document_title: Feminist psychology

question_text: who is often considered the first feminist psychologist

text: Feminist psychology

text: History[edit]

text: Feminist psychoanalysis[edit]

text: The term feminist psychology was originally coined by Karen Horney. In her book, Feminine Psychology, which is a collection of articles Horney wrote on the subject from 1922–1937, she addresses previously held beliefs about women, relationships, and the effect of society on female psychology.

text: Functionalism, Darwinism and the psychology of women[edit]

text: The beginning of psychology research presents very little in the way of female psychology. Many women did not fight against oppression because they did not realize they were oppressed in the first place (Ruck, 2015). Once the functionalist movement came about in the United States, academic psychology's study of sex difference and a prototypic psychology of woman were developed.[3]

text: Anti-feminism after WWII[edit]

text: In 1942 Edward Strecker made "mom-ism" an official pathological syndrome under the APA. He believed that the country was under threat because mothers weren't emotionally disconnecting from their children at a young enough age, and the matriarchy was making young men weak and losing their "man power". This fueled that anti-feminist movement; women were in need of psychotherapy to aid their mental illness and further prevent the spread of maternalism. The psychological damage on the family would be severe if a woman chose a career to satisfy her needs as opposed to her feminine domestic role assigned by society – a woman's happiness was not important, she must follow her role. The effect of women having independent thoughts and a thirst for exploring her options was a huge threat to gender, as it resulted in masculinized women and feminized men, apparently confounding the nation's youth and dooming their future. Constantinople and Bem both agreed that men and women possess masculinity and femininity, and that having both is being psychologically androgynous and a cause to be psychologically fixed or evaluated.

text: Gender research in the 1960s and 1970s[edit]

text: Esther Greenglass states that in 1972, the field of psychology was still male-dominated, women were totally excluded. The use of the word women in conjunction with psychology was forbidden, men refused to be excluded from the narrative. In her experience of teaching class, or being assistant professors, they had to phrase it in the interest of human beings or gender. Unger's paper "Toward a Redefinition of Sex and Gender" said that the use of gender showed the separation of biological and psychological sex. Psychology of women is feminist because it says women are different from men and that women's behavior cannot be understood outside of context. Feminists in turn compelled psychoanalysts to consider the implications of one of Freud's own, most uncompromising propositions: "that human beings consist of men and women and that this distinction is the most significant one that exists" (Buhl, 1998). In Liberating Minds: Consciousness-Raising as a Bridge Between Feminism and Psychology in 1970s Canada, Nora Ruck leads with, "U.S. radical feminist Irene Peslikis warned that equating women's liberating with individual therapy prevented women from truly understanding and fighting the roots of their oppression". Canada was one of the few countries with an academic category within psychology for feminism. They relied on CR (consciousness raising) groups to build their movement. Ruck describes the process of these CR groups by "bridging the tensions" between the personal and political. The development of CR as a political method in its own right is widely attributed to the New York-based radical feminist collective "Redstockings" (Echols, 1989). CR is also closely tied with radical feminism, which aims to weed out discrimination and segregation based on sex, and through a grassroots movement like socialist feminism, maintains that women's oppression is not a by-product of capitalist oppression but a "primary cause" (Koedt, 1968).

text: Joining the workforce[edit]

text: Women were excluded from Freud's definition of mental health (the ability to love and to work) because women wanting jobs was attributed to a masculinity complex or envy of men. Between 1970 and 1980 the percentage of women working outside the home had risen from 43 to 51, in the United States. Although women reported having difficulty juggling the roles of mother and provider, they found a way to be fulfilled void of childbearing (Buhle, 1998). Women continue to be a large percentage of the workforce in psychological positions. In 2005, 58.2 percent of the psychological positions in the United States of America were held by women, and as of 2013 it is now 68.3 percent (APA, 2013). This resulted in 2.1 women in the workforce for every 1 man, a drastic shift from Freud’s previous school of thought on women in the workforce (APA, 2013). The workforce does consider semi-retired psychologists as well; however, women still overtake men when comparing active psychologists, and have less percentage than men for semi-retired and retired psychologists (APA, 2013). The Committee on Women in Psychology (CWP), was founded in 1973. It was founded with the mission of “ ‘to advance psychology as a science and a profession…’ — by ensuring that women in all their diversity achieve equality within the psychological community and in the larger society…” (APA, 2017). There are also journals that focus on women in psychology, such as SAGE, which is recognized by the APA (SAGE, 2017). SAGE journal publishes articles about the mental health of women in the workforce, and what it is like for single mothers in the country, all of which are common topics in feminism as it is (SAGE, 2017). These movements that have occurred over time show a clear shift in culture from Freud’s original philosophy on mental health, where women are not only included, but are also part of every aspect of the workforce of psychology. The APA Leadership Institute for Women in Psychology emerged to support and empower women in psychological fields. Women such as Cynthia de las Fuentes are not only pushing for feminist psychology to be a more popular topic, but also do research in why some might be moving away from feminism, and by extension, feminism psychology (APA, 2006).

text: Organizations[edit]

text: Association for Women in Psychology (AWP)[edit]

text: The Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) was created in 1969 in response to the American Psychological Association's apparent lack of involvement in the Women's Liberation Movement.[4] The organization formed with the purpose of fighting for and raising awareness of feminist issues within the field of psychology. The association focused its efforts toward feminist representation in the APA and finally succeeded in 1973 with the establishment of APA Division 35 (the Society for the Psychology of Women).

text: Society for the Psychology of Women[edit]

text: APA Division 35, the Society for the Psychology of Women,[4] was established in 1973.[5] It was created to provide a place for all people interested in the psychology of women to access information and resources in the field. SWP works to incorporate feminist concerns into the teaching and practice of psychology. Div 35 also runs a number of committees, projects, and programs.

text: Section on Women and Psychology (SWAP)[edit]

text: The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) has a section on Women and Psychology (SWAP), which is meant "to advance the status of women in psychology, promote quity for women in general, and to educate psychologists and the public on topics relevant to women and girls."[6] SWAP supports projects such as Psychology's Feminist Voices.[7] The Journal of Diversity in Higher Education expresses that female psychologists are often considered to be inefficient due to their low contribution in scientific productivity. Hence, women tend to dominate in low level positions than their male counterparts even if they acquire their doctoral degrees.[8] "They did not show any acknowledgement or appreciation that there was a difference and that there was a need for it, and that was around the time that we were giving a course here interdisciplinary, not in psychology. I still didn't have a course here because they wouldn't let me do it. And the men pretty well called the shots when they told you, you can't do it, you just, you don't do it." (Greenglass, 2005).

text: The Psychology of Women Section (BPS)[edit]

text: The Psychology of Women Section (BPS),[9] of the British Psychological Society was created in 1988 to draw together everyone with an interest in the psychology of women, to provide a forum to support research, teaching and professional practice, and to raise an awareness of gender issues and gender inequality in psychology as profession and as practice. POWS is open to all members of the British Psychological Society.

text: Current research[edit]

text: Emotion[edit]

text: A major topic of study within feminist psychology is that of gender differences in emotion. In general, feminist psychologists view emotion as culturally controlled and state that the differences lie in the expression of emotion rather than the actual experience.[10] The way a person shows his or her emotions is defined by socially enforced display rules which guide the acceptable forms of expression for particular people and feelings.[10]

text: Stereotypes of emotion view women as the more emotional sex. However, feminist psychologists point out that women are only viewed as experiencing passive emotions such as sadness, happiness, fear, and surprise more strongly. Conversely, men are viewed as more likely to express emotions of a more dominant nature, such as anger.[11] Feminist psychologists believe that men and women are socialized throughout their lifetimes to view and express emotions differently. From infancy mothers use more facial expression when speaking to female babies and use more emotion words in conversation with them as they get older.[11]

text: Girls and boys are further socialized by peers where girls are rewarded for being sensitive and emotional and boys are rewarded for dominance and lack of most emotional expression.[11] Psychologists have also found that women, overall, are more skilled at decoding emotion using non-verbal cues. These signals include facial expression, tone of voice, and posture.[12] Studies have shown gender differences in decoding ability beginning as early as age 3 1⁄2.[11] The book Man and Woman, Boy and Girl looks at intersex patients in explaining why social factors are more important than biological factors in gender identity and gender roles and brought nature vs nurture issues back into the spotlight (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972).

text: Leadership[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Social scientists in many disciplines study aspects of the "glass ceiling effect", the invisible yet powerful barriers that prevent many women from moving beyond a certain level in the workplace and other public institutions.[13] According to the U.S. Department of Labor, women in the United States comprised 47% of the workforce in 2010.[14] However, there are only a small number of women with high held positions in corporations. Women constitute only 5% of Fortune 500 CEOs (in 2014)[15] and 19% of board members of S&P500 companies (in 2014),[16] and 26% of college presidents.[17] In 2017 U.S. government bodies, women comprise 19.1% of U.S. Representatives, 21% of U.S. Senators, 8% of state governors, and similarly low percentages of state elected officials.[18] Women of color have lower representation than white women.[19] The U.S. lags behind other countries in gender parity in government representation; according to the Global Gender Gap Report of 2014, the U.S. ranked 33 out of 49 so-called "high-income" countries, and 83rd out of the 137 countries surveyed.[20][21] "Women affiliated with the American Academy of Psychoanalysis were among the first to pursue such subjects as women's fear of success and inclinations toward neurotic dependency. They acknowledged the cultural forces inhibiting women's progress in nondomestic realms, particularly the pressures inherent in a male-dominated society" (Buhl, 1998). Much scholarship focuses on structural features inhibiting women's progress in public spheres, rather than locating the source of the issue on women themselves.

