document_title: Mumbai Suburban Railway

question_text: when did the mumbai suburban railway start functioning

text: Mumbai Suburban Railway

text: History[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway is an offshoot of the first passenger railway to be built by the British in India, and is also the oldest railway system in Asia. The first train ran between Bori Bunder (now Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus) and Thane, a distance of 34 km, on 16 April 1853 at 15:35. The 14-coach train took 1.25 h to complete the 34 km journey, with a halt at Sion to refill the train's water tanks.[4] Since 1991, it has been expanded rapidly. The Bombay Railway & History Group has been striving to document railway heritage along this line.[5]

text: Network[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway system is operated by Indian Railways' two zonal divisions Western Railways (WR) and Central Railways (CR). The fast commuter rail corridors on Central Railway as well as Western Railway are shared with long distance and freight trains, while inner suburban services operate on exclusive parallel tracks. WR operates the Western Line and CR operates the Central Line, Harbour Line, Trans-Harbour Line as well as the Vasai Road-Diva-Panvel line.

text: Central Line[edit]

text: The Central Line in Mumbai consists of 3 major corridors, which bifurcate as they run into suburban satellite towns. Two corridors (one local and other through) follow the Central Railway run from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT) to Kalyan (54 km), from where it bifurcates into two lines – one to Kasara (67 km) in the north-east and the other to Khopoli (61 km) in the south-east. These two corridors constitute the 'main' Central Line. There is also an 18-km corridor between Kurla and Thane stations for use of outstation and cargo trains. The outstation corridor is being extended further from Thane to Kalyan now as a part of the main line, but is halted because of the costs of tunneling the parsik hills.

text: The Central Line has two interchange stations with the Western Line at Parel and Dadar. Rolling stock consists of a fleet of AC as well as dual-powered DC-AC EMUs. The major car sheds on this line are at Kurla and Kalwa. There are fast and slow locals here for suburban service. Slow locals halt at every station, while fast locals halts vary between Byculla, Dadar, Kurla, Ghatkopar, Vikhroli, Bhandup, Mulund, Thane, Diva, Dombivali and Kalyan. All services plying beyond Kalyan run as slow service (halting at every station).

text: The Central Line also includes a line connecting Vasai Road-Bhiwandi Road-Diva and Panvel. A line from Nerul/CBD Belapur to Uran is currently under construction and is expected to be operational in 2018.

text: Western Line[edit]

text: The Western Line follows the Western Railway northwards from Churchgate parallel to the west coast. Local services by electric multiple units (EMUs) ply between Churchgate and Dahanu Road (124 km) on exclusive parallel tracks up to Virar (60 km) while Mainline Electrical Multiple Units (MEMUs) service the section beyond Virar to Dahanu Road (64 km). On 16 April 2013 EMU has extended up to Dahanu Road. MEMUs also operate between Dahanu Road and Panvel via a branch line from Bhiwandi road-Vasai Road. There are EMU carsheds at Mumbai Central, Kandivali and Virar. The largest EMU car shed in Asia is located at Virar. A repair shop for EMUs is situated at Mahalaxmi.

text: Western Railway's EMU fleet consists of EMUs completely powered by alternating current (25 kV) power. EMUs are 12 car or 15 car formations and are differentiated as slow and fast locals. Slow trains halt at all stations, while fast ones halt at important stations only and are preferable over longer distances.

text: Harbour Line[edit]

text: The Harbour Line is part of the Central Railway, and runs from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT) to Goregaon and Panvel. All Harbour Line services operate as slow services. The line operates from two separate platforms at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT), and the tracks cross over the main line at Sandhurst Road, to head towards stations along Mumbai's eastern dock area. A branch line from Wadala Road joins the Western Line at Mahim and continues towards Andheri.

text: The Harbour Line has an interchange station with the main line at Kurla, where it turns east towards Navi Mumbai. The Harbour Line further bifurcates at Vashi into two lines – one rejoins the main lines at Thane, while the other continues to Panvel. The shed for these trains is in Sanpada. A partial section of the Harbour Line is elevated.

text: Trans-Harbour Line[edit]

text: The Trans-Harbour Line connects Navi Mumbai to Thane. It runs from Thane to Vashi, Nerul and Panvel.

