document_title: American Airlines destinations

question_text: where does american airlines fly to in california

text: American Airlines destinations

text: American Airlines flies to 96 domestic destinations and 95 international destinations in 55 countries (as of August 2017). The list includes the city, country, and the airport's name, with the airline's hubs and seasonal destinations marked. This list does not include airports only served by American Eagle.

tag: p

text: List[edit]

text:
Country (State/Province)
City
Airport
Notes
Refs

American Samoa
Pago Pago
Pago Pago International Airport
Terminated

Antigua and Barbuda
Saint John's
V. C. Bird International Airport

Argentina
Buenos Aires
Ministro Pistarini International Airport

Aruba
Oranjestad
Queen Beatrix International Airport

Australia (New South Wales)
Sydney
Sydney Airport

[1]

Bahamas
Nassau
Lynden Pindling International Airport
Seasonal

Barbados
Bridgetown
Grantley Adams International Airport

Belize
Belize City
Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport

Belgium
Brussels
Brussels Airport
Terminated

Bermuda
St. George's Parish
L.F. Wade International Airport

Bolivia
La Paz
El Alto International Airport

Bolivia
Santa Cruz de la Sierra
Viru Viru International Airport

Brazil
Manaus
Eduardo Gomes International Airport

Brazil
Brasília
Brasília International Airport

Brazil
Campinas
Viracopos International Airport
Terminated

Brazil
Curitiba
Afonso Pena International Airport
Terminated

Brazil
Belo Horizonte
Tancredo Neves International Airport

Brazil
Porto Alegre
Salgado Filho International Airport
Terminated

Brazil
Recife
Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport
Terminated

Brazil
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport

Brazil
Salvador
Deputado Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport
Terminated

Brazil
São Paulo
São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport

Canada (British Columbia)
Vancouver
Vancouver International Airport

Canada (Alberta)
Calgary
Calgary International Airport
Terminated

Canada (Alberta)
Edmonton
Edmonton International Airport
Terminated

Canada (Ontario)
Toronto
Toronto Pearson International Airport

Canada (Quebec)
Montreal
Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport

Cayman Islands
George Town
Owen Roberts International Airport

Chile
Santiago
Comodoro Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport

China
Beijing
Beijing Capital International Airport

China
Shanghai
Shanghai Pudong International Airport

Colombia
Barranquilla
Ernesto Cortissoz International Airport

Colombia
Bogotá
El Dorado International Airport

Colombia
Cali
Alfonso Bonilla Aragón International Airport

Colombia
Cartagena
Rafael Núñez International Airport
Begins December 15, 2017

Colombia
Medellín
José María Córdova International Airport

Costa Rica
Liberia
Daniel Oduber Quirós International Airport

Costa Rica
San José
Juan Santamaría International Airport

Cuba
Camagüey
Ignacio Agramonte International Airport
Terminated
[2][3]

Cuba
Cienfuegos
Jaime González Airport
Terminated
[2][3]

Cuba
Havana
José Martí International Airport

[4][5]

Cuba
Holguín
Frank País Airport

[2]

Cuba
Santa Clara
Abel Santamaría Airport

[2]

Cuba
Varadero
Juan Gualberto Gómez Airport

[2]

Curaçao
Willemstad
Curaçao International Airport

Czech Republic
Prague
Václav Havel Airport Prague
Seasonal
Begins May 4, 2018
[6]

Dominican Republic
Puerto Plata
Gregorio Luperón International Airport

Dominican Republic
Punta Cana
Punta Cana International Airport

Dominican Republic
Santiago de los Caballeros
Cibao International Airport

Dominican Republic
Santo Domingo
Las Américas International Airport

Ecuador
Guayaquil
José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport

Ecuador
Quito
Mariscal Sucre International Airport

Ecuador
Quito
Old Mariscal Sucre International Airport
Terminated

El Salvador
San Salvador
El Salvador International Airport

Finland
Helsinki
Helsinki Airport
Terminated

France
Paris
Charles de Gaulle Airport

France
Paris
Orly Airport
Terminated

Fiji
Nadi
Nadi International Airport
Terminated

Germany
Frankfurt
Frankfurt Airport

Germany
Munich
Munich Airport

Germany
Düsseldorf
Düsseldorf Airport
Terminated

Guadeloupe
Pointe-à-Pitre
Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport
Seasonal

Greece
Athens
Athens International Airport
Seasonal

Grenada
St. George's
Maurice Bishop International Airport

Guatemala
Guatemala City
La Aurora International Airport

Haiti
Cap-Haitien
Hugo Chávez International Airport

[7]

Haiti
Port-au-Prince
Toussaint Louverture International Airport

Honduras
Roatán
Juan Manuel Gálvez International Airport

[8]

Honduras
San Pedro Sula
La Mesa International Airport

Honduras
Tegucigalpa
Toncontín International Airport

Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong International Airport

[9]

Hungary
Budapest
Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport
Seasonal
Resumes May 4, 2018
[6]

India
Delhi
Indira Gandhi International Airport
Terminated

Ireland
Dublin
Dublin Airport

[10]

Ireland
Shannon
Shannon Airport
Seasonal
[10]

Israel
Tel Aviv
Ben Gurion Airport
Terminated

Italy
Milan
Malpensa Airport

Italy
Rome
Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport

Italy
Venice
Venice Marco Polo Airport
Seasonal
[10]

Jamaica
Kingston
Norman Manley International Airport

Jamaica
Montego Bay
Sangster International Airport

Japan
Nagoya
Chubu Centrair International Airport
Terminated

Japan
Osaka
Kansai International Airport
Terminated

Japan
Tokyo
Haneda Airport

[11]

Japan
Tokyo
Narita International Airport

Martinique
Fort-de-France
Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport
Seasonal

Mexico (Acapulco)
Guerrero
Juan N. Alvarez International Airport
Terminated

Mexico (Baja California del Sur)
San José del Cabo
Los Cabos International Airport

Mexico (Distrito Federal)
Mexico City
Mexico City International Airport

Mexico (Guerrero)
Zihuatanejo
Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo International Airport
Seasonal

Mexico (Jalisco)
Guadalajara
Guadalajara International Airport

Mexico (Jalisco)
Puerto Vallarta
Lic. Gustavo Díaz Ordaz International Airport

Mexico (Monterrey)
Nuevo León
Del Norte International Airport
Terminated

Mexico (Quintana Roo)
Cancun
Cancun International Airport

Mexico (Quintana Roo)
Cozumel
Cozumel International Airport

Mexico (Yucatan)
Mérida
Merida International Airport
Seasonal
[12]

Netherlands
Amsterdam
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol

New Zealand
Auckland
Auckland Airport
Seasonal
[13][14]

Nicaragua
Managua
Augusto C. Sandino International Airport

Panama
Panama City
Tocumen International Airport

Paraguay
Asunción
Silvio Pettirossi International Airport
Terminated

Peru
Cusco
Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport
Terminated

Peru
Lima
Jorge Chávez International Airport

Philippines
Manila
Ninoy Aquino International Airport
Terminated

Portugal
Lisbon
Lisbon Airport
Seasonal

Puerto Rico
Aguadilla
Rafael Hernández Airport
Terminated

Puerto Rico
Ponce
Mercedita Airport
Terminated

Puerto Rico
San Juan
Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport

Russia
Moscow
Domodedovo International Airport
Terminated

Saint Kitts and Nevis
Basseterre
Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport

Saint Lucia
Vieux Fort
Hewanorra International Airport

Sint Maarten
Philipsburg
Princess Juliana International Airport

South Korea
Seoul
Incheon International Airport

[15]

Spain
Barcelona
Barcelona-El Prat Airport

Spain
Madrid
Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport

Sweden
Stockholm
Stockholm Arlanda Airport
Terminated

Switzerland
Zürich
Zürich Airport

Taiwan
Taipei
Taoyuan International Airport
Terminated

Trinidad and Tobago
Port of Spain
Piarco International Airport

Turks and Caicos Islands
Providenciales
Providenciales International Airport

United Kingdom
Edinburgh
Edinburgh Airport
Seasonal
[16]

United Kingdom
Birmingham
Birmingham Airport

United Kingdom
Glasgow
Glasgow Airport
Seasonal

United Kingdom
London
Heathrow Airport

United Kingdom
London
Gatwick Airport
Terminated

United Kingdom
London
London Stansted Airport
Terminated

United Kingdom
Manchester
Manchester Airport

United States (Alaska)
Anchorage
Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport
Seasonal

United States (Alaska)
Fairbanks
Fairbanks International Airport
Terminated

United States (Arizona)
Phoenix
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
Hub

United States (Arizona)
Tucson
Tucson International Airport

United States (Arkansas)
Bentonville
Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport

United States (Arkansas)
Little Rock
Clinton National Airport

United States (California)
Fresno
Fresno Yosemite International Airport

United States (California)
Los Angeles
Los Angeles International Airport
Hub

United States (California)
Oakland
Oakland International Airport

United States (California)
Ontario
Ontario International Airport

United States (California)
Palm Springs
Palm Springs International Airport

United States (California)
Sacramento
Sacramento International Airport

United States (California)
San Diego
San Diego International Airport

United States (California)
San Francisco
San Francisco International Airport

United States (California)
San Jose
San Jose International Airport

United States (California)
Santa Ana
John Wayne Airport

United States (Colorado)
Colorado Springs
Colorado Springs Airport

United States (Colorado)
Denver
Denver International Airport

United States (Colorado)
Denver
Stapleton International Airport
Terminated

United States (Colorado)
Hayden
Yampa Valley Airport
Seasonal

United States (Colorado)
Montrose
Montrose Regional Airport
Seasonal

United States (Colorado)
Vail
Eagle County Regional Airport
Seasonal

United States (Connecticut)
Hartford
Bradley International Airport

United States (Connecticut)
New Haven
Tweed New Haven Airport

[17]