text: In addition, women experience a "sticky floor effect". The sticky floor effect happens when women have no job path or ladder to higher positions. When women have children they experience a roadblock called the maternal wall. The maternal wall is when women receive fewer desirable assignments and fewer opportunities for advancement after they have a child. The patriarchy labels women as "nourishing facilitators" making them not mentally strong enough to take part in the aggressive male-dominated workforce without taking psychological and emotional hits (Buhl, 1998). When women begin working at a company, their advancement can be limited by not having a senior level employee taking an active role in the development and career planning of junior employees. There are a lack of female mentors to assist new female employees because there are fewer women than men in higher level company positions. A woman with a male mentor could experience difficulty in gaining bonding and advice from out of work experiences. This is because men play basketball or golf and typically exclude women from these endeavors. Other factors limiting leadership for women are cultural differences, stereotypes, and perceived threats. If women show a small amount of sensitivity, they are stereotyped as being overly emotional. Generally, employers do not accept sensitive, soft people as being able to tackle tough decisions or handle leadership roles. However, if a woman displays male traits she is portrayed as mean, butch, and aggressive. Women are viewed as less competent when they showcase non-"feminine" traits and are not taken seriously. These women don't brag about their accomplishments and feel guilty for being able to go beyond stereotypes of feminine emotion and thought in order to become masculine in their jobs, just to be successful or try and be equal to men. Career women, whose professional status depends on the appropriation of masculine traits, frequently suffer from depression (Buhl, 1998). Recent research has connected the concept of stereotype threat with girls' motivations to avoid success as an individual difference, girls might avoid participation in certain male-dominated fields due to real and perceived obstacles to success in those fields, although there is little that can be proven (e.g., Spencer et al. 1999).

text: Another factor leading to discrimination and stress are cultural differences between managers and workers. For example, if a manager is white and has an employee of color, stress may be created if they do not understand or respect each other. Without trust and respect, advancement is unlikely. Our depiction of gender identity is white and middle class. White women are described as intelligent, manipulative, and privileged by Black women, who are described as strong, determined, and having attitude (Burack, 2002). "There it is, White fear of Black anger", was written in Ladies Home Journal (Edwards 1998: 77). Regarding perceived threats at work, it is not a matter of sexual harassment or harassment in general. The threat is the fact that women could possibly take over. The more women working in a place of employment, the increased threat a man feels over job security. In a study of 126 male managers, when asked to estimate the number of women working at their place of employment and whether or not they felt men were disadvantaged. Men who believed there were many women felt threatened about the security of their job (Beaton et al., 1996). Alice Eagly and Blair Johnson (1990) discovered that men and women have different small differences in their styles of leadership. Women in power were seen as interpersonal and more democratic, whereas men were seen as task-oriented and more autocratic. In reality, men and women are equally effective in their styles of leadership. A study by Alice Eagly (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995) found no overall differences in the effectiveness of male and female leaders in facilitating accomplishment of their group goals.[22][23][24][25]

text: Violence[edit]

text: Herman (1996) has shown that feminists relied on the psychological notion of "trauma" to criticize institutions like the family, to protect the children, to argue for revised policies, and to fight against male violence against women and children. Feminists argue that gender-based violence occurs frequently in the forms of domestic violence, sexual harassment, childhood sexual abuse, sexual assault, and rape. Violence towards women can be physical or psychological and is not limited by race, economic status, age, ethnicity, or location. Women can be abused by strangers but often the abuser is someone the woman knows. Violence can have both short- and long-term effects on women, and they react to the abuse in various ways. Some women express emotions such as fear, anxiety, and anger. Others choose to deny it occurred and conceal their feelings. Often, women blame themselves for what happened and try to justify that they somehow deserved it. Among victims of violence, psychological disorders such as post traumatic stress disorder and depression are common. In addition to the psychological ramifications, many women also sustain physical injuries from the violence that require medical attention.[26][27][28]

text: Relational-cultural theory[edit]

text: Relational-cultural theory is based on the work of Jean Baker Miller, whose book Toward a New Psychology of Women proposes that "growth-fostering relationships are a central human necessity and that disconnections are the source of psychological problems."[29] Inspired by Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique, and other feminist classics from the 1960s, relational-cultural theory proposes that "isolation is one of the most damaging human experiences and is best treated by reconnecting with other people", and that therapists should "foster an atmosphere of empathy and acceptance for the patient, even at the cost of the therapist's neutrality".[30] The theory is based on clinical observations and sought to prove that "there was nothing wrong with women, but rather with the way modern culture viewed them".[31]

text: Feminist therapy[edit]

text: Feminist therapy is a type of therapy based on viewing individuals within their sociocultural context. The main idea behind this therapy is that the psychological problems of women and minorities are often a symptom of larger problems in the social structure in which they live. There is a general agreement that women are more frequently diagnosed with internalizing disorders such as depression, anxiety, and eating disorders than men.[1] Feminist therapists dispute earlier theories that this is a result of psychological weakness in women and instead view it as a result of encountering more stress because of sexist practices in our culture.[1] A common misconception is that feminist therapists are only concerned with the mental health of women. While this is certainly a central component of feminist theory, feminist therapists are also sensitive to the impact of gender roles on individuals regardless of sex. Goldman found the connection between psychoanalysis and feminism as the recognition of sexuality as preeminent in the makeup of women as well as men. Freud found that men's ideology was forced onto women in order to sexually repress them, connecting the public and private spheres for the subjugation of women (Buhle, 1998). The goal of feminist therapy is the empowerment of the client. Generally, therapists avoid giving specific diagnoses or labels and instead focus on problems within the context of living in a sexist culture. Clients are sometimes trained to be more assertive and encouraged to understand their problems with the intent of changing or challenging their circumstances.[11] Feminist therapists view lack of power as a major issue in the psychology of women and minorities. Accordingly, the client-therapist relationship is meant to be as egalitarian as possible with both sides communicating on equal ground and sharing experiences.[12]

text: Feminist therapy is different than other types of therapy in that it goes beyond the idea that men and women should be treated equally in the therapeutic relationship. Feminist therapy incorporates political values to a greater extent than many other types of therapy. Also, feminist therapy encourages social change as well as personal change in order to improve the psychological state of the client and society.[1]

text: Issues with traditional therapies[edit]

text: Gender biases[edit]

text: Many traditional therapies assume that women should follow sex-roles in order to be mentally healthy. They believe gender differences are biologically based and encourage female clients to be submissive, expressive, and nurturant in order to achieve fulfillment (Worell & Remer, 1992). Psychotherapy is a male-dominated practice and supports women's adjustment to stereotypical gender roles instead of women's liberation (Kim & Rutherford, 2015). This may be done unconsciously by the therapist – for example, they may encourage a female to be a nurse, when they would have encouraged a male client of the same abilities to be a doctor, but there is the risk that the goals and outcomes of therapy will be evaluated differently in accordance with the therapist's beliefs and values. Inequality between the sexes and restrictions on sex roles are perpetuated by evolutionary psychology, but we could understand the role of gender in scientific communities by using feminist research strategies and admitting to gender bias (Fehr, 2012).

text: Androcentrism[edit]

text: Traditional therapies are based on the assumption that being male is the norm. Male traits are seen as the default, and stereotypically male traits are seen as more highly valued (Worell & Remer, 1992; Hegarty & Buechel, 2006). Men are considered the standard of comparison when comparing gender differences, with feminine traits viewed as a deviation from the norm and a deficiency on the part of women (Hegarty & Buechel, 2006).) Psychological theories of female development were written by men who are completely uninformed by women's actual experiences and the conditions under which they lived (Kim & Rutherford, 2015).

text: Intrapsychic assumptions[edit]

text: Principles of empowerment[edit]

text: The personal is political[edit]

text: This principle stems from the belief that psychological symptoms are caused by the environment. The goal of the therapist is to separate the external from the internal so the client can become aware of the socialization and oppression they have experienced, and attribute their problems to the appropriate causes (Worrel & Remer, 1992).). Feminist stance is largely marginalized and seen as standing outside of mainstream psychiatry, and there is the power-based distribution of knowledge, which gives therapists the ability to label women's disorders without knowing their lived experiences (Sawicki, 1991).

text: Therapists do not view their client's cognitions or behaviors as maladaptive – indeed, symptoms of depression or PTSD are often considered to be the normal, rational response to oppression and discrimination (Goodman & Epstein, 2007). Traditional therapies place little emphasis on sociopolitical influences, focusing instead on the client's internal functioning. This can lead therapists to blame clients for their symptoms, even if the client may in fact be coping admirably in a difficult and oppressive situation (Worell & Remer, 1992). Another possible issue can arise if therapists pathologize normal responses to oppressive environments (Goodman & Epstein, 2007).

text: Egalitarian relationships[edit]

text: Feminist therapists consider power inequalities to be a major contributing factor to the struggles of women, and as such criticize the traditional therapist role as an authority figure. Feminist therapists believe interpersonal relationships should be based in equality, and view the client as the "expert" in their own experiences. Therapists emphasize collaboration, and use techniques such as self-disclosure to reduce the power differential (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Value the female perspective[edit]

text: The goal of feminist therapy is to re-value feminine characteristics and perspectives. Often, women are criticized for breaking gender norms while simultaneously being devalued for acting feminine. In order to break this double bind, therapists encourage women to value the female perspective and self-define themselves and their roles. In doing so, clients can value their own characteristics, bond with other women, and embrace traits that had previously been discouraged (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Techniques[edit]

text: Sex role analysis[edit]

text: One component of feminist therapy involves a critique of cultural conditioning that produces and maintains socially biased structures (Ballou & Gabalac, 1985). From birth, women are taught which behaviors are appropriate, and face sanctions if they fail to conform. These gender stereotypes are taught explicitly or implicitly by the family, media, school, and the workplace, and lead to gender-related belief systems and self-imposed expectations (Worell & Remer, 1992).

