document_title: History of agriculture

question_text: where did the first farming communities develop in early china

text: History of agriculture

text: Origins[edit]

text: Origin hypotheses[edit]

text: Scholars have developed a number of hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an antecedent period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in southwest Asia, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Current models indicate that wild stands that had been harvested previously started to be planted, but were not immediately domesticated.[1][2]

text: Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant.[3] When major climate change took place after the last ice age (c. 11,000 BC), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons.[4] These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.[5]

text: Early development[edit]

text: Early people began altering communities of flora and fauna for their own benefit through means such as fire-stick farming and forest gardening very early.[6][7][8] Exact dates are hard to determine, as people collected and ate seeds before domesticating them, and plant characteristics may have changed during this period without human selection. An example is the semi-tough rachis and larger seeds of cereals from just after the Younger Dryas (about 9,500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Monophyletic characteristics were attained without any human intervention, implying that apparent domestication of the cereal rachis could have occurred quite naturally.[9]

text: Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin.[10] Some of the earliest known domestications were of animals. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 11,000 BC.[11] Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 11,000 and 9,000 BC.[12] Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC.[13] Camels were domesticated late, perhaps around 3,000 BC.[14]

text: It was not until after 9,500 BC that the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture appear: first emmer and einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) sites in the Levant, although wheat was the first to be grown and harvested on a significant scale. At around the same time (9400 BC), parthenocarpic fig trees were domesticated.[16][17]

text: By 7,000 BC, sowing and harvesting reached the fertile soil of Mesopotamia, where Sumerians systematized it and scaled it up. By 8,000 BC, farming was entrenched on the banks of the River Nile. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, probably in China, with rice rather than wheat as the primary crop. Maize was domesticated from the wild grass teosinte in West Mexico by 6,700 BC.[18] The potato (8,000 BC), tomato,[19] pepper (4,000 BC), squash (8,000 BC) and several varieties of bean (8,000 BC onwards) were domesticated in the New World.[20] Agriculture was independently developed on the island of New Guinea.[21] In Greece from c. 11,000 BC lentils, vetch, pistachios, and almonds were cultivated, while wild oats and wild barley appear in quantity from c. 7,000 BC alongside einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats and pigs,[22][23] while emmer was used on Cyprus between 9,100 and 8,600 BC.[24][25] Banana cultivation of Musa acuminata, including hybridization, dates back to 5,000 BC, and possibly to 8,000 BC, in Papua New Guinea.[26][27] Bees were kept for honey in the Middle East around 7,000 BC.[28] Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals between 6,000 and 4,500 BC.[25] Céide Fields in Ireland, consisting of extensive tracts of land enclosed by stone walls, date to 3,500 BC and are the oldest known field systems in the world.[29][30] The horse was domesticated in the Pontic steppe around 4,000 BC.[31] In Siberia, Cannabis was in use in China in Neolithic times and may have been domesticated there; it was in use both as a fibre for ropemaking and as a medicine in Ancient Egypt by about 2,350 BC.[32]

text: In China, rice and millet were domesticated by 8,000 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. In the Sahel region of Africa, local rice and sorghum were domesticated by 5,000 BC. Kola nut and coffee were domesticated in Africa.[33] In New Guinea, ancient Papuan peoples began practicing agriculture around 7,000 BC, domesticating sugarcane and taro.[34] In the Indus Valley from the eighth millennium BC onwards at Mehrgarh, 2-row and 6-row barley were cultivated, along with einkorn, emmer, and durum wheats, and dates. In the earliest levels of Merhgarh, wild game such as gazelle, swamp deer, blackbuck, chital, wild ass, wild goat, wild sheep, boar, and nilgai were all hunted for food. These are successively replaced by domesticated sheep, goats, and humped zebu cattle by the fifth millennium BC, indicating the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture.[35] Maize and squash were domesticated in Mesoamerica; potato in South America, and sunflower in the Eastern Woodlands of North America.[36]

text: Civilizations[edit]

text: Sumer[edit]

text: Sumerian farmers grew the cereals barley and wheat, starting to live in villages from about 8,000 BC. Given the low rainfall of the region, agriculture relied on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Irrigation canals leading from the rivers permitted the growth of cereals in large enough quantities to support cities. The first ploughs appear in pictographs from Uruk around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs that funneled seed into the ploughed furrow appear on seals around 2300 BC. Vegetable crops included chickpeas, lentils, peas, beans, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and mustard. They grew fruits including dates, grapes, apples, melons, and figs. Alongside their farming, Sumerians also caught fish and hunted fowl and gazelle. The meat of sheep, goats, cows and poultry was eaten, mainly by the elite. Fish was preserved by drying, salting and smoking.[37][38]

text: Ancient Egypt[edit]

text: The civilization of Ancient Egypt was indebted to the Nile River and its dependable seasonal flooding. The river's predictability and the fertile soil allowed the Egyptians to build an empire on the basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians were among the first peoples to practice agriculture on a large scale, starting in the pre-dynastic period from the end of the Paleolithic into the Neolithic, between around 10,000 and 4,000 BC.[39] This was made possible with the development of basin irrigation.[40] Their staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus.[39]

text: Indus valley[edit]

text: Cotton was cultivated by the 5th-4th millennium BC.[41]

text: Wheat, barley, and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.[42] Barley and wheat cultivation—along with the domestication of cattle, primarily sheep and goats—followed in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC.[43][44] This period also saw the first domestication of the elephant.[42] Pastoral farming in India included threshing, planting crops in rows—either of two or of six—and storing grain in granaries.[44][45] By the 5th millennium BC, agricultural communities became widespread in Kashmir.[44] Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4,500 BC.[46] The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this innovation, leading to more thoroughly planned settlements which used drainage and sewers.[46] Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.[47]

text: Ancient China[edit]

text: Records from the Warring States, Qin Dynasty, and Han Dynasty provide a picture of early Chinese agriculture from the 5th century BC to 2nd century AD which included a nationwide granary system and widespread use of sericulture. An important early Chinese book on agriculture is the Chimin Yaoshu of AD 535, written by Jia Sixia.[48] Jia's writing style was straightforward and lucid relative to the elaborate and allusive writing typical of the time. Jia's book was also very long, with over one hundred thousand written Chinese characters, and it quoted many other Chinese books that were written previously, but no longer survive.[49] The contents of Jia's 6th century book include sections on land preparation, seeding, cultivation, orchard management, forestry, and animal husbandry. The book also includes peripherally related content covering trade and culinary uses for crops.[50] The work and the style in which it was written proved influential on later Chinese agronomists, such as Wang Zhen and his groundbreaking Nong Shu of 1313.[49]

text: For agricultural purposes, the Chinese had innovated the hydraulic-powered trip hammer by the 1st century BC.[51] Although it found other purposes, its main function to pound, decorticate, and polish grain that otherwise would have been done manually. The Chinese also began using the square-pallet chain pump by the 1st century AD, powered by a waterwheel or oxen pulling an on a system of mechanical wheels.[52] Although the chain pump found use in public works of providing water for urban and palatial pipe systems,[53] it was used largely to lift water from a lower to higher elevation in filling irrigation canals and channels for farmland.[54] By the end of the Han dynasty in the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards.[55][56] These would slowly spread west, revolutionizing farming in Northern Europe by the 10th century. (Glick, however, argues for a development of the Chinese plough as late as the 9th century, implying its spread east from similar designs known in Italy by the 7th century.)[57]

text: Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago in China, with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon,[58] in the Pearl River valley region of China. Rice cultivation then spread to South and Southeast Asia.[59]

text: Ancient Greece and Hellenistic world[edit]

text: The major cereal crops of the ancient Mediterranean region were wheat, emmer, and barley, while common vegetables included peas, beans, fava, and olives, dairy products came mostly from sheep and goats, and meat, which was consumed on rare occasion for most people, usually consisted of pork, beef, and lamb.[60] Agriculture in ancient Greece was hindered by the topography of mainland Greece that only allowed for roughly 10% of the land to be cultivated properly, necessitating the specialized exportation of oil and wine and importation of grains from Thrace (centered in what is now Bulgaria) and the Greek colonies of southern Russia.[61] During the Hellenistic period, the Ptolemaic Empire controlled Egypt, Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Cyrenaica, major grain-producing regions that mainland Greeks depended on for subsistence, while the Ptolemaic grain market also played a critical role in the rise of the Roman Republic.[61] In the Seleucid Empire, Mesopotamia was a crucial area for the production of wheat, while nomadic animal husbandry was also practiced in other parts.[61]