United States (Florida)
Fort Lauderdale
Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport

United States (Florida)
Fort Myers
Southwest Florida International Airport

United States (Florida)
Jacksonville
Jacksonville International Airport

United States (Florida)
Miami
Miami International Airport
Hub

United States (Florida)
Naples
Naples Municipal Airport
Terminated

United States (Florida)
Orlando
Orlando International Airport

United States (Florida)
Tampa
Tampa International Airport

United States (Florida)
West Palm Beach
Palm Beach International Airport

United States (Georgia)
Atlanta
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport

United States (Hawaii)
Honolulu
Honolulu International Airport

United States (Hawaii)
Kahului
Kahului Airport

United States (Hawaii)
Kailua-Kona
Kona International Airport

United States (Hawaii)
Lihue
Lihue Airport

United States (Idaho)
Boise
Boise Airport

United States (Illinois)
Chicago
Midway International Airport
Terminated

United States (Illinois)
Chicago
O'Hare International Airport
Hub

United States (Indiana)
Indianapolis
Indianapolis International Airport

United States (Iowa)
Des Moines
Des Moines International Airport

United States (Kansas)
Wichita
Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport

United States (Kentucky)
Louisville
Louisville International Airport

United States (Louisiana)
Baton Rouge
Baton Rouge Metropolitan Airport

United States (Louisiana)
New Orleans
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport

United States (Maine)
Portland
Portland International Jetport

United States (Maryland)
Baltimore
Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport

United States (Massachusetts)
Boston
Logan International Airport

United States (Michigan)
Detroit
Detroit Metropolitan Airport

United States (Michigan)
Ypsilanti
Willow Run Airport
Terminated

United States (Minnesota)
Minneapolis
Minneapolis−Saint Paul International Airport

United States (Missouri)
Joplin
Joplin Regional Airport

United States (Missouri)
Kansas City
Kansas City International Airport

United States (Missouri)
St. Louis
Lambert-St. Louis International Airport

United States (Missouri)
Springfield
Springfield International Airport

United States (Montana)
Bozeman
Bozeman Yellowstone International Airport

United States (Nebraska)
Omaha
Eppley Airfield

United States (Nevada)
Las Vegas
McCarran International Airport

United States (Nevada)
Reno
Reno-Tahoe International Airport

United States (New Jersey)
Newark
Newark Liberty International Airport

United States (New Mexico)
Albuquerque
Albuquerque International Sunport

United States (New Mexico)
Santa Fe
Santa Fe Municipal Airport

United States (New York)
Albany
Albany International Airport

United States (New York)
Buffalo
Buffalo Niagara International Airport

United States (New York)
New York City
John F. Kennedy International Airport
Hub

United States (New York)
New York City
LaGuardia Airport
Hub

United States (New York)
Rochester
Greater Rochester International Airport

United States (New York)
Syracuse
Syracuse Hancock International Airport

United States (North Carolina)
Charlotte
Charlotte Douglas International Airport
Hub

United States (North Carolina)
Raleigh
Raleigh-Durham International Airport

United States (Ohio)
Cincinnati
Cincinnati Municipal Lunken Airport
Terminated

United States (Ohio)
Cincinnati
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport

United States (Ohio)
Cleveland
Cleveland Hopkins International Airport

United States (Ohio)
Columbus
John Glenn Columbus International Airport

United States (Ohio)
Dayton
Dayton International Airport

[18]

United States (Oklahoma)
Oklahoma City
Will Rogers World Airport

United States (Oklahoma)
Tulsa
Tulsa International Airport

United States (Oregon)
Eugene
Eugene Airport
Seasonal

United States (Oregon)
Portland
Portland International Airport

United States (Pennsylvania)
Harrisburg
Harrisburg International Airport

United States (Pennsylvania)
Philadelphia
Philadelphia International Airport
Hub

United States (Pennsylvania)
Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh International Airport

United States (Rhode Island)
Providence
T. F. Green Airport

United States (Tennessee)
Memphis
Memphis International Airport

United States (Tennessee)
Nashville
Nashville International Airport

United States (Texas)
Austin
Austin-Bergstrom International Airport

United States (Texas)
Dallas
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
Hub

United States (Texas)
Dallas
Love Field
Terminated

United States (Texas)
El Paso
El Paso International Airport

United States (Texas)
Fort Worth
Greater Southwest International Airport
Terminated

United States (Texas)
Harlingen
Valley International Airport
Terminated

United States (Texas)
Houston
George Bush Intercontinental Airport

United States (Texas)
Houston
William P. Hobby Airport

United States (Texas)
San Antonio
San Antonio International Airport

United States (Utah)
Salt Lake City
Salt Lake City International Airport

United States (Virginia)
Norfolk
Norfolk International Airport

United States (Virginia)
Richmond
Richmond International Airport

United States (Washington)
Seattle
Seattle–Tacoma International Airport

United States (Virginia)
Washington, D.C.
Washington Dulles International Airport

United States (Virginia)
Washington, D.C.
Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
Hub

United States (Wisconsin)
Appleton
Appleton International Airport

[19]

United States (Wisconsin)
Milwaukee
General Mitchell International Airport

United States (Wyoming)
Jackson
Jackson Hole Airport
Seasonal

United States Virgin Islands
Saint Croix
Henry E. Rohlsen Airport

United States Virgin Islands
Saint Thomas
Cyril E. King Airport

Uruguay
Montevideo
Carrasco International Airport

Venezuela
Caracas
Simón Bolívar International Airport

Venezuela
Maracaibo
La Chinita International Airport


document_title: Five Nights at Freddy's 2

question_text: who do you play as in fnaf 2

question_tokens: who do you play as in fnaf 2

root

text: Five Nights at Freddy's 2

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: Similar to the first game, Five Nights at Freddy's 2 is a survival horror video game with point-and-click elements. Players must survive a night shift at Freddy Fazbear's Pizza, a restaurant reminiscent of those like Chuck E. Cheese's and ShowBiz Pizza Place, from 12 A.M. to 6 A.M. game time (approximately seven minutes and six seconds), without being attacked by any of the animatronic enemy characters that wander from room to room. There are multiple different animatronic characters: the original game's antagonists (the titular Freddy Fazbear, Bonnie the Bunny, Chica the Chicken, Foxy the Pirate Fox, and Golden Freddy), as well as upgraded "toy" versions of Freddy, Bonnie, Chica, and Foxy, a marionette referred to as "the Puppet", and a humanoid robot named "Balloon Boy".

text: The player cannot leave the security office, but can track the animatronics' movements via a network of surveillance cameras placed throughout the building. The office has three entrances (a hallway and two side air vents); in a departure from the previous game, none of these can be sealed off to block enemies from entering. Each vent is equipped with a light that can be used to check for any characters that are about to crawl into the office. Players are given a spare animatronic mask to ward off approaching animatronics, however, this strategy will not work on certain characters, who must be repelled by other means. A flashlight is also available, used to check the hallway and darkened areas of the camera feeds, as well as to reset Foxy via strobing. Unlike the previous title, the power supply for the cameras and vent lights is unlimited, but the flashlight does not have an infinite battery life; if it runs out, the player becomes vulnerable to attack. In addition, a music box has been placed in one room and must be remotely wound up through the camera interface, to avoid being attacked by the Puppet, who appears when the music stops. Failure to defend oneself from the animatronics will result in a jumpscare, thus ending the game.

text: Unlike the first game, after the player is killed, there is a chance that rather than the Game Over screen, one of four low-resolution minigames will appear, with instructions given at the start of each. These mini-games contain insight into the plot of the game.

text: The game consists of five levels referred to as "nights", increasing in difficulty. Completing all five unlocks an even more difficult sixth night, which in turn unlocks a "Custom Night" upon completion. In the Custom Night, the player can adjust the AI difficulty of the individual enemy characters or play one of ten pre-set challenges.

text: Plot[edit]

text: Set in 1987, the player character, whose name is later revealed to be Jeremy Fitzgerald, has started working as a night watch security guard at the improved Freddy Fazbear's Pizza.[8] As he did in the previous game, a certain Freddy Fazbear's Pizza employee calls Jeremy on the phone in the office at the beginning of each night to explain both gameplay and parts of the backstory surrounding the restaurant. He explains that the "new" (at the time) animatronics, which have special facial recognition software to protect the children from potential harm, were not programmed with a proper night mode; when things go silent, their programming tells them that they are in the wrong room and they seek out the nearest source of noise to find people to entertain, which happens to be in the office.[9]

text: As in the previous game, the animatronics' programming tells them that there should not be people in the restaurant after hours, so when they encounter Jeremy, they believe he is an animatronic endoskeleton without a costume and stuff him into a spare Freddy Fazbear suit, killing him in the process.[10] The man on the phone explains that this restaurant has an unlimited power source at night, unlike the previous location, but there are no doors blocking access to the office, requiring the player to use a spare Freddy Fazbear mask to trick most animatronics into thinking he is not an endoskeleton; he gives additional tips to help the player survive their shift.[10] As more enemy characters appear as the game progresses, the man on the phone informs Jeremy of the characters' presence, their movement patterns, and some background information on their presence in the game.[11] For example, the man on the phone explains that the older animatronics are in the new restaurant, and have been retrofitted with the new technology, but as they did not work properly they are kept for spare parts.[12]

text: As the game progresses, it is hinted that something is going on during the day, as the man on the phone mentions that rumors are going around and, later, that a police investigation is going on regarding the restaurant. It is hinted in Atari-styled minigames that the restaurant has had a troubled past, as it was apparently the location of a mass murder in which five children were killed by a someone portrayed as a purple-colored man.[13] On the game's fifth night, Jeremy is informed by the man on the phone that the restaurant has been put on lock-down due to an event that he will not describe but which is in place to make sure no employees, present or former, can come in or go out. The man also mentions that the position of the restaurant's day shift security has a vacancy and Jeremy may be promoted to it, and that the owner of the older restaurant named "Fredbear's Family Diner" will be contacted for more information on the animatronics.[14] On the sixth night, the man on the phone informs Jeremy that the restaurant has been shut down for undisclosed reasons, although mentioning the use of a "spare yellow suit" and an issue of the animatronics not functioning properly.[15] He also tells Jeremy that he will be taking over as night shift security guard when the restaurant reopens. If Jeremy is successful in surviving the sixth night, he is promoted to day shift to cover a birthday party on the next day to make sure the animatronics do not cause any problems.