text: Before women can be free of these expectations, they need to gain an understanding of the social systems that molded and encouraged these gender stereotypes, and how this system impacted their mental health. First, women work to identify the gendered messages they've received, as well as the consequences. Then, women explore how these messages have been internalized, and decide which rules they would like to follow and which behaviors they would prefer to change (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Power analysis[edit]

text: Power systems are organized groups that have legitimized status, that are sanctioned by custom or law, that have the power to set the standards for society. In Western society, women are expected to conform to the power systems that place them as submissive and inferior to men (Ballou & Gabalac, 1985). Types of power include the legal, physical, financial, and institutional ability to exert change. Often, men control direct power via concrete resources, while women are left to use indirect means and interpersonal resources. Also, sex-roles and institutionalized sexism play a role in limiting the power women have (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Power analysis is the technique used to examine the power differential between women and men, and to empower women to challenge the interpersonal and institutional inequalities they face (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Assertiveness training[edit]

text: Traditionally, assertiveness is a masculine trait, so frequently women struggle with learning to stand up for their rights. Feminist therapists work to help women distinguish assertive behaviors from passive or aggressive ones, overcome beliefs that tell women they cannot be assertive, and help women rehearse assertiveness skills through role play (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Application to other theories[edit]

text: Cognitive-behavioral therapy[edit]

text: The biggest feminist critique of cognitive-behavioral therapy is that the theory fails to focus on how behaviors are learned from society (NetCE, 2014). Often, the focus is on encouraging women to change their "maladaptive" responses and conform to normative standards. By putting the onus on the woman to change her thoughts and behaviors, instead of changing the environmental factors that give rise to the problems, the theory fails to question the social norms that condone the oppression of women (Brown & Ballou, 1992). Despite this, feminist therapists do use cognitive-behavioral techniques to help women change their beliefs and behaviors, in particular using techniques such as sex-role analysis or assertiveness training (Brown & Ballou, 1993; NetCE, 2014).

text: Psychoanalytic therapy[edit]

text: Many psychoanalytic concepts are considered by feminist therapists to be sexist and culturally-bound (NetCE, 2014). However, feminist psychoanalysis adapts many of the ideas of traditional psychotherapy, including the focus on early childhood experiences and the idea of transference. Specifically, therapists serve as a mother figure and help clients connect emotionally with others while maintaining an individuated sense of self (NetCE, 2014).

text: Family systems therapy[edit]

text: The main critique of family systems therapy is the endorsement of power imbalances and traditional gender roles. For example, family systems therapists often respond to men and women differently, for example placing more importance on the man's career or placing the responsibility for childcare and housework on the mother (Braverman, 1988).

text: Feminist therapists strive to make the discussion of gender roles explicit in therapy, as well as focusing on the needs of and empowering the woman in her relationship (Braverman, 1988). Therapists help couples examine how gender role beliefs and power dynamics lead to conflict. The focus is on encouraging more egalitarian relationships and affirming the women's experiences (NetCE, 2014).

text: Core issues covered in therapy[edit]

text: Rape/domestic violence[edit]

text: A feminist approach to dealing with rape or domestic abuse is focused on empowerment. Therapists help clients analyze societal messages about rape or domestic abuse that encourage a victim-blaming attitude, and try to help clients get past shame, guilt, and self-blame. Often, women do not know the true definitions of abuse or rape, and don't immediately identify themselves as victims (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Survivors often face negative reactions from others that lead to re-victimization when trying to seek help, so therapists can help the woman navigate the medical and legal services if she wishes. At all times, although safety is the main concern, the therapist empowers the woman to explore her options and make her own decisions (for example, to leave the relationship or stay following an attack) (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: It is emphasized that any symptoms are in fact normal responses to the traumatic effect, and the women is not pathologized. Both rape and domestic violence are not viewed as something one can recover from, but are instead viewed as experiences that one can integrate into one's life story as one restructures one's self-esteem and self-confidence (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Career counseling[edit]

text: Occupational choice is a main theme in feminist counseling. Women are more likely to earn less than men, and are overrepresented in lower-status occupations (Worrel & Remer, 1992). Several factors influence this career trajectory, including gender-role stereotyping of which jobs are appropriate for men and women. Women are often pointed towards nurturing jobs, while leadership jobs are reserved for men (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: Institutionalized sexism in the educational system often encourages girls to study traditionally feminine subjects while discouraging them from studying math and science. Discriminatory hiring practices also reflect the attitude that men should be the breadwinner and women are a riskier choice because their work will be disrupted once they have children (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: These societal messages often lead to internalized negative messages, including lower self-confidence and self-esteem, lower levels of assertiveness and willingness to negotiate, and the imposter syndrome, where women believe they do not deserve success and are merely lucky (Worrel & Remer, 1992).

text: When women do seek nontraditional employment, they are placed in a double bind, where they are expected to be competent at their job while simultaneously being feminine. Especially for women in male-dominated fields, trying to be competent and successful as a woman is difficult (Howard, 1986).

text: Feminist therapists[edit]

text: Feminist therapists work with women in search of counseling, as well as men, for help in alleviating a variety of mental health concerns. Feminist therapists have an interest in gender and how multiple social identities can impact an individual's functioning. Psychologists or therapists who identify with the feminism, the belief that women and men are equals, and/or feminist psychological theory may call themselves feminist therapists. Currently, there are not many postdoctoral training programs in feminist psychology, but models for this training are being developed and modified for institutions to start offering them.[32] Most of this training is modeled around gender-fair counseling techniques.[2]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d Crawford, M. & Unger, R. (2000). Women and Gender: A feminist psychology (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
^ Jump up to: a b (Worell & Johnson, 1997)
Jump up ^ Shields, S. A. (1992). Functionalism, Darwinism, and the psychology of women: A study in social myth. In J. S. Bohan (Ed.), Seldom seen, rarely heard: Women's place in psychology (pp. 79-106). Boulder, CO: Westview.
^ Jump up to: a b The association for women in psychology. Retrieved April 6, 2010, from The Association for Women in Psychology Official Website: http://www.awpsych.org/
Jump up ^ http://www.apadivisions.org/division-35/
Jump up ^ "CPA". Section on Women and Psychology (SWAP). Retrieved 12 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "SWAP news". SWAP Section: News. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
Jump up ^ D'Amico, S. S.; Vermigli, R.; Canetto, P. (2011). "Publication productivity and career advancement by female and male psychology faculty: The case of Italy". Journal of Diversity in Higher Education. 4 (3): 175–184. doi:10.1037/a0022570.
Jump up ^ http://pows.bps.org.uk
^ Jump up to: a b Brannon, L. (2005). Gender: Psychological perspectives (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Shibley Hyde. J. (2007). Half the human experience: The psychology of women (7th ed.). Boston MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
^ Jump up to: a b Matlin, M. W. (2008). The psychology of women (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ "The Working woman report : succeeding in business in the 80's - JH Libraries". catalyst.library.jhu.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ "Women's Bureau (WB) - Quick Facts on Women in the Labor Force in 2010". www.dol.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ "The number of Fortune 500 companies led by women is at an all-time high: 5 percent". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ rsoares (2014-12-05). "2014 Catalyst Census: Women Board Directors". Catalyst. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ "The American College President Study: Key Findings and Takeaways". www.acenet.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ Venessa (2012-11-19). "Women in Government". Catalyst. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ "Women's Bureau (WB) Facts Over Time". www.dol.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ "The Global Gender Gap Report 2014". Global Gender Gap Report 2014. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ "Despite progress, U.S. still lags many nations in women leaders". Pew Research Center. 2015-01-26. Retrieved 2017-03-04.
Jump up ^ Beaton, Tougas, & Joly, A.M., F., & S. (1996). "Neosexism among male managers: Is it a matter of numbers?". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 26 (24): 2189–2203. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb01795.x. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Eagly & Johnson, A.H. & B.T. (1990). "Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 108 (2): 233–256. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.233.
Jump up ^ Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, A.H., S.J., & M.G. (1995). "Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 117 (1): 125–145. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.125. PMID 7870858. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Estaugh & Bridges, C. & J. (2006). Employment. In C. Estaugh & J. Bridges (Ed.). Women's lives: A topical approach. Pearson Education Inc. pp. 302–307.
Jump up ^ Hyde, J.S. (2007). Half the Human Experience: The Psychology of Women. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Jump up ^ Matlin, M.W. (2008). The Psychology of Women. Belmont, CA: Thomson and Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ Crawford & Unger, M. & R. (2004). Women and Gender. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Jump up ^ https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_225.html
Jump up ^ Pearce, Jeremy (August 8, 2006). "Jean Baker Miller, 78, Psychiatrist, Is Dead". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Jean Baker Miller Archived 2012-07-20 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ (Crawford, 2006)

tag: ol


document_title: Tomorrow series

question_text: who invaded australia in tomorrow when the war began

root

text: Tomorrow series

text: Books[edit]

text:
Tomorrow, When the War Began (1993)
The Dead of the Night (1994)
The Third Day, The Frost (1995) (published in the U.S. and Canada as A Killing Frost)
Darkness, Be My Friend (1996)
Burning for Revenge (1997)
The Night Is for Hunting (1998)
The Other Side of Dawn (1999)

tag: ul

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Ellie goes out camping in the bush for a week with her friends Homer, Lee, Kevin, Corrie, Robyn, and Fiona. They find a way into a large, vegetated sinkhole in a remote area of bush the locals call "Hell", and camp there for the week. During this time they see large numbers of planes flying through the night without lights, and though it is mentioned in conversation the following morning, they think little of it.

