document_title: Kia Sportage

question_text: when did the new shape kia sportage come out

text: Kia Sportage

text: First generation (NB-7; 1993–2004)[edit]

text:
First generation (NB-7)

Overview

Production
July 1993 – 2004

Assembly
South Korea: Hwaseong (Hwaseong Plant)
Germany: Osnabrück (Karmann)
Russia: Kaliningrad (Avtotor)

Body and chassis

Body style
3-door convertible
5-door compact SUV

Layout
Front-engine, rear-wheel drive
Front-engine, four-wheel drive

Related
Mazda Bongo

Powertrain

Engine
2.0 L FE I4 (gasoline)
2.0 L FE DOHC I4 (gasoline)
2.0 L RF I4 (diesel)

Transmission
4-speed automatic
5-speed manual

Dimensions

Wheelbase
2,650 mm (104.3 in)

Length
4,440 mm (174.8 in)

Width
1,855 mm (73.0 in)

Height
1,635 mm (64.4 in)

text: The first-generation Kia Sportage was developed with a Mazda Bongo engineering base platform. It shares many mechanical components such as the engine, transmissions (early versions), and differentials with the Mazda line of vehicles. This was during Kia's alliance with Ford and Mazda, which involved Ford/Mazda providing technology and Kia providing inexpensive manufacturing facilities for Ford.

text: Early in 1994, an experimental project was attempted between Kia Motors with Daimler-Benz AG. A small number of converted three-door convertibles into two-door pickups, designated GLL200, were produced. Actual production numbers have never been verified, but rumored to be no more than a 25 units assembled. All were test marketed through franchise dealerships in Seoul, South Korea and Taipei, Taiwan. The collaboration was soon abandoned as Daimler unexpectedly withdrew before a formal agreement was achieved.

text: From 1995 to 1998, the Sportage was built by Karmann in Germany; thus, European buyers received German-built versions between these years, while the rest of the world received South Korean-built versions. It was launched in Asia in July 1993 but European sales did not start until two years later.

text: The Sportage was sold in either a five-door SUV or a three-door soft-top convertible. Kia initially developed the wagon in standard length form, but in circa 1996, the company released an extended length version. This stretched model—mainly sold in Asian markets under the name "Sportage Grand", but also as the "Grand Wagon"—featured a 305 mm (12.0 in) longer body utilising the same wheelbase, an increase in luggage capacity from 1,570 to 2,220 liters (55.4 to 78.4 cu ft), and the relocation of the spare wheel from the tailgate to underneath the floor.[1]

text: Kia offered three Mazda-sourced engines in the Sportage, beginning with the 2.0-liter FE DOHC inline-four gasoline unit producing 95 kW (128 hp) and the 2.0-liter RF inline-four diesel rated at 61 kW (82 hp). Diesel-engined models were mostly restricted to European markets, as was the more basic single overhead camshaft (SOHC) version of the 2.0-liter FE gasoline inline-four. Delivering 87 kW (117 hp), this gasoline engine was available from 2000 onwards. In North America, the 2.0-liter FE DOHC engine produced 130 hp (97 kW) and had optional four-wheel drive. The 1997 model year Kia Sportage was the world's first production vehicle to be equipped with a knee airbag.[2]

text: This first-generation model (1993–2002) sold in low numbers even domestically in South Korea, and post-Hyundai takeover models (1997–2002) were recalled twice for rear wheels dismounting while driving. The first-generation Sportage was discontinued in South Korea in 2002, and in North America after the 2002 model year. By 2003, most international markets had discontinued the Sportage range, although it did remain on sale in some developing countries until its second-generation replacement arrived in 2005.

text: The Kia Sportage scored the lowest possible result in the Australian ANCAP crash tests – one star out of five. As well as a failure of the seat belts, the vehicle structure collapsed.[3]

text: Second generation (JE/KM; 2004–2010)[edit]

text:
Second generation (JE/KM)

Overview

Production
2004–2010

Assembly
South Korea: Gwangju (Gwangju Plant)
China: Yancheng (Yancheng Plant)
Ecuador: Quito (AYMESA)
Malaysia: Gurun (NAM)
Russia: Kaliningrad (Avtotor)[4]
Slovakia: Žilina (Žilina Plant)
Ukraine: Zaporizhia (AvtoZAZ)[5]

Body and chassis

Body style
5-door compact SUV

Layout
Front-engine, front-wheel drive / Four-wheel drive

Related
Hyundai Elantra
Hyundai Matrix
Hyundai Tucson
Hyundai Tiburon
Kia Spectra

Powertrain

Engine
2.0 L Beta II I4 (gasoline)
2.7 L Delta V6 (gasoline)
2.0 L CRDI I4-T (diesel)

Transmission
4-speed automatic
5-speed manual
6-speed manual

Dimensions

Wheelbase
103.5 in (2,629 mm)

Length
171.3 in (4,351 mm)

Width
2005–08: 70.9 in (1,801 mm)
2007–08 4WD (Europe): 1,840 mm (72.4 in)
2007–08 2WD (Europe): 1,800 mm (70.9 in)

Height
66.7 in (1,694 mm)
2007–08 (Europe): 1,730 mm (68.1 in)

text: After a two-year hiatus, the model-year 2005 Sportage returned, sharing its Elantra-based platform with the 2005 Hyundai Tucson. The Sportage also had a 2.0 L straight-4 Diesel engine available in the United Kingdom. Pricing starts at just over US$16,000. Critics and fans of the original, pre-Hyundai Sportage complain that it is considerably larger than the original Sportage and has none of the earlier off-road capability, the two keys for its success. However, buyers of the second-generation model are likely to favor the available 173 hp (129 kW) V6, with 178 lb·ft of torque (241 N·m). Overall fit/finish and quality is noticeably improved over the first-generation model.[citation needed]

text: Facelift model of the second generation was introduced in May 2008. Since 2007, it is manufactured at the Žilina Plant in Slovakia. A second facelift was introduced in the UK in early 2009 only a few months after its first facelift.

text: The Sportage was named as one of the most reliable vehicles from the 2009 Consumer Reports reliability survey.[6] The Kia Sportage ranked second in the "20 least expensive 2009 vehicles to insure" list by Insure.com. According to research, the Sportage is one of the least expensive vehicles to insure. Low rates tend to reflect a vehicle's safety.[7]

text: Safety[edit]

text: The second-generation Kia Sportage earned a top rating of five stars in crash tests by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. However, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) judged it merely acceptable for frontal and side-impact crash, performance, and poor strength of its roof in a rollover.[8]

text:
Test
Rating

Overall:

Moderate overlap front:
Average

Side:
Average

Roof strength:
Poor

Head restraints & seats:
Poor

text: Third generation (SL; 2010–2015)[edit]

text:
Third generation (SL)

Overview

Also called
Kia Sportage R (South Korea & China)

Production
2010–2015

Assembly
South Korea: Gwangju (Gwangju Plant)
Malaysia: Gurun (NAM)
Russia: Kaliningrad (Avtotor)
Slovakia: Žilina (Žilina Plant)

Designer
Peter Schreyer

Body and chassis

Body style
5-door compact SUV

Related
Hyundai Tucson

Powertrain

Engine
1.6 L I4 GDI petrol
2.0 L I4 petrol
2.0 L I4 GDI (turbo)
2.4 L I4 petrol
1.7 L I4 CRDi turbo diesel
2.0 L I4 CRDi turbo diesel

Transmission
6-speed automatic
6-speed manual
5-speed manual

Dimensions

Wheelbase
2,640 mm (103.9 in)

Length
4,445 mm (175.0 in)

Width
1,855 mm (73.0 in)

Height
1,645 mm (64.8 in)

text: The SL series Kia Sportage was released in April 2010 to Asian and European markets, followed by the North and Central American markets in August 2010 for model year 2011. Australian models were released in October 2010.[9] It currently uses a 2.0-liter Hyundai R diesel engine with 184 hp (137 kW). Also, a 2.0-liter Theta T-GDI gasoline engine was available. The third generation receives a mid-generational refresh for the 2014 model year, with new headlamps, fog lamps, etc.

text: In China, the third generation, called the Sportage R, was released by Dongfeng Yueda Kia in October 2010, and is to be built and marketed alongside the previous generation rather than as a replacement of the existing model.[10]

text: The Sportage won the 2011 Car of the Year (originally "Auto roku 2011 na Slovensku") in Slovakia and "Truck of the Year" nomination of International Car of the Year. The Kia Sportage was top of the JD Power Survey for 2012, it was the only car in the survey to score five stars across all categories, from mechanical reliability to ownership costs and the dealer experience.

