, and on Blu-ray on March 11, 2008.[9] Additionally, the film received a 2D to 3D conversion, which was released on Blu-ray 3D on October 23, 2012.[10]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
I, Robot

Film score by Marco Beltrami

Released
July 20, 2004

Recorded
Studio

Genre
Score

Length
44:06 minutes[11]

Label
Varèse Sarabande

Producer
Marco Beltrami[12]

text: Marco Beltrami composed the original music film score "with only 17 days to render the fully-finished work."[13] It was scored for 95 orchestral musicians and 25 choral performers[13] with emphasis placed on sharp brass ostinatos. Beltrami composed the brass section to exchange octaves with the strings accenting scales in between. The technique has been compared as Beltrami's "sincere effort to emulate the styles of Elliot Goldenthal and Jerry Goldsmith and roll them into one unique package."[13]

text: Take for example the "Tunnel Chase" scene, which according to Mikeal Carson, starts "atmospherically but transforms into a kinetic adrenaline rush with powerful brass writing and ferocious percussion parts."[14] The "Spiderbots" cue highlights ostinatos in meters such as 6/8 and 5/4 and reveals "Beltrami's trademark string writing which leads to an orchestral/choral finale."[14] Despite modified representations of the theme throughout the movie, it's the end credits that eventually showcase the entire musical theme.[15] Erik Aadahl and Craig Berkey were the lead sound designers.

text: Possible sequel[edit]

text: In an interview in June 2007 with the website Collider.com at a Battlestar Galactica event, writer and producer Ronald Moore stated that he was writing the sequel to the film I, Robot.[16] In the two disc All-Access Collector's Edition of the film, Alex Proyas mentions that if he were to make a sequel to the film (which he says in the same interview, is highly unlikely), it would be set in outer space.

text: Similarities with the book[edit]

text: The final script retained some of Asimov's characters and ideas, though the ideas retained were heavily adapted and the plot of the film is not derived from Asimov's work.

text: The characters of Dr. Susan Calvin, Dr. Alfred Lanning, and Lawrence Robertson resemble their counterparts in the source material only marginally. For example, in Asimov's work Dr. Calvin is middle aged by the time robots even begin to be widely used and recommends the destruction of over sixty robots on the mere suspicion that one might have found a way to work around the first law of robotics. In the film, Calvin is an attractive young woman with a strong faith in the laws of robotics who reacts emotionally when robots are shot or destroyed.

text: Sonny's attempt to hide in a sea of identical robots is loosely based on a similar scene in "Little Lost Robot".[17] The robot-model designation "NS" was taken from the same story. Sonny's dreams and the final scene resemble similar images in "Robot Dreams", and V.I.K.I.'s motivation is an extrapolation of the Three Laws that Asimov explored in "The Evitable Conflict", "Robots and Empire", "Foundation and Earth" and ". . . That Thou Art Mindful of Him", as well as several other stories.

text: The premise of robots turning on their creators—originating in Karel Čapek's play R.U.R., and perpetuated in subsequent robot books and films—appears nowhere in Asimov's writings. In fact, Asimov stated explicitly, in interviews and in introductions to published collections of his robot stories,[18] that he entered the genre to protest what he called the Frankenstein complex—the tendency in popular culture to portray robots as menacing. His story lines often involved roboticists and robot characters battling societal anti-robot prejudices.[19]


document_title: Donna Pinciotti

question_text: who ends up with donna on that 70s show

question_tokens: who ends up with donna on that 70s show

text: Donna Pinciotti

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Donna's relationship with next-door neighbor Eric Forman is often the main focus of the series. However, it is tumultuous at times, having suffered two break-ups during the show's run. Despite this, Eric and Donna often act as the "parents" of the group, being mature and responsible when their friends are not, for example in episodes like "Dine and Dash". Another episode that illustrates their parenthood of the group is when they have just broken up and Eric takes them all out and returns late. He and Donna engage in an argument because Eric gives Fez ice cream and Donna is angry because he wouldn't be hungry for dinner. When Fez is going to be deported, she and Eric become upset because "their" Fez is leaving. Eric is sometimes threatened by his feeling inferior to her, especially during the third season, when she gets a job as a disc jockey.

