document_title: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

question_text: voice of charlie in charlie's angels full throttle

question_tokens: voice of charlie in charlie 's angels full throttle

text: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

text: Plot[edit]

text: After rescuing U.S. Marshal Ray Carter (Robert Patrick) in Mongolia, the Angels: Natalie Cook (Cameron Diaz) Dylan Sanders (Drew Barrymore) and Alex Munday (Lucy Liu) together with John Bosley's adoptive brother Jimmy Bosley (Bernie Mac) are sent to recover H.A.L.O. (Hidden Alias List Operation) titanium rings stolen from the United States Department of Justice which can display the people listed in the witness protection program. DOJ official William Rose Bailey (Bruce Willis) and a protected witness, Alan Caulfield (Eric Bogosian) are among those killed. At Caulfield's house in San Bernardino, the Angels track his assassin Randy Emmers (Rodrigo Santoro) to a beach where they meet with former Angel Madison Lee (Demi Moore). During the Coal Bowl motorcycle race, Emmers targets another witness named Max Petroni (Shia LaBeouf), but is killed by the Thin Man (Crispin Glover). Inside Emmers' pocket, the Angels discover the photos of Caulfield, Max, and, surprisingly, Dylan, under her birth name, Helen Zaas.

text: Dylan reveals that she is a protected witness after sending her former boyfriend, Irish mob leader Seamus O'Grady (Justin Theroux) to prison. O'Grady has since targeted those who wronged him, including Dylan and Max, whose parents O'Grady killed. Max is sent to the home of Bosley's mother (Ja'net Dubois) for his protection. At a monastery, the Angels learn about the Thin Man's past from the Mother Superior (Carrie Fisher), who reveals his name, Anthony. Afterward, the Angels track O'Grady's mob at San Pedro and manage to get the rings, but O'Grady threatens Dylan with the murder of everyone she loves. While Natalie attends her boyfriend, Peter Kominsky (Luke Wilson)'s high school reunion at Hermosa Beach and Alex returns home to find her action star boyfriend-under-timeout, Jason Gibbons (Matt LeBlanc) telling her awestruck father (John Cleese) about her exploits, Dylan leaves the Angels and heads to Mexico. When Natalie, Bosley and Alex notices her letter, they read her reasons for leaving them. While Alex is upset by this, Natalie understands why Dylan led to protect them. When she asks about O'Grady's break out from jail, Charlie reveals someone had him released on good behavior. While in Mexico keeping a low profile, Dylan is convinced to return after seeing an apparition of former Angel Kelly Garrett (Jaclyn Smith).

text: Natalie and Alex deduce that Carter is a part of O'Grady's scheme after seeing him return Bosley's keys without any pain, since he had earlier claimed to have broken his ribs, which is now proved to have been a lie. Following him, the two witness him being shot to death by Madison, the true mastermind behind all of this. Though Dylan arrives to back the group, the Angels are shot by Madison, who takes the rings, though they survive by having worn Kevlar vests beforehand. At the base, Charlie through the speakers reprimands Madison for what she's done. He confronts her for endangering the lives of her former teammates. By the time that he had rescued them, the girls were in critical condition and Madison was kicked out of the Angels for it. Madison responds by pulling out her gold guns and shooting the speaker. The Angels realize that Madison, with the protection of O'Grady, is going to sell the rings to the Antonioni Crime Family, the Tanaka Yakuza, and the Diablo Cartel at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, where Jason's film's premiere is about to commence. The Angels set the three groups up to be arrested by the FBI instead, while they confront Madison and O'Grady. Anthony comes to the Angels' aid, where it's revealed he's in love with Dylan and is doing his part to protect her. O'Grady kills Anthony, but Dylan manages to throw him down to his death. The Angels fight Madison all the way to an abandoned theater, where they kick her to a gas-filling chamber, with her dooming herself by shooting her bullets, exploding it.

text: The Angels attend the premiere where they learn that Mama Bosley is adopting Max. Peter postpones his engagement with Natalie by buying for them a puppy named Spike while Alex terminates her timeout with Jason. The Angels celebrate their victory together with Bosley.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Cameron Diaz as Natalie Cook
Drew Barrymore as Dylan Sanders
Lucy Liu as Alex Munday
Bernie Mac as Jimmy Bosley
John Forsythe as Charlie Townsend (voice)
Demi Moore as Madison Lee
Justin Theroux as Seamus O'Grady
Rodrigo Santoro as Randy Emmers
Robert Patrick as U.S. Marshal Ray Carter
Crispin Glover as Thin Man
Zack Shada as Young Thin Man
Shia LaBeouf as Max "Lion" Petroni
Matt LeBlanc as Jason Gibbons
Luke Wilson as Peter Kominsky
John Cleese as Mr. Munday
Ja'net Dubois as Mama Bosley
Robert Forster as Capitain Roger Wixon
Jaclyn Smith as Kelly Garrett
Carrie Fisher as Mother Superior Maria
Bruce Willis as William Rose Bailey
Eric Bogosian as Alan Caulfield

text: Cameos[edit]

text:
Pink as Coal Bowl M.C.
Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen as Future Angels
Chris Pontius as Irish mobster
Tommy Flanagan as Irish henchman
Eve as herself
Ed Robertson as Sheriff
Béla Károlyi as Gymnastic coach
Andrew Wilson as crime scene police officer in charge
Melissa McCarthy as the woman flirting with Bosley at the crime scene. McCarthy previously appeared in the first film as another character, Doris.
The Pussycat Dolls as Treasure Chest's dancers
Shanti Lowry as Treasure Chest's dancer
Tanoai Reed as Wrestler
Guy Oseary as Restaurant patron
Jennifer Gimenez as Nun
Big Boy as Bosley's Cousin

text: Also, a photo of Bill Murray's version of John Bosley was seen in the Bosley household.

text: Trivia[edit]

text: Charlie's Angels: Animated Adventures, an animated prequel series explain how the Angels got there and their mission, concluded by the very introduction of the film.[3]

text: The Seamus O'Grady prison introduction scene is a direct reference to Robert De Niro's prison-set introduction in Cape Fear.[4]

text: The scene where the Angels go to investigate the body of Agent Caufield dressed as crime-scene professionals is an homage/parody of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, complete with the theme "Who Are You" by The Who.

text: The song "Feel Good Time" is the film's main track, and is performed by Pink. Whenever Seamus O'Grady (Justin Theroux) appears, he is accompanied by Bernard Hermann's theme from Cape Fear.

text: The Thin Man character perhaps pays homage to the Thin Man in 1927 German Expressionist film Metropolis, directed by Fritz Lang. In the film, Thin Man is ordered by Joh Frederson, master of Metropolis, to spy on his son Freder.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film had a production budget of $120 million. It grossed $100,830,111 at the United States box office and had to depend on earnings from overseas box office to make profit. By the end of its run, the film had grossed $259,175,788 worldwide, underperforming its predecessor by $5 million.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle received mixed reviews and earned a rating of 43% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 182 reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 based on reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 48, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[5]

text: Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[6]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 2 1⁄2 stars out of 4,[7] a higher score than the half star he gave to the first film.[8]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film received seven nominations at the 24th Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Picture, Worst Actress for both Drew Barrymore and Cameron Diaz, Worst Screenplay, and Worst Excuse for an Actual Movie (All Concept/No Content), winning two trophies for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Supporting Actress for Demi Moore.[9]

text: Demi Moore was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain, but lost against co-star Lucy Liu for her role as O-Ren Ishii in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill: Volume 1.[10]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Charlie's Angels: Full ThrottleStudio album by Various artistsReleased
June 24, 2003 (2003-06-24)Length
49:57Label
ColumbiaCharlie's Angels soundtracks chronology

Charlie's Angels(2000)

Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle(2003)

Singles from Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle

"Feel Good Time"Released: June 20, 2003

text: Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllMusic[11]

text: Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle is the soundtrack album from the 2003 film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle. The album was released on June 24, 2003 by Columbia Records.[12]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: No.TitleWriter(s)Performed byLength1."Feel Good Time"William OrbitBeck HansenJay FergusonPink featuring William Orbit3:562."Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting"Elton JohnBernie TaupinNickelback featuring Kid Rock 3."Rebel Rebel"BowieDavid Bowie4:224."Danger! High Voltage"Steve NawaraTyler SpencerElectric Six3:345."Livin' on a Prayer"Jon Bon JoviRichie SamboraDesmond ChildBon Jovi4:116."Any Way You Want It"Steve PerryNeal SchonJourney3:247."Surfer Girl"Brian WilsonThe Beach Boys2:268."Working for the Weekend"Paul DeanMatt FrenetteMike RenoLoverboy3:429."Turning Japanese"CollinsEdwyn Collins3:5910."Nas' Angels...The Flyest"Nasir JonesPharrell WilliamsChad HugoNas featuring Pharrell Williams3:4711."I Just Want to Be Your Everything"Barry GibbAndy Gibb 12."This Will Be"Chuck JacksonMarvin YancyNatalie Cole2:5113."U Can't Touch This"Stanley BurrellRick JamesAlonzo MillerMC Hammer4:1614."Last Dance"Paul JabaraDonna Summer3:17Total length:49:57