text: Safety[edit]

text: The third-generation Kia Sportage received a "Top Safety Pick" rating from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) in the United States.[11] Earning the award became tougher in 2010 when IIHS added the rollover crash test, which measures roof strength and is twice as stringent as the federal requirement. To pass this test, a vehicle's roof must be able to withstand the force of three times the vehicle's weight (acceptable rating). The federal standard requires a roof to hold 1.5 times the vehicle's weight.[12]

text:
Test
Rating

Overall:

Small overlap front:
Poor

Moderate overlap front:
Good

Side:
Good

Roof strength:
Good

Head restraints & seats:
Good

text: Awards[edit]

text: In South Africa, the Sportage took the 2013 Standard Bank People's Wheels Award for "SUVs and Crossovers – City & Suburban".[13][14]

text: Fourth generation (QL; 2015–present)[edit]

text:
Fourth generation (QL)

Overview

Also called
Kia KX5 (China)

Production
September 2015–present

Assembly
South Korea: Gwangju (Gwangju Plant)
Slovakia: Žilina (Žilina Plant)
Malaysia: Gurun (NAM)
Algeria: Batna (GLOVIZ) [15]
Russia: Kaliningrad (Avtotor)

Designer
Peter Schreyer

Body and chassis

Body style
5-door compact SUV

Related
Hyundai Tucson

Powertrain

Engine
1.6 L I4 (gasoline)
1.6 L I4 (turbocharged petrol)
2.0 L Nu I4 (gasoline)
2.0 L Theta II I4 (turbocharged gasoline)
2.4 L Theta II I4 (gasoline)
1.7 L I4 (turbocharged diesel);2.0 L 4l CRDI

Transmission
6-speed automatic
6-speed manual
7-speed DCT

Dimensions

Wheelbase
2,670 mm (105.1 in)

Length
4,480 mm (176.4 in)

Width
1,855 mm (73.0 in)

Height
1,645 mm (64.8 in)

text: Kia unveiled its newly redesigned Sportage at the Frankfurt Auto Show in September 2015, with plans to bring it to market as a 2016 model. The company said the contrasting sharp edges and smooth surfaces were inspired by modern fighter jets.[16]

text: There are three petrol engines, as well as one diesel engine in the line-up. The petrol options are a 1.6-litre, 2.0-litre or 2.4-litre, offering around 97 kW/161 N⋅m, 120 kW/200 N⋅m and 138 kW/241 N⋅m respectively, while the diesel is a 2.0-litre turbo that will produce around 135 kW/400 N⋅m. A 130 kW/265 N⋅m 1.6 T-GDi turbo-petrol with an optional seven-speed dual-clutch automatic, and a 136 kW/400Nm 2.0 R-Series diesel. Front- (FWD) and all-wheel drive (AWD) configurations are available.

text: In North America, the new Sportage will be offered with three trim levels (LX, EX, and SX). Much like the previous model it will come available with two inline-four engine choices, a naturally aspirated 2.4-liter and a turbocharged 2.0-liter. The 2.4-liter produces 181 hp (135 kW) and 175 lb⋅ft (237 N⋅m), while the turbocharged engine makes 240 hp (180 kW) and 260 lb⋅ft (350 N⋅m), with small differences in performance dependent on whether FWD or AWD is configured. Both engines are mated to a six-speed automatic transmission.

text: Safety[edit]

text: The 2017 Sportage received a "Top Safety Pick" rating from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).[17]

text:
Test
Rating

Overall:

Small overlap front:
Good

Moderate overlap front:
Good

Side:
Good

Roof strength:
Good

Head restraints & seats:
Good

Front crash prevention:
Superior

Headlights:
Poor

Child seat anchors (Latch) ease of use:
Acceptable

text: Awards[edit]

text: The Sportage won the 2016 Red Dot Award for Car Design.[18]

text: Sales[edit]

text: The Sportage was Kia's best selling model worldwide in 2016, overtaking the Rio.[19]

text:
Calendar year
United States[20]
Canada
Global

1998
28,582

1999
52,383

2000
62,350

2001
52,369

2002
39,436

2003
5,616

2004
121

2005
29,009

2006
37,071

2007
49,393

2008
32,754

2009
42,509

2010
23,873

2011
47,463

2012
36,357

359,742[21]

2013
32,965

2014
42,945

2015
53,739
6,509[22]
399,969[23]

2016
81,066

515,067[19]

2017
72,824


document_title: Big Little Lies (TV series)

question_text: who dies in big little lies season 1

question_tokens: who dies in big little lies season 1

root

text: Big Little Lies (TV series)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Reese Witherspoon as Madeline Martha Mackenzie
Nicole Kidman as Celeste Wright
Shailene Woodley as Jane Chapman
Alexander Skarsgård as Perry Wright, Celeste's husband
Adam Scott as Ed Mackenzie, Madeline's husband
Zoë Kravitz as Bonnie Carlson, Nathan's second wife
James Tupper as Nathan Carlson, Madeline's ex-husband
Jeffrey Nordling as Gordon Klein, Renata's husband
Laura Dern as Renata Klein
Kathryn Newton as Abigail Carlson (season 2, recurring season 1), Madeline's elder daughter
Sarah Sokolovic as Tori Bachman (season 2, recurring season 1)
Meryl Streep as Mary Louise Wright (season 2), Perry's mother
Crystal Fox as Elizabeth Howard (season 2)

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Iain Armitage as Ziggy Chapman, Jane's son
Sarah Baker as Thea Cunningham
Sarah Burns as Gabrielle
P. J. Byrne as Principal Nippal
Santiago Cabrera as Joseph
Darby Camp as Chloe Mackenzie, Madeline's younger daughter
Hong Chau as Jackie
Kelen Coleman as Harper Stimson
Cameron Crovetti as Josh Wright, Celeste's son
Nicholas Crovetti as Max Wright, Celeste's son
Merrin Dungey as Detective Adrienne Quinlan
Ivy George as Amabella Klein, Renata's daughter
Virginia Kull as Ms. Barnes, the children's elementary teacher
Chloe Coleman as Skye Carlson, Bonnie's daughter
Molly Hagan as Dr. Moriarty, Ziggy's child psychologist
Larry Sullivan as Oren
David Monahan as Bernard
Kathreen Khavari as Samantha
Joseph Cross as Tom, Madeline and Celeste's favorite cafe owner
Robin Weigert as Dr. Amanda Reisman, Perry and Celeste's therapist
Larry Bates as Stu
Douglas Smith as Corey Brockfield (season 2)
Mo McRae as Michael Perkins (season 2)
Martin Donovan as Martin Howard (season 2)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"Somebody's Dead"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
February 19, 2017 (2017-02-19)
1.13[3]

At a public school in Monterey, a murder suddenly occurs on trivia night, but neither the victim nor the murderer is revealed. Backtracking to the first day of school, the families of five first-graders are introduced. Madeline Martha Mackenzie is a strong-willed, wealthy, and feared alpha female in town with a first-grade daughter and teenage daughter from an earlier marriage. Her friend, retired lawyer Celeste Wright, is the mother of twin sons who are also beginning at that same school. New to town is Jane Chapman – a young single mother raising her son, Ziggy. Renata Klein's daughter Amabella accuses Ziggy of attempting to choke her, which he denies. Madeline and Celeste befriend Jane. Secrets are revealed, including that Madeline is struggling to cope with her ex-husband Nathan's marriage to a yoga instructor named Bonnie and also trying to build a relationship with her older daughter. Celeste appears to have a very happy life with her husband Perry, but he starts to show signs of being violent. Jane's motives for moving to Monterey are unknown.

2
"Serious Mothering"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
February 26, 2017 (2017-02-26)
0.56[4]

Perry lashes out at Celeste when he discovers he missed orientation at the school, but Celeste lets it slide. Jane looks for work with little success. Madeline goes on the warpath with Renata when it is revealed Renata did not invite Ziggy to Amabella's birthday party. Ed questions Madeline's devotion to him when she continues to complain about seeing Nathan with Bonnie all the time. Madeline is further disturbed when Bonnie takes her oldest daughter, Abby, to Planned Parenthood. Nathan tries to come to a peaceful resolution with Ed about their parenting of Abby, but Ed senses Nathan trying to intimidate him and stands firm. Madeline's younger daughter, Chloe, and Bonnie's daughter, Skye, attempt to mend the wounds between Ziggy and Amabella but it leads to an incident of unwanted affection and the parents of the four children are called into the principal's office, leading Jane to have a flashback of an unwanted episode.