tag: p

text: When they return home they find that all the people are missing and their pets and livestock are dead or dying. They come to realise that Australia has been invaded and their family and friends have been taken prisoner. Avoiding capture by enemy soldiers, as well as retrieving Robyn and Lee who were stuck in the town and picking up one of their school friends Chris, the group return to Hell. After short period of recovery they start making plans to fight back.

text: Over the course of the first three books in the series, the group succeeds in destroying a bridge that leads into Wirrawee, an enemy convoy, several houses that are being used by the enemy as a center of operations, and a nearby strategic harbour. After the harbour raid, the surviving members of the group are eventually captured and placed in a maximum security prison in Stratton. During an air-raid by the Royal New Zealand Air Force the group escapes but loses yet another member while doing so. They encounter a downed RNZAF pilot and arrange to be evacuated to New Zealand.

text: Book four, Darkness, Be My Friend, takes place several months later. The group is trying to live a normal life in New Zealand with other refugees, but are haunted by their memories of the war (which is still ongoing). They are approached by the New Zealand Defence Force, who are seeking Australian guerrillas to act as guides for saboteur units that are being dropped into occupied Australian territory. The group returns to Wirrawee, their hometown, accompanied by a platoon of New Zealand troops. However the New Zealanders go missing while on a mission to destroy Wirrawee Airfield (which is being used as a major military airbase). Alone behind enemy lines once more, the group decides to attack the Airfield themselves but a combination of poor planning and bad luck causes them to fail. They return, depressed, to Hell.

text: Soon after, through sheer luck, the group find themselves perfectly positioned to attempt another attack on the Airfield. This time they succeed and manage to destroy a majority of planes on the airfield. After the attack, the group find their way to the nearby city of Stratton. There they encounter a tribe of feral (and hostile) children, who have been living on the streets and hiding from enemy troops since the war began. The group rescue five of the children who have been captured by an enemy patrol and escape back to Hell. For a time the group looks after the children. During this time strained relationships are mended and the soul-destroying effects of the war are tempered by a chance to do something positive. However, this period does not last. A patrol ambushes the group near their base and after defeating their attackers in a prolonged firefight the group realises that they are no longer safe in Hell and make contact with New Zealand immediately.

text: They discover that the war is entering its final days and that groups of partisans like themselves are being asked to cause as much chaos behind enemy lines as possible while New Zealand and its allies launch an all-out offensive. The group arranges for the feral children to be evacuated to New Zealand and are provided with plastic explosives to carry out their task.

text: The group attacks a service station frequented by enemy convoys and are separated in the aftermath. Ellie is shot in the leg and taken prisoner. While interned, she discovers the location of her mother and father. She escapes and is reunited with her mother whom she stays with until news breaks that the war is over – Australia signs a peace treaty with the occupying power, resulting in the formation of a new nation on the continent for the invading forces and settlers.

text: It transpires that Wirrawee is on the Australian side of the border. Ellie, her mother and her father return to their farm and, like all the other survivors of the war, begin picking up the pieces of their lives.

text: Characters[edit]

text: The group[edit]

text: Others[edit]

text: Themes[edit]

text: In his book John Marsden: Darkness, Shadow, and Light John Noell Moore, associate professor of English at The College of William & Mary, identifies several significant themes of the series; the transition from innocence to experience; the power of the Australian landscape; understanding the past as a way of dealing with the present and preparing for the future; and writing and storytelling and how they shape identity.[4]

text: The transition from innocence to experience is shown in transformations in Ellie’s thinking and her changing notions towards leadership and courage as the series progresses.[4] Ellie’s reasons for chronicling her experiences also develop throughout the series. She starts out recording for the group who don’t want to die unnoticed and forgotten and continues writing for herself to better understand her own thoughts and feelings. Later on she writes to recreate the past which has become a lost world to her and preserve the lessons that she has learnt from it.[4] The Australian bush becomes "a symbol of stability in a world that seems to be disintegrating". Its presence gives hope to the characters throughout the series.[4]

text: Other notable themes in the series are the role of family and friendship; sexual maturation and the conflicting worldviews of teenagers and adults.[4]

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: John Marsden was inspired to write Tomorrow, When the War Began while watching an ANZAC Day march.[5] A large number of teenagers were in attendance, paying respect to the sacrifices made by the past generations. He wondered how they might react if they were placed in the same position that their grandparents were at their age. He felt that the popular media’s view of the average young person as "illiterate, drug crazed, suicidal, alcoholic, criminal, promiscuous, a dole bludger, or all of the above" was wrong.[6] It seemed to him that like the generations before them modern teenagers would "dig deep and find reserves of initiative, maturity, responsibility and even heroism".[6]

text: With Tomorrow, When the War Began and its sequels Marsden set out to write an "old fashioned adventure story". To do this Marsden looked to the authors he had read most avidly as a teenager, thriller writers such as Ian Fleming, Desmond Bagley, John Buchan, Hammond Innes and Alistair MacLean. He sought to emulate their approaches to timing, pacing and building tension and suspense and combine them with "the new teenage genres, where feelings, relationships and character development were all-important."[7][8]

text: The inspiration for the rural setting of the series was what Marsden saw as the disappearance of the bush tales that he had enjoyed growing up. He had noticed that many novels for young people published in recent decades were about issues arising for families and children living in the suburbs.[5] In Marsden on Marsden he writes:

text: Marsden cites the works of Australian Children's Author Mary Grant Bruce as major influence on the series. In his introduction to the John Marsden Presents: Australian Children's Classics imprint of Bruce's 1940 novel Peter and Co Marsden notes the book's similarities to his series. Both are stories about groups of young people battling enemy forces intent on the invasion of Australia.[10] Marsden states that while he didn't intentionally set out to emulate Peter and Co when he wrote Tomorrow, When the War Began he does see many of his memories of the novel reflected in his work.

text: Ellie, the Tomorrow series central protagonist was modelled after the "courageous and resourceful" farm girl Norah from Mary Grant Bruce’s Billabong series of novels.[9] The series follows the fortunes of the Linton family, the owners of a large cattle station in Victoria, during first half of the 20th century. In the Tomorrow Series it is implied that Ellie is the great-granddaughter of Norah’s brother Jim.[11] The character was also inspired by Charlotte Austin, a student who Marsden had taught and admired for her resourcefulness, honesty and "gutsy approach to life".[12]

text: The character of Homer was based on a number of students from rural backgrounds that Marsden had taught. He noticed that many of these students, who at home drove cars, ploughed fields, harvested crops, worked as shearers and more, had trouble adjusting to an environment where they "were not trusted to change a light globe or put a Band-Aid on a cut".[13] These students became frustrated and angry and their immature behaviour was the result.

text: Robyn was modelled after Marsden’s own sister, a deeply committed Christian. Marsden was inspired to write the character when he noticed that while many teenagers identified themselves are Christians this group was not represented at all in fiction written for them.[5] Chris was an approximation of Marsden himself as a teen. Though unlike Chris, Marsden never used drugs.[5]

text: When asked why young people related to the characters in his books, Ellie in particular, Marsden speculated that, like himself, they found their strength and self-reliance inspirational.[14] In an interview with Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s Rollercoaster website he explained what inspired him to highlight these virtues in his work:

text: Similarities to other John Marsden novels[edit]

text:
In Marsden’s 1988 novel The Journey the main character finds a hut belonging to a dead hermit. A similar sequence occurs in Tomorrow, When the War Began.
In Out of Time (1990) the protagonist’s country, implied to be Australia, is at war with an unspecified enemy. The protagonist has a sister called Ellie.
An Australia type nation is invaded in John Marsden and Shaun Tan's picture book The Rabbits (1998)
Home and Away (2008), a picture book by John Marsden and Matt Ottley, tells the story of a family fleeing from a war-torn Australia. Their story is similar to the story of how Lee’s mother came to Australia as a refugee.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Upon publication, the series was met with overwhelmingly positive reviews. Critics praised the series for its insightful look at a wide range of issues and suspense filled narrative. The Age proclaimed the series "the best series for Australian teens of all time..."[15] and said "like ancient myths the stories confront the purpose of life, death, betrayal, killing, love, hate, revenge, selfishness, sacrifice and... faith".[16] The Horn Book Magazine found the series "riveting" and said "thoughtful explorations of the nature of fear, bravery and violence add depth and balance to the edge-of-the-seat-action and intense first person narration".[17] Georges T. Dodds from the SF Site described the series as "an elevation of adventure literature to heights that are only achieved once or twice in a generation".[18] He praised Marsden's depictions of combat stress and action sequences, which he found reminiscent of John Buchan’s work in The Thirty-Nine Steps.[19] Viewpoint, Australia's major Young Adult fiction review journal, described the series as "a war story told with storytelling skills that Alistair Maclean used to display".[20] Gregory Maguire of the New York Times found the series to be "intense" and "compulsively readable", but criticised the books for their episodic structures.[21]

text: Five of the seven books in the Tomorrow series (excluding Tomorrow, When the War Began and The Night is for Hunting) were listed by the Children's Book Council of Australia as a notable title for older readers for its respective year of publication.[22] The first novel is recommended by the New South Wales Board of Studies as a text to be studied in English classes during Stage 5 (Years 9 and 10).[23] In 2013, Tomorrow, When the War Began was voted Australia's favorite Australian book in a poll run by Get Reading!, an annual campaign run by the Australian Government to encourage Australians to read.[24][25]

text: The series has also received accolades from outside Australia. The American Library Association recognised Tomorrow, When the War Began as one of the best young adult novels published in the United States in 1996, then again in 2000 as one of the best 100 books for teenage readers published since 1966.[26][27] In 1999, The Third Day, The Frost won the Buxtehude Bull, a prestigious German prize for young adult literature.[28] In 2000, the Swedish Government arranged for the translation and distribution of Tomorrow, When the War Began to every child of appropriate age in the country because it was thought the book would be enjoyed by reluctant readers.[29]

text: List of awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Title
Year
Notes