text: In the custom night level, Jeremy is replaced by a new player character named Fritz Smith due to Jeremy's promotion. If the player manages to win the custom night, they discover Fritz has been fired for "tampering with the animatronics" and "odor", a call back to the previous game's custom level message. A newspaper that is shown in the winning screen of the sixth night says that the restaurant will close down and the newer animatronics will be scrapped; however, the older ones will be saved for when the restaurant reopens, hinting at the events of the first game. There is a theory that the scrapping of the toy animatronics and the Bite of 87 are linked, as in one of them (presumably Mangle) has caused this event. This is most likely the reason why the animatronics are being scrapped (aside from them malfunctioning).

text: Development[edit]

text: Shortly after the release of Five Nights at Freddy's, developer Cawthon began to confirm rumors of a sequel to the game.[16] Just one month after the original game's release, Cawthon posted a teaser of a sequel on his webpage, and continued to post teasers until the game's release.[17] A trailer for the game was released in October 2014. Five Nights at Freddy's 2 was first released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier of its planned release of December 25, 2014. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and November 20 of the same year.

text: Reception[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2017)

tag: table

text:
Reviews

Aggregate scores

Aggregator
Score

GameRankings
(PC) 66.25%[1]
(iOS) 75%[18]

Metacritic
(PC) 63/100[19]

Review score

Publication
Score

PC Gamer (US)
70/100[20]

text: Five Nights at Freddy's 2 was met with mixed to positive reviews from critics; the iOS version holds an aggregate score of 75% on GameRankings.

text: Omri Petitte for PC Gamer gave Five Nights at Freddy's 2 a score of 70 out of 100, commenting that what he wanted in the sequel "was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs. What I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety, a wonderfully cruel cocktail of supernatural mystery and jolts of panicked adrenaline. Enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty."[20] Destructoid also gave the game a positive review, saying that "It's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues", praising the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game "too hard for its own good".[21]


document_title: Flash Gordon (1954 TV series)

question_text: who played flash gordon in the tv series

text: Flash Gordon (1954 TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Diverging from the storyline of the comics, the series set Flash, Dale Arden and Dr. Zarkov in the year 3203. As agents of the Galactic Bureau of Investigation, the team travels the galaxy in their ship the Sky Flash, battling cosmic villains under the order of Commander Paul Richards.

text: The series proved popular with American audiences and critical response, though sparse, was positive. Flash Gordon has garnered little modern critical attention. What little there is generally dismisses the series, although there has been some critical thought devoted to its presentation of Cold War and capitalist themes.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Steve Holland as Flash Gordon
Irene Champlin as Dale Arden
Joseph Nash as Hans Zarkov

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Universal Studios had held the production rights to Flash Gordon but allowed them to lapse. Former Universal executives Edward Gruskin and Matty Fox struck a deal with Flash Gordon owners King Features Syndicate to produce the first 26 episodes of the series.[1] The series was produced by Gruskin and Wenzel Lüdecke.[2] Writers for Flash Gordon included Gruskin, Bruce Geller and Earl Markham. Episodes were directed by Wallace Worsley, Jr. and Gunther von Fritsch.[2] Composers Kurt Heuser and Roger Roger provided much of the original music.

text: Filming[edit]

text: Shooting began in May 1953, with an abandoned beer hall in Spandau serving as the principal shooting location.[3] Among the cast and crew, only the lead actors and director Worsley spoke English. Worsley would recall the production difficulties this caused:

text: "No matter what galaxy we explored, everyone spoke with a German accent. The use of German actors who could not speak English required us to use a lot of close-ups. I would stand behind the camera, correctly positioned for the actor's look, and read his or her line; the actor would then repeat the line, mimicking my pronunciation and emphasis."[4]

text: The series was budgeted at USD $15,000 per episode[1] on a three-day-per-episode shooting schedule. Citing salary disputes, Worsley withdrew from the project after completing the first 26 episodes. Production was moved to Marseille under the direction of Gunther von Fritsch for the 13 final episodes.[3] At that time, producer Luedecke was replaced by American producer Edward Gruskin.

text: Locations[edit]

text: The series was filmed in West Berlin[5] and Marseille[3] as a West German, French and American co-production by Intercontinental Television Films and Telediffusion.[6]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The series aired in syndication throughout most of the U.S. but also aired on the east coast on the DuMont Television Network.[7]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.TitleOriginal air date [8][note 1]1"Flash Gordon and the Planet of Death"October 1, 1954 (1954-10-01)
Flash, Dale and Zarkov travel to the planet Tarset to investigate an ancient curse. They must overcome a traitorous scientist and thwart an invasion from the evil planet Ebon.
2"Escape Into Time"October 8, 1954 (1954-10-08)
Flash and Zarkov must rescue Dale from a mad criminal who seeks to kidnap her with his time machine.[9]
3"The Electro Man"October 15, 1954 (1954-10-15)
Flash and company square off against the Electro Man, a mysterious deity who reigns over a planet where all life is made of metal.[10]
4"The Vengeance of Rabeed"October 22, 1954 (1954-10-22)
The mad Rabeed returns after 100 years in exile with plans to destroy the galaxy. It is up to Flash, Dale and Zarkov to stop his evil scheme.[11]
5"Akim the Terrible"November 5, 1954 (1954-11-05)
The evil King Akim rules Charon, where the only law is lawlessness. After Akim brainwashes Flash's best friend into attempting to assassinate Flash, Flash and Dale travel to Charon to thwart Akim's nefarious schemes.
6"The Claim Jumpers"November 12, 1954 (1954-11-12)
An old prospector who hits his claim and his daughter are threatened by claim jumpers and it is up to Flash and friends to protect them.[12]
7"The Dancing Death"November 19, 1954 (1954-11-19)
The GBI team is help captive in a vibrational device that leads people to commit suicide.[13]
8"The Breath of Death"November 26, 1954 (1954-11-26)
Flash's greatest enemy escapes from prison and seizes control of the Sky Flash.[14]
9"The Great Secret"December 3, 1954 (1954-12-03)
Zarkov's experiments to return life to dead worlds are endangered.[15]
10"Return of the Androids"December 10, 1954 (1954-12-10)
Flash, Dale and Zarkov battle against an invading army of ancient androids.[16]
11"The Frightened King"December 17, 1954 (1954-12-17)
Flash and his GBI colleagues protect the king of the planet Xerxes, who is being plagued by terrible phantoms.[17]
12"The Deadly Deception"December 24, 1954 (1954-12-24)
A robot loaded with atomic bombs is launched into space. Flash must retrieve it before it's too late.[18]
13"Duel Against Darkness"December 31, 1954 (1954-12-31)
A planet whose culture resembles the Middle Ages is ruled by a despotic magician. Can Flash, Dale and Zarkov end his evil reign?[19]
14"The Sound Gun"January 14, 1955 (1955-01-14)
The Sky Flash falls under attack by a powerful sonic weapon.[20]
15"The Weapon that Walked"January 31, 1955 (1955-01-31)
The GBI crew faces a woman who can turn humans to stone with a single look.[21]
16"Mission to Masca"February 4, 1955 (1955-02-04)
Flash and company travel to Masca, a silent planet.[22]
17"The Lure of Light"February 11, 1955 (1955-02-11)
Prudentia, evil queen of the planet Diana, kidnaps Dale Arden to force her to reveal the secret of faster-than-light travel. Flash and Zarkov must use that secret themselves to travel back in time to save Dale's life.
18"The Rains of Death"February 18, 1955 (1955-02-18)
The galaxy is threatened by torrential rains and flooding. Zarkov suspects the rains are a plot and the crew sets out to foil it.[23]
19"Flash Gordon and the Race against Time"February 25, 1955 (1955-02-25)
Half of the planets are lined up to strip the GBI of its authority and distribute its secrets amongst them. Earth casts the deciding vote in favor of keeping the GBI in control and selects Commander Richards to deliver the vote to the Galaxy Council on Mars. Krybian, the evil representative of Pluto, conspires with a master criminal to prevent Richards from voting, thus ensuring that GBI will lose its power. Flash foils the conspiracy and delivers Richards on time.
20"The Witch of Neptune"March 4, 1955 (1955-03-04)
Part 1 of 3. Zydereen, the "Witch of Neptune," plots to take over the planet.[24] To that end she brainwashes Zarkov and Commander Richards to destroy the planet's atmospheric converters.
21"The Brain Machine"March 11, 1955 (1955-03-11)
Part 2 of 3. Flash and Dale race to Saturn to clear the names of the captive Zarkov and Commander Richards, accused of sabotaging Neptune's atmospheric converters. They battle the evil Zydereen, "Witch of Neptune," who brainwashed the captives and has stolen their knowledge of galactic defense.
22"Struggle to the End"March 18, 1955 (1955-03-18)
Part 3 of 3. Using her stolen knowledge, Zydereen, Witch of Neptune, builds a solar ray and threatens to destroy all life if she is not declared Queen of the Galaxy. Flash and Dale race to Neptune to thwart her evil plot.
23"The Water World Menace"March 25, 1955 (1955-03-25)
Underwater creatures wish to live out of the water, so they plot to steal a device to allow them to live on land.[25]
24"Saboteurs from Space"April 1, 1955 (1955-04-01)
As the Sky Flash is pulled off-course to an uncharted planet, every machine on Earth is seized by a mysterious "mechanical paralysis." Flash, Dale and Zarkov must stop Ziering, ruler of Planet X, before he can kidnap the 100 leading scientists from Earth in his bid to take over the galaxy.
25"The Forbidden Experiment"April 8, 1955 (1955-04-08)
From the near-lifeless planetoid Theta N-1, Dr. Fabian Prendis puts out a desperate call to Dr. Zarkov, at the command of his mysterious master. Upon arrival, Zarkov is taken captive and learns that Prendis is dead. His captor is a "lion-man" who demands that Zarkov continue Prendis' "transmutation" experiment to make him fully human in appearance. Flash and Dale discover where Zarkov has gone and race to his rescue.
26"Heat Wave"April 15, 1955 (1955-04-15)
Increases in the Earth's temperature are traced to the planet Caloria. Flash and his crew must thwart the invasion.[26]
27"The Hunger Invasion"April 22, 1955 (1955-04-22)
Flash, Dale and Zarkov must stave off a galactic invasion by a plague of devouring insects.[27]
28"Encounter with Evil"April 29, 1955 (1955-04-29)
A man called Evil confronts Flash, turning all of Flash's friends against him.[28]
29"The Matter Duplicator"May 6, 1955 (1955-05-06)
The GBI investigates a case of jewels mysteriously disappearing and reappearing.[29]
30"The Micro-Man Menace"May 13, 1955 (1955-05-13)
Flash and company work to stop a villain who is able to shrink people and entire planets.[30]
31"The Space Smugglers"May 20, 1955 (1955-05-20)
Flash and the GBI must stop smugglers who are transporting a drug that causes a hypnotic trance.[31]
32"The Mystery of Phoros"May 27, 1955 (1955-05-27)
The rulers of a disease-ridden planet prevent Flash, Dale and Zarkov from trying to stop the epidemic.[32]
33"The Shadowy Death"June 3, 1955 (1955-06-03)
The planet Saturn seeks to join the Galaxy Council but the son of the king acts to oppose it.[33]
34"Death in the Negative"June 10, 1955 (1955-06-10)
Queen Cygnil has the power to kill with a machine that turns people into photographic negatives, and it's up to Flash and friends to stop her.[34]
35"The Earth's Core"June 17, 1955 (1955-06-17)
A series of unexplained earthquakes prompt Flash to travel to the center of the planet to discover the cause.[35] There he, Dale and Zarkov encounter Zaldu, despotic ruler of the underground kingdom, and must halt his plans to burn his way through to the surface world to invade.[36]
36"Deadline at Noon"June 24, 1955 (1955-06-24)
Planets are being destroyed and Earth is next. Flash, Dale and Zarkov must time-travel to 1950s Berlin to defuse a bomb planted 1,250 years in the past.
37"The Law of Velorum"July 1, 1955 (1955-07-01)
Dale goes missing and a desperate Flash must find her.[37]
38"The Skyjackers"July 8, 1955 (1955-07-08)
Flash, Dale and Zarkov investigate the mysterious disappearances of a number of spaceships.[38]
39"The Subworld Revenge"July 15, 1955 (1955-07-15)
Strange tremors again threaten Earth, and Zarkov discovers that the evil Zaldu has survived his previous encounter with Flash and company and rebuilt his kingdom. The GBI team must once more journey deep underground in the Earth-borer Earthworm to thwart Zaldu once and for all.