text: Roman Empire[edit]

text: In the Greco-Roman world of Classical antiquity, Roman agriculture was built on techniques originally pioneered by the Sumerians, transmitted to them by subsequent cultures, with a specific emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade and export. The Romans laid the groundwork for the manorial economic system, involving serfdom, which flourished in the Middle Ages. The farm sizes in Rome can be divided into three categories. Small farms were from 18-88 iugera (one iugerum is equal to about 0.65 acre). Medium-sized farms were from 80-500 iugera (singular iugerum). Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera.[62] The Romans had four systems of farm management: direct work by owner and his family; slaves doing work under supervision of slave managers; tenant farming or sharecropping in which the owner and a tenant divide up a farm’s produce; and situations in which a farm was leased to a tenant.[62]

text: Mesoamerica[edit]

text: In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was transformed through human selection into the ancestor of modern maize, more than 6,000 years ago. It gradually spread across North America and was the major crop of Native Americans at the time of European exploration.[63] Other Mesoamerican crops include hundreds of varieties of locally domesticated squash and beans, while cocoa, also domesticated in the region, was a major crop.[34] The turkey, one of the most important meat birds, was probably domesticated in Mexico or the U.S. Southwest.[64]

text: In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were active farmers and had an agriculturally focused economy. The land around Lake Texcoco was fertile, but not large enough to produce the amount of food needed for the population of their expanding empire. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands, also known as "floating gardens". The Mayas between 400 BC to 900 AD used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland on the Yucatán Peninsula.[65][66]

text: South America[edit]

text: In the Andes region of South America, with civilizations including the Inca, the major crop was the potato, domesticated approximately 7,000–10,000 years ago.[67][68][69] Coca, still a major crop to this day, was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple.[34] Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3,600 BC.[70] Animals were also domesticated, including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs.[71]

text: North America[edit]

text: The indigenous people of the Eastern U.S.A. domesticated numerous crops. Sunflowers, tobacco,[72] varieties of squash and Chenopodium, as well as crops no longer grown, including marsh elder and little barley, were domesticated.[73][74] Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested.[75] The most common varieties of strawberry were domesticated from Eastern North America.[76] Two major crops, pecans and Concord grapes, were utilized extensively in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been domesticated until the 19th century.[77][78]

text: The indigenous people in what is now California and the Pacific Northwest practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire-stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plants continued to be available. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology which prevented larger, catastrophic fires and sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture.[79][80][81][82]

text: A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. Three crops that complemented each other were planted together: winter squash, maize (corn), and climbing beans (typically tepary beans or common beans). The maize provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the other plants use, and the squash spreads along the ground, blocking the sunlight, helping prevent the establishment of weeds. The squash leaves also act as a "living mulch".[83][84]

text: Australia[edit]

text: From the time of British colonization of Australia in 1788, Indigenous Australians were characterised as nomadic hunter-gatherers who did not engage in agriculture, despite evidence to the contrary. In 1969, the archaeologist Rhys Jones proposed that Indigenous Australians engaged in systematic burning as a way of enhancing natural productivity, what has been termed fire-stick farming.[85] In the 1970s and 1980s archaeological research in south west Victoria established that the Gunditjmara and other groups had developed sophisticated eel farming and fish trapping systems over a period of nearly 5,000 years.[86] The archaeologist Harry Lourandos suggested in the 1980s that there was evidence of 'intensification' in progress across Australia,[87] a process that appeared to have continued through the preceding 5,000 years. These concepts led the historian Bill Gammage to argue that in effect the whole continent was a managed landscape.[6]

text: In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central Australia, forms of early agriculture may have been practiced. People living in permanent settlements of over 200 residents sowed or planted on a large scale and stored the harvested food. The Nhanda and Amangu of the central west coast grew yams (Dioscorea hastifolia), while various groups in eastern central Australia (the Corners Region) planted and harvested bush onions (yaua - Cyperus bulbosus), native millet (cooly, tindil – Panicum decompositum) and a sporocarp, ngardu (Marsillea drumondii).[6]:281–304[88]

text: Middle Ages and Early Modern[edit]

text: From 100 BC to 1600 AD, world population continued to grow along with land use, as evidenced by the rapid increase in methane emissions from cattle and the cultivation of rice.[89]

text: Arab world[edit]

text: From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world underwent a transformation in agricultural practice, described by the historian Andrew Watson as the Arab Agricultural Revolution.[90] This transformation was driven by a number of factors including the diffusion of many crops and plants along Muslim trade routes, the spread of more advanced farming techniques, and an agricultural-economic system which promoted increased yields and efficiency. The shift in agricultural practice changed the economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, cooking, diet, and clothing across the Islamic world. Muslim traders covered much of the Old World, and trade enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques across the region, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world.[90] This diffusion introduced major crops to Europe by way of Al-Andalus, along with the techniques for their cultivation and cuisine. Sugar cane, rice, and cotton were among the major crops transferred, along with citrus and other fruit trees, nut trees, vegetables such as aubergine, spinach and chard, and the use of spices such as cumin, coriander, nutmeg and cinnamon. Intensive irrigation, crop rotation, and agricultural manuals were widely adopted. Irrigation, partly based on Roman technology, made use of noria water wheels, water mills, dams and reservoirs.[90][91][92]

text: Europe[edit]

text: The Middle Ages saw further improvements in agriculture. Monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The manorial system allowed large landowners to control their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or serfs.[93] During the medieval period, the Arab world was critical in the exchange of crops and technology between the European, Asia and African continents. Besides transporting numerous crops, they introduced the concept of summer irrigation to Europe and developed the beginnings of the plantation system of sugarcane growing through the use of slaves for intensive cultivation.[94]

text: By AD 900, developments in iron smelting allowed for increased production in Europe, leading to developments in the production of agricultural implements such as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes. The carruca heavy plough improved on the earlier scratch plough, with the adoption of the Chinese mouldboard plough to turn over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of northern European forests and an increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population.[95][96] At the same time, some farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation to a three field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations permitted nitrogen-fixing legumes such as peas, lentils and beans.[97] Improved horse harnesses and the whippletree further improved cultivation.[98]

text: Watermills were introduced by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and used to grind grains into flour, to cut wood and to process flax and wool.[99]

text: Crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as a fodder crop for animals and also for their nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century.[100] Though the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies[101][102] have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met.[103][104]

text: Columbian exchange[edit]

text: After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc were the key crops that spread from the New World to the Old, while varieties of wheat, barley, rice and turnips traveled from the Old World to the New. There had been few livestock species in the New World, with horses, cattle, sheep and goats being completely unknown before their arrival with Old World settlers. Crops moving in both directions across the Atlantic Ocean caused population growth around the world and a lasting effect on many cultures.[105] Maize and cassava were introduced from Brazil into Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century,[106] becoming staple foods, replacing native African crops.[107]

text: After its introduction from South America to Spain in the late 1500s, the potato became a staple crop throughout Europe by the late 1700s. The potato allowed farmers to produce more food, and initially added variety to the European diet. The increased supply of food reduced disease, increased births and reduced mortality, causing a population boom throughout the British Empire, the US and Europe.[108] The introduction of the potato also brought about the first intensive use of fertilizer, in the form of guano imported to Europe from Peru, and the first artificial pesticide, in the form of an arsenic compound used to fight Colorado potato beetles. Before the adoption of the potato as a major crop, the dependence on grain had caused repetitive regional and national famines when the crops failed, including 17 major famines in England between 1523 and 1623. The resulting dependence on the potato however caused the European Potato Failure, a disastrous crop failure from disease that resulted in widespread famine and the death of over one million people in Ireland alone.[109]

text: Modern agriculture[edit]

text: British agricultural revolution[edit]

text: Between the 16th century and the mid-19th century, Britain saw a large increase in agricultural productivity and net output. New agricultural practices like enclosure, mechanization, four-field crop rotation to maintain soil nutrients, and selective breeding enabled an unprecedented population growth to 5.7 million in 1750, freeing up a significant percentage of the workforce, and thereby helped drive the Industrial Revolution. The productivity of wheat went up from about 19 bushels per acre in 1720 to around 30 bushels by 1840, marking a major turning point in history.[110]