text:
"Who Are You" by The Who
"Thunder Kiss '65" by White Zombie
"Firestarter" by The Prodigy
"Breathe" by The Prodigy
"Block Rockin' Beats" by The Chemical Brothers
"Misirlou" by Dick Dale
"Wild Thing" by Tone Lōc
"Nuthin' But A 'G' Thang" by Dr. Dre
"Flashdance... What a Feeling" by Irene Cara
"The Pink Panther Theme" by Hollywood Studio Symphony
"The Lonely Goatherd" by Rodgers and Hammerstein
"Sleep Now in the Fire" by Rage Against the Machine
"Mickey" by Toni Basil
"Planet Claire" by The B-52s


document_title: Life

question_text: the basic biological structures of life on earth are called

question_tokens: the basic biological structures of life on earth are called

root

text: Life

text: Definitions

text: It is a challenge for scientists and philosophers to define life.[6][7][8][9][10] This is partially because life is a process, not a substance.[11][12][13] Any definition must be general enough to both encompass all known life and any unknown life that may be different from life on Earth.[14][15][16]

tag: p

text: Biology

text: Since there is no unequivocal definition of life, most current definitions in biology are descriptive. Life is considered a characteristic of something that exhibits all or most of the following traits:[15][17][18][19][20][21][22]

text:
Homeostasis: regulation of the internal environment to maintain a constant state; for example, sweating to reduce temperature
Organization: being structurally composed of one or more cells – the basic units of life
Metabolism: transformation of energy by converting chemicals and energy into cellular components (anabolism) and decomposing organic matter (catabolism). Living things require energy to maintain internal organization (homeostasis) and to produce the other phenomena associated with life.
Growth: maintenance of a higher rate of anabolism than catabolism. A growing organism increases in size in all of its parts, rather than simply accumulating matter.
Adaptation: the specific, specialized and non-fortuitous condition of the link between traits and environment. That is, the fact that the furtherance, reinforcement and preservation of the state of existing and its continuity ("survival") result from a particular favoring correlation between own traits and environmental conditions which holds a degree of specificity, suitability and complexity beyond mere circumstantial coincidence or chance occurrence between those traits and the environment ("adaptation" as "specific specialized adaptation").
Readaptation: the ability to change over time in response to the environment. This ability is fundamental to the process of evolution and is determined by the organism's heredity, diet, and external factors.
Response to stimuli: a response can take many forms, from the contraction of a unicellular organism to external chemicals, to complex reactions involving all the senses of multicellular organisms. A response is often expressed by motion; for example, the leaves of a plant turning toward the sun (phototropism), and chemotaxis.
Reproduction: the ability to produce new individual organisms, either asexually from a single parent organism or sexually from two parent organisms.

tag: ol

text: These complex processes, called physiological functions, have underlying physical and chemical bases, as well as signaling and control mechanisms that are essential to maintaining life.

text: Alternative definitions

text: From a physics perspective, living beings are thermodynamic systems with an organized molecular structure that can reproduce itself and evolve as survival dictates.[23][24] Thermodynamically, life has been described as an open system which makes use of gradients in its surroundings to create imperfect copies of itself.[25] Hence, life is a self-sustained chemical system capable of undergoing Darwinian evolution.[26][27] A major strength of this definition is that it distinguishes life by the evolutionary process rather than its chemical composition.[28]

text: Others take a systemic viewpoint that does not necessarily depend on molecular chemistry. One systemic definition of life is that living things are self-organizing and autopoietic (self-producing). Variations of this definition include Stuart Kauffman's definition as an autonomous agent or a multi-agent system capable of reproducing itself or themselves, and of completing at least one thermodynamic work cycle.[29] This definition is extended by the apparition of novel functions over time.[30]

text: Viruses

text: Whether or not viruses should be considered as alive is controversial. They are most often considered as just replicators rather than forms of life.[31] They have been described as "organisms at the edge of life"[32] because they possess genes, evolve by natural selection,[33][34] and replicate by creating multiple copies of themselves through self-assembly. However, viruses do not metabolize and they require a host cell to make new products. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it may support the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.[35][36][37]

text: Biophysics

text: To reflect the minimum phenomena required, other biological definitions of life have been proposed,[38] with many of these being based upon chemical systems. Biophysicists have commented that living things function on negative entropy.[39][40] In other words, living processes can be viewed as a delay of the spontaneous diffusion or dispersion of the internal energy of biological molecules towards more potential microstates.[6] In more detail, according to physicists such as John Bernal, Erwin Schrödinger, Eugene Wigner, and John Avery, life is a member of the class of phenomena that are open or continuous systems able to decrease their internal entropy at the expense of substances or free energy taken in from the environment and subsequently rejected in a degraded form.[41][42]

text: Living systems theories

text: Living systems are open self-organizing living things that interact with their environment. These systems are maintained by flows of information, energy, and matter.

text: Some scientists have proposed in the last few decades that a general living systems theory is required to explain the nature of life.[43] Such a general theory would arise out of the ecological and biological sciences and attempt to map general principles for how all living systems work. Instead of examining phenomena by attempting to break things down into components, a general living systems theory explores phenomena in terms of dynamic patterns of the relationships of organisms with their environment.[44]

text: Gaia hypothesis

text: The idea that the Earth is alive is found in philosophy and religion, but the first scientific discussion of it was by the Scottish scientist James Hutton. In 1785, he stated that the Earth was a superorganism and that its proper study should be physiology. Hutton is considered the father of geology, but his idea of a living Earth was forgotten in the intense reductionism of the 19th century.[45]:10 The Gaia hypothesis, proposed in the 1960s by scientist James Lovelock,[46][47] suggests that life on Earth functions as a single organism that defines and maintains environmental conditions necessary for its survival.[45] This hypothesis served as one of the foundations of the modern Earth system science.

text: Nonfractionability

text: The first attempt at a general living systems theory for explaining the nature of life was in 1978, by American biologist James Grier Miller.[48] Robert Rosen (1991) built on this by defining a system component as "a unit of organization; a part with a function, i.e., a definite relation between part and whole." From this and other starting concepts, he developed a "relational theory of systems" that attempts to explain the special properties of life. Specifically, he identified the "nonfractionability of components in an organism" as the fundamental difference between living systems and "biological machines."[49]

text: Life as a property of ecosystems

text: A systems view of life treats environmental fluxes and biological fluxes together as a "reciprocity of influence,"[50] and a reciprocal relation with environment is arguably as important for understanding life as it is for understanding ecosystems. As Harold J. Morowitz (1992) explains it, life is a property of an ecological system rather than a single organism or species.[51] He argues that an ecosystemic definition of life is preferable to a strictly biochemical or physical one. Robert Ulanowicz (2009) highlights mutualism as the key to understand the systemic, order-generating behavior of life and ecosystems.[52]

text: Complex systems biology

text: Complex systems biology (CSB) is a field of science that studies the emergence of complexity in functional organisms from the viewpoint of dynamic systems theory.[53] The latter is also often called systems biology and aims to understand the most fundamental aspects of life. A closely related approach to CSB and systems biology called relational biology is concerned mainly with understanding life processes in terms of the most important relations, and categories of such relations among the essential functional components of organisms; for multicellular organisms, this has been defined as "categorical biology", or a model representation of organisms as a category theory of biological relations, as well as an algebraic topology of the functional organization of living organisms in terms of their dynamic, complex networks of metabolic, genetic, and epigenetic processes and signaling pathways.[54][55] Alternative but closely related approaches focus on the interdependance of constraints, where constraints can be either molecular, such as enzymes, or macroscopic, such as the geometry of a bone or of the vascular system.[56]

text: Darwinian dynamic

text: It has also been argued that the evolution of order in living systems and certain physical systems obeys a common fundamental principle termed the Darwinian dynamic.[57][58] The Darwinian dynamic was formulated by first considering how macroscopic order is generated in a simple non-biological system far from thermodynamic equilibrium, and then extending consideration to short, replicating RNA molecules. The underlying order-generating process was concluded to be basically similar for both types of systems.[57]

text: Operator theory

text: Another systemic definition called the operator theory proposes that "life is a general term for the presence of the typical closures found in organisms; the typical closures are a membrane and an autocatalytic set in the cell"[59] and that an organism is any system with an organisation that complies with an operator type that is at least as complex as the cell.[60][61][62][63] Life can also be modeled as a network of inferior negative feedbacks of regulatory mechanisms subordinated to a superior positive feedback formed by the potential of expansion and reproduction.[64]

text: History of study

text: Materialism

text: Some of the earliest theories of life were materialist, holding that all that exists is matter, and that life is merely a complex form or arrangement of matter. Empedocles (430 BC) argued that everything in the universe is made up of a combination of four eternal "elements" or "roots of all": earth, water, air, and fire. All change is explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four elements. The various forms of life are caused by an appropriate mixture of elements.[65]

text: Democritus (460 BC) thought that the essential characteristic of life is having a soul (psyche). Like other ancient writers, he was attempting to explain what makes something a living thing. His explanation was that fiery atoms make a soul in exactly the same way atoms and void account for any other thing. He elaborates on fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because fire moves.[66]

text: Plato's world of eternal and unchanging Forms, imperfectly represented in matter by a divine Artisan, contrasts sharply with the various mechanistic Weltanschauungen, of which atomism was, by the fourth century at least, the most prominent ... This debate persisted throughout the ancient world. Atomistic mechanism got a shot in the arm from Epicurus ... while the Stoics adopted a divine teleology ... The choice seems simple: either show how a structured, regular world could arise out of undirected processes, or inject intelligence into the system.[67]