text: Donna and Eric lose their virginity to each other in the beginning of season two, after many failed attempts to "do it". Their sexual activity was revealed once in a very humiliating manner, when a policeman catches them having sex in the back of Eric's car and takes them back to his parents home, where Red forces Donna to tell her parents or else he would tell them.

text: In the beginning of the series, Hyde is also interested in Donna along with Eric. Donna makes her choice clear, however, when she blows off her "study date" with Hyde to hang out with Eric. Even after the relationship between Eric and Donna is established, for a short time Donna usually goes to Hyde when she feels unsure about her relationship and needs to talk about it. In such circumstances, Hyde usually referred to her as the "hot neighbor girl" and Eric as the "scrawny little neighbor boy", or some variation of these. Though a romantic relationship between Donna and Hyde is never established, Hyde initially liked Donna and would have been interested in her if Eric had not kissed her first (as stated in the episode "It's a Wonderful Life"). Hyde still tries to win Donna in the beginning when she and Eric weren't together. There are even some comments by Fez during that season that mock Hyde over these failed attempts. When the group goes to Jackie's father's cabin for a ski trip, Hyde decides to kiss Donna and is slapped for his efforts, ending his infatuation but not their close friendship. Hyde never shows any significant interest in Donna again.

text: Toward the end of season three, Donna's job as a disc jockey is taking priority over her relationship with Eric, causing her to cancel their dates. While Donna genuinely felt that she was right to do this and was simply following her goals through to their logical conclusion with wanting to be a writer and a newswoman, her actions provoked a bad response in the normally even-keeled Eric, who feels that Donna is not taking him and/or their relationship seriously. Unable to resolve the conflict, Eric breaks up with her in the third season finale "The Promise Ring". Throughout season four, much awkwardness ensues over rights to the basement and trying to find new relationships. Donna is a bit annoyed at just how many girls are interested in Eric and happily mocks him when his attempts at finding a new girlfriend backfires. When she finds out he dated another while they were apart (he kept it a secret), she is absolutely furious, believing he cheated on her.

text: During the fourth season, Donna begins dating Casey Kelso (Luke Wilson), Michael Kelso's older brother. Even though he is flaky, a few years older than she is and against Donna's feminist beliefs, Donna thinks Casey is the perfect boyfriend, for he seems to be sensitive, good-natured, laid-back and easy-going. Eric sees Casey for what he is: an oversexed frat boy who just wants to sleep with Donna and move on to the next girl. Eric tries to warn Donna but she ignores him and he then threatens to hurt Casey if he hurts Donna.

text: Donna ends up skipping school to get drunk with Casey. When Eric and Kitty witness this, they (along with Red and Bob) decide to intervene, and in an animated discussion in the Formans' living room, Casey dumps Donna, deciding that his relationship with her is not worth the hassle, also admits that he never loved her. The realization of her own overconfidence, poor judgment and being dumped in front of the people who meant the most to her came as a shock to Donna, who regarded herself as an ideal feminist, but who'd fallen for the type of man she always swore she would never be with.

text: Hurt, humiliated and heartbroken, Donna turns to Eric, who offers his sympathy. When a shaken-up, crying Donna tells him she wants to be with him again, he refuses, believing that she did not really want him for who he was but simply wanted a way to feel better about herself and would most likely dump him when someone better came along. A tearful Donna pleads with him to take her back but he refuses to be her "second choice". Eric is unwavering in his decision, until his father and mother pointed out to him that he was being an idiot. Even Kitty, who normally doted over him, called him a "dumbass".