text: Advice on more productive techniques for farming began to appear in England in the mid-17th century, from writers such as Samuel Hartlib, Walter Blith and others.[111] The main problem in sustaining agriculture in one place for a long time was the depletion of nutrients, most importantly nitrogen levels, in the soil. To allow the soil to regenerate, productive land was often let fallow and in some places crop rotation was used. The Dutch four-field rotation system was popularised by the British agriculturist Charles Townshend in the 18th century. The system (wheat, turnips, barley and clover), opened up a fodder crop and grazing crop allowing livestock to be bred year-round. The use of clover was especially important as the legume roots replenished soil nitrates.[112]

text: The mechanisation and rationalisation of agriculture was another important factor. Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding, and initiated a process of inbreeding to maximise desirable traits from the mid 18th century, such as the New Leicester sheep. Machines were invented to improve the efficiency of various agricultural operation, such as Jethro Tull's seed drill of 1701 that mechanised seeding at the correct depth and spacing and Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1784. Ploughs were steadily improved, from Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham iron plough in 1730[113] to James Small's improved "Scots Plough" metal in 1763. In 1789 Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies was producing 86 plough models for different soils.[114] Powered farm machinery began with Richard Trevithick's stationary steam engine, used to drive a threshing machine, in 1812.[115] Mechanisation spread to other farm uses through the 19th century. The first petrol-driven tractor was built in America by John Froelich in 1892.[116]

text: The scientific investigation of fertilization began at the Rothamsted Experimental Station in 1843 by John Bennet Lawes. He investigated the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yield and founded one of the first artificial fertilizer manufacturing factories in 1842. Fertilizer, in the shape of sodium nitrate deposits in Chile, was imported to Britain by John Thomas North as well as guano (birds droppings). The first commercial process for fertilizer production was the obtaining of phosphate from the dissolution of coprolites in sulphuric acid.[117]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Dan Albone constructed the first commercially successful gasoline-powered general purpose tractor in 1901, and the 1923 International Harvester Farmall tractor marked a major point in the replacement of draft animals (particularly horses) with machines. Since that time, self-propelled mechanical harvesters (combines), planters, transplanters and other equipment have been developed, further revolutionizing agriculture.[118] These inventions allowed farming tasks to be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible, leading modern farms to output much greater volumes of high-quality produce per land unit.[119]

text: The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome previous constraints. It was first patented by German chemist Fritz Haber. In 1910 Carl Bosch, while working for German chemical company BASF, successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. In the years after World War II, the use of synthetic fertilizer increased rapidly, in sync with the increasing world population.[121]

text: In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, water pollution,[122] and farm subsidies.[123] Other applications of scientific research since 1950 in agriculture include gene manipulation,[124][125] hydroponics,[126] and the development of economically viable biofuels such as ethanol.[127]

text: In recent years there has been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic movement.[128] Famines continued to sweep the globe through the 20th century. Through the effects of climactic events, government policy, war and crop failure, millions of people died in each of at least ten famines between the 1920s and the 1990s.[129]

text: The historical processes that have allowed agricultural crops to be cultivated and eaten well beyond their centers of origin continues in the present through globalization. On average, 68.7% of a nation's food supplies and 69.3% of its agricultural production are of crops with foreign origins.[130]

text: Green Revolution[edit]

text: The Green Revolution was a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, between the 1940s and the late 1970s. It increased agriculture production around the world, especially from the late 1960s. The initiatives, led by Norman Borlaug and credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.[131]

text: Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined rock phosphate, pesticides and mechanization, have greatly increased crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as rice, wheat, and corn were introduced as a part of the Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world to the developing world. Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth would not be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food.[132]

text: Although the Green Revolution significantly increased rice yields in Asia, yield increases have not occurred in the past 15–20 years.[133] The genetic "yield potential" has increased for wheat, but the yield potential for rice has not increased since 1966, and the yield potential for maize has "barely increased in 35 years".[133] It takes only a decade or two for herbicide-resistant weeds to emerge, and insects become resistant to insecticides within about a decade, delayed somewhat by crop rotation.[133]

text: Organic agriculture[edit]

text: For most of its history, agriculture has been organic, without synthetic fertilisers or pesticides, and without GMOs. With the advent of chemical agriculture, Rudolf Steiner called for farming without synthetic pesticides, and his Agriculture Course of 1924 laid the foundation for biodynamic agriculture.[134] Lord Northbourne developed these ideas and presented his manifesto of organic farming in 1940. This became a worldwide movement, and organic farming is now practiced in most countries.[135]


document_title: Flightless bird

question_text: it is a kind of a parrot but cannot fly

question_tokens: it is a kind of a parrot but can not fly

root

text: Flightless bird

text: Origins of flightlessness[edit]

text: Divergences and losses of flight within ratite lineage occurred right after the K-Pg extinction event wiped out all non-avian dinosaurs and large vertebrates 66 million years ago.[5] The immediate evacuation of niches following the mass extinction provided opportunities for Palaeognathes to distribute and occupy novel environments. New ecological influences selectively pressured different taxon to converge on flightless modes of existence by altering them morphologically and behaviorally. The successful acquisition and protection of a claimed territory selected for large size and cursoriality in Tertiary ancestors of ratites[6] Temperate rainforests dried out throughout the Miocene and transformed into semiarid deserts causing habitats to be widely spread across the growingly disparate landmasses. Cursoriality was an economic means of traveling long distances to acquire food that was usually low lying vegetation, more easily accessed by walking[6] Traces of these events are reflected in ratite distribution throughout semiarid grasslands and deserts today[7]

tag: p

text: Gigantism and flightlessness are almost exclusively correlated.[clarification needed] This is mostly observed in islands lacking predators and competition. However, ratites occupy environments that are mostly occupied by a diverse number of mammals.[8] It is thought that they first originated through allopatric speciation caused by breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana.[9] However recent evidence suggests this hypothesis first proposed by Joel Cracraft in 1974 is incorrect.[10] Rather ratites arrived in their respective locations via a flighted ancestor and lost the ability to fly multiple times within the lineage.

text: Gigantism is not a requirement for flightlessness. The kiwi does not exhibit gigantism, along with tinamous, even though they coexisted with the moa and rhea that both exhibit gigantism. This could be the result of different ancestral flighted birds arrival or because of competitive exclusion.[11] The first flightless bird to arrive in each environment utilized the large flightless herbivore or omnivore niche, forcing the later arrivals to remain smaller. In environments where flightless birds are not present, it is possible that after the K/T Boundary there were no niches for them to fill. They were pushed out by other herbivorous mammals.[8]

text: New Zealand had more species of flightless birds (including the kiwi, several species of penguins, the takahe, the weka, the moa, and several other extinct species) than any other such location. One reason is that until the arrival of humans roughly a thousand years ago, there were no large land predators in New Zealand; the main predators of flightless birds were larger birds.[12]

text: Independent evolution of flightlessness in Paelaeognathes[edit]

text: Ratites belong to the superorder Palaeognathae birds, which include the volant tinamou, and are believed to have evolved flightlessness independently multiple times within their own group.[3][5][6][8] Some birds evolved flightlessness in response to the absence of predators, for example on oceanic islands. Incongruences between ratite phylogeny and Gondwana geological history indicate the presence of ratites in their current locations is the result of a secondary invasion by flying birds.[13] It remains possible that the most recent common ancestor of ratites was flightless and the tinamou regained the ability to fly[14] However, it is believed that the loss of flight is an easier transition for birds rather than the loss and regain of flight, which has never been documented in avian history.[6] Moreover, tinamou nesting within flightless ratites indicates ancestral ratites were volant and multiple losses of flight occurred independently throughout the lineage. This indicates that the distinctive flightless nature of ratites is the result of convergent evolution.[15]

text: Morphological changes and energy conservation[edit]

text: Two key differences between flying and flightless birds are the smaller wing bones of flightless birds[16] and the absent (or greatly reduced) keel on their breastbone.  (The keel anchors muscles needed for wing movement.)[2]