text: The mechanistic materialism that originated in ancient Greece was revived and revised by the French philosopher René Descartes, who held that animals and humans were assemblages of parts that together functioned as a machine. In the 19th century, the advances in cell theory in biological science encouraged this view. The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin (1859) is a mechanistic explanation for the origin of species by means of natural selection.[68]

text: Hylomorphism

text: Hylomorphism is a theory first expressed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (322 BC). The application of hylomorphism to biology was important to Aristotle, and biology is extensively covered in his extant writings. In this view, everything in the material universe has both matter and form, and the form of a living thing is its soul (Greek psyche, Latin anima). There are three kinds of souls: the vegetative soul of plants, which causes them to grow and decay and nourish themselves, but does not cause motion and sensation; the animal soul, which causes animals to move and feel; and the rational soul, which is the source of consciousness and reasoning, which (Aristotle believed) is found only in man.[69] Each higher soul has all of the attributes of the lower ones. Aristotle believed that while matter can exist without form, form cannot exist without matter, and that therefore the soul cannot exist without the body.[70]

text: This account is consistent with teleological explanations of life, which account for phenomena in terms of purpose or goal-directedness. Thus, the whiteness of the polar bear's coat is explained by its purpose of camouflage. The direction of causality (from the future to the past) is in contradiction with the scientific evidence for natural selection, which explains the consequence in terms of a prior cause. Biological features are explained not by looking at future optimal results, but by looking at the past evolutionary history of a species, which led to the natural selection of the features in question.[71]

text: Spontaneous generation

text: Spontaneous generation was the belief on the ordinary formation of living organisms without descent from similar organisms. Typically, the idea was that certain forms such as fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as dust or the supposed seasonal generation of mice and insects from mud or garbage.[72]

text: The theory of spontaneous generation was proposed by Aristotle,[73] who compiled and expanded the work of prior natural philosophers and the various ancient explanations of the appearance of organisms; it held sway for two millennia. It was decisively dispelled by the experiments of Louis Pasteur in 1859, who expanded upon the investigations of predecessors such as Francesco Redi.[74][75] Disproof of the traditional ideas of spontaneous generation is no longer controversial among biologists.[76][77][78]

text: Vitalism

text: Vitalism is the belief that the life-principle is non-material. This originated with Georg Ernst Stahl (17th century), and remained popular until the middle of the 19th century. It appealed to philosophers such as Henri Bergson, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Wilhelm Dilthey,[79] anatomists like Marie François Xavier Bichat, and chemists like Justus von Liebig.[80] Vitalism included the idea that there was a fundamental difference between organic and inorganic material, and the belief that organic material can only be derived from living things. This was disproved in 1828, when Friedrich Wöhler prepared urea from inorganic materials.[81] This Wöhler synthesis is considered the starting point of modern organic chemistry. It is of historical significance because for the first time an organic compound was produced in inorganic reactions.[80]

text: During the 1850s, Hermann von Helmholtz, anticipated by Julius Robert von Mayer, demonstrated that no energy is lost in muscle movement, suggesting that there were no "vital forces" necessary to move a muscle.[82] These results led to the abandonment of scientific interest in vitalistic theories, although the belief lingered on in pseudoscientific theories such as homeopathy, which interprets diseases and sickness as caused by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force.[83]

text: Origin

text: The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years.[84][85][86] Evidence suggests that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5 billion years,[87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95] with the oldest physical traces of life dating back 3.7 billion years;[96][97][98] however, some theories, such as the Late Heavy Bombardment theory, suggest that life on Earth may have started even earlier, as early as 4.1–4.4 billion years ago,[87][88][89][90][91] and the chemistry leading to life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during an epoch when the universe was only 10–17 million years old.[99][100][101]

text: More than 99% of all species of life forms, amounting to over five billion species,[102] that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct.[103][104]

text: Although the number of Earth's catalogued species of lifeforms is between 1.2 million and 2 million,[105][106] the total number of species in the planet is uncertain. Estimates range from 8 million to 100 million,[105][106] with a more narrow range between 10 and 14 million,[105] but it may be as high as 1 trillion (with only one-thousandth of one percent of the species described) according to studies realized in May 2016.[107][108] The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[109] In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).[110] In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.[5]

text: All known life forms share fundamental molecular mechanisms, reflecting their common descent; based on these observations, hypotheses on the origin of life attempt to find a mechanism explaining the formation of a universal common ancestor, from simple organic molecules via pre-cellular life to protocells and metabolism. Models have been divided into "genes-first" and "metabolism-first" categories, but a recent trend is the emergence of hybrid models that combine both categories.[111]

text: There is no current scientific consensus as to how life originated. However, most accepted scientific models build on the Miller–Urey experiment and the work of Sidney Fox, which show that conditions on the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions that synthesize amino acids and other organic compounds from inorganic precursors,[112] and phospholipids spontaneously form lipid bilayers, the basic structure of a cell membrane.

text: Living organisms synthesize proteins, which are polymers of amino acids using instructions encoded by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Protein synthesis entails intermediary ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymers. One possibility for how life began is that genes originated first, followed by proteins;[113] the alternative being that proteins came first and then genes.[114]

text: However, because genes and proteins are both required to produce the other, the problem of considering which came first is like that of the chicken or the egg. Most scientists have adopted the hypothesis that because of this, it is unlikely that genes and proteins arose independently.[115]

text: Therefore, a possibility, first suggested by Francis Crick,[116] is that the first life was based on RNA,[115] which has the DNA-like properties of information storage and the catalytic properties of some proteins. This is called the RNA world hypothesis, and it is supported by the observation that many of the most critical components of cells (those that evolve the slowest) are composed mostly or entirely of RNA. Also, many critical cofactors (ATP, Acetyl-CoA, NADH, etc.) are either nucleotides or substances clearly related to them. The catalytic properties of RNA had not yet been demonstrated when the hypothesis was first proposed,[117] but they were confirmed by Thomas Cech in 1986.[118]

text: One issue with the RNA world hypothesis is that synthesis of RNA from simple inorganic precursors is more difficult than for other organic molecules. One reason for this is that RNA precursors are very stable and react with each other very slowly under ambient conditions, and it has also been proposed that living organisms consisted of other molecules before RNA.[119] However, the successful synthesis of certain RNA molecules under the conditions that existed prior to life on Earth has been achieved by adding alternative precursors in a specified order with the precursor phosphate present throughout the reaction.[120] This study makes the RNA world hypothesis more plausible.[121]

text: Geological findings in 2013 showed that reactive phosphorus species (like phosphite) were in abundance in the ocean before 3.5 Ga, and that Schreibersite easily reacts with aqueous glycerol to generate phosphite and glycerol 3-phosphate.[122] It is hypothesized that Schreibersite-containing meteorites from the Late Heavy Bombardment could have provided early reduced phosphorus, which could react with prebiotic organic molecules to form phosphorylated biomolecules, like RNA.[122]

text: In 2009, experiments demonstrated Darwinian evolution of a two-component system of RNA enzymes (ribozymes) in vitro.[123] The work was performed in the laboratory of Gerald Joyce, who stated "This is the first example, outside of biology, of evolutionary adaptation in a molecular genetic system."[124]

text: Prebiotic compounds may have originated extraterrestrially. NASA findings in 2011, based on studies with meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) may be formed in outer space.[125][126][127][128]

text: In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists.[129]

text: According to the panspermia hypothesis, microscopic life—distributed by meteoroids, asteroids and other small Solar System bodies—may exist throughout the universe.[130]

text: Environmental conditions

text: The diversity of life on Earth is a result of the dynamic interplay between genetic opportunity, metabolic capability, environmental challenges,[131] and symbiosis.[132][133][134] For most of its existence, Earth's habitable environment has been dominated by microorganisms and subjected to their metabolism and evolution. As a consequence of these microbial activities, the physical-chemical environment on Earth has been changing on a geologic time scale, thereby affecting the path of evolution of subsequent life.[131] For example, the release of molecular oxygen by cyanobacteria as a by-product of photosynthesis induced global changes in the Earth's environment. Because oxygen was toxic to most life on Earth at the time, this posed novel evolutionary challenges, and ultimately resulted in the formation of Earth's major animal and plant species. This interplay between organisms and their environment is an inherent feature of living systems.[131]

text: Biosphere

text: The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed as the zone of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the Earth), and largely self-regulating.[135] By the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.

