document_title: President-elect of the United States

question_text: who becomes president if the president elect dies before taking office

text: President-elect of the United States

text: Constitutional criteria[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Article II, Section 1, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution, along with the Twelfth and Twentieth Amendments govern the election of the U.S. President. The procedure is also regulated by federal and state laws. Under federal Law, the presidential electors (the members of the Electoral College) must be "appointed, in each state, on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, in every fourth year". Thus, all states appoint their electors on the same date, in November, once every four years. However, the manner of appointment of the electors is determined by the law of each State.

text: Currently, in every state, an election by the people is the method employed for the choice of the members of the Electoral College; however, any state remains free to change its manner of appointing its slate of members of the Electoral College, so that the law of a state could, for instance, prescribe election by the state legislature, or even choice by the state's governor, as the manner of appointment of the electors representing the state. In spite of that theoretical possibility, a popular election in each state is the established method of selection of the members of the Electoral College, and given that all the statewide elections happen on the same date, the simultaneous elections resemble a national general election.

text: On the Monday after the second Wednesday in December, the electors of each state meet in their respective state capitals (and the electors of the District of Columbia meet in the federal capital) and in those meetings the electors cast their votes for President and Vice President of the United States.

text: At the conclusion of their meetings, the electors of each state and of the District of Columbia then execute a "certificate of vote" (in several original copies), declaring the vote count in each meeting. To each certificate of vote, a certificate of ascertainment is annexed. Each state's (and the District of Columbia's) certificate of ascertainment is the official document (usually signed by the governor of the state and/or by the state's secretary of state) that declares the names of the electors, certifying their appointment as members of the Electoral College. Given that in all states the electors are currently chosen by popular election, the certificate of ascertainment also declares the results of the popular vote that decided the appointment of the electors. The electors in each state and of the District of Columbia then send the certificates of vote, with the enclosed certificates of ascertainment, to the President of the U.S. Senate.

text: The electoral votes are counted in a joint session of Congress in early January (on January 6 as required by 3 U.S. Code, Chapter 1 or an alternative date set by statute) and if the ballots are accepted without objections, the presidential and vice-presidential candidates winning at least 270 electoral votes—a majority of the total number of electoral votes—are certified as having won the election by the incumbent Vice President, in their capacity as President of the Senate. If no presidential candidate reaches the 270-vote threshold, the election for the president would be decided by the House of Representatives in a run-off contingent election. Similarly, if no vice-presidential candidate reaches that threshold, the election for the vice president would be decided by the Senate.[1]

text: Electoral College role[edit]

text: No constitutional provision or federal law requires electors to vote according to the results of their state's popular vote, though some states bind their electors to their pledges by state law. Historically, there have been only a few instances of "faithless electors" casting their ballots for a candidate to whom they were not pledged, and such instances have never resulted in changing the final outcome of a presidential election. The popular vote does not declare the presidency but the Electoral College vote does. Even if the popular vote goes to one candidate, another may win the electoral vote and the presidency, as has happened in 1876, 1888, 2000 and 2016.

text: Congressional reports[edit]

text: Two congressional reports found that the president-elect is the eventual winner of the majority of electoral ballots cast in December. The Congressional Research Service (CRS) of the Library of Congress, in its 2004 report "Presidential and Vice Presidential Succession: Overview and Current Legislation,"[3] discussed the question of when candidates who have received a majority of electoral votes become president-elect. The report notes that the constitutional status of the president-elect is disputed:

text: Some commentators doubt whether an official president- and vice president-elect exist prior to the electoral votes being counted and announced by Congress on January 6, maintaining that this is a problematic contingency lacking clear constitutional or statutory direction. Others assert that once a majority of electoral votes has been cast for one ticket, then the recipients of these votes become the president- and vice president-elect, notwithstanding the fact that the electoral votes are not counted and certified until the following January 6.

text: The CRS report quotes the 1933 U.S. House committee report accompanying the Twentieth Amendment as endorsing the latter view:

text: It will be noted that the committee uses the term "president elect" in its generally accepted sense, as meaning the person who has received the majority of electoral votes, or the person who has been chosen by the House of Representatives in the event that the election is thrown into the House. It is immaterial whether or not the votes have been counted, for the person becomes the president-elect as soon as the votes are cast.[4]

text: Both reports make clear that becoming president-elect is contingent upon winning a majority of the electoral votes cast.

text: President-elect succession[edit]

text: Scholars have noted that the national committees of the Democratic and Republican parties have adopted rules for selecting replacement candidates in the event of a nominee's death, either before or after the general election. If the apparent winner of the general election dies before the Electoral College votes in December the electors probably would endorse whatever new nominee their national party selects as a replacement (although they may be prevented from doing so in many states, because those states have laws requiring electors to vote for the person to which they are pledged, and some states invalidate votes that were cast for anyone else). If the apparent winner dies between the College's December vote and its counting in Congress in January, the Twelfth Amendment stipulates that all electoral ballots cast shall be counted, presumably even those for a dead candidate. The U.S. House committee reporting on the proposed Twentieth Amendment said the "Congress would have 'no discretion' [and] 'would declare that the deceased candidate had received a majority of the votes.'"[5]

text: The words president elect appear four times in the Constitution, and they didn’t appear until 1933, when the Twentieth Amendment, which contained a provision addressing the unavailability of the president elect to take the oath of office on Inauguration Day, was ratified.[1] Section 3 provides that if there is no president-elect on January 20, or the president-elect "fails to qualify", the vice president-elect would become acting president on January 20 until there is a qualified president. The section also provides that if the president-elect dies before noon on January 20, the vice president-elect becomes president. In cases where there is no president-elect or vice president-elect, the amendment also gives the Congress the authority to declare an acting president until such time as there is a president or vice president. At this point the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 would apply, with the office of the Presidency going to the speaker of the House of Representatives, followed by the president pro tempore of the Senate and various Cabinet officers.

text: The closest instance of there being no qualified person to take the presidential oath of office on Inauguration Day happened in 1877, when the disputed election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden was decided and certified in Hayes’ favor just three days before the inauguration (then March 4). It might have been a possibility on several other occasions as well. In January 1853, President-elect Franklin Pierce survived a train accident that killed his 11-year-old son. Four years later, President-elect James Buchanan battled a serious illness contracted at the National Hotel in Washington, D.C., as he planned his inauguration. Additionally, on February 15, 1933, just 23 days after the Twentieth Amendment went into effect, President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt survived an assassination attempt in Miami, Florida. The amendment's provision moving inauguration day from March 4, to January 20, would not take effect until 1937, but its three provisions about a president-elect went into effect immediately.[1] If the assassination attempt on Roosevelt had been successful then, pursuant to Section 3 of the amendment, Vice President-elect John Nance Garner would have been sworn in as president on Inauguration Day.

text: Presidential transitions[edit]

text: Recent presidents-elect have assembled transition teams to prepare for a smooth transfer of power following the inauguration. Outgoing presidents have cooperated with the president-elect on important policy matters during the last two months of the president's term to ensure a smooth transition and continuity of operations that have significant national interests. Before the ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933, which moved the start of the presidential term to January, the president-elect did not assume office until March, four months after the popular election.

text: Under the Presidential Transition Act of 1963 (P.L. 88-277),[6] amended by the Presidential Transitions Effectiveness Act of 1998 (P.L. 100-398),[7] the Presidential Transition Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-293),[8][9] and the Pre-Election Presidential Transition Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-283),[10] the President-Elect is entitled to request and receive certain privileges from the General Services Administration as he prepares to assume office.

text: Section 3 of the Presidential Transition Act of 1963 was enacted to help smooth transitions between incoming and outgoing presidential administrations. To that end, provisions such as office space, telecommunication services, transition staff members are allotted, upon request, to the President-Elect, though the Act grants the President-elect no official powers and makes no mention of an "Office of the President-Elect."[6]

text: In 2008, President-elect Barack Obama gave numerous speeches and press conferences in front of a placard emblazoned with "Office of the President Elect"[11] and used the same term on his website.[12] British journalist Tony Allen-Mills disputed the office as "a bogus concoction that has no basis in the U.S. Constitution."[13] President-elect Donald Trump did likewise on January 11, 2017.[14]

text: The Presidential Transition Act of 1963[2] further authorizes the Administrator of the General Services Administration to certify, even before the December vote of the Electoral College, the apparent winner of the November general election as the president-elect for the purposes of receiving federal transition funding, office space and communications services prior to the beginning of the new administration on January 20.[15]

text: The president-elect assumes office as the next president of the United States upon the expiration of the term of the previous officeholder at noon on January 20. This procedure has been the subject of many misinterpretations and urban legends, such as the myth of David Rice Atchison's one-day-long presidency, which is predicated upon false assumptions and a logical flaw. Taking the formal oath of office does not affect the automatic accession to and occupation of the office of the presidency, which, in the case of the president, proceeds, ipso facto, from the expiration of the predecessor's term and the immediate start of the new four-year term. The oath of office is necessary so that the president can "enter upon the execution" of their office, but they are already president from the start of their term.[citation needed]

text: The president-elect and vice president-elect receive mandatory protection from the United States Secret Service. Since the 1968 assassination of Robert F. Kennedy, major-party candidates also receive such protection during the election campaign.

text: List of presidents-elect[edit]

text:
Nonpartisan    Federalist    Democratic-Republican   Democratic   Whig    Republican

President-elect
Party
Following
Through

George Washington

Nonpartisan
Election of 1788–89[a]
George Washington's first inauguration

John Adams

Federalist
Election of 1796
John Adams's inauguration

Thomas Jefferson

Democratic-Republican
Election of 1800[b]
Thomas Jefferson's first inauguration

James Madison
Democratic-Republican
Election of 1808
James Madison's first inauguration

James Monroe
Democratic-Republican
Election of 1816
James Monroe's first inauguration

John Quincy Adams
Democratic-Republican
Election of 1824[b]
John Quincy Adams's inauguration

Andrew Jackson

Democratic
Election of 1828
Andrew Jackson's first inauguration

Martin Van Buren
Democratic
Election of 1836
Martin Van Buren's inauguration

William Henry Harrison

Whig
Election of 1840
William Henry Harrison's inauguration

James K. Polk

Democratic
Election of 1844
James K. Polk's inauguration

Zachary Taylor

Whig
Election of 1848
Zachary Taylor's inauguration

Franklin Pierce

Democratic
Election of 1852
Franklin Pierce's inauguration

James Buchanan
Democratic
Election of 1856
James Buchanan's inauguration

Abraham Lincoln

Republican
Election of 1860
Abraham Lincoln's first inauguration

Ulysses S. Grant
Republican
Election of 1868
Ulysses S. Grant's first inauguration