text: Critical response and themes[edit]

text: Variety noted that the series was from a technical standpoint "up to the demands of the script and the average viewer probably won't notice the differences in quality between this and home-grown produce".[39] Flash Gordon was immediately popular in the United States and continued to run in syndication into the early 1960s.[40]

text: Modern critical reaction to the series has been light but largely negative. The production values are frequently derided, with the series described as "bargain-basement".[41] The televised series suffered in comparison to the earlier film serials with the television incarnation labeled "vastly inferior," lacking "good concepts and scripts" and "most of all, [lacking] Buster Crabbe, who was Flash Gordon".[42] One positive comment notes Champlin's portrayal of Dale Arden, who was transformed from the typical damsel in distress of the serials into a trained scientist and a "quick thinker who often saved [Flash and Zarkov] from perishing".[43]

text: Film theorist Wheeler Winston Dixon, far from decrying the series for its production values, finds that "the copious [use of] stock footage and the numerous exterior sequences shot in the ruins of the bombed-out metropolis give Flash Gordon a  distinctly ravaged look".[44] He writes that its international origins give the series "an interesting new cultural dimension, even a perceptible air of a split cultural identity".[3]  Dixon quotes German cultural historian Mark Baker, who writes of a particular scene from the episode The Brain Machine as emblematic of this cultural split. The scene uses stock footage of a June 17, 1953 demonstration by East Berlin workers against the East German government. Soviet tanks opened fire on both demonstrators and bystanders, thus confirming East Germany's status as a Soviet puppet state in the minds of West Germans. American viewers, Baker speculates, were probably unaware of the iconic power in West Germany of the images of fleeing East Berlinners, which were used to illustrate a panic on Neptune.[45]

text: Dixon, noting the similarities between the ideals espoused by "space operas" like Flash Gordon, Captain Video and Rocky Jones, Space Ranger and American Cold War values, argues that such series were designed to instill those values into their young viewers.[46] Flash Gordon, he writes, along with its fellow space operas, "have a common, unifying theme: peace in the universe can be achieved only by dangerous efforts and the unilateral dominance of the Western powers."[40] This echoes the earlier critique of Soviet writer G. Avarin, who in the Soviet film journal Art of the Cinema had accused Gordon and other space-faring characters of being "the vanguard of a new and greater 'American imperialism'".[47] The "ravaged look" of the series, Dixon writes, "underscores the real-world stage on which the action of the space operas played".[1]

text: Preservation status[edit]

text: Physical copies of two episodes, "Escape Into Time" (October 8, 1954) and "The Witch of Neptune" (March 4, 1955), are held in the J. Fred MacDonald collection at the Library of Congress. A total of fourteen episodes are currently available in the public domain, both on various DVD releases[48] and on websites such as the Internet Archive:[49] Episodes 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 36, and 39.


document_title: Catwoman (film)

question_text: who played the title role in the movie catwoman

text: Catwoman (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Artist and graphics designer Patience Phillips is a meek people-pleaser whose main support is her best friend Sally. She works for a cosmetics company called Hedare Beauty, which is ready to ship a new skin cream, called Beau-line, that is able to reverse the effects of aging. However, when Patience visits the R&D laboratory facility, she overhears a discussion between the scientist, Dr. Ivan Slavicky, and Laurel Hedare, the wife of company-owner George Hedare, about the dangerous side effects from continued use of the product. Laurel's guards discover Patience and are ordered to dispose of her. Patience tries to escape using a conduit pipe, but the minions have it sealed and flush her out of it, drowning her. Washed up on shore after drowning, Patience is mysteriously brought back to life by an Egyptian Mau cat, which had appeared at her apartment earlier; from that moment on, she develops cat-like abilities.

text: From Mau's owner, eccentric researcher Ophelia Powers, Patience learns that Egyptian Mau cats serve as messengers of the goddess Bast. Patience realizes that she is now a "catwoman," reborn with abilities that are both a blessing and a curse. Disguised as Catwoman to hide her identity, Patience, under cover of darkness, searches for answers as to who killed her and why. Eventually, her search (which includes finding Slavicky's body, and later being accused of his murder) leads her to Laurel. She asks Laurel to keep an eye on George, to which Laurel agrees. However, when Patience confronts George (who is at an opera with another woman), he reveals he knows nothing about the side effects. The police, led by Patience's love interest Detective Tom Lone, arrive and Catwoman escapes. Later on, Laurel murders her husband for his infidelity, and admits to having Dr. Slavicky killed because he wanted to cancel the product's release. She contacts Catwoman and frames her for the murder. Catwoman is taken into custody by Tom, but not before Laurel reveals the side-effects of the product: Discontinuing its use makes the skin disintegrate, while continuing its use makes the skin as hard as marble. She also plans to release the Beau-line the following day.

text: Patience slips out of her jail cell, and confronts Laurel in her office, (rescuing Tom, who'd come to question Laurel after second thoughts about Patience's guilt, in the process), revealing that Laurel is the one responsible for her death. During the fight, she scratches Laurel's face, and Laurel falls out of a window, grabbing onto a pipe for her life. Laurel sees her face in a window's reflection and, horrified by her skin's rapid disintegration, fails to grab hold of Patience's outstretched arm and falls to her death. Though Patience is cleared of any charges made against her regarding the deaths of Dr. Slavicky and the Hedares, she decides to end things with Tom, choosing to continue living outside the law and enjoying her new-found freedom as the mysterious Catwoman.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Halle Berry as Patience Phillips / Catwoman
Benjamin Bratt as Detective Tom Lone
Lambert Wilson as George Hedare
Frances Conroy as Ophelia Powers
Alex Borstein as Sally
Sharon Stone as Laurel Hedare
Kim Smith as Drina
Michael Massee as Armando
Byron Mann as Wesley
Peter Wingfield as Dr. Ivan Slavicky
Berend McKenzie as Lance
Ona Grauer as Sandy
Landy Cannon as Randy
Benita Ha as Forensics technician
Jill Krop as Newscaster
Dagmar Midcap as Television reporter
Peter Williams as Detective
Janet Varney as Party girl
(Uncredited) Tor Carlson as Basketball Player

text: Missy Peregrym appears uncredited as the Hedare factory computer monitor image (Beau-line graphics model), depicting the bad effects of the beauty product. A photograph of Michelle Pfeiffer as Catwoman in Batman Returns can be seen among the pictures that Ophelia shows to Patience.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: With Warner Bros. moving on development for Batman Forever in June 1993, a Catwoman spin-off was announced. Michelle Pfeiffer was set to reprise her role from Batman Returns.[6] Tim Burton became attached as director, while producer Denise Di Novi and writer Daniel Waters also returned.[7] In January 1994, Burton was unsure of his plans to direct Catwoman or an adaptation of "The Fall of the House of Usher".[8] On June 16, 1995, Waters turned in his Catwoman script to Warner Bros., the same day Batman Forever was released. Burton was still being courted to direct. Waters joked, "turning it in the day Batman Forever opened may not have been my best logistical move, in that it's the celebration of the fun-for-the-whole-family Batman. Catwoman is definitely not a fun-for-the-whole-family script."[9] In an August 1995 interview, Pfeiffer re-iterated her interest in the spin-off, but explained her priorities would be challenged as a mother and commitments to other projects.[10]

text: The film labored in development hell for years, with Ashley Judd set to star as the lead as far back as 2001,[11][12] but eventually dropped out of the role.[13] Nicole Kidman was also reportedly considered for the role after Judd stepped out of the project,[14] until Halle Berry was chosen and production began.

