document_title: Oogenesis

question_text: meiosis ii does not take place in the oocyte until

text: Oogenesis

text: Oogenesis in mammals[edit]

text: In mammals, the first part of oogenesis starts in the germinal epithelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles, the functional unit of the ovary.

text: Oogenesis consists of several sub-processes: oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form an ovum (oogenesis proper). Folliculogenesis is a separate sub-process that accompanies and supports all three oogenetic sub-processes.

text:
Cell type
ploidy/chromosomes
chromatids
Process
Time of completion

Oogonium
diploid/46(2N)
2C
Oocytogenesis (mitosis)
Third trimester

primary oocyte
diploid/46(2N)
4C
Ootidogenesis (meiosis I) (Folliculogenesis)
Dictyate in prophase I for up to 50 years

secondary oocyte
haploid/23(1N)
2C
Ootidogenesis (meiosis II)
Halted in metaphase II until fertilization

Ootid
haploid/23(1N)
1C
Ootidogenesis (meiosis II)
Minutes after fertilization

Ovum
haploid/23(1N)
1C

text: Oogonium —(Oocytogenesis)—> Primary Oocyte —(Meiosis I)—> First Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte —(Meiosis II)—> Second Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovum

text: Oocyte meiosis, important to all animal life cycles yet unlike all other instances of animal cell division, occurs completely without the aid of spindle-coordinating centrosomes.[3][4]

text: The creation of oogonia[edit]

text: The creation of oogonia traditionally doesn't belong to oogenesis proper, but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis, which, in the female human, begins with the processes of folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis.

text: Human oogenesis[edit]

text: Oogenesis[edit]

text: Oogenesis starts with the process of developing primary oocytes, which occurs via the transformation of oogonia into primary oocytes, a process called oocytogenesis.[5] Oocytogenesis is complete either before or shortly after birth.

text: Number of primary oocytes[edit]

text: It is commonly believed that, when oocytogenesis is complete, no additional primary oocytes are created, in contrast to the male process of spermatogenesis, where gametocytes are continuously created. In other words, primary oocytes reach their maximum development at ~20[6] weeks of gestational age, when approximately seven million primary oocytes have been created; however, at birth, this number has already been reduced to approximately 1-2 million.

text: Recently, however, two publications have challenged the belief that a finite number of oocytes are set around the time of birth.[7][8] The renewal of ovarian follicles from germline stem cells (originating from bone marrow and peripheral blood) has been reported in the postnatal mouse ovary. In contrast, DNA clock measurements do not indicate ongoing oogenesis during human females' lifetimes.[9] Thus, further experiments are required to determine the true dynamics of small follicle formation.

text: Ootidogenesis[edit]

text: The succeeding phase of ootidogenesis occurs when the primary oocyte develops into an ootid. This is achieved by the process of meiosis. In fact, a primary oocyte is, by its biological definition, a cell whose primary function is to divide by the process of meiosis.[10]

text: However, although this process begins at prenatal age, it stops at prophase I. In late fetal life, all oocytes, still primary oocytes, have halted at this stage of development, called the dictyate. After menarche, these cells then continue to develop, although only a few do so every menstrual cycle.

text: Meiosis I[edit]

text: Meiosis I of ootidogenesis begins during embryonic development, but halts in the diplotene stage of prophase I until puberty. The mouse oocyte in the dictyate (prolonged diplotene) stage actively repairs DNA damage, whereas DNA repair is not detectable in the pre-dictyate (leptotene, zygotene and pachytene) stages of meiosis.[11] For those primary oocytes that continue to develop in each menstrual cycle, however, synapsis occurs and tetrads form, enabling chromosomal crossover to occur. As a result of meiosis I, the primary oocyte has now developed into the secondary oocyte and the first polar body.

text: Meiosis II[edit]

text: Immediately after meiosis I, the haploid secondary oocyte initiates meiosis II. However, this process is also halted at the metaphase II stage until fertilization, if such should ever occur. When meiosis II has completed, an ootid and another polar body have now been created.

text: Folliculogenesis[edit]

text: Synchronously with ootidogenesis, the ovarian follicle surrounding the ootid has developed from a primordial follicle to a preovulatory one.

text: Maturation into ovum[edit]

text: Both polar bodies disintegrate at the end of Meiosis II, leaving only the ootid, which then eventually undergoes maturation into a mature ovum.

text: The function of forming polar bodies is to discard the extra haploid sets of chromosomes that have resulted as a consequence of meiosis.

text: In vitro maturation[edit]

text: In vitro maturation (IVM) is the technique of letting ovarian follicles mature in vitro. It can potentially be performed before an IVF. In such cases, ovarian hyperstimulation isn't essential. Rather, oocytes can mature outside the body prior to IVF. Hence, no (or at least a lower dose of) gonadotropins have to be injected in the body.[12] Immature eggs have been grown until maturation in vitro at a 10% survival rate, but the technique is not yet clinically available.[13] With this technique, cryopreserved ovarian tissue could possibly be used to make oocytes that can directly undergo in vitro fertilization.[13]

text: Oogenesis in non-mammals[edit]

text: Some algae and the oomycetes produce eggs in oogonia. In the brown alga Fucus, all four egg cells survive oogenesis, which is an exception to the rule that generally only one product of female meiosis survives to maturity.

text: In plants, oogenesis occurs inside the female gametophyte via mitosis. In many plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms, egg cells are formed in archegonia. In flowering plants, the female gametophyte has been reduced to an eight-celled embryo sac within the ovule inside the ovary of the flower. Oogenesis occurs within the embryo sac and leads to the formation of a single egg cell per ovule.

text: In ascaris, the oocyte does not even begin meiosis until the sperm touches it, in contrast to mammals, where meiosis is completed in the estrus cycle.


document_title: Black Panther (soundtrack)

question_text: what is the end credit song in black panther

root

text: Black Panther (soundtrack)

text: Black Panther: The Album[edit]

text:
Black Panther: The Album

Soundtrack album by Kendrick Lamar and various artists

Released
February 9, 2018 (2018-02-09)

Studio

Windmark
No Excuses
Groovy Sounds
Ruff
Deuce Station
EastWest
The Grill
Conway
5Star Production
West Ink Records
Empire
Low Key
Electric Lady
HOB

Genre

Experimental hip hop
pop-rap[1]

Length
49:12

Label

Top Dawg
Aftermath
Interscope

Producer

Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith (exec.)
Kendrick Lamar (also exec.)
Dave "Miyatola" Free (assoc.)
30 Roc
Aaron Bow
Al Shux
BadBadNotGood
Cardo
Cubeatz
DJ Dahi
Doc McKinney
Frank Dukes
Hykeem Carter
Illmind
Kurtis McKenzie
Ludwig Göransson
Matt Schaeffer
Mike Will Made It
Robin Hannibal
Rascal
Scribz Riley
Sounwave
Teddy Walton
Twon Beatz

Marvel Cinematic Universe soundtrack chronology

Thor: Ragnarok
(2017)
Black Panther: The Album
(2018)
Avengers: Infinity War
(2018)

Kendrick Lamar chronology

Damn
(2017)
Black Panther: The Album
(2018)