3
"Living the Dream"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
March 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
1.04[5]

Perry chokes Celeste when he believes she deliberately left him out of a family gathering, after which Celeste threatens to leave him. Renata's party for Amabella is a huge success but she is ultimately upset when Madeline invited Amabella's closest friends and Ziggy to Disney on Ice on the same day. At therapy, Perry claims his outbursts are out of fear that Celeste does not love him, which Celeste attempts to deny. When Abby's academic performance begins to decline her guidance counselor suggests it is being caused by stress at home so Abby decides to live with Nathan, much to Madeline's dismay. Jane gets Ziggy involved with more extracurricular activities and helps him construct a family tree for school with Madeline's help. Jane lashes out at Ziggy when he insists on putting his father's name on the tree, and Jane confides to Madeline that Ziggy was the result of rape by a man named Saxon Banks, whom she has not seen since.

4
"Push Comes to Shove"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
March 12, 2017 (2017-03-12)
1.04[6]

Abigail moves in with Nathan and Bonnie. Celeste legally represents Joseph and Madeline in a meeting with the Mayor regarding the controversial Avenue Q, and successfully convinces the Mayor to allow the play to proceed. In the process, she realizes her desire to return to work. She asks her therapist how to best convince Perry but Dr. Reisman is more concerned with why Celeste is afraid to do so. At home, Perry tells Celeste not to attend any future meetings. When she refuses, he grabs her by the throat but quickly relinquishes when one of their boys enters the room. Joseph and Madeline kiss and it is revealed they had an affair a year ago. Madeline locates a man online named Saxon Baker whom she believes to be Saxon Banks. She informs Jane and Celeste, and they plan to travel to San Luis Obispo to confront him. Ms. Barnes, the teacher, suspects Amabella is still being bullied. Despite Amabella's assertions that she and Ziggy are friends, Ms. Barnes requests Jane to have Ziggy psychologically evaluated. The psychologist believes that Ziggy is innocent and that he may actually be being bullied himself.

5
"Once Bitten"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
March 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)
1.17[7]

Nathan spots Jane at the gun range and tells Madeline. Although Jane reassures Madeline that she carries a gun solely for its psychological benefits, Madeline begins to regret tracking down Saxon Baker. Renata discovers a bite mark on Amabella's arm, but Amabella refuses to disclose who bit her. Renata assumes it is Ziggy and a meeting is held between Jane and the school principal. Joseph is convinced Madeline still has feelings for him but she maintains that their affair is over. While they argue, their car crashes. Madeline is uninjured, while Joseph is hospitalized. The incident raises suspicion from Ed and Joseph's wife, Tori. Perry is angered when Celeste does not ask the twins to tidy their toys. A confrontation triggers further violence from Perry, followed by aggressive sex. Later, Dr. Reisman confronts Celeste with the belief that Celeste is being abused; Celeste eventually reveals that she has previously feared for her life and had considered leaving Perry. Dr. Reisman urges Celeste to leave him. Jane secretly travels to San Luis Obispo to confront Saxon Baker, taking her gun with her.

6
"Burning Love"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
March 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)
1.39[8]

Jane reveals to Madeline that she went to confront Saxon Baker, who turns out to be the wrong man. Madeline attempts to convince Jane to give up the search. Ms. Barnes relays to Jane that a petition has begun to have Ziggy suspended. Jane confronts Renata and mistakenly gouges her eye. Jane apologizes, realizing that they have both want to protect their children. Renata forgives Jane and reveals her plan to schedule play-dates with each of Amabella's classmates to discover who is hurting her. Celeste's therapist advises her to prepare to leave Perry by renting an apartment and disclosing the abuse to friends. Later, Perry tries to initiate sex with Celeste, who defensively fractures his penis. Returning from the hospital, Perry tells Celeste she is "lucky" he did not kill her. The following day she begins looking for an apartment. At the opening night of Avenue Q, Tori confronts Madeline about having an affair with Joseph. At home, Madeline and Ed have another argument about her lack of passion toward him, which culminates in her alluding to having made a "terrible mistake". Nathan discovers that Abigail's "secret project" is auctioning her virginity to raise money for Amnesty International. Madeline furiously confronts Abigail, disclosing her affair in the process.

7
"You Get What You Need"
Jean-Marc Vallée
David E. Kelley
April 2, 2017 (2017-04-02)
1.86[9]

Following another beating, Celeste decides to leave Perry the day after trivia night. Ziggy confesses to Jane that it was Max who choked Amabella. Madeline talks to Joseph about his wife knowing about their affair. Jane tells Celeste that her son Max is the bully. When preparing to leave for trivia night, Perry sees a text message on Celeste's phone from the landlady of her new apartment. He confronts her on the way to the party, but is interrupted by Renata. At the party, Celeste tells Renata that Max is the bully. Meanwhile, a drunk Madeline runs away during Ed's singing performance. Jane goes after her and finds her atop stairs at the back of the venue. Madeline tells Jane that she cheated on Ed. Renata also goes after them and apologizes to Jane for having blamed Ziggy. Celeste joins the women, followed by Perry. Bonnie follows them and watches the group from afar. Jane sees Perry and realizes that he is the rapist. Perry pleads with Celeste to come back home with him and when she declines he attacks her. Bonnie rushes in and pushes Perry down the stairs, killing him. In the police interviews, the women confirm that there was a fight with Perry but claim he fell accidentally. Despite one of the detectives being skeptical, the police accept their version. Later, the five women and their children lounge at the beach while being watched from afar.

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On August 6, 2014, it was announced Nicole Kidman and Reese Witherspoon had optioned the screen rights to Liane Moriarty's novel Big Little Lies. The actresses were expected to develop the project as a film in which they would both star. Bruna Papandrea and Per Saari were set to executive produce alongside Kidman and Witherspoon. Moriarty was also expected to produce as well.[10]

tag: p

text: On November 25, 2014, it was announced that Kidman and Witherspoon had decided to develop the project into a limited television instead of the originally planned film. Additionally, it was announced that television series would be written by David E. Kelley.[11]

text: On May 8, 2015, it was announced that HBO had given the production a series order and that in addition to writing, Kelley would also executive produce.[12]

text: On October 23, 2015, it was reported that Jean-Marc Vallée was in talks to direct the first episode of the series with the potential to direct more.[13] On December 17, 2015, it was announced that Vallée would direct all seven episodes of the series.[14]

text: On November 28, 2016, it was announced that the series would premiere on February 19, 2017.[15]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Alongside the initial announcement of the production's development, it was reported that Kidman and Witherspoon would also star in the adaptation as well.[11][12] In December 2015, it announced that Shailene Woodley, Adam Scott, Laura Dern, and Zoë Kravitz had joined the cast in lead roles.[16][17][18][19] On January 5, 2016, it was announced that Alexander Skarsgard and James Tupper had joined the main cast and that Jeffrey Nordling, Santiago Cabrera, P. J. Byrne, Kelen Coleman, Sarah Burns, Darby Camp, Cameron and Nicholas Crovetti, Ivy George, Chloe Coleman, Virginia Kull, Sarah Baker, Kathreen Khavari, Larry Bates, Hong Chau, and Gia Carides had joined the show's supporting cast.[20] A few days later, it was reported that Iain Armitage had joined the cast in the role of Woodley's character's son.[21] Soon after that, it was reported that Merrin Dungey, Larry Sullivan, and David Monahan had also joined the cast.[22]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: On January 24, 2018, it was announced that Meryl Streep had joined the main cast in the role of Mary Louise Wright, the mother of Perry (played by Alexander Skarsgard in Season 1).[23] In February 2018, it was confirmed that Shailene Woodley, Laura Dern, Zoë Kravitz, Adam Scott, James Tupper, Jeffrey Nordling and Iain Armitage were returning for the second season.[24][25][26] On March 27, 2018, it was announced that Douglas Smith had joined the cast in a recurring role.[27][28] On April 3, 2018, it was confirmed that Kathryn Newton, Robin Weigert, Merrin Dungey, and Sarah Sokolovic were returning for the second season. Newton and Sokolovic have been upped from recurring roles to series regulars. Additionally, it was announced that Crystal Fox had joined the cast in a main role and that Mo McRae would appear in a recurring capacity.[29] On April 10, 2018, it was announced that Martin Donovan had been cast in a recurring role.[30]

text: Filming[edit]

text: The series was shot with an Arri Alexa digital camera. Jean-Marc Vallée, who directed the entirety of the first season, preferred using natural lighting and handheld shooting style to allow actors to move freely around the set.[31]

text: Release[edit]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: On October 16, 2016, HBO released the first teaser trailer for the series.[32] On December 5, 2016, HBO released a full length trailer for the series.[33]

text: Premiere[edit]

text: On February 7, 2017, the series held its official premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles, California.[34][35]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Internationally, the series premiered on February 20, 2017, in Australia on Showcase,[36] and on March 13, 2017, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky Atlantic.[37]

text: Renewal[edit]