text: Nerul-Uran Line[edit]

text: The Trans-Harbour Line connects Navi Mumbai to Uran. It runs from Nerul and Seawoods Darave to Uran.

text: Services[edit]

text: Mumbai Suburban Railway services have various such designations in wide use by Mumbaikars as well as official use:

text:
slow local stops at every station
fast local runs express (skipping stops) until a certain station, and from that station onward runs like a local
fast, superfast, double-fast run express for various lengths of route

text: There are also women-only cars (termed ladies),[6] and since 1992, Ladies Special trains with the entire trainset reserved for women passengers. A semi ladies special is a train with a few (e.g., 3) coaches reserved for women. These designations can be combined with fast, slow, etc., so you have terms such as Slow Ladies Special.

text: On-board accommodation[edit]

text: The suburban fleet consists of 12 and 15-coach rakes. There are two classes of travel, including first class. The first class fare is approximately 12 times more expensive than second class, and therefore tends to be less crowded during the non rush hours, though at times it is equally or even more crowded than the general compartments during the rush Hour. First class compartments also have slightly better seats than second class. Because women can travel separately, there are four types of accommodation, termed 'compartments':

text:
general compartment also called gent's second class or simply second class as the majority of passengers in these compartments are men. The compartment is open to women and children as well.
general first class Again commonly known as gent's first class or simply first class, since majority population is men. Women and children can also board this compartment. The coach is designated by red and yellow slant stripes. The location of the same is designated by colouring the platform walls with similar stripes.
ladies' compartment commonly known as ladies' second class. This compartment is reserved solely for females, however male children up to the age of 13 can travel in this compartment. Men are not allowed to travel, and may face a penalty. Some of the coaches of ladies compartments are open to general public between 23:15 and 06:30. These are indicated by a note near the doors of the compartments. The coach is designated by green and yellow slant stripes. The location of the same is designated by colouring the platform walls with similar stripes.
ladies first class is reserved solely for females, however male children up to the age of 13 can travel in this compartment. Men are not allowed to travel, and may face a penalty. Some of the coaches of ladies compartments are open to general public between 23:15 and 06:30. These are indicated by a note near the doors of the compartments. The coach is designated by red and yellow slant stripes. The location of the same is designated by colouring the platform walls with similar stripes. This compartment is often adjacent to the ladies compartment.
handicap and cancer patients' compartment for people with disabilities or cancer. On a platform, one can locate these by signs or by following a 'Beep-Beep-Beep' sound indicator for the visually impaired. These coaches are open to all the genders. One needs a valid certificate of disability to board the compartment. Failure to do so may result in a penalty.
senior citizens special coach is reserved for passengers above the age of 60. These coaches are open to all the genders.
luggage compartment – heavy goods and luggage can be transported using the compartments specially designed and reserved for this purpose.In 2016, the Indian Railways manufactured an AC local train for the smooth and comfortable journey of the commuters.(particularly for hot and humid summer season.).This AC local train is manufactured at Kapurthala Coach factory, Chennai.It is fully with new added facilities.

text: Ticketing[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway uses a proof-of-payment fare collection system. Tickets can be purchased at every train station. Travelling without a valid ticket is an offence and if caught can result in a penalty. The penalty is steeper for passengers travelling in first class without a valid ticket.

text: Tickets can be bought for a single journey (one way) or a return journey. A return ticket is valid till the next day on weekdays and till Monday if purchased on a Friday. The ticket counters usually have long queues.

text: The 'tourist ticket' is a pass valid for one, three, or five days that can be purchased up to three days in advance.

text: Platform Tickets are required to be purchased by those members of the public not boarding trains, but who wish to access the platforms at certain long distance termini, perhaps for the purpose of receiving or seeing off a passenger. These generally cost ₹5 (7.7¢ US), but this price may vary by location. Not all stations issue platform tickets. In their absence, access to the platform is free. A person can be penalised for non-possession of this ticket.[7]

text: To save time, a Coupon Booklet can be purchased and the coupons can be punched for the designated fare at the Coupon Validating Machines(CVMs) at every station. The ticket fares matrix is pasted above the CVM. As of October 2012, there are approximately 575 CVMs on Mumbai Suburban Railway stations. The Central Railway network has 350 and the Western Line has 225.[8]

text: In early 2015, the authorities decided to discontinue CVMs w.e.f April 1, 2015. This decision was taken due to extensive duplication of the coupons, and the lack of transparency. The coupons were also lacking a way to trace them.