Singles from Black Panther: The Album

"All the Stars"
Released: January 4, 2018
"King's Dead"
Released: January 11, 2018
"Pray for Me"
Released: February 2, 2018

tag: table

text: Background[edit]

text: Kendrick Lamar produced the film's curated soundtrack, titled Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith. Black Panther director Ryan Coogler chose Lamar for the project because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film."[2] Lamar was initially only going to work on a few songs for the film, but after he watched a majority of the film, he decided to create the album. Sounwave, a producer on the album, said that "the production, the hooks and ideas" for the album were created in August 2017 when Lamar was on The Damn Tour. When the tour concluded the following month, the effort began to "execute our ideas and reach out to people" to appear on the album.[3] The album and Lamar's involvement was teased as an easter egg in Lamar's music video for his single "Love" in late December 2017, with a clapperboard reading "B.Panther soundtrack coming soon".[4]

tag: p

text: Lamar released the first single for the album, "All the Stars", in January 2018, in which he collaborated with fellow Top Dawg artist SZA.[2] Shortly after, a new trailer for the film featured "Opps" by Lamar and Vince Staples.[5] A second song by Lamar with Jay Rock, Future and James Blake called "King's Dead" was released later in the month.[6] On February 2, 2018, "Pray for Me" by Lamar and The Weeknd was released as the album's third single.[7] Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018.[8] The cover art for the album was illustrated by Nikolas A. Draper-Ivey.[9] The soundtrack debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with 154,000 equivalent album units (of that sum, 52,000 came from pure album sales).[10] The album remained on the number one spot in its second week, selling 131,000 equivalent album units (of that sum, 40,000 were pure album sales).[11]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Credits adapted from digital booklet.[12][13]

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Producer(s)
Length

1.
"Black Panther" (performed by Kendrick Lamar)

Kendrick Duckworth
Mark Spears
Kevin Gomringer
Tim Gomringer
Matt Schaeffer

Kendrick Lamar
Sounwave
Cubeatz[a]
Schaeffer[b]

2:11

2.
"All the Stars" (performed by Kendrick Lamar and SZA)

Duckworth
Spears
Al Shuckburgh
Solána Rowe
Anthony Tiffith

Sounwave
Al Shux

3:56

3.
"X" (performed by Schoolboy Q, 2 Chainz, and Saudi)

Duckworth
Spears
Ramon Ibanga
Quincy Hanley
Tauheed Epps
Anele Mbisha

Sounwave
Illmind[a]

4:27

4.
"The Ways" (performed by Khalid and Swae Lee)

Duckworth
Spears
Matthew Tavares
Chester Hansen
Leland Whitty
Alexander Sowinski
Khalid Robinson
Khalif Brown

Sounwave
BadBadNotGood
Lamar

3:59

5.
"Opps" (performed by Vince Staples and Yugen Blakrok)

Duckworth
Spears
Ludwig Göransson
Vincent Staples

Sounwave
Göransson

3:01

6.
"I Am" (performed by Jorja Smith)

Duckworth
Spears
Jorja Smith
Tobias Breuer
Troy Chester

Sounwave
Lamar

3:29

7.
"Paramedic!" (performed by SOB X RBE)

Duckworth
Dacoury Natche
Spears
K. Gomringer
T. Gomringer
Juwon Lee
Graham Harris
Wayman Barrow
Jabbar Brown

DJ Dahi
Sounwave
Cubeatz

3:39

8.
"Bloody Waters" (performed by Ab-Soul, Anderson Paak and James Blake)

Duckworth
Spears
Robin Braun
Herbert Stevens IV
James Litherland

Sounwave
Lamar
Robin Hannibal[a]

4:32

9.
"King's Dead" (performed by Jay Rock, Kendrick Lamar, Future and James Blake)

Duckworth
Michael Williams II
Travis Walton
Spears
Johnny McKinzie
Nayvadius Wilburn
Litherland
Samuel Gloade
Antwon Hicks

Mike Will Made It
Teddy Walton
Sounwave[b]
30 Roc[c]
Twon Beatz[c]
AxlFolie[c]

3:50

10.
"Redemption Interlude"

Duckworth
Hykeem Carter
Zacari Pacaldo

Carter
Lamar

1:25

11.
"Redemption" (performed by Zacari and Babes Wodumo)

Duckworth
Walton
Kurtis McKenzie
Mike Riley
Pacaldo
Bongekile Simelane
Mandla Maphumulo

McKenzie
Walton
Scribz Riley
Aaron Bow[b]

3:42

12.
"Seasons" (performed by Mozzy, Sjava and Reason)

Duckworth
Spears
Adam Feeney
Timothy Patterson
Jabulani Hadebe
Robert Gill

Sounwave
Lamar
Frank Dukes

4:02

13.
"Big Shot" (performed by Kendrick Lamar and Travis Scott)

Duckworth
Ronald LaTour
Brock Korsan
K. Gomringer
T. Gomringer
Spears
Jacques Webster

Cardo
Cubeatz
Sounwave[b]
Schaeffer[b]

3:42

14.
"Pray for Me" (performed by The Weeknd and Kendrick Lamar)

Abel Tesfaye
Duckworth
Feeney
Martin McKinney

Frank Dukes
Doc McKinney

3:31

Total length:
49:19

text: Notes

text:
^[a] signifies a co-producer.
^[b] signifies an additional producer.
^[c] signifies an uncredited co-producer.[14][15]
"Paramedic!", "Bloody Waters" and "Redemption Interlude" feature additional vocals by Zacari.
"Pray for Me" features background vocals by Samrawit Hailu.
"X", "The Ways", "Opps", "I Am", "Paramedic!", "Redemption Interlude", "Redemption", and "Seasons" feature uncredited vocals by Kendrick Lamar.[16]
"Redemption Interlude" features uncredited vocals by Hykeem Carter.[citation needed]
"Redemption" features uncredited vocals by Mampintsha.[17]

tag: ul

text: Sample credits

text: "Big Shot" contains an uncredited interpolation of "New Freezer" by Rich the Kid featuring Kendrick Lamar.[18]

text: Additional personnel[edit]

text: Musicians

text:
Ezinma – string arrangement (tracks 1, 2)
Sounwave – string arrangement (tracks 1, 2)
Bēkon – additional strings (tracks 6, 12)
Rascal – original sample (track 6)
Knukuth – original sample (track 6)
James Blake – additional keys (track 8)
Rob Gueringer – additional bass and guitar (track 12)

text: Technical

text:
Matt Schaeffer – recording (tracks 1-9, 11, 13), mixing (tracks 1-10, 12)
Sam Ricci – recording (track 2)
James Hunt – recording (track 3)
Ruff Nkosi – recording (Saudi, track 3; Sjava, track 12)
Nolan Presley – recording (2 Chainz, track 3)
Michael Law Thomas – recording (Vince Staples, track 5)
LMNZ – recording (Yugen Blakrok, track 5)
Max Perry – recording (SOB X RBE, track 7)
Joshua Smith – recording (James Blake, track 8)
Nevin J. Thomas – recording (Anderson Paak, track 8)
Eric Manco – recording (Future, track 9)
Hykeem Carter – recording (track 10)
Zacari – recording (track 10)
Mandla Maphumulo – recording (Babes Wodumo, track 11)
DaveO – recording (Mozzy, track 12)
Mark "Keitel" Lowe, Jr. – recording (Reason, track 12)
Jimmy Cash – recording (Travis Scott, track 13)
Beatriz Artola – recording (Kendrick Lamar, track 14)
Shin Kamiyama – recording (The Weeknd, track 14)
Mike Sonier – recording (The Weeknd, track 14)
Doc McKinney – recording (Samrawit Hailu, track 14)
Barry McCready – assistant engineering (track 14)
Derek "MixedByAli" Ali – mixing (tracks 11, 13)
Jaycen Joshua – mixing (track 14)
Cyrus Taghipour – mixing assistance (tracks 11, 13)
David Nakaji – mixing assistance (track 14)
Mike Bozzi – mastering (all tracks)
Mike Dean – mastering (track 13)
Chris Athens – mastering (track 14)

text: Critical reception[edit]

text:
Professional ratings

Aggregate scores

Source
Rating

Metacritic
80/100[19]

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[20]

The A.V. Club
B+[21]

The Guardian
[22]

NME
[23]

Pitchfork
7.5/10[24]

Rolling Stone
[25]