text: The show was initially conceived of and billed as a miniseries of seven episodes. In the wake of the Emmy nominations, Reese Witherspoon said: "As of right now, I think it's pretty whole. I feel really good about where it is, and if this is all it ever was, it's a beautiful thing we all accomplished together",[31] while Vallée came out strongly against the idea of producing a second season: "There's no reason to make a season two. That was meant to be a one-time deal, and it's finishing in a way where it's for the audience to imagine what can happen. If we do a season two, we'll break that beautiful thing and spoil it".[38] Later, when the show garnered an array of critical accolades, he changed his mind: "It'd be great to reunite the team and to do it. Are we going to be able to do it, altogether? I wish."[39]

text: In July 2017, two weeks after the series was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series, HBO revealed that a second season was possible, and that Moriarty had been asked to write a story for it.[40] In December 2017, after the Critics' Choice Television Award and Golden Globe Award nomination voting periods were over,[41] HBO officially renewed the series for a seven-episode second season to be written by David E. Kelley and directed by Andrea Arnold.[42] Vallée will remain an executive producer of the series.[43] Meryl Streep will join the cast as the mother of Alexander Skarsgård's character.[44]

text: The announcement of the second season, and—specifically—its timing, enraged the producers of rival shows that are competing for award nomination in the limited series category.[45] Immediately following HBO's decision to produce a second installment of Big Little Lies, the Producers Guild of America moved to reclassify the original installment of the show from a limited series to a drama series for the upcoming 2018 PGA Awards.[46]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Big Little Lies received critical acclaim. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92% approval rating from a total of 94 reviews, with an average rating of 7.99/10 and an average episode score of 97%. The site's critical consensus reads, "Bitingly funny and highly addictive, Big Little Lies is a twisty, thrilling, enlightening ride led by a first-rate cast."[47] Metacritic reported a score of 75 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[48]

text: Time magazine listed Big Little Lies as one of its top ten television shows of 2017.[49]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Somebody's Dead"
February 19, 2017
0.3
1.13[3]
0.3
N/A
0.6[50]
N/A

2
"Serious Mothering"
February 26, 2017
0.2
0.56[4]
0.3
0.84
0.5
1.39[51]

3
"Living the Dream"
March 5, 2017
0.4
1.04[5]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

4
"Push Comes to Shove"
March 12, 2017
0.4
1.04[6]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

5
"Once Bitten"
March 19, 2017
0.4
1.17[7]
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

6
"Burning Love"
March 26, 2017
0.5
1.39[8]
0.3
N/A
0.8[52]
N/A

7
"You Get What You Need"
April 2, 2017
0.7
1.86[9]
0.3
0.93
1.0
2.79[53]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

2017
American Film Institute Awards
Top Ten Television Programs of the Year
Big Little Lies
Won
[54]

Emmy Awards
Outstanding Casting for a Limited Series, Movie or Special
David Rubin
Won
[55]

Outstanding Cinematography for a Limited Series or Movie
Yves Bélanger
Nominated

Outstanding Contemporary Costumes for a Series, Limited Series or Movie
Alix Friedberg, Risa Garcia and Patricia McLaughlin
Won

Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie or Dramatic Special
Jean-Marc Vallée
Won

Outstanding Hairstyling for a Limited Series or Movie
Michelle Ceglia, Nickole C. Jones, Lona Vigi, Frances Mathias and Jocelyn Mulhern
Nominated

Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie
Nicole Kidman
Won

Reese Witherspoon
Nominated

Outstanding Limited Series
Big Little Lies
Won

Outstanding Makeup for a Limited Series or Movie (Non-Prosthetic)
Steve Artmont, Nicole Artmont, Angela Levin, Molly R Stern and Claudia Humburg
Nominated

Outstanding Music Supervision
Susan Jacobs
Won

Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Limited Series or Movie
Veronique Barbe, David Berman, Justin LaChance, Maxime Lahaie, Sylvain Lebel and Jim Vega
Nominated

Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Limited Series or Movie
Gavin Fernandes, Louis Gignac and Brendan Beebe
Nominated

Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Limited Series or Movie
Alexander Skarsgård
Won

Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie
Laura Dern
Won

Shailene Woodley
Nominated

Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie or Dramatic Special
David E. Kelley
Nominated

Golden Globe Awards
Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film
Nicole Kidman
Won
[56]

Reese Witherspoon
Nominated

Best Miniseries or Television Film
Big Little Lies
Won

Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Alexander Skarsgård
Won

Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film
Laura Dern
Won

Shailene Woodley
Nominated

TCA Awards
Individual Achievement in Drama
Nicole Kidman
Nominated
[57]

Outstanding Achievement in Movies, Miniseries and Specials
Big Little Lies
Won

Program of the Year
Big Little Lies
Nominated

2018
ACE Eddie Awards
Best Edited Drama Series for Non-Commercial Television
David Berman
Nominated
[58]

Art Directors Guild Awards
Television Movie or Limited Series
John Paino (for "Somebody's Dead", "Living the Dream", "You Get What You Need")
Nominated
[59]

Cinema Audio Society Awards
Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Television Movie or Mini-Series
Brendan Beebe, Gavin Fernandes, Louis Gignac (for "You Get What You Need")
Nominated
[60]

Costume Designers Guild Awards
Excellence in Contemporary Television Series
Alix Friedberg
Nominated
[61]

Critics' Choice Television Awards
Best Actress in a Movie Made for TV or Limited Series
Nicole Kidman
Won
[62]

Reese Witherspoon
Nominated

Best Limited Series
Big Little Lies
Won

Best Supporting Actor in a Movie Made for TV or Limited Series
Alexander Skarsgård
Won

Best Supporting Actress in a Movie Made for TV or Limited Series
Laura Dern
Won

Location Managers Guild Awards
Outstanding Locations in Contemporary Television
Greg Alpert
Nominated
[63]

Producers Guild of America Awards
Norman Felton Award for Outstanding Producer of Episodic Television, Drama
Big Little Lies
Nominated
[64]

Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Television Movie or Limited Series
Laura Dern
Nominated
[65]

Nicole Kidman
Won

Reese Witherspoon
Nominated

Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Limited Series
Alexander Skarsgård
Won

Writers Guild of America Awards
Long Form – Adapted
David E. Kelley
Won
[66]

USC Scripter Awards
Best Adapted TV Screenplay
David E. Kelley and Liane Moriarty
(for "You Get What You Need")
Nominated
[67]

text: Media[edit]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack for the series was released on Google Play and iTunes on March 31, 2017.[68]

text: Blu-ray and DVD[edit]

text: The first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on August 1, 2017.[69]


document_title: Tempo

question_text: accelerando is a term indicating that the tempo is

text: Tempo

text: Measurement[edit]

text:
120 bpm tempo

120 bpm tempo

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text:
While tempo is described or indicated in many different ways, including with a range of words (e.g., "Slowly", "Adagio" and so on), it is typically measured in beats per minute (bpm or BPM). For example, a tempo of 60 beats per minute signifies one beat per second, while a tempo of 120 beats per minute is twice as rapid, signifying one beat every 0.5 seconds. The note value of a beat will typically be that indicated by the meter signature. For instance, in 4
4 the beat will be a crotchet or quarter note.

text: This measurement of tempo became increasingly popular during the first half of the 19th century, after the metronome had been invented by Johann Nepomuk Maelzel. Beethoven was one of the first composers to use the metronome; in the 1810s he published metronomic indications for the eight symphonies he had composed up to that time.[1]

text: With the advent of modern electronics, bpm became an extremely precise measure. Music sequencers use the bpm system to denote tempo.[citation needed] Instead of beats per minute, some 20th-century composers (e.g., Béla Bartók, Alberto Ginastera, and John Cage) specify the total playing time for a piece, from which the performer can derive tempo.[citation needed]Tempo is as crucial in contemporary music as it is in classical. In popular music genres such as electronic dance music, accurate knowledge of a tune's bpm is important to DJs for the purposes of beatmatching.[citation needed] The speed of a piece of music can also be gauged according to measures per minute (mpm) or bars per minute, the number of bars of the piece performed in one minute. This measure is commonly used in ballroom dance music.[2]

text: Choosing speed[edit]

text: In different musical contexts, different instrumental musicians, singers, conductors, bandleaders, music directors or other individuals will select the tempo of a song or piece. In a popular music or traditional music group or band, the bandleader or lead singer may select the tempo. In popular and traditional music, whoever is setting the tempo often counts out one or two bars in tempo. In some songs or pieces in which a singer or solo instrumentalist begins the work with a solo introduction (prior to the start of the full group), the tempo they set will provide the tempo for the group. In an orchestra or concert band, the conductor normally sets the tempo. In a marching band, the drum major may set the tempo. In a sound recording, in some cases a record producer may set the tempo for a song (although this would be less likely with an experienced bandleader).