text:
"I checked out some to see how Catwoman is treated in the comics, to make sure that our Catwoman was in the same vein. But I didn't want to be too influenced by the comic book, because the whole point of the movie is to be first a movie, and to be different. Different from "Batman", different from "Spider-Man" - this movie has its own identity. I tried to find my sources more in the character of Catwoman herself. To me, the Catwoman we're filming now with Halle Berry is in the continuity of the others. She's different than Michelle Pfeiffer's character, different from anybody who's played Catwoman in the past. But she is Catwoman. When you look at the differences between the comic book Catwoman and the TV or movie Catwoman, they're all different-but there's a feeling that they are all Catwoman. Halle brings her own personality, through her attitude and through the outfit."

—Director Pitof[15]

tag: div

text: Catsuit[edit]

text: The catsuit was designed by Academy Award-winning costume designer Angus Strathie together with Berry, director Pitof, and the producers. Strathie explained, "We wanted a very reality-based wardrobe to show the progression from demure, repressed Patience to the sensual awakening of a sexy warrior goddess."[16]

text: Choreography and training[edit]

text: Berry started intensive fitness training with Harley Pasternak in June 2003.[17] Choreographer Anne Fletcher was brought in to develop Catwoman's signature style and teach Berry how to think like a cat.[18] She also oversaw Berry's training in the Brazilian martial art style Capoeira.[17] Berry was trained to crack a whip by coach Alex Green.[17]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal Photography began late September 2003. Shooting took place on 4th Street in downtown Los Angeles, California and Winnipeg, Manitoba as well as Lions Gate Film Studios, Vancouver, British Columbia, and Warner Brothers Burbank Studios, 4000 Warner Boulevard, Burbank, California.[19] Most of the cats cast in the film came from animal shelters throughout California.[18]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film had its theatrical premiere in the United States on July 23, 2004.

text: It was given an IMAX release coinciding with the general release as evidenced by a poster with the tagline "CATch Her in IMAX", but was cancelled because Warner Bros. decided that the delays on the visual effects did not give IMAX enough time to re-master the film in time for release. The decision to cancel the IMAX release was announced on June 30, 2004.

text: The film was released on VHS and DVD on January 18, 2005, and on Blu-ray on September 8, 2009.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Catwoman earned a gross of $40,202,379 in North America and $41,900,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $82,102,379 against a production budget of $100 million.[2]

text: The film grossed $16,728,411 in its opening weekend playing in 3,117 theaters, with a $5,366 per-theatre average and ranking #3, next to the titles The Bourne Supremacy and I, Robot.[20] The biggest market in other territories being France, Spain, Japan and Mexico where the film grossed $5.2 million, $4.05 million, $3.05 million and $2.9 million.[21]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 9% based on 195 reviews with an average rating of 3.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Halle Berry is the lone bright spot, but even she can't save this laughable action thriller."[22] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 27 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[23] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[24]

text: The film appeared on the list of Roger Ebert's most hated films. He criticized the filmmakers for giving little thought to providing Berry "with a strong character, story, supporting characters or action sequences," but his primary criticism came from the failure of the film to give the audience a sense of what her character experienced as she was transformed into Catwoman. He rather referred to it as being a movie "about Halle Berry's beauty, sex appeal, figure, eyes, lips and costume design. It gets those right."[25] Heldman et al said that as the film ends with Catwoman choosing "a solo existence as her sexualized body slinks into the full moon; even this otherwise agentic act is constructed for the consumption of the male gaze that follows her. The film presents her agency, power, and freedom as derivative of her hypersexualization."[26] In their onscreen review Ebert and his former co-host Richard Roeper both gave the film a thumbs down. Film critic Bill Muller of the Arizona Republic suggested that Berry should possibly give back her 2001 Academy Award as a penalty.[27]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film received seven Golden Raspberry nominations in 2005, including Worst Supporting Actress (Sharon Stone), Worst Supporting Actor (Lambert Wilson) and Worst Screen Couple (Halle Berry and either Benjamin Bratt or Sharon Stone). It won in the categories of Worst Picture, Worst Actress (Halle Berry), Worst Director (Pitof), and Worst Screenplay. Berry arrived at the ceremony to accept her Razzie in person, with her Best Actress Oscar for Monster's Ball in hand, and said: "First of all, I want to thank Warner Brothers. Thank you for putting me in a piece of shit, god-awful movie... It was just what my career needed."[28]

text: Video game[edit]

text: A video game was published by Electronic Arts UK and Argonaut Games. Featuring the voice talents of Jennifer Hale,[29] the game varied from the film's plot and received negative reviews much like the film.[30]


document_title: October Revolution

question_text: who gained the power in russia after the october revolution

text: October Revolution

text: Etymology[edit]

text: At first, the event was referred to as the October coup (Октябрьский переворот) or the Uprising of 3rd, as seen in contemporary documents (for example, in the first editions of Lenin's complete works). In Russian, however, "переворот" has a similar meaning to "revolution" and also means "upheaval" or "overturn", so "coup" is not necessarily the correct translation. With time, the term October Revolution (Октябрьская революция) came into use. It is also known as the "November Revolution" having occurred in November according to the Gregorian Calendar.[4]

text: Background[edit]

text: February Revolution[edit]

text: The February Revolution had toppled Tsar Nicolas II of Russia, and replaced his government with the Russian Provisional Government. However, the provisional government was weak and riven by internal dissension. It continued to wage World War I, which became increasingly unpopular. A nationwide crisis developed in Russia, affecting social, economic, and political relations. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased. Gross industrial production in 1917 had decreased by over 36% from what it had been in 1914. In the autumn, as much as 50% of all enterprises were closed down in the Urals, the Donbas, and other industrial centers, leading to mass unemployment. At the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. Real wages fell about 50% from what they had been in 1913. Russia's national debt in October 1917 had risen to 50 billion rubles. Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion rubles. The country faced the threat of financial bankruptcy.

text: Unrest by workers, peasants and soldiers[edit]

text: Throughout June, July, and August 1917, it was common to hear working-class Russians speak about their lack of confidence and misgivings with those in power in the Provisional Government. Factory workers around Russia felt unhappy with the growing shortages of food, supplies, and other materials. They blamed their own managers or foremen and would even attack them in the factories. The workers blamed many rich and influential individuals, such as elites in positions of power, for the overall shortage of food and poor living conditions. Workers labelled these rich and powerful individuals as opponents of the Revolution, and called them words such as "bourgeois, capitalist, and imperialist.”[5]

text: In September and October 1917, there were mass strike actions by the Moscow and Petrograd workers, miners in Donbas, metalworkers in the Urals, oil workers in Baku, textile workers in the Central Industrial Region, and railroad workers on 44 railway lines. In these months alone, more than a million workers took part in strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants in a social revolution.[6] Workers were able to organize these strikes through factory committees. The factory committees represented the workers and were able to negotiate better working conditions, pay, and hours. Even though workplace conditions may have been increasing in quality, the overall quality of life for workers was not improving. There were still shortages of food and the increased wages workers had obtained did little to provide for their families.[5]

text: By October 1917, peasant uprisings were common. While the uprisings varied in severity, complete uprisings and seizures of the land were not uncommon. Less robust forms of protest included marches on landowner manors and government offices, as well as withholding and storing grains rather than selling them as a result of the economic crisis.[7] When the Provisional Government sent punitive detachments, it only enraged the peasants. The garrisons in Petrograd, Moscow, and other cities, the Northern and Western fronts, and the sailors of the Baltic Fleet in September declared through their elected representative body Tsentrobalt that they did not recognize the authority of the Provisional Government and would not carry out any of its commands.[8]

text: Soldiers' wives were key players in unrest in the village. From 1914 to 1917, almost 50% of healthy men were sent to war, and many were killed on the front, resulting in a female occupation of the position of the household head. When government allowances were often late and were not sufficient to match the rising costs of goods, soldiers' wives sent masses of appeals and letters to the government, which largely were left unanswered. Frustration resulted, and these women were influential in inciting "subsistence riots" – also referred to as "hunger riots," "pogroms," or "baba riots". In these riots, citizens seized food and resources from shop owners who they believed to be charging unfair prices. Upon police intervention, protesters responded with "rakes, sticks, rocks and fists".[9]

text: Antiwar demonstrations[edit]

text: In a diplomatic note of 1 May, the minister of foreign affairs, Pavel Milyukov, expressed the Provisional Government's desire to continue the war against the Central Powers "to a victorious conclusion", arousing broad indignation. On 1–4 May, about 100,000 workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and after them the workers and soldiers of other cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading "Down with the war!" and "all power to the soviets!" The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for the Provisional Government.[10] 1 July saw more demonstrations, as about 500,000 workers and soldiers in Petrograd demonstrated, again demanding "all power to the soviets", "down with the war", and "down with the ten capitalist ministers". The Provisional Government opened an offensive against the Central Powers on 1 July, which soon collapsed. The news of the offensive and its collapse intensified the struggle of the workers and the soldiers. A new crisis in the Provisional Government began on 15 July.