Vice
A[1]

text: Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 80 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[19] Alex Petridis of The Guardian stated that the soundtrack "hangs together as a standalone album, albeit a less consistent one than Lamar's solo releases." Commenting on the various tracks, many of which Petridis felt had "heady" ideas, he concluded the album "often feels like an enjoyable interstitial release rather than an essential one. Still, that may simply say something about the standards its curator has set in recent years."[22] Clayton Purdom of The A.V. Club felt that the Black Panther soundtrack was "one of the best rap albums of this young year", adding that "the tracks play it safe, but the project itself does not, an audacious exertion of energy from one of the planet's most universally revered musicians... the album doesn't need the film; it works on its own, developing its own themes at its own pace, channeled inimitably through the sensibilities of Kendrick Lamar and TDE." Purdom felt that Black Panther: The Album could stand alongside other artist-driven soundtracks for films like Tron: Legacy, Coffy and 8 Mile.[21] Writing for Vice, Robert Christgau called the music "star-studded, hooky-to-jingly, sneakily experimental pop-rap product tinged with the flick's racialized broad-stroke humanitarianism", and credited Lamar for "marking every [song] with a verse or chorus or hook defined by the least regal of the great rap flows, unassumingly slurred while making every word count".[1]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2018)
Peak
position

Australian Albums (ARIA)[26]
2

Austrian Albums (Ö3 Austria)[27]
13

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[28]
8

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Wallonia)[29]
35

Canadian Albums (Billboard)[30]
1

Danish Albums (Hitlisten)[31]
1

Dutch Albums (MegaCharts)[32]
2

Finnish Albums (Suomen virallinen lista)[33]
2

French Albums (SNEP)[34]
18

German Albums (Offizielle Top 100)[35]
12

Italian Compilation Albums (FIMI)[36]
4

New Zealand Albums (RMNZ)[37]
2

Norwegian Albums (VG-lista)[38]
1

Swiss Albums (Schweizer Hitparade)[39]
7

UK Compilations Chart (OCC)[40]
9

US Billboard 200[10]
1

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

United States (RIAA)[41]
Platinum
1,000,000

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Result
Ref.

2018
Billboard Music Awards
Top Soundtrack
Nominated
[42]

BET Awards
Album of the Year
Pending
[43]

text: Black Panther (Original Score)[edit]

text:
Black Panther (Original Score)

Film score by Ludwig Göransson

Released
February 16, 2018

Recorded
October and December 2017

Studio
Abbey Road Studios

Genre
Film score

Length
95:07

Label

Hollywood
Marvel Music

Ludwig Göransson chronology

Hasan Minhaj: Homecoming King
(2017)
Black Panther (Original Score)
(2018)
Death Wish
(2018)

Marvel Cinematic Universe soundtrack chronology

Thor: Ragnarok
(2017)
Black Panther
(2018)
Avengers: Infinity War
(2018)

text: Background[edit]

text: Ludwig Göransson was hired to compose the film's score by April 2017. This is his third feature film collaboration with Coogler, after Fruitvale Station and Creed.[44] Göransson "felt incredible pressure to pay homage to African culture and its traditional music. It's not lost on me that I'm a Swedish guy from one of the coldest countries in the world."[45] Göransson traveled to Senegal and South Africa to record local musicians to form the "base" of his soundtrack.[46][47] He accompanied Baaba Maal on his tour throughout Senegal, recording Maal and other Senegalese artists Maal introduced to him. Maal sings in the Fula language on some of the tracks.[48] While in Africa, Göransson became fond of the sound the talking drum produced, which he incorporated as the sound for T'Challa and "was the first seed of how the instrumentation affected the process." He also came across the tambin, which was incorporated in his sounds for Erik Killmonger.[47] Göransson sent his tambin recordings to Michael B. Jordan, who plays Killmonger, to help him prepare for the role.[45] A sabar drummer performed "challenge rhythms" for T'Challa's competitors and the kora and vuvuzelas "provided additional color" for Göransson.[48]

text: When Göransson was in South Africa, he visited the International Library of African Music in Grahamstown and listened to the music of "thousands of different tribes in Africa" from field recordings, much of which no longer exists because of colonization. Describing his score, Göransson said, "The most difficult part is that as soon as you put production and orchestra on top of African music, it doesn't sound African anymore. So the challenge was incorporating these things and making them still feel African."[47] Coogler praised the collaboration between Lamar and Göransson, as Göransson "was able to manipulate the score to incorporate some of [The Album] songs and weave them in and out of the orchestral stuff that he was already doing."[3] Göransson recorded the score in October and December 2017,[48] at Abbey Road Studios over two weeks,[49] and utilized a 132-piece western classical orchestra, African percussionists and a 40-person choir,[50] which sang in Xhosa.[48] Göransson and John Ashton Thomas conducted the orchestra recording.[49] The album for the score was released digitally on February 16, 2018.[50]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Ludwig Göransson.[51]

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Wakanda Origins"
1:44

2.
"Royal Talon Fighter"
4:00

3.
"Wakanda"
2:20

4.
"Warrior Falls"
4:06

5.
"The Jabari"
1:08

6.
"Waterfall Fight"
4:03

7.
"Ancestral Plane"
4:27

8.
"Killmonger"
2:55

9.
"Phambili"
2:31

10.
"Casino Brawl"
3:32

11.
"Busan Car Chase"
2:49

12.
"Questioning Klaue"
3:32

13.
"Outsider"
2:07

14.
"Is This Wakanda?"
2:46

15.
"Killmonger's Challenge"
5:07

16.
"Killmonger vs. T'Challa"
3:30

17.
"Loyal to the Throne"
1:35

18.
"Killmonger's Dream"
3:15

19.
"Burn It All"
3:24

20.
"Entering Jabariland"
2:42

21.
"Wake Up T'Challa"
6:08

22.
"The Great Mound Battle"
3:48

23.
"Glory to Bast"
6:06

24.
"The Jabari, Pt. II"
2:22

25.
"A Kings Sunset"
4:28

26.
"A New Day"
1:47

27.
"Spaceship Bugatti"
1:23

28.
"United Nations / End Titles"
7:32

Total length:
1:35:07

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2018)
Peak
position

Belgian Albums (Ultratop Flanders)[52]
193

US Billboard 200[53]
64

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Result
Ref.

2018
Saturn Awards
Best Film Music
Pending
[54]


document_title: Commander-in-chief

question_text: who serves as commander in chief of the army and navy

question_tokens: who serves as commander in chief of the army and navy

text: Commander-in-chief

text: Definition

text: The formal role and title of a ruler commanding the armed forces derives from Imperator of the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, who possessed imperium (command and other regal) powers.[1]

text: In English use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639.[citation needed] It continued to be used during the English Civil War.[2] A nation's head of state (monarchical or republican) usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is ultimately dependent upon the will of the legislature; although the legislature does not issue orders directly to the armed forces and therefore does not control the military in any operational sense. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the military forces within their territory.

text: A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as supreme commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state (see Generalissimo). The term is also used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch, special branch or within a theatre of operations.[3]

text: Heads of state as commanders-in-chief

text: This includes heads of states who:

text:
Are chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making, including command of the armed forces.
Mostly ceremonial  heads of state (constitutional monarchs, viceroys and presidents in parliamentary republics) with residual substantive reserve powers over the armed forces, acting under normal circumstances on the constitutional advice of chief executives with the political mandate to undertake discretionary decision-making.

text: Afghanistan

text: According to the Constitution of Afghanistan, The President of Afghanistan is the Commander-in-chief of Afghan Armed Forces.

text: Albania

text: According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces. The incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Ilir Meta.

