document_title: Heart of the Ocean

question_text: what is the heart of the ocean made of

question_tokens: what is the heart of the ocean made of

root

text: Heart of the Ocean

text: Origin[edit]

text: The story of the Hope Diamond bears many similarities to the story of the Heart of the Ocean with the obvious exception of the Hope Diamond not actually having been on board the Titanic. In the 1953 film Titanic, a blue diamond plays an important role in a love affair as well. A primary plot point in this earlier film is the theft of the diamond, which creates a dramatic break in a romantic relationship which is similar to the 1997 film.

tag: p

text: 1997 film[edit]

text: In the 1997 film a fictional treasure hunter, Brock Lovett (Bill Paxton), searches for a priceless blue diamond necklace which he believes lies within the wreck of the RMS Titanic. Lovett explains that the necklace was fashioned from a large blue diamond worn by Louis XVI in his royal crown. Shortly after the King's execution in 1793, the diamond was cut into a heart shape and became known as the Heart of the Ocean. The story of the Heart of the Ocean is similar to the story of the Hope Diamond, except the Hope Diamond was worn by Louis XIV in a royal necklace. Lovett's hunch about the diamond's whereabouts seems to be confirmed when his team salvages a drawing in which a nude woman is wearing the necklace. The drawing is dated April 14, 1912, the day the Titanic sank.

text: Later on an elderly woman (Gloria Stuart) watches Lovett's discovery on the news and immediately contacts the salvage team. Claiming to be both the woman in the picture and Rose Dewitt Bukater she is immediately flown out to Lovett's salvage ship. Rose requests to view the recovered drawing and Lovett shows her some artifacts salvaged from the wreck, specifically those recovered from her stateroom on Titanic. During this scene Lovett reveals the origins of the diamond and that if it is recovered the Heart of the Ocean would be worth more than the Hope Diamond. While examining an ornate butterfly comb, Rose becomes emotional and begins detailing her time aboard the Titanic. During the film the audience's perspective alternates between the past and present as Rose shares her memories. Rose divulges the intimate details of her relationship with the artist of the drawing, Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio), which leads up to the night of the sinking.

text: On the night of the sinking the diamond changes hands a few times between Rose and Jack, resulting in Jack being framed of its theft by Rose's fiancé Cal. As the ship starts to list dramatically it becomes quite clear that the unsinkable Titanic will indeed sink. With this in mind Rose's fiancé, Cal, returns to the suite and empties the safe placing the precious gem in his overcoat. Later on Cal puts this same coat on Rose as she enters a lifeboat, forgetting about the diamond in its pocket. It is not thoroughly stated whether or not Rose (Gloria Stuart) tells Brock Lovett about Cal emptying his safe along with the diamond, it is assumed she doesn't as Lovett doesn't have any follow up questions. At the end of the film, Rose walks alone to the stern of the salvage ship and opens her hands revealing both the necklace and Rose's identity as Rose Dewitt Bukater. While examining the necklace, Rose has a flashback to 1912 on her arrival in New York and discovers the necklace in the overcoat. Returning to the present, Rose, with a smile, drops the necklace from her hand into the water presumably above the Titanic wreck site.[1]

text: Design[edit]

text: London-based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold[2] to create an Edwardian-style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. Asprey & Garrard produced and designed the necklaces: the result was three different and unique designs. Two of their designs were used in the film while the other went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace, and the Asprey necklace. The three necklaces are all very similar but have distinguishable differences.

text: The Original Necklace[edit]

text: The original necklace was the necklace seen throughout the film. This necklace has a large London-blue stone cut into a trillion/cleftless heart surrounded by white round cut cubic zirconias set in white gold. The chain is composed of a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white cubic zirconias. The bail on this necklace was a heart cut white cubic zirconia attached to a white round cut stone which was attached to the cage on the main stone. The necklace is owned today by a private collector by the name of George Holmes, and is currently being lent to James Cameron to display next to props from his other films. The necklace is available to view during tours of his office in California.[3]

text: The J. Peterman Necklace[edit]

text: Due to The J. Peterman Company's acquisition of this particular necklace through the sale of props from the film, this design is often referred to as the J. Peterman design, though officially the necklace does not hold this designation. This particular design is another blue cubic zirconia; however, it is cut into the shape of a heart rather than a trillion cut. The main stone is surrounded by round cut cubic zirconias and features a white round cut stone at the top where it attaches to the chain. The chain is composed of white round cut cubic zirconias, with a larger inverted pear cut cubic zirconia as the bail. This particular design is featured in the film for a brief moment when Caledon retrieves the necklace from his safe during the sinking, this is the only time the necklace is seen on screen. This particular necklace is believed to still be in the possession of the J. Peterman Company.

text: The Asprey & Garrard Necklace[edit]

text: The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum-set, 171-carat (34.2 g) heart-shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds.[2] This design featured a much larger inverted pear shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client[4] for $1.4 million, under the agreement that Celine Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. This necklace has since not been made available for public viewing.

text: Reproductions[edit]

text: After the release of the film in 1998, The J. Peterman Company sold less expensive reproductions. Their necklace consisted of 137 Austrian crystals and a detachable, inauthentic "blue diamond" pendant packaged in a navy blue, hinged presentation box.[5] This is the only officially licensed reproduction of the necklace. This particular replica can still be found on the secondary market, although likely in used condition. There are many other unofficial inspired reproductions available on the secondary market ranging from as little as five dollars to thousands of dollars.

text: Replicas

tag: ul


document_title: Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards

question_text: who were the four aces in the military's most wanted deck of cards

question_tokens: who were the four aces in the military 's most wanted deck of cards

text: Most-wanted Iraqi playing cards

text: About the cards[edit]

text: Each card contains the wanted person's address and, if available, the job performed by that individual. The highest-ranking cards, starting with the aces and kings, were used for the people at the top of the most-wanted list. The ace of spades is Saddam Hussein, the aces of clubs and hearts are his sons Qusay and Uday respectively, and the ace of diamonds is Saddam's presidential secretary Abid Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti. This strict correspondence to the order of the most-wanted list was not carried through the entire deck, but some time later in 2003, the list itself was renumbered to conform (almost) to the deck of cards. The card backs feature a green military camouflage pattern.

text: According to US Navy Lieutenant commander  Jim Brooks, a spokesman for the Defense Intelligence Agency, such playing cards have been used as far back as the US Civil War and again in World War II—Army Air Corps decks printed with the silhouettes of German and Japanese fighter aircraft fetch hundreds of dollars today—and in the Korean War. Troops often play cards to pass the time, and seeing the names, faces and titles of the wanted Iraqis during their games will help soldiers and Marines in case they run into the wanted individuals in the field, Brooks said.[1]

text: The list of "Most Wanted" was the result of a multi-intelligence agency collaboration which included the Defense Intelligence Agency, Central Command, and representatives from all US Service Branch Intelligence entities. The "Most Wanted" names were then assigned to their respective cards by five US Army soldiers, 2LT Hans Mumm, SSG Shawn Mahoney, SGT Andrei Salter, SGT Scott Boehmler, and SPC Joseph Barrios, who were assigned to the Defense Intelligence Agency.[2]  The pictures used on the cards came from a number of intelligence agencies, but most were derived from "open sources".  The deck of cards was first announced publicly in Iraq on 11 April 2003, in a press conference by Army Brig. Gen. Vincent Brooks, deputy director of operations at U.S. Central Command. On that same evening Max Hodges, a Houston-based entrepreneur, found and downloaded a high-resolution artwork file for the deck from a Defense Department web server. Discovering the following day that the file had vanished from the military web server he became the first eBay seller to offer the artwork file, in PDF, which could be used to reproduce the deck.[3] He quickly contracted Gemaco Playing Card Company to print 1,000 decks for about $4,000 and started selling both the decks, in advance of receiving them from the printer, on eBay, Amazon.com and his own web site. When some of his early auctions for a $4 deck of cards quickly rose to over $120,[4] it did not take long for other eBayers to jump on the bandwagon and print or order decks of their own to sell. In just a few days hundreds of sellers materialized and the price dropped to just a few dollars per deck.

text: Texas-based Liberty Playing Card Co. received an order to manufacture the cards for the U.S. Embassy in Kuwait and by claiming to be "the authorized government contractor" quickly became another popular domestic supplier for the commercial market. The U.S. military inadvertently included in the jokers the trademarked Hoyle joker owned by the United States Playing Card Company of Cincinnati, Ohio. Although The U.S. Playing Card company does not object to the government's use of the image, they do object to other companies using the trademarked image. Thus, in some sense, the U.S. military inadvertently granted The U.S. Playing Card Company exclusive rights to manufacture the authentic decks, if the trademarked images on the jokers are considered a requirement for being authentic.

text: Spades[edit]

text:
Ace ♠: Saddam Husayn Al-Tikriti, President (#1 on most-wanted list) (Captured December 13, 2003) (Executed December 30, 2006).
King ♠: Ali Hasan al-Majid, Presidential Advisor/RCC Member, also known as Chemical Ali (#5) (Captured August 21, 2003) (Executed January 25, 2010).
Queen ♠: Muhammad Hamza Zubaydi, Retired RCC member (#9, but was originally #18) (Captured April 21, 2003) (Died in Custody December 2, 2005).
Jack ♠: Ibrahim Ahmad Abd al-Sattar Muhammad, Iraqi Armed Forces Chief of Staff (#13, was #11) (Captured May 12, 2003) (Died in Custody October 28, 2010).
Ten ♠: Hamid Raja Shalah, Air Force Commander (#17, was #15) (Captured June 14, 2003).
Nine ♠: Rukan Razuki Abd al-Ghafar, Head of Tribal Affairs Office (#21, was #39) (Killed in 2003).[5]
Eight ♠: Tariq Aziz, deputy prime minister (#25, was #43) (Surrendered April 24, 2003 and sentenced to death, Died in June 2015).
Seven ♠: Mahmud Dhiyab, minister of interior (#29, was #46) (Surrendered 2003, Released in July 2012).[6]
Six ♠: Amir Rashid Muhammad al-Ubaydi, presidential adviser/former oil minister (#33, was #47) (Surrendered April 28, 2003, Released in April 2012).
Five ♠: Watban Ibrahim Hasan, presidential adviser (#37, was #51) (Captured April 13, 2003 and sentenced to death. Died of natural causes in custody on 13 August 2015).[7]
Four ♠: Muhammad Zimam Abd al-Razzaq, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#41, was #23), (Captured February 15, 2004).[8]
Three ♠: Sa'd Abdul-Majid Al-Faisal, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#55, was #36), (Captured May 24, 2003) (Released December 18, 2005).[8]
Two ♠: Rashid Taan Kazim, Ba'ath Party regional chairman (#49, was #30), (Captured July 9, 2006),[9] or possibly still fugitive.[8]

text: Clubs[edit]