text: Unable to handle being rejected by her first love, an emotionally wrecked Donna flees Point Place for California, where she lives with her mother and tries to sort out her feelings. She decides she truly does love Eric and tries to call him but couldn't get hold of him; she suspects he no longer wants her and has moved on to another girl, leaving her rather depressed. But then, to her delight, Eric shows up in California looking for her, and the two very romantically reunite and return to Point Place. When Donna comes home from California, the normally easy-going Bob sends her to a Catholic school as punishment, an act that Donna deeply resents and hates for the remainder of the school year. This occasion also gave the writers/creators an opportunity to change Donna's common "lumberjack" attire as she now wore, for a few episodes, the school's uniform consisting of a plaid skirt, a white shirt and long white knee-high socks. Her new looks also provided openings for jokes from the boys about Donna's sexiness, which underlies their views of her throughout the series, no matter what type of attire she is wearing.

text: In season five, Eric ignores the objections of their friends and proposes to her at the water tower, which Donna accepts. Once Red and Kitty find out about the engagement, they are shocked. Kitty in particular, reacted badly, claiming that Donna is trying to snatch her "baby" away from her. Despite enduring a great deal of flak (mostly from Red), Eric stays loyal to Donna and their marriage plans, to where finally Red accepts that his son has become a man and gives them his blessing. Donna and Eric prepare to leave Point Place together and go to college in Madison. However, just as they are packing their stuff in the Vista Cruiser, Fez and Laurie announce their marriage so Fez can stay in the country after graduation. Red is so shocked at this, he has a heart attack. As a result, Eric decides to stay in Point Place and help support the family. Donna ends up putting off going to college in Madison so that she can stay with Eric. Eventually though, their wedding falls through at the end of season six when Eric, worried that marrying Donna would hold her back, fails to show up for their rehearsal.

text: Season 8[edit]

text: After Eric's departure from the show before season eight, it is assumed that they still keep the relationship intact. However, Donna tells her friends that Eric has broken up with her in the eighth-season episode "Long Away", when Fez and Jackie suspect that she is cheating on Eric with the new cast character, Randy (Josh Meyers). Donna tells them that Eric did this three weeks earlier. There were hints leading up to the breakup when Eric calls Kitty but not Donna, even though she is awake at 4AM waiting for him to call her. Also, when Donna is at the Foremans' for Red and Kitty's 25th anniversary, Eric calls his parents and Kitty gives the phone to Donna, but Eric spoke to her only briefly before hanging up, claiming he had to "go to class".

text: Donna then begins dating Randy, seemingly not caring about her long-standing relationship having deteriorated. Donna finally ends it when she believes that things are moving too fast, and that she is substituting Randy for Eric. This was further evidenced when Kitty catches Randy and Donna kissing in Eric's bedroom, and she accuses Donna of replacing Eric with Randy, departing from her usual rivalry with Donna over being the main woman in Eric's life.

text: In the final episode, Eric returns to Point Place for the New Year and he and Donna kiss. It is presumed that they end up together again at the end of the series and the end of the 1970s.

text: Character and personality[edit]

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text: Donna resides in the fictional Wisconsin town of Point Place, where she lives with her parents, Midge and Bob Pinciotti. Early in the series, her younger sister, 14-year-old Tina (played by Amanda Fuller), appears in the episode "Eric's Burger Job"[1] but is never seen again, nor do other characters mention her after the first season. At the end of the season 2 episode "Vanstock", this is made fun of when a narrator asks "Whatever happened to Midge's other daughter, Tina?" Donna also has an older sister, Valerie Pinciotti ("Eric's Birthday"). She is apparently in college as revealed by Midge. As Eric is turning 17, Midge shows Kitty a book of poems that helped her "when Valerie went off to school". These are examples of "Chuck Cunningham Syndrome" (see Happy Days).

text: An intelligent, witty teenager with feminist ideals, Donna is outwardly confident and strong, at times to the point of coming across as arrogant, self-righteous, and overconfident. She calls upon these personal qualities to deal with her personal issues, such as her parents' shaky relationship and the revelation that they conceived her while in high school. She believes that she's had it the hardest out of the group until Hyde is revealed to have faced most of these problems and not once complained. The characteristics and physical appearance of Donna Pinciotti were actually based on a girl who grew up in the same neighborhood as Mark Brazil in Dunkirk, NY. Donna actually dated Hyde and never was with Eric, AKA Mark Brazil.