text: Adapting to a cursorial lifestyle causes two inverse morphological changes to occur in the skeleto-muscular system: the pectoral apparatus used to power flight is paedorphically reduced while peramorphosis leads to enlargement of the pelvic girdle for running.[17] Repeated selection for cursorial traits across ratites suggests these adaptions comprise a more efficient use of energy in adulthood.[6] The name "ratite" refers to their flat sternum that is distinct from the typical sternum of flighted birds because it lacks the keel. This structure is the place where flight muscles attach and thus allow for powered flight.[15] However, ratite anatomy presents other primitive characters meant for flight, such as the fusion of wing elements, a cerebellar structure, the presence of a pygostyle for tail feathers, and an alula on the wing.[10] These morphological traits suggest some affinities to volant groups. Palaeognathes were one of the first colonizers of novel niches and were free to increase in abundance until the population was limited by food and territory. A study looking at energy conservation and the evolution of flightlessness hypothesized intraspecific competition selected for a reduced individual energy expenditure, which is achieved by the loss of flight.[18]

text: Some flightless varieties of island birds are closely related to flying varieties, implying flight is a significant biological cost.[18] Flight is the most costly type of locomotion exemplified in the natural world. The energy expenditure required for flight increases proportionally with body size, which is often why flightlessness coincides with body mass.[7] By reducing large pectoral muscles that require a significant amount of overall metabolic energy, ratites decrease their basal metabolic rate and conserve energy.[18][19] A study looking at the basal rates of birds found a significant correlation between low basal rate and pectoral muscle mass in kiwis. On the contrary, flightless penguins exude an intermediate basal rate. This is likely because penguins have well-developed pectoral muscles for hunting and diving in the water.[18] For ground feeding birds, a cursorial lifestyle is more economical and allows for easier access to dietary requirements.[6] Flying birds have different wing and feather structures that make flying easier, while flightless birds' wing structures are well adapted to their environment and activities, such as diving in the ocean.[20]

text: A number of bird species appear to be in the process of losing their powers of flight to various extents. These include the Zapata rail of Cuba, the Okinawa rail of Japan, and the Laysan duck of Hawaii. All of these birds show adaptations common to flightlessness, and evolved recently from flying ancestors, but have not yet fully given up the use of their wings. They are, however, weak fliers and are incapable of traveling long distances by air.[21]

text: Continued presence of wings in flightless birds[edit]

text: Although selection pressure for flight was largely absent, the wing structure has not been lost except in the New Zealand moas.[17] Ostriches are the fastest running birds in the world and emus have been documented running 50 km/hr.[7] At these high speeds, wings are necessary for balance and serving as a parachute apparatus to help the bird slow down. Wings are hypothesized to have played a role in sexual selection in early ancestral ratites and were thus maintained. This can be seen today in both the rheas and ostriches. These ratites utilize their wings extensively for courtship and displays to other males.[10] Sexual selection also influences the maintenance of large body size, which discourages flight. The large size of ratites leads to greater access to mates and higher reproductive success. Ratites and tinamous are monogamous and mate only a limited number of times per year.[22] High parental involvement denotes the necessity for choosing a reliable mate. In a climactically stable habitat providing year round food supply, a male’s claimed territory signals to females the abundance of resources readily available to her and her offspring.[19] Male size also indicates his protective abilities. Similar to the emperor penguin, male ratites incubate and protect their offspring anywhere between 85–92 days while females feed. They can go up to a week without eating and survive only off fat stores. The emu has been documented fasting as long as 56 days.[7] If no continued pressures warrant the energy expenditure to maintain the structures of flight, selection will tend towards these other traits.

text: List of flightless birds[edit]

text: Many flightless birds are extinct; this list shows species that are either still extant, or became extinct in the Holocene (no more than 11,000 years ago). Extinct species are indicated with a dagger (†). A number of species that are suspected, but not confirmed to be flightless, are also included here.

text: Ratites[edit]

text:
Ostriches
Common ostrich, Struthio camelus
Somali ostrich, Struthio molybdophanes
Asian ostrich, Struthio asiaticus †
Emus
Emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae
King Island emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae minor †
Kangaroo Island emu, Dromaius baudinianus †
Tasmanian emu, Dromaius novaehollandiae diemenensis †
Cassowaries
Dwarf cassowary, Casuarius bennetti
Southern cassowary, Casuarius casuarius
Northern cassowary, Casuarius unappendiculatus
Moa (Dinornithiformes) †
Elephant birds (Aepyornithiformes) †
Kiwis
Southern brown kiwi, Apteryx australis
Great spotted kiwi, Apteryx haastii
North Island brown kiwi, Apteryx mantelli
Little spotted kiwi, Apteryx owenii
Okarito kiwi, Apteryx rowi
Rheas
Greater rhea, Rhea americana
Darwin's rhea, Rhea pennata

tag: ul

text: Anseriformes (waterfowl)[edit]

text:
Auckland Island teal, Anas aucklandica
Campbell teal, Anas nesiotis
Steamer ducks
Fuegian steamer duck, Tachyeres pteneres
Falkland steamer duck, Tachyeres brachypterus
Chubut steamer duck, Tachyeres leucocephalus
Amsterdam wigeon, Anas marecula †
Bermuda flightless duck, Anas pachyscelus †
Finsch's duck, Chenonetta finschi †
New Zealand merganser, Mergus australis †
Turtle-jawed moa-nalo, Chelychelynechen quassus †
Small-billed moa-nalo, Ptaiochen pau †
O'ahu moa-nalo, Thambetochen xanion †
Maui Nui large-billed moa-nalo, Thambetochen chauliodous †
Nēnē-nui, Branta hylobadistes † (possibly flightless or very weak flier)
Nene, Branta sandvicensis (occasionally flightless)
Mihirung, Genyornis newtoni †
California flightless sea-duck, Chendytes lawi †
Kaua'i mole duck, Talpanas lippa †
New Zealand geese, Cnemiornis †

text: Galliformes (game birds)[edit]

text:
New Caledonian giant scrubfowl, Sylviornis neocaledoniae †
Noble megapode, Megavitornis altirostris †
Viti Levu scrubfowl, Megapodius amissus †

text: Podicipediformes (grebes)[edit]

text:
Junin grebe, Podiceps taczanowskii
Titicaca grebe, Rollandia microptera
Atitlán grebe, Podilymbus gigas † (reportedly flightless)[23]

text: Pelecaniformes (pelicans, cormorants and allies)[edit]

text:
Flightless cormorant, Phalacrocorax harrisi
Jamaican ibis, Xenicibis xymphithecus †
Apteribis, A. glenos and A. brevis †

text: Sphenisciformes (penguins)[edit]

text:
King penguin, Aptenodytes patagonicus
Emperor penguin, Aptenodytes forsteri
Adélie penguin, Pygoscelis adeliae
Chinstrap penguin, Pygoscelis antarctica
Gentoo penguin, Pygoscelis papua
Little blue penguin, Eudyptula minor
White-flippered penguin, Eudyptula minor albosignata
Magellanic penguin, Spheniscus magellanicus
Humboldt penguin, Spheniscus humboldti
Galapagos penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus
African penguin, Spheniscus demersus
Yellow-eyed penguin, Megadyptes antipodes
Waitaha penguin, Megadyptes waitaha  †
Fiordland penguin, Eudyptes pachyrhynchus
Snares penguin, Eudyptes robustus
Erect-crested penguin, Eudyptes sclateri
Rockhopper penguin, Eudyptes chrysocome
Royal penguin, Eudyptes schlegeli
Macaroni penguin, Eudyptes chrysolophus
Chatham penguin, Eudyptes sp. †

text: Coraciiformes (kingfishers, hornbills and allies)[edit]

text: Saint Helena hoopoe, Upupa antaios †

text: Ciconiiformes[edit]

text: Ascension night heron, Nycticorax olsoni †

text: Gruiformes (cranes, rails, and coots)[edit]