text: Argentina

text: Under part II, chapter III, article 99, subsections 12, 13, 14 and 15, the Constitution of Argentina states that the President of the Argentine Nation is the "Commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Nation". It also states that the President is entitled to provide military posts in the granting of the jobs or grades of senior officers of the armed forces, and by itself on the battlefield; runs with its organization and distribution according to needs of the Nation and declares war and orders reprisals with the consent and approval of the Argentine National Congress.[4]

text: The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force).[5]

text: Australia

text: Under chapter II of section 68 titled Command of the naval and military forces, the Constitution of Australia states that:

text: The command in chief of the naval and military forces of the Commonwealth is vested in the Governor General as the Queen's representative.[6]

text: In practice, however, the Governor-General does not play an active part in the Australian Defence Force's command structure, and the democratically accountable Australian Cabinet (chaired by the Prime Minister) de facto controls the ADF. The Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. Section 8 of the Defence Act 1903 states:

text: The Minister shall have the general control and administration of the Defence Force, and the powers vested in the Chief of the Defence Force, the Chief of Navy, the Chief of Army and the Chief of Air Force by virtue of section 9, and the powers vested jointly in the Secretary and the Chief of the Defence Force by virtue of section 9A, shall be exercised subject to and in accordance with any directions of the Minister.[7]

text: Austria

text: The Constitution (German: Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz) states, in Article 80, that the Federal President is the (nominal) Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian Armed Forces. However, it further provides that the President may only have the Armed Forces at his disposal to the extent provided in the Defence Act (German: Wehrgesetz); and that the supreme command over the Armed Forces is exercised by the minister of defence authorized to serve in this capacity by the Federal Government, i.e. the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Chancellor, as defined in Article 69.[8]

text: Bangladesh

text: The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister. The only exception was the first commander-in-chief, General M. A. G. Osmani, during Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, who was commander of all Bangladesh Forces, reinstated to active duty by official BD government order, which after independence was gazetted in 1972. He retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh.[9]

text: Brazil

text: Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the supreme command of the  President of the Republic.[10]

text: Brunei

text: The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces.

text: Canada

text: The powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch,[11] and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief.[12] In this capacity, the governor general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office and special cuff braid serving as rank insignia.

text: By constitutional convention, the Crown's prerogative powers over the armed forces and constitutional powers as commander-in-chief are exercised on the advice of the prime minister and the rest of Cabinet, the governing ministry that commands the confidence of the House of Commons. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all matters related to national defence and the Canadian Armed Forces.[13] In theory, the governor general could also use his or her powers as commander-in-chief to stop any attempts to use the Canadian Forces unconstitutionally, though this has never occurred and would likely be highly controversial.

text: People's Republic of China

text: Article 93 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states the authority to direct the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China and the Central Military Commission of the People's Republic of China is vested with the Central Military Commission; composed of a Chairman, and numerous Vice-Chairmen and members. The same article also states that the Chairman of the Central Military Commission assumes overall responsibility for the work of the Central Military Commission, and that it is responsible to the National People's Congress and the Standing Committee.[14]

text: Furthermore, Article 80 gives the President of the People's Republic of China (in addition to ceremonial head of state duties) the power to proclaim martial law, proclaim a state of war, and to issue mobilisation orders upon the decision of National People's Congress and its Standing Committee.[14]

text: The CMC Chairman and the President are distinctly separate state offices and they have not always been held by the same persons. However, beginning in 1993, during the tenure of Jiang Zemin as CMC Chairman and General Secretary of the Communist Party, it has been standard practice to have the President, the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, and the General Secretary of the Communist Party to be normally held by the same person; although the slight differences in the start and end of terms for those respective offices means that there is some overlap between an occupant and his predecessor.

text: Hong Kong

text: When Hong Kong was under British authority, the civilian Governor was ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the British Forces Overseas Hong Kong. After the territory's handover to the People's Republic of China in 1997, the commanders of the People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison are PLA personnel from mainland China.

text: Croatia

text: According to the Croatian constitution, the President of Croatia is the Commander-in-Chief of Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia. In peace, the commander-in-chief exercises his command through the Minister of Defense. In war and in cases where the Minister of Defense is not fulfilling orders, the commander-in-chief exercises his command directly through the chief of General Staff.

text: Czech Republic

text: According to the 1992 constitution, the President of the Czech Republic is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces according to Article 63(1)(c), and appoints and promotes generals under Article 63(1)(f). The President needs the countersignature of the Prime Minister for decisions concerning the above-mentioned provisions as per Articles 63(3-4), or otherwise they are not valid. The Prime Minister may delegate to other ministers the right to countersign these decisions of the President. The political responsibility for the Armed Forces is borne by the Government, which in Article 67 is defined as the "supreme body of executive power". According to Articles 39 & 43, the Parliament must give consent to the dispatch of Czech military forces outside the territory of the Czech Republic.[15]

text: The Ministry of Defence is the central authority of the state administration for the control of the Armed Forces.[16] The actual day-to-day management is vested in the Chief of the General Staff, the Czech chief of defence equivalent.[17]

text: Denmark

text: The position of the Danish monarch as the head of the military is deeply rooted in tradition. While the 1953 constitution does not explicitly designate the monarch as commander-in-chief; it is implicit, given the general provision in article 12 and the more specific wording of article 19 (2): "Except for purposes of defence against an armed attack upon the Realm or Danish forces, the King shall not use military force against any foreign state without the consent of the Folketing. Any measure which the King may take in pursuance of this provision shall forthwith be submitted to the Folketing".[18]

text: However, when reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the King in this context is understood by Danish jurists to be read as the Government (consisting of the Prime Minister and other ministers). This is a logical consequence of articles 12, 13 and 14, all of which in essence stipulates that the powers vested in the monarch can only be exercised through ministers, who are responsible for all acts. Thus, the Government, in effect, holds the supreme command authority implied in articles 12 and 19(2).[19]

text: The Danish Defence Law (Danish: Forsvarsloven) designates in article 9 the Minister of Defence as the supreme authority in Defence (Danish: højeste ansvarlige myndighed for forsvaret). Under the Minister is the Chief of Defence, the senior-ranking professional military officer heading the Defence Command, who commands the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and other units not reporting directly to the Ministry of Defence.[20][21]

text:
King Christian IV onboard his flagship during the 1644 Battle of Colberger Heide, by Wilhelm Marstrand. The King's personal commitment during the battle, are memorized in first lines of the Danish royal anthem.

HDMY Dannebrog, the Danish royal yacht named after the national flag and operated by the Royal Danish Navy, in Vagur, Faroe Islands on 21 June 2005.

text: Dominican Republic

text: According to the Constitution, Article 128, Section II, Title IV, the President is the head of foreign policy, the civil administration and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the National Police and all other state's security agencies.[22]

text: Egypt

text: In Egypt, the President of the Republic holds the ceremonial title of Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. A member of the government, usually defence minister, is commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces, the incumbent being Sedki Sobhi. The president still remains the only individual capable of declaring war. Until the election of Mohamed Morsi in June 2012, prior Egyptian presidents had all been former military officers, and during the Yom Kippur War the president played a major role at all levels of the planning of the war, and was in a literal sense Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces giving direct orders to the commanders from the headquarters during the war as field marshal of the army, colonel general of the air force and air defence forces and admiral of the navy. Anwar Sadat often wore his military uniform, while former president Hosni Mubarak had abandoned this tradition.

text: Finland

text: According to the Finnish constitution, the President of Finland is the commander-in-chief of all Finnish military forces. In practice, the everyday command and control is in the hands of Chief of Defence and the Commander of the Finnish Border Guard. The economic administration of the Finnish Defence Force is the responsibility of Ministry of Defence. The duty of the president is to decide upon[23]:§31

text:
main principles of the military defence of the realm
principles of the execution of the military defence
other military command matters with wide-ranging importance to the military activity or the military establishment
any other military command issue that he wishes to decide upon

text: Since the constitutional reform of 2000, the Minister of Defence has the right to be present when the president uses his command powers, unless the matter is of immediate concern. In questions of strategic importance, the Prime Minister has the same right.[23]:§32

text: The president commissions and promotes officers and decides on activating reservists for extraordinary service and on the mobilisation of the Defence Forces.[23]:§40[24][25]:§ 128.2 If Parliament is not in session when a decision to mobilise is taken, it must be immediately convened.[25]:§ 129 Declarations of a state of emergency (Finnish: valmiustila, literally, "state of preparedness") and state of war (Finnish: puolustustila, lit. "state of defence") are declared by a presidential decree, given after a motion by the government, which is then submitted to the Parliament for ratification.[26][27]

text: The president has, in a state of emergency, the right to transfer the position of the commander-in-chief to another Finnish citizen.[25]:§ 129

text: France

text: In France, the President of the Republic is designated as "Chef des Armées" (literally "Chief of the Armies") under article 15 of the constitution, and is as such the supreme executive authority in military affairs. Article 16 provides the president with extensive emergency powers.[28]

text: However, owing to the nature of the semi-presidential system, the prime minister also has key constitutional powers under article 21: "He shall be responsible for national defence" and has "power to make regulations and shall make appointments to civil and military posts".[28]

text: Since the reign of Louis XIV, France has been strongly centralized. After crushing local nobles engaged in warlord-ism, the Kings of France retained all authority with the help of able yet discreet Prime ministers (Mazarin, Richelieu).