text:
Ace ♣: Qusay Saddam Husayn, son of Saddam (#2), killed in standoff with the U.S. Army in Mosul, Iraq 2003.
King ♣: Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, RCC vice chairman (#6).
Queen ♣: Kamal Mustafa Abdallah Sultan, secretary of the Republican Guard (#10, was #8), (Surrendered May 17, 2003).[8]
Jack ♣: Sayf Al-Din Fulayyih Hasan Taha Al-Rawi, Republican Guard chief of staff (#14, was #12). Surrendered May 2003.
Ten ♣: Latif Nusayyif Jasim, Ba'ath Party military bureau deputy chairman (#18, was #37), (Captured June 9, 2003).[8]
Nine ♣: Jamal Mustafa Abdallah Sultan, deputy head of tribal affairs (#22, was #40), (Surrendered April 20, 2003).
Eight ♣: Walid Hamid Tawfiq, governor of Basra (#26, was #44), (Surrendered April 29, 2003).
Seven ♣: Ayad Futayyih Khalifa al-Rawi, Quds forces chief of staff (#30, was #20), (Captured June 4, 2003)  (Died in Custody May 18, 2018).
Six ♣: Husam Muhammad Amin, head of National Monitoring Directorate (#34, was #49), (Captured April 27, 2003)  (Released 2005).
Five ♣: Barzan Ibrahim Hasan, presidential adviser (#38, was #52), (Captured April 17, 2003) (Executed 2007).
Four ♣: Samir Abd Al-Aziz, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#42, was #24), (Captured April 17, 2003).
Three ♣: Sayf al-Din Al-Mashhadani, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#46, was #27), (Captured May 24, 2003).[8]
Two ♣: Ugla Abid Saqr, Ba'ath Party regional chairman (#50, was #31), (Captured May 20, 2003).[8]

text: Hearts[edit]

text:
Ace ♥: Uday Saddam Husayn, son of Saddam Hussein, killed in standoff with US Army in Mosul, Iraq 2003 (#3).
King ♥: Hani Abd al-Latif Tilfah, Director—special security organization (#7).
Queen ♥: Barzan Abd al-Ghafur Sulayman Majid, Special Republican Guard commander (#11, was #9), (Captured July 23, 2003).[8]
Jack ♥: Rafi Abd Al-Latif Tilfah, director of general security (#15, was #13).
Ten ♥: Abd Al-Tawab Mullah Huwaysh, deputy prime minister (#19, was #16), (Captured May 2, 2003).
Nine ♥: Mizban Khadr Hadi, RCC member (#23, was #41), (Surrendered July 9, 2003).[8]
Eight ♥: Sultan Hashim Ahmad, minister of defense (#27, was #19) (Captured 2003, Sentenced to Death).
Seven ♥: Zuhayr Talib Abd Al-Sattar, director of military intelligence (#31, was #21), (Captured April 23, 2003).
Six ♥: Muhammad Mahdi (#35, was #48), (Captured April 23, 2003).
Five ♥: Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash, weapons of mass destruction scientist (known as "Mrs. Anthrax"; No. 39, was #53; also the only female on the entire list), (Captured May 7, 2003), (Released 2005).
Four ♥: Humam Abd Al-Khaliq Abd, minister of higher education and scientific research (#43, was #54), (Captured April 19, 2003).
Three ♥: Fadil Mahmud Gharib, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#47, was #28), (Captured May 15, 2003).[8]
Two ♥: Ghazi Hammud, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#51, was #32), (Captured May 7, 2003).[8]

text: Diamonds[edit]

text:
Ace ♦: Abid Hamid Mahmud, presidential secretary (#4), executed on 7 June 2012.[10]
King ♦: Aziz Salih, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#8, was #17, sentenced to death in 2011).
Queen ♦: Muzahim Sa'b Hassan al-Tikriti, air defense forces commander (#12, was #10) (Captured April 23, 2003, Released in April 2012).
Jack ♦: Tahir Jalil Habbush, Iraqi intelligence service (#16, was #14).
Ten ♦: Taha Yasin Ramadan, vice president/RCC member (executed in 2007; #20, was #38).
Nine ♦: Taha Muhyi Al-Din Maruf, vice president/RCC member (#24, was #42), (Captured May 2, 2003), (died in exile in 2009).
Eight ♦: Hikmat Mizban Ibrahim, deputy prime minister and finance minister (#28, was No. 45), (Captured April 18, 2003), (Died in Custody 2012).
Seven ♦: Amir Hamudi Hasan, presidential scientific adviser (#32, was #55), (Surrendered April 12, 2003).
Six ♦: Sabawi Ibrahim Hasan, presidential adviser (#36, was #50- Died of cancer in 2013).
Five ♦: Abd al-Baqi Abd al-Karim Abdallah, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#40, was #22 - Captured in 2015).
Four ♦: Yahya Abdallah, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#44, was #25), (Killed in 2003).[11]
Three ♦: Muhsin Khadr, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#48, was #29), (Captured February 7, 2004).[8]
Two ♦: Adil Abdallah Mahdi, Ba'ath Party branch command chairman (#52, was #33), (Captured May 15, 2003).[8]

text: Other[edit]

text: There are also two jokers: one lists Arab titles, the other Iraqi military ranks. There are no cards for most-wanted No. 45 (was #26), Nayif Shindakh Thamir, No. 53 (was #34 – Killed in 2003[12] or probably still fugitive[8]) Husayn al-Awadi, or No. 54 (was #35) (captured on 9 June 2003[8]). Khamis Sirhan al-Muhammad, although knight cards could be used for this purpose, but in this case the whole deck would be rearranged. Khamis Sirhan al-Muhammad was captured on 11 January 2004[8] and held without charge for six years before being released on 30 July 2010. He has since fled to Syria where most of the other 6 uncaptured members of the deck of cards are reported to be hiding.[13]

text: The 13 June 2003 edition of the BBC One satirical news quiz, Have I Got News for You, featured a set of the playing cards in one round, spoofing guest host Bruce Forsyth's 1980s game show Play Your Cards Right (the British version of the American series Card Sharks). The two teams played a version of the latter's main game, retitled Play Your Iraqi Cards Right (although during the segment it was revealed that the writers' first choice had been Play Your Kurds Right), with the same rules (and audience participation). Much of the humour of the round came from the reactions of the two team captains: while Paul Merton was clearly familiar with the game and greatly enjoyed it, his opponent, Ian Hislop, admitted he'd never seen Play Your Cards Right and appeared mystified by the game's rules and etiquette (when at one point Merton and the crowd shouted the traditional cry of "lower, lower," to predict the next card in the hidden sequence, Hislop commented, "I'm not sure this programme could get much lower!")


document_title: Mortal Kombat (film)

question_text: who plays sonya blade in mortal kombat movie

text: Mortal Kombat (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Mortal Kombat is a fighting tournament between the representatives of the realms of Earth and Outworld conceived by the Elder Gods amid looming invasion of the Earth by Outworld. If the realm of Outworld wins Mortal Kombat ten consecutive times, its Emperor Shao Kahn will be able to invade and conquer the Earthrealm.

text: Shaolin monk Liu Kang and his comrades, movie star Johnny Cage and military officer Sonya Blade were handpicked by Raiden, the god of thunder and defender of the Earth realm, to overcome their powerful adversaries in order to prevent Outworld from winning their tenth straight Mortal Kombat tournament. Each of the three has his or her own reason for competing: Liu seeks revenge against the tournament host Shang Tsung for killing his brother Chan; Sonya seeks revenge on an Australian crime lord Kano for murdering a fellow officer; and Cage, having been branded as a fake by the media, seeks to prove otherwise.

text: At Shang Tsung's island, Liu is attracted to Princess Kitana, Shao Kahn's adopted daughter. Aware that Kitana is a dangerous adversary because she is the rightful heir to Outworld and that she will attempt to ally herself with the Earth warriors, Tsung orders the creature Reptile to spy on her. Liu defeats his first opponent and Sonya gets her revenge on Kano by snapping his neck. Cage encounters and barely beats Scorpion. Liu engages in a brief duel with Kitana, who secretly offers him cryptic advice for his next battle. Liu's next opponent is Sub-Zero, whose defense seems untouched because of his freezing abilities until Liu recalls Kitana's advice and uses it to kill Sub-Zero.

text: Prince Goro enters the tournament and mercilessly crushes every opponent he faces. One of Cage's peers, Art Lean, is defeated by Goro as well and has his soul taken by Shang Tsung. Sonya worries that they may not win against Goro, but Raiden disagrees. He reveals their own fears and egos are preventing them from winning the tournament.

text: Despite Sonya's warning, Cage comes to Tsung to request a fight with Goro. The sorcerer accepts on the condition that he be allowed to challenge any opponent of his choosing, anytime and anywhere he chooses. Raiden tries to intervene, but the conditions are agreed upon before he can do so. After Shang Tsung leaves, Raiden confronts Cage for what he has done in challenging Goro but is impressed when Cage shows his awareness of the gravity of the tournament. Cage faces Goro and uses guile and the element of surprise to defeat the defending champion. Now desperate, Tsung takes Sonya hostage and takes her to Outworld, intending to fight her as his opponent. Knowing that his powers are ineffective there and that Sonya cannot defeat Tsung by herself, Raiden sends Liu and Cage into Outworld in order to rescue Sonya and challenge Tsung. In Outworld, Liu is attacked by Reptile(under orders from Shang Tsung to prevent him and Cage from rescuing Sonya), but eventually gains the upper hand and defeats him. Afterward, Kitana meets up with Cage and Liu. She reveals to the pair the origins of both herself and Outworld. Kitana allies with them and helps them to infiltrate Tsung's castle while advising Liu Kang about three challenges in the castle: To face his enemy, himself and his worst fear.

text: Inside the castle tower, Shang Tsung challenges Sonya to fight him, claiming that her refusal to accept will result in the Earth realm forfeiting Mortal Kombat (this is, in fact, a lie on Shang's part). All seems lost for Earth realm until Kitana, Liu, and Cage appear. Kitana berates Tsung for his treachery to the Emperor as Sonya is set free, claiming that his arrogance and greed will cost him the tournament if he doesn't honor his deal. Tsung challenges Cage but is counter-challenged by Liu. During the lengthy battle, Liu faces not only Tsung but the souls that Tsung had forcibly taken in past tournaments. In a last-ditch attempt to take advantage, Tsung morphs into Chan. Seeing through the charade, Liu renews his determination and ultimately fires an energy bolt at the sorcerer, knocking him down and impaling him on a bed of spikes. Tsung's death releases all of the captive souls, including Chan's. Before ascending to the afterlife, Chan tells Liu that he will remain with him in spirit until they are once again reunited again soon.