text: There are also Smart Cards available that can be topped up (recharged with some amount) and one can use it to print tickets for themselves from an Automatic Ticket Vending Machine (ATVMs). A Season Ticket can be purchased if one is commuting regularly. One can choose the validity of these tickets from 1-month, 3 months to a year. Season Tickets are the most cost effective and time efficient option for regular commuters.

text: The ticket counters usually have long queues. In order to bring a solution to this problem, the UTSOnMobile app was launched by railways minister Suresh Prabhu at Dadar railway station in December 2014. This app was launched initially for Android and Windows Phone, with the iOS version still under development.

text: To use this app, the user has to sign up with his/her mobile number. After signing up, the user has to load the prepaid RWallet built in the app, using credit/debit cards, net banking, IMPS or private mobile based apps. After the RWallet is loaded, the app can be used to book tickets on the entire network.

text: Initially, the ticket booked on the app had to be printed from the ATVMs. This step was found tedious by the commuters, and was criticised. Later, in July 2015, an update for the app was launched, which made e-tickets acceptable. The update also brought technical changes, like, the tickets could be booked only within a radius of 30m to 5 km of the origin station, and not from the platform. This move was well received by commuters, which resulted in over 50,000 downloads on the launch day.

text: Rolling stock[edit]

text: The suburban services are run by electric multiple units (EMUs) in 191 rakes (train sets) of 12-car and 15-car composition. To alleviate the problems of overcrowding, the nine car trains have been phased out and replaced with 12-car ones. 15-coach trains were introduced on 21 November 2009. However, these are few in number.

text: The bulk of the current fleet of both the Western and Central railways features old rakes built by Jessop (Kolkata), ICF (Perambur) which are capable of a maximum speed of 85 km/h and MRVC Siemens Rakes which are capable of and 100 km/h and ICF built Bombardier rakes capable of running at speeds of 120 km/hr[9] under light traffic conditions. The actual average speed of the rakes on the slow lines is about 35 km/h, while rakes on fast lines average about 45–50 km/h on a typical run.

text: On 12 November 2007, the first of 129 new 12-coach rakes with upgraded facilities was inducted into the fleet of the Western Railways under the MUTP project. The coaches are built of stainless steel, and have non-cushioned seats, emergency fluorescent lights, bigger windows with polycarbonate panes, better suspension systems, roof mounted forced ventilation to reduce carbon dioxide levels in packed trains,[10] and GPS based passenger information systems in all coaches. The new rakes are much more cool and airy than the old EMUs. The motors of the new rakes also make less noise than the older ones. Since 2010 the front of the EMUs are painted yellow, so that the maintenance workers on the tracks can see the train easily. These rakes have been procured under the project at a total cost of ₹ 19 billion (USD 431.0 million). Five Siemens rakes which had to be delivered as part of the first phase will be sent to the city starting early January 2014

text: New EMUs with Bombardier Electricals procured under the World Bank-funded Mumbai Urban Transport Project-2 built at the Integral Coach Factory (ICF) in Chennai started arriving into Mumbai by April 2014. The first of these trains, to be run on Western Railway, was, however, flagged off by Railway Minister Suresh Prabhu at Lokmanya Tilak Terminus, Kurla on Central Railway on Sunday, October 27, 2013. However a delay of two years is anticipated due to a demand of automatic sliding door on the trains.

text: Another set of new trains have been procured under MUTP project: Medha Rakes. These EMUs are fully indigenous 3 phase 25kV AC Rakes which only ply on WR network. Currently, more Medha rakes are procured by WR network.