text: Life forms live in every part of the Earth's biosphere, including soil, hot springs, inside rocks at least 19 km (12 mi) deep underground, the deepest parts of the ocean, and at least 64 km (40 mi) high in the atmosphere.[136][137][138] Under certain test conditions, life forms have been observed to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space[139][140] and to survive in the vacuum of outer space.[141][142] Life forms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans.[143][144] Other researchers reported related studies that life forms thrive inside rocks up to 580 m (1,900 ft; 0.36 mi) below the sea floor under 2,590 m (8,500 ft; 1.61 mi) of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States,[143][145] as well as 2,400 m (7,900 ft; 1.5 mi) beneath the seabed off Japan.[146] In August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of life forms living 800 m (2,600 ft; 0.50 mi) below the ice of Antarctica.[147][148] According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."[143]

text: The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoesis (life created naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago.[149][150] The earliest evidence for life on Earth includes biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from Western Greenland[96] and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia.[97][98] More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.[88][89] In 2017, putative fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils) were announced to have been discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago.[1][2][3][4] According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."[88]

text: In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems. This includes artificial biospheres such as Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3, and potentially ones on other planets or moons.[151]

text: Range of tolerance

text: The inert components of an ecosystem are the physical and chemical factors necessary for life—energy (sunlight or chemical energy), water, temperature, atmosphere, gravity, nutrients, and ultraviolet solar radiation protection.[152] In most ecosystems, the conditions vary during the day and from one season to the next. To live in most ecosystems, then, organisms must be able to survive a range of conditions, called the "range of tolerance."[153] Outside that are the "zones of physiological stress," where the survival and reproduction are possible but not optimal. Beyond these zones are the "zones of intolerance," where survival and reproduction of that organism is unlikely or impossible. Organisms that have a wide range of tolerance are more widely distributed than organisms with a narrow range of tolerance.[153]

text: Extremophiles

text: To survive, selected microorganisms can assume forms that enable them to withstand freezing, complete desiccation, starvation, high levels of radiation exposure, and other physical or chemical challenges. These microorganisms may survive exposure to such conditions for weeks, months, years, or even centuries.[131] Extremophiles are microbial life forms that thrive outside the ranges where life is commonly found.[154] They excel at exploiting uncommon sources of energy. While all organisms are composed of nearly identical molecules, evolution has enabled such microbes to cope with this wide range of physical and chemical conditions. Characterization of the structure and metabolic diversity of microbial communities in such extreme environments is ongoing.[155]

text: Microbial life forms thrive even in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot on the Earth.[143][144] Microbes also thrive inside rocks up to 1,900 feet (580 m) below the sea floor under 8,500 feet (2,600 m) of ocean.[143][145]

text: Investigation of the tenacity and versatility of life on Earth,[154] as well as an understanding of the molecular systems that some organisms utilize to survive such extremes, is important for the search for life beyond Earth.[131] For example, lichen could survive for a month in a simulated Martian environment.[156][157]

text: Chemical elements

text: All life forms require certain core chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning. These include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—the elemental macronutrients for all organisms[158]—often represented by the acronym CHNOPS. Together these make up nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, the bulk of living matter. Five of these six elements comprise the chemical components of DNA, the exception being sulfur. The latter is a component of the amino acids cysteine and methionine. The most biologically abundant of these elements is carbon, which has the desirable attribute of forming multiple, stable covalent bonds. This allows carbon-based (organic) molecules to form an immense variety of chemical arrangements.[159] Alternative hypothetical types of biochemistry have been proposed that eliminate one or more of these elements, swap out an element for one not on the list, or change required chiralities or other chemical properties.[160][161]

text: DNA

text: Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids; alongside proteins and complex carbohydrates, they are one of the three major types of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides.[162] Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase—either cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), or thymine (T)—as well as a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. According to base pairing rules (A with T, and C with G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double-stranded DNA. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[109] In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).[110]

text: DNA stores biological information. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information. Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated. A significant portion of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences.

text: The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. Under the genetic code, RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins. These RNA strands are initially created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription.

text: Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts.[163] In contrast, prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.

text: DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869.[164] Its molecular structure was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, whose model-building efforts were guided by X-ray diffraction data acquired by Rosalind Franklin.[165]

text: Classification

text: Life is usually classified by eight levels of taxa—domains, kingdoms, phyla, class, order, family, genus, and species. In May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.[107]

text: The first known attempt to classify organisms was conducted by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC), who classified all living organisms known at that time as either a plant or an animal, based mainly on their ability to move. He also distinguished animals with blood from animals without blood (or at least without red blood), which can be compared with the concepts of vertebrates and invertebrates respectively, and divided the blooded animals into five groups: viviparous quadrupeds (mammals), oviparous quadrupeds (reptiles and amphibians), birds, fishes and whales. The bloodless animals were also divided into five groups: cephalopods, crustaceans, insects (which included the spiders, scorpions, and centipedes, in addition to what we define as insects today), shelled animals (such as most molluscs and echinoderms), and "zoophytes" (animals that resemble plants). Though Aristotle's work in zoology was not without errors, it was the grandest biological synthesis of the time and remained the ultimate authority for many centuries after his death.[166]

text: The exploration of the Americas revealed large numbers of new plants and animals that needed descriptions and classification. In the latter part of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th, careful study of animals commenced and was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve as an anatomical basis for classification. In the late 1740s, Carl Linnaeus introduced his system of binomial nomenclature for the classification of species. Linnaeus attempted to improve the composition and reduce the length of the previously used many-worded names by abolishing unnecessary rhetoric, introducing new descriptive terms and precisely defining their meaning.[167]

text: The fungi were originally treated as plants. For a short period Linnaeus had classified them in the taxon Vermes in Animalia, but later placed them back in Plantae. Copeland classified the Fungi in his Protoctista, thus partially avoiding the problem but acknowledging their special status.[168] The problem was eventually solved by Whittaker, when he gave them their own kingdom in his five-kingdom system. Evolutionary history shows that the fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.[169]

text: As new discoveries enabled detailed study of cells and microorganisms, new groups of life were revealed, and the fields of cell biology and microbiology were created. These new organisms were originally described separately in protozoa as animals and protophyta/thallophyta as plants, but were united by Haeckel in the kingdom Protista; later, the prokaryotes were split off in the kingdom Monera, which would eventually be divided into two separate groups, the Bacteria and the Archaea. This led to the six-kingdom system and eventually to the current three-domain system, which is based on evolutionary relationships.[170] However, the classification of eukaryotes, especially of protists, is still controversial.[171]

text: As microbiology, molecular biology and virology developed, non-cellular reproducing agents were discovered, such as viruses and viroids. Whether these are considered alive has been a matter of debate; viruses lack characteristics of life such as cell membranes, metabolism and the ability to grow or respond to their environments. Viruses can still be classed into "species" based on their biology and genetics, but many aspects of such a classification remain controversial.[172]

text: In the 1960s a trend called cladistics emerged, arranging taxa based on clades in an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree.[173]

text:
Linnaeus
1735[174]
Haeckel
1866[175]
Chatton
1925[176]
Copeland
1938[177]
Whittaker
1969[178]
Woese et al.
1990[170]
Cavalier-Smith
1998[179]

2 kingdoms
3 kingdoms
2 empires
4 kingdoms
5 kingdoms
3 domains
6 kingdoms

(not treated)
Protista
Prokaryota
Monera
Monera
Bacteria
Bacteria

Archaea

Eukaryota
Protoctista
Protista
Eucarya
Protozoa

Chromista

Vegetabilia
Plantae
Plantae
Plantae
Plantae

Fungi
Fungi

Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia

tag: table

text: Biota (taxonomy)

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2017)

text: In systems of scientific classification, Biota[180] is the superdomain that classifies all life.[181]

text: Cells

text: Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted.[182] The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them.[183] Cells contain hereditary information that is carried forward as a genetic code during cell division.[184]

text: There are two primary types of cells. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, although they have circular DNA and ribosomes. Bacteria and Archaea are two domains of prokaryotes. The other primary type of cells are the eukaryotes, which have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and vacuoles. In addition, they possess organized chromosomes that store genetic material. All species of large complex organisms are eukaryotes, including animals, plants and fungi, though most species of eukaryote are protist microorganisms.[185] The conventional model is that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes, with the main organelles of the eukaryotes forming through endosymbiosis between bacteria and the progenitor eukaryotic cell.[186]

text: The molecular mechanisms of cell biology are based on proteins. Most of these are synthesized by the ribosomes through an enzyme-catalyzed process called protein biosynthesis. A sequence of amino acids is assembled and joined together based upon gene expression of the cell's nucleic acid.[187] In eukaryotic cells, these proteins may then be transported and processed through the Golgi apparatus in preparation for dispatch to their destination.[188]

text: Cells reproduce through a process of cell division in which the parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For prokaryotes, cell division occurs through a process of fission in which the DNA is replicated, then the two copies are attached to parts of the cell membrane. In eukaryotes, a more complex process of mitosis is followed. However, the end result is the same; the resulting cell copies are identical to each other and to the original cell (except for mutations), and both are capable of further division following an interphase period.[189]

text: Multicellular organisms may have first evolved through the formation of colonies like cells. These cells can form group organisms through cell adhesion. The individual members of a colony are capable of surviving on their own, whereas the members of a true multi-cellular organism have developed specializations, making them dependent on the remainder of the organism for survival. Such organisms are formed clonally or from a single germ cell that is capable of forming the various specialized cells that form the adult organism. This specialization allows multicellular organisms to exploit resources more efficiently than single cells.[190] In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule, called GK-PID, may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.[191]

text: Cells have evolved methods to perceive and respond to their microenvironment, thereby enhancing their adaptability. Cell signaling coordinates cellular activities, and hence governs the basic functions of multicellular organisms. Signaling between cells can occur through direct cell contact using juxtacrine signalling, or indirectly through the exchange of agents as in the endocrine system. In more complex organisms, coordination of activities can occur through a dedicated nervous system.[192]

text: Extraterrestrial

text: Though life is confirmed only on Earth, many think that extraterrestrial life is not only plausible, but probable or inevitable.[193][194] Other planets and moons in the Solar System and other planetary systems are being examined for evidence of having once supported simple life, and projects such as SETI are trying to detect radio transmissions from possible alien civilizations. Other locations within the Solar System that may host microbial life include the subsurface of Mars, the upper atmosphere of Venus,[195] and subsurface oceans on some of the moons of the giant planets.[196][197] Beyond the Solar System, the region around another main-sequence star that could support Earth-like life on an Earth-like planet is known as the habitable zone. The inner and outer radii of this zone vary with the luminosity of the star, as does the time interval during which the zone survives. Stars more massive than the Sun have a larger habitable zone, but remain on the main sequence for a shorter time interval. Small red dwarfs have the opposite problem, with a smaller habitable zone that is subject to higher levels of magnetic activity and the effects of tidal locking from close orbits. Hence, stars in the intermediate mass range such as the Sun may have a greater likelihood for Earth-like life to develop.[198] The location of the star within a galaxy may also affect the likelihood of life forming. Stars in regions with a greater abundance of heavier elements that can form planets, in combination with a low rate of potentially habitat-damaging supernova events, are predicted to have a higher probability of hosting planets with complex life.[199] The variables of the Drake equation are used to discuss the conditions in planetary systems where civilization is most likely to exist.[200] Use of the equation to predict the amount of extraterrestrial life, however, is difficult; because many of the variables are unknown, the equation functions as more of a mirror to what its user already thinks. As a result, the number of civilizations in the galaxy can be estimated as low as 9.1 x 10^-11 or as high as 156 million; for the calculations, see Drake equation.