text: The 1789 Revolution transferred the supreme authority to the King (in the context of the short-lived constitutional Monarchy), then to the multi-member Comité de Salut Public during the Convention, and later to the Directoire, before being regained in the hands of Consul Napoléon Bonaparte, later Emperor Napoléon I, alone.

text: The Restoration restored the authority of the King, first in an absolute monarchy, then the  constitutional July Monarchy of Louis Philippe, before it was overthrown in turn by the Second Republic and later the Second Empire of Napoleon III.

text: The following Third Republic was a parliamentary system, where the military authority was held by the President of the Council of Ministers. During World War I, the many visits to the trenches by the elderly statesman Georges Clemenceau impressed the soldiers and earned him the nickname Father of Victory (French: Le Père de la Victoire).

text: During World War II, Maréchal Philippe Pétain assumed power and held the supreme authority in Vichy France, while Général Charles De Gaulle, acting on behalf of the previous regime, founded the Free French Forces, upon which he held supreme authority all through the war.

text: The following and short-lived Fourth Republic was a parliamentary system, which was replaced by the present Fifth Republic, a semi-presidential system.

text: Ghana

text: Prior 1992 Commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) military rank was held by GAF military personnel until the ratification of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana ratified by Ghana Air Force (GHF) Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings and in  accordance to the Constitution of Ghana, The Head of State of Ghana and President of Ghana is the Commander-in-chief of GAF. The incumbent Commander-in-chief of GAF (Ghana Armed Forces) is Head of State of Ghana and President of Ghana John Dramani Mahama.[29][30]

text: Guyana

text: According to the Guyanese constitution, the President is Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. Unusually; there is a rank insignia for the position.

text: India

text: Supreme command of the Indian Armed Forces is vested in the President of India, although effective executive power and responsibility for national defence resides with the Cabinet of India headed by the Prime Minister. This is discharged through the Ministry of Defence, headed by the Minister of Defence, which provides the policy framework and resources to the Armed Forces to discharge their responsibilities in the context of the defence of the country.

text: On 15 August 1947, each service was placed under its own commander-in-chief. In 1955, the three service chiefs were re-designated as the Chief of the Army Staff (rank of general), the Chief of the Naval Staff (rank of vice-admiral) and the Chief of the Air Staff (rank of air marshal) with the president as the supreme commander. The Chief of the Air Staff was raised to the rank of air chief marshal in 1965 and the Chief of the Naval Staff raised to the rank of admiral in 1968.

text: Indonesia

text: According to Article 10 of the Constitution of Indonesia, the President of Indonesia holds the supreme command of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. Day-to-day operations of the Armed Forces is handled by the commander of the Armed Forces (Indonesian: Panglima TNI, a 4-star officer whom can be General (Army/Marine), Admiral (Navy), or Air Chief Marshal (Air Force)).

text: Indonesian Armed Forces has three service branches: Indonesian Army, Indonesian Navy (including Indonesian Marine Corps), and Indonesian Air Forces. Each service branch is headed by a Chief of Staff (also a 4-star officer) who has the task of developing soldier professionalism in each branch. However, the commanding authority is held by Commander of Indonesian National Armed Forces. Commanders have direct commanding authority to Main Combatants Command (Indonesian: Komando Utama Tempur) from all service branches such as Army Special Forces Command, Army Strategic Reserve Command, Military Area Command, Fleet Command, Military Sea Traffic Command, National Air Defense Command and Air-Force Operational Command. The Commander of the Armed Forces is appointed by the president from active Chiefs of Staff (Army, Navy, or Air Force) and must get approval from the House of Representatives. Chief of Staff is also appointed by the president from senior military officers. The president as commander-in-chief also has authority in senior military officer mutation and promotion in tour of duty. Minister of Defense has responsibility to assist the president in defense issues and create policies about authorization use of military force, manage defense budget, etc. For authorization use of military forces or declaration of war, the president must get approval from House of Representatives. The Commander of Armed Forces gives recommendations to the Minister of Defense in creating national defense policies.

text: Iran

text: Before 1979, the Shah was the commander-in-chief in Iran.  After the inception of the Islamic Republic, the President of Iran was initially appointed that task, with Abolhassan Bani Sadr being the first commander-in-chief. However, Abolhassan Bani Sadr was impeached on 22 June 1981. It was after this event that the role of commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran was given to the Supreme Leader of Iran.

text: Ireland

text: The Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces is the President of Ireland,[31] but in practice the Minister for Defence acts on the President's behalf and reports to the Government of Ireland.[32] The Minister for Defence is advised by the Council of Defence on the business of the Department of Defence.[33] The Defence Forces are organised under the Chief of Staff, a three star officer, and are organised into three service branches, the Army, Naval Service, and Air Corps.

text: Italy

text:
The Constitution of Italy, in article 87, states that the President of the Republic:
"is the commander of the armed forces and chairman of the supreme defense council constituted by law; he declares war according to the decision of the parliament".[34]

text: Kenya

text: Chapter 131 of the Constitution of Kenya identifies the President as the Commander-in-Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces and the chairperson of the National Security Council.[35] The President appoints a chief of general staff, known as the Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces, who acts as the principal military adviser to the President and the National Security Council. The Chief of the Kenya Defence Forces is drawn from one of the branches of the Armed Forces, the Kenya Army, the Kenya Navy or the Kenya Air Force.

text: Malaysia

text: In accordance with Article 41 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, he is the highest-ranking officer in the military establishment, with the power to appoint the Chief of Staff (on the advice of the Armed Forces Council). He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military.

text: The Federal Constitution establishes that the office of Supreme Commander is attached to the person of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the Federation's head of state:

text: Federal Constitution, Article 41 - The Yang di-Pertuan Agong shall be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the Federation.

text: The Federal Parliament passed the Federal Armed Forces Act to consolidate in one law all regulations that govern the three services ( Army, Navy, and Air Force ). It establishes the function and duties of the Federal Head of State in the capacity as Supreme Commander.

text: Mauritius

text: In the Republic of Mauritius, the President of the Republic is the commander-in-chief, according to Article 28 of the Constitution.[36]

text: After independence in 1968, Mauritius continued to recognise the Queen of Mauritius, as represented by the Governor-General of Mauritius, as commander-in-chief. After the country was proclaimed a Commonwealth Republic in 1992, the new constitution stipulated that a President would assume the position of the head of state and commander-in-chief.

text: Nigeria

text: In accordance with the Nigerian Constitution, the President of Nigeria is the commander-in-chief of the Nigerian Armed Forces.

text: Norway

text: Harald V, King of Norway, officially retains executive power. Article 25 of the constitution states: "The King is commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the realm"

text: However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government.  Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian Armed Forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and as a symbol of unity.

text: Pakistan

text: In the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, before the 1973 Constitution, the head of the army, i.e., the Chief of the Army Staff, was referred as "Commander-in-Chief".:105[37]  The term was replaced by "Chief of Army Staff" on 20 March 1972:62[38] The Chief of Army Staff is a four-star general whose term is 3 years, but can be extended or renewed once. The Chief of Army Staff is chosen by the Prime Minister of Pakistan.