Rutherford B. Hayes
Republican
Election of 1876[c]
Rutherford B. Hayes's inauguration

James A. Garfield
Republican
Election of 1880
James A. Garfield's inauguration

Grover Cleveland

Democratic
Election of 1884
Grover Cleveland's first inauguration

Benjamin Harrison

Republican
Election of 1888
Benjamin Harrison's inauguration

Grover Cleveland

Democratic
Election of 1892
Grover Cleveland's second inauguration

William McKinley

Republican
Election of 1896
William McKinley's first inauguration

William Howard Taft
Republican
Election of 1908
William Howard Taft's inauguration

Woodrow Wilson

Democratic
Election of 1912
Woodrow Wilson's first inauguration

Warren G. Harding

Republican
Election of 1920
Warren G. Harding's inauguration

Herbert Hoover
Republican
Election of 1928
Herbert Hoover's inauguration

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Democratic
Election of 1932
Franklin D. Roosevelt's first inauguration

Dwight D. Eisenhower

Republican
Election of 1952
Dwight D. Eisenhower's first inauguration

John F. Kennedy

Democratic
Election of 1960
John F. Kennedy's inauguration

Richard Nixon

Republican
Election of 1968
Richard Nixon's first inauguration

Jimmy Carter

Democratic
Election of 1976
Jimmy Carter's inauguration

Ronald Reagan

Republican
Election of 1980
Ronald Reagan's first inauguration

George H. W. Bush
Republican
Election of 1988
George H. W. Bush's inauguration

Bill Clinton

Democratic
Election of 1992
Bill Clinton's first inauguration

George W. Bush

Republican
Election of 2000[d]
George W. Bush's first inauguration

Barack Obama

Democratic
Election of 2008
Barack Obama's first inauguration

Donald Trump

Republican
Election of 2016
Donald Trump's inauguration

Notes:

Jump up ^ Also after a delay in the certification of the electoral votes by Congress.
^ Jump up to: a b Also after a contingent election in the House of Representatives.
Jump up ^ Also after a dispute over 20 electoral votes from four states was resolved by a special Electoral Commission established by Congress.
Jump up ^ Also after a dispute over Florida's 25 electoral votes was resolved by the Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore, which halted the Florida vote recount that was under way.[16]

text: Vice President-elect[edit]

text: During the presidential transition period, the president-elect's running mate is known as the Vice President-elect. As with the title President-elect, it applies to the person determined by the GSA Administrator to be the apparent successful candidate for the office of Vice President after the general election.[2]

text: If the Vice President-elect dies or resigns before the meeting of the Electoral College in December, the National Committee of the winning party would, in consultation with the president-elect, choose a new Vice President-elect. If such a vacancy were to occur after the electoral votes had been cast in the states, most authorities maintain that no replacement would be chosen and the new President (after taking office) would nominate a Vice President, per the provisions of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution.[17]

text: Before ratification of the 25th Amendment in 1967, the Constitution contained no provision for filling an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency. As a result, when one occurred (and did 16 times), the office was left vacant until filled through the next ensuing election and inauguration. Since 1967, the Vice Presidency has been vacant twice, and a successor was nominated each time to fill the vacancy in accordance with the 25th Amendment. The first instance was in 1973, when Gerald Ford was nominated by President Richard Nixon to succeed Spiro Agnew, who had resigned. The second came in 1974, when Ford, who had succeeded to the presidency following Nixon's resignation, nominated Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him.[18][19] During both vacancies, the nominee was called Vice President-designate, instead of Vice President-elect, as neither had been elected to the office. As a result of these events, the nation has had two more Vice Presidents than it has had Vice President-elects. While he is currently the 48th U.S. Vice President, Mike Pence was the 46th person to be Vice President-elect.


document_title: Pride and Prejudice

question_text: who owns the rights to pride and prejudice

root

text: Pride and Prejudice

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The novel opens with Mrs. Bennet trying to persuade Mr. Bennet to visit Mr. Bingley, an eligible bachelor who has arrived in the neighborhood. After some verbal sparring with Mr. Bennet baiting his wife, it transpires that this visit has already taken place at Netherfield, Mr. Bingley's rented house. The visit is followed by an invitation to a ball at the local assembly rooms that the whole neighbourhood will attend.

tag: p

text: At the ball, Mr. Bingley is open and cheerful, popular with all the guests, and appears to be very attracted to the beautiful Miss Jane Bennet. His friend, Mr. Darcy, is reputed to be twice as wealthy; however, he is haughty and aloof. He declines to dance with Elizabeth, suggesting that she is not pretty enough to tempt him.[2] She finds this amusing and jokes about the statement with her friends. Mr. Bingley's sister, Caroline, later invites Jane to visit.

text: When Jane visits Miss Bingley, she is caught in a rain shower on the way and comes down with a serious cold. Elizabeth visits the ill Jane at Netherfield. There Darcy begins to be attracted to Elizabeth, while Miss Bingley becomes jealous, since she has designs on Darcy herself.

text: Mr. Collins, a cousin of Mr. Bennet and heir to the Longbourn estate, visits the Bennet family. He is a pompous and obsequious clergyman, who expects each of the Bennet girls to wish to marry him due to his inheritance. He quickly decides to propose to Elizabeth when he is led to believe Jane is taken.

text: Elizabeth and her family meet the dashing and charming George Wickham, who singles out Elizabeth and tells her a story of the hardship that Mr. Darcy has caused him by depriving him of a living (position as clergyman in a prosperous parish with good revenue that, once granted, is for life) promised to him by Mr. Darcy's late father. Elizabeth's dislike of Mr. Darcy is confirmed.[2]

text: At a ball at Netherfield, Elizabeth reluctantly dances with Mr. Darcy. Other than Jane and Elizabeth, several members of the Bennet family show a distinct lack of decorum. Mrs. Bennet hints loudly that she fully expects Jane and Bingley to become engaged and the younger Bennet sisters otherwise expose the family to ridicule.

text: Mr. Collins proposes to Elizabeth, who rejects him, to the fury of her mother and the relief of her father. Shortly thereafter, they receive news that the Bingleys are suddenly leaving for London, with no intention to return. After his humiliating rejection by Elizabeth, Mr. Collins proposes to Charlotte Lucas, a sensible young woman and Elizabeth's friend. Charlotte is slightly older and is grateful to receive a proposal that will guarantee her a comfortable home. Elizabeth is aghast at such pragmatism in matters of love. Heartbroken, Jane goes to visit her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner at an unfashionable address in London. Miss Bingley clearly does not want to continue the friendship and Jane is upset though very composed.

text: In the spring, Elizabeth visits Charlotte and Mr. Collins in Kent. Elizabeth and her hosts are invited to Rosings Park, the imposing home of Lady Catherine de Bourgh, patroness of Mr. Collins and Mr. Darcy's extremely wealthy aunt. She expects Mr. Darcy to marry her daughter. Mr. Darcy and his cousin, Colonel Fitzwilliam, are also visiting at Rosings Park. Colonel Fitzwilliam tells Elizabeth how Mr. Darcy managed to save a friend from a bad match by convincing the friend of the lady's indifference. Elizabeth is horrified that Darcy has interfered and caused her sister so much pain. Mr. Darcy, meanwhile, has fallen in love with Elizabeth and proposes to her. She rejects him angrily, stating that she could not love a man who has caused her sister such unhappiness and further accuses him of treating Mr. Wickham unjustly. Mr. Darcy accuses her family of wanting propriety and suggests he has been kinder to Bingley than himself. They part, barely speaking.

text: Later, Mr. Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter, explaining that Mr. Wickham had refused the living he claimed he was deprived of, and was given money for it instead. Wickham proceeded to waste the money and, then impoverished, demanded the living again. After being refused, he tried to elope with Darcy's 15-year-old sister, Georgiana, for her great dowry. Darcy also writes that he believed Jane, because of her reserved behavior, did not love Mr. Bingley. Darcy apologizes for hurting Jane and Elizabeth begins to change her opinion of Mr. Darcy.

text: Some months later, Elizabeth and her Aunt and Uncle Gardiner visit Darcy's estate in Derbyshire, Pemberley. On a tour there, Elizabeth hears the housekeeper describe him as being kind and generous. When Mr. Darcy returns unexpectedly, he is overwhelmingly kind and later invites Elizabeth and the Gardiners to meet his sister and go fishing. Elizabeth is surprised and delighted by the kindness to herself and her aunt and uncle. She then suddenly receives news from Longbourn that her sister Lydia had eloped with Mr. Wickham. She tells Mr. Darcy immediately and departs in haste, believing she will never see him again, since Lydia's disgrace has ruined the family's good name.

text: After an agonizing wait, Mr. Wickham is somehow persuaded to marry Lydia. With some degree of decency restored, Lydia visits her family and tells Elizabeth that Mr. Darcy was at her wedding. Mrs. Gardiner informs Elizabeth that it is Mr. Darcy who has made the match at great expense, and hints that he may have a motive for doing so.

text: At this point, Mr. Bingley and Mr. Darcy return to Netherfield. Shortly thereafter, Bingley proposes to Jane and is accepted. Lady Catherine, under the impression that Elizabeth intends to marry Darcy, visits Elizabeth and demands that she promise not to accept his proposal. Elizabeth makes no such promise and Lady Catherine leaves, outraged by her perceived insolence. Darcy, heartened by his aunt's disgust with Elizabeth, again proposes to Elizabeth. He visits Longbourn to ask Mr. Bennet for his permission. Elizabeth wants her father to understand that she is not marrying for money, and it is only after she speaks about Mr. Darcy's true worth that he is happy about the wedding.