text: The Warriors return to Earthrealm, where a victory celebration is taking place at the Shaolin temple. The jubilation abruptly stops, however, when Shao Kahn's giant figure suddenly appears in the skies. When the Emperor declares that he has come for everyone's souls, Raiden declares "I don't think so," and the warriors take up their fighting stances.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Christopher Lambert as Raiden, god of thunder and protector of Earthrealm who guides the warriors on their journey. He desires to aid the heroes in defending Earthrealm, but as he himself is not mortal, he is not permitted to participate in the tournament and may only advise them and act to prevent cheating.
Robin Shou as Liu Kang, a former Shaolin monk, who enters the tournament to avenge his brother's death. As in most of the games in the Mortal Kombat series, Liu Kang is the main protagonist. This was Shou's second American film, as his last American role was in 1990, for the made-for-television film Forbidden Nights.
Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Shang Tsung, a powerful, sadistic and treacherous demon sorcerer, he is the film's main antagonist who killed Liu Kang's brother Chan. Tagawa was the filmmakers' first and only choice for the role; he was instantly selected after he came to his audition in costume, and read his lines while standing on a chair.[3]
Linden Ashby as Johnny Cage, a Hollywood superstar that enters the tournament to prove to the world that his skills are for real. He is also Sonya's love interest. Ashby trained in karate and tae kwon do especially for this film. Despite the intensity of the fight scenes coupled with the actors performing most of their own stunts, on-set injuries were surprisingly minimal; the only notable occurrence was a mildly bruised kidney Ashby suffered while shooting Cage's fight scene with Scorpion.[3]
Bridgette Wilson as Sonya Blade, an American Special Forces officer from Austin, Texas who's in hot pursuit of Kano, the criminal who killed her partner. She is also Johnny's love interest. Cameron Diaz was originally set to play Sonya, but she broke her wrist during a martial arts training session prior to shooting[4] and was replaced by Wilson, who was jokingly nicknamed "RoboBabe" during production by director Paul W. S. Anderson.[3] Wilson performed all her own stunts, including fight scenes.
Talisa Soto as Princess Kitana, the Outworld emperor's adopted daughter who decides to help the Earth warriors. Soto had previously appeared alongside Tagawa in Licence to Kill.
Trevor Goddard as Kano, an Australian underworld crime boss who joins forces with Shang Tsung.
Chris Casamassa as Scorpion, an undead warrior under Shang Tsung's control. As with the games, Mortal Kombat co-creator Ed Boon provided the voice of the character.
François Petit as Sub-Zero, a cryomancer warrior under Shang Tsung's control. The rivalry between Scorpion and Sub-Zero is only briefly mentioned by Shang Tsung at the beginning of the movie.
Keith Cooke as Reptile, a creature who serves Shang Tsung. Cooke portrayed the character's human form, while his lizard form was rendered with the use of computer-generated imagery.[3] Reptile's vocal effects were provided by Frank Welker.
Tom Woodruff, Jr. as Goro, prince of the subterranean realm of Shokan and general of the armies of Outworld. Goro is the reigning champion of Mortal Kombat.

Kevin Michael Richardson provides the speaking voice of Goro, while his vocal effects are provided by Frank Welker.

Kenneth Edwards as Art Lean, a martial artist and friend of Johnny Cage who competes in the tournament.
Steven Ho as Chan Kang, Liu Kang's younger brother.
Gregory McKinney as Jax, Sonya's Special Forces partner. Steve James was originally cast to play Jax, but he died from pancreatic cancer a year before production on the film began.[5]
Peter Jason as Master Boyd, Johnny Cage's sensei.
Frank Welker provides the voice of Shao Kahn, the Emperor of Outworld.

text: Sandy Helberg is briefly seen in the beginning of the film as the director of Cage's latest movie. Originally, this part was to be a cameo appearance by Steven Spielberg, but scheduling conflicts forced him to back out; the "director" character in this scene still resembles Spielberg.[6]

text: Production[edit]

text: Originally based on the first game in the series, there are several notable elements that were incorporated from the second game, Mortal Kombat II (MKII). Outworld was seen in the movie, but was never mentioned in the first game (only mentioned in the video game's manual). Similarly, Shao Kahn is seen in the final scene of the movie, but was not even referenced in the first game. Jax and Kitana were introduced in the second game as well. Shang Tsung's ability to steal the souls of fallen victims—seen twice in the film—was first seen in MKII as one of his Fatalities, while his youthful appearance debuted in the second game but is seen throughout the film; according to Tagawa, this was in order to avoid the excessive makeup that would have been required to duplicate Shang Tsung's aged appearance in the first game. In his match with Reptile, Liu Kang uses his "Bicycle Kick" special move, which was first introduced in the second game, as was Reptile's ability to turn invisible. After killing Scorpion, Cage drops an autographed picture of himself near his remains, in a reference to his Friendship move in MKII. When Reptile assumes his human form, the voice of Shao Kahn - sampled directly from the second game - can be heard announcing "Reptile". The Shadow Priests, seen before the final battle, were first seen in the second game as part of two of the backgrounds.

text: Cameron Diaz was the original choice to play Sonya Blade but she broke her wrist before filming begun and Bridgitte Wilson replaced her last minute. Brandon Lee was the filmmakers' first choice to play Johnny Cage but his tragic death at the set of The Crow forced them to re-cast the role. Jean-Claude Van Damme was offered the role but turned it down in order to do Street Fighter and the role eventually went to Linden Ashby. Russell Wong, Dustin Nguyen, Keith Cooke and Phillip Rhee all auditioned for the role of Liu Kang.

text: Robin Shou said that in the original script he "was supposed to fall in love with Talisa Soto [Kitana]. I was looking forward to it, but they thought we have so much action, we don't want to add romance to it. They cut it out."[7] Also scripted but not filmed were a short battle between Sonya and Jade, another of Shang Tsung's servants, and a scene where Shang Tsung allowed the heroes a night to mourn the loss of Art Lean and bury him in the Garden of Statues, underneath the statue of Kung Lao. Originally not included in the movie, Reptile was added in response to focus groups being unimpressed with the original fights in the film.[8] Robin Shou and Paul W. S. Anderson noted that neither knew what Reptile's lizard form would look like until after filming, making the pre-fight sequence difficult to shoot.[9]

text: Filming began in August 1994 and ended in December 1994. The Outworld exterior scenes were filmed at the abandoned Kaiser steel mill in Fontana, California; the site is now the Auto Club Speedway. All of Goro's scenes were filmed in Los Angeles.[3] Shooting locations in Thailand were accessible only by boat, so cast, crew and equipment had to be transported on long canoe-like vessels. Gerrit Folsom constructed an outhouse in a secluded area near the set in order to alleviate the problem of repeated trips to and from the mainland.[3] Filming locations in Thailand include the Wat Phra Si Sanphet and Wat Ratchaburana temples. The arrival of Earth's contestants via boats, Liu Kang's meditation scene and the fight between Liu Kang and Kitana were filmed at the Railay Beach and the Phra Nang Beach, respectively. The bows of the boats were fitted with ornamental dragon-head carvings and used in the movie as the fighters' secondary transport to Shang Tsung's island from his junk.[3]

text: The film was originally scheduled for a May 1995 U.S. release, but was pushed back to August.[10] According to co-producer Larry Kasanoff, this was because New Line Cinema's executives felt the film had the potential to be a summer hit.[10] It was released on October 20 in the United Kingdom, and on December 26 in Australia.

text: Other media[edit]

text: Mortal Kombat: The Journey Begins[edit]

text: On April 11, 1995,[11] several months before the film's release, Turner Home Entertainment and Threshold Entertainment released a tie-in animated film on VHS and Laserdisc, Mortal Kombat: The Journey Begins. It features traditional animation, motion capture and CGI to explain the origins behind some of the movie's main characters, as well as a 15-minute behind-the scenes documentary of the theatrical release. Trailers of the film was seen on the promotional screener VHS copy, and on other VHS releases from Turner Home Entertainment and New Line Home Video. The film was included on the Mortal Kombat Blu-ray released in April 2011.

text: The plot follows Liu Kang, Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade—also the three main characters in the live-action movie—traveling on a mysterious boat en route to the Mortal Kombat tournament. On the way they meet Raiden, who provides them with some hints about how to survive the tournament and defeat Shang Tsung and his army of Tarkatan minions. Upon arriving at the island where the battles takes place, Raiden retells the origins of Shang Tsung, Goro, Scorpion, Sub-Zero and the Great Kung Lao in between fight scenes.

text: Mortal Kombat: A Novel[edit]

text: A novelization of the movie by Martin Delrio was released through Tor Books. It is based on an early version of the film's script, and as such it includes several deleted or unfilmed scenes, such as a fight between Sonya Blade and Jade.

text: Music[edit]

text: Mortal Kombat: Original Motion Picture Score is the instrumental score album with the music by George S. Clinton, released by Rykodisc on October 11, 1995. Mortal Kombat: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack is the compilation album released by TVT Records on August 15, 1995. Original Motion Picture Soundtrack won the BMI Film & TV Awards BMI Film Music Award[12][better source needed] and went platinum[13] in less than a year reaching No. 10 on the Billboard 200.[14]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Mortal Kombat opened on August 18, 1995, and was #1 at the box office for the weekend, with $23.2 million, nearly eight times the opening amount of the only other new release that weekend, The Baby-Sitters Club. At the time, it was also the second-highest August opening after 1993's The Fugitive. The film enjoyed a three-week stint at number one, grossed $70 million domestically, and earned an estimated $122 million worldwide.[1] As of September 2016, the film sits as the fifth highest-grossing video game adaptation ever released in the US, behind Lara Croft: Tomb Raider, The Angry Birds Movie, Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, and Pokémon: The First Movie.[15]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Mortal Kombat received a score of 34% on Rotten Tomatoes sampled from 32 reviews, with an average score of 4.5/10. The site's consensus reads: "Despite an effective otherworldly atmosphere and appropriately cheesy visuals, Mortal Kombat suffers from its poorly constructed plot, laughable dialogue, and subpar acting".[16] Metacritic gave the film a rating of 58/100, based on reviews from 12 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[17] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.[18]

text: Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly called Mortal Kombat "a contentedly empty-headed extended advertisement for the joy of joypads (filmed in cheesily ornate cinema de Hong Kong style)" and too noted how it "is notably free of blood and gore."[19] According to Stephen Holden of The New York Times, "Mortal Kombat might be described as mythological junk food. Although there is talk of the three kombatants' having to face their deepest fears to prevail, the action is so frenetic and the dialogue so minimal that the allegory is weightless."[20] Roger Ebert said he was "right in the middle" and noted that the fans might be disappointed by the film's killings being much less brutal than the notoriously violent Mortal Kombat video games.[21] Similar to Ebert, Marc Savlov from The Austin Chronicle mentioned that " It's the cinematic equivalent of cotton candy and Rock 'em Sock 'em Robots, but you may recall, you loved that stuff as a kid. I know I did" giving it a 2.5/5 star rating.[22] Laura Evenson from San Francisco Chronicle mentioned "Mortal Kombat the movie has everything a teenage boy could want: snakes that jut out of a villain's palms, acrobatic kung- fu fighting and a couple of battling babes. Everything, that is, but an interesting plot, decent dialogue and compelling acting" commenting however that it will likely become a cult classic.[23]