text: Philippines

text: The President of the Philippines is both head of state and head of government, and is mandated by Article VII, Section 18 of the 1987 Constitution to be Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[39]

text: During the Fourth Republic, the 1973 Constitution introduced by Ferdinand Marcos created a parliamentary system that split the Executive into two, with the prime minister retaining the office of commander-in-chief and the president reduced to a mere figurehead. The wording of Article VII, Section 9 in the previous constitution enabled Marcos as commander-in-chief to declare Martial Law and suspend the writ of habeas corpus on 21 September 1972. Marcos also issued an edict, conferring the rank of five-star general in the military to the President, as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He consequently sat as both president and prime minister until 1981, when martial law was lifted and Cesar Virata succeeded him to the latter office and amendments were made to the 1973 Constitution to turn it into a strong president semi-presidential system in which the office of commander-in-chief was officially returned to the President. Salvador Laurel was the country's last prime minister when the office was abolished after the 1986 People Power Revolution, and the position's powers were again merged with the Presidency.

text: The current Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines is President Rodrigo Duterte, serving as the supreme commander of all Filipino military units in the Philippines.

text: Poland

text: In Poland, the President is Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. However, the art. 134 ust. 4 of the constitution states:

text: The President of the Republic, for a period of war, shall appoint the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces on request of the Prime Minister. He may dismiss the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in accordance with the same procedure. The authority of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, as well as the principle of his subordination to the constitutional organs of the Republic of Poland, shall be specified by statute.

text: During the interbellum period, the General Inspector of the Armed Forces was appointed the commander-in-chief for the time of war (Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces). However, after the war this function ceased to exist—thus it is likely that if Poland formally participates in a war, Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Armed Forces will be appointed Supreme Commander.

text: Portugal

text: The President of the Portuguese Republic is the constitutional Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (in Portuguese: Comandante Supremo das Forças Armadas). However, the operational command is delegated in the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces.

text: In the Portuguese military parlance, the term "Commander-in-Chief" (in Portuguese: comandante-em-chefe or simply comandante-chefe) refers to the unified military commander of all the land, naval and air forces in a theater of operations.

text: Republic of China

text: As stipulated in the Constitution of the Republic of China, the President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the ROC Armed Forces (including the Military Police), the Special Forces, and the National Space Organization.

text: Russia

text: According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, (Chapter 4, Article 87, Section 1) the President is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.[41] The President approves the military doctrine and appoints the defense minister and the chief and other members of the general staff.[42]

text: The Russian Armed Forces is divided into three services: the Russian Ground Forces, the Russian Navy, and the Russian Air Force. In addition there are three independent arms of service: Strategic Missile Troops, Russian Aerospace Defense Forces, and the Russian Airborne Troops. The Air Defence Troops, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces, have been subordinated into the Air Force since 1998.

text: Saudi Arabia

text: Article 60 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia states: "The King is the commander-in-chief of all the armed forces. He appoints officers and puts an end to their duties in accordance with the law."

text: Article 61 further states: "The King declares a state of emergency, general mobilization and war, and the law defines the rules for this."

text: Lastly, Article 62 states: "If there is a danger threatening the safety of the Kingdom or its territorial integrity, or the security of its people and its interests, or which impedes the functioning of the state institutions, the King may take urgent measures in order to deal with this danger And if the King considers that these measures should continue, he may then implement the necessary regulations to this end."

text: Serbia

text: In accordance with the law, the President of Serbia is Commander-in-chief of Armed Forces and in command of the military. He  appoints, promotes and recalls officers of the Army of Serbia.[43]

text: Slovenia

text: In Slovenia, the commander-in-chief is formally the President of Slovenia, although he or she does not exercise this position in peacetime. Instead, this role is usually assumed by the Minister of Defence.

text: South Korea

text: In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, the commander-in-chief is the President of South Korea.

text: Spain

text: As with most remaining European monarchies, the position of the Spanish monarch as the nominal head of the armed forces is deeply rooted in traditions going centuries back.

text: The Spanish Constitution of 1978 gives the King in article 62 (h):

text: supreme command of the Armed Forces[44]

text: However, article 64 require that all official acts of the King must be countersigned, by the President of the Government or other competent minister, for them to become valid. Furthermore, article 97 stipulates that;

text: The Government shall conduct domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration and the defence of the State[44]

text: And article 98 furthermore specifies the composition of the Government (which the King is not a member of). No provision in the constitution requires the King/Government to seek approval from the Cortes Generales before sending the armed forces abroad.[44]

text: Since 1984, the Chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the armed forces and, under the authority of the Minister of Defence, is responsible for military operations and military organisation.

text: Sri Lanka

text: As head of state, the President of Sri Lanka, is nominally the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The National Security Council, chaired by the president is the authority charged with formulating and executing defence policy for the nation. The highest level of military headquarters is the Ministry of Defence, since 1978 except for a few rare occasions the president retained the portfolio defence, thus being the Minister of Defence. The ministry and the armed forces have been controlled by the during these periods by either a Minister of State, Deputy Minister for defence, and of recently the Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Defence. Prior to 1978 the prime minister held the portfolio of Minister of Defence and External Affairs, and was supported by a Parliamentary Secretary for Defence and External Affairs.

text: Responsibility for the management of the forces is Ministry of Defence, while the planning and execution of combined operations is the responsibility of the Joint Operations Command (JOC). The JOC is headed by the Chief of the Defence Staff who is the most senior officer in the Armed Forces and is an appointment that can be held by an Air Chief Marshal, Admiral, or General. The three services have their own respective professional chiefs: the Commander of the Army, the Commander of the Navy and the Commander of the Air Force, who have much autonomy.

text: Suriname

text: In Suriname, the constitution gives the president "supreme authority over the armed forces and all of its members".[45]

text: Swaziland

text: The King is Commander in Chief of the Umbufto Swazi Defence Force

text: Thailand

text: The "Head of the Thai Armed Forces" (Thai: จอมทัพไทย; RTGS: Chom Thap Thai) is a position vested in the Thai monarch, most recently held by King Bhumibol Adulyadej until his death in October 2016, who as sovereign and head of state is the commander-in-chief of the Royal Thai Armed Forces.[46]

text: Turkey

text: President of the Republic of Turkey has the constitutional right to represent the Supreme Military Command of the Turkish Armed Forces, on behalf of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, and to decide on the mobilization of the Turkish Armed Forces, to appoint the Chief of the General Staff, to call the National Security Council to meet, to preside over the National Security Council, to proclaim martial law or state of emergency, and to issue decrees having the force of law, upon a decision of the Council of Ministers meeting under his/her chairmanship. With all these issues above written in the Constitution of Turkey, the executive rights are given to the President of the Republic of Turkey to be represented as the commander-in-chief of the nation.

text: United Kingdom

text: The British monarch is the "Head of the Armed Forces"[47] and has also been described as "commander in chief of the armed forces of the Crown".[48] Long-standing constitutional convention, however, has vested de facto executive authority, by the exercise of Royal Prerogative powers, in the prime minister and the Secretary of State for Defence. The Prime Minister (acting with the support of the Cabinet) makes the key decisions on the use of the armed forces.[49][50] The Queen, however, remains the "ultimate authority" of the military, with officers and personnel swearing allegiance only to the monarch.[51]

text: United States

text:
According to Article II, Section 2, Clause I of the Constitution, the President of the United States is “Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.”[52]
Since the National Security Act of 1947, this has been understood to mean all United States Armed Forces.
U.S. ranks have their roots in British military traditions, with the President possessing ultimate authority, but no rank, maintaining a civilian status, other than the title of Commander in Chief.[53]
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to the President as Commander in Chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the President wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority.[54]

text: The amount of military detail handled personally by the President in wartime has varied dramatically.[55] George Washington, the first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination under civilian authority. In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the Whiskey Rebellion—a conflict in western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this was the "first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field", though James Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington D.C. during the War of 1812.[56]