text: Main characters[edit]

text:
[show]Character genealogy

Mr. Hurst

Mrs. Louisa Hurst

Mr. Philips

Caroline Bingley

Mrs. Philips

Mr. Charles Bingley

Mrs. Gardiner

Jane Bennet

Mr. Edward Gardiner

Elizabeth Bennet

Mrs. Bennet

Mary Bennet

Mr. Bennet

Catherine "Kitty" Bennet

Mr. William Collins

Lydia Bennet

Charlotte Lucas

Mr. George Wickham

(Old) Mr. Darcy

Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy

Lady Anne Darcy

Georgiana Darcy

Lady Catherine de Bourgh

Anne de Bourgh

Earl of Matlock

Colonel Fitzwilliam

text:
Elizabeth Bennet - the second of the Bennet daughters, she is twenty years old and intelligent, lively, playful, attractive, and witty—but with a tendency to judge on first impressions. As the story progresses, so does her relationship with Mr. Darcy. The course of Elizabeth and Darcy's relationship is ultimately decided when Darcy overcomes his pride, and Elizabeth overcomes her prejudice, leading them both to surrender to their love for each other.
Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy - the wealthy friend of Mr. Bingley. A newcomer to the village, he is ultimately Elizabeth Bennet's love interest. Mr. Darcy is the twenty-eight year old wealthy owner of the renowned family estate of Pemberley in Derbyshire, and is rumoured to be worth at least £10,000 a year. While being handsome, tall, and intelligent, Darcy lacks ease and social graces, and so others frequently mistake his aloof decorum and rectitude as further proof of excessive pride (which, in part, it is).
Mr. Bennet - A late-middle-aged landed gentleman of a modest income of £2000 per annum, and the dryly sarcastic patriarch of the now-dwindling Bennet family (a family of Hertfordshire landed gentry), with five unmarried daughters. His estate, Longbourn, is entailed to the male line.
Mrs. Bennet - the middle-aged wife of her social superior, Mr. Bennet, and the mother of their five daughters. Mrs. Bennet is a hypochondriac who imagines herself susceptible to attacks of tremors and palpitations ("[her] poor nerves"), whenever things are not going her way. Her main ambition in life is to marry her daughters off to wealthy men. Whether or not any such matches will give her daughters happiness is of little concern to her.

tag: ul

text:
Jane Bennet - the eldest Bennet sister. Twenty-two years old when the novel begins, she is considered the most beautiful young lady in the neighbourhood and is inclined to see only the good in others. She falls in love with Charles Bingley, a rich young gentleman recently moved to Hertfordshire and a close friend of Mr. Darcy.
Mary Bennet - the middle Bennet sister, and the plainest of her siblings. Mary has a serious disposition and mostly reads and plays music, although she is often impatient to display her accomplishments and is rather vain about them. She frequently moralises to her family. According to James Edward Austen-Leigh's A Memoir of Jane Austen, Mary ended up marrying one of her Uncle Philips' law clerks and moving into Meryton with him.
Catherine "Kitty" Bennet - The fourth Bennet daughter at 17 years old. Though older than Lydia, she is her shadow and follows her in her pursuit of the officers of the militia. She is often portrayed as envious of Lydia and is described a "silly" young woman. However, it is said that she improved when removed from Lydia's influence. According to James Edward Austen-Leigh's A Memoir of Jane Austen, Kitty later married a clergyman who lived near Pemberley.
Lydia Bennet - the youngest Bennet sister, aged 15 when the novel begins. She is frivolous and headstrong. Her main activity in life is socializing, especially flirting with the officers of the militia. This leads to her running off with George Wickham, although he has no intention of marrying her. Lydia shows no regard for the moral code of her society; as Ashley Tauchert says, she "feels without reasoning."[4]
Charles Bingley - a handsome, amiable, wealthy young gentleman who leases Netherfield Park, an estate three miles from Longbourn, with the hopes of purchasing it. He is contrasted with Mr. Darcy for having more generally pleasing manners, although he is reliant on his more experienced friend for advice. He lacks resolve and is easily influenced by others; his two sisters, Miss Caroline Bingley and Mrs. Louisa Hurst, both disapprove of Bingley's growing affection for Miss Jane Bennet.
Caroline Bingley - the vainglorious, snobbish sister of Charles Bingley, with a dowry of £20,000. Miss Bingley harbours designs upon Mr. Darcy, and therefore is jealous of his growing attachment to Elizabeth. She attempts to dissuade Mr. Darcy from liking Elizabeth by ridiculing the Bennet family and criticising Elizabeth's comportment. Miss Bingley also disapproves of her brother's esteem for Jane Bennet, and is disdainful of society in Meryton. Her wealth and her expensive education seem to be the two greatest sources of Caroline Bingley's vanity and conceit. The dynamic between Caroline Bingley and her sister, Louisa Hurst, seems to echo that of Lydia and Kitty Bennet's; that one is a no more than a follower of the other, with Caroline Bingley in the same position as Lydia, and Louisa Hurst in Kitty's.
George Wickham - Wickham has been acquainted with Mr. Darcy since infancy, being the son of Mr. Darcy's father's steward. An officer in the militia, he is superficially charming and rapidly forms an attachment with Elizabeth Bennet. He later runs off with Lydia with no intention of marriage, which would have resulted in her complete disgrace, but for Darcy's intervention to bribe Wickham to marry her by paying off his immediate debts.
Mr. William Collins - Mr. Collins, aged 25 years old as the novel begins, is Mr. Bennet's distant second cousin, a clergyman, and the current heir presumptive to his estate of Longbourn House. He is an obsequious and pompous man who is excessively devoted to his patroness, Lady Catherine de Bourgh.
Lady Catherine de Bourgh - the overbearing aunt of Mr. Darcy. Lady Catherine is the wealthy owner of Rosings Park, where she resides with her daughter Anne and is fawned upon by her rector, Mr. Collins. She is haughty, pompous, domineering, and condescending, and has long planned to marry off her sickly daughter to Darcy, to 'unite their two great estates', claiming it to be the dearest wish of both her AND her late sister, Lady Anne Darcy (née Fitzwilliam).
Mr. Edward and Mrs. M Gardiner - Edward Gardiner is Mrs. Bennet's brother and a successful tradesman of sensible and gentlemanly character. Aunt Gardiner is genteel and elegant, and is close to her nieces Jane and Elizabeth. The Gardiners are instrumental in bringing about the marriage between Darcy and Elizabeth.
Georgiana Darcy - Georgiana is Mr. Darcy's quiet, amiable (and shy) younger sister, with a dowry of £30,000, and is aged barely 16-years-old when the story begins. When still 15, Miss Darcy almost eloped with Mr. Wickham, but was saved by her brother, who she idolises. Thanks to years of tutorage under masters, she is accomplished at the piano, singing, playing the harp, and drawing, and modern languages, and is therefore described as Caroline Bingley's idea of an 'accomplished woman'.
Charlotte Lucas - Charlotte is Elizabeth's friend who, at 27 years old (and thus past prime marriage age), fears becoming a burden to her family and therefore agrees to marry Mr. Collins to gain financial security. Though the novel stresses the importance of love and understanding in marriage, Austen never seems to condemn Charlotte's decision to marry for money. She uses Charlotte to convey how women of her time would adhere to society's expectation for women to marry even if it is not out of love, but convenience.[5] Charlotte is the daughter of Sir William Lucas and Lady Lucas, friends of Mrs. Bennet.

text: Major themes[edit]

text: Many critics take the novel's title as a starting point when analysing the major themes of Pride and Prejudice; however, Robert Fox cautions against reading too much into the title because commercial factors may have played a role in its selection. "After the success of Sense and Sensibility, nothing would have seemed more natural than to bring out another novel of the same author using again the formula of antithesis and alliteration for the title. It should be pointed out that the qualities of the title are not exclusively assigned to one or the other of the protagonists; both Elizabeth and Darcy display pride and prejudice."[6] The title is very likely taken from a passage in Fanny Burney's popular 1782 novel Cecilia, a novel Austen is known to have admired:[7]

text: "The whole of this unfortunate business," said Dr Lyster, "has been the result of PRIDE and PREJUDICE. ... Yet this, however, remember: if to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you owe your miseries, so wonderfully is good and evil balanced, that to PRIDE and PREJUDICE you will also owe their termination ..."[7][8] (capitalisation as in the original.)

text: A major theme in much of Austen's work is the importance of environment and upbringing in developing young people's character and morality.[9] Social standing and wealth are not necessarily advantages in her world, and a further theme common to Austen's work is ineffectual parents. In Pride and Prejudice, the failure of Mr. and Mrs. Bennet as parents is blamed for Lydia's lack of moral judgment; Darcy, on the other hand, has been taught to be principled and scrupulously honourable, but he is also proud and overbearing.[9] Kitty, rescued from Lydia's bad influence and spending more time with her older sisters after they marry, is said to improve greatly in their superior society.[10] American novelist Anna Quindlen observed, in an introduction to an edition of Austen's novel in 1995:

text: Pride and Prejudice is also about that thing that all great novels consider, the search for self. And it is the first great novel that teaches us this search is as surely undertaken in the drawing room making small talk as in the pursuit of a great white whale or the public punishment of adultery.[11]

text: Marriage[edit]

text: The opening line of the novel famously announces: "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife."[12] This sets marriage as a central subject—and really, a central problem—for the novel generally. Readers are poised to question whether or not these single men are, in fact, in want of a wife, or if such desires are dictated by the "neighbourhood" families and their daughters who require a "good fortune". Marriage is a complex social activity that takes political economy, and economy more generally, into account. In the case of Charlotte Lucas, for example, the seeming success of her marriage lies in the comfortable economy of their household, while the relationship between Mr. and Mrs. Bennet serves to illustrate bad marriages based on an initial attraction and surface over substance (economic and psychological). The Bennets' marriage is one such example that the youngest Bennet, Lydia, will come to re-enact with Wickham, and the results are far from felicitous. Though the central characters, Elizabeth and Darcy, begin the novel as hostile acquaintances and unlikely friends, they eventually work to understand each other and themselves so that they can marry each other on compatible terms personally, even if their "equal" social status remains fraught. When Elizabeth rejects Darcy's first proposal, the argument of only marrying when one is in love is introduced. Elizabeth only accepts Darcy's proposal when she is certain she loves him and her feelings are reciprocated.[13] Austen's complex sketching of different marriages ultimately allows readers to question what forms of alliance are desirable, especially when it comes to privileging economic, sexual, companionate attraction.