Tomorrow, When the War Began
1993

Winner, Australian Multicultural Children's Book Award 1994[30]
Selected, American Library Association list of Best Books for Young Adults 1996[26][31]
Selected, American Library Association list of 100 Best Books for Teens 1966–2000[27]
Selected, American Library Association list of Popular Paperbacks for Young Adults 1998, Nominated 2011[32][33]
Winner, Fanfare Horn Book Best Book 1996[31]
Winner, Children's Yearly Best-Ever Reads (CYBER) Best Book for Older Readers 2000, 2001, 2002[30][34]
Selected, Whitcoulls top 100 books, 2008 (No. 63)[31]
Selected, COOL Awards (Canberra's Own Outstanding List) 1995[31]
Winner, KOALA (Kids Own Australian Literature Awards) 1995[30][31]
Winner, YABBA (Young Australian Best Book Award) 1995[30][31]
Winner, WAYRBA (West Australian Young Readers' Books Award) 1995[30]
Winner, Bilby Awards (Books I Love Best Yearly) 1998[30][31]
Nominated, South Carolina Book Award 1998[35]
Winner, New South Wales Talking Book Award[30]
Voted Australia's favorite Australian book in Get Reading's Australia’s Top 100 Favourite Homegrown Reads poll, 2013.[25]

The Dead of the Night
1994

Notable Book, CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers 1995[22]
Selected, COOL Awards (Canberra's Own Outstanding List) 1998[36]

The Third Day, the Frost
1995

Winner, Buxtehude Bull Prize 1999[37][38]
Notable Book, CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers 1996[22]
Winner, WAYRBA (West Australian Young Readers' Books Award) 1998[30]
Selected, COOL Awards (Canberra's Own Outstanding List) 1999[39]
Also titled A Killing Frost[citation needed]

Darkness, Be My Friend
1996

Notable Book, CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers 1997[22]

Burning for Revenge
1997

Notable Book, CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers 1998[22]
Winner, Bookdata/Australian Booksellers Association Book of the Year Award 1997[30][40]
Winner, WAYRBA (West Australian Young Readers' Books Award) 1999[30]

The Night is for Hunting
1998

Selected, COOL Awards (Canberra's Own Outstanding List) 2000[30][41]
Winner, WAYRBA (West Australian Young Readers' Books Award) 2000[30]
Shortlisted, Bookdata/Australian Booksellers Association Book of the Year Award 1999[38]

The Other Side of Dawn
1999

Notable Book, CBCA Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers 2000[22]
Winner, YABBA (Young Australian Best Book Award) 2000[38]

tag: table

text: Sequel series: The Ellie Chronicles[edit]

text: Following on from the Tomorrow series, Marsden released a sequel trilogy titled The Ellie Chronicles; While I Live (2003), Incurable (2005) and Circle of Flight (2006). The three books detail Ellie's struggles in post-war life in Wirrawee. Ellie finds herself running the family farm after the murder of her parents, and dealing with Gavin, the deaf boy she rescued during the war. Shortly after the death of her parents, Ellie faces bankruptcy and turns to Homer's parents, Mr. and Mrs. Yannos, for help. In addition, a group called "Liberation", headed by the mysterious "Scarlet Pimple" (a play of words on "The Scarlet Pimpernel"), are conducting secret border raids against the new nation.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Films[edit]

text: In June 2009, Screen Australia announced that it would fund the development of the feature film Tomorrow, When the War Began, written and directed by screenwriter Stuart Beattie (Australia, Collateral, Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl), and produced by Andrew Mason for Ambience Entertainment, reportedly to begin production in late 2009.[42][43][44] Raymond Terrace in the Hunter Region of New South Wales, was chosen as a major location for producing the film.[45] The film was released in Australian cinemas on 2 September 2010. Reception for the movie was mixed. Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 64% of critics have given the film a positive review, with an average score of 5.6 out of 10. Reviewers frequently cited a poor script and poor acting as flaws.[46] The film was a success in Australia but "failed to find an international audience" [47]

text: Television adaption[edit]

text: A television adaption of the Tomorrow series has been produced, though the cast from the film adaption will not be reprising their roles.[48] The series consists of six episodes and airs on ABC3.[49][50] Filming took place from 14 September to 13 November 2015 in Melbourne, and premiered on 23 April 2016.[51][52]


document_title: Gladstonian liberalism

question_text: which british statesman became synonymous with british liberalism

text: Gladstonian liberalism

text:
Part of a series onLiberalism
Schools[show]
History of liberalism
Contributions to liberal theory

Ideas[show]
Civil and political rights
Cultural liberalism
Democracy
Liberal democracy
Economic liberalism
Egalitarianism
Free market
Free trade
Freedom of the press
Freedom of religion
Freedom of speech
Gender equality
Harm principle
Internationalism
Laissez-faire
Liberty
Market economy
Natural and legal rights
Negative/positive liberty
Open society
Permissive society
Private property
Rule of law
Secularism
Separation of church and state
Social contract
Welfare state

Variants[show]
Civic nationalism
Classical liberalism
Conservative liberalism
Democratic liberalism
Green liberalism
Liberal feminism
Equity feminism
Liberal autocracy
Liberal conservatism
Liberal internationalism
Liberal socialism
Libertarianism
Agorism
Anarcho-capitalism
Christian libertarianism/Libertarian Christianity
Geolibertarianism
Green libertarianism
Libertarian conservatism
Minarchism
Paleolibertarianism
Voluntaryism
Muscular liberalism
Neoliberalism
National liberalism
Ordoliberalism
Radical centrism
Radicalism
Reformist Left
Religious liberalism
Christian
Islamic
Jewish
Secular liberalism
Social liberalism
Technoliberalism
Third Way
Whiggism

People[show]
Lord Acton
Rifa'a al-Tahtawi
Juan Bautista Alberdi
Chu Anping
Matthew Arnold
Raymond Aron
Frédéric Bastiat
Simone de Beauvoir
Gary Becker
Jeremy Bentham
Isaiah Berlin
Eduard Bernstein
William Beveridge
Norberto Bobbio
Ludwig Joseph Brentano
John Bright
Edmund Burke
Thomas Carlyle
Anders Chydenius
Richard Cobden
R. G. Collingwood
Marquis de Condorcet
Benjamin Constant
Benedetto Croce
Jean le Rond d'Alembert
Ralf Dahrendorf
Guido De Ruggiero
John Dewey
Charles Dickens
Denis Diderot
Zhang Dongsun
Ronald Dworkin
Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Karl-Hermann Flach
Milton Friedman
John Kenneth Galbraith
William Lloyd Garrison
David Lloyd George
William Gladstone
Friedrich Hayek
Auberon Herbert
Thomas Hobbes
Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse
John A. Hobson
Qin Hui
Wilhelm von Humboldt
Piero Gobetti
Francisco Luís Gomes
John Gray
Thomas Hill Green
Thomas Jefferson
Zef Jubani
Immanuel Kant
Namık Kemal
John Maynard Keynes
Will Kymlicka
Mariano José de Larra
John Locke
Salvador de Madariaga
James Madison
Harriet Martineau
Minoo Masani
Jules Michelet
James Mill
John Stuart Mill
John Milton
Ludwig von Mises
Donald Barkly Molteno
Leo Chiozza Money
Charles de Montesquieu
José María Luis Mora
Dadabhai Naoroji
Friedrich Naumann
Robert Nozick
Bertil Ohlin
José Ortega y Gasset
Thomas Paine
Alan Paton
Karl Raimund Popper
Richard Price
Joseph Priestley
Guillermo Prieto
François Quesnay
Ignacio Ramírez
Ayn Rand
Walther Rathenau
John Rawls
Joseph Raz
Charles Renouvier
David Ricardo
Wilhelm Röpke
Richard Rorty
Carlo Rosselli
Murray Rothbard
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Baptiste Say
Amartya Sen
Li Shenzhi
Hu Shih
Algernon Sidney
Emmanuel Sieyès
İbrahim Şinasi
Jean-Charles-Léonard Simonde de Sismondi
Adam Smith
Hernando de Soto
Herbert Spencer
Baruch Spinoza
Anne Louise Germaine de Staël
William Graham Sumner
R. H. Tawney
Johan Rudolph Thorbecke
Henry David Thoreau
Alexis de Tocqueville
Antoine Destutt de Tracy
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot
Voltaire
Lester Frank Ward
Max Weber
Mary Wollstonecraft
Tao Xingzhi
Gu Zhun