text: Nine-car trains have a capacity of 2,628 (876 seated and 1,752 standing). Twelve-car trains have a capacity of 3,504 (1,168 seated and 2,336 standing).[11]

text: In fall 2013, brand new 12-car rakes were introduced on the railway.[12]

text: Air-conditioned rakes[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2017)

text: Discussion on AC Coaches first began in 2002 and was planned to be introduced in 2013. However, major delays in finalising the rakes' design and procurement of material deferred the project.[13][14]

text: The first air-conditioned rake for use on the suburban system was built by the Integral Coach Factory in Chennai at a cost of over ₹50 crore (US$7.7 million), and arrived in Mumbai on 5 April 2016. The rake has a seating capacity of 1,028 passengers, and standing room for up to 6,000 passengers. The 12 coach rake is configured as two sets of six interconnected bogies, meaning passengers can walk between coaches but only up to a maximum of 6 coaches. The train is also equipped with a new electrical system and software, automatic doors with emergency opening features, and GPS-based destination display on LED indicators. The old system of pulling a chain to halt the train was replaced by four intercoms per coach that enable commuters to communicate with the driver.[15]

text: Both CR and WR competed to acquire the rake, with WR even announcing a time table for operating the air-conditioned rake. Union Railway Minister Suresh Prabhu announced that the rake would be transferred to CR on 16 March 2016.[15] However, at a height of 4.335 metres the rake exceeds the maximum clearance height of 4.270 metres for EMU coaches on the Central Line. In particular, the rake cannot clear the some low height British-era bridges between CST and Kurla.[16] Then Central Railway general manager Sunil Kumar Sood insisted that CR was conduct trials and operate the rake on the Harbour Line. After acquiring the rake, CR conducted tests, safety and mobility checks, and trial runs under the supervision of the RDSO. However, following Sood's retirement, CR abandoned plans to operate the rake in December 2016. CR informed the Railway Board that it could not operate the rake due to the clearance issue, and the Railway Board directed them to transfer the rake to WR. The rake was transferred to WR on 12 May 2017. WR General Manager Anil Kumar Gupta stated that rake would begin commercial operations on the Western Line after WR conducted its own tests and trial runs and receiving regulatory approvals. Although there are some clearance issues on the Western Line as well, Gupta stated that these could rectified.The First AC EMU was Flagged off on 25th December 2017[15]

text: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation (MRVC)[edit]

text: To enable the Mumbai Suburban Railway to meet the demands of the ever-growing passenger traffic, the federal Government of India's Ministry of Railways and the state Government of Maharashtra have jointly envisioned the constitution of a separate corporate entity to operate the system.

text: The Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Ltd (MRVC), a public sector unit of the Government of India under the Ministry of Railways, was incorporated under the (Indian) Companies Act, 1956 on 12 July 1999, with an equity capital of ₹250 million (US$3.8 million) to implement the rail component of an integrated rail-cum-road urban transport project, called Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP). The cost of the rail component of the project is to be shared equally by Ministry of Railways and Government of Maharashtra.

text: Electrification[edit]

text: All routes are electrified using 25 kV 50 Hz AC power supply from overhead lines.

text: The Indian Railways plans to build a 700 MW gas-based plant in Thakurli to generate electricity to run the Mumbai trains.[17]

text: Safety Issues[edit]

text: Overcrowding[edit]

text: Due to its extensive reach across the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, and its intensive use by the local urban population, the Mumbai Suburban Railway suffers from the most severe overcrowding in the world.[18] Over 4,500 passengers are packed into a 9-car rake during peak hours, as against the rated carrying capacity of 1,700.[18] This has resulted in what is known as Super-Dense Crush Load of 14 to 16 standing passengers per square metre of floor space.

text: Tourists[edit]

text: It is advisable for tourists not to travel in Mumbai local trains from 07:00 to 11:00 and 17:00 to 22:00 during weekdays because of overcrowding.[6]

text: Fatalities[edit]

text: On average, about 2,000 people die annually on the Mumbai Suburban Rail network; between 2002 and 2012, more than 36,152 people died and 36,688 people were injured.[19] A record 17 people died every weekday on the city's suburban railway network in 2008.[20] One of the reason for accidents and deaths is overcrowding (see above). Another cause of death is passengers crossing the tracks on foot to avoid footbridges. Some passengers die when they sit on train roofs to avoid the crowds and are electrocuted by the overhead electric wires, or fall while hanging from doors and window bars. However, the fatality rates have declined recently. To reduce the risk of such fatalities, longer platforms and more frequent trains are being implemented

text: Central Railways in association with a behaviour architecture firm deployed neuroscience based interventions at the Wadala station, reducing fatalities by about 75%.[21] Times of India carried a news item regarding the success of this experiment[22]

text: In 2010, Western Railway has pledged that its trains will stop running if "even a single person" is seen travelling on the roof.[23]

text: In mid-2011 a viral video depicted a youth performing stunts while dangling from the compartment of a Harbour Line train.[24] Following this, a boy was killed while imitating the actions performed in the video.[25]

text: The Western and Central Railways have been using the Auxiliary Warning System (AWS), a type of Train Protection & Warning System (TPWS), since 1996.[26]

text: Terrorist attacks[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway has suffered 8 blasts and around 368 people are believed to have died as a result.