text: Wealth[edit]

text: Money plays a key role in the marriage market, not only for the young ladies seeking a well-off husband, but also for men who wish to marry a woman of means. Two examples are George Wickham, who tried to elope with Georgiana Darcy, and Colonel Fitzwilliam. Marrying a woman of a rich family also ensured a linkage to a high family, as is visible in the desires of Bingley's sisters to have their brother married to Georgiana Darcy. Mrs. Bennet is frequently seen encouraging her daughters to marry a wealthy man of high social class. In chapter 1, when Mr. Bingley arrives, she declares "I am thinking of his marrying one of them."[14]

text: Inheritance was by descent, but could be further restricted by entailment, which would restrict inheritance to male heirs only. In the case of the Bennet family, Mr. Collins was to inherit the family estate upon Mr. Bennet's death and his proposal to Elizabeth would have ensured her future security. Nevertheless, she refuses his offer. Inheritance laws benefited males because most women did not have independent legal rights until the second half of the 19th century. As a consequence, women's financial security at that time depended on men. For the upper-middle and aristocratic classes, marriage to a man with a reliable income was almost the only route to security for the woman and her future children.[15] The irony of the novel's opening line, therefore, is that generally within this society it would be a woman who would be looking for a wealthy husband in order to have prosperous life.

text: Class[edit]

text: Austen might be known now for her "romances," but the marriages that take place in her novels engage with economics and class distinction. Pride and Prejudice is hardly the exception. When Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, he cites their economic and social differences as an obstacle his excessive love has had to overcome, though he still anxiously harps on the problems it poses for him within his social circle. His aunt, Lady Catherine, later characterises these differences in particularly harsh terms when she conveys what Elizabeth's marriage to Darcy will become: "Will the shades of Pemberley be thus polluted?" Though Elizabeth responds to Lady Catherine's accusations that hers is a potentially contaminating economic and social position (Elizabeth even insists she and Darcy are "equals"), Lady Catherine refuses to accept Darcy's actual marriage to Elizabeth even as the novel closes.

text: Meanwhile, the Bingleys present a particular problem for navigating social class. Though Caroline Bingley and Mrs. Hurst behave and speak of others as if they have always belonged in the upper echelons of society, Austen makes a point to explain that the Bingleys acquired their wealth by trade rather than through the gentry's and aristocracy's methods of inheritance and making money off their tenants as landlords. The fact that Bingley rents Netherfield Hall—it is, after all, "to let"—distinguishes him significantly from Darcy, whose estate belonged to his father's family, and who, through his mother, is the grandson and nephew of an Earl. Bingley, unlike Darcy, does not own his property, but has portable and growing wealth that makes him a good catch on the marriage market for poorer daughters of the gentility, like Jane Bennet, ambitious cits (merchant class), etc. Class plays a central role in the evolution of the characters, and Jane Austen's radical approach to class is seen as the plot unfolds.[16]

text: In addition, there is an undercurrent of the old Anglo-Norman upper class hinted at in the story, as suggested by the names of Fitzwilliam Darcy and his aunt, Lady Catherine de Bourgh; Fitzwilliam, D'Arcy, and de Bourgh (Burke) are all traditional Norman surnames.

text: Self knowledge[edit]

text: Through their interactions and their critiques of each other, Darcy and Elizabeth come to recognise their own faults and work to correct them. Elizabeth meditates on her own mistakes thoroughly in chapter 36:

text: "How despicably have I acted!" she cried; "I, who have prided myself on my discernment! I, who have valued myself on my abilities! who have often disdained the generous candour of my sister, and gratified my vanity in useless or blameable distrust. How humiliating is this discovery! yet, how just a humiliation! Had I been in love, I could not have been more wretchedly blind. But vanity, not love, has been my folly. Pleased with the preference of one, and offended by the neglect of the other, on the very beginning of our acquaintance, I have courted prepossession and ignorance, and driven reason away, where either were concerned. Till this moment I never knew myself."

text: Other characters rarely exhibit this depth of self-reflection—or, at least, are not given the space within the novel for this sort of development. Tanner notes that Mrs. Bennet in particular, "has a very limited view of the requirements of that performance; lacking any introspective tendencies she is incapable of appreciating the feelings of others and is only aware of material objects." [17] Mrs. Bennet's behaviour reflects the society in which she lives, as she knows that her daughters will not succeed if they don't get married: "The business of her life was to get her daughters married: it's solace was visiting and news." [18] This proves that Mrs. Bennet is only aware of "material objects" and not of her own feelings and emotions.[19]

text: Style[edit]

text: Pride and Prejudice, like most of Austen's other works, employs the narrative technique of free indirect speech, which has been defined as "the free representation of a character's speech, by which one means, not words actually spoken by a character, but the words that typify the character's thoughts, or the way the character would think or speak, if she thought or spoke".[20] Austen creates her characters with fully developed personalities and unique voices. Though Darcy and Elizabeth are very alike, they are also considerably different.[21] By using narrative that adopts the tone and vocabulary of a particular character (in this case, Elizabeth), Austen invites the reader to follow events from Elizabeth's viewpoint, sharing her prejudices and misapprehensions. "The learning curve, while undergone by both protagonists, is disclosed to us solely through Elizabeth's point of view and her free indirect speech is essential ... for it is through it that we remain caught, if not stuck, within Elizabeth's misprisions."[20] The few times the reader is allowed to gain further knowledge of another character's feelings, is through the letters exchanged in this novel. Darcy's first letter to Elizabeth is an example of this as through his letter, the reader and Elizabeth are both given knowledge of Wickham's true character. Austen is known to use irony throughout the novel especially from viewpoint of the character of Elizabeth Bennet. She conveys the "oppressive rules of femininity that actually dominate her life and work, and are covered by her beautifully carved trojan horse of ironic distance.".[4] Beginning with a historical investigation of the development of a particular literary form and then transitioning into empirical verifications, it reveals FID as a tool that emerged over time as practical means for addressing the physical distinctness of minds. Seen in this way, FID is a distinctly literary response to an environmental concern, providing a scientific justification that does not reduce literature to a mechanical extension of biology, but takes its value to be its own original form.[22]

text: Development of the novel[edit]

text: Austen began writing the novel after staying at Goodnestone Park in Kent with her brother Edward and his wife in 1796.[23] It was originally titled First Impressions, and was written between October 1796 and August 1797.[24] On 1 November 1797 Austen's father sent a letter to London bookseller Thomas Cadell to ask if he had any interest in seeing the manuscript, but the offer was declined by return post.[25] The militia were mobilised after the French declaration of war on Britain in February 1793, and there was initially a lack of barracks for all the militia regiments, requiring the militia to set up huge camps in the countryside, which the novel refers to several times.[26] The Brighton camp for which the militia regiment leaves for in May after spending the winter in Meryton was opened in August 1793, and the barracks for all the regiments of the militia were completed by 1796, placing the events of the novel between 1793-95.[27]

text: Austen made significant revisions to the manuscript for First Impressions between 1811 and 1812.[24] As nothing remains of the original manuscript, we are reduced to conjecture. From the large number of letters in the final novel, it is assumed that First Impressions was an epistolary novel.[28] She later renamed the story Pride and Prejudice around about 1811-1812, which she sold the rights to publish the manuscript to Thomas Egerton for £110.[29] In renaming the novel, Austen probably had in mind the "sufferings and oppositions" summarised in the final chapter of Fanny Burney's Cecilia, called "Pride and Prejudice", where the phrase appears three times in block capitals.[9] It is possible that the novel's original title was altered to avoid confusion with other works. In the years between the completion of First Impressions and its revision into Pride and Prejudice, two other works had been published under that name: a novel by Margaret Holford and a comedy by Horace Smith.[25]

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Austen sold the copyright for the novel to Thomas Egerton from the Military Library, Whitehall in exchange for £110 (Austen had asked for £150).[30] This proved a costly decision. Austen had published Sense and Sensibility on a commission basis, whereby she indemnified the publisher against any losses and received any profits, less costs and the publisher's commission. Unaware that Sense and Sensibility would sell out its edition, making her £140,[25] she passed the copyright to Egerton for a one-off payment, meaning that all the risk (and all the profits) would be his. Jan Fergus has calculated that Egerton subsequently made around £450 from just the first two editions of the book.[31]

text: Egerton published the first edition of Pride and Prejudice in three hardcover volumes on 27 January 1813.[32] It was advertised in the Morning Chronicle, priced at 18s.[24] Favourable reviews saw this edition sold out, with a second edition published in November that year. A third edition was published in 1817.[30]

text: Foreign language translations first appeared in 1813 in French; subsequent translations were published in German, Danish, and Swedish.[33] Pride and Prejudice was first published in the United States in August 1832 as Elizabeth Bennet or, Pride and Prejudice.[30] The novel was also included in Richard Bentley's Standard Novel series in 1833. R W Chapman's scholarly edition of Pride and Prejudice, first published in 1923, has become the standard edition on which many modern published versions of the novel are based.[30]

text: The novel was originally published without Austen's name. It was instead written "By the Author of Sense and Sensibility". This carried responsibility for Austen, unlike when Sense and Sensibility was released as being written "By A Lady".[34]

text: Reception[edit]

text: At first publication[edit]

text: The novel was well received, with three favourable reviews in the first months following publication.[31] Anne Isabella Milbanke, later to be the wife of Lord Byron, called it "the fashionable novel".[31] Noted critic and reviewer George Henry Lewes declared that he "would rather have written Pride and Prejudice, or Tom Jones, than any of the Waverley Novels".[35]

text: Charlotte Brontë, however, in a letter to Lewes, wrote that Pride and Prejudice was a disappointment, "a carefully fenced, highly cultivated garden, with neat borders and delicate flowers; but ... no open country, no fresh air, no blue hill, no bonny beck".[35]

text: Late 19th to 21st centuries[edit]

text:
You could not shock her more than she shocks me,
Beside her Joyce seems innocent as grass.
It makes me most uncomfortable to see
An English spinster of the middle class
Describe the amorous effects of 'brass',
Reveal so frankly and with such sobriety
The economic basis of society.