text: Though despite her overly confident attitude, she herself has her own insecurities such as her big feet, her parents' screwed up marriage and her trust in her relationship with Eric. A prime example of this is in the episode "Eric's Panties". Eric has an attractive girl as his lab partner who has a reputation of being a slut. At first, Donna doesn't really care but she finds panties in his car and genuinely believes that Eric cheated on her. She shows a completely insecure side of herself and is more than prepared to hurt him. They are later revealed to be Midge's panties from when she and Bob had sex in Eric's car.

text: She has some difficulty expressing her feminine side, because she views traditional feminine traits as restraining and outdated. She dislikes skirts, makeup, and dresses, and insists on wearing jeans at all times, but she will dress nice for special occasions and tried "being pretty" for her prom and for a trip to a nightclub, where the bouncer judged her "foxy". As another exception, after her wedding with Eric was called off, she decides to change her looks and dyes her hair blonde. Jackie Burkhart repeatedly calls Donna a "lumberjack" and a "giant", due to her penchant for plaid shirts and her tall stature. She even described Donna by saying "She's nice and all, but she kinda dresses like a trucker". She also teases Donna for her gargantuan feet, calling her "bigfoot" and saying things like Donna's shoes are big enough for Jackie to fit her own shoes into.

text: Nonetheless, Donna still considers herself feminine, at times becoming insulted when people overlook it. When Kitty Forman needed two people with a "feminine touch" to decorate for Hyde's birthday party, she chose Jackie and Fez. An angry Donna wanted to "kick her ass" for that, insisting "What the hell? I'm feminine! Damn it, why can't anybody freakin' see that?!" This suggests that while Donna takes pride in her feminist beliefs, she still considers herself feminine, and simply doesn't want to restrict herself to "girly" activities. In several episodes, she is flattered at being perceived as an object of desire, especially when she becomes "Hot Donna" at a radio station.

text: Jackie appoints herself as Donna's best friend in the early seasons, often giving her advice that sounds superficial and useless, but often turns out to be unnervingly true. For example, in the "Battle of the Sexists" episode, Jackie states to Donna that, "Eric would never want her (Donna) to be his girlfriend if she kept beating him at everything, especially sports". Jackie genuinely thinks that she's better looking than Donna, ever since their first meeting in junior high and that Donna is generally not attractive or interesting, yet still thinks Donna could do better than Eric. When angry or annoyed at Donna, Jackie will often refer to her as a "giant" or "Amazon"; when Donna goes blonde, she calls her "blonde tardo". Despite their differences, Donna eventually accepts Jackie and decides to keep an eye on her and keep her out of trouble, since Jackie doesn't always show the best common sense, and on more than one occasion, Donna has ridiculed Jackie for her stupidity and small stature, calling her a "midget" or "mosquito".

text: All five of the boys have harbored sexual feelings toward Donna. In addition to Eric, three of the others attempted to sleep with her (Kelso attempts to seduce her after going to roller disco, Hyde at Jackie's ski cabin and Fez impersonating Eric in a Storm Trooper outfit; none of these attempts are successful) and four have romantic interest in her (Eric, Hyde, Casey and Randy).

text: Despite many of the guys' obvious attraction to her, she only dated two of the main characters, with Jackie having the most boyfriends within the main cast. Donna is with Eric for six seasons, and she is hoping they could have been together, but as she says herself: "It was all Eric's fault for taking that stupid job."

text: In Season 1, Episode 2 it is revealed that Donna is one month older than Eric. In the episode "Good Company", it is revealed through context that Donna's birthday is sometime in January.

text: Other appearances[edit]

text: Actress Rosie Marcel portrayed the character in the British version Days Like These.