text:
12 March 1993 – bomb blast at Reay Road station
13 March 2003 – A bombing in a train in Mulund killed 20
11 July 2006 – A series of seven bombs in Western Railway trains killed 209
26 November 2008 – Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus was attacked during the 2008 Mumbai Attacks killing at least 60 people

text: Expansion[edit]

text: Mumbai Rail Vikas Corporation (MRVC) under the Mumbai Urban Transport Project-II is extending the Harbour Line up to Goregaon. The work is expected to be completed by November, 2017.

text: CR has proposed constructing a 22.5 km line linking Seawoods with Uran. The proposed line would have 10 stations.[27]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway has regularly been used for film shoots. Some movies that have used the Mumbai Suburban Railway for filming are

text:
Agneepath
Dabangg
Gangs of Wasseypur
Life In a Metro
Ghanchakkar
Kai Po Che
O Kadhal Kanmani
Once Upon a Time in Mumbai Again
Rajjo
Ra.One
Thalaivaa
Dombivali Fast
Balkadu
Yeh Jawani Hai Deewani.[28]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Central line local train

Harbour line local train

Western line local train


document_title: Germ theory of disease

question_text: this individual established a link between microbes and disease

root

text: Germ theory of disease

text: Miasma theory[edit]

text: The miasma theory was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory took hold towards the end of the 19th century. It held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia infection, or the Black Death were caused by a miasma (μίασμα, Ancient Greek: "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air" emanating from rotting organic matter.[5] Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that was identifiable by its foul smell. The theory posited that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infections, according to the theory, were not passed between individuals but would affect those within a locale that gave rise to such vapors.[citation needed]

tag: p

text: Development[edit]

text: Pre-19th century[edit]

text: In Antiquity, the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460 – c. 400 BC) was the first person to state, in his account of the plague of Athens, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others.[6][7] One theory of the spread of contagious diseases that were not spread by direct contact was that they were spread by "seeds" (Latin: semina) that were present in the air. In his poem, De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things, ca. 56 BC), the Roman poet Lucretius (ca. 99 BC – ca. 55 BC) stated that the world contained various "seeds", some of which could sicken a person if they were inhaled or if they contaminated his food.[8][9] The Roman statesman Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) wrote, in his Rerum rusticarum libri III (Three Books on Agriculture, 36 BC): "Precautions must also be taken in the neighborhood of swamps […] because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases."[10] The Greek physician Galen (AD 129 – ca. 200/ca. 216) speculated in his On Initial Causes (ca. AD 175) that some patients might have "seeds of fever".[11] In his On the Different Types of Fever (ca. AD 175), Galen speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air.[12] And in his Epidemics (ca. AD 176–178), Galen explained that patients might relapse during recovery from a fever because some "seed of the disease" lurked in their bodies, which would cause a recurrence of the disease if the patients didn't follow a physician's therapeutic regimen.[13]

text: During the Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville (ca. 560 – 636) mentioned "plague-bearing seeds" (pestifera semina) in his On the Nature of Things (ca. AD 613).[14] Later in 1345, Tommaso del Garbo (ca. 1305–1370) of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galen's "seeds of plague" in his work Commentaria non parum utilia in libros Galeni (Helpful commentaries on the books of Galen).[15]

text: The Italian scholar and physician Girolamo Fracastoro proposed in 1546 in his book De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seed-like entities (seminaria morbi) that transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. The diseases were categorised based on how they were transmitted, and how long they could lie dormant.