text: Kevin Thomas of Los Angeles Times gave the film a much more positive review, writing that "as impressive as the special effects are at every turn, even more crucial is Jonathan Carlson's superb, imaginative production design, which combines Thailand exteriors with vast sets that recall the barbaric grandeur of exotic old movie palaces and campy Maria Montez epics. John R. Leonetti's glorious, shadowy camera work and George S. Clinton's driving, hard-edged score complete the task of bringing alive the perilous Outworld".[24] Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave it a "thumbs up" rating on Siskel & Ebert, calling it "the only half-way decent video game movie [he] has ever seen" and "a lot of fun," saying he was positively surprised by its various high quality production values, including the "often sensational" special effects, exotic locations and the cast of characters being "clearly drawn out of appealing types". Leonard Klady from Variety awarded the film a 3.5/5 stars stating that "But where others have sunk in the mire of imitation, director Paul Anderson and writer Kevin Droney effect a viable balance between exquisitely choreographed action and ironic visual and verbal counterpoint".[25] Kim Newman from Empire magazine said "By the time the big, world-saving bout comes around, it's hard not to wish that Shung Tsu would settle the fate of mankind by asking Liu Kang what the capital of Venezuela is... rather than engaging him in yet another round of supernaturally assisted dirty fighting" with a final rating of 3 stars out of 5.[26]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: The sequel Mortal Kombat: Annihilation was released in 1997, directed by John R. Leonetti (cinematographer of the first Mortal Kombat) and starring the returning Robin Shou and Talisa Soto as well as Brian Thompson, Sandra Hess, Lynn "Red" Williams, Irina Pantaeva, Marjean Holden and James Remar. Its storyline is largely an adaptation of Mortal Kombat 3, following a band of warriors as they attempt to save Earth from Shao Kahn himself. Although the story picks up where the last film left off, most of the lead roles were recast.

text: In contrast to its predecessor, which was a box office success and marginally well received, Annihilation was critically panned and underperformed at the box office. As a result, development of the planned third installment halted and never progressed beyond pre-production.

text: Spin-off TV series[edit]

text: Two television series, the cartoon sequel Mortal Kombat: Defenders of the Realm and the live-action prequel Mortal Kombat: Conquest, were produced by Threshold Entertainment between 1996 and 1999.

text: Reboot[edit]

text: In September 2011, it was reported that New Line Cinema (Mortal Kombat film rights holders), sister studio to Warner Bros. (current MK franchise holders), had hired Kevin Tancharoen to direct a new feature-length movie based on the franchise. Oren Uziel, who wrote the original short film Mortal Kombat: Rebirth, but was not involved in Mortal Kombat: Legacy, was said to return to pen the story, while no actors, nor other crew, were confirmed. Reports stated that the film would not be an extension of the game, nor of Legacy.[27]

text: New Line President Toby Emmerich said that the success of the video games combined with Tancharoen's vision means, "You don't have to squint too hard to see how it might make a good movie", while Tancharoen says discussions have only concerned an R-rating, with darker, brutally real martial arts.[28] Tancharoen had discussions at the 2011 Comic Con with Uziel and Mortal Kombat co-creator Ed Boon, saying that it will be a very big origin story with the sensibility and realism of Rebirth and Legacy as opposed to the traditional Mortal Kombat mythology.[29] He said, "I've always been a fan of properties like Batman where you can expand the universe in different directions. Mortal Kombat is big enough that you can allow for multiple different kinds of storytelling."[30]

text: But as for its continuity with the web series, Tancharoen said "you won't have to have seen all ten episodes previously - or have played the videogame - to understand the movie."[30] Shooting was expected to begin in March 2012[29] with a budget of well under $100 million and a release date of 2013, coordinated with the next installment of the video game series being produced by the same studios.[31] It was later delayed due to budget constraints. The director started working on the second season of Legacy until problems with the movie had been sorted out. In late 2012, Warner Bros executive Lance Sloan revealed that the Mortal Kombat movie would have a budget of between $40–50 million.[32]

text: In October 2013, Tancharoen announced that he would not direct the film.[33] In August 2015, it was reported that James Wan had signed on to produce.[34] In August 2016, Wan told IGN that he's confirmed as the producer of the film and won't rush the film but want it heading in the right direction.[35] On November 18, 2016, Variety reports that Simon McQuoid is in talks to direct the reboot.[36] It was rumoured that the movie would have an R rating and star A-list actors, as Warner Bros is looking to invest in the Mortal Kombat movie reboot franchise.[37]


document_title: Tissue (biology)

question_text: example of a tissue found in the human digestive system

text: Tissue (biology)

text: Animal tissues[edit]

text: Animal tissues are grouped into four basic types: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial. Collections of tissues joined in structural units to serve a common function compose organs. While all animals can generally be considered to contain the four tissue types, the manifestation of these tissues can differ depending on the type of organism. For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type may differ developmentally for different classifications of animals.

text: The epithelium in all birds and animals is derived from the ectoderm and endoderm with a small contribution from the mesoderm, forming the endothelium, a specialized type of epithelium that composes the vasculature. By contrast, a true epithelial tissue is present only in a single layer of cells held together via occluding junctions called tight junctions, to create a selectively permeable barrier. This tissue covers all organismal surfaces that come in contact with the external environment such as the skin, the airways, and the digestive tract. It serves functions of protection, secretion, and absorption, and is separated from other tissues below by a basal lamina.

text: Connective tissue[edit]

text: Connective tissues are fibrous tissues. They are made up of cells separated by non-living material, which is called an extracellular matrix. This matrix can be liquid or rigid. For example, blood contains plasma as its matrix and bone's matrix is rigid. Connective tissue gives shape to organs and holds them in place. Blood, bone, tendon, ligament, adipose and areolar tissues are examples of connective tissues. One method of classifying connective tissues is to divide them into three types: fibrous connective tissue, skeletal connective tissue, and fluid connective tissue.

text: Muscular tissue[edit]

text: Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, typically attached to bones, which generate gross movement; and cardiac muscle, found in the heart where it contracts to pump blood throughout an organism.

text: Nervous tissue[edit]

text: Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.

text: Epithelial tissue[edit]

text: The epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover the organ surfaces such as the surface of skin, the airways, the reproductive tract, and the inner lining of the digestive tract. The cells comprising an epithelial layer are linked via semi-permeable, tight junctions; hence, this tissue provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it covers. In addition to this protective function, epithelial tissue may also be specialized to function in secretion, excretion and absorption. Epithelial tissue helps to protect organs from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss.

text: Functions of epithelial tissue:

text:
The cells of the body's surface form the outer layer of skin.
Inside the body, epithelial cells form the lining of the mouth and alimentary canal and protect these organs.
Epithelial tissues help in absorption of water and nutrients.
Epithelial tissues help in elimination of waste.
Epithelial tissues secrete enzymes and/or hormones in the form of glands.

text: There are many kinds of epithelium, and nomenclature is somewhat variable. Most classification schemes combine a description of the cell-shape in the upper layer of the epithelium with a word denoting the number of layers: either simple (one layer of cells) or stratified (multiple layers of cells). However, other cellular features, such as cilia may also be described in the classification system. Some common kinds of epithelium are listed below:

text:
Simple squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Transitional epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (also known as Ciliated columnar epithelium)
Columnar epithelium
Glandular epithelium
Ciliated columnar epithelium

text: Plant tissues[edit]

text: In plant anatomy, tissues are categorized broadly into three tissue systems: the epidermis, the ground tissue, and the vascular tissue.

text:
Epidermis - Cells forming the outer surface of the leaves and of the young plant body.
Vascular tissue - The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These transport fluid and nutrients internally.
Ground tissue - Ground tissue is less differentiated than other tissues. Ground tissue manufactures nutrients by photosynthesis and stores reserve nutrients.

text: Plant tissues can also be divided differently into two types:

text:
Meristematic tissues
Permanent tissues.

tag: ol

text: Meristematic tissues[edit]

text: Meristematic tissue consists of actively dividing cells, and leads to increase in length and thickness of the plant. The primary growth of a plant occurs only in certain, specific regions, such as in the tips of stems or roots. It is in these regions that meristematic tissue is present. Cells in these tissues are roughly spherical or polyhedral, to rectangular in shape, and have thin cell walls. New cells produced by meristem are initially those of meristem itself, but as the new cells grow and mature, their characteristics slowly change and they become differentiated as components of the region of occurrence of meristimatic tissues, they are classified as:

text:
Apical Meristem - It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increases the length of the stem and root. They form growing parts at the apices of roots and stems and are responsible for increase in length, also called primary growth. This meristem is responsible for the linear growth of an organ.
Lateral Meristem - This meristem consist of cells which mainly divide in one plane and cause the organ to increase in diameter and growth. Lateral meristem usually occurs beneath the bark of the tree in the form of Cork Cambium and in vascular bundles of dicots in the form of vascular cambium. The activity of this cambium results in the formation of secondary growth.
Intercalary Meristem - This meristem is located in between permanent tissues. It is usually present at the base of node, inter node and on leaf base. They are responsible for growth in length of the plant and increasing the size of the internode, They result in branch formation and growth.

text: The cells of meristematic tissues are similar in structure and have thin and elastic primary cell wall made up of cellulose. They are compactly arranged without inter-cellular spaces between them. Each cell contains a dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. Dense protoplasm of meristematic cells contains very few vacuoles. Normally the meristematic cells are oval, polygonal or rectangular in shape.

text: Meristemetic tissue cells have a large nucleus with small or no vacuoles, they have no inter cellular spaces.

text: Permanent tissues[edit]

text: The meristematic tissues that take up a specific role lose the ability to divide. This process of taking up a permanent shape, size and a function is called cellular differentiation. Cells of meristematic tissue differentiate to form different types of permanent tissue. There are 3 types of permanent tissues:

text:
simple permanent tissues
complex permanent tissues
special or secretory tissues (glandular).

text: Simple tissues[edit]

text: A group of cells which are similar in origin; similar in structure and similar in function are called simple permanent tissue. They are of four types:

text:
Parenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
Epidermis (botany)

text: Parenchyma[edit]

text: Parenchyma (para - 'beside'; chyma - 'in filling, loose, unpacked') is the bulk of a substance. In plants, it consists of relatively unspecialised living cells with thin cell walls that are usually loosely packed so that intercellular spaces are found between cells of this tissue. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations, a parenchyma contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis, in which case it is called a chlorenchyma. In aquatic plants, large air cavities are present in parenchyma to give support to them to float on water. Such a parenchyma type is called aerenchyma. some of parenchyma cells have metabolic waste and is known as idioblast. spindle shape fibre also contained into this cell to support them and known as prosenchyma , succulent parenchyma also noted.