text: Musical vocabulary[edit]

text: In classical music it is customary to describe the tempo of a piece by one or more words, most commonly in Italian, in addition to or instead of a metronome mark in beats per minute. Italian is typically used because it was the language of most composers during the time these descriptions became commonplace.[3] Some well-known Italian tempo indications include "Allegro", "Andante" and "Presto".This practice developed during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Baroque and Classical periods. In the earlier Renaissance music, performers understood most music to flow at a tempo defined by the tactus (roughly the rate of the human heartbeat).[4] The mensural time signature indicated which note value corresponded to the tactus.

text: In the Baroque period, pieces would typically be given an indication, which might be a tempo marking (e.g. Allegro), or the name of a dance (e.g. Allemande or Sarabande) - the latter being an indication both of tempo and of metre. Any musician of the time was expected to know how to interpret these markings based on custom and experience. In some cases, however, these markings were simply omitted. For example, the first movement of Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 has no tempo or mood indication whatsoever. Despite the increasing number of explicit tempo markings, musicians still observe conventions, expecting a minuet to be at a fairly stately tempo, slower than a Viennese waltz; a perpetuum mobile quite fast, and so on. Genres imply tempos. Thus, Ludwig van Beethoven wrote "In tempo d'un Menuetto" over the first movement of his Piano Sonata Op. 54, though that movement is not a minuet.

text: Many tempo markings also indicate mood and expression. For example, presto and allegro both indicate a speedy execution (presto being faster), but allegro also connotes joy (from its original meaning in Italian). Presto, on the other hand, simply indicates speed. Additional Italian words also indicate tempo and mood. For example, the "agitato" in the Allegro agitato of the last movement of George Gershwin's piano concerto in F has both a tempo indication (undoubtedly faster than a usual Allegro) and a mood indication ("agitated").

text: Often, composers (or music publishers) name movements of compositions after their tempo (or mood) marking. For instance, the second movement of Samuel Barber's first String Quartet is an Adagio.[5]

text: Often a particular musical form or genre implies its own tempo, so composers need place no further explanation in the score.[citation needed] Popular music charts use terms such as bossa nova, ballad, and Latin rock in much the same way.[original research?] Lead sheets and fake book music for jazz or popular music may use several terms, and may include a tempo term and a genre term, such as "slow blues", "medium shuffle" or "fast rock".

text: Basic tempo markings[edit]

text:
Here follows a list of common tempo markings. The beats per minute (bpm) values are very rough approximations for 4
4 time.

text: These terms have also been used inconsistently through time and in different geographical areas. One striking example is that Allegretto hastened as a tempo from the 18th to the 19th century: originally it was just above Andante, instead of just below Allegro as it is now.[6] As another example, a modern largo is slower than an adagio, but in the Baroque period it was faster.[7]

text: From slowest to fastest:

text:
Larghissimo – very, very slow (24 bpm and under)
Adagissimo [8]
Sostenuto [9]
Grave – very slow (25–45 bpm)
Largo – broadly (40–60 bpm)
Lento – slowly (45–60 bpm)
Larghetto – rather broadly (60–66 bpm)
Adagio – slowly with great expression[10] (66–76 bpm)
Adagietto – slower than andante (72–76 bpm)
Andante – at a walking pace (76–108 bpm)
Andantino – slightly faster than andante (although, in some cases, it can be taken to mean slightly slower than andante) (80–108 bpm)
Marcia moderato – moderately, in the manner of a march[11][12] (83–85 bpm)
Andante moderato – between andante and moderato (thus the name) (92–112 bpm)
Moderato – at a moderate speed (108–120 bpm)
Allegretto – by the mid 19th century, moderately fast (112–120 bpm); see paragraph above for earlier usage
Allegro moderato – close to, but not quite allegro (116–120 bpm)
Allegro – fast, quickly, and bright (120–156 bpm) (molto allegro is slightly faster than allegro, but always in its range)
Animato
Agitato
Veloce
Mosso Vivo [13]
Vivace – lively and fast (156–176 bpm)
Vivacissimo – very fast and lively (172–176 bpm)
Allegrissimo or Allegro vivace – very fast (172–176 bpm)
Presto – very, very fast (168–200 bpm)
Prestissimo – even faster than presto (200 bpm and over)

text: Additional terms[edit]

text:
A piacere – the performer may use his or her own discretion with regard to tempo and rhythm; literally "at pleasure"[14]
Con moto - Italian for "with movement"; can be combined with a tempo indication, e.g., Allegro con moto
Assai - (very) much
A tempo – resume previous tempo
L'istesso, L'istesso tempo, or Lo stesso tempo – at the same speed; L'istesso is used when the actual speed of the music has not changed, despite apparent signals to the contrary, such as changes in time signature or note length (half notes in 4
4 could change to whole notes in 2
2, and they would all have the same duration)[15][16]
Molto - very
Poco - a little
Subito - suddenly
Tempo comodo – at a comfortable (normal) speed
Tempo di... – the speed of a ... (such as Tempo di valse (speed of a waltz, . ≈ 60 bpm), Tempo di marcia (speed of a march,  ≈ 120 bpm))
Tempo giusto – at a consistent speed, at the 'right' speed, in strict tempo
Tempo semplice – simple, regular speed, plainly
Tempo primo – resume the original (first) tempo

text: French tempo markings[edit]

text: Several composers have written markings in French, among them baroque composers François Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as Claude Debussy, Olivier Messiaen, Maurice Ravel and Alexander Scriabin. Common tempo markings in French are:

text:
Au mouvement – play the (first or main) tempo.
Grave – slowly and solemnly
Lent – slowly
Modéré – at a moderate tempo
Moins – less, as in Moins vite (less fast)
Rapide – fast
Très – very, as in Très vif (very lively)
Vif – lively
Vite – fast

text: Erik Satie was known to write extensive tempo (and character) markings by defining them in a poetical and literal way, as in his Gnossiennes.[17]

text: German tempo markings[edit]

text: Many composers have used German tempo markings. Typical German tempo markings are:

text:
Langsam – slowly
Lebhaft – lively (mood)
Mäßig – moderately
Rasch – quickly
Schnell – fast
Bewegt – animated, with motion[18]

text: One of the first German composers to use tempo markings in his native language was Ludwig van Beethoven. The one using the most elaborate combined tempo and mood markings was probably Gustav Mahler. For example, the second movement of his Symphony No. 9 is marked Im Tempo eines gemächlichen Ländlers, etwas täppisch und sehr derb, indicating a slowish folk-dance-like movement, with some awkwardness and much vulgarity in the execution. Mahler would also sometimes combine German tempo markings with traditional Italian markings, as in the first movement of his sixth symphony, marked Allegro energico, ma non troppo. Heftig, aber markig (Energetically quick, but not too much. Violent, but vigorous[19]).

text: English tempo markings[edit]

text: English indications, for example quickly, have also been used, by Benjamin Britten and Percy Grainger, among many others. In jazz and popular music lead sheets and fake book charts, terms like "fast", "laid back", "steady rock", "medium", "medium-up", "ballad", "brisk", "up", "slowly", and similar style indications may appear. In some lead sheets and fake books, both tempo and genre are indicated, e.g., "slow blues", "fast swing", or "medium Latin". The genre indications help rhythm section instrumentalists to use the correct style of playing. For example, if a song indicates "medium shuffle", the drummer will know to play a shuffle drum pattern. Similarly, if another song is labeled "fast boogie-woogie", then the piano player will know to play a boogie-woogie bassline.

text: Tom Lehrer's anthology Too Many Songs by Tom Lehrer, uses fake English tempo markings to humorous effect. For example, Lehrer specifies that the song "National Brotherhood Week" should be played "fraternally" or "We Will All Go Together" be played "eschatologically" (and "Masochism Tango" be played "painstakingly").

text: Variation through a piece[edit]

text: Tempo is not necessarily fixed. Within a piece (or within a movement of a longer work), a composer may indicate a complete change of tempo, often by using a double bar and introducing a new tempo indication, often with a new time signature and/or key signature.

text: It is also possible to indicate a more or less gradual change in tempo, for instance with an accelerando (speeding up) or ritardando (rit., slowing down) marking. Indeed some compositions - for instance, Monti's Csárdás or the Russian Civil War song Echelon Song- are mainly composed of accelerando passages.

text: On the smaller scale, tempo rubato refers to changes in tempo within a musical phrase, often described as some notes 'borrowing' time from others.