text: Italian physician Francesco Redi provided early evidence against spontaneous generation. He devised an experiment in 1668 in which he used three jars. He placed a meatloaf and egg in each of the three jars. He had one of the jars open, another one tightly sealed, and the last one covered with gauze. After a few days, he observed that the meatloaf in the open jar was covered by maggots, and the jar covered with gauze had maggots on the surface of the gauze. However, the tightly sealed jar had no maggots inside or outside it. He also noticed that the maggots were found only on surfaces that were accessible by flies. From this he concluded that spontaneous generation is not a plausible theory.

text: Microorganisms are said to have been first directly observed in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, an early pioneer in microbiology. Yet Athanasius Kircher may have done so prior. When Rome was struck by the bubonic plague in 1656, Kircher spent days on end caring for the sick. Searching for a cure, Kircher observed microorganisms under the microscope and invented the germ theory of disease, which he outlined in his Scrutinium pestis physico-medicum (Rome 1658).[16] Building on Leeuwenhoek's work, physician Nicolas Andry argued in 1700 that microorganisms he called "worms" were responsible for smallpox and other diseases.[17]

text: In 1720, Richard Bradley theorised that the plague and 'all pestilential distempers' were caused by 'poisonous insects', living creatures viewable only with the help of microscopes.[18]

text: In 1762, the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz (1705-1786) published a book titled Opera medico-physica. It outlined a theory of contagion stating that specific 'animalculae' in the soil and the air were responsible for causing specific diseases. Von Plenciz noted the distinction between diseases which are both epidemic and contagious (like measles and dysentry), and diseases which are contagious but not epidemic (like rabies and leprosy).[19] The book cites Anton van Leeuwenhoek to show how ubitquitous such animalculae are, and was unique for describing the presence of germs in ulcerating wounds. Ultimately, the theory espoused by von Plenciz was not accepted by the scientific community.

text: Agostino Bassi[edit]

text: The Italian Agostino Bassi was the first person to prove that a disease was caused by a microorganism when he conducted a series of experiments between 1808 and 1813, demonstrating that a "vegetable parasite" caused a disease in silkworms known as calcinaccio—this disease was devastating the French silk industry at the time. The "vegetable parasite" is now known to be a fungus pathogenic to insects called Beauveria bassiana (named after Bassi).

text: Ignaz Semmelweis[edit]

text: Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician working at the Vienna General Hospital (Allgemeines Krankenhaus) in 1847, noticed the dramatically high maternal mortality from puerperal fever following births assisted by doctors and medical students. However, those attended by midwives were relatively safe. Investigating further, Semmelweis made the connection between puerperal fever and examinations of delivering women by doctors, and further realized that these physicians had usually come directly from autopsies. Asserting that puerperal fever was a contagious disease and that matter from autopsies were implicated in its development, Semmelweis made doctors wash their hands with chlorinated lime water before examining pregnant women, thereby reducing the mortality rate from 18% to 2.2% at his hospital. Nevertheless, he and his theories were rejected by most of the contemporary medical establishment.

text: Gideon Mantell[edit]

text: Gideon Mantell, the Sussex doctor more famous for discovering dinosaur fossils, spent time with his microscope, and speculated in his Thoughts On Animalcules (1850) that perhaps "many of the most serious maladies which afflict humanity, are produced by peculiar states of invisible animalcular life".[20]

text: John Snow[edit]

text: John Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominant miasma theory. Even though the germ theory of disease pioneered by Girolamo Fracastoro had not yet achieved full development or widespread currency, Snow demonstrated a clear understanding of germ theory in his writings. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, in which he correctly suggested that the fecal-oral route was the mode of communication, and that the disease replicated itself in the lower intestines. He even proposed in his 1855 edition of the work, that the structure of cholera was that of a cell.

text: Having rejected effluvia and the poisoning of the blood in the first instance, and being led to the conclusion that the disease is something that acts directly on the alimentary canal, the excretions of the sick at once suggest themselves as containing some material which being accidentally swallowed might attach itself to the mucous membrane of the small intestines, and there multiply itself by appropriation of surrounding matter, in virtue of molecular changes going on within it, or capable of going on, as soon as it is placed in congenial circumstances.

text: For the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind, must necessarily have some sort of structure, most likely that of a cell. It is no objection to this view that the structure of the cholera poison cannot be recognized by the microscope, for the matter of smallpox and of chancre can only be recognized by their effects, and not by their physical properties.