text: July days[edit]

text: On 16 July, spontaneous demonstrations of workers and soldiers began in Petrograd, demanding that power be turned over to the soviets. The Central Committee of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party provided leadership to the spontaneous movements. On 17 July, over 500,000 people participated in what was intended to be a peaceful demonstration in Petrograd, the so-called July Days. The Provisional Government, with the support of Socialist-Revolutionary Party-Menshevik leaders of the All-Russian Executive Committee of the Soviets, ordered an armed attack against the demonstrators, killing hundreds.[11]

text: A period of repression followed. On 5–6 July, attacks were made on the editorial offices and printing presses of Pravda and on the Palace of Kshesinskaya, where the Central Committee and the Petrograd Committee of the Bolsheviks were located. On 7 July, the government ordered the arrest and trial of Vladimir Lenin. He was forced to go underground, as he had been under the Tsarist regime. Bolsheviks were arrested, workers were disarmed, and revolutionary military units in Petrograd were disbanded or sent to the war front. On 12 July, the Provisional Government published a law introducing the death penalty at the front. The second coalition government was formed on 24 July, chaired by Alexander Kerensky.[12]

text: Another problem for the government centered on General Lavr Kornilov, who had been Commander-in-Chief since 18 July. In response to a Bolshevik appeal, Moscow’s working class began a protest strike of 400,000 workers. They were supported by strikes and protest rallies by workers in Kiev, Kharkov, Nizhny Novgorod, Ekaterinburg, and other cities.

text: Kornilov affair[edit]

text: In what became known as the Kornilov affair, Kornilov directed an army under Aleksandr Krymov to march toward Petrograd to restore order to Russia, with Kerensky's agreement.[13] Details remain sketchy, but Kerensky appeared to become frightened by the possibility the army would stage a coup, and reversed the order. By contrast, historian Richard Pipes has argued that the episode was engineered by Kerensky.[14] On 27 August, feeling betrayed by the government, Kornilov pushed on towards Petrograd. With few troops to spare on the front, Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help. Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries confronted the army and convinced them to stand down.[15] The Bolsheviks' influence over railroad and telegraph workers also proved vital in stopping the movement of troops. Right-wingers felt betrayed, and the left wing was resurgent.

text: With Kornilov defeated, the Bolsheviks' popularity in the soviets grew significantly, both in the central and local areas. On 31 August, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies, and on 5 September, the Moscow Soviet Workers Deputies adopted the Bolshevik resolutions on the question of power. The Bolsheviks won a majority in the Soviets of Briansk, Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Minsk, Kiev, Tashkent, and other cities.

text: Insurrection[edit]

text: Planning[edit]

text: On 23 October 1917 (November 5 new style), the Bolsheviks' Central Committee voted 10–2 for a resolution saying that "an armed uprising is inevitable, and that the time for it is fully ripe".[16] At the Committee meeting, Lenin discussed how the people of Russia had waited long enough for “an armed uprising”, and it was the Bolsheviks' time to take power. Lenin expressed his confidence in the success of the planned insurrection. His confidence stemmed from months of Bolshevik buildup of power and successful elections to different committees and councils in major cities such as Petrograd and Moscow.[17]

text: The Bolsheviks created a revolutionary military committee within the Petrograd soviet, led by the soviet's president, Trotsky. The committee included armed workers, sailors and soldiers, and assured the support or neutrality of the capital's garrison. The committee methodically planned to occupy strategic locations through the city, almost without concealing their preparations: the Provisional Government's president Kerensky was himself aware of them, and some details, leaked by Kamenev and Zinoviev, were published in newspapers.[18][19]

text: Onset[edit]

text: In the early morning of October 24 (November 6 N.S.), a group of soldiers loyal to Kerensky's government marched on the printing house of the Bolshevik newspaper, Rabochy put [Worker's Path], seizing and destroying printing equipment and thousands of newspapers copies. Shortly thereafter the government announced the immediate closure of not only Rabochy put but also the left-wing Soldat as well as the far-right newspapers Zhivoe slovo and Novaia Rus'. The editors of these newspapers, as well as any authors seen to be calling for insurrection, were to be prosecuted on criminal charges.[20]

text: In response, at 9 AM the Military Revolutionary Committee issued a statement denouncing the government's actions. At 10 AM, Bolshevik-aligned soldiers successfully retook the Rabochy put printing house. Kerensky responded at approximately 3 PM that afternoon by ordering the raising of all but one of Petrograd's bridges, a tactic used by the government several months earlier in the July Days. What followed was a series of sporadic clashes over control of the bridges between Red Guard militias aligned with the Military Revolutionary Committee and military regiments still loyal to the government. At approximately 5 PM the Military Revolutionary Committee seized the Central Telegraph of Petrograd, giving the Bolsheviks control over communications through the city.[20][21]

text: On 25 October (7 November new style) 1917, Bolsheviks led their forces in the uprising in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg, then capital of Russia) against the Kerensky Provisional Government. The event coincided with the arrival of a flotilla of pro-Bolshevik marines, primarily five destroyers and their crews, in St. Petersburg harbor. At Kronstadt, sailors also announced their allegiance to the Bolshevik insurrection. In the early morning, the military-revolutionary committee planned the last of the locations to be assaulted or seized from its heavily guarded and picketed center in Smolny Palace. The Red Guards systematically captured major government facilities, key communication installations and vantage points with little opposition. The Petrograd Garrison and most of the city's military units joined the insurrection against the Provisional Government.[19]

text: Kerensky and the provisional government were virtually helpless to offer significant resistance. Railways and railway stations had been controlled by Soviet workers and soldiers for days, making rail travel to and from Petrograd impossible for Provisional Government officials. The Provisional Government was also unable to locate any serviceable vehicles. On the morning of the insurrection, Kerensky desperately searched for a means of reaching military forces he hoped would be friendly to the Provisional government outside the city, and ultimately borrowed a Renault car from the American Embassy, which he drove from the Winter Palace alongside a Pierce Arrow. Kerensky was able to evade the pickets going up around the palace and drive to meet approaching soldiers.[20]

text: As Kerensky left Petrograd, Lenin wrote a proclamation "To the Citizens of Russia" stating that the Provisional Government had been overthrown by the Military Revolutionary Committee. The proclamation was sent by telegraph throughout Russia even as the pro-Soviet soldiers were seizing important control centers throughout the city. One of Lenin's intentions was to present members of the Soviet congress, who would assemble that afternoon, with a fait accompli and thus forestall further debate on the wisdom or legitimacy of taking power.[20]

text: Assault on the Winter Palace[edit]

text: A bloodless insurrection occurred with a final assault against the Winter Palace, with 3,000 cadets, officers, cossacks and female soldiers poorly defending the Winter Palace.[20][22] The Bolsheviks delayed the assault because the revolutionaries could not find functioning artillery. The Bolsheviks also prolonged the assault for fear of violence since the insurrection did not generate violent outbreaks. At 6:15 p.m., a large group of artillery cadets abandoned the palace, taking their artillery with them. At 8:00 p.m., 200 cossacks left the palace and returned to their barracks.[20] While the cabinet of the provisional government within the palace debated what action to take, the Bolsheviks issued an ultimatum to surrender. Workers and soldiers occupied the last of the telegraph stations, cutting off the cabinet's communications with loyal military forces outside the city. As the night progressed, crowds of insurgents surrounded the palace, and many infiltrated it.[20] While soviet historians and officials tended to depict the event in heroic terms, the insurrection and even the seizure of the Winter Palace happened almost without resistance.[19] At 9:45 p.m, the cruiser Aurora fired a blank shot from the harbor. Some of the revolutionaries entered the Palace at 10:25 p.m. and there was a mass entry 3 hours later. By 2:10 a.m on 26 October Bolshevik forces had gained control of the palace. After sporadic gunfire throughout the building, the cabinet of the provisional government had surrendered. The only member who was not arrested was Kerensky himself who had already left the Palace.[20][23]

text: Later Soviet portrayal[edit]

text: Later official accounts of the revolution from the Soviet Union would depict the events in October as being far more dramatic than they actually had been.[24] (See a first-hand account by British General Knox.) This was aided by the historical reenactment, entitled The Storming of the Winter Palace, which was staged in 1920. This reenactment, watched by 100,000 spectators, provided the model for official films made much later, which showed a huge storming of the Winter Palace and fierce fighting.[25] In reality, the Bolshevik insurgents faced little opposition.[22] The insurrection was timed and organized to hand state power to the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which began on 25 October (7 November new style). After a single day of revolution, the death toll was low not because Bolsheviks decided not to use artillery fire, but instead because the class struggle was used as the strongest weapon.[26]

text: Soviet government archives show that parties of Bolshevik operatives sent from the Smolny Institute by Lenin took over all critical centers of power in Petrograd in the early hours of the first night without a significant number of shots fired.[27] This was completed so efficiently that the takeover resembled the changing of the guard. There was not much of a storming of the Winter Palace because the resistance basically did not exist and at 2:10 a.m. on 26 October (8 November new style) 1917 the Red Guards took control of the Winter Palace. The Cossacks deserted when the Red Guard approached, and the Cadets and the 140 volunteers of the Women's Battalion surrendered rather than resist the 40,000 strong army.[28] The Aurora was commandeered to then fire blanks at the palace in a symbolic act of rejection of the government. The Bolsheviks effectively controlled the almost unoccupied Winter Palace not because of an intense military barrage, but because the back door was left open, allowing the Red Guard to enter.[29] The Provisional Government was arrested and imprisoned in Peter and Paul Fortress after the ministers resigned to fate and surrendered without a fight, and officially overthrown.