W. H. Auden (1937) on Austen[35]

tag: div

text:
In 2003 the BBC conducted a poll for the "UK's Best-Loved Book" in which Pride and Prejudice came second, behind The Lord of the Rings.[36]
In a 2008 survey of more than 15,000 Australian readers, Pride and Prejudice came first in a list of the 101 best books ever written.[37]
The 200th anniversary of Pride and Prejudice on 28 January 2013 was celebrated around the globe by media networks such as the Huffington Post, the New York Times, and the Daily Telegraph, among others.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Film, television and theatre[edit]

text: Pride and Prejudice has engendered numerous adaptations. Some of the notable film versions include that of 1940, starring Greer Garson and Laurence Olivier[45] (based in part on Helen Jerome's 1936 stage adaptation) and that of 2005, starring Keira Knightley (an Oscar-nominated performance) and Matthew Macfadyen.[46] Notable television versions include two by the BBC: a 1980 version starring Elizabeth Garvie and David Rintoul and the popular 1995 version, starring Jennifer Ehle and Colin Firth.

text: A 1936 stage version was created by Helen Jerome played at the St James's Theatre in London, starring Celia Johnson and Hugh Williams. First Impressions was a 1959 Broadway musical version starring Polly Bergen, Farley Granger, and Hermione Gingold.[47] In 1995, a musical concept album was written by Bernard J. Taylor, with Claire Moore in the role of Elizabeth Bennet and Peter Karrie in the role of Mr. Darcy.[48] A new stage production, Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, The New Musical, was presented in concert on 21 October 2008 in Rochester, New York, with Colin Donnell as Darcy.[49] The Swedish composer Daniel Nelson based his 2011 opera Stolthet och fördom on Pride and Prejudice.[50]

text: Literature[edit]

text: The novel has inspired a number of other works that are not direct adaptations. Books inspired by Pride and Prejudice include the following: Mr. Darcy's Daughters and The Exploits and Adventures of Miss Alethea Darcy by Elizabeth Aston; Darcy's Story (a best seller) and Dialogue with Darcy by Janet Aylmer; Pemberley: Or Pride and Prejudice Continued and An Unequal Marriage: Or Pride and Prejudice Twenty Years Later by Emma Tennant; The Book of Ruth by Helen Baker (author); Jane Austen Ruined My Life and Mr. Darcy Broke My Heart by Beth Pattillo; Precipitation – A Continuation of Miss Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice by Helen Baker (author); Searching for Pemberley by Mary Simonsen and Mr. Darcy Takes a Wife and its sequel Darcy & Elizabeth: Nights and Days at Pemberly by Linda Berdoll.

text: In Gwyn Cready's comedic romance novel, Seducing Mr. Darcy, the heroine lands in Pride and Prejudice by way of magic massage, has a fling with Darcy and unknowingly changes the rest of the story.

text: Abigail Reynolds is the author of seven Regency-set variations on Pride and Prejudice. Her Pemberley Variations series includes Mr. Darcy's Obsession, To Conquer Mr. Darcy, What Would Mr. Darcy Do and Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy: The Last Man in the World. Her modern adaptation, The Man Who Loved Pride and Prejudice, is set on Cape Cod.[51]

text: Helen Fielding's 1996 novel Bridget Jones's Diary is also based on Pride and Prejudice and spawned a feature film of the same name, released in 2001.

text: In March 2009, Quirk Books released Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, which takes Austen's actual, original work and mashes it up with zombie hordes, cannibalism, ninja and ultraviolent mayhem.[52] In March 2010, Quirk Books published a prequel that deals with Elizabeth Bennet's early days as a zombie hunter, Pride and Prejudice and Zombies: Dawn of the Dreadfuls.[53] In 2016, a movie of the aforementioned contemporary literature adaptation was released starring Lily James and Matt Smith.

text: In 2011, author Mitzi Szereto expanded on the novel in Pride and Prejudice: Hidden Lusts, a historical sex parody that parallels the original plot and writing style of Jane Austen.

text: Marvel has also published their take on this classic by releasing a short comic series of five issues that stays true to the original storyline. The first issue was published on 1 April 2009 and was written by Nancy Hajeski.[54] It was published as a graphic novel in 2010 with artwork by Hugo Petrus.

text: Pamela Aidan is the author of a trilogy of books telling the story of Pride and Prejudice from Mr. Darcy's point of view: Fitzwilliam Darcy, Gentleman. The books are An Assembly Such as This,[55] Duty and Desire[56] and These Three Remain.[57]

text: Detective novel author P.D. James has written a book titled Death Comes to Pemberley, which is a murder mystery set six years after Elizabeth and Darcy's marriage.[58]

text: Sandra Lerner's sequel to Pride and Prejudice, Second Impressions, develops the story and imagined what might have happened to the original novel's characters. It is written in the style of Austen after extensive research into the period and language and published in 2011 under the pen name of Ava Farmer.[59]

text: Jo Baker's 2013 novel Longbourn imagines the lives of the servants of Pride and Prejudice.[60]

text: In the novel Eligible, Curtis Sittenfeld sets the characters of Pride and Prejudice in modern-day Cincinnati, where the Bennet parents, erstwhile Cincinnati social climbers, have fallen on hard times. Elizabeth, a successful and independent New York journalist, and her single older sister Jane must intervene to salvage the family's financial situation and get their unemployed adult sisters to move out of the house and onward in life. In the process they encounter Chip Bingley, a young doctor and reluctant reality TV celebrity, and his medical school classmate, Fitzwilliam Darcy, a cynical neurosurgeon.[61]

text: Pride and Prejudice has also inspired works of scientific writing. In 2010, scientists named a pheromone identified in male mouse urine darcin,[62] after Mr. Darcy, because it strongly attracted females. In 2016, a scientific paper published in the Journal of Inherited Metabolic Diseases speculated that Mrs. Bennet may have been a carrier of a rare genetic disease, explaining why the Bennets didn't have any sons, and why some of the Bennet sisters are so silly.[63]


document_title: Opening statement

question_text: who gives the first opening statement in a trial

text: Opening statement

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: An opening statement is generally the first occasion that the trier of fact (jury or judge) has to hear from a lawyer in a trial, aside possibly from questioning during voir dire. The opening statement is generally constructed to serve as a "road map" for the fact-finder. This is especially essential, in many jury trials, since jurors (at least theoretically) know nothing at all about the case before the trial, (or if they do, they are strictly instructed by the judge to put preconceived notions aside). Though such statements may be dramatic and vivid, they must be limited to the evidence reasonably expected to be presented during the trial. Attorneys generally conclude opening statements with a reminder that at the conclusion of evidence, the attorney will return to ask the fact-finder to find in his or her client's favor.

text: Opening statements are, in theory, not allowed to be argumentative, or suggest the inferences that fact-finders should draw from the evidence they will hear. In actual practice, the line between statement and argument is often unclear and many attorneys will infuse at least a little argumentation into their opening (often prefacing borderline arguments with some variation on the phrase, "As we will show you..."). Objections, though permissible during opening statements, are very unusual, and by professional courtesy are usually reserved only for egregious conduct.

text: Generally, the prosecution in a criminal case and plaintiff in a civil case is the first to offer an opening statement, and defendants go second. Defendants are also allowed the option of delaying their opening statement until after the close of the prosecution or plaintiff's case. Few take this option, however, so as not to allow the other party's argument to stand uncontradicted for so long.

text: The techniques of opening statements are taught in courses on trial advocacy.[1] The opening statement is integrated with the overall case strategy through either a theme and theory or, with more advanced strategies, a line of effort.[2] Specific tactics that can be incorporated in an opening statement are audio-visual elements, a clear overview of the coming presentation, and using deposition testimony to highlight key information they can expect of upcoming witnesses.[3]


document_title: List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

question_text: who ruled the ottoman empire at its height in about 1550

text: List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

text: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire[edit]

text: The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (ظل الله في العالم ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (خلیفه روی زمین Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn).[4] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[5] Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.

text: After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles Caesar (قیصر Qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[4][6][7] as well as the caliph of Islam.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[8] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[9]

text: Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[5] Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[10] women of the Imperial Harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the Valide Sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[11]

text: Constitutionalism was only established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[12] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2017, the head of the House of Osman and pretender to the defunct Ottoman throne has been Dündar Ali Osman, a great-grandson of Abdulhamid II.[13]

text: List of sultans[edit]

text: The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[14] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[15] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[16]

text:
№
Sultan
Portrait
Reigned from
Reigned until
Tughra
Notes

Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(1299 – 1453)

1
Osman I
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

c. 1299
1323
—
[c]

Son of Ertuğrul[17] and an unknown woman.[18]
Reigned until his death.

2
Orhan
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

1323
1362

Son of Osman I and Malhun Hatun.[18]
Reigned until his death.[19]

3
Murad I
SULTAN-İ AZAM (The Most Exalted Sultan)
HÜDAVENDİGÂR
(The devotee of God)
ŞEHÎD (Martyr) [20][b]

1362
15 June 1389

Son of Orhan and Nilüfer Hatun.[18]
Reigned until his death.
Killed on the battlefield at the Battle of Kosovo on June 15, 1389.[21]

4
Bayezid I
SULTAN-İ RÛM (Sultan of the Roman Empire)
YILDIRIM (Lightning)

15 June 1389
20 July 1402

Son of Murad I and Gülçiçek Hatun.[18]
Captured on the battlefield at the Battle of Ankara (de facto end of reign);
Died in captivity in Akşehir on 8 March 1403.[22]

Ottoman Interregnum (20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)

5
Mehmed I
ÇELEBİ (The Affable)
KİRİŞÇİ (lit. The Bowstring Maker for his support)

5 July 1413
26 May 1421

Son of Bayezid I and Devlet Hatun.[18]
Reigned until his death.[23]

6
Murad II
KOCA (The Great)

25 June 1421
1444

Son of Mehmed I and Emine Hatun;[18]
Abdicated of his own free will in favour of his son Mehmed II.[24]

7
Mehmed II
FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror)
فاتح

1444
1446

Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun.[18]
Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries.[24]

—
Murad II
KOCA (The Great)

1446
3 February 1451

Second reign;
Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence;[25]
Reigned until his death.

Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(1453 – 1550)

—
Mehmed II
KAYSER-İ RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire)
FĀTİḤ (The Conqueror)
فاتح

3 February 1451
3 May 1481

Second reign;
Conquered Constantinople in 1453;
Reigned until his death.[26]

8
Bayezid II
VELÎ (The Saint)

19 May 1481
25 April 1512

Son of Mehmed II and Gülbahar Hatun.[18]
Abdicated.
Died near Didymoteicho on 26 May 1512.[27]

9
Selim I
YAVUZ (The Strong)
Hadim'ul Haramain'ish-Sharifain
(Servant of Mecca and Medina)

25 April 1512
21 September 1520

Son of Bayezid II and Gülbahar Hatun.
Reigned until his death.[28]

10
Suleiman I
MUHTEŞEM (The Magnificent)
or KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver)
قانونى

30 September 1520
6 or 7 September 1566

Son of Selim I and Hafsa Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[29]

Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
(1550 – 1700)

11
Selim II
SARI (The Blond)

29 September 1566
21 December 1574

Son of Suleiman I and Hürrem Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[30]

12
Murad III

22 December 1574
16 January 1595

Son of Selim II and Nurbanu Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[31]

13
Mehmed III
ADLÎ (The Just)

27 January 1595
20 or 21 December 1603

Son of Murad III and Safiye Sultan;
Reigned until his death;[32]

14
Ahmed I
BAḪTī (The Fortunate)

21 December 1603
22 November 1617

Son of Mehmed III and Handan Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[33]

15
Mustafa I
DELİ (The Mad)

22 November 1617
26 February 1618

Son of Mehmed III and Halime Sultan;
Deposed due to his mental instability in favour of his young nephew Osman II.[34]

16
Osman II
GENÇ (The Young)
ŞEHÎD (The Martyr)
شهيد

26 February 1618
19 May 1622

Son of Ahmed I and Mahfiruz Hatun;
Deposed in a Janissary riot on 19 May 1622;
Murdered on 20 May 1622 by the Grand Vizier Kara Davud Pasha.[35]

—
Mustafa I
DELİ (The Mad)

20 May 1622
10 September 1623

Second reign;
Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II;
Deposed due to his poor mental health and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.[34]

17
Murad IV
SAHİB-Î KIRAN
The Conqueror of Baghdad
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
غازى

10 September 1623
8 or 9 February 1640

Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[36]

18
Ibrahim
DELİ (The Mad)
The Conqueror of Crete
ŞEHÎD

9 February 1640
8 August 1648

Son of Ahmed I and Kösem Sultan;
Deposed on 8 August 1648 in a coup led by the Sheikh ul-Islam;
Strangled in Istanbul on 18 August 1648[37] at the behest of the Grand Vizier Mevlevî Mehmed Paşa (Sofu Mehmed Pasha).

19
Mehmed IV
AVCI (The Hunter)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
غازى

8 August 1648
8 November 1687

Son of Ibrahim and Turhan Sultan;
Deposed on 8 November 1687 following the Ottoman defeat at the Second Battle of Mohács;
Died in Edirne on 6 January 1693.[38]

20
Suleiman II
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

8 November 1687
22 June 1691

Son of Ibrahim and Aşub Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[39]

21
Ahmed II
ḪĀN ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior Prince)

22 June 1691
6 February 1695

Son of Ibrahim and Muazzez Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[40]

22
Mustafa II
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

6 February 1695
22 August 1703

Son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan;
Deposed on 22 August 1703 by a Janissary uprising known as the Edirne Event;
Died in Istanbul on 8 January 1704.[41]

Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire
(1700 – 1827)

23
Ahmed III
Tulip Era Sultan
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

22 August 1703
1 or 2 October 1730

Son of Mehmed IV and Gülnuş Sultan;
Deposed in consequence of the Janissary rebellion led by Patrona Halil;
Died on 1 July 1736.[42]

24
Mahmud I
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)
KAMBUR (The Hunchback)

2 October 1730
13 December 1754

Son of Mustafa II and Saliha Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[43]

25
Osman III
SOFU (The Devout)

13 December 1754
29 or 30 October 1757

Son of Mustafa II and Şehsuvar Sultan;
Reigned until his death.[44]

26
Mustafa III
YENİLİKÇİ (The First Innovative)

30 October 1757
21 January 1774

Son of Ahmed III and Mihrişah Kadın;
Reigned until his death.[45]

27
Abdülhamid I
Abd ūl-Hāmīd (The Servant of God)
ISLAHATÇI (The Improver)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

21 January 1774
6 or 7 April 1789

Son of Ahmed III and Şermi Kadın;
Reigned until his death.[46]

28
Selim III
BESTEKÂR (The Composer)
NİZÂMÎ (Regulative - Orderly)
ŞEHÎD (The Martyr)

7 April 1789
29 May 1807

Son of Mustafa III and Mihrişah Sultan;
Deposed as a result of the Janissary revolt led by Kabakçı Mustafa against his reforms;
Assassinated in Istanbul on 28 July 1808[47] at the behest of Ottoman Sultan Mustafa IV.

29
Mustafa IV

29 May 1807
28 July 1808

Son of Abdülhamid I and Sineperver Sultan;
Deposed in an insurrection led by Alemdar Mustafa Pasha;
Executed in Istanbul on 17 November 1808[48] by order of Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II.

Modernization of the Ottoman Empire
(1827 – 1908)

30
Mahmud II
İNKILÂPÇI (The Reformer)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

28 July 1808
1 July 1839

Son of Abdülhamid I and Nakşidil Sultan (adoptive mother of Mahmud II);
Disbanded the Janissaries in consequence of the Auspicious Event in 1826;
Reigned until his death.[49]

31
Abdülmecid I
TANZİMÂTÇI
(The Strong Reformist or
The Advocate of Reorganization)
ĠĀZĪ (The Warrior)

1 July 1839
25 June 1861

Son of Mahmud II and Bezmiâlem Sultan;
Proclaimed the Hatt-ı Sharif (Imperial Edict) of Gülhane (Tanzimât Fermânı) that launched the Tanzimat period of reforms and reorganization on 3 November 1839 at the behest of reformist Grand Vizier Great Mustafa Rashid Pasha;
Accepted the Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümayun (Imperial Reform Edict) (Islâhat Fermânı) on 18 February 1856;
Reigned until his death.[50]

32
Abdülaziz I
BAḪTSIZ (The Unfortunate)
ŞEHĪD (The Martyr)

25 June 1861
30 May 1876

Son of Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan;
Deposed by his ministers;
Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.[51]

33
Murad V

30 May 1876
31 August 1876

Son of Abdülmecid I and Şevkefza Kadın;
Deposed due to his efforts to implement democratic reforms in the empire;
Ordered to reside in Çırağan Palace where he died on 29 August 1904.[52]

34
Abdülhamid II
Ulû Sultân Abd ūl-Hāmīd Khan
(The Sublime Khan)

31 August 1876
27 April 1909

Son of Abdülmecid I and Tirimüjgan Kadın and later the adoptive son of Perestu Kadın).
Reluctantly allowed the First Constitutional Era on 23 November 1876 and then suspended it and reverted to personal rule on 13 February 1878;
Forced to restore the Second Constitutional Era on 3 July 1908;
Deposed after the 31 March Incident (on 13 April 1909);
Confined to Beylerbeyi Palace where he died on 10 February 1918.[53]

Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire[e]
(1908 – 1922)

35
Mehmed V
REŞÂD (Rashād)
(The True Path Follower)

27 April 1909
3 July 1918

Son of Abdülmecid I and Gülcemal Kadın;
Reigned as a figurehead of Mehmed Talat, İsmail Enver, and Ahmed Cemal Pashas until his death.[54]

36
Mehmed VI
VAHDETTİN (Wāhīd ād-Dīn)
(The Unifier of Religion (Islam) or The Oneness of Islam)

4 July 1918
1 November 1922

Son of Abdülmecid I and Gülüstü Hanım;
Sultanate abolished;
Left Istanbul on 17 November 1922;
Died in exile in Sanremo, Italy on 16 May 1926.[55]

Republican Caliphate
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)

—
Abdülmecid II

18 November 1922
3 March 1924
—
[c]

Son of Abdülaziz I and Hayranidil Kadın;[56]
Elected caliph by the TBMM;
Exiled after the abolition of the caliphate;[57]
Died in Paris, France on 23 August 1944.[58]

text: Interregnum period (1402–1413)[edit]

text:
№
Sultan
Portrait
Reigned from
Reigned until
Tughra
Notes

Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)

—
İsa Çelebi
The Co-Sultan of Anatolia

1403–1405
(Sultan of the Western Anatolian Territory)
1406
—

After the Battle of Ankara on July 20, 1402, İsa Çelebi defeated Musa Çelebi and began controlling the western part of Anatolian territory of the empire for approximately two years.
Defeated by Mehmed Çelebi in the battle of Ulubat in 1405.
Murdered in 1406.

—
Emir (Amir)
Süleyman Çelebi
The First Sultan of Rumelia

20 July 1402
17 February 1411[59]
—

Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empire, a short period after the Ottoman defeat of The Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402
Murdered on 17 February 1411.[60]

—
Musa Çelebi
The Second Sultan of Rumelia

18 February 1411
5 July 1413[61]
—

Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empire[62] on 18 February 1411, just after the death of Süleyman Çelebi.
Killed on 5 July 1413 by Mehmed Çelebi’s forces in the battle of Çamurlu Derbent near Samokov in Bulgaria.[63]

—
Mehmed Çelebi
The Sultan of Anatolia

1403–1406
(Sultan of the Eastern Anatolian Territory)

1406–1413
(The Sultan of Anatolia)
5 July 1413
—

Acquired the control of the eastern part of the Anatolian territory as the Co-Sultan just after the defeat of the Battle of Ankara on 20 July 1402.
Defeated İsa Çelebi in the battle of Ulubat in 1405.
Became the sole ruler of the Anatolian territory of the Ottoman Empire upon İsa’s death in 1406.
Acquired the title of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I Khan upon Musa’s death on 5 July 1413.


document_title: What Is the Third Estate?

question_text: who was the author of the pamphlet called what is the third estate

text: What Is the Third Estate?

text: What Is the Third Estate? (French: Qu'est-ce que le tiers-état?) is a political pamphlet written in January 1789, shortly before the outbreak of the French Revolution, by the French thinker and clergyman Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836). The pamphlet was Sieyès' response to finance minister Jacques Necker's invitation for writers to state how they thought the Estates-General should be organized.

text: In the pamphlet, Sieyès argues that the third estate – the common people of France – constituted a complete nation within itself and had no need of the "dead weight" of the two other orders, the first and second estates of the clergy and aristocracy. Sieyès stated that the people wanted genuine representatives in the Estates-General, equal representation to the other two orders taken together, and votes taken by heads and not by orders. These ideas came to have an immense influence on the course of the French Revolution.

text: Summary[edit]

text: The pamphlet is organized around three hypothetical questions and Sieyès' responses. The questions are:

text:
What is the Third Estate? Everything.
What has it been hitherto in the political order? Nothing.
What does it desire to be? To become something...

text: Sieyès continues by analyzing the political situation of the time, arguing that the dominance of the first and second estates in the political arena constitutes a monopoly that treats the Third Estate unfairly. He advocates equal representation of all three orders in government, and asserts that taxes and government policy should affect all portions of society equally. He also thought it was good for the people to realize how they are being taken advantage of.