text:
Cuban flightless crane, Grus cubensis †
Red rail, Aphanapteryx bonasia †
Rodrigues rail, Erythromachus leguati †
Woodford's rail, Nesoclopeus woodfordi (most likely flightless)
Bar-winged rail, Nesoclopeus poecilopterus † (probably flightless)
Weka, Gallirallus australis
New Caledonian rail, Gallirallus lafresnayanus (likely †)
Lord Howe woodhen, Gallirallus sylvestris
Calayan rail, Gallirallus calayanensis
Pink-legged rail, Gallirallus insignis
Guam rail, Gallirallus owstoni
Roviana rail, Gallirallus rovianae (flightless, or almost so)[24]
Tahiti rail, Gallirallus pacificus †
Dieffenbach's rail, Gallirallus dieffenbachii †
Chatham rail, Cabalus modestus †
Wake Island rail, Gallirallus wakensis †
Snoring rail, Aramidopsis plateni
Inaccessible Island rail, Atlantisia rogersi
Laysan rail, Porzana palmeri †
Hawaiian rail, Porzana sandwichensis †
Kosrae crake, Porzana monasa †
Ascension crake, Mundia elpenor †
Henderson crake, Porzana atra
Invisible rail, Habroptila wallacii
New Guinea flightless rail, Megacrex inepta
Lord Howe swamphen, Porphyrio albus †
North Island takahē, Porphyrio mantelli †
Takahē, Porphyrio hochstetteri
Samoan woodhen, Gallinula pacifica
Makira woodhen, Gallinula silvestris
Tristan moorhen, Gallinula nesiotis †
Gough Island moorhen, Gallinula comeri
Tasmanian native hen,Tribonyx mortierii
Giant coot, Fulica gigantea (adults only; immature birds can fly)
Hawkins' rail, Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi †
Snipe-rail, Capellirallus karamu †
Adzebills, Aptornis otidiformis and A. defossor †

text: Mesitorniformes (mesites)[edit]

text: Brown mesite Mesitornis unicolor (possibly flightless, has not been seen flying)[25]

text: Charadriiformes (gulls, terns, auks)[edit]

text: Great auk, Pinguinus impennis †

text: Falconiformes (birds of prey)[edit]

text: Jamaican caracara, Caracara tellustris †

text: Psittaciformes (parrots)[edit]

text: Kakapo, Strigops habroptilus

text: Columbiformes (pigeons, doves)[edit]

text:
Dodo, Raphus cucullatus †
Rodrigues solitaire, Pezophaps solitaria †
Viti Levu giant pigeon, Natunaornis gigoura †
Saint Helena dove, Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos †
Henderson ground dove, Gallicolumba leonpascoi †

text: Caprimulgiformes (nightjars)[edit]

text: New Zealand owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles novaezealandiae †

text: Strigiformes (owls)[edit]

text:
Cuban giant owl, Ornimegalonyx spp. † (possibly flightless)
Cretan owl, Athene cretensis † (probably flightless)
Andros Island barn owl, Tyto pollens † (possibly flightless)

text: Passeriformes (perching birds)[edit]

text:
Lyall's wren, Xenicus lyalli †
Long-billed wren, Dendroscansor decurvirostris †
North Island stout-legged wren, Pachyplichas jagmi †
South Island stout-legged wren, Pachyplichas yaldwyni †
Long-legged bunting, Emberiza alcoveri †


document_title: Summer vacation

question_text: when does the summer holiday end in uk

question_tokens: when does the summer holiday end in uk

text: Summer vacation

text: Criticisms and support[edit]

text:
In some countries, school summer vacation is only six weeks or two months supposedly so students do not forget large amounts of information learned in the past year (See: Summer learning loss).[1][2]
Other education reformers believed that children were overstimulated in a system which required 48 weeks of schooling. They believe that over-schooling could lead to nervous disorders, depression, insanity, and separation anxiety towards families.[3] They believe that children need the 2–3 months off to relax and also to take a break from other childhood stresses associated with school such as peer pressure, cliques, bullying, and the pressure of heavy loads of homework.

text: Some critics of summer vacation point out that American students spend approximately 180 days (26 weeks) per year in school, but Asian students are "in school for 240 to 250 days".[citation needed] This is consistent with the conclusions of researchers who suggest that advanced abilities are in proportion to the time spent learning. Summer holidays in Japan start from late-July until early-September.[4]

text: By country[edit]

text: Argentina[edit]

text: In Southern Argentina, the school year ends in early- or mid-December and starts late February or early March. Also the majority of students get two weeks of holidays during winter, which varies depending on the region of the country from late July or mid-July to early August.

text:
Primary education: From mid-December to late February (2 months)
Secondary education: From early December to early March (3 months)
University education: From last day of December (31 December) to early April (3 months)

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, summer officially lasts from December to February, and therefore includes Christmas and New Year holidays. The dates of Australian school holidays (the term used, rather than "vacation") are determined by each state's Department of Education, the Christmas summer holiday being the longest in duration. Typically Christmas summer holiday in Australia last approximately six weeks, usually from late December (depending on school level) to late January. This is significantly shorter than North American summer holiday, but Australian schools also break for 2 weeks at Easter, and in June and September, giving students and teachers a total of twelve weeks of annual holidays. In many public schools, years 10 through 12 will finish before December 15, allowing time to complete exam marking and results. Year 10 commonly finishes at the end of November, Year 11 at the end of October, and year 12 (Senior Year) also at mid or the end of October after 3 weeks of end-of-year exams. This can bring the normal 12 weeks of vacation to 20 weeks of vacation. The intervening periods of school operation without holidays are called "School Terms", each term lasting approximately ten weeks. All Australian states have relatively similar holiday periods between each term, but there is the ability for this to change, as it did in the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games, when the first term in Victorian schools was shortened to 6 weeks and the other subsequently extended to 12 weeks due to severe disruptions to the public and private bus networks used by school students. Most private schools in Australia have up to four weeks of additional holidays, due to their longer teaching hours during term.

text: Austria[edit]

text: In Austria, summer vacation dates vary by region, however the break lasts nine weeks throughout the whole country. School usually ends in early July and starts in early September. In the regions of Vienna, Lower Austria and the Burgenland summer break starts on the first Saturday in July and one week later in Carinthia, Styria, the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Salzburg and Upper Austria. School recommences on the first Monday in September in Vienna, Lower Austria and the Burgenland and on the second Monday of September in the other regions.

text: Bangladesh[edit]

text: In Bangladesh, summer vacation begins in mid-May and ends in mid June (4 weeks). According to Bengali calendar summer vacation related with availability of different kinds of summer fruits in the month of Joishtho (mid May to mid June). This is slightly odd for schools to open before the summer solstice begins. Also, it is becoming difficult for children to attend school in high temperatures.

text: Barbados[edit]

text: In Barbados, summer holiday dates have varied throughout the years due to the beginning of the hurricane season on June 1st. Because of this, major storms affecting the island can cause schools to remain closed for days resulting in a pushback of vacation dates, for example with Hurricane Tomas in 2010. Currently, summer holiday begins in late June or early July and ends in the second week of September.

text: Belgium[edit]

text:
In Belgium, summer vacation lasts in general from July 1 until September 1 (2 months).
Universities and colleges have longer vacations they also start July 1 but last mostly until mid-September (3 months). This is because there are resits at the end of August and the beginning of September.

text: Bolivia[edit]

text: In Bolivia, summer vacation runs from early December to early February[5] (2 months).

text: Bosnia and Herzegovina[edit]

text: In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the start of summer break varies by school, but usually starts at the beginning or mid-June. School starts on the first Monday of September. There is also a three-to-four weeks long break during winter (typically starting on 31 December). School is not out on Christmas or Easter, but students who celebrate those holidays are allowed to miss that day of school.

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Brazil, summer break lasts between 50 and 60 days; from late November - early December, to early February, typically February 14–25. In addition, for the majority of Brazilian students there are two to three weeks off for Winter in July.

text: Bulgaria[edit]

text: In Bulgaria, the time of the break differs according to the grade of the students. The following periods are applied:

text: 1st grade: May 24 – September 15

text: 2nd-4th grade: May 31 – September 15

text: 5th-7th grade: June 15 – September 15

text: 8th-11th grade: June 30 – September 15

text: 12th grade: School year ends in mid-May.

text: Note that 8th grade classes that focus on intensive language learning's summer vacation also starts on the 30th of June, rather than the 15th.[6]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, the first day of summer vacation for public schools is the last Saturday in June. However, in some provinces students get a Professional Activity day on the final Friday of that school week, and their last day would be on the Thursday. Depending on the province, students can get 2–3 months of summer vacation. This may vary in Quebec (earlier due to provincial June 24 holiday). The last day of summer vacation is Labour Day. This can vary in Private schools. School generally resumes the day after Labour Day (in September). Most have two weeks off for Christmas and New Year, and a week off in March or April for Spring Break (sometimes called March Break or Easter Break).

text: Chile[edit]

text: In Chile, summer vacation lasts from early or mid-December until late February or early March (10, 11 or 12 weeks). In addition, schools have two or three weeks off for Winter in July, and one-week-long break for National Holidays in mid-September.