text: Later stories of the heroic "Storming of the Winter Palace" and "defense of the Winter Palace" were later propaganda by Bolshevik publicists. Grandiose paintings depicting the "Women's Battalion" and photo stills taken from Sergei Eisenstein's staged film depicting the "politically correct" version of the October events in Petrograd came to be taken as truth.[30]

text: With the Petrograd Soviet now in control of government, garrison and proletariat, the Second All Russian Congress of Soviets held its opening session on the day, while Trotsky dismissed the opposing Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries (SR) from Congress.

text: Dybenko's memoirs[edit]

text: Some sources contend that as the leader of Tsentrobalt, Pavlo Dybenko played an enormous role in the revolt. It is said[who?] that the ten warships that entered the city with ten thousand Baltic fleet mariners was the force that actually took the power in Petrograd and put down the Provisional Government. The same mariners then dispersed by force the elected parliament of Russia,[31] and used machine-gun fire against protesting demonstrators in Petrograd.[citation needed] About 100 demonstrators were killed, and several hundreds wounded.[citation needed] Dybenko in his memoirs mentioned this event as "several shots in the air". Later, during the first hours after the taking of the Winter Palace, Dybenko personally entered the Ministry of Justice and destroyed there the documents about the financing of the Bolshevik party by Germany.[32] These are disputed by various sources such as Louise Bryant,[33] who claims that news outlets in the West at the time reported that the unfortunate loss of life occurred in Moscow, not Petrograd, and the number was much less than suggested above. As for the "several shots in the air", there is little evidence suggesting otherwise. The alleged action of Dybenko entering the Ministry of Justice to destroy documents as recalled by Savchenko can also be challenged. According to reports, Pavel Dybenko was in Helsingfors organizing the sailors' departures for Petrograd. In the book Radio October...On the "Krechet" in Helsingfors, radio operator Makarov hands a telegram to Pavel Dybenko with the report of the "Samson" commissar, Grigoriy Borisov: "To Tsentrobalt. Everything is calm in Petrograd. The power is in the hands of the revolutionary committee. You have to immediately get in touch with the front committee of the Northern Army in order to preserve unity of forces and stability."

text: Outcome[edit]

text: The Second Congress of Soviets consisted of 670 elected delegates; 300 were Bolshevik and nearly a hundred were Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, who also supported the overthrow of the Alexander Kerensky Government.[34] When the fall of the Winter Palace was announced, the Congress adopted a decree transferring power to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies, thus ratifying the Revolution.

text: The transfer of power was not without disagreement. The center and Right wings of the Socialist Revolutionaries as well as the Mensheviks believed that Lenin and the Bolsheviks had illegally seized power and they walked out before the resolution was passed. As they exited, they were taunted by Leon Trotsky who told them "You are pitiful isolated individuals; you are bankrupts; your role is played out. Go where you belong from now on — into the dustbin of history!"[35]

text: The following day, 26 October, the Congress elected a new cabinet of Bolsheviks, pending the convocation of a Constituent Assembly. This basis for the new Soviet government was known as the Council (Soviet) of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), with Lenin as leader. Lenin allegedly approved of the name, reporting that it "smells of revolution".[36] The cabinet quickly passed the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land. This new government was also officially called "provisional" until the Assembly was dissolved. Posters were pinned on walls and fences by the Right Socialist Revolutionaries, describing the takeover as a "crime against the motherland and revolution".

text: On 27 October 1917 (9 November new style), the Mensheviks seized power in Georgia and declared it an independent republic. The Don Cossacks also claimed control of their own government. The biggest Bolshevik strongholds were in the cities, particularly Petrograd, with support much more mixed in rural areas. The peasant dominated Left SR Party was in coalition with the Bolsheviks. There are reports that the Provisional Government had not conceded defeat and are meeting with the army at the Front.

text: On 28 October 1917,(10 November new style) some posters and newspapers started criticizing the actions of the Bolsheviks and refuted their authority. The Executive Committee of Peasants Soviets "[refuted] with indignation all participation of the organised peasantry in this criminal violation of the will of the working class".[37] On 29 October 1917, opposition to the Bolsheviks developed into major counter-revolutionary action. Cossacks entered Tsarskoye Selo on outskirts of Petrograd with Kerensky riding on a white horse welcomed by church bells. Kerensky gave an ultimatum to the rifle garrison to lay down weapons, which was promptly refused. They were then fired upon by Kerensky’s Cossacks, which resulted in 8 deaths. This turned soldiers in Petrograd against Kerensky because he was just like the Tsarist regime. Kerensky’s failure to assume authority over troops was described by John Reed as a ‘fatal blunder’ that signalled the final death of the government.[38]

text: On 30 October 1917 (12 November new style), the battle against the anti-Bolsheviks continued. The Red Guard fought against Cossacks at Tsarskoye Selo, with the Cossacks breaking rank and fleeing, leaving their artillery behind.

text: On 31 October 1917 (13 November new style), the Bolsheviks gained control of Moscow after a week of bitter street-fighting. Artillery had been freely used with an estimated 700 casualties. However, there was still continued support for Kerensky in some of the provinces.

text: On 1 November 1917 (14 November new style), there was an appeal to anti-Bolsheviks throughout Russia to join the new government of the people, with the Bolsheviks winning even more support from the Russian people.

text: On 2 November 1917 (15 November new style), there was only minor public anti-Bolshevik sentiment; for example, the newspaper Novaya Zhizn criticised the lack of manpower and organisation of the Bolsheviks to run a party, let alone a government. Lenin confidently claimed that there is "not a shadow of hesitation in the masses of Petrograd, Moscow and the rest of Russia" towards Bolshevik rule.[39]

text: On 10 November 1917 (23 November new style), the government sought to label its citizens as "citizens of the Russian Republic," and make them equal in all possible respects. This was accomplished by the nullification of all "legal designations of civil equality, such as estates, titles, and ranks.[40]

text: On 12 November (25 November new style), a Constituent Assembly was elected. In these elections, 26 mandatory delegates were proposed by the Bolshevik Central Committee and 58 were proposed by the Socialist Revolutionaries. Of these mandatory candidates, only one Bolshevik and seven Socialist Revolutionary delegates were women.[41] The outcome of the election gave the majority to the Socialist Revolutionary Party, which no longer existed as a full party by that time, as the Left SR Party was in coalition with the Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks dissolved the Constituent Assembly in January 1918, when it came into conflict with the Soviets.

text: On 16 December 1917 (29 December 1917 new style), the government ventured to eliminate hierarchy in the army, removing all titles, ranks, and uniform decorations. The tradition of saluting was also eliminated.[40]

text: On 20 December 1917 (2 January 1918 new style), the Cheka was created by the decree of Vladimir Lenin.[42] These were the beginnings of the Bolsheviks' consolidation of power over their political opponents. The Red Terror was started in September 1918, following a failed assassination attempt on Lenin's life. The Jacobin Terror was an example for the Soviet Bolsheviks. Leon Trotsky had compared Lenin to Maximilien Robespierre as early as 1904.[43]

text: The Decree on Land ratified the actions of the peasants who throughout Russia gained private land and redistributed it among themselves. The Bolsheviks viewed themselves as representing an alliance of workers and peasants and memorialized that understanding with the Hammer and Sickle on the flag and coat of arms of the Soviet Union. Other decrees:

text:
All private property was nationalized by the government.
All Russian banks were nationalized.
Private bank accounts were expropriated.
The properties of the Church (including bank accounts) were expropriated.
All foreign debts were repudiated.
Control of the factories was given to the soviets.
Wages were fixed at higher rates than during the war, and a shorter, eight-hour working day was introduced.

text: Bolshevik-led attempts to gain power in other parts of the Russian Empire were largely successful in Russia proper — although the fighting in Moscow lasted for two weeks — but they were less successful in ethnically non-Russian parts of the Empire, which had been clamoring for independence since the February Revolution. For example, the Ukrainian Rada, which had declared autonomy on 23 June 1917, created the Ukrainian People's Republic on 20 November, which was supported by the Ukrainian Congress of Soviets. This led to an armed conflict with the Bolshevik government in Petrograd and, eventually, a Ukrainian declaration of independence from Russia on 25 January 1918.[44] In Estonia, two rival governments emerged: the Estonian Provincial Assembly, established in April 1917, proclaimed itself the supreme legal authority of Estonia on 28 November 1917 and issued the Declaration of Independence on 24 February 1918.[45] Soviet Russia recognized the Executive Committee of the Soviets of Estonia as the legal authority in the province, although the Soviets in Estonia controlled only the capital and a few other major towns.[46] The success of the October Revolution transformed the Russian state into a soviet republic. A coalition of anti-Bolshevik groups attempted to unseat the new government in the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1922.

text: In an attempt to intervene in the civil war after the Bolsheviks' separate peace with the Central Powers, the Allied powers (United Kingdom, France, Italy, United States and Japan) occupied parts of the Soviet Union for over two years before finally withdrawing.[47] The United States did not recognize the new Russian government until 1933. The European powers recognized the Soviet Union in the early 1920s and began to engage in business with it after the New Economic Policy (NEP) was implemented.