text: Snow's 1849 recommendation that water be "filtered and boiled before it is used" is one of the first practical applications of germ theory in the area of public health and is the antecedent to the modern boil-water advisory.

text: In 1855 he published a second edition of his article, documenting his more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the Soho, London epidemic of 1854.

text: By talking to local residents, he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the Broad Street pump did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle. This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline.[21]

text: Snow later used a dot map to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering the water to homes, leading to an increased incidence of cholera. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as one of the founding events of the science of epidemiology.

text: Later, researchers discovered that this public well had been dug only three feet from an old cesspit, which had begun to leak fecal bacteria.[citation needed] The diapers of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.

text: After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the handle on the Broad Street pump. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant accepting the fecal-oral method transmission of disease, which they dismissed.[22]

text: Louis Pasteur[edit]

text: The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by Louis Pasteur between the year 1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of the puerperal fever[23] and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested using boric acid to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement.

text: Pasteur further demonstrated between 1860 and 1864 that fermentation and the growth of microorganisms in nutrient broths did not proceed by spontaneous generation. He exposed freshly boiled broth to air in vessels that contained a filter to stop all particles passing through to the growth medium, and even with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not pass dust particles. Nothing grew in the broths: therefore the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than being generated within the broth.

text: Pasteur discovered that another serious disease of silkworms, pébrine, was caused by a small microscopic organism now known as Nosema bombycis (1870). Pasteur saved France's silk industry by developing a method to screen silkworms eggs for those that were not infected, a method that is still used today to control this and other silkworm diseases.

text: Robert Koch[edit]

text: Robert Koch is known for developing four basic criteria (known as Koch's postulates) for demonstrating, in a scientifically sound manner, that a disease is caused by a particular organism. These postulates grew out of his seminal work with anthrax using purified cultures of the pathogen that had been isolated from diseased animals.

text: Koch's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day.[24] Even in Koch's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates.[25][26] Attempts to rigidly apply Koch's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology.[27][28] Currently, a number of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch's postulates.[29] Therefore, while Koch's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis, fulfillment of all four postulates is not required to demonstrate causality.

text: Koch's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view. In the 1980s, a molecular version of Koch's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors.[30]

text: Koch's postulates:

text:
The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms.
The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture.
The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.

tag: ol

text: However, Koch abandoned the universalist requirement of the first postulate altogether when he discovered asymptomatic carriers of cholera[26] and, later, of typhoid fever. Asymptomatic or subclinical infection carriers are now known to be a common feature of many infectious diseases, especially viruses such as polio, herpes simplex, HIV, and hepatitis C. As a specific example, all doctors and virologists agree that poliovirus causes paralysis in just a few infected subjects, and the success of the polio vaccine in preventing disease supports the conviction that the poliovirus is the causative agent.

text: The third postulate specifies "should", not "must", because as Koch himself proved in regard to both tuberculosis and cholera,[25] not all organisms exposed to an infectious agent will acquire the infection. Noninfection may be due to such factors as general health and proper immune functioning; acquired immunity from previous exposure or vaccination; or genetic immunity, as with the resistance to malaria conferred by possessing at least one sickle cell allele.

text: The second postulate may also be suspended for certain microorganisms or entities that cannot (at the present time) be grown in pure culture, such as prions responsible for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.[31] In summary, a body of evidence that satisfies Koch's postulates is sufficient but not necessary to establish causation.

text: Sanitation[edit]

text: In the 1870s, Joseph Lister was instrumental in developing practical applications of the germ theory of disease with respect to sanitation in medical settings and aseptic surgical techniques—partly through the use of carbolic acid (phenol) as an antiseptic.


document_title: Electromagnetic spectrum

question_text: what are the different regions of electromagnetic spectrum

text: Electromagnetic spectrum

text: History and discovery

text: For most of history, visible light was the only known part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The ancient Greeks recognized that light traveled in straight lines and studied some of its properties, including reflection and refraction. The study of light continued, and during the 16th and 17th centuries conflicting theories regarded light as either a wave or a particle.[6]

text: The first discovery of electromagnetic radiation other than visible light came in 1800, when William Herschel discovered infrared radiation.[7]  He was studying the temperature of different colors by moving a thermometer through light split by a prism. He noticed that the highest temperature was beyond red. He theorized that this temperature change was due to "calorific rays" that were a type of light ray that could not be seen.