Organizations[show]
Liberal parties
Africa Liberal Network (ALN)
Alliance of Liberals andDemocrats for Europe (ALDE)
Alliance of Liberals and Democratsfor Europe Party (ALDEP)
Arab Liberal Federation (ALF)
Council of Asian Liberalsand Democrats (CALD)
European Democratic Party (EDP)
European Liberal Youth (LYMEC)
European Party for Individual Liberty (EPIL)
International Alliance ofLibertarian Parties (IALP)
International Federation ofLiberal Youth (IFLRY)
Liberal International
Liberal Network forLatin America (RELIAL)
Liberal South EastEuropean Network (LIBSEEN)

Regional variants[show]
Europe
Latin America
Albania
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bolivia
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
China
Chile
Colombia
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech lands
Denmark
Ecuador
Egypt
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
India
Iran
Israel
Italy
Japan
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Mexico
Moldova
Montenegro
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Nigeria
Norway
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Senegal
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
South Africa
South Korea
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
Thailand
Tunisia
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Zimbabwe

Related topics[show]
Democratic capitalism
Liberal bias in academia
Regressive left

 Liberalism portal
 Politics portalvte

text: Gladstonian liberalism is a political doctrine named after the British Victorian Prime Minister and leader of the Liberal Party, William Ewart Gladstone. Gladstonian liberalism consisted of limited government expenditure and low taxation whilst making sure government had balanced budgets and the classical liberal stress on self-help and freedom of choice. Gladstonian liberalism also emphasised free trade, little government intervention in the economy and equality of opportunity through institutional reform. It is referred to as laissez-faire or classical liberalism in the United Kingdom and is often compared to Thatcherism.[1][2][3]

text: Gladstonian financial rectitude had a partial lasting impact on British politics and the historian John Vincent contends that under Lord Salisbury's premiership he "left Britain's low tax, low cost, low growth economy, with its Gladstonian finance and its free trade dogmas, and no conscript army, exactly as he had found it...Salisbury reigned, but Gladstone ruled".[4] However, in the early 20th-century the Liberal Party began to move away from Gladstonian liberalism and instead developed new policies based on social liberalism (or what Gladstone called "constructionism"). The Liberal government of 1906–1914 is noted for its social reforms and these included old age pensions and National Insurance. Taxation and public expenditure was also increased and New Liberal ideas led to David Lloyd George's People's Budget of 1909–1910.

text: The first Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, Philip Snowden, had Gladstonian economic views. This was demonstrated in his first Budget in 1924 as government expenditure was curtailed, taxes were lowered and duties on tea, coffee, cocoa and sugar were reduced. Historian A. J. P. Taylor remarked that this budget "would have delighted the heart of Gladstone".[5] Ernest Bevin remarked on becoming Minister of Labour in 1940: "They say that Gladstone was at the Treasury from 1860 to 1930".

text: The "Gladstonian" era[edit]

text: For the next thirty years Gladstone and liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as Prime Minister four times (1868–1874, 1880–1885, 1886 and 1892–1894). His financial policies, based on the notion of balanced budgets, low taxes and laissez-faire, were suited to a developing capitalist society. Called the "Grand Old Man" later in life, Gladstone was a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class. Deeply religious, Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics, with his evangelical sensibility and his opposition to aristocracy.[6] His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents (including Queen Victoria) and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal Party.[7][8]

text: In foreign policy, Gladstone was in general against foreign entanglements, but he did not resist the realities of imperialism. For example, he approved of the occupation of Egypt by British forces in 1882.  His goal was to create a European order based on co-operation rather than conflict and on mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion whilst the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest. This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms.[9]

text: As Prime Minister from 1868 to 1874, Gladstone headed a Liberal Party which was a coalition of Peelites like himself, Whigs and Radicals. He was now a spokesman for "peace, economy and reform". In terms of historic reforms, his first ministry 1868–1874 was his most successful.[10] He was an idealist who insisted that government should take the lead in making society more efficient, more fair and that the government should expand its role in society in order to extend liberty and toleration. [11] The Education Act of 1870 made universal schooling a major national policy.[12] The judiciary system was made up of multiple overlapping and conflicting courts dating back centuries. The Judicature Act of 1873 merged them into one central court.[13] In local government, the challenge of sanitation and clean water in fast-growing cities were met with new powers in the realm of public health. Local government was streamlined in a later Gladstone ministry and made more powerful and standardized. Patronage and favoritism was replaced by civil service examinations, downplaying the role of family and aristocracy and emphasizing the role of talent and ability. The secret ballot was enacted in 1872 to prevent the buying of votes—politicians would not pay out the money if they were not sure how the person voted. The Trade Union Act of 1871 lessened the intimidation of employers, made unions legal and protected their funding from lawsuits. The Protestant Church of Ireland, serving a small minority of rich landowners, was disestablished. Catholics no longer had to pay taxes to it.[14] While the Navy was in fine shape, the Army was not. Its organization was confused, its policies unfair and its cruel punishments were based chiefly on brutal flogging. At the county level, politicians name the officers of the county militia units, preferring connections in class overcapacity. The regular army called for enlistments for twenty-one years, but with reforms initiated by Edward Cardwell, Gladstone's secretary for war, enlistments were reduced to six years, plus six years in reserve. Regiments were organized by territorial districts and advanced with modern rifles. The complex chain of command was simplified and in wartime the county militias were under the control of the central war office. Commissions of officer commissions were abolished and flogging in peacetime was also abolished. The reforms were not quite complete as the Royal Duke of Cambridge still had great authority despite his mediocre abilities.[15] Historians have given Gladstone high marks on his successful reform program.[16]

text: Regarding Ireland, the major Liberal efforts focused on land reform, where he ended centuries of landlord oppression and the disestablishment of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland through the Irish Church Act 1869. Gladstone became a champion of Home Rule, but it caused a secession from his party and he failed to enact legislation In the 1874 general election, Gladstone was defeated by the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli during a sharp economic recession. He formally resigned as Liberal leader and was succeeded by the Marquess of Hartington, but he soon changed his mind and returned to active politics. He strongly disagreed with Disraeli's pro-Ottoman foreign policy and in 1880 conducted the first outdoor mass-election campaign in Britain, known as the Midlothian campaign. The Liberals won a large majority in the 1880 election. Hartington ceded his place and Gladstone resumed office.

text: Among the consequences of the Third Reform Act (1884–1885) was the enfranchisement of many Catholics in Ireland and the growth of the Irish Parliamentary Party led by Charles Stewart Parnell. In the 1885 general election, this party won the balance of power in the House of Commons and demanded Irish Home Rule as the price of support for a continued Gladstone ministry. Gladstone personally supported Home Rule, but a strong Liberal Unionist faction led by Joseph Chamberlain, along with the last of the Whigs, Hartington, opposed it. The Irish Home Rule bill gave all owners of Irish land a chance to sell to the state at a price equal to twenty years' purchase of the rents and allowing tenants to purchase the land. Irish nationalist reaction was mixed, Unionist opinion was hostile and the election addresses during the 1886 election revealed English radicals to be against the bill also. Among the Liberal rank and file, several Gladstonian candidates disowned the bill, reflecting fears at the constituency level that the interests of the working people were being sacrificed to finance a rescue operation for the landed elite.[17] The result was a catastrophic split in the Liberal Party led by Joseph Chamberlain, who formed the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party.[18] It meant and heavy defeat in the 1886 general election at the hands of Lord Salisbury. There was a final weak Gladstone ministry in 1892, but it also was dependent on Irish support and failed to get Irish Home Rule through the House of Lords.

text: Gladstone finally retired in 1894 and his successor, the Earl of Rosebery, led the party to another heavy defeat in the 1895 general election.


document_title: List of amendments to the United States Constitution

question_text: when was the last time an amendment was ratified

text: Ratified amendments

text: Synopsis of each ratified amendment

text:
No.
Subject
Date submitted for Ratification[4]
Date ratification completed[4]
Ratification time span

1st
Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

2nd
Protects the right to keep and bear arms.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

3rd
Places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent, prohibiting it during peacetime.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

4th
Prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and sets out requirements for search warrants based on probable cause as determined by a neutral judge or magistrate.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

5th
Sets out rules for indictment by grand jury and eminent domain, protects the right to due process, and prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

6th
Protects the right to a fair and speedy public trial by jury, including the rights to be notified of the accusations, to confront the accuser, to obtain witnesses and to retain counsel.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

7th
Provides for the right to trial by jury in certain civil cases, according to common law.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

8th
Prohibits excessive fines and excessive bail, as well as cruel and unusual punishment.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

9th
Protects rights not enumerated in the Constitution.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

10th
Reinforces the principle of federalism by stating that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated to it by the states or the people through the Constitution.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

11th
Makes states immune from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders; lays the foundation for sovereign immunity.
March 4, 1794
February 7, 1795
11 months
3 days

12th
Revises presidential election procedures by having the President and Vice President elected together as opposed to the Vice President being the runner up.
December 9, 1803
June 15, 1804
6 months
6 days

13th
Abolishes slavery, and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.
January 31, 1865
December 6, 1865
10 months
6 days

14th
Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post–Civil War issues.
June 13, 1866
July 9, 1868
2 years
0 months
26 days

15th
Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color or previous condition of servitude.
February 26, 1869
February 3, 1870
11 months
8 days

16th
Permits Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census.
July 12, 1909
February 3, 1913
3 years
6 months
22 days

17th
Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote.
May 13, 1912
April 8, 1913
10 months
26 days

18th
Prohibited the manufacturing or sale of alcohol within the United States.
(Repealed December 5, 1933, via 21st Amendment.)
December 18, 1917
January 16, 1919
1 year
0 months
29 days