text: Collenchyma[edit]

text: Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen" means gum and "chyma" means infusion. It is a living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin-walled but possess thickening of cellulose, water and pectin substances (pectocellulose) at the corners where number of cells join together. This tissue gives a tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and have very little inter-cellular spaces. It occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It is absent in monocots and in roots.sometimes it contains chlorophyll which can help them photosynthesis.

text: Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in the margin of leaves and resist tearing effect of the wind.

text: Sclerenchyma[edit]

text: Sclerenchyma is Greek word where "Scleren" means hard and "chyma" means infusion. This tissue consists of thick-walled, dead cells and protoplasm is absent. These cells have hard and extremely thick secondary walls due to uniform distribution of lignin. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls become strong, rigid and impermeable to water which is also known as stone cell. This type of tissues are mainly of two divisions: 1) Sclerenchyma fiber and 2) Sclereids. Schlerenchyma cells have a narrow lumen and are long and narrow.

text: Epidermis[edit]

text: The entire surface of the plant consists of a single layer of cells called epidermis or surface tissue. The entire surface of the plant has this outer layer of epidermis. Hence it is also called surface tissue. Most of the epidermal cells are relatively flat. The outer and lateral walls of the cell are often thicker than the inner walls. The cells forms a continuous sheet without inter cellular spaces. It protects all parts of the plant.

text: Complex permanent tissue[edit]

text: The complex tissue consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit. Complex tissues help in the transportation of organic material, water and minerals up and down the plants. That is why it is also known as conducting and vascular tissue. The common types of complex permanent tissue are:

text:
Xylem or wood
Phloem or bast.

text: Xylem and phloem together form vascular bundles.

text: Xylem[edit]

text: Xylem consists of:

text:
Tracheid
Vessel members
Xylem fibers
Xylem parenchyma

text: Xylem serves as a chief conducting tissue of vascular plants. It is responsible for the conduction of water and mineral ions/salt.

text: Xylem tissue is organized in a tube-like fashion along the main axes of stems and roots. It consists of a combination of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids, and ray cells. Longer tubes made up of individual cells are vessels (tracheae), while vessel members are open at each end. Internally, there may be bars of wall material extending across the open space. These cells are joined end to end to form long tubes. Vessel members and tracheids are dead at maturity. Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. They do not have end openings such as the vessels. The tracheids ends overlap with each other, with pairs of pits present. The pit pairs allow water to pass from cell to cell.

text: Though most conduction in xylem tissue is vertical, lateral conduction along the diameter of a stem is facilitated via rays. [1] Rays are horizontal rows of long-living parenchyma cells that arise out of the vascular cambium. In trees and other woody plants, rays radiate out from the center of stems and roots, and appear like spokes on a wheel in cross section. Rays, unlike vessel members and tracheids, are alive at functional maturity. [2]

text: Phloem[edit]

text: Phloem consists of:

text:
Sieve tube
Companion cell
Phloem fiber
Phloem parenchyma.

text: Phloem is an equally important plant tissue as it also is part of the 'plumbing system' of a plant. Primarily, phloem carries dissolved food substances throughout the plant. This conduction system is composed of sieve-tube member and companion cells, that are without secondary walls. The parent cells of the vascular cambium produce both xylem and phloem. This usually also includes fibers, parenchyma and ray cells. Sieve tubes are formed from sieve-tube members laid end to end. The end walls, unlike vessel members in xylem, do not have openings. The end walls, however, are full of small pores where cytoplasm extends from cell to cell. These porous connections are called sieve plates. In spite of the fact that their cytoplasm is actively involved in the conduction of food materials, sieve-tube members do not have nuclei at maturity. It is the companion cells that are nestled between sieve-tube members that function in some manner bringing about the conduction of food. Sieve-tube members that are alive contain a polymer called callose, a carbohydrate polymer, forming the callus pad/callus, the colourless substance that covers the sieve plate. Callose stays in solution as long as the cell contents are under pressure. Phloem transports food and materials in plants upwards and downwards as required.

text: Mineralized tissues[edit]

text: Mineralized tissues are biological tissues that incorporate minerals into soft matrices. Such tissues may be found in both plants and animals, as well as algae. Typically these tissues form a protective shield against predation or provide structural support.

text: History of the concept[edit]

text: The term was introduced in anatomy by Marie François Xavier Bichat in 1801.[3] He argued that the body functions would be better understood taking as unity of study the tissues, and not the organs. Bichat distinguished 21 types of elementary tissues for the human body, a number later reduced by other authors.


document_title: 2010 FIFA World Cup disciplinary record

question_text: what was the average number of red cards awarded per match during the 2010 world cup

text: 2010 FIFA World Cup disciplinary record

text: Disciplinary statistics[edit]

text:
Total number of yellow cards: 261
Average yellow cards per match: 4.08
Total number of red cards: 17
Average red cards per match: 0.27
First yellow card of the tournament:Efraín Juárez for Mexico against South Africa
First red card of the tournament:Nicolás Lodeiro for Uruguay against France
Fastest yellow card from kick off: 2nd minute  Humberto Suazo for Chile against Switzerland
Fastest yellow card after coming on as a substitute: 1 minute  Abdelkader Ghezzal for Algeria against Slovenia (introduced in the 58th minute)
Latest yellow card in a match without extra time: 90+5th minute  Hassan Yebda for Algeria against Slovenia, Mark van Bommel for Netherlands against Uruguay
Latest yellow card in a match with extra time: 120+1st minute  Xavi for Spain against Netherlands
Fastest dismissal from kick off: 24 minutes  Harry Kewell for Australia against Ghana
Fastest dismissal of a substitute: 15 minutes  Abdelkader Ghezzal for Algeria against Slovenia (introduced in the 58th minute)
Latest dismissal in a match without extra time: 90+3rd minute  Antar Yahia for Algeria against United States - MS
Latest dismissal in a match with extra time: 120+1st minute  Luis Suárez for Uruguay against Ghana
Shortest time difference between two yellow cards given to the same player: 3 minutes  Kaká for Brazil against Ivory Coast (booked in the 85th minute and again in the 88th minute)
Most yellow cards (team): 24  Netherlands
Most red cards (team): 2  Algeria, Australia, Brazil, Uruguay
Fewest yellow cards (team): 2  North Korea
Most yellow cards (player): 3  Víctor Cáceres, Nigel de Jong, John Heitinga, Kaká, Aleksandar Luković, Gregory van der Wiel
Most red cards (player): 1  Valon Behrami, Tim Cahill, Ricardo Costa, Marco Estrada, Abdelkader Ghezzal, Yoann Gourcuff, Johnny Heitinga, Sani Kaita, Kaká, Harry Kewell, Itumeleng Khune, Miroslav Klose, Nicolás Lodeiro, Aleksandar Luković, Felipe Melo, Luis Suárez, Antar Yahia
Most yellow cards (match): 14  Netherlands vs Spain
Most red cards (match): 1  17 different matches
Fewest yellow cards (match): 0  North Korea vs Ivory Coast, Germany vs Spain
Most cards in one match: 14 yellow cards and 1 red card  Netherlands vs Spain

text: Sanctions[edit]

text: By match[edit]

text: Note: In this table the "Yellow" column counts only the first yellow card given to a player in a match. If a player receives a second yellow in the same match this is counted under "Second yellow"