text: Throughout the pamphlet, Sieyès argues that the first and second estates are simply unnecessary, and that the Third Estate is in truth France's only legitimate estate, representing as it does the entire population. Thus, he asserts, it should replace the other two estates entirely. The Third Estate has to pay tax.

text: The idea of the pluralistic state theory was led by English political philosophers such as G. D. H. Cole, J. N. Figgis and H. J. Laski, even though it has its origins in French and Italian philosophers preceding the French revolution like Sieyès, who argued that state centralized sovereignty was flawed and should undergo radical transformation towards a decentralized and federated form of authority, which means the dealings of society would be organized and operated by independent associations and therefore self-governed. A comprehensive collection of writings was released under "Pluralist Theory of the State".[1]

text: Modern equivalent theories building upon the ideas within pluralistic state theory is libertarian socialism and free-market anarchism. An example of the former is guild socialism, one of the founders of which is G. D. H. Cole, a prominent figure behind pluralistic state theory.


document_title: Lord of All Hopefulness

question_text: who wrote the hymn lord of all hopefulness

text: Lord of All Hopefulness

text:
Lord of All Hopefulness

The hymn tune Slane

Genre
Hymn

Text
Jan Struther

Meter
10.11.11.12

Melody
Slane (trad. Irish)

Published
1931

text:
Lord of all hopefulness, Lord of all joy,
whose trust, ever childlike, no cares could destroy,
be there at our waking, and give us, we pray,
your bliss in our hearts, Lord, at the break of the day.

Lord of all kindliness, Lord of all grace,
your hands swift to welcome, your arms to embrace,
be there at our homing, and give us, we pray,
your love in our hearts, Lord, at the eve of the day.

Jan Struther

text: "Lord of all Hopefulness" is a Christian hymn written by Jan Struther, which was published in the enlarged edition of Songs of Praise[1] (Oxford University Press) in 1931. The hymn is used in liturgy, at weddings and at the beginning of funeral services. It was the opening hymn at the wedding of the Duke and Duchess of Sussex on May 19, 2018.

text: Tune[edit]

text: "Lord of all Hopefulness" is commonly set to the melody of an Irish folksong named Slane. In English hymn books, where traditional folk tunes are used, the place of collection is attributed as the tune name, and this melody is associated with the town of Slane (Irish: Baile Shláine) in County Meath, Ireland.

text: Slane is also the melody of another well-known hymn, "Be Thou My Vision". There are two variants of this tune; the text of "Lord Of All Hopefulness" fits a metre of 10.11.11.11, and an anacrucial version of Slane must be used (with an upbeat on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th lines of each verse). Another variant of the tune, commonly used in Irish and Scottish hymnals (including the Hymnbooks of the Church of Scotland), fits the 10.10.10.10 metre and is not suitable for "Lord of all Hopefulness".[2]

text: "Lord of all Hopefulness" has also been given its own tune, Miniver (originally in The BBC Hymn Book 1951), written by Cyril Vincent Taylor which acknowledges Jan Struther by reference to her famous text character "Mrs Miniver".[3]

text: Publication[edit]

text: The hymn is included in a number of popular Christian hymn books, including the New English Hymnal,[4] Hymns and Psalms[5]

text: This hymn can also be found in the 1971 combined red Hymn Book of the Anglican Church of Canada and the United Church of Canada, set to the tune Avonlea by Stanley Osborne, with a note saying that it could also be sung to the tune "Slane" with a few modifications to the melody. It is also sung by Catholic congregations in the U.S.[6]


document_title: Sunday

question_text: when did sunday became the seventh day of the week

text: Sunday

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Sunday, being the day of the Sun, as the name of the first day of the week, is derived from Hellenistic astrology, where the seven planets, known in English as Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon, each had an hour of the day assigned to them, and the planet which was regent during the first hour of any day of the week gave its name to that day. During the 1st and 2nd century, the week of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt, and the Roman names of the planets were given to each successive day.

text: Germanic peoples seem to have adopted the week as a division of time from the Romans, but they changed the Roman names into those of corresponding Teutonic deities. Hence, the dies Solis became Sunday (German, Sonntag).

text: The English noun Sunday derived sometime before 1250 from sunedai, which itself developed from Old English (before 700) Sunnandæg (literally meaning "sun's day"), which is cognate to other Germanic languages, including Old Frisian sunnandei, Old Saxon sunnundag, Middle Dutch sonnendach (modern Dutch zondag), Old High German sunnun tag (modern German Sonntag), and Old Norse sunnudagr (Danish and Norwegian søndag, Icelandic sunnudagur and Swedish söndag). The Germanic term is a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis ("day of the sun"), which is a translation of the Ancient Greek heméra helíou.[3] The p-Celtic Welsh language also translates the Latin "day of the sun" as dydd Sul.

text: In most Indian languages, the word for Sunday is Ravivāra or Adityavāra or its derived forms — vāra meaning day, Aditya and Ravi both being a style (manner of address) for Surya, the chief solar deity and one of the Adityas. Ravivāra is first day cited in Jyotish, which provides logical reason for giving the name of each week day. In the Thai solar calendar of Thailand, the name ("Waan Arthit") is derived from Aditya, and the associated color is red.

text: In Russian the word for Sunday is Воскресенье (Voskreseniye) meaning "Resurrection".[4] In other Slavic languages the word means "no work", for example Polish: Niedziela, Ukrainian: Недiля, Belorussian: Нядзеля, Croatian: nedjelja, Serbian and Slovenian: Nedelja, Czech: Neděle, and Bulgarian: Неделя.

text: The Modern Greek word for Sunday, Greek: Κυριακή, is derived from Greek: Κύριος (Kyrios, Lord) also, due to its liturgical significance as the day commemorating the resurrection of Jesus Christ, i.e. The Lord's Day.

text: Position in the week[edit]

text: ISO 8601[edit]

text: The international standard ISO 8601 for representation of dates and times, states that Sunday is the seventh and last day of the week.[5] This method of representing dates and times unambiguously was first published in 1988.

text: Culture and languages[edit]

text: In the Judaic, some Christian, as well as in some Islamic tradition, Sunday has been considered the first day of the week. A number of languages express this position either by the name for the day or by the naming of the other days. In Hebrew it is called יום ראשון yom rishon, in Arabic الأحد al-ahad, in Persian and related languages یکشنبه yek-shanbe, all meaning "first". In Greek, the names of the days Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday ("Δευτέρα", "Τρίτη", "Τετάρτη" and "Πέμπτη") mean "second", "third", "fourth", and "fifth" respectively. This leaves Sunday in the first position of the week count. The current Greek name for Sunday, Κυριακή (Kyriake), means "Lord's Day" coming from the word Κύριος (Kyrios), which is the Greek word for "Lord". Similarly in Portuguese, where the days from Monday to Friday are counted as Segunda-feira, Terça-feira, Quarta-feira, Quinta-feira and Sexta-feira, while Sunday itself similar to Greek has the name of "Lord's Day" (Domingo). In Vietnamese, the working days in the week are named as: "Thứ Hai" (second day), "Thứ Ba" (third day), "Thứ Tư" (fourth day), "Thứ Năm" (fifth day), "Thứ Sáu" (sixth day), "Thứ Bảy" (seventh day). Sunday is called "Chủ Nhật", a corrupted form of "Chúa Nhật" meaning "Lord's Day." Some colloquial text in the south of Vietnam and from the church may still use the old form to mean Sunday.

text: In Italian Sunday is called "Domenica", which also means "Lord's Day" (from Latin "Dies Dominica"). One finds similar cognates in French, where the name is "Dimanche", as well as Romanian ("Duminică") and Spanish and Portuguese ("Domingo").

text: Slavic languages implicitly number Monday as day number one, not two. For example, Polish has czwartek (4th) for Thursday and piątek (5th) for Friday. Hungarian péntek (Friday) is a Slavic loanword, so the correlation with "five" is not evident to Hungarians. Hungarians use Vasárnap for Sunday, which means "market day". Bulgarian понеделник and Russian понедельник (Monday) literally mean "after no work", Russian вторник (Tuesday) means "second day", среда (Wednesday) means "middle day", четверг (Thursday) means "fourth day", пятница (Friday) means "fifth day", суббота (Saturday) means "sabbath", and воскресение (Sunday) means "resurrection (of Jesus)" (that is the day of a week which commemorates it). In Old Russian Sunday was also called неделя "free day" or "day with no work", but in the contemporary language this word means "week".

text: In the Maltese language, due to its Siculo-Arabic origin, Sunday is called "Il-Ħadd", a corruption of "wieħed" meaning "one". Monday is "It-Tnejn" meaning "two". Similarly Tuesday is "It-Tlieta" (three), Wednesday is "L-Erbgħa" (four) and Thursday is "Il-Ħamis" (five).

text: In Armenian, Monday is (Yerkoushabti) literally meaning 2nd day of the week, Tuesday (Yerekshabti) 3rd day, Wednesday (Chorekshabti) 4th day, Thursday (Hingshabti) 5th day. Saturday is (Shabat) coming from the word Sabbath or Shabbath in Hebrew, and "Kiraki" coming from the word "Krak" meaning "fire" is Sunday, "Krak" describing the sun by fire. Apostle John also refers to the "Lord's Day" (in Greek, Κυριακή ἡμέρα, "kyriake hemera" i.e. the day of the Lord) in Rev. 1:10, which is another possible origin of the Armenian word for Sunday.

text: However, in many European countries calendars almost always show Monday as the first day of the week,[6] which follows the ISO 8601 standard.

text: In the Persian calendar, Sunday is the second day of the week. However, it is called "number one" as counting starts from zero; the first day - Saturday - is denoted as 00.

text: Sunday in Christianity[edit]

text: Pagan correspondence[edit]

text: In Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. In paganism, the sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed.[dubious – discuss]

text: The opportunity to spot in the nature-worship of their heathen neighbors a symbolism valid to their own faith was not lost on the Christians. One of the Church fathers, St. Jerome, would declare: "If pagans call [the Lord's Day] [...] the 'day of the sun,' we willingly agree, for today the light of the world is raised, today is revealed the sun of justice with healing in his rays."[7]

text: A similar consideration may have influenced the choice of the Christmas date on the day of the winter solstice, whose celebration was part of the Roman cult of the sun.[dubious – discuss][8] In the same vein, Christian churches have been built and are still being built (as far as possible) with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East. Much later, St. Francis would sing in his famous canticle: "Be praised, my Lord, through all your creatures, especially through my lord Brother Sun, who brings the day; and you give light through him. And he is beautiful and radiant in all his splendor! Of you, Most High, he bears the likeness."