text: Artificial

text: Artificial life is the simulation of any aspect of life, as through computers, robotics, or biochemistry.[201] The study of artificial life imitates traditional biology by recreating some aspects of biological phenomena. Scientists study the logic of living systems by creating artificial environments—seeking to understand the complex information processing that defines such systems.[183] While life is, by definition, alive, artificial life is generally referred to as data confined to a digital environment and existence.

text: Synthetic biology is a new area of biotechnology that combines science and biological engineering. The common goal is the design and construction of new biological functions and systems not found in nature. Synthetic biology includes the broad redefinition and expansion of biotechnology, with the ultimate goals of being able to design and build engineered biological systems that process information, manipulate chemicals, fabricate materials and structures, produce energy, provide food, and maintain and enhance human health and the environment.[202]

text: Death

text: Death is the permanent termination of all vital functions or life processes in an organism or cell.[203][204] It can occur as a result of an accident, medical conditions, biological interaction, malnutrition, poisoning, senescence, or suicide. After death, the remains of an organism re-enter the biogeochemical cycle. Organisms may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger and leftover organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain.

text: One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life. Death would seem to refer to either the moment life ends, or when the state that follows life begins.[204] However, determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.[205] Such determination therefore requires drawing conceptual lines between life and death. This is problematic, however, because there is little consensus over how to define life. The nature of death has for millennia been a central concern of the world's religious traditions and of philosophical inquiry. Many religions maintain faith in either a kind of afterlife or reincarnation for the soul, or resurrection of the body at a later date.

text: Extinction

text: Extinction is the process by which a group of taxa or species dies out, reducing biodiversity.[206] The moment of extinction is generally considered the death of the last individual of that species. Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively after a period of apparent absence. Species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing habitat or against superior competition. In Earth's history, over 99% of all the species that have ever lived are extinct;[207][102][103][104] however, mass extinctions may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.[208]

text: Fossils

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago.[209] Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.[210][211]


document_title: List of Orange Is the New Black episodes

question_text: how many episodes in the first season of orange is the new black

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally released

1
13
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

2
13
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

3
13
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

4
13
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

5
13
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date

1
1
"I Wasn't Ready"
Michael Trim
Liz Friedman & Jenji Kohan
Piper
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

2
2
"Tit Punch"
Uta Briesewitz
Marco Ramirez
Red & Piper
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

3
3
"Lesbian Request Denied"
Jodie Foster
Sian Heder
Sophia & Piper
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

4
4
"Imaginary Enemies"
Michael Trim
Gary Lennon
Miss Claudette
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

5
5
"The Chickening"
Andrew McCarthy
Nick Jones
Aleida & Daya
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

6
6
"WAC Pack"
Michael Trim
Lauren Morelli
Nicky & Piper
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

7
7
"Blood Donut"
Matthew Penn
Sara Hess
Watson
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

8
8
"Moscow Mule"
Phil Abraham
Marco Ramirez
Red
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

9
9
"Fucksgiving"
Michael Trim
Sian Heder
Alex
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

10
10
"Bora Bora Bora"
Andrew McCarthy
Nick Jones
Piper & Tricia
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

11
11
"Tall Men with Feelings"
Constantine Makris
Lauren Morelli
Piper & Alex
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

12
12
"Fool Me Once"
Andrew McCarthy
Sara Hess
Pennsatucky
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

13
13
"Can't Fix Crazy"
Michael Trim
Tara Herrmann & Jenji Kohan
none
July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)

text: Season 2 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date

14
1
"Thirsty Bird"
Jodie Foster
Tara Herrmann & Jenji Kohan
Piper
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

15
2
"Looks Blue, Tastes Red"
Michael Trim
Jenji Kohan
Taystee
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

16
3
"Hugs Can Be Deceiving"
Michael Trim
Lauren Morelli
Suzanne
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

17
4
"A Whole Other Hole"
Phil Abraham
Sian Heder
Morello
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

18
5
"Low Self Esteem City"
Andrew McCarthy
Nick Jones
Gloria
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

19
6
"You Also Have a Pizza"
Allison Anders
Stephen Falk
Poussey
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

20
7
"Comic Sans"
Andrew McCarthy
Sara Hess
Black Cindy
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

21
8
"Appropriately Sized Pots"
Daisy von Scherler Mayer
Alex Regnery & Hartley Voss
Rosa
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

22
9
"40 Oz. of Furlough"
S. J. Clarkson
Lauren Morelli
Red
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

23
10
"Little Mustachioed Shit"
Jennifer Getzinger
Sian Heder
Piper & Alex
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

24
11
"Take a Break from Your Values"
Constantine Makris
Nick Jones
Sister Ingalls
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

25
12
"It Was the Change"
Phil Abraham
Sara Hess
Vee
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

26
13
"We Have Manners. We're Polite."
Constantine Makris
Jenji Kohan
none
June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)

text: Season 3 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date

27
1
"Mother's Day"
Andrew McCarthy
Jenji Kohan
various
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

28
2
"Bed Bugs and Beyond"
Constantine Makris
Jim Danger Gray
Bennett
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

29
3
"Empathy Is a Boner Killer"
Michael Trim
Nick Jones
Nicky
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

30
4
"Finger in the Dyke"
Constantine Makris
Lauren Morelli
Big Boo
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

31
5
"Fake It Till You Fake It Some More"
Nicole Holofcener
Tara Herrmann
Flaca
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

32
6
"Ching Chong Chang"
Anthony Hemingway
Sara Hess
Chang
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

33
7
"Tongue-Tied"
Julie Anne Robinson
Sian Heder
Norma
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

34
8
"Fear, and Other Smells"
Mark A. Burley
Nick Jones
Alex
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

35
9
"Where My Dreidel At"
Andrew McCarthy
Jordan Harrison
Leanne
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

36
10
"A Tittin' and a Hairin'"
Jesse Peretz
Lauren Morelli
Pennsatucky
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

37
11
"We Can Be Heroes"
Phil Abraham
Sian Heder
Caputo
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

38
12
"Don't Make Me Come Back There"
Uta Briesewitz
Sara Hess
Aleida & Daya
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

39
13
"Trust No Bitch"
Phil Abraham
Jim Danger Gray & Jenji Kohan
various
June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)

text: Season 4 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date

40
1
"Work That Body for Me"
Andrew McCarthy
Jenji Kohan
none
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

41
2
"Power Suit"
Constantine Makris
Sara Hess
Maria
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

42
3
"(Don't) Say Anything"
Andrew McCarthy
Jim Danger Gray
Soso
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

43
4
"Doctor Psycho"
Erin Feeley
Carly Mensch
Healy
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

44
5
"We'll Always Have Baltimore"
Tricia Brock
Jordan Harrison
Maritza
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

45
6
"Piece of Shit"
Uta Briesewitz
Lauren Morelli
none
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

46
7
"It Sounded Nicer in My Head"
Mark A. Burley
Nick Jones
Lolly
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

47
8
"Friends in Low Places"
Phil Abraham
Alex Regnery & Hartley Voss
none
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

48
9
"Turn Table Turn"
Constantine Makris
Sara Hess
Blanca
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

49
10
"Bunny, Skull, Bunny, Skull"
Phil Abraham
Carly Mensch
none
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

50
11
"People Persons"
Lev L. Spiro
Nick Jones
Suzanne
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

51
12
"The Animals"
Matthew Weiner
Lauren Morelli
Bayley
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

52
13
"Toast Can't Never Be Bread Again"
Adam Bernstein
Tara Herrmann & Jenji Kohan
Poussey
June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)

text: Season 5 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date

53
1
"Riot FOMO"
Andrew McCarthy
Jenji Kohan
none
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

54
2
"Fuck, Marry, Frieda"
Constantine Makris
Jordan Harrison
Frieda
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

55
3
"Pissters!"
Phil Abraham
Rebecca Angelo & Lauren Schuker Blum
Linda
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

56
4
"Litchfield's Got Talent"
Nick Sandow
Josh Koenigsberg, Jenji Kohan & Tara Herrmann
Alison
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

57
5
"Sing It, White Effie"
Phil Abraham
Molly Smith Metzler
Watson
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

58
6
"Flaming Hot Cheetos, Literally"
Andrew McCarthy
Lauren Morelli
Taystee
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