text:
Day

Match

Round

Referee

Total cards

 Yellow

 Second yellow

 Straight red

Day 01
 South Africa vs Mexico
Group A
 Ravshan Irmatov
4
4
0
0

Day 01
 France vs Uruguay
Group A
 Yuichi Nishimura
7
6
1
0

Day 02
 South Korea vs Greece
Group B
 Michael Hester
1
1
0
0

Day 02
 Argentina vs Nigeria
Group B
 Wolfgang Stark
2
2
0
0

Day 02
 England vs United States
Group C
 Carlos Eugênio Simon
6
6
0
0

Day 03
 Algeria vs Slovenia
Group C
 Carlos Batres
5
4
1
0

Day 03
 Serbia vs Ghana
Group D
 Héctor Baldassi
6
5
0
1

Day 03
 Germany vs Australia
Group D
 Marco Rodríguez
6
5
0
1

Day 04
 Netherlands vs Denmark
Group E
 Stéphane Lannoy
3
3
0
0

Day 04
 Japan vs Cameroon
Group E
 Olegário Benquerença
2
2
0
0

Day 04
 Italy vs Paraguay
Group F
 Benito Archundia
2
2
0
0

Day 05
 New Zealand vs Slovakia
Group F
 Jerome Damon
3
3
0
0

Day 05
 Ivory Coast vs Portugal
Group G
 Jorge Larrionda
3
3
0
0

Day 05
 Brazil vs North Korea
Group G
 Viktor Kassai
1
1
0
0

Day 06
 Honduras vs Chile
Group H
 Eddy Maillet
3
3
0
0

Day 06
 Spain vs Switzerland
Group H
 Howard Webb
4
4
0
0

Day 06
 South Africa vs Uruguay
Group A
 Massimo Busacca
3
2
0
1

Day 07
 Argentina vs South Korea
Group B
 Frank De Bleeckere
5
5
0
0

Day 07
 Greece vs Nigeria
Group B
 Óscar Ruiz
5
4
0
1

Day 07
 France vs Mexico
Group A
 Khalil Al Ghamdi
6
6
0
0

Day 08
 Germany vs Serbia
Group D
 Alberto Undiano Mallenco
9
8
1
0

Day 08
 Slovenia vs United States
Group C
 Koman Coulibaly
5
5
0
0

Day 08
 England vs Algeria
Group C
 Ravshan Irmatov
2
2
0
0

Day 09
 Netherlands vs Japan
Group E
 Héctor Baldassi
1
1
0
0

Day 09
 Ghana vs Australia
Group D
 Roberto Rosetti
5
4
0
1

Day 09
 Cameroon vs Denmark
Group E
 Jorge Larrionda
4
4
0
0

Day 10
 Slovakia vs Paraguay
Group F
 Eddy Maillet
4
4
0
0

Day 10
 Italy vs New Zealand
Group F
 Carlos Batres
3
3
0
0

Day 10
 Brazil vs Ivory Coast
Group G
 Stéphane Lannoy
5
4
1
0

Day 11
 Portugal vs North Korea
Group G
 Pablo Pozo
4
4
0
0

Day 11
 Chile vs Switzerland
Group H
 Khalil Al Ghamdi
10
9
0
1

Day 11
 Spain vs Honduras
Group H
 Yuichi Nishimura
2
2
0
0

Day 12
 Mexico vs Uruguay
Group A
 Viktor Kassai
3
3
0
0

Day 12
 France vs South Africa
Group A
 Óscar Ruiz
2
1
0
1

Day 12
 Nigeria vs South Korea
Group B
 Olegário Benquerença
4
4
0
0

Day 12
 Greece vs Argentina
Group B
 Ravshan Irmatov
2
2
0
0

Day 13
 Slovenia vs England
Group C
 Wolfgang Stark
4
4
0
0

Day 13
 United States vs Algeria
Group C
 Frank De Bleeckere
6
5
1
0

Day 13
 Ghana vs Germany
Group D
 Carlos Eugênio Simon
2
2
0
0

Day 13
 Australia vs Serbia
Group D
 Jorge Larrionda
5
5
0
0

Day 14
 Slovakia vs Italy
Group F
 Howard Webb
8
8
0
0

Day 14
 Paraguay vs New Zealand
Group F
 Yuichi Nishimura
3
3
0
0

Day 14
 Denmark vs Japan
Group E
 Jerome Damon
5
5
0
0

Day 14
 Cameroon vs Netherlands
Group E
 Pablo Pozo
5
5
0
0

Day 15
 Portugal vs Brazil
Group G
 Benito Archundia
7
7
0
0

Day 15
 North Korea vs Ivory Coast
Group G
 Alberto Undiano Mallenco
0
0
0
0

Day 15
 Chile vs Spain
Group H
 Marco Rodríguez
4
3
1
0

Day 15
 Switzerland vs Honduras
Group H
 Héctor Baldassi
5
5
0
0

Day 16
 Uruguay vs South Korea
Round of 16
 Wolfgang Stark
3
3
0
0

Day 16
 United States vs Ghana
Round of 16
 Viktor Kassai
5
5
0
0

Day 17
 Germany vs England
Round of 16
 Jorge Larrionda
2
2
0
0

Day 17
 Argentina vs Mexico
Round of 16
 Roberto Rosetti
1
1
0
0

Day 18
 Netherlands vs Slovakia
Round of 16
 Alberto Undiano Mallenco
5
5
0
0

Day 18
 Brazil vs Chile
Round of 16
 Howard Webb
5
5
0
0

Day 19
 Paraguay vs Japan
Round of 16
 Frank De Bleeckere
5
5
0
0

Day 19
 Spain vs Portugal
Round of 16
 Héctor Baldassi
3
2
0
1

Day 20
 Netherlands vs Brazil
Quarterfinal
 Yuichi Nishimura
6
5
0
1

Day 20
 Uruguay vs Ghana
Quarterfinal
 Olegário Benquerença
7
6
0
1

Day 21
 Argentina vs Germany
Quarterfinal
 Ravshan Irmatov
3
3
0
0

Day 21
 Paraguay vs Spain
Quarterfinal
 Carlos Batres
6
6
0
0

Day 22
 Uruguay vs Netherlands
Semifinal
 Ravshan Irmatov
5
5
0
0

Day 23
 Germany vs Spain
Semifinal
 Viktor Kassai
0
0
0
0

Day 24
 Uruguay vs Germany
Third place playoff
 Benito Archundia
4
4
0
0

Day 25
 Netherlands vs Spain
Final
 Howard Webb
14
13
1
0

Total
270
253
8
9

tag: table

text:
Cards[2]
Referees: Group Games,[3] 2nd Round, Quarter Finals,[4] Semi-Finals,[5] 3rd/4th Place and Final[6]

text: By referee[edit]

text:
Referee

Matches

 Red

 Yellow

Red Cards

PKs awarded

 Ravshan Irmatov
5
0
16

 Yuichi Nishimura
4
2
17
1 straight red1 second yellow
1

 Héctor Baldassi
4
2
14
1 straight red1 second yellow
1

 Jorge Larrionda
4
0
14

 Viktor Kassai
4
0
9

 Howard Webb
4
1
31
1 second yellow

 Olegário Benquerença
3
1
12
1 straight red
2

 Frank De Bleeckere
3
1
16
1 second yellow

 Carlos Batres
3
1
14
1 second yellow
3

 Alberto Undiano Mallenco
3
1
14
1 second yellow
2

 Benito Archundia
3
0
13

 Wolfgang Stark
3
0
9

 Marco Antonio Rodríguez
2
2
9
1 straight red1 second yellow

 Óscar Ruiz
2
2
5
2 straight reds

 Khalil Al Ghamdi
2
1
15
1 straight red
1

 Stéphane Lannoy
2
1
8
1 second yellow

 Roberto Rosetti
2
1
5
1 straight red
1

 Pablo Pozo
2
0
9

1

 Jerome Damon
2
0
8

1

 Carlos Eugênio Simon
2
0
8

 Eddy Maillet
2
0
7

 Massimo Busacca
1
1
2
1 straight red
1

 Koman Coulibaly
1
0
5

 Michael Hester
1
0
1

Total
64
17
261
9 straight reds8 second yellows
17

text: By team[edit]

text:
Team
 Yellow
 Red
Red Cards
Reason
Suspensions

 Algeria
8
2
A. Ghezzal vs Sloveniasecond yellow cardA. Yahia vs USAsecond yellow card
deliberate handballverbal abuse
A. Ghezzal vs England[7]A. Yahia vs Tanzania (2012 African Cup qualifier Group D)[citation needed]

 Argentina
7
0

J. Gutiérrez vs Greece

 Australia
7
2
T. Cahill vs Germanystraight red cardH. Kewell vs Ghanastraight red card
tacklinghandball
T. Cahill vs Ghana[8]H. Kewell vs Serbia[9]C. Moore vs Serbia[9]

 Brazil
9
2
Kaká vs Ivory Coastsecond yellow cardF. Melo vs Netherlandsstraight red card
violent conductviolent conduct
Kaká vs PortugalRamires vs NetherlandsF. Melo vs Venezuela (first match at 2011 Copa América)

 Cameroon
5
0

 Chile
15
1
M. Estrada vs Spainsecond yellow card
violent conduct
C. Carmona vs SpainM. Fernández vs SpainM. Estrada vs BrazilW. Ponce vs BrazilG. Medel vs Brazil

 Denmark
6
0

S. Kjær vs Japan

 England
6
0

J. Carragher vs Slovenia

 France
6
1
Y. Gourcuff vs South Africastraight red card
violent conduct
J. Toulalan vs South AfricaY. Gourcuff vs Belarus (Euro 2012 qualifier Group D)

 Germany
13
1
M. Klose vs Serbiasecond yellow card
tackling
M. Klose vs GhanaT. Müller vs Spain

 Ghana
11
0

J. Mensah vs UruguayA. Ayew vs Uruguay

 Greece
5
0

 Honduras
7
0

 Italy
5
0

 Ivory Coast
5
0

 Japan
7
0

 Mexico
9
0

E. Juárez vs Uruguay

 Netherlands
24
1
J. Heitinga vs Spainsecond yellow card
tackling
G. Van der Wiel vs UruguayN. De Jong vs UruguayJ. Heitinga vs San Marino (Euro 2012 qualifier Group E)

 New Zealand
6
0

 Nigeria
5
1
S. Kaita vs Greecestraight red card
violent conduct
S. Kaita vs South Korea

 North Korea
2
0

 Paraguay
9
0

V. Cáceres vs Japan

 Portugal
8
1
R. Costa vs Spainstraight red card
violent conduct
R. Costa vs Cyprus (Euro 2012 qualifier Group H)

 Serbia
10
1
A. Luković vs Ghanasecond yellow card
professional foul
A. Luković vs Germany

 Slovakia
11
0

Z. Štrba vs Netherlands

 Slovenia
9
0

 South Africa
4
1
I. Khune vs Uruguaystraight red card
professional foul
I. Khune vs FranceK. Dikgacoi vs France

 South Korea
6
0

 Spain
8
0

  Switzerland
8
1
V. Behrami vs Chilestraight red card
violent conduct
V. Behrami vs Honduras

 United States
9
0

R. Findley vs Algeria

 Uruguay
11
2
N. Lodeiro vs Francesecond yellow cardL. Suárez vs Ghanastraight red card
tacklingdeliberate handball
N. Lodeiro vs South AfricaJ. Fucile vs NetherlandsL. Suárez vs Netherlands

Total
261
17

text: Cards [10]

text: By individual[edit]

text: Note: Suspensions marked in italic are inactive suspensions.

text:
Name

Team

 Red

 Yellow

Suspended for match(es):

John Heitinga

 Netherlands
1
3
vs San Marino (Euro 2012 qualifier Group E)

Kaká

 Brazil
1
3
vs Portugal

Aleksandar Luković

 Serbia
1
3
vs Germany

Marco Estrada

 Chile
1
2
vs Brazil (Round of 16)

Abdelkader Ghezzal

 Algeria
1
2
vs England

Miroslav Klose

 Germany
1
2
vs Ghana

Nicolás Lodeiro

 Uruguay
1
2
vs South Africa

Antar Yahia

 Algeria
1
2
vs Tanzania (2012 African Cup qualifier Group D)

Felipe Melo

 Brazil
1
1
vs Venezuela (2011 Copa America Group B)

Valon Behrami

  Switzerland
1
0
vs Honduras

Tim Cahill

 Australia
1
0
vs Ghana

Ricardo Costa

 Portugal
1
0
vs Cyprus (Euro 2012 qualifier Group H)

Yoann Gourcuff

 France
1
0
vs Belarus (Euro 2012 qualifier Group D)

Sani Kaita

 Nigeria
1
0
vs South Korea

Harry Kewell

 Australia
1
0
vs Serbia

Itumeleng Khune

 South Africa
1
0
vs France

Luis Suárez

 Uruguay
1
0
vs Netherlands (Semi Finals)

Víctor Cáceres

 Paraguay
0
3
vs Japan (Round of 16)

Nigel de Jong

 Netherlands
0
3
vs Uruguay (Semi Finals)

Gregory van der Wiel

 Netherlands
0
3
vs Uruguay (Semi Finals)

André Ayew

 Ghana
0
2
vs Uruguay (Quarter Finals)

Cacau

 Germany
0
2

Carlos Carmona

 Chile
0
2
vs Spain

Jamie Carragher

 England
0
2
vs Slovenia

Steve Cherundolo

 United States
0
2

Kagisho Dikgacoi

 South Africa
0
2
vs France

Yasuhito Endō

 Japan
0
2

Matías Fernández

 Chile
0
2
vs Spain

Robbie Findley

 United States
0
2
vs Algeria

Arne Friedrich

 Germany
0
2

Jorge Fucile

 Uruguay
0
2
vs Netherlands (Semi Finals)

Jonás Gutiérrez

 Argentina
0
2
vs Greece

Glen Johnson

 England
0
2

Bojan Jokić

 Slovenia
0
2

Efraín Juárez

 Mexico
0
2
vs Uruguay

Simon Kjær

 Denmark
0
2
vs Japan

Mehdi Lacen

 Algeria
0
2

Javier Mascherano

 Argentina
0
2

Stéphane Mbia

 Cameroon
0
2

Gary Medel

 Chile
0
2
vs Brazil (Round of 16)

Jonathan Mensah

 Ghana
0
2
vs Uruguay (Quarter Finals)

Craig Moore

 Australia
0
2
vs Serbia

Thomas Müller

 Germany
0
2
vs Spain (Semi Finals)