text: Terms for change in tempo[edit]

text: Composers may use expressive marks to adjust the tempo:

text:
Accelerando – speeding up (abbreviation: accel.)
Allargando – growing broader; decreasing tempo, usually near the end of a piece
Calando – going slower (and usually also softer)
Doppio movimento / doppio più mosso – double speed
Doppio più lento – half speed
Lentando – gradual slowing and softer
Meno mosso – less movement or slower
Meno moto - less motion
Mosso – movement, more lively, or quicker, much like più mosso, but not as extreme
Più mosso – more movement or faster
Precipitando – hurrying, going faster/forward
Rallentando – gradual slowing down (abbreviation: rall.)
Ritardando – slowing down gradually; also see rallentando and ritenuto (abbreviations: rit., ritard.)
Ritenuto – slightly slower, but achieved more immediately than ritardando or rallentando; a sudden decrease in tempo; temporarily holding back.[20] (Note that the abbreviation for ritenuto can also be rit. Thus a more specific abbreviation is riten. Also sometimes ritenuto does not reflect a tempo change but a character change instead.)
Rubato – free adjustment of tempo for expressive purposes (literally "theft", so more strictly, take time from one beat to slow another)
Stretto – in faster tempo, often near the conclusion of a section. (Note that in fugal compositions, the term stretto refers to the imitation of the subject in close succession, before the subject is completed, and as such, suitable for the close of the fugue.[21] Used in this context, the term is not necessarily related to tempo.)
Stringendo – pressing on faster (literally "tightening")
Tardando – slowing down gradually (same as ritardando)[22]

text: While the base tempo indication (such as allegro) appears in large type above the staff, these adjustments typically appear below the staff or (in the case of keyboard instruments) in the middle of the grand staff.

text: They generally designate a gradual change in tempo; for immediate tempo shifts, composers normally just provide the designation for the new tempo. (Note, however, that when Più mosso or Meno mosso appears in large type above the staff, it functions as a new tempo, and thus implies an immediate change.) Several terms, e.g., assai, molto, poco, subito, control how large and how gradual a change should be (see common qualifiers).

text: After a tempo change, a composer may return to a previous tempo in two different ways:

text:
a tempo – returns to the base tempo after an adjustment (e.g. ritardando ... a tempo undoes the effect of the ritardando).
Tempo primo or Tempo Io – denotes an immediate return to the piece's original base tempo after a section in a different tempo (e.g. Allegro ... Lento ... Moderato ... Tempo Io indicates a return to the Allegro). This indication often functions as a structural marker in pieces in binary form.

text: These terms also indicate an immediate, not a gradual, tempo change. Although they are Italian, composers typically use them even if they have written their initial tempo marking in some other language.

text: Modern classical music[edit]

text: 20th-century classical music introduced a wide range of approaches to tempo, particularly thanks to the influence of modernism and later postmodernism.

text: While many composers have retained traditional tempo markings, sometimes requiring greater precision than in any preceding period, others have begun to question basic assumptions of the classical tradition like the idea of a consistent, unified, repeatable tempo. Graphic scores shows tempo and rhythm in a variety of ways. Polytemporal compositions deliberately utilise performers playing at marginally different speeds. John Cage's compositions approach tempo in diverse ways. For instance 4′33″ has a defined duration, but no actual notes, while As Slow as Possible has defined proportions but no defined duration, with one performance intended to last 639 years.

text: Electronic music[edit]

text: Extreme tempo[edit]

text: More extreme tempos are achievable at the same underlying tempo with very fast drum patterns, often expressed as drum rolls. Such compositions often exhibit a much slower underlying tempo, but may increase the tempo by adding additional percussive beats. Extreme music subgenres such as speedcore and grindcore often strive to reach unusually fast tempo. The use of extreme tempo was very common in the fast bebop jazz from the 1940s and 1950s. A common jazz tune such as "Cherokee" was often performed at quarter note equal to or sometimes exceeding 368 bpm. Some of Charlie Parker's famous tunes ("Bebop", "Shaw Nuff") have been performed at 380 bpm plus.[citation needed]

text: Beatmatching[edit]

text: In popular music genres such as disco, house music and electronic dance music, beatmatching is a technique that DJs use that involves speeding up or slowing down a record (or CDJ player, a speed-adjustable CD player for DJ use) to match the tempo of a previous or subsequent track, so both can be seamlessly mixed. Having beatmatched two songs, the DJ can either seamlessly cross fade from one song to another, or play both tracks simultaneously, creating a layered effect.

text: DJs often beatmatch the underlying tempos of recordings, rather than their strict bpm value suggested by the kick drum, particularly when dealing with high tempo tracks. A 240 bpm track, for example, matches the beat of a 120 bpm track without slowing down or speeding up, because both have an underlying tempo of 120 quarter notes per minute. Thus, some soul music (around 75–90 bpm) mixes well with a drum and bass beat (from 150–185 bpm). When speeding up or slowing down a record on a turntable, the pitch and tempo of a track are linked: spinning a disc 10% faster makes both pitch and tempo 10% higher. Software processing to change the pitch without changing the tempo, or vice versa, is called time-stretching or pitch-shifting. While it works fairly well for small adjustments (± 20%), the result can be noisy and unmusical for larger changes.[citation needed]


document_title: Microwave oven

question_text: where was the first microwave oven placed for testing

text: Microwave oven

text: History[edit]

text: Early developments[edit]

text: The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was made possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of short waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago World's Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW, 60 MHz shortwave transmitter.[2] The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and potatoes could be cooked in minutes.

text: The 1937 United States patent application by Bell Laboratories states:[3]

text: "This invention relates to heating systems for dielectric materials and the object of the invention is to heat such materials uniformly and substantially simultaneously throughout their mass. ... It has been proposed therefore to heat such materials simultaneously throughout their mass by means of the dielectric loss produced in them when they are subjected to a high voltage, high frequency field."

text: However, lower-frequency dielectric heating, as described in the aforementioned patent, is (like induction heating) an electromagnetic heating effect, the result of the so-called near-field effects that exist in an electromagnetic cavity that is small compared with the wavelength of the electromagnetic field. This patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz (wavelength 15 to 30 meters).[4] Heating from microwaves that have a wavelength that is small relative to the cavity (as in a modern microwave oven) is due to "far-field" effects that are due to classical electromagnetic radiation that describes freely propagating light and microwaves suitably far from their source. Nevertheless, the primary heating effect of all types of electromagnetic fields at both radio and microwave frequencies occurs via the dielectric heating effect, as polarized molecules are affected by a rapidly alternating electric field.

text: Cavity magnetron[edit]

text: The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). The magnetron was originally a crucial component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II.[5] In 1937–1940, a multi-cavity magnetron was built by the British physicist Sir John Turton Randall, FRSE, together with a team of British coworkers, for the British and American military radar installations in World War II. A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, and in 1940, at the University of Birmingham in England, Randall and Harry Boot produced a working prototype.[6]

text: Sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U.S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help (see Tizard Mission). An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, London, was given to the U.S. government in September 1940. The magnetron was later described by American historian James Phinney Baxter III as "[t]he most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores".[7] Contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron.

text: Discovery[edit]

text: In 1945, the specific heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket. The first food deliberately cooked with Spencer's microwave was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters.[8][9] To verify his finding, Spencer created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly.

text: On 8 October 1945,[10] Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing.

text: Commercial availability[edit]

text: In 1947, Raytheon built the "Radarange", the first commercially available microwave oven.[11] It was almost 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) tall, weighed 340 kilograms (750 lb) and cost about US$5,000 ($54,000 in 2016 dollars) each. It consumed 3 kilowatts, about three times as much as today's microwave ovens, and was water-cooled. An early Radarange was installed (and remains) in the galley of the nuclear-powered passenger/cargo ship NS Savannah. An early commercial model introduced in 1954 consumed 1.6 kilowatts and sold for US$2,000 to US$3,000 ($18,000 to $27,000 in 2016 dollars). Raytheon licensed its technology to the Tappan Stove company of Mansfield, Ohio in 1952.[12] They tried to market a large 220 volt wall unit as a home microwave oven in 1955 for a price of US$1,295 ($12,000 in 2016 dollars), but it did not sell well. In 1965, Raytheon acquired Amana. In 1967, they introduced the first popular home model, the countertop Radarange, at a price of US$495 ($4,000 in 2016 dollars).

text: In the 1960s,[specify] Litton bought Studebaker's Franklin Manufacturing assets, which had been manufacturing magnetrons and building and selling microwave ovens similar to the Radarange. Litton then developed a new configuration of the microwave: the short, wide shape that is now common. The magnetron feed was also unique. This resulted in an oven that could survive a no-load condition: an empty microwave oven where there is nothing to absorb the microwaves. The new oven was shown at a trade show in Chicago,[citation needed] and helped begin a rapid growth of the market for home microwave ovens. Sales volume of 40,000 units for the U.S. industry in 1970 grew to one million by 1975. Market penetration was faster in Japan, due to a re-engineered magnetron allowing for less expensive units. Several other companies joined in the market, and for a time most systems were built by defense contractors, who were most familiar with the magnetron. Litton was particularly well known in the restaurant business.