59
7
"Full Bush, Half Snickers"
Uta Briesewitz
Anthony Natoli
none
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

60
8
"Tied to the Tracks"
Michael Trim
Carolina Paiz
Daya
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

61
9
"The Tightening"
Erin Feeley
Jordan Harrison
Red
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

62
10
"The Reverse Midas Touch"
Laura Prepon
Rebecca Angelo & Lauren Schuker Blum
Piscatella
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

63
11
"Breaking the Fiberboard Ceiling"
Wendey Stanzler
Lauren Morelli
none
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

64
12
"Tattoo You"
Mark A. Burley
Tara Herrmann & Carolina Paiz
Piper & Alex
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)

65
13
"Storm-y Weather"
Jesse Peretz
Lauren Morelli
none
June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)


document_title: Father of the Nation

question_text: who is considered the father of our country

text: Father of the Nation

text: This article  possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Father of the Nation is an honorific title given to a man considered the driving force behind the establishment of his country, state, or nation. Pater Patriae (plural Patres Patriae), also seen as Parens Patriae, was a Roman honorific meaning the "Father of the Fatherland", bestowed by the Senate on heroes, and later on emperors. In monarchies, the monarch was often considered the "father/mother of the nation" or as a patriarch to guide his family. This concept is expressed in the Divine Right espoused in some monarchies, while in others it is codified into constitutional law as in Spain, where the monarch is considered the personification and embodiment, the symbol of the unity and permanence of the nation. In Thailand, the monarch is given the same recognition, and demonstrated loyalty is enforced with severe criminal statutes.

text:
Many dictators bestow titles upon themselves, which rarely survive the end of their regime. Gnassingbé Eyadéma of Togo's titles included "father of the nation", "older brother", and "Guide of the People".[1] Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire's included "Father of the nation", "the Guide", "the Messiah", "dajsh, "the Leopard", and "the Sun-President".[2]
In postcolonial Africa, "father of the nation" was a title used by many leaders both to refer to their role in the independence movement as a source of legitimacy, and to use paternalist symbolism as a source of continued popularity.[3] On Joseph Stalin's seventieth birthday in 1949, he was bestowed with the title "Father of Nations" for his establishment of "people's democracies" in countries occupied by the USSR after World War II.[4]

text: The title "Father of the Nation" is sometimes politically contested. The 1972 Constitution of Bangladesh declared Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to be "father of the nation". The BNP government removed this in 2004, to the protests of the oppostition Awami League, led by Rahman's daughter Sheikh Hasina.[5] A motion in the Parliament of Slovakia to proclaim controversial pre-war leader Andrej Hlinka "father of the nation" nearly passed in September 2007.[6]

text: List[edit]

text: The following people are still often called the "Father" of their respective nations. Highlighted names indicate people who are still living.

text:
Name

Nation

Title (native)

Title (translation)

Notes

Ahmad Shah Durrani

Afghanistan

Ahmad Shah Baba

Father of the Nation[7][8][9]

Founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire.

Skanderbeg

Albania

Ati i Kombit

Father of the Nation

José de San Martín

Argentina /Peru

Padre de la Patria / Fundador de la República y Protector del Perú[10]

Father of the Fatherland / Founder of the Republic and Protector of Peru

Primary leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain (1778 – 1850).

Sir Henry Parkes, GCMG

Australia

Father of Federation

Premier of New South Wales.

Sir Lynden Pindling

The Bahamas

Father of the Nation

Leader at independence in 1973.[11]

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Bangladesh

Jatir Janak (জাতির জনক) Bangabandhu (বঙ্গবন্ধু)

Father of the Nation Friend of Bengal

Founder of Bangladesh.

George Cadle Price

Belize

Father of the Nation

Former Chief Minister, Premier and two-term Prime Minister before retiring in 1997.[12][13]

Simón Bolívar

BoliviaColombiaEcuadorPanamaPeruVenezuela

Libertador

Liberator

Primary leader of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.

Dom Pedro I and José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva

Brazil

Pai da Nação e Patriarca da Independência

Father of the Nation and Patriarch of Independence

Founder and the first Emperor of Brazil (1822). Bonifácio was the advisor of Pedro I.

Omar Ali Saifuddien III

Brunei

Architect of Modern Brunei

Builder of the Modern Nation and Father of Independence

28th Sultan of Brunei and First Minister of Defence (1914 – 1986).

John A. Macdonald and the other fathers of Confederation

Canada

Father of Confederation

Father of Confederation

Bernardo O'Higgins

Chile

Padre de la patria

Father of the fatherland

Primary leader of Chile's successful struggle for independence from Spain.

Sun Yat-sen

China (Republic of)

simplified Chinese: 国父; traditional Chinese: 國父 (Guófù)

Father of the Nation

Sun played an instrumental role in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty during the Xinhai Revolution. The Nationalist government decreed the title in 1940. Sun is more widely known in mainland China as the "Forerunner of the Democratic Revolution".[14]

José María Castro Madriz

Costa Rica

Fundador de la República

Founder of the Republic

First President of the Republic of Costa Rica.[15]

Ante Starčević

Croatia

Otac domovine

Father of the Homeland

His diverse activities and works laid the foundations for the modern Croatian state.[16]

Carlos Manuel de Céspedes

Cuba

Padre de la Patria

Father of the Fatherland[17]

Leader of the first Cuban independence movement which fought the Ten Years' War.

Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor

Czech Republic

Otec vlasti

Father of the Homeland

King of Bohemia. Title coined by the rector of the Charles University of Prague at the emperor's funeral.[18]

František Palacký

Czech Republic

Otec národa

Father of the Nation

Politician and historian.[18] Whereas vlast "homeland" included all inhabitants, národ "nation" comprised only Czech people.[19]

Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk

Czech Republic

Tatíček /President Osvoboditel

Father of the Fatherland / President Liberator

First President of Czechoslovakia.[18]

Juan Pablo Duarte

Dominican Republic

Padre de la patria

Father of the Fatherland

Defeated Haiti during war of independence.

Kwame Nkrumah

Ghana

Father of the nation

First president and prime minister of Ghana, the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve full independence.

Alexander the Great

Greece

Ο Πατέρας των Ελλήνων

Father of the Greeks

Founder of the Macedonian Empire responsible for spreading Greek culture during the Hellenistic period.

Cheddi Jagan

Guyana

Father of the Nation

President of Guyana from 1992–1997.

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

Haiti

Père de la patrie

Father of the Fatherland

Primary leader of Haiti's successful struggle for independence from France.

Árpád

Hungary

Honalapító

Founder of the Homeland

Second Grand Prince of the Hungarians, leader of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian basin.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

India

Bapu

Father of the Nation (not an official declaration)[20] [21]

Also called Mahatma, "Great Soul".
This title was not an official title and has no records in the National Archives of India. Indian constitution (Art. 18) prohibits the State from conferring any titles.[22]

Sukarno

Indonesia

Bapak Bangsa/Pemimpin Besar Revolusi Indonesia/Proklamator

Father of the Nation/Great Leader of Indonesian Revolution/The Proclamator

First President of Indonesia.

Cyrus the Great

Iran (Persia)

Shahanshah

Father of the Nation

First Shah of Persian Empire.

Theodor Herzl

Israel

חוֹזֵה הַמְדִינָה, Chozeh HaMedinah

"Visionary of the State"

Herzl is considered the founding father of modern Zionism, his picture is the only figure permanently presented in the assembly hall of the Knesset.
Jews draw their heritage to the mythological biblical figures of the four founding mothers and the three founding fathers, Jewish tradition (the bible) also draws the Arab heritage to Ishmael son of Abraham and Hagar. In Islamic (the Quran) and Arabian traditions, Arabs also considered descendants of Ishmael son of Abraham and Hajar and Jews considered as well as the descendants of the four mothers and fathers (see Sarah, Ibrahim, Isaac, Rachel and Jacob. Throughout the history Arabs and Jews referred to each other times in disdain, times in close relation as a "cousin" nation (Arabic: ولاد عمنا, Hebrew: בני דודים)

Vittorio Emanuele II di Savoia

Italy

Padre della Patria

Father of the Fatherland

First king of a united Italy since the 6th century.

Alikhan Bukeikhanov

Kazakhstan

Prime Minister of the Alash Autonomy

Leader and founder of the Alash Orda national liberation movement.

Dinmukhamed Kunayev

Kazakhstan

Leader of the Kazakh SSR

First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.

Jomo Kenyatta

Kenya

Baba wa Taifa

Father of the Nation/Freedom Fighter

First President of Kenya from 1963 to his death in 1978 who helped create the Kenyan Constitution.

Ibrahim Rugova

Kosovo

Baba i Kombit

Father of the Nation

First President of the self-proclaimed Republic of Kosovo. The leader of the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK).

Jonas Basanavičius

Lithuania

Tautos patriarchas

Patriarch of the Nation

Various cultural activities during the Lithuanian National Revival.[23]

Krste Misirkov

Macedonia

Татко на нацијата

Father of the Nation

Prominent linguist, writer and activist.

Tunku Abdul Rahman

Malaysia

Bapa Kemerdekaan

Father of Independence

The first Prime Minister of Malaysia. A prince from the Kedah Sultanate, the Cambridge-educated Tunku led the negotiated independence of Federation of Malaya from the British in 1957. Later formed Malaysia through the union of Peninsular Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak in 1963.