Yuto Nagatomo

 Japan
0
2

Ryan Nelsen

 New Zealand
0
2

Nicolas N'Koulou

 Cameroon
0
2

Chinedu Ogbuke Obasi

 Nigeria
0
2

Wilson Palacios

 Honduras
0
2

Diego Pérez

 Uruguay
0
2

Waldo Ponce

 Chile
0
2
vs Brazil (Round of 16)

Ramires

 Brazil
0
2
vs Netherlands (Quarter Finals)

Arjen Robben

 Netherlands
0
2

Zdeno Štrba

 Slovakia
0
2
vs Netherlands

Tiago

 Portugal
0
2

Jérémy Toulalan

 France
0
2
vs South Africa

Mark van Bommel

 Netherlands
0
2

Giovanni van Bronckhorst

 Netherlands
0
2

Robin van Persie

 Netherlands
0
2

Hassan Yebda

 Algeria
0
2

Yuki Abe

 Japan
0
1

Éric Abidal

 France
0
1

Antolín Alcaraz

 Paraguay
0
1

Abou Diaby

 France
0
1

Lee Addy

 Ghana
0
1

Hugo Almeida

 Portugal
0
1

Jozy Altidore

 United States
0
1

Anthony Annan

 Ghana
0
1

Xabi Alonso

 Spain
0
1

Dennis Aogo

 Germany
0
1

Egidio Arévalo Ríos

 Uruguay
0
1

Tranquillo Barnetta

  Switzerland
0
1

Sébastien Bassong

 Cameroon
0
1

Michel Bastos

 Brazil
0
1

DaMarcus Beasley

 United States
0
1

Michael Beauchamp

 Australia
0
1

Diego Benaglio

  Switzerland
0
1

Nicklas Bendtner

 Denmark
0
1

Valter Birsa

 Slovenia
0
1

Carlos Bocanegra

 United States
0
1

Mario Bolatti

 Argentina
0
1

Khalid Boulahrouz

 Netherlands
0
1

Sergio Busquets

 Spain
0
1

Martín Cáceres

 Uruguay
0
1

Mauro Camoranesi

 Italy
0
1

Fabio Cannavaro

 Italy
0
1

Joan Capdevila

 Spain
0
1

Israel Castro

 Mexico
0
1

Boštjan Cesar

 Slovenia
0
1

Osman Chávez

 Honduras
0
1

Cha Du-ri

 South Korea
0
1

Ricardo Clark

 United States
0
1

Giorgio Chiellini

 Italy
0
1

Cho Yong-hyung

 South Korea
0
1

Lee Chung-yong

 South Korea
0
1

Fábio Coentrão

 Portugal
0
1

Zlatko Dedić

 Slovenia
0
1

Guy Demel

 Ivory Coast
0
1

Jay DeMerit

 United States
0
1

Duda

 Portugal
0
1

Ján Ďurica

 Slovakia
0
1

Brett Emerton

 Australia
0
1

Vincent Enyeama

 Nigeria
0
1

Patrice Evra

 France
0
1

Luís Fabiano

 Brazil
0
1

Rory Fallon

 New Zealand
0
1

Gélson Fernandes

  Switzerland
0
1

Guillermo Franco

 Mexico
0
1

Ismael Fuentes

 Chile
0
1

Steven Gerrard

 England
0
1

Stéphane Grichting

  Switzerland
0
1

Lukman Haruna

 Nigeria
0
1

Gabriel Heinze

 Argentina
0
1

Javier Hernández

 Mexico
0
1

Keisuke Honda

 Japan
0
1

Hong Yong-jo

 North Korea
0
1

Andrés Iniesta

 Spain
0
1

Gökhan Inler

  Switzerland
0
1

Branislav Ivanović

 Serbia
0
1

Emilio Izaguirre

 Honduras
0
1

Juan

 Brazil
0
1

Kostas Katsouranis

 Greece
0
1

Kader Keïta

 Ivory Coast
0
1

Sami Khedira

 Germany
0
1

Yeom Ki-hun

 South Korea
0
1

Kim Jung-woo

 South Korea
0
1

Kim Nam-il

 South Korea
0
1

Andraž Kirm

 Slovenia
0
1

Aleksandar Kolarov

 Serbia
0
1

Andrej Komac

 Slovenia
0
1

Kamil Kopúnek

 Slovakia
0
1

Per Krøldrup

 Denmark
0
1

Juraj Kucka

 Slovakia
0
1

Dirk Kuyt

 Netherlands
0
1

Zdravko Kuzmanović

 Serbia
0
1

Philipp Lahm

 Germany
0
1

Tony Lochhead

 New Zealand
0
1

Diego Lugano

 Uruguay
0
1

Rafael Márquez

 Mexico
0
1

Tsepo Masilela

 South Africa
0
1

Joris Mathijsen

 Netherlands
0
1

Daisuke Matsui

 Japan
0
1

John Mensah

 Ghana
0
1

Pedro Mendes

 Portugal
0
1

Rodrigo Millar

 Chile
0
1

James Milner

 England
0
1

Claudio Morel

 Paraguay
0
1

Héctor Moreno

 Mexico
0
1

Ján Mucha

 Slovakia
0
1

Lucas Neill

 Australia
0
1

Miloš Ninković

 Serbia
0
1

Blaise Nkufo

  Switzerland
0
1

André Ooijer

 Netherlands
0
1

Nicolás Otamendi

 Argentina
0
1

Mesut Özil

 Germany
0
1

John Paintsil

 Ghana
0
1

Pak Chol-jin

 North Korea
0
1

Sokratis Papastathopoulos

 Greece
0
1

Peter Pekarík

 Slovakia
0
1

Simone Pepe

 Italy
0
1

Pepe

 Portugal
0
1

Maxi Pereira

 Uruguay
0
1

Steven Pienaar

 South Africa
0
1

Gerard Piqué

 Spain
0
1

Christian Poulsen

 Denmark
0
1

Carles Puyol

 Spain
0
1

Fabio Quagliarella

 Italy
0
1

Aleksandar Radosavljević

 Slovenia
0
1

Sergio Ramos

 Spain
0
1

Winston Reid

 New Zealand
0
1

Franck Ribéry

 France
0
1

Cristian Riveros

 Paraguay
0
1

Francisco Rodríguez

 Mexico
0
1

Cristiano Ronaldo

 Portugal
0
1

Georgios Samaras

 Greece
0
1

Roque Santa Cruz

 Paraguay
0
1

Jonathan Santana

 Paraguay
0
1

Hans Sarpei

 Ghana
0
1

Bastian Schweinsteiger

 Germany
0
1

Stanislav Šesták

 Slovakia
0
1

Tommy Smith

 New Zealand
0
1

Wesley Sneijder

 Netherlands
0
1

Maarten Stekelenburg

 Netherlands
0
1

David Suazo

 Honduras
0
1

Humberto Suazo

 Chile
0
1

Neven Subotić

 Serbia
0
1

Martin Škrtel

 Slovakia
0
1

Marko Šuler

 Slovenia
0
1

Thomas Sørensen

 Denmark
0
1

Prince Tagoe

 Ghana
0
1

Hendry Thomas

 Honduras
0
1

Siaka Tiéné

 Ivory Coast
0
1

Cheick Tioté

 Ivory Coast
0
1

Vasilis Torosidis

 Greece
0
1

Gerardo Torrado

 Mexico
0
1

Danilo Turcios

 Honduras
0
1

Alexandros Tziolis

 Greece
0
1

Jorge Valdivia

 Chile
0
1

Carl Valeri

 Australia
0
1

Rafael van der Vaart

 Netherlands
0
1

Enrique Vera

 Paraguay
0
1

Mauricio Victorino

 Uruguay
0
1

Arturo Vidal

 Chile
0
1

Nemanja Vidić

 Serbia
0
1

Róbert Vittek

 Slovakia
0
1

Isaac Vorsah

 Ghana
0
1

Vladimír Weiss

 Slovakia
0
1

Luke Wilkshire

 Australia
0
1

Xavi

 Spain
0
1

Hakan Yakin

  Switzerland
0
1

Ayila Yussuf

 Nigeria
0
1

Reto Ziegler

  Switzerland
0
1

Nikola Žigić

 Serbia
0
1

Didier Zokora

 Ivory Coast
0
1


document_title: Measurement

question_text: a reference point from which all other measurements are made is called a(n)

question_tokens: a reference point from which all other measurements are made is called a ( n )

text: Measurement

text: Methodology[edit]

text: The measurement of a property may be categorized by the following criteria: type, magnitude, unit, and uncertainty.[citation needed] They enable unambiguous comparisons between measurements.

text:
The level of measurement is a taxonomy for the methodological character of a comparison. For example, two states of a property may be compared by ratio, difference, or ordinal preference. The type is commonly not explicitly expressed, but implicit in the definition of a measurement procedure.
The magnitude is the numerical value of the characterization, usually obtained with a suitably chosen measuring instrument.
A unit assigns a mathematical weighting factor to the magnitude that is derived as a ratio to the property of an artifact used as standard or a natural physical quantity.
An uncertainty represents the random and systemic errors of the measurement procedure; it indicates a confidence level in the measurement. Errors are evaluated by methodically repeating measurements and considering the accuracy and precision of the measuring instrument.

text: Standardization of measurement units[edit]

text: Measurements most commonly use the International System of Units (SI) as a comparison framework. The system defines seven fundamental units: kilogram, metre, candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. Six of these units are defined without reference to a particular physical object which serves as a standard (artifact-free), while the kilogram is still embodied in an artifact which rests at the headquarters of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Sèvres near Paris. Artifact-free definitions fix measurements at an exact value related to a physical constant or other invariable phenomena in nature, in contrast to standard artifacts which are subject to deterioration or destruction. Instead, the measurement unit can only ever change through increased accuracy in determining the value of the constant it is tied to.

text: The first proposal to tie an SI base unit to an experimental standard independent of fiat was by Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914),[4] who proposed to define the metre in terms of the wavelength of a spectral line.[5] This directly influenced the Michelson–Morley experiment; Michelson and Morley cite Peirce, and improve on his method.[6]

text: Standards[edit]

text: With the exception of a few fundamental quantum constants, units of measurement are derived from historical agreements. Nothing inherent in nature dictates that an inch has to be a certain length, nor that a mile is a better measure of distance than a kilometre. Over the course of human history, however, first for convenience and then for necessity, standards of measurement evolved so that communities would have certain common benchmarks. Laws regulating measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud in commerce.

text: Units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the Metre Convention, overseeing the International System of Units (SI) and having custody of the International Prototype Kilogram.  The metre, for example, was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM in terms of light speed, while in 1960 the international yard was defined by the governments of the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa as being exactly 0.9144 metres.

text: In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), a division of the United States Department of Commerce, regulates commercial measurements. In the United Kingdom, the role is performed by the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), in Australia by the National Measurement Institute,[7] in South Africa by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and in India the National Physical Laboratory of India.