19th
Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex.
June 4, 1919
August 18, 1920
1 year
2 months
14 days

20th
Changes the date on which the terms of the President and Vice President (January 20) and Senators and Representatives (January 3) end and begin.
March 2, 1932
January 23, 1933
10 months
21 days

21st
Repeals the 18th Amendment and makes it a federal offense to transport or import intoxicating liquors into US states and territories where such transport or importation is prohibited by the laws of those states and territories.
February 20, 1933
December 5, 1933
9 months
15 days

22nd
Limits the number of times that a person can be elected president: a person cannot be elected president more than twice, and a person who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected cannot be elected more than once.
March 24, 1947
February 27, 1951
3 years
11 months
6 days

23rd
Grants the District of Columbia electors (the number of electors being equal to the least populous state) in the Electoral College.
June 16, 1960
March 29, 1961
9 months
12 days

24th
Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax or any other tax.
September 14, 1962
January 23, 1964
1 year
4 months
27 days

25th
Addresses succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, as well as responding to Presidential disabilities.
July 6, 1965
February 10, 1967
1 year
7 months
4 days

26th
Prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age.
March 23, 1971
July 1, 1971
3 months
8 days

27th
Delays laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until after the next election of representatives.
September 25, 1789
May 5, 1992[5]
202 years
7 months
10 days

text: Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment

text:
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment

" N " indicates that state rejected amendment

" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it

" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, later rescinded that ratification, but subsequently re-ratified it

" — " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment

" … " indicates that amendment was ratified before state joined the Union

State
(in order of statehood)
1–10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

 Delaware
Y
Y
N
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Pennsylvania
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 New Jersey
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Georgia
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
—
—
Y
Y

 Connecticut
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Massachusetts
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 Maryland
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 South Carolina
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
N
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y

 New Hampshire
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Virginia
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
N
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 New York
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(×)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 North Carolina
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Rhode Island
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Vermont
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Kentucky
…
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y
Y
—
Y

 Tennessee
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Ohio
…
…
Y
Y
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Louisiana
…
…
…
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y

 Indiana
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Mississippi
…
…
…
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
N
Y
—
—

 Illinois
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Alabama
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Maine
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Missouri
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Arkansas
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
—
Y
Y
Y

 Michigan
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Florida
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
—
Y

 Texas
…
…
…
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Iowa
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Wisconsin
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 California
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Minnesota
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Oregon
…
…
…
Y
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Kansas
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 West Virginia
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Nevada
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Nebraska
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Colorado
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

  North Dakota
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y

 South Dakota
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y

 Montana
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Washington
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Idaho
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Wyoming
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 Utah
…
…
…
…
…
…
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Oklahoma
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
N
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 New Mexico
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Arizona
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 Alaska
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Hawaii
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

State
(in order of statehood)
1–10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

text: Unratified amendments

text: Synopsis of each unratified amendment

text:
Title
Subject
Status

Congressional Apportionment Amendment
Would strictly regulate the size of congressional districts for representation in the House of Representatives.
Pending since September 25, 1789

Titles of Nobility Amendment
Would strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility from a foreign country.
Pending since May 1, 1810

Corwin Amendment
Would make the states' "domestic institutions" (slavery) impervious to the constitutional amendment procedures established in Article V and immune to abolition or interference from Congress.
Pending since March 2, 1861

Child Labor Amendment
Would empower the federal government to limit, regulate, and prohibit child labor.
Pending since June 2, 1924

Equal Rights Amendment
Would have prohibited deprivation of equality of rights by the federal or state governments on account of sex.
Initial ratification period ended March 22, 1979, and extension period ended June 30, 1982; amendment failed

District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment
Would have treated the District of Columbia as if it were a state regarding representation in the United States Congress (including repealing the 23rd Amendment), representation in the Electoral College and participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended.
Ratification period ended August 22, 1985; amendment failed

text: Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment

text:
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment

" N " indicates that state rejected amendment

" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it

" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, but later recinded that ratification

" ⋈ " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment during stated ratification period.

" " An empty cell indicates that state has not completed action on pending amendment.

State
(in alphabetical order)

Congressional Apportionment

Titles of Nobility

Corwin

Child Labor

Equal Rights

District of Columbia Voting Rights

 Alabama

⋈
⋈

 Alaska

Y
⋈

 Arizona

Y
⋈
⋈

 Arkansas

Y
⋈
⋈

 California

Y
Y
⋈

 Colorado

Y
Y
⋈

 Connecticut
N
N

N
Y
Y

 Delaware
N
Y

N
Y
Y

 Florida

N
⋈
⋈

 Georgia
N
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 Hawaii

Y
Y

 Idaho

Y
Y(×)
⋈

 Illinois

Y
Y
⋈
⋈

 Indiana

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Iowa

Y
Y
Y

 Kansas

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Kentucky
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(×)
⋈

 Louisiana

N
⋈
Y

 Maine

Y(‡)
Y
Y

 Maryland
Y
Y
Y(×)
N
Y
Y

 Massachusetts
N
Y

N
Y
Y

 Michigan

Y
Y
Y

 Minnesota

Y(‡)
Y
Y

 Mississippi

⋈
⋈

 Missouri

N
⋈
⋈

 Montana

Y
Y
⋈

 Nebraska

Y(×)
⋈

 Nevada

Y
Y
⋈

 New Hampshire
Y
Y

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 New Jersey
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

 New Mexico

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 New York
Y
N

Y
⋈

 North Carolina
Y
Y

N
⋈
⋈

  North Dakota

Y
Y
⋈

 Ohio

Y
Y(×)
Y
Y
Y

 Oklahoma

Y
⋈
⋈

 Oregon

Y
Y
Y

 Pennsylvania
Y(‡)
Y

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Rhode Island
Y
N
Y

Y
Y

 South Carolina
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 South Dakota

N
Y(×)
⋈

 Tennessee

Y

N
Y(×)
⋈

 Texas

N
Y
⋈

 Utah

Y(‡)
⋈
⋈

 Vermont
Y
Y

N
Y
⋈

 Virginia
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 Washington

Y
Y
⋈

 West Virginia

Y
Y
Y

 Wisconsin

Y
Y
Y

 Wyoming

Y
Y
⋈

Number of ratifications:

11
12
5(×2)
28
36(×5)
16


document_title: The Beatles in the United States

question_text: where did the beatles first perform in the united states

text: The Beatles in the United States

text: Background[edit]

text: Impact of Beatlemania[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, the Beatles had experienced popularity since the start of 1963. But in the United States, Capitol Records, owned by the band's record company EMI, had for most of the year declined to issue any of the singles.[5] The phenomenon of Beatlemania in the UK was regarded with amusement by the U.S. press, once it made any comment.[6] When newspaper and magazine articles did begin to appear towards the end of 1963, they cited the English stereotype of eccentricity, reporting that the UK had developed an interest in something that had come and gone a long time ago in the United States: rock and roll.[6] Headlines included "The New Madness"[7] and "Beatle Bug Bites Britain",[6] and writers employed word-play linking "beetle" with the "infestation" afflicting the UK.[6] In late 1963, Capitol Records agreed to release the single "I Want to Hold Your Hand" with a large accompanying promotional campaign, due to Ed Sullivan's agreement to headline the Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show.[8] The Beatles' American television debut was on 18 November 1963 on The Huntley-Brinkley Report, with a four-minute long piece by Edwin Newman.[9] On 22 November 1963, the CBS Morning News ran a five-minute feature on Beatlemania in the UK which heavily featured their then current UK hit "She Loves You". The evening's scheduled repeat was cancelled following the assassination of John F. Kennedy the same day. On 10 December, Walter Cronkite decided to transmit the piece again on the CBS Evening News,[10] and the resulting interest led to the rush-release of "I Want to Hold Your Hand" and—only weeks before the Beatles' arrival—a U.S. commercial breakthrough.[1]

text: American political climate, early 1964[edit]

text: Eleven weeks before the Beatles' arrival in the U.S. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. The nation was in mourning, in fear, and in disbelief.[11] The assassination came after a fifteen-year build-up of Cold War tension. The motivation and identity of the assassin would be doubted by many Americans for decades, despite the Warren Commission's issued report in September 1964.[12] As the United States tried to restore a sense of normality, teenagers in particular struggled to cope, as their disbelief began to be replaced by a personal reaction to what had happened: in school essays, teenagers wrote that "then it became real", and "I was feeling the whole world is going to collapse on me", and "I never felt so empty in all my life".[13]

text: Musical influences[edit]

text: The music industry in Memphis had large role in bringing bands to the attention of the American public,[14] and in the 1960s, many British bands, among them the Beatles, aspired to emulate the sounds of Memphis musicians including Elvis Presley—without whom, according to Lennon, "there would not have been the Beatles".[15] The sudden popularity of the Beatles, and the British Invasion triggered by their arrival, became a major new influence in the United States, which not only established the popularity of British bands, but also affected the musical style of U.S. bands[16]—including those subsequently formed in Memphis.[17][18]

text: During their U.S. tours, the Beatles were introduced to both Elvis Presley and Bob Dylan.[19] Strongly influenced by Presley since before their formation, the band had tried to meet him in the past, but arrangements had fallen through.[20] At Presley's suggestion, guitars were set up in his living room and the gathering played music for an hour, following which they discussed the music business and exchanged anecdotes.[21] The other meeting, with Dylan, influenced the music subsequently produced by the Beatles as well as shaping Dylan's own musical style.[22] This was made evident both in Dylan's controversial adoption of electric guitar, and in changes that were apparent in Lennon's vocal and guitar-playing styles.[22]