Giorgio Borg Olivier

Malta

Missier Malta Indipendenti

Father of Independent Malta

A Maltese statesman and leading politician. He twice served as Prime Minister of Malta (from 1950–55, and from 1962–71) as the Leader of the Nationalist Party. In 1964, with him as Prime Minister, Malta gained independence from Britain.

Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam

Mauritius

Father of the Nation[24]

First post-independence Prime Minister, in 1968.

Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla

Mexico

Padre de la patria mexicana[25]

Father of the Mexican Nation[26]

First revolutionary leader in the Mexican War of Independence.

Aung San

Myanmar

Father of Nations, Father of Independence Father of Tatmadaw

5th Prime Minister of Burma in British Era from 1946 to 1947

Assassinated on 19 July 1947, before the independence of Burma.

Sam Nujoma

Namibia

Founding Father of the Namibian Nation

First President of Namibia, 1990–2005; title conferred by Act of Parliament in 2005.[27]

Puspa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda)

Nepal

National Hero
(राष्ट्रनायक)

Father of the Nation

Abolished  monarchy from power.

William the Silent

Netherlands

Vader des Vaderlands

Father of the Fatherland

Leader of the successful Dutch Revolt against Spain, which led to the Dutch Republic, the first independent Dutch state.[28]

Nnamdi Azikiwe

Nigeria

First president of Nigeria, the last governor general of Nigeria.

Einar Gerhardsen

Norway

Landsfaderen

Father of the Nation

First post–World War II prime minister of Norway.[29]

Mohammad Ali Jinnah

Pakistan

Quaid-e-Azam & Baba-e-Quam[30][31]

Father of the Nation/Great Leader

Founder of Pakistan, leader of the Muslim League and first Governor-General of Pakistan.

Sir Michael Somare

Papua New Guinea

Father of the Nation

Leader at independence in 1975; also known as "the chief" and "the old man".[32]

Emilio Aguinaldo

Philippines

Kauna-unahang Pangulo ng Pilipinas

First President of the Philippines

Leader of the latter part of the Philippine Revolution and first President of the Philippines through the 1899 Malolos Congress, which oversaw the promulgation of the Malolos Constitution.

Andrés Bonifacio

Philippines

Amá ng Himagsikan

Father of the Revolution

De facto President and leader of the Philippine Revolution, which saw armed resistance against the Spanish Empire. His birthday, November 30, 1863, is a national holiday.

José Rizal

Philippines

Pambansáng Bayani

National Hero

Colloquially known as the "National Hero". Rizal's works and writings–which helped start the Philippine Revolution–are part of the national curriculum as mandated by Republic Act No. 1425. The anniversary of his December 30, 1896 execution by the Spanish colonial government is a national holiday.[33]

D. Afonso Henriques

Portugal

Fundador da Nação

Father of the Nationa.k.a. The Conqueror

Founder and 1st. King of Portugal (1139), recognized by the Holy See in 1179.

Peter I of Russia

Russia

Отец Отечества (Otets Otechestva)

Father of the Fatherland

Was granted the title in 1721 by the Governing Senate, along with "Emperor of Russia" and "The Great".[34]

El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

Father of the Nation

Leader of the Polisario Front, First President of the SADR. Fought against Spanish colonial army & against the invasion of the Moroccan & Mauritanian armies.

Sir John Compton

Saint Lucia

Father of the Nation

Prime Minister at independence in 1979. Also known as "Daddy Compton".[35]

Saint Marinus

San Marino

Founder of a chapel and monastery in central Italy, in 301 (traditional date: September 3). From this initial community the state of San Marino later grew.[36]

Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia

والد الأمة (Waalid Al Ummah)/ المؤسس (Al-Moa'sis)

Father of the Nation/ The Founder

Unified the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula and established the modern Saudi state. He established the House of Saud, the dynasty which rules the country. His son King Salman is the current head of state of Saudi Arabia. Five other older sons – Saud, Faisal, Khalid, Fahd and Abdullah – served as former heads of state.

Saint Sava

Serbia

Отац отаџбине[37]

Father of the Fatherland

Founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church.

Karađorđe and Miloš Obrenović

Serbia

Отац отаџбине[38] [39]

Father of the Fatherland

Leaders of the First and Second Serbian Uprising.

Javier Solana

Serbia and Montenegro

Отац нације СЦГ

Father of the Nation

Signatory of the Belgrade Agreement (2002) as a high EU representative for negotiation between Montenegro and Serbia for re-organization of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Negotiations resulted in creation of short-lived state, which dissolved in 2006.

Lee Kuan Yew

Singapore

Father of Singapore

First Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore, governing for over 30 years. Leading figure throughout Singapore's time as a part of Malaysia and its later independence.

Andrej Hlinka (disputed)

Slovakia

Otec národa

Father of the Nation

Catholic priest, fighter for Slovak autonomy and leader of controversial Slovak People's Party.

Primož Trubar

Slovenia

Oče naroda

Father of the Nation

A consolidator of the Slovene language and the author of the first Slovene printed book.

Mohammed Abdullah Hassan

Somalia

Father of the fatherland

Leader of the first Somali independence movement against the Kingdom of Italy and Great Britain.

Nelson Mandela

South Africa

Tata wethu

Father of the Nation

First President of post-apartheid South Africa.[40]

Jan van Riebeeck

South Africa

Father of the Nation

Founder of Cape Town, first European settlement in South Africa.[41]

Catholic Monarchs

Spain

Reyes Católicos de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón

Catholic Monarchs of the Kingdoms of Castille and Aragon

The unifiers of Spain. They unified the territories of Castille, Aragon and Al-Andalus, all the territories of the Iberian Peninsula, except Portugal. During their reign America was discovered and started the Spanish Empire.

Don Stephen Senanayake

Sri Lanka

ජාතියේ පියා (Jathiyay Piya)

Father of the Nation

First Prime Minister, from 1947 to 1952.[42]

Johan Ferrier

Suriname

Vader des Vaderlands

Father of the Nation

First president after the independence of the country in 1975 (the term Vader des Vaderlands has its roots in the Netherlands).

Gustav I of Sweden

Sweden

Nationalhjälte

National hero

Broke Sweden from Danish rule under Christian II.

Julius Nyerere

Tanzania

Baba wa Taifa

Father of the Nation

First President of Tanzania.[43]

Dr. Eric Williams

Trinidad and Tobago

Father of the Nation

Founder of the People's National Movement (PNM), first Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, first Premier of Trinidad and Tobago, second Chief Minister of Trinidad and Tobago and was instrumental in making Trinidad and Tobago independent from the British.

Dr. Rudranath Capildeo

Trinidad and Tobago

Founding Father

Led the Democratic Labour Party (DLP), first Leader of the Opposition of Trinidad and Tobago, a Hindu leader, and a mathematical physicist.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Turkey

Atatürk

Father of the Turks

Founder of the Republic of Turkey and first President of Turkey. He led the Turkish national movement in the Turkish War of Independence, and enacted the reforms that made Turkey a democratic nation-state. Granted in accordance with the 1934 Surname Law establishing surnames in Turkey.[44]

Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

United Arab Emirates

والد الأمة (Waalid Al Ummah)

Father of the Nation

President of the UAE for its first 33 years (1971–2004).[45][46]

George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin and other Signers and Framers

United States

Founding Fathers[47][48]

The Signers signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. The Framers were delegates to the Constitutional Convention and took part in framing or drafting the proposed United States Constitution.

George Washington

United States

Father of his country[49][50]

George Washington is particularly highlighted out of the Founding Fathers of the United States as being the "father of his country"[49][50] for his role as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, his resignation of command at the end of the war, the presidency of the Constitutional Convention and for his tenure (and voluntary retirement) as the first President of the United States.

José Gervasio Artigas

Uruguay

Padre de la independencia uruguaya, Protector de los Pueblos Libres y Jefe de los orientales [51]

Father of Uruguayan independence, Defender of the Free and Chief of the eastern people[52]

Fought against British, Spanish, and Portuguese colonial armies in Río de la Plata.

Ho Chi Minh

Vietnam

Cha già dân tộc

Old Father of the Nation

Hồ Chí Minh is revered among the Vietnamese people and is considered the "Old Father of the Nation" by them. Hồ spent most of his life fighting for his country's independence, including fighting against the French colonial and Empire of Japan which used to invade and ruled over Vietnam and Indochina. He declared Vietnam's independence on September 2, 1945 under the name of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, then later won the First Indochina War which officially ended France's sovereignty over Vietnam and Indochina. Ho Chi Minh City was named after him in honor of his efforts in unifying the country in Vietnam War.


document_title: Colored fire

question_text: what color is potassium chloride in a flame test

text: Colored fire

text: Colored fire is a common pyrotechnic effect used in stage productions, fireworks and by fire performers the world over. Generally, the color of a flame may be red, orange, blue, yellow, or white, and is dominated by blackbody radiation from soot and steam. When additional chemicals are added to the fuel burning, their atomic emission spectra can affect the frequencies of visible light radiation emitted - in other words, the flame appears in a different color dependent upon the chemical additives. Flame coloring is also a good way to demonstrate how fire changes when subjected to heat and how they also change the matter around them.[1][2]

text: To color their flames, Pyrotechnicians will generally use metal salts. Specific combinations of fuels and co-solvents are required in order to dissolve the necessary chemicals. Color enhancers (usually chlorine donors) are frequently added too, the most common of which is polyvinyl chloride. A practical use of colored fire is the flame test, where metal cations are tested by placing the sample in a flame and analyzing the color produced.[3][4]

text: Flame colorants[edit]

text:
Color
Chemical
Image

Carmine (dark red)
Lithium chloride

Red
Strontium chloride or strontium nitrate

Orange
Calcium chloride

Yellow
Barium chloride

Light Orange
Sodium chloride (table salt) or (street lights)