text: China[edit]

text: In the People's Republic of China, summer holidays start in early July and often end in early September (2 months).

text: Colombia[edit]

text: In Colombia, summer vacation varies. Because of Colombia's equatorial climate (see Climate of Colombia for more information), schools run two different calendars. Public schools and some private schools run "Calendar A" which has a break between June and July. Only some private schools run "Calendar B" in which there is a long vacation in July and August. On the other hand, "Calendar A" has a long vacation around Christmas.

text: Costa Rica[edit]

text: In Costa Rica, summer vacation lasts 2 months. Usually begin in late December and end in early February. There are a few schools using the "american" style, those school usually take vacations in late May and then resume again in early August.

text: Croatia[edit]

text: In Croatia, the school year finishes around 10th June and it usually starts on the first Monday of September, but if the first Monday is on 1st or 2nd September, the school year is more likely to start on the second Monday. Winter break usually begins a few days before Christmas and it lasts until mid January. Eastern break lasts 10 days.

text: Czech Republic[edit]

text: In the Czech Republic, summer holiday begins on July 1 and ends on August 31 (2 months).[7]

text: Denmark[edit]

text: In Denmark, summer break lasts from the end of June to early or mid-August (6 weeks) . High schools (colleges) usually return to school in early August, but for younger students it can be in the middle.

text: Ecuador[edit]

text: In Ecuador, summer vacation varies. Because of Ecuador's equatorial climate (see Climate of Ecuador for more information), schools run two different calendars. The Coastal region runs vacation  January or February, but in the Sierra region, summer vacation follows the pattern in July and August.

text: Egypt[edit]

text: In Egypt, summer break lasts from the beginning or the middle of June until the middle of September (3 Months – 14 Weeks) in public schools, though length slightly differs according to age. In most private schools, summer break lasts from the middle or end of June to the beginning of September (2.5 Months – 10 Weeks)

text: Estonia[edit]

text: In Estonia, summer holidays start in the beginning of June, the date ranging for different grades. School begins every year on September 1, with a week off in autumn, 2 weeks off at Christmas and a week in spring.

text: Ethiopia[edit]

text: In Ethiopia, the school year usually ends in late May to mid-June and begins in mid-September (8 to 12 weeks).

text: Finland[edit]

text: In Finland, summer vacation starts on Saturday in late May, or in the beginning of June. The vacation lasts for 21⁄2 to 3 months. Usually, school starts again on August 7 to 18.

text: France[edit]

text: In France, summer vacation usually consists of July and August (2 months), though secondary school students finish in mid-June due to the senior's exams. This may vary for private schools.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In Germany, summer vacation lasts six and a half weeks. The exact dates vary by state as well as from one to the next year, from the earliest (mid-June to late July) to the latest (late July to early September). In Germany the annual holidays are split into winter holidays (about one week), Easter holidays (mostly about two weeks), summer holiday (about six and a half weeks), autumn holidays (about one to two weeks) and Christmas holidays (about one to two weeks). Some states like Bavaria also have holidays for Pentecost. Summed up over the whole year the holidays are about thirteen weeks.

text: Greece[edit]

text: In Greece, the summer vacation lasts for 3 months. Schools close on June 14 and reopen on September 11. Universities generally close in mid-July, but with great differences between faculties.

text: Guatemala[edit]

text: In Guatemala, the summer holidays start in middle October and end in early January (approx 12 weeks).

text: Guyana[edit]

text: In Guyana, the summer holidays start in early July and end in early September (2 months).

text: Hungary[edit]

text: In Hungary, summer vacation usually lasts from mid-June to early September (11 or 12 weeks).

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong, summer vacation normally begins in mid-July and ends on the late August (6–7 weeks) for most public schools. However, the starting and ending times of international schools are variable. For example, most ESF-based schools start in late June and finish mid-August (7 weeks).

text: Iceland[edit]

text: In Iceland, the duration of the summer vacation can vary from one school to another. Typically students start their summer vacation during the first week of June and return to school in the fourth week of August.[8]

text: India[edit]

text: India covers a wide spectrum of climates, resulting in a large variation in times and durations of summer vacation. Different parts of the country face different climatic conditions at the same time.

text: In northern India, summer vacation typically begins in the second week of May and ends by the last week of June, except in Kashmir Valley, where summer vacation is only for ten days, with a long winter break from mid-December to the end of February instead.

text: In central India, summer vacation begins in mid-April and schools re-open in mid-June.

text: In the south, schools finish in the last week of March and resume in early June.

text: In the north-eastern states, a new school year commences before the holidays, in April. A few weeks later, schools finish for summer vacation between May and June, during the hottest months of the year.

text: Moreover, summer vacation lasts for no more than six weeks in most schools. The duration may decrease to as little as three weeks for older students, with the exception of two month breaks  being scheduled to allow some high school and university students to participate in internship and summer school programmes.

text: Iran[edit]

text: In Iran, summer vacation lasts three months. Schools close in late June and reopen in late September.

text: Iraq[edit]

text: In Iraq, summer vacation begins in late May and ends in late September, but the 12th grade vacation begins in late June and ends in mid-October.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: In the Republic of Ireland, most secondary schools start summer holidays the first week of June, or at the end of the Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate exams (approximately 20th June), and do not return until 20-26th August. Other holidays include two weeks for Easter and another two for Christmas and New Year, as well as two midterms with one in October/November during the week of Halloween and one usually in the month of February. Primary schools in the Republic of Ireland work sixteen days longer, so they start their summer holiday at the end of June but do not return until the first week of September.[9] Private schools in the Republic of Ireland follow the same pattern.

text: Israel[edit]

text: The start of the summer vacation for middle schools and high schools is on June 20 and the end is August 31 (two months and 10 days) and the summer vacation for primary schools and kindergartens start on June 30 and ends on August 31 (two months and 1 day).

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy, summer vacation for elementary, middle and high schools normally starts on the second week of June and lasts until the first week of September included, for a total of three months. For kindergartens, summer vacation starts at the end of May and lasts until the first week of September. Final term examinations for middle school and high school are held until the end of June.

text: Jamaica[edit]

text: In Jamaica, summer holidays for primary and secondary schools starts in the first week of July and ends in the first week of September which gives a duration of about eight weeks.

text: These schools also have term breaks at Christmas (typically two weeks) and Easter (typically one and a half weeks), as well as mid-term breaks of a few days each usually around National Heroes Day in the Christmas (First) Term, Ash Wednesday in the Easter (Second) Term and Labour Day in the Summer (Third) term.

text: At the start of each year The Ministry of Education provides dates for each term and suggested dates for mid-term breaks for primary and secondary schools.  These dates might be adjusted based on circumstance such as the loss of teaching time caused by the passage of a hurricane.

text: Tertiary institutions using the semester system typically have summer holidays starting in May (at the end of examinations) and ending in early September.  This can, however, vary among institutions.

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, the summer vacation generally lasts from late July to early September, and due to the way education in Japan is structured, it takes place within a school year.

text: Jordan[edit]

text: In Jordan, summer vacation lasts almost 3 months and most schools take summer vacation from mid-June to mid-September.

text: Kuwait[edit]

text: In Kuwait, summer vacation for elementary and middle school, [1st to 9th grade] starts at the end of May or at the beginning of June and ends at the Beginning to late September, sometimes as far as early October (Public Schools). For high school students, [10th to 12th grade] it starts on June 19–20 and ends at the same time as elementary and middle school.

text: Lebanon[edit]

text: In Lebanon, summer vacation lasts almost 3 months and most schools take summer vacation from mid-June to early-to-mid September.

text: Libya[edit]

text: In Libya, summer break lasts from the beginning or the middle of June until the middle of September (3 Months – 14 Weeks). There are 5 other smaller vacations : Mid-year two-week break around February and two Hijri Lunar calendar 3-Day religious breaks for Eid Fitr (25 June in 217) and Eid Adha (1 Sept in 2017).

text: Lithuania[edit]

text: In Lithuania, summer vacation starts in 15th learning day of June (Ex. June 21 and ends on September 1 with the start of a new school year (2.5 months).

text: Luxembourg[edit]

text: In Luxembourg, summer vacation starts on July 16 and ends on September 15, lasting a total of two months. There are 5 other smaller vacations : All Saints (1 week), Christmas (2 weeks), Carnival (1 week), Easter (2 weeks), Pentecost (1 week).