text: Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant.[57] On the other extreme,  Woodrow Wilson paid very little attention to operational military details of World War I and had very little contact with the War Department or with General John J. Pershing, who had a high degree of autonomy as commander of the armies in France.[58] As President in World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt worked closely with his generals, and admirals, and assigned Admiral William D. Leahy as Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief.[59] Harry S. Truman believed in a high amount of civilian leadership of the military, making many tactical and policy decisions based on the recommendations of his advisors—including the decision to use atomic weapons on Japan, to commit American forces in the Korean War, and to terminate Douglas MacArthur from his command.[60] Lyndon B. Johnson kept a very tight personal control of operations during the Vietnam War, which some historians have sharply criticized.[61]

text: In 1990, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the ensuing Gulf War in 1991, saw George H.W. Bush assemble and lead one of the largest military coalitions of nations in modern times. Confronting a major constitutional issue of murky legislation that left the wars in Korea and Vietnam without official declarations of war, Congress quickly authorized sweeping war-making powers for Bush.[62]

text: Before 1947, the President was the only common superior of the Army (under the Secretary of War), the Navy and Marine Corps (under the Secretary of the Navy), and the Coast Guard (under the Secretary of the Treasury).[63] The National Security Act of 1947, and the 1949 amendments to the same act, among other things, created the United States Air Force as an independent service separate from the Army, and organized Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps under a newly created Department of Defense, headed by, and subject to the "authority, direction and control" of, the Secretary of Defense (acivilian cabinet-level official appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate).[64][65]

text: The Goldwater-Nichols Act in 1986 codified the default operational chain of command: running from the President to the Secretary of Defense, and from the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commander.[66]  While the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff outranks all other military officers, he does not have operational command authority over the Armed Forces.  However, the chairman does assist the President and the Secretary of Defense in the exercise of their command functions.[67]

text: During the 20th century, certain area commanders came to be called "Commander-in-chief".[68] As of 2011, there are nine combatant commanders: six have regional responsibilities, and three have functional responsibilities. Before 2002, the combatant commanders were referred to in daily use as "Commanders-in-chief" (for instance: "Commander in chief, U.S. Central Command"), even though the offices were in fact already designated as "combatant commander" (CCDR) in the law specifying the positions.[69] On 24 October 2002, Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld announced his decision that the use of "Commander-in-chief" would thereafter be reserved for the President only.[70]

text:
A painting depicting President George Washington and his troops before their march to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania, 1794.

President Abraham Lincoln and Major General George B. McClellan in a military tent after the Battle of Antietam, 1862.

President Lyndon B. Johnson awards the Distinguished Service Cross to First Lieutenant Marty A. Hammer in Vietnam, 1966.

The Football is a briefcase, carried by an aide-de-camp, which gives the President the ability to access the Gold Codes and to launch a nuclear attack while away from a fixed command center.[71]

Admiral Mike Mullen and Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates attend a meeting of combatant commanders with President George W. Bush in the Cabinet Room at the White House, 2008.

President Donald Trump (third from right), as commander-in-chief, meets with Marine Gen. Joseph F. Dunford Jr., chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Army Gen. Joseph Votel, commander of U.S. Central Command Commander, and Gen. Raymond A. "Tony" Thomas, U.S. Special Operations Command Commander at USCENTCOM headquarters on MacDill Air Force Base, 2017.

text: U.S. States

text: In U.S. states, the governor also serves as the commander-in-chief of the National Guard, State Militia, and State Defense Forces. In the Commonwealth of Kentucky, for example, KRS 37.180[72] states:

text:
“

The Governor shall be commander in chief of the Kentucky active militia, and the adjutant general shall be the executive officer and shall be responsible to the Governor for the proper functioning of the Kentucky active militia, and he is hereby authorized and empowered to take necessary action to perfect and maintain an efficient organization for the purposes herein set out. He shall have charge of all matters of administration and organization, which shall be in all respects, insofar as necessary and applicable, the same as that of the National Guard.

”

text: Similarly, Section 7 of Article 5[73] of the Constitution of the State of California states:

text:
“

The Governor is commander in chief of a militia that shall be provided by statute.  The Governor may call it forth to execute the law.

”

text: Venezuela

text: According to the Venezuelan constitution, the President is Commander in chief of the Armed Forces. The office of the Venezuelan military supreme commander in chief has always been held by the President of Venezuela as per constitutional requirements. However, with a new law sanctioned in 2008, the "Comandante en Jefe" rank is not only a function attributed to the executive branch but a full military rank given to the president upon taking office. Upon assumption he receives a saber, epaulette, shoulder knot, shoulder board and sleeve insignia and full military uniform to be used in military events while performing the duties as president. The shoulder insignia mirrors Cuban practice but is derived from the German-styled officer rank insignia.

text: Vietnam

text: The commander-in-chief of the armed forces is the President of Vietnam, through his post as Chairman of National Defense and Security Council. Though this position is nominal and real power is assumed by the Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of Vietnam. The Secretary of Central Military Commission (usually the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam) is the de facto Commander.

text: The Minister of Defence oversees operations of the Ministry of Defence, and the Vietnam People's Army. He also oversees such agencies as the General Staff and the General Logistics Department. However, military policy is ultimately directed by the Central Military Commission of the ruling Communist Party of Vietnam.

text: Other officeholders as commanders-in-chief or other situations

text: Ethiopia

text: The 1995 Constitution designates the Prime Minister of Ethiopia as "Commander-in-Chief of the national armed forces" in Article 74(1).[74]

text: Germany

text: Present, Federal Republic (1956-)

text: Upon the re-militarization of West Germany in 1955, when it joined NATO, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany was amended in 1956 to include constitutional provisions for the command of the armed forces.

text:
In peacetime, under Article 65a, the Federal Minister of Defence (German: Bundesminister der Verteidigung) holds the supreme command authority (German: Inhaber der Befehls- und Kommandogewalt - IBuK) over the Bundeswehr.[75]
If the Bundestag declares the state of defence (German: Verteidigungsfall), the Federal Chancellor, under Article 115b, assumes the command authority over the armed forces.[75] As of  2018[update], this has never happened.
The President of Germany has thus no role in the command of the forces, although he continues to receive the ceremonial honors due to his position as a head of state.

text: The rationale for placing the command authority over the armed forces directly with the responsible minister in charge of the military establishment, and thus breaking with the longstanding German constitutional tradition in both earlier monarchical and republican systems of placing it with the head of state, was that in a democratic parliamentary system the command authority should directly reside where it would be exercised and where it is subject to the parliamentary control of the Bundestag at all times. By assigning it directly to the responsible minister, instead of with the Federal Chancellor, this also meant that military affairs is but one of the many integrated responsibilities of the government; in stark contrast of earlier times when the separate division of the military establishment from the civil administration allowed the former to act as a state within a state (in contrast to the Federal Republic, the Weimar Republic began with the Ebert–Groener pact, which kept the military establishment as an autonomous force outside the control of politics; the 1925 election of Paul von Hindenburg as Reichpräsident, surrounded by his camarilla and the machinations of Kurt von Schleicher, did little to reverse the trend).[76][77]

text: East Germany (1960-1990)

text: The legislature of the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the Volkskammer, enacted on 13 February 1960 the Law on the Formation of the National Defense Council of the GDR, which established a council consisting of a chairman and at least 12 members.  This was later incorporated into the GDR Constitution in April 1968.  The National Defense Council held the supreme command of the National People's Army (including the internal security forces), and the Council's chairman (usually the General Secretary of the ruling Socialist Unity Party) was considered the GDR's commander-in-chief.

text: The GDR joined with the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990, upon which the GDR's constitution and armed forces were abolished.

text: Before 1945

text: During the Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire, Weimar Republic and the Nazi era, whoever was the head of state—the King of Prussia/German Emperor (under the Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia/Constitution of the German Empire) to 1918, the Reichspräsident (under the Weimar Constitution) to 1934, and the Führer from 1934 to 1945—was the Head of the Armed Forces (German: Oberbefehlshaber: literally "Supreme Commander").

text: Below the level of the Head of State, each military branch (German: Teilstreitkraft) had its own head who reported directly to the Head of State and held the highest rank in his service; in the Reichsheer - Generalfeldmarschall, and in the Reichsmarine - Grossadmiral.