Apple green
Borax (sodium borate)

Green
Copper(II) sulfate, boric acid

Blue
Copper(I) chloride, butane

Violet
3 parts potassium sulfate, 1 part potassium nitrate (saltpeter)

Peach (light pink)
Potassium chloride

text: Emitted colors depend on the electronic configuration of the elements involved. Heat energy from the flame excites electrons to a higher quantum level, and the atoms emit characteristic colors (photons with energies corresponding to the visible spectrum) as they return to lower energy levels.[5]

text: Campfire colorants[edit]

text: Flame colorants are becoming popular while camping. Scouts[citation needed] and other outdoor "enthusiasts" have placed sections of copper pipe with holes drilled throughout and stuffed with garden hose onto campfires to create a variety of flame colors. An easier method of coloring campfires has been fueled by commercial products. These packages of flame colorants are tossed onto a campfire or into a fireplace to produce effects.

text: Although these chemicals are very effective at imparting their color into an already existing flame, these substances are not flammable alone. To produce a powder or solid that, when lit, produces a colored flame, the necessary steps are more complex. To get a powder to burn satisfactorily, both a fuel and oxidizer will mostly be needed. Common oxidizers include.[6]

text:
Ammonium perchlorate
Ammonium nitrate
Barium chlorate
Guanine nitrate
Potassium nitrate (saltpeter)
Potassium chlorate
Potassium perchlorate
Strontium nitrate
Sodium nitrate

tag: ul

text: Many of these oxidizers also produce a colored flame by themselves. Some of them - as well as the main colorants - are severely toxic and therefore environmentally damaging.


document_title: Three Billy Goats Gruff

question_text: who lives under the bridge that the three billy goats

text: Three Billy Goats Gruff

text: Plot[edit]

text: The story introduces three male goats, sometimes identified as a youngster, father and grandfather, but more often described as brothers. In other adaptations, there is a baby or child goat, mama goat and papa goat. In any case, there is almost no grass left for them to eat near where they live, so they must cross a river to get to "sæter" (a meadow) or hillside on the other side of a stream in order to eat and fatten themselves up. To do so, however, they must first cross a bridge, under which lives a fearsome and hideous troll, who is so territorial that he eats anyone who tries to cross the bridge.

text: The smallest billy goat is the first to cross and is stopped abruptly by the troll who threatens to "gobble him up!" However, the little goat convinces the troll to wait for his big brother to come across, because he is larger and would make for a more gratifying feast. The greedy troll agrees and lets the smallest goat cross.

text: The medium-sized goat passes next. He is more cautious than his brother, but is also stopped by the troll and given the same threat. The second billy goat is allowed to cross as well after he tells the troll to wait for the biggest billy goat because he is the largest of the three.

text: The third billy goat then gets on the bridge and is stopped by the hungry troll. The troll threatens to devour him, however, the third billy goat challenges him and knocks the troll off the bridge with his horns. The troll falls into the stream and is carried away by the current. From then on the bridge is safe, and all three goats are able to go to the rich fields around the summer farm in the hills, and they all live happily ever after.

text: Adaptations and cultural references[edit]

text: Audiobooks[edit]

text:
Scholastic Corporation produced an audio recording in 1963, with music composed and directed by Arthur Rubinstein, narrated by Bob Thomas, and cover illustration by Susan Blair and Ellen Appleby.[3] It was first made available as a phonograph record,[4] and then on Compact Cassette.
TaleThings offers a storybook program ("app") for iOS and Android mobile devices that is a humorous retelling of the classic tale. It features animated visuals and narration in any of six languages.[5]

text: Comics[edit]

text: Bill Willingham's 2002 comic book Fables contains mention of the goats, and the troll is an ongoing character.

text: Films[edit]

text:
In the Norwegian film Trollhunter (2010), the titular character attempts to bait a troll by placing three goats on a bridge.
Mike Flanagan's Kickstarter-funded film Absentia (2011) is a modern-day retelling centered around a tunnel, a series of abductions, and a troll-like creature.
"Team Juan" at the Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design at the University of Dundee produced a version with a Spanish twist on the story: The 3 Billy Piñatas (2015).

text: Games[edit]

text:
The tale also comes into play during the first King's Quest (1983) game. A troll is guarding a bridge Graham needs to cross. The optimum solution to the puzzle is to lure a goat over to the bridge. Upon seeing the troll, the goat is angered, and butts it into the river below.
The tale also comes into play during Magicland Dizzy (1990). A troll is guarding a bridge Dizzy needs to cross. He says the only way to cross is to give him 30 diamonds before kicking Dizzy in the air away from him, but this is a red herring, as there are 30 in the whole game with one behind him and many in the Ice Palace afterwards. The only solution to the puzzle, is to cut the rope holding the goat using the dagger, before hitting him with the stick to make him charge towards the troll. Along his way, the goat butts the troll into the air.
The tale is also included in the video game Simon the Sorcerer (1993).
In the video game The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim (2011), near a place called Purewater Run, there is a stone bridge near a waterfall. If it is the player's first time there, they will see three goats; upon looking under the bridge, they will find a dead troll.
In 2016 Saturn Animation Studio has produced an interactive adaptation of Three Billy Goats Gruff for mobile devices.
A game adaptation for tablets and mobile phones is developed by the Norwegian game studio Agens. The game was made with support from the Norwegian Film Institute in 2011.

text: Literature[edit]

text:
The first version of the story in English appeared in George Webbe Dasent's translation of some of the Norske Folkeeventyr, published as Popular Tales from the Norse (1859).[6]
An abbreviated version of this tale is used in "3-Part Puzzle" by Gordon R. Dickson,[7] translated into an ET language as "The THREE (Name) (Domestic Animals) (Name)" (and the (horrendous, carnivorous, mythical creature). The ET Envoy is puzzled over the glee that children show over this "simple and boring" "lesson in tactics".
Stephen King's It (1986) alludes to this story.
Golden Books did a version of the story that was similar to the book. The only difference is that when the troll is washed away by the stream, he is later mentioned to have moved into a cave.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novel Lords and Ladies (1992) refers to this story, as does a joke made in the first chapter of Monstrous Regiment (2003).
Neil Gaiman adapted the story for Snow White, Blood Red (1993), an anthology of children's fairy tales retold for adults. In Gaiman's version (entitled "Troll Bridge"), the troll approaches a young boy who has crossed his bridge and demands to "eat his life." The boy eventually persuades the troll to wait until he has lived a little more, after which he will return to the bridge. The goats in this adaptation are represented by the protagonist as a child, a teenager and finally a middle-aged man. The story was nominated for a 1994 World Fantasy Award.[8]
The Billy Goats Gruff make an appearance in Jim Butcher, book Small Favor (2008), the tenth novel of the Dresden Files series .
Andri Snær Magnason's retells the story in the children's book Tímakistan (2013). This variant features a kid, its mother, and her husband. When the mother goat tells the troll to eat her husband instead of her, "the troll lost his appetite. 'What's the world coming to?', he cried. 'The kid tells me to eat its mother, and she tells me to eat her husband! Crazy family!'."[9] The troll goes home leaving the goats uneaten.
The tale is the inspiration of Kevin P. Futers's novel The Adventures of the Billy Goats Gruff, which is set in seventh-century Northumbria and includes goats are named Edgar, Bert, and Frith.[citation needed]

text: Music[edit]

text:
The tale appears to be cryptically referenced in the song "John Brown" (1988) by indie-rock band Masters of Reality. The lyrics are usually understood to be "John Brown, bring him down; pull his body to the ground. Left him up, for long enough; let me be the Baby Gruff."[10]
James Scott Balentine composed Kinderkonzerts, a chamber music setting for string quintet and narrator, with the text adapted by Stephanie Sant’Ambrogio, for the Cactus Pear Music Festival.[11]
The song "Much Chubbier" by Nerdcore rapper MC Frontalot on his album Question Bedtime (2014) is a retelling of the story.

text: Radio productions[edit]

text: A version of the story written and performed by Frank Luther was often played on the BBC Radio programme Children's Favourites, in the 1950s and early 1960s.[12]

text: Stage productions[edit]

text:
Gwen Edwards adapted the story into a popular children's musical called Billy, Goat, Gruff: The Musical (summer 2007), at Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia.[13]
Lazy Bee Scripts published Billy Goat Gruff (2009), a simple play for young children.[14]
A musical adaptation by British composing team George Stiles and Anthony Drewe was commissioned by the Singapore Repertory Theatre. It premiered there in 2015 and is making its North American debut in 2017 at the Aurora Theatre in Lawrenceville, Georgia.

text: Television[edit]

text: In 2008, the BBC created a modern adaptation for its Fairy Tales TV series. In this, the story was given a twist in that the troll was presented as a tragic, cruelly maligned victim:

text: The troll character is dirty and smelly and everybody is frightened of him, and I think that heightens the pathos of the ending, because it’s a witch hunt, without any evidence.[15]

text: In a segment[when?] about "patent trolls" on Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, it is referenced with "trolls actually do something, they control bridge-access for goats and ask people fun riddles".[citation needed]