text: Macedonia[edit]

text: In Macedonia, the summer vacation starts on June 10 and ends on September 1 in every school.

text: Malta[edit]

text: In Malta, the summer holidays usually last from the end of June until the end of September (3 months).

text: Moldova[edit]

text: In Moldova, summer vacation begins on 1 June and ends in 1 September (3 months).

text: Morocco[edit]

text: In Morocco, summer vacation lasts from June 20 until the beginning of September (2 months).

text: Mexico[edit]

text: In Mexico, summer vacation starts in early July and finishes in mid-August since 2000. In addition, Mexican children get two or three weeks off for Christmas and New Year (from the third Thursday in December to January 7), and two weeks off in March or April for Spring Break (from the Friday before lazarus Saturday to the Monday after Easter Monday).

text: However, high school students (from tenth to twelfth grade) and college students have mostly three months of vacation -from late May or early June to early August. Like elementary and middle school students, high school students have in addition two weeks off for Christmas and New Year, and two weeks off in March or April for Spring Break. Moreover, college students get four weeks off for Christmas and New Year (from mid-December to mid-January) but only one week of Spring Break.

text: Mongolia[edit]

text: In Mongolia, summer vacation usually starts from late May or early June (varies between schools) to the end of August. The school year is divided into 4 terms lasting 8 to 9 weeks each and students take 1 week off after the first and second terms and 2 weeks after the third term.

text: Nepal[edit]

text: In Nepal, summer vacation runs from the end of May to the end of July.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, summer vacation is about 6 weeks for primary school and High school, usually from mid-July to late August. School students officially get the same time off but there often is a one-week period before the vacation during which the student will only have to go to school for 2 days to receive their grade lists and bring back their books making the holiday 7 weeks unofficially for high school students. However, this does not apply to every school.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: In New Zealand, the school holidays (the term used, rather than "vacation") typically start in mid-December, and end in late January, which is usually 6 weeks.[10] Senior secondary school students in Year 11, 12 and 13 finish in late-October for study leave, but the summer holidays still do not start until mid-December. University students do not start until early March and finish in late-October. Throughout the year there are 2 week breaks at Easter, in July and in September.

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: In Nigeria, primary and secondary Schools usually start Summer vacation in mid-July and resume in the early weeks of September.  The vacation is also known as the "3rd-term holiday" and it is the longest break in a school year (typically up to two months). The "first-term break" starts between one and two weeks prior to Christmas and ends the first or second week in January, lasting for about three weeks. The "first-term break" is usually the shortest break in a school year. The "second-term break" usually starts a week before Easter and lasts for another three weeks. This gives a total of about 14 weeks of holiday in a year. The geographical location of the school is also a factor.

text: Tertiary institutions follow a different pattern, as the holiday in each school depends on various factors which include, the Course of study and the academic calendar of the school. Some tertiary institutions observe their Summer breaks in the normal summer period when elementary and high schools observe theirs, while others do not. Some courses of study also do not observe any significant holidays, such programmes include Engineering, Nursing, Medicine and a few others. This is usually as a result of students doing their laboratory work, workshop practice, Practicals, Internship etc. (as the case may be), while the other students in other programmes are on holiday. Tertiary schools observe two semesters; while some schools observe a break after the first semester, many others have their breaks combined to just the summer holidays. This long break helps the students get good jobs during the holiday. The total length of break observed in tertiary institutions in a year is 12 to 14 weeks.

text: Norway[edit]

text: In Norway, summer vacation typically lasts from mid June to mid August, for a minimum of 8 weeks.

text: Oman[edit]

text: In Oman, summer vacation starts in late May and ends in early September (3 months).

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: In Pakistan, Summer vacation lasts for two to three months depending on the type of school (public or private). Typical summer vacation is from the end of May to mid-August.[11] Many private schools are also open in June and July for 8th to 10th grades under the programmes called "summer camps".

text: Panama[edit]

text: In Panama, summer vacation starts in early December on both types of school (public or private), and ends in late February (3 months).

text: Paraguay[edit]

text: In Paraguay, summer holidays start in December and end in late February (2 months).

text: Philippines[edit]

text: In the Philippines, summer holidays for kindergarten, elementary, and high schools typically start on the third week of March and end in the first to third week of June. This coincides with the country's tropical dry season months from March to June. Colleges and universities, however, offer summer classes for students who wants to take advanced subjects or those who fail to pass the prerequisites for the next school year. School year begins in the first week of June, the start of Philippines' wet season.

text: Select universities have adapted the school year schedule of other countries, starting the school year in September and having the summer holidays from June to August.[12][13] Some of the schools who complied are still in transition, their academic calendars still beginning in July, others in August, with their summer vacations adjusted accordingly.[14]

text: Poland[edit]

text: In Poland, summer vacation starts on the first Saturday after June 20 and ends on the first weekday of September except Friday or Saturday. Students usually spend 1–1.5 hours at school to pick up their report cards on their last day of school.

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In Portugal, summer vacation starts in mid-June, and finishes in the middle of September.

text: Russia[edit]

text: In Russia, summer vacation starts on May 25 with the end of an old school year (for 1st–8th and 10th grades) and ends on September 1 with the beginning of a new school year. For 9th and 11th grades, due to exams (EGE), the vacation starts in the middle (9th grade) or in the end (11th grade) of June.

text: Romania[edit]

text: In Romania, summer vacation starts in the second and third week of June and ends  September 9-16 (3 months). [2]

text: Saint Lucia[edit]

text: In Saint Lucia, summer vacation starts in early July and ends on the first Monday of September (6 weeks).

text: Saudi Arabia[edit]

text: In the school year 2016–2017 the summer break for Saudi Arabian students started from 24th of May till the 17th of September. This means it will be 110 days, 3 Months and a half. In 2018-2019, schools will end in May 13th and start early September, this is because the Ministry of Education wants students to finish school before Ramadan begins.

text: Serbia[edit]

text: In Serbia, the summer vacation starts around the ending of June, more precisely by the end of 2nd or 3rd week of June. Summer holiday ends on August 31. School officially starts on first working day of September (if September 1 is on Saturday or Sunday, starting of school is delayed until Monday). There are also several other holidays. Two day holiday in the first week of November, Three week holiday from December 31st to the third week of January and finally a two-week break during Easter.

text: Slovakia[edit]

text: In Slovakia, summer break lasts from July 1 until September 1 (2 months and Constitution Day).[15]

text: Slovenia[edit]

text: In Slovenia, final exams are usually taken from mid-May to mid-June (high schools) or in June (primary schools). The last day of school is June 24th, and school resumes on September 1st.

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa, summer holidays usually begin in early December and end in mid-January. Winter Break lasts from late June to early July, and there are 10 days of Easter holidays.

text: South Korea[edit]

text: In South Korea, summer vacation starts in late July and ends in mid-August. The South Korean summer vacation takes place within a school year. The winter vacation takes place from the last week of December or early January to the first week of February.

text: South Sudan[edit]

text: In South Sudan, summer vacation starts on December 21 and ends on March 19.

text: Spain[edit]

text: In Spain, the school year finishes in mid or late June and begins in mid-September. Vacation varies by region but often includes a family vacation to lower temperatures in the cooler regions in the north of Spain, or south or east to the Mediterranean beaches.[16]

text: Suriname[edit]

text: In Suriname, summer vacation usually starts in mid-August and ends in early-October.[17] In 2012, a change of summer vacation was proposed by several legislators having summer vacation the same time as the Caribbean Community.[17] The proposed plan is summer vacation starts from mid-August and ends in early-October.[17]

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, summer vacation is between the spring and autumn term. Normally it lasts from mid-June to late August (a minimum of 9–10 weeks, differs for each county). In Sweden, students end their term, either at a church or in their school, singing traditional summer songs like Den blomstertid nu kommer (normally only the first two verses).

text: The winter vacation is between the winter and late winter term. It is typically three weeks long, lasting from late December until early January.

text: Children in elementary school until high school have a week of vacation in the autumn/winter term and two weeks in the spring/summer term. The one in the autumn is called "Novemberlov" which means "November vacation/break" or "Höstlov" which means "Autumn vacation/break". The two in the spring/summer term are called "Sportlov" which means "Sport break/vacation" and "Påsklov" which means "Easter break/vacation".

text: Schools have additional breaks on 1 May (May Day) and 6 June (the National Day of Sweden).