text: Christian usage[edit]

text: The ancient Romans traditionally used the eight-day nundinal cycle, a market week, but in the time of Augustus in the 1st century AD, a seven-day week also came into use.

text: Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles" as being read on "the day called that of the sun" (Sunday) alongside the "writings of the prophets." [9]

text: On 7 March 321, Constantine I, Rome's first Christian Emperor (see Constantine I and Christianity), decreed that Sunday would be observed as the Roman day of rest:[10]

text: On the venerable Day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country, however, persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits; because it often happens that another day is not so suitable for grain-sowing or vine-planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost.[11]

text: Despite the official adoption of Sunday as a day of rest by Constantine, the seven-day week and the nundial cycle continued to be used side-by-side until at least the Calendar of 354 and probably later.[12]

text: In 363, Canon 29 of the Council of Laodicea prohibited observance of the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday), and encouraged Christians to work on the Saturday and rest on the Lord's Day (Sunday).[13] The fact that the canon had to be issued at all is an indication that adoption of Constantine's decree of 321 was still not universal, not even among Christians. It also indicates that Jews were observing the Sabbath on the Saturday.

text: Modern practices[edit]

text: Some Christian denominations, called "Sabbatarians", observe a Saturday Sabbath. The name "Sabbatarian" has also been claimed by Christians, especially Protestants, who believe Sunday must be observed with just the sort of rigorous abstinence from work associated with "Shabbat". More recently, Christians in the Seventh-day Adventist, Seventh Day Baptist, and Church of God (Seventh-Day) denominations, as well as many Messianic Jews, have revived the practice of abstaining from work and gathering for worship on Saturdays.

text: For most Christians the custom and obligation of Sunday rest is not as strict. A minority of Christians do not regard the day they attend church as important, so long as they attend, as the apostles and disciples gathered on Sundays, on Saturdays, and whenever they could. There is considerable variation in the observance of Sabbath rituals and restrictions, but some cessation of normal weekday activities is customary. Many Christians today observe Sunday as a day of church-attendance.

text: In Roman Catholic liturgy, Sunday begins on Saturday evening. The evening Mass on Saturday is liturgically a full Sunday Mass and fulfills the obligation of Sunday Mass attendance, and Vespers (evening prayer) on Saturday night is liturgically "first Vespers" of the Sunday. The same evening anticipation applies to other major solemnities and feasts, and is an echo of the Jewish practice of starting the new day at sunset. Those who work in the medical field, in law enforcement, and soldiers in a war zone are dispensed from the usual obligation to attend Church on Sunday. They are encouraged to combine their work with attending religious services if possible.

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Sunday begins at the Little Entrance of Vespers (or All-Night Vigil) on Saturday evening and runs until "Vouchsafe, O Lord" (after the "prokeimenon") of Vespers on Sunday night. During this time, the dismissal at all services begin with the words, "May Christ our True God, who rose from the dead ...." Anyone who wishes to receive Holy Communion at Divine Liturgy on Sunday morning is required to attend Vespers the night before (see Eucharistic discipline). Among Orthodox Christians, Sunday is considered to be a "Little Pascha" (Easter), and because of the Paschal joy, the making of prostrations is forbidden, except in certain circumstances. Leisure activities and idleness, being secular and offensive to Christ as it is time-wasting, is prohibited[dubious – discuss].

text: Some languages lack separate words for "Saturday" and "Sabbath" (e. g. Italian, Portuguese). Outside the English-speaking world, Sabbath as a word, if it is used, refers to the Saturday (or the specific Jewish practices on it); Sunday is called the Lord's Day e. g. in Romance languages and Modern Greek. On the other hand, English-speaking Christians often refer to the Sunday as the Sabbath (other than Seventh-day Sabbatarians); a practice which, probably due to the international connections and the Latin tradition of the Roman Catholic Church, is more widespread among (but not limited to) Protestants. Quakers traditionally referred to Sunday as "First Day" eschewing the pagan origin of the English name, while referring to Saturday as the "Seventh day".[14]

text: The Russian word for Sunday is "Voskresenie," meaning "Resurrection day." The Greek word for Sunday is "Kyriake" (the "Lord's Day"). The Czech, Polish, Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian, Ukrainian and Belarusian words for Sunday ("neděle," "niedziela," "nedelja", "nedjelja," "недеља", "неділя" and "нядзеля" respectively) can be translated as "without acts (no work)."

text: Common occurrences on Sunday[edit]

text: In government and business[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the United States and Canada, most government offices are closed on both Saturday and Sunday. A few will be open on Saturdays and a very small number will be open on Sunday. In major cities like San Francisco and Washington, DC, for example, a few branches of the US Postal Service are open on Sunday as well as Saturday; and a few branches of federal banks are also open on Saturday and Sunday.

text: Many private sector retail businesses open later and close earlier on Sunday. Business offices that are neither retail nor manufacturing outlets, such as corporate headquarters, are typically closed on both Saturday and Sunday. Large manufacturing plants, by contrast, typically operate one to three shifts every day of the week.

text: Many countries, particularly in Europe such as Sweden, France, Germany and Belgium, but also in other countries such as Peru, hold their national and local elections on a Sunday, either by law or by tradition.

text: In media[edit]

text: Many American and British daily newspapers publish a larger edition on Sundays, which often includes color comic strips, a magazine, and a coupon section; may only publish on a Sunday, or may have a "sister-paper" with a different masthead that only publishes on a Sunday.

text: North American Radio stations often play specialty radio shows such as Casey Kasem's countdown or other nationally syndicated radio shows that may differ from their regular weekly music patterns on Sunday morning and/or Sunday evening. In the United Kingdom, there is a Sunday tradition of chart shows on BBC Radio 1 and commercial radio; this originates in the broadcast of chart shows and other populist material on Sundays by Radio Luxembourg when the Reithian BBC's Sunday output consisted largely of solemn and religious programmes. However, BBC Radio 1's chart show moved to Fridays in July 2015.[15]

text: Period and/or older-skewing television dramas, such as Downton Abbey, Call the Midwife, Lark Rise to Candleford and Heartbeat are commonly shown on Sunday evenings in the UK; the first of these was Dr Finlay's Casebook in the 1960s.[16] Similarly, Antiques Roadshow has been shown on Sundays on BBC1 since 1979[17] and Last of the Summer Wine was shown on Sundays for many years until it ended in 2009.[18]

text: Many American, Australian and British television networks and stations also broadcast their political interview shows on Sunday mornings.

text: In sports[edit]

text: Major League Baseball usually schedules all Sunday games in the daytime except for the nationally televised Sunday Night Baseball matchup. Certain historically religious cities such as Boston and Baltimore among others will schedule games no earlier than 1:35 PM to ensure time for people who go to religious service in the morning can get to the game in time.

text: In the United States, professional American football is usually played on Sunday, although Saturday (via Saturday Night Football), Monday (via Monday Night Football), and Thursday (via Thursday Night Football or Thanksgiving) see some professional games. College football usually occurs on Saturday, and high-school football tends to take place on Friday night or Saturday afternoon.

text: In the UK, some club and Premier League football matches and tournaments usually take place on Sundays. Rugby matches and tournaments usually take place in club grounds or parks on Sunday mornings. It is not uncommon for church attendance to shift on days when a late morning or early afternoon game is anticipated by a local community.

text: One of the remains of religious segregation in the Netherlands is seen in amateur football: The Saturday-clubs are by and large Protestant Christian clubs, who were not allowed to play on Sunday. The Sunday-clubs were in general Catholic and working class clubs, whose players had to work on Saturday and therefore could only play on Sunday.

text: In Ireland, Gaelic football and hurling matches are predominantly played on Sundays, with the first (used to be second) and fourth (used to be third) Sundays in September always playing host to the All-Ireland hurling and football championship finals, respectively.

text: Professional golf tournaments traditionally end on Sunday.

text: In the United States and Canada, National Basketball Association and National Hockey League games, which are usually played at night during the week, are frequently played during daytime hours - often broadcast on national television.

text: Most NASCAR Sprint Cup and IndyCar events are held on Sundays. Formula One World Championship races are always held on Sundays regardless of timezone/country, while MotoGP holds most races on Sundays, with Middle Eastern races being the exception on Saturday. All Formula One events and MotoGP events with Sunday races involve qualifying taking place on Saturday.

text: Astrology[edit]

text: Sunday is associated with the Sun and is symbolized by ☉.

text: Named days[edit]

text:
Advent Sunday
Black Sunday
Bloody Sunday
Cold Sunday
Easter Sunday represents the resurrection of Christ
Gaudete Sunday is the third Sunday of Advent.
Gloomy Sunday
Good Shepherd Sunday is the fourth Sunday of Easter.
Laetare Sunday is the fourth Sunday of Lent.
Low Sunday, first Sunday after Easter, is also known as the Octave of Easter, White Sunday, Quasimodo Sunday, Alb Sunday, Antipascha Sunday, and Divine Mercy Sunday.
Passion Sunday, the fifth Sunday of Lent as the beginning of Passiontide (since 1970 for Roman Catholics in the ordinary form of the rite, the term remains only official among the greater title of the Palm Sunday, which used to be also the "2nd Sunday of Passiontide")
Palm Sunday is the Sunday before Easter.
Selection Sunday
Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sunday are the last three Sundays before Lent. Quinquagesima ("fiftieth"), is the fiftieth day before Easter, reckoning inclusively; but Sexagesima is not the sixtieth day and Septuagesima is not the seventieth but is the sixty-fourth day prior. The use of these terms was abandoned by the Catholic Church in the 1970 calendar reforms (the Sundays before Lent are now simply "Sundays in ordinary time" with no special status). However, their use is still continued in Lutheran tradition: for example, "Septuagesimae".
Shavuot is the Jewish Pentecost, or 'Festival of Weeks'. For Karaite Jews it always falls on a Sunday.
Stir-up Sunday is the last Sunday before Advent.
Super Bowl Sunday
Trinity Sunday is the first Sunday after Pentecost.
Whitsunday "White Sunday" is the day of Pentecost.