text: After Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed power as Führer[78] (after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg), he would later grant his war minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces in 1935, when conscription was reintroduced. However, in 1938 due to the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler withdrew the Commander-in-Chief title, abolished the war ministerial post and assumed personal command of the Armed Forces. The war ministerial post was de facto overtaken by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, which was headed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel until the German surrender.

text: Greece

text: According to Article 45 of the Greek Constitution, the President is the Head of the Greek Armed Forces, but their administration is exercised by the Government.[79] The Prime Minister, the Minister for National Defence and the Chief of the General Staff are the ones who command the Armed Forces.

text: Israel

text: In Israel, the applicable basic law states that the ultimate authority over the Israel Defense Forces rests with the Government of Israel (chaired by the Prime Minister) as a collective body. The authority of the Government is exercised by the Minister of Defense on behalf of the Government. However, the Commander-in-Chief of the IDF is the Chief of General Staff who, despite being subordinate to the Minister of Defense, holds the highest level of command within the military.[80]

text: Japan

text: In Japan, prior to the Meiji Restoration the role of the commander-in-chief was vested in the shōgun (the most militarily powerful samurai daimyō). After the dissolution of the Tokugawa shogunate the role of the commander-in-chief, resided with the Emperor of Japan. The present-day constitutional role of the Emperor is that of a ceremonial figurehead without any military role.

text: After Japan's move towards democracy, the position of Commander-in-Chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces is held by the Prime Minister of Japan. Military authority runs from the Prime Minister to the cabinet-level Minister of Defense of the Japanese Ministry of Defense.[81][82][83][84]

text: Malta

text: The Malta Armed Forces Act does not directly establish the President of Malta as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. However, Maltese law allows the President to raise by voluntary enlistment and maintain an armed force. Likewise, the law allows the President to issue orders in order to the administrate the armed forces.

text: It is important to note that the Armed Forces do not swear allegiance to the President of Malta but rather to the Republic of Malta. On this basis, there is no direct link between the head of state and the armed forces. For this reason, this link is mediated by the Minister responsible for defence.

text: Nonetheless, the Presidential Palaces are guarded by the Armed Forces as a symbolic gesture of social cohesion.

text: Myanmar

text: See also Tatmadaw

text: Netherlands

text: The Constitution of the Netherlands states, in article 97, that "the Government shall have supreme authority over the armed forces". Article 42 defines the Government as the Monarch and the ministers, and that only ministers are responsible for acts of government. Article 45 further defines the ministers as constituting the Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, with "authority to decide upon overall government policy".[85][86]

text: Before a constitution change took place in 1983, even though the equivalent section stated that: "The King shall have supreme authority over the armed forces"; that did not give the monarch any autonomous command authority.[86]

text: The Minister of Defence has the primary ministerial responsibility for the armed forces, which are formally a part of the Ministry of Defence.[86] The Chief of Defence is the highest ranked professional military officer, and serves as an intermediary between the Minister of Defence and the Armed Forces, and is responsible to the Minister for military-strategic planning, operations and deployment of the Armed Forces.[87]

text: North Korea

text: The Constitution of North Korea is ambiguous about which official really is the country's head of state.

text:
Is it the Eternal President of the Republic, the late Kim Il-sung, designated as such in the preamble;[88]
is it the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, who under article 117 of the constitution directs the work of the Presidium, represents the State, and accredits North Korean diplomats and receives credentials from foreign diplomats;[89]
or is it the Chairman of the National Defence Commission who in article 100 is described as the "highest military leading organ of State power and an organ for general control over national defense of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea"?[90]

text: In any case, the North Korean constitution, in article 102, is quite explicit regarding which official commands the armed forces:

text: The Chairman of the National Defence Commission of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea is the supreme commander of the whole armed forces of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and commands and directs all the armed forces of the State.[90]

text: The Chairman is formally elected by the Supreme People's Assembly (article 91:5[91]) and serves for terms of office of five years (articles 101[90] & 90:1[91]); but in practice, the office is hereditary within the Kim Dynasty, as the late Kim Jong-il was posthumously designated as "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission", while his son, Kim Jong-un, was appointed as the "First Chairman of the National Defence Commission".[92]

text: Sweden

text: In Sweden, with the Ordinance of Alsnö in 1280, nobles were exempted from land taxation if they provided cavalrymen to the King's service. Following the Swedish War of Liberation (1521–53) from the Kalmar Union, a Guards Regiment was formed under the King and from there the modern Swedish Army has its roots. During the age of the Swedish Empire, several kings—Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X, Charles XI & Charles XII—personally led their forces into battle. Under the Instrument of Government of 1809, which was in force until the current Instrument of Government of 1974 went into force on 1 January 1975; the Monarch was in §§ 14-15 explicitly designated as the Commander-in-Chief of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Högste befälhavare).[93]

text: At present, the Government (Swedish: Regeringen) as a collective body, chaired and formed by the Prime Minister of Sweden, holds the highest Executive Authority, subject to the will of the Riksdag; and is thus the present day closest equivalent of a command-in-chief, although not explicitly designated as such.[94] The reason for this change was, apart from the fact that the King was since 1917 no longer expected to make political decisions without ministerial advice, that the new Instrument of Government was intended to be made as descriptive on the workings of the State as possible, and reflective on how decisions are actually made. Minister of Justice Lennart Geijer further remarked in the government bill that any continued pretensions of royal involvement in government decisions would be of a "fictitious nature" and "highly unsatisfactory".[95]

text: Certain Government decisions regarding the Armed Forces (Swedish: Särskilda regeringsbeslut) may be delegated to the Minister for Defence, under the supervision of the Prime Minister and to the extent laid down in ordinances.[96]

text: To add to some confusion to the above, the title of the agency head of the Swedish Armed Forces and highest ranked commissioned officer on active duty, is actually Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish: Överbefälhavaren).[97]

text: However, the Monarch (as of present King Carl XVI Gustaf), is still a four-star general and admiral à la suite in the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force and is by unwritten convention regarded as the foremost representative of the Swedish Armed Forces.[98] The King has, as part of his court, a military staff. The military staff is headed by a senior officer (usually a general or admiral, retired from active service) and is composed of active duty military officers serving as aides to the King and his family.[99]

text: Switzerland

text: Supreme authority over the military belongs to the Federal Council, which is the Swiss collegial head of state. Nothwithstanding the previous sentence, under the Constitution, the Federal Council can only, in the operational sense, command a maximum of 4,000 soldiers, with a time limit of three weeks of mobilisation.[100] For it to field more service personnel, the Federal Assembly must elect a General (see below)[100] who is given four stars.[101] Thus, the General is elected by the Federal Assembly to give him the same democratic legitimacy as the Federal Council.[100]

text: In peacetime, the Armed Forces are led by the Chief of the Armed Forces (Chef der Armee), who reports to the head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports and to the Federal Council as a whole. The Chief of the Armed Forces has the rank of Korpskommandant or Commandant de corps (OF-8 in NATO equivalence).

text: In a time of declared war or national emergency, however, the Federal Assembly, assembled as the United Federal Assembly, specifically for the purpose of taking on the war-time responsibilities elect a General as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces under Article 168 of the Constitution. While The General acts as the highest military authority with a high degree of autonomy, he is still subordinate to the Federal Council (See Articles 58, 60, 174, 177, 180 & 185).[102] The Federal Assembly retains the sole power to dismiss the General, but the General remains subordinate to the Federal Council by the Council's ability to demobilise and hence making the position of General redundant.[100]

text: Four generals were appointed in Swiss history, General Henri Dufour during the Swiss Civil War, General Hans Herzog during the Franco-Prussian War, General Ulrich Wille during the First World War, and General Henri Guisan during the Second World War ("la Mob", "the Mobilisation"). Although Switzerland remained neutral during the latter three conflicts, the threat of having its territory used as a battlefield by the much bigger war parties of Germany and France required mobilization of the army.