text: However, before their visits to United States in 1964 the Beatles still doubted that they could bring anything new to the country. In apprehensive conversation among the Beatles on board the aircraft to New York February 1964, McCartney had questioned, "They've got their own groups. What are we going to give them that they don't already have?"[23]

text: Live performances[edit]

text: February 1964 – First U.S. Concerts[edit]

text: An estimated four thousand Beatles' fans were present on 7 February 1964 as Pan Am Flight 101 left Heathrow Airport.[1] Among the passengers were the Beatles, on their first trip to the United States as a band, with their entourage of photographers and journalists, and Phil Spector.[24] When the group arrived at New York's newly renamed John F. Kennedy Airport, they were greeted by a second large crowd, with Beatles fans again estimated to number four thousand, and journalists, two hundred.[25] From having so many people packed in a little space, a few people in the crowd got injured. The airport had not previously experienced such a large crowd.[26]

text: After a press conference, where they first met disc jockey Murray the K, the Beatles were put into limousines—one per Beatle[27]—and driven to New York City. On the way, McCartney turned on a radio and listened to a running commentary: "They have just left the airport and are coming to New York City..."[28] After reaching the Plaza Hotel, the Beatles were besieged by fans and reporters. Harrison had a fever of 102 °F (39 °C) the next day and was ordered to stay in bed, so Neil Aspinall, the band's personal assistant, replaced Harrison on guitar during the Beatles' first rehearsal for The Ed Sullivan Show.[29] On 9 February 1964, the Beatles made their first live U.S. television appearance.[30] 73 million viewers—about two-fifths of the total American population—watched the group perform on The Ed Sullivan Show at 8 P.M.[31] According to the Nielsen ratings audience measurement system, the show had the largest number of viewers that had been recorded for a U.S. television program.[32]

text: Two days after the television appearance, on 11 February 1964, the Beatles' first U.S. concert took place, at Washington Coliseum, a sports arena in Washington, D.C.[33] The concert was attended by eight thousand fans. The Beatles performed on a central stage in the arena, with the audience on all sides, and there were regular pauses to enable the band to turn their equipment around and perform facing in another direction.[33] The concert generated intense excitement.[33] The following day, the Beatles performed a second concert, in Carnegie Hall, New York, which was attended by two thousand fans.[33] The concert was again well received.[33] Following the Carnegie Hall concert, the Beatles flew to Miami Beach and on Sunday 16 February 1964 made their second television appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show, which this time was broadcast live from the Napoleon Ballroom of the Deauville Hotel in Miami Beach. As it had done on 9 February, the television broadcast attracted around 70 million viewers.[33] On 22 February 1964, the Beatles returned to the UK. Arriving at Heathrow airport at 7 am, they were met by an estimated ten thousand fans.[33]

text: August 1964 – First U.S. Tour[edit]

text: In August 1964, the Beatles returned to the United States for a second visit, this time remaining for a month-long tour.[34] Epstein was unsure about the group's popularity in the US, and avoided booking them into stadiums. At the opening date at the Cow Palace, San Francisco on August 19, over 17,000 fans turned out to see the group.[35]

text: A request was received from the White House press office, which asked for the Beatles to be photographed with the new President of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, laying a wreath on the grave of John F. Kennedy. The request was politely declined by Epstein,[36] as it was not the group's policy to accept "official" invitations.[37] During the tour, the Beatles performed at thirty concerts, starting in San Francisco and ending in New York, twenty-three cities in all.[34] One of the major stipulations for the tour was that the band would not perform for segregated audiences or at venues that excluded African Americans.[38]

text: At each venue, the concert was treated as a major event by the local press and attended by between ten and twenty thousand fans, whose enthusiastic response to the Beatles produced sound levels that left the music only semi-audible.[34] The tour earned the Beatles over a million dollars in ticket sales.[34] It also stimulated a further increase in record sales, and resulted in the sale of a considerable quantity of Beatle-related merchandise.[34]

text: By this point in the year, the British Invasion—started by the Beatles' previous U.S. visit—was gathering momentum, and several more UK acts had come to the United States, including The Dave Clark Five, Billy J. Kramer, and Gerry & the Pacemakers.[36][39] One third of all U.S. top ten hits in 1964 were by British acts.[40] After the tour's final concert in New York, the Beatles were introduced to Bob Dylan, a meeting brought about at the instigation of the New York journalist Al Aronowitz, who arranged for Dylan to visit the Beatles at their hotel before they returned to the UK.[22]

text: August 1965 – Second U.S. Tour[edit]

text: In June 1965, after completing a two-week European tour of France, Italy and Spain, the Beatles attended the London premiere of Help!, their second film, and then returned to the United States for another two-week tour.[41] The tour commenced at Shea Stadium, New York City on Sunday 15 August 1965. The circular stadium had been constructed the previous year, opening on 17 April 1964, with seating arranged in four ascending decks, all of which were filled for the concert.[41] It was the first time in history that a large outdoor stadium had been used for such a purpose, and the event sold out in seventeen minutes.[42]

text: The 1965 tour was highly successful, with well-attended concerts on each of its ten dates.[41] The opening concert at Shea Stadium attracted an audience of fifty-five thousand, the largest of any live concert that the Beatles would perform.[41] The band arrived by armoured car.[41] After the 1965 tour's final concert, which took place at Cow Palace, San Francisco, the Beatles accepted an invitation to visit Elvis Presley before returning to the UK.[19]

text: August 1966 – Third U.S. Tour[edit]

text: Following the UK and U.S. releases of their new album Revolver in August 1966, the Beatles returned to the United States for what would be their last tour.[43] The tour coincided with a storm of U.S. public protest against the Beatles, caused by a published quote from a remark Lennon had made about Christianity.[44][45] Because of the severity of the protests, which included Beatles' records being publicly burned and claims being made that the Beatles were "anti-Christ",[44] Epstein had considered cancelling the fourteen-concert tour, fearing for their lives.[43] Nevertheless, the tour went ahead.

text: In Memphis, the city council decided not to let "municipal facilities be used as a forum to ridicule anyone's religion", and voted to cancel their Beatles concert,[44] although it did in fact take place.[43] There were disturbances during the tour, and one performance was brought to a temporary halt when a member of the audience threw a firecracker, leading the Beatles to believe they were being shot at.[43] In other incidents, telephone threats were received, and the Ku Klux Klan picketed the Beatles' concerts.[43] The tour ended with a concert at Candlestick Park.[43] Although commercially successful, the tour had been affected by the prevailing mood of controversy, and there had been rows of empty seats at some venues.[46]

text: After the United States[edit]

text: The Beatles' arrival in the United States in 1964 marked the spread of Beatlemania from the UK to the wider world, established the group's international stature,[1] and, triggering the British Invasion, caused changes in U.S. popular culture.[2] The Candlestick Park concert at the close of the 1966 U.S. tour marked the end of a four-year period dominated by touring and concerts, including nearly sixty U.S. appearances,[33][47] and over one thousand four hundred internationally.[46] The Beatles, from the end of their 1966 U.S. tour until their break-up in 1970, gave no further commercial concerts, instead devoting their efforts to creating new material in the recording studio.[4]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Pawlowski 1990, p. 175.
^ Jump up to: a b c Leopold, Todd (10 February 2004). "When The Beatles hit America". CNN.
Jump up ^ Palmer 1982, p. 146.
^ Jump up to: a b Miles 1997, pp. 293-295.
Jump up ^ Harry 2000, p. 225.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gould 2008, pp. 1-2.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 196.
Jump up ^ Stark, Steven D. (18 May 2006). Meet the Beatles: A Cultural History of the Band That Shook Youth, Gender, and the World. HarperCollins. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-06-000893-2. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Daily Nightly - Being for the benefit of Mr. (Cron)Kite". Dailynightly.msnbc.msn.com. 18 November 1963. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Remembering Walter Cronkite". CBS News. 19 July 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, pp. 216-219.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 258.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 217.
Jump up ^ Jovanovic 2004, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Harry 2000, p. 881.
Jump up ^ Jovanovic 2004, pp. 14-15.
Jump up ^ Jovanovic 2004, pp. 11-13.
Jump up ^ Jovanovic 2004, p. 30.
^ Jump up to: a b Gould 2008, pp. 283-284.
Jump up ^ Harry 2000, pp. 881-882.
Jump up ^ Harry 2000, pp. 882-883.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gould 2008, pp. 252-253.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 221.
Jump up ^ Spitz 2005, p. 458.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Spitz 2005, p. 459.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Spitz 2005, p. 462.
Jump up ^ Spitz 2005, p. 464.
Jump up ^ Gilliland 1969, show 28.
Jump up ^ Kozinn, Alan (6 February 2004). "Critic's Notebook; They Came, They Sang, They Conquered". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Gould 2008, pp. 5-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Gould 2008, p. 249.
Jump up ^ "The Beatles kick off first U.S. tour at San Francisco's Cow Palace". history.com. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Gould 2008, p. 250.
Jump up ^ Spitz 2005, p. 620.
Jump up ^ "The Beatles banned segregated audiences, contract shows". BBC News. 18 September 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Gilliland 1969, show 29.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, pp. 250-251.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Gould 2008, p. 281.
Jump up ^ Badman 1999, p. 193.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Gould 2008, pp. 346-347.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gould 2008, pp. 340-341.
Jump up ^ Gilliland 1969, show 39.
^ Jump up to: a b Gould 2008, p. 347.
Jump up ^ Gould 2008, pp. 249-281.