text: Switzerland[edit]

text:
In Switzerland, summer vacation varies in each canton. As an example in Zürich, it lasts five weeks and between mid-July and mid-August.[18]
In Ticino, it last about ten weeks between late June and early September.
[19]

text: Syria[edit]

text:
In Syria, summer vacation lasts 3 months.
It starts mid June (for primary and secondary schools)and ends mid September.
University students have a vacation from early July to early October. This varies 2 or 3 days by school or year .
The mid-term holiday is usually a week long.

text: Taiwan[edit]

text: In Taiwan, summer vacation starts in early July (late June for University students) and ends in late August (mid-September for University students).

text: Thailand[edit]

text: In Thailand, summer vacation begins in late February to early March and ends in mid-May.

text: Trinidad and Tobago[edit]

text: Primary and Secondary Schools close the first Friday of July and open on the first Monday of September (giving students two months). This can vary a day or two by school or year. International schools are in link with the British, Canadian, or American systems.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: In Turkey, summer vacation starts in mid-June and ends in mid-September (3 months).

text: Tunisia[edit]

text: In Tunisia, summer vacation for the middle school (7th–9th grade) and high school starts on May 30 and ends on September 15. Primary schools are off to vacation on June 1 and end on September 15.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In England and Wales, summer holidays for state schools usually last from the second week of July through to early-September which gives a duration of six or seven weeks. In addition, all schools in England and Wales have three one-week-long half-term breaks for each of the three terms, one in the autumn term, one in the spring term and one in the summer term. State schools have two weeks off for Christmas and Easter, which brings the total number of weeks off for state school students per year to thirteen.

text: In Scotland, school summer holidays start in late-June and last for about six or seven weeks, with most schools returning around mid-August. However, it is not uncommon for some schools in recent years to finish on the first week of July. In addition to summer holidays, Scottish schools have breaks lasting one week in October, two weeks at Christmas and two weeks at Easter. They also have a week off in Mid-February. They have two bank holidays in May/June, and one in September.

text: In Northern Ireland, most school summer holidays start in late-June and runs through to the beginning of September. Students doing exams (GCSEs and A-Levels) often get "study leave" from May and do the exams sometime in that month, or early-June. Schools also have a two-week break for Christmas and Easter as well as several bank holidays, in addition to a week off for mid-term in mid-February. Some schools, generally integrated, or Catholic; also get time off for St. Patrick's Day in March. Protestant schools do not usually get this day off.

text: In the United Kingdom, holiday dates for independent schools mostly differ from those of state schools; these differences typically take the form of an extra week's holiday at the beginning and end of each of the long holidays, meaning four weeks for the Christmas and Easter breaks and eight to ten weeks for the summer break, though variations in summer holidays length exist between independent schools themselves. In addition, all schools in the United Kingdom have three week-long half-term breaks for each of the three terms, including one in the autumn term at the end of October, one in the spring term in mid-February and one in the summer term in late-May, although these breaks do not always coincide with state school breaks in the Autumn and Spring terms. The summer half-term break is determined by the break in public exams at the end of May. Some universities grant an extended "exam leave" to students which typically commences in early-April, so as to give students a good number of weeks to prepare for the summer exam season which usually starts in mid-to-late May and finishes in early or mid-June. Final year students at independent schools typically finish their time at school when their last exam in the summer exam season finishes, and as an encore; a special event is usually arranged for late-June by the school for leavers and staff as a way of providing an opportunity for final farewells to be bid. The universities they go on to typically schedule their first term to commence in early-October, giving school leavers an extended summer break between their time of leaving school and starting university.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, summer vacation lasts two to three months. The dates vary depending on the location of the school district, with two major formats. One is from late May-mid June to early September (in most northern states), the other major format lasting from late May to mid August (in most southern and western states). (Excluding some districts, as some schools may end late June and begin early September).

text: Summer vacation or break lasts for about 12 weeks, starting anywhere from late May to mid June, and ending anywhere from late August to Labor Day, the first Monday in September. This often depends on the region – for example, most schools in the Northeastern United States end in June and start the Wednesday after Labor Day (Teachers report back on Tuesday), while the majority of schools in the Southern United States have schools end in May and start again in August.

text: The origins of the summer holiday break are often believed to be rooted in agriculture. It is widely believed that the school calendar follows the agrarian farming calendar because during the settlement of the United States, the nation primarily consisted of a farming population.  This belief maintains that the current school calendar has a two to three-month break so that children could assume the necessary tasks of planting and harvesting crops. However, planting of most crops occurred in the spring and harvest occurred in the fall.  Rural schools would often break for spring and fall seasons, but continue schooling throughout the summer.[20][21]

text: The modern school calendar has roots in 19th century school reform movements seeking standardization between urban and rural areas; multiple causes lead to the summer break known by modern American students. In fact, schools in the early 1800s held school throughout the summer.  As schooling progressed through bureaucracy, society’s population growth and change, as well as improvements in technology, such as better transportation for students and air conditioned buildings, school calendars also changed.[20][21]

text: Many citizens of upper and middle classes would vacation outside of the sweltering cities during the hot summers.  If school continued into the summer months, families would no longer have time together for summer vacations.[22]

text: As school systems grew throughout the United States they became more aligned with college and university schedules, which already observed a break during summer. Breaks became more frequent as well.  Original schools observed New Year’s Day, Easter, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christmas.  The duration of breaks at these observances varied from school to school.  More observances have been honored as time has passed, continually changing the school calendar.[23]

text:
As the nation expanded and grew, the nation saw the need for an educated populace and more public schools were built.  But the need for academic breaks from learning was always seen as necessary.
Nineteenth century and early twentieth century belief regarded the brain as a muscle, and thought that too much work and strain on the brain could result in injury.  Therefore, they believed that students should not receive too much education.  This was particularly true of younger children whose minds were still developing.[24]
As industrialism led to automation and wealth, and the nation recovered and expanded following the Civil War, leisure activity became more important to Americans.  Leading advocates for play such as Henry Curtis[25]  believed strongly that children were not having enough time for play.  In addition to advocating playground equipment, Curtis also advocated that summer should be spent working with families in gardens, and going camping.  Curtis was a large supporter of boy and girl scouts and encouraged children to engage in scouting during the summer.  If children lived in the cities and were unable to go camping or tend to gardens, schools were a premier place for children to be, but the emphasis should be on learning lifelong skills; sewing, woodworking, crafts, and manual labor.[26]

text: Uruguay[edit]

text: In Uruguay, summer holidays usually begin in early December, and finish in early March (3 months). Students have one week for Easter Holidays, another week for Spring Holidays, and two weeks for the Holiday season.

text: Venezuela[edit]

text: In Venezuela, summer holidays begin in late June or early July and end in late September or early October.

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: In Vietnam, summer holidays usually begin in late May or early June and last for two months. Vietnamese students also have a week or two weeks off for Lunar New Year which is in late January or mid-February. Students additionally have other holidays including but not limited to Independence Day on September 2, International Labour Day on May 1 and Reunification Day on April 30.


document_title: Siri (given name)

question_text: what is the meaning of the name siri

question_tokens: what is the meaning of the name siri

text: Siri (given name)

text:
Siri

Gender
Female

Origin

Meaning
Beautiful victory

Other names

Related names
Sigrid

tag: table

text: Siri is a Scandinavian female given name. It is a short form of Sigrid, of Old Norse origin, and literally meaning "beautiful victory", from Old Norse sigr (victory) and Old Norse fríðr (beautiful). The name Siri has been widely used since the Middle Ages, and is a common name in Norway, Sweden and the Faroe Islands. It was common in Norway until the 18th century, when its usage declined, but saw new high popularity in the 20th century. In Sweden the name gained new popularity around 1900, and has again become increasingly popular in the last years. The Faroese spelling of the name is Sirið;[1] the ð is not pronounced. The other spelling without ð is also common.[2] To a lesser extent it is also used in Denmark.

text: People[edit]

text:
Siri Bjerke, Norwegian cabinet minister
Siri Broch Johansen, Norwegian author
Siri Dokken, Norwegian artist
Siri von Essen, Swedish actress and wife of August Strindberg.
Siri Hustvedt, American author
Siri Lindley, American triathlete and coach
Siri Nilsen (born 1985), Norwegian singer, songwriter, musician, and voice actress
Sirið Stenberg, Faroese politician, member of the Løgting since 2011