text: Residential use[edit]

text: Formerly found only in large industrial applications, microwave ovens increasingly became a standard fixture of residential kitchens in developed countries. By 1986, roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned a microwave oven, up from only about 1% in 1971;[13] the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 90% of American households owned a microwave oven in 1997.[13][14] In Australia, a 2008 market research study found that 95% of kitchens contained a microwave oven and that 83% of them were used daily.[15] In Canada, fewer than 5% of households had a microwave oven in 1979, but more than 88% of households owned one by 1998.[16] In France, 40% of households owned a microwave oven in 1994, but that number had increased to 65% by 2004.[17]

text: Adoption has been slower in less-developed countries, as households with disposable income concentrate on more important household appliances like refrigerators and ovens. In India, for example, only about 5% of households owned a microwave in 2013, well behind refrigerators at 31% ownership.[18] However, microwave ovens are gaining popularity. In Russia, for example, the number of households with a microwave grew from almost 24% in 2002 to almost 40% in 2008.[19] Almost twice as many households in South Africa owned microwaves in 2008 (38.7%) as in 2002 (19.8%).[19] Microwave ownership in Vietnam was at 16% of households in 2008—versus 30% ownership of refrigerators; this rate was up significantly from 6.7% microwave ownership in 2002, with 14% ownership for refrigerators that year.[19]

text: Principles[edit]

text: A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency higher than ordinary radio waves but lower than infrared light. Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are reserved for this use, so they do not interfere with other vital radio services. Consumer ovens usually use 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)—a wavelength of 12.2 centimetres (4.80 in)—while large industrial/commercial ovens often use 915 megahertz (MHz)—32.8 centimetres (12.9 in).[20] Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the microwaves. Rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, when dispersed as molecular vibration in solids and liquids (i.e. as both potential energy and kinetic energy of atoms), is heat. Sometimes, microwave heating is explained as a resonance of water molecules, but this is incorrect;[21] such resonances occur only at above 1 terahertz (THz).[22] Rather it is the lag in response of the polar water molecule to the impinging electromagnetic wave. This type of dielectric loss mechanism is referred to as dipole interaction.[citation needed]

text: Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on frozen water, where the movement of molecules is more restricted. Dielectric heating of liquid water is also temperature-dependent: At 0 °C, dielectric loss is greatest at a field frequency of about 10 GHz, and for higher water temperatures at higher field frequencies.[23]

text: Compared to liquid water, microwave heating is less efficient on fats and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment).[24] Sugars and triglycerides (fats and oils) absorb microwaves due to the dipole moments of their hydroxyl groups or ester groups. However, due to the lower specific heat capacity of fats and oils and their higher vaporization temperature, they often attain much higher temperatures inside microwave ovens.[23] This can induce temperatures in oil or very fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of conventional broiling (UK: grilling), braising, or deep fat frying. Foods high in water content and with little oil rarely exceed the boiling temperature of water.

text: Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting if preheated. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks, producing small quantities of synthetic lava.[citation needed] Some ceramics can also be melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water.

text: A common misconception is that microwave ovens cook food "from the inside out", meaning from the center of the entire mass of food outwards. This idea arises from heating behavior seen if an absorbent layer of water lies beneath a less absorbent drier layer at the surface of a food; in this case, the deposition of heat energy inside a food can exceed that on its surface. This can also occur if the inner layer has a lower heat capacity than the outer layer causing it to reach a higher temperature, or even if the inner layer is more thermally conductive than the outer layer making it feel hotter despite having a lower temperature. In most cases, however, with uniformly structured or reasonably homogenous food item, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of the item at a similar level to that of the inner layers. Depending on water content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with microwave ovens, in contrast to broiling/grilling (infrared) or convection heating—methods which deposit heat thinly at the food surface. Penetration depth of microwaves is dependent on food composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies (longer wavelengths) penetrating further.[citation needed]

text: Heating efficiency[edit]

text: A microwave oven converts only part of its electrical input into microwave energy. An average consumer microwave oven consumes 1100 W of electricity in producing 700 W of microwave power[citation needed], an efficiency of 64%. The other 400 W are dissipated as heat, mostly in the magnetron tube. Such wasted heat, along with heat from the product being microwaved, is exhausted as warm air through cooling vents. Additional power is used to operate the lamps, AC power transformer, magnetron cooling fan, food turntable motor and the control circuits, although the power consumed by the electronic control circuits of a modern microwave oven is negligible (< 1% of the input power) during cooking.

text: For cooking or reheating small amounts of food, the microwave oven may use less energy than a cook stove.[25] Although microwave ovens are touted as the most efficient appliance,[26][not in citation given] the energy savings are largely due to the reduced heat mass of the food's container.[27] The amount of energy used to heat food is generally small compared to total energy usage in typical residences in the United States.[28]

text: Design[edit]

text: A microwave oven consists of:

text:
a high-voltage power source, commonly a simple transformer or an electronic power converter, which passes energy to the magnetron
a high-voltage capacitor connected to the magnetron, transformer and via a diode to the chassis
a cavity magnetron, which converts high-voltage electric energy to microwave radiation
a magnetron control circuit (usually with a microcontroller)
a short waveguide (to couple microwave power from the magnetron into the cooking chamber)
a metal cooking chamber
a turntable or metal wave guide stirring fan.
a digital / manual control panel

text: Modern microwave ovens use either an analog dial-type timer or a digital control panel for operation. Control panels feature an LED, liquid crystal or vacuum fluorescent display, in the 90s brands such as Panasonic and GE began offering models with a scrolling-text display showing cooking instructions, numeric buttons for entering the cook time, a power level selection feature and other possible functions such as a defrost setting and pre-programmed settings for different food types, such as meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, frozen vegetables, frozen dinners, and popcorn. In most ovens, the magnetron is driven by a linear transformer which can only feasibly be switched completely on or off. As such, the choice of power level does not affect the intensity of the microwave radiation; instead, the magnetron is cycled on and off every few seconds, thus altering the large scale duty cycle. Newer models have inverter power supplies that use pulse-width modulation to provide effectively continuous heating at reduced power, so that foods are heated more evenly at a given power level and can be heated more quickly without being damaged by uneven heating.

text: The microwave frequencies used in microwave ovens are chosen based on regulatory and cost constraints. The first is that they should be in one of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands set aside for non-communication purposes. For household purposes, 2.45 GHz has the advantage over 915 MHz in that 915 MHz is only an ISM band in the ITU Region 2 while 2.45 GHz is available worldwide.[citation needed][vague] Three additional ISM bands exist in the microwave frequencies, but are not used for microwave cooking. Two of them are centered on 5.8 GHz and 24.125 GHz, but are not used for microwave cooking because of the very high cost of power generation at these frequencies. The third, centered on 433.92 MHz, is a narrow band that would require expensive equipment to generate sufficient power without creating interference outside the band, and is only available in some countries.

text: The cooking chamber is similar to a Faraday cage to prevent the waves from coming out of the oven. Even though there is no continuous metal-to-metal contact around the rim of the door, choke connections on the door edges act like metal-to-metal contact, at the frequency of the microwaves, to prevent leakage. The oven door usually has a window for easy viewing, with a layer of conductive mesh some distance from the outer panel to maintain the shielding. Because the size of the perforations in the mesh is much less than the microwaves' wavelength (12.2 cm for the usual 2.45 GHz), microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while visible light (with its much shorter wavelength) can.

text: Variants and accessories[edit]

text: A variant of the conventional microwave is the convection microwave. A convection microwave oven is a combination of a standard microwave and a convection oven. It allows food to be cooked quickly, yet come out browned or crisped, as from a convection oven. Convection microwaves are more expensive than conventional microwave ovens. Some convection microwaves—those with exposed heating elements—can produce smoke and burning odors as food spatter from earlier microwave-only use is burned off the heating elements.

text: In 2000,[29] some manufacturers began offering high power quartz halogen bulbs to their convection microwave models, marketing them under names such as "Speedcook", "Advantium", "Lightwave" and "Optimawave" to emphasize their ability to cook food rapidly and with good browning. The bulbs heat the food's surface with infrared (IR) radiation, browning surfaces as in a conventional oven. The food browns while also being heated by the microwave radiation and heated through conduction through contact with heated air. The IR energy which is delivered to the outer surface of food by the lamps is sufficient to initiate browning caramelization in foods primarily made up of carbohydrates and Maillard reactions in foods primarily made up of protein. These reactions in food produce a texture and taste similar to that typically expected of conventional oven cooking rather than the bland boiled and steamed taste that microwave-only cooking tends to create.