text: Units and systems[edit]

text: Imperial and US customary systems[edit]

text: Before SI units were widely adopted around the world, the British systems of English units and later imperial units were used in Britain, the Commonwealth and the United States.  The system came to be known as U.S. customary units in the United States and is still in use there and in a few Caribbean countries.  These various systems of measurement have at times been called foot-pound-second systems after the Imperial units for length, weight and time even though the tons, hundredweights, gallons, and nautical miles, for example, are different for the U.S. units.  Many Imperial units remain in use in Britain, which has officially switched to the SI system—with a few exceptions such as road signs, which are still in miles. Draught beer and cider must be sold by the imperial pint, and milk in returnable bottles can be sold by the imperial pint. Many people measure their height in feet and inches and their weight in stone and pounds, to give just a few examples. Imperial units are used in many other places, for example, in many Commonwealth countries that are considered metricated, land area is measured in acres and floor space in square feet, particularly for commercial transactions (rather than government statistics). Similarly, gasoline is sold by the gallon in many countries that are considered metricated.

text: Metric system[edit]

text: The metric system is a decimal system of measurement based on its units for length, the metre and for mass, the kilogram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the International System of Units (SI) is the internationally recognised metric system. Metric units of mass, length, and electricity are widely used around the world for both everyday and scientific purposes.

text: The metric system features a single base unit for many physical quantities. Other quantities are derived from the standard SI units.  Multiples and fractions are expressed as powers of 10 of each unit. When smaller or larger units are more convenient for given use, metric prefixes can be added to the base unit to denote its multiple by a power of ten: a thousandth (10−3) of a metre is a millimetre, while a thousand (103) metres is a kilometre. Unit conversions are thus always simple, so that convenient magnitudes for measurements are achieved by simply moving the decimal place: 1.234 metres is 1234 millimetres or 0.001234 kilometres. The use of fractions, such as 2/5 of a metre, is not prohibited, but uncommon. There is no profusion of different units with different conversion factors as in the Imperial system which uses, for example, inches, feet, yards, fathoms, and rods for length.

text: International System of Units[edit]

text: The International System of Units (abbreviated as SI from the French language name Système International d'Unités) is the modern revision of the metric system. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in everyday commerce and in science. The SI was developed in 1960 from the metre-kilogram-second (MKS) system, rather than the centimetre-gram-second (CGS) system, which, in turn, had many variants. During its development the SI also introduced several newly named units that were previously not a part of the metric system. The original SI units for the seven basic physical quantities were:[8]

text:
Base quantity

Base unit

Symbol

Current SI constants

New SI constants (proposed)[9]

time

second

s

hyperfine splitting in caesium-133

same as current SI

length

metre

m

speed of light in vacuum, c

same as current SI

mass

kilogram

kg

mass of International Prototype Kilogram (IPK)

Planck's constant, h

electric current

ampere

A

permeability of free space, permittivity of free space

charge of the electron, e

temperature

kelvin

K

triple point of water, absolute zero

Boltzmann's constant, k

amount of substance

mole

mol

molar mass of Carbon-12

Avogadro constant NA

luminous intensity

candela

cd

luminous efficacy of a 540 THz source

same as current SI

text: The mole was subsequently added to this list and the degree Kelvin renamed the kelvin.

text: There are two types of SI units, base units and derived units.  Base units are the simple measurements for time, length, mass, temperature, amount of substance, electric current and light intensity.  Derived units are constructed from the base units, for example, the watt, i.e. the unit for power, is defined from the base units as m2·kg·s−3. Other physical properties may be measured in compound units, such as material density, measured in kg/m3.

text: Converting prefixes[edit]

text: The SI allows easy multiplication when switching among units having the same base but different prefixes. To convert from metres to centimetres it is only necessary to multiply the number of metres by 100, since there are 100 centimetres in a metre. Inversely, to switch from centimetres to metres one multiplies the number of centimetres by 0.01 or divide centimetres by 100.

text: Length[edit]

text: A ruler or rule is a tool used in, for example, geometry, technical drawing, engineering, and carpentry, to measure lengths or distances or to draw straight lines.  Strictly speaking, the ruler is the instrument used to rule straight lines and the calibrated instrument used for determining length is called a measure, however common usage calls both instruments rulers and the special name straightedge is used for an unmarked rule.  The use of the word measure, in the sense of a measuring instrument, only survives in the phrase tape measure, an instrument that can be used to measure but cannot be used to draw straight lines.  As can be seen in the photographs on this page, a two-metre carpenter's rule can be folded down to a length of only 20 centimetres, to easily fit in a pocket, and a five-metre-long tape measure easily retracts to fit within a small housing.

text: Some special names[edit]

text: Some non-systematic names are applied for some multiples of some units.

text:
100 kilograms = 1 quintal; 1000 kilogram = 1 metric tonne;
10 years = 1 decade; 100 years = 1 century; 1000 years = 1 millennium

text: Building trades[edit]

text: The Australian building trades adopted the metric system in 1966 and the units used for measurement of length are metres (m) and millimetres (mm). Centimetres (cm) are avoided as they cause confusion when reading plans. For example, the length two and a half metres is usually recorded as 2500 mm or 2.5 m; it would be considered non-standard to record this length as 250 cm.[citation needed]

text: Surveyor's trade[edit]

text: American surveyors use a decimal-based system of measurement devised by Edmund Gunter in 1620. The base unit is Gunter's chain of 66 feet (20 m) which is subdivided into 4 rods, each of 16.5 ft or 100 links of 0.66 feet.  A link is abbreviated "lk,"  and links "lks" in old deeds and land surveys done for the government.

text: Time[edit]

text: Time is an abstract measurement of elemental changes over a non spatial continuum.  It is denoted by numbers and/or named periods such as hours, days, weeks, months and years. It is an apparently irreversible series of occurrences within this non spatial continuum.  It is also used to denote an interval between two relative points on this continuum.

text: Mass[edit]

text: Mass refers to the intrinsic property of all material objects to resist changes in their momentum.  Weight, on the other hand, refers to the downward force produced when a mass is in a gravitational field.  In free fall, (no net gravitational forces) objects lack weight but retain their mass.  The Imperial units of mass include the ounce, pound, and ton.  The metric units gram and kilogram are units of mass.

text: One device for measuring weight or mass is called a weighing scale or, often, simply a scale.  A spring scale measures force but not mass, a balance compares weight, both require a gravitational field to operate.  Some of the most accurate instruments for measuring weight or mass are based on load cells with a digital read-out, but require a gravitational field to function and would not work in free fall.

text: Economics[edit]

text: The measures used in economics are physical measures, nominal price value measures and real price measures. These measures differ from one another by the variables they measure and by the variables excluded from measurements.

text: Survey research[edit]

text: In the field of survey research, measures are taken from individual attitudes, values, and behavior using questionnaires as a measurement instrument. As all other measurements, measurement in survey research is also vulnerable to measurement error, i.e. the departure from the true value of the measurement and the value provided using the measurement instrument.[10] In substantive survey research, measurement error can lead to biased conclusions and wrongly estimated effects. In order to get accurate results, when measurement errors appear, the results need to be corrected for measurement errors.

text: Difficulties[edit]

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text: Since accurate measurement is essential in many fields, and since all measurements are necessarily approximations, a great deal of effort must be taken to make measurements as accurate as possible. For example, consider the problem of measuring the time it takes an object to fall a distance of one metre (about 39 in).  Using physics, it can be shown that, in the gravitational field of the Earth, it should take any object about 0.45 second to fall one metre. However, the following are just some of the sources of error that arise:

text:
This computation used for the acceleration of gravity 9.8 metres per second squared (32 ft/s2). But this measurement is not exact, but only precise to two significant digits.
The Earth's gravitational field varies slightly depending on height above sea level and other factors.
The computation of .45 seconds involved extracting a square root, a mathematical operation that required rounding off to some number of significant digits, in this case two significant digits.

text: Additionally, other sources of experimental error include:

text:
carelessness,
determining of the exact time at which the object is released and the exact time it hits the ground,
measurement of the height and the measurement of the time both involve some error,
Air resistance.
posture of human participants[11]

text: Scientific experiments must be carried out with great care to eliminate as much error as possible, and to keep error estimates realistic.

text: Definitions and theories[edit]

text: Classical definition[edit]

text: In the classical definition, which is standard throughout the physical sciences, measurement is the determination or estimation of ratios of quantities.[12] Quantity and measurement are mutually defined: quantitative attributes are those possible to measure, at least in principle. The classical concept of quantity can be traced back to John Wallis and Isaac Newton, and was foreshadowed in Euclid's Elements.[12]

text: Representational theory[edit]

text: In the representational theory, measurement is defined as "the correlation of numbers with entities that are not numbers".[13] The most technically elaborated form of representational theory is also known as additive conjoint measurement. In this form of representational theory, numbers are assigned based on correspondences or similarities between the structure of number systems and the structure of qualitative systems. A property is quantitative if such structural similarities can be established. In weaker forms of representational theory, such as that implicit within the work of Stanley Smith Stevens,[14] numbers need only be assigned according to a rule.

text: The concept of measurement is often misunderstood as merely the assignment of a value, but it is possible to assign a value in a way that is not a measurement in terms of the requirements of additive conjoint measurement.  One may assign a value to a person's height, but unless it can be established that there is a correlation between measurements of height and empirical relations, it is not a measurement according to additive conjoint measurement theory. Likewise, computing and assigning arbitrary values, like the "book value" of an asset in accounting, is not a measurement because it does not satisfy the necessary criteria.

text: Three type of Representational theory

text: 1) Empirical relation

text: In science, an empirical relationship is a relationship or correlation based solely on observation rather than theory. An empirical relationship requires only confirmatory data irrespective of theoretical basis

text: 2) The rule of mapping

text: The real world is the Domain of mapping, and the mathematical world is the range. when we map the attribute to mathematical system, we have many choice for mapping and the range

text: 3) The representation condition of measurement

text: Information theory[edit]

text: Information theory recognises that all data are inexact and statistical in nature.  Thus the definition of measurement is: "A set of observations that reduce uncertainty where the result is expressed as a quantity."[15]  This definition is implied in what scientists actually do when they measure something and report both the mean and statistics of the measurements.  In practical terms, one begins with an initial guess as to the expected value of a quantity, and then, using various methods and instruments, reduces the uncertainty in the value.  Note that in this view, unlike the positivist representational theory, all measurements are uncertain, so instead of assigning one value, a range of values is assigned to a measurement.  This also implies that there is not a clear or neat distinction between estimation and measurement.

text: Quantum mechanics[edit]

text: In quantum mechanics, a measurement is an action that determines a particular property (position, momentum, energy, etc.) of a quantum system. Before a measurement is made, a quantum system is simultaneously described by all values in a spectrum, or range, of possible values, where the probability of measuring each value is determined by the wavefunction of the system. When a measurement is performed, the wavefunction of the quantum system "collapses" to a single, definite value.[16] The unambiguous meaning of the measurement problem is an unresolved fundamental problem in quantum mechanics.[citation needed]