text: Historiography[edit]

text:
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text: Few events in historical research have been as conditioned by political influences as the October Revolution.[48] The historiography of the Revolution generally divides into three camps: the Soviet-Marxist view, the Western-Totalitarian view, and the Revisionist view.[49]

text: Soviet historiography[edit]

text: Soviet historiography of the October Revolution is intertwined with Soviet historical development. Many of the initial Soviet interpreters of the Revolution were themselves Bolshevik revolutionaries.[50] After the initial wave of revolutionary narratives, Soviet historians worked within "narrow guidelines" defined by the Soviet government. The rigidity of interpretive possibilities reached its height under Joseph Stalin.[51]

text: Soviet historians of the October Revolution interpreted the Revolution with regard to establishing the legitimacy of Marxist ideology, and also the Bolshevik government. To establish the accuracy of Marxist ideology, Soviet historians generally described the Revolution as the product of class struggle. They maintained that the Revolution was the supreme event in a world history governed by historical laws. The Bolshevik Party is placed at the center of the Revolution, exposing the errors of both the moderate Provisional Government and the spurious "socialist" Mensheviks in the Petrograd Soviet. Guided by Vladimir Lenin's leadership and his firm grasp of scientific Marxist theory, the Party led the "logically predetermined" events of the October Revolution from beginning to end. The events were, according to these historians, logically predetermined because of the socio-economic development of Russia, where the monopoly industrial capitalism alienated the masses. In this view, the Bolshevik party took the leading role in organizing these alienated industrial workers, and thereby established the construction of the first socialist state.[52]

text: Although Soviet historiography of the October Revolution stayed relatively constant until 1991, it did undergo some changes. Following Stalin’s death, historians such as E. N. Burdzhalov and P. V. Volobuev published historical research that deviated significantly from the party line in refining the doctrine that the Bolshevik victory "was predetermined by the state of Russia’s socio-economic development".[53] These historians, who constituted the "New Directions Group", posited that the complex nature of the October Revolution "could only be explained by a multi-causal analysis, not by recourse to the mono-causality of monopoly capitalism".[54] For them, the central actor is still the Bolshevik party, but this party triumphed "because it alone could solve the preponderance of ‘general democratic’ tasks the country faced" (such as the struggle for peace, the exploitation of landlords, and so on.)[55]

text: Following the turn of the 21st century, some Soviet historians began to implement an "anthropological turn" in their historiographical analysis of the Russian Revolution. This method of analysis focuses on the average person's experience of day-to-day life during the revolution, and pulls the analytical focus away from larger events, notable revolutionaries, and overarching claims about party views.[56] In 2006, S. V. Iarov employed this methodology when he focused on citizen adjustment to the new Soviet system. Iarov explored the dwindling labor protests, evolving forms of debate, and varying forms of politicization as a result of the new Soviet rule from 1917 to 1920.[57] In 2010, O. S. Nagornaia took interest in the personal experiences of Russian prisoners of war taken by Germany, examining Russian soldiers and officers' ability to cooperate and implement varying degrees of autocracy despite being divided by class, political views and race.[58] Other analyses following this "anthropological turn" have explored texts from soldiers and how they used personal war experiences to further their political goals,[59] as well as how individual life-structure and psychology may have shaped major decisions in the civil war that followed the revolution.[60]

text: During the late Soviet period, the opening of select Soviet archives during glasnost sparked innovative research that broke away from some aspects of Marxism–Leninism, though the key features of the orthodox Soviet view remained intact.[51]

text: Western historiography[edit]

text: During the Cold War, Western historiography of the October Revolution developed in direct response to the assertions of the Soviet view. The Soviet version of the October Revolution conditioned historical interpretations in the United States and the West. As a result, these Western historians exposed what they believed were flaws in the Soviet view, thereby undermining the Bolsheviks' original legitimacy, as well as the precepts of Marxism.[61]

text: These Western historians described the revolution as the result of a chain of contingent accidents. Examples of these accidental and contingent factors they say precipitated the Revolution included World War I's timing, chance, and the poor leadership of Tsar Nicholas II as well as liberal and moderate socialists.[51] According to Western historians, it was not popular support, but rather manipulation of the masses, ruthlessness, and the superior structure of the Bolsheviks that enabled it to survive. For these historians, the Bolsheviks’ defeat in the Constituent Assembly elections of November–December 1917 demonstrated popular opposition to the Bolsheviks’ coup, as did the scale and breadth of the Civil War.[62]

text: Western historians saw the organization of the Bolshevik party as proto-totalitarian. Their interpretation of the October Revolution as a violent coup organized by a proto-totalitarian party reinforced to them the idea that totalitarianism was an inherent part of Soviet history.[63] For them, Stalinist totalitarianism developed as a natural progression from Leninism and the Bolshevik party’s tactics and organization.[64]

text: Effect of the dissolution of the USSR on historical research[edit]

text: The dissolution of the USSR affected historical interpretations of the October Revolution. Since 1991, increasing access to large amounts of Soviet archival materials made it possible to re‑examine the October Revolution.[65] Though both Western and Russian historians now have access to many of these archives, the effect of the dissolution of the USSR can be seen most clearly in the work of historians in the former USSR. While the disintegration essentially helped solidify the Western and Revisionist views, post-USSR Russian historians largely repudiated the former Soviet historical interpretation of the Revolution.[66] As Stephen Kotkin argues, 1991 prompted "a return to political history and the apparent resurrection of totalitarianism, the interpretive view that, in different ways…revisionists sought to bury".[67]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The term "Red October" (Красный Октябрь, Krasnyy Oktyabr) has also been used to describe the events of the month. This name has in turn been lent to a steel factory made notable by the Battle of Stalingrad,[68] a Moscow sweets factory that is well known in Russia, and a fictional Soviet submarine.

text: Ten Days That Shook the World, a book written by American journalist John Reed and first published in 1919, gives a firsthand exposition of the events. Reed died in 1920, shortly after the book was finished.

text: Dmitri Shostakovich wrote his Symphony No. 2 in B major, Op. 14 and subtitled To October, for the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution. The choral finale of the work, "To October", is set to a text by Alexander Bezymensky, which praises Lenin and the revolution. The Symphony No. 2 was first performed by the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra and the Academy Capella Choir under the direction of Nikolai Malko, on 5 November 1927.

text: Sergei Eisenstein and Grigori Aleksandrov's film October: Ten Days That Shook the World, first released on 20 January 1928 in the USSR and on 2 November 1928 in New York City, describes and glorifies the revolution and was commissioned to commemorate the event.

text: 7 November, the anniversary of the October Revolution, was the official national day of the Soviet Union from 1918 onward and still is a public holiday in Belarus and the breakaway territory of Transnistria.

text: The October revolution of 1917 also marks the inception of the first communist government in Russia, and thus the first large-scale socialist state in world history. After this Russia became the Russian SFSR and later part of the USSR, which dissolved in late 1991.


document_title: List of past presumed highest mountains

question_text: before mount everest was discovered what was the tallest mountain in the world

text: List of past presumed highest mountains

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The following is a list of mountains that have been presumed, at one time, to be the highest mountain in the world. How general were the following presumptions is unclear. Before the age of exploration, no geographer could make any plausible assumption.

text:
Chimborazo, 6,267 metres (20,561 ft). Presumed highest from sixteenth century until the beginning of  the 19th century. Not in the top 100 highest mountains when measured from sea level, however due to the earth's equatorial bulge this is the farthest point from the Earth's center.
Nanda Devi, 7,816 metres (25,643 ft). Presumed highest in the world before Kangchenjunga was sighted in an era when Nepal was still closed to the outside world. Now known to be the 23rd highest mountain in the world.
Dhaulagiri, 8,167 metres (26,795 ft). Presumed highest from 1808[1] until 1847.[2] Now known to be the 7th highest mountain in the world.
Kangchenjunga, 8,586 metres (28,169 ft). Presumed highest from 1847 until 1852. Now known to be the 3rd highest mountain in the world.[2]
Mount Everest, 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). Established as highest in 1852 and officially confirmed in 1856.[3]
K2, 8,611 metres (28,251 ft). Discovered in 1856 before Mt. Everest was officially confirmed, K2's elevation became something of an enigma until it was officially resolved at a later date.[2] News media reported in 1986 that satellite measurements by the University of Washington during an expedition to K2 by George Wallenstein had given a height between 29,064 feet (8,859 m) and 29,228 feet (8,909 m).[4] This erroneous figure was quickly retracted, and K2's status as second highest was reaffirmed.[4]


document_title: Toiletry bag

question_text: why do they call it a dopp kit

question_tokens: why do they call it a dopp kit

text: Toiletry bag

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A toiletry bag (also called a toiletry kit, ditty bag, dopp kit, bathroom kit, sponge bag, toilet bag, toilet kit, body hygiene kit, travel kit, wash bag, or wet pack), is a portable container—usually a pouch with a zippered closure[citation needed]—which holds body hygiene and toiletry supplies such as toothbrush and toothpaste, dental floss, cotton swabs, deodorant, nail clippers, tweezers, soap, shaving supplies, hair brush, tampons, contact lenses and supplies, and similar items while travelling and in other circumstances where permanent shelves and cupboards are unavailable or impractical for use.

text: Dopp kit[edit]

text: Dopp kit is a term particularly in use in America[citation needed] for toiletry bags. The name derives from the early 20th century leather craftsman Charles Doppelt, whose company designed the case in 1926.[1]

text: Dopp kits became widely known during World War I[2] and World War II[3] when they were issued to GIs. The Dopp brand name was purchased by Samsonite in the early 1970s[4], and was acquired by Buxton in 1979.[5]

text: The trademark Dopp was filed by Samsonite for registration at the U.S. Trademark Office on Mar. 24, 1980.[6] The class of goods for which it was applicable was “toilet cases sold empty, briefcases, briefcase type portfolios, sample and catalog cases sold empty, luggage identification tags, and traveling bags”. An additional filing for the trademark Dopp Kit was made on April 3, 1980 for the class of goods “travel kits, sold empty”.[7] In both of those applications Samsonite stated that the trademarks were first used in July 1936. The registration for “Dopp Kit” was cancelled in March 2003 when no one filed a required (Section 8) Declaration of Continued Use, but the required declarations have been filed for “Dopp”. The marks were assigned to DHP Limited Partnership (dba Buxton) in 1990; the current owner of the “Dopp” trademark is listed as Buxton Acquisition Co., LLC, of Chicopee, Massachusetts.[citation needed]