text: In order to aid browning, sometimes an accessory browning tray is used, usually composed of glass or porcelain. It makes food crisp by oxidizing the top layer until it turns brown. Ordinary plastic cookware is unsuitable for this purpose because it could melt.

text: Frozen dinners, pies, and microwave popcorn bags often contain a susceptor made from thin aluminium film in the packaging or included on a small paper tray. The metal film absorbs microwave energy efficiently and consequently becomes extremely hot and radiates in the infrared, concentrating the heating of oil for popcorn or even browning surfaces of frozen foods. Heating packages or trays containing susceptors are designed for a single use and are then discarded as waste.

text: Microwave-safe plastics[edit]

text: Some current plastic containers and food wraps are specifically designed to resist radiation from microwaves. Products may use the term "microwave safe", may carry a microwave symbol (three lines of waves, one above the other) or simply provide instructions for proper microwave use. Any of these is an indication that a product is suitable for microwaving when used in accordance with the directions provided.[30]

text: Benefits and safety features[edit]

text: All microwaves use a timer for the cooking time, at the end of cooking time, the oven switches itself off.

text: Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, unless it is an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem.

text: Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100 °C (212 °F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180 °C (356 °F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns.

text: The lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared to baking in the oven or frying, because it eliminates the formation of tars and char, which are carcinogenic.[31] Microwave radiation also penetrates deeper than direct heat, so that the food is heated by its own internal water content. In contrast, direct heat can burn the surface while the inside is still cold. Pre-heating the food in a microwave oven before putting it into the grill or pan reduces the time needed to heat up the food and reduces the formation of carcinogenic char. Unlike frying and baking, microwaving does not produce acrylamide in potatoes,[32] however unlike deep-frying, it is of only limited effectiveness in reducing glycoalkaloid (i.e. solanine) levels.[33] Acrylamide has been found in other microwaved products like popcorn.

text: Heating characteristics[edit]

text: Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating leftover food, and bacterial contamination may not be repressed if the safe temperature is not reached, resulting in foodborne illness, as with all inadequate reheating methods.

text: Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave can be mapped out by placing a damp piece of thermal paper in the oven. When the water saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.[34]

text: The second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that overheat. In some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature, microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaway. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting.[35]

text: Due to this phenomenon, microwave ovens set at too-high power levels may even start to cook the edges of frozen food while the inside of the food remains frozen. Another case of uneven heating can be observed in baked goods containing berries. In these items, the berries absorb more energy than the drier surrounding bread and cannot dissipate the heat due to the low thermal conductivity of the bread. Often this results in overheating the berries relative to the rest of the food. "Defrost" oven settings use low power levels designed to allow time for heat to be conducted within frozen foods from areas that absorb heat more readily to those which heat more slowly. In turntable-equipped ovens, more even heating will take place by placing food off-centre on the turntable tray instead of exactly in the centre, assuming the food item so placed covers less of the center "dead zone".

text: There are microwave ovens on the market that allow full-power defrosting. They do this by exploiting the properties of the electromagnetic radiation LSM modes. LSM full-power defrosting may actually achieve more even results than slow defrosting.[36]

text: Microwave heating can be deliberately uneven by design. Some microwavable packages (notably pies) may include materials that contain ceramic or aluminium flakes, which are designed to absorb microwaves and heat up, which aids in baking or crust preparation by depositing more energy shallowly in these areas. Such ceramic patches affixed to cardboard are positioned next to the food, and are typically smokey blue or gray in colour, usually making them easily identifiable; the cardboard sleeves included with Hot Pockets, which have a silver surface on the inside, are a good example of such packaging. Microwavable cardboard packaging may also contain overhead ceramic patches which function in the same way. The technical term for such a microwave-absorbing patch is a susceptor.[37]

text: Effects on food and nutrients[edit]

text: Comparative cooking method studies generally find that, if properly used, microwave cooking does not affect the nutrient content of foods to a larger extent than conventional heating, and that there is a tendency towards greater retention of many micronutrients with microwaving, probably due to the reduced preparation time.[38]

text: Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature.[39] Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires.[40] Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B12 from an active to inactive form; the amount of conversion depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of 100 °C (212 °F) (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B12. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required.[41]

text: Spinach retains nearly all its folate when cooked in a microwave; in comparison, it loses about 77% when boiled, leaching out nutrients. Bacon cooked by microwave has significantly lower levels of carcinogenic nitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon.[39] Steamed vegetables tend to maintain more nutrients when microwaved than when cooked on a stovetop.[39] Microwave blanching is 3–4 times more effective than boiled water blanching in the retaining of the water-soluble vitamins folic acid, thiamin and riboflavin, with the exception of ascorbic acid, of which 28.8% is lost (vs. 16% with boiled water blanching).[42]

text: Microwaving human milk at high temperatures is not recommended as it causes a marked decrease in activity of anti-infective factors.[43]

text: Use in cleaning kitchen sponges[edit]

text: Studies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean non-metallic domestic sponges which have been thoroughly wetted. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) removed 99% of coliforms, E. coli and MS2 phages. Bacillus cereus spores were killed at 4 minutes of microwaving.[44]

text: A 2017 study was less affirmative: about 60% of the germs were killed but the remaining ones quickly re-colonized the sponge.[45]

text: Hazards[edit]

text: High temperatures[edit]

text: Water and other homogeneous liquids can superheat[46][47] when heated in a microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven or while adding solid ingredients such as powdered creamer or sugar. This can result in spontaneous boiling (nucleation) which may be violent enough to eject the boiling liquid from the container and cause severe scalding.[48]

text: Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.

text: Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard.

text: Metal objects[edit]

text: Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.

text: Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves are safe, see below), twist-ties containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in paper Chinese take-out food containers, or almost any metal formed into a poorly conductive foil or thin wire; or into a pointed shape.[49] Forks are a good example: the tines of the fork respond to the electric field by producing high concentrations of electric charge at the tips. This has the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3 megavolts per meter (3×106 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma, which is visible as a spark. The plasma and the tines may then form a conductive loop, which may be a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.

text: It is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.

text: The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.[50]

text: Another hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth between the tube and the cooking chamber. This may cause the tube to overload and burn out. For the same reason, dehydrated food, or food wrapped in metal which does not arc, is problematic for overload reasons, without necessarily being a fire hazard.

text: Certain foods such as grapes, if properly arranged, can produce an electric arc.[51] Prolonged arcing from food carries similar risks to arcing from other sources as noted above.

text: Some other objects that may conduct sparks are plastic/holographic print thermoses (such as Starbuck's novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.[citation needed]

text: The high electrical fields generated inside a microwave often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device.

text: Direct microwave exposure[edit]

text: Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks, which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. This safety mechanism is required by United States federal regulations.[52] Tests have shown confinement of the microwaves in commercially available ovens to be so nearly universal as to make routine testing unnecessary.[53] According to the United States Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, a U.S. Federal Standard limits the amount of microwaves that can leak from an oven throughout its lifetime to 5 milliwatts of microwave radiation per square centimeter at approximately 5 cm (2 in) from the surface of the oven.[54] This is far below the exposure level currently considered to be harmful to human health.[55]

text: The radiation produced by a microwave oven is non-ionizing. It therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as X-rays and high-energy particles. Long-term rodent studies to assess cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from 2.45 GHz microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels (i.e. large fraction of life span) far larger than humans are likely to encounter from any leaking ovens.[56][57] However, with the oven door open, the radiation may cause damage by heating. Every microwave oven sold has a protective interlock so that it cannot be run when the door is open or improperly latched.

text: Microwaves generated in microwave ovens cease to exist once the electrical power is turned off. They do not remain in the food when the power is turned off, any more than light from an electric lamp remains in the walls and furnishings of a room when the lamp is turned off. They do not make the food or the oven radioactive. Compared to conventional cooking, the nutritional content of some foods may be altered differently, but generally in a positive way by preserving more micronutrients - see above. There is no indication of detrimental health issues associated with microwaved food.[58]

text: There are, however, a few cases where people have been exposed to direct microwave radiation, either from appliance malfunction or deliberate action.[59][60] The general effect of this exposure will be physical burns to the body, as human tissue, particularly the outer fat and muscle layers, has similar composition to some foods that are typically cooked in microwave ovens and so experiences similar dielectric heating effects when exposed to microwave electromagnetic radiation.

text: Chemical exposure[edit]

text: Some magnetrons have ceramic insulators with beryllium oxide (beryllia) added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical hazard if crushed then inhaled or ingested. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC;[citation needed] therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be handled. This is a danger if the microwave oven becomes physically damaged, if the insulator cracks, or when the magnetron is opened and handled, yet not during normal usage.