text: The next year, Johann Ritter, working at the other end of the spectrum, noticed what he called "chemical rays" (invisible light rays that induced certain chemical reactions). These behaved similarly to visible violet light rays, but were beyond them in the spectrum.[8]  They were later renamed ultraviolet radiation.

text: Electromagnetic radiation was first linked to electromagnetism in 1845, when Michael Faraday noticed that the polarization of light traveling through a transparent material responded to a magnetic field (see Faraday effect). During the 1860s James Maxwell developed four partial differential equations for the electromagnetic field. Two of these equations predicted the possibility and behavior of waves in the field. Analyzing the speed of these theoretical waves, Maxwell realized that they must travel at a speed that was about the known speed of light. This startling coincidence in value led Maxwell to make the inference that light itself is a type of electromagnetic wave.

text: Maxwell's equations predicted an infinite number of frequencies of electromagnetic waves, all traveling at the speed of light. This was the first indication of the existence of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.

text: Maxwell's predicted waves included waves at very low frequencies compared to infrared, which in theory might be created by oscillating charges in an ordinary electrical circuit of a certain type. Attempting to prove Maxwell's equations and detect such low frequency electromagnetic radiation, in 1886 the physicist Heinrich Hertz built an apparatus to generate and detect what are now called radio waves. Hertz found the waves and was able to infer (by measuring their wavelength and multiplying it by their frequency) that they traveled at the speed of light. Hertz also demonstrated that the new radiation could be both reflected and refracted by various dielectric media, in the same manner as light. For example, Hertz was able to focus the waves using a lens made of tree resin. In a later experiment, Hertz similarly produced and measured the properties of microwaves. These new types of waves paved the way for inventions such as the wireless telegraph and the radio.

text: In 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen noticed a new type of radiation emitted during an experiment with an evacuated tube subjected to a high voltage. He called these radiations x-rays and found that they were able to travel through parts of the human body but were reflected or stopped by denser matter such as bones. Before long, many uses were found for them in the field of medicine.

text: The last portion of the electromagnetic spectrum was filled in with the discovery of gamma rays. In 1900 Paul Villard was studying the radioactive emissions of radium when he identified a new type of radiation that he first thought consisted of particles similar to known alpha and beta particles, but with the power of being far more penetrating than either. However, in 1910, British physicist William Henry Bragg demonstrated that gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation, not particles, and in 1914, Ernest Rutherford (who had named them gamma rays in 1903 when he realized that they were fundamentally different from charged alpha and beta particles) and Edward Andrade measured their wavelengths, and found that gamma rays were similar to X-rays, but with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies.

text: Range

text: Electromagnetic waves are typically described by any of the following three physical properties: the frequency f, wavelength λ, or photon energy E. Frequencies observed in astronomy range from 7023239999999999999♠2.4×1023 Hz (1 GeV gamma rays) down to the local plasma frequency of the ionized interstellar medium (~1 kHz). Wavelength is inversely proportional to the wave frequency,[5] so gamma rays have very short wavelengths that are fractions of the size of atoms, whereas wavelengths on the opposite end of the spectrum can be as long as the universe. Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency, so gamma ray photons have the highest energy (around a billion electron volts), while radio wave photons have very low energy (around a femtoelectronvolt). These relations are illustrated by the following equations:

text: where:

text:
c = 7008299792458000000♠299792458 m/s is the speed of light in a vacuum
h = 6966662606895999999♠6.62606896(33)×10−34 J·s = 6985413566733000000♠4.13566733(10)×10−15 eV·s is Planck's constant.[9]

tag: ul

text: Whenever electromagnetic waves exist in a medium with matter, their wavelength is decreased. Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, no matter what medium they are traveling through, are usually quoted in terms of the vacuum wavelength, although this is not always explicitly stated.

text: Generally, electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength into radio wave, microwave, terahertz (or sub-millimeter) radiation, infrared, the visible region that is perceived as light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior also depends on the amount of energy per quantum (photon) it carries.

text: Spectroscopy can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm. A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm.[citation needed] Detailed information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. Spectroscopes are widely used in astrophysics. For example, many hydrogen atoms emit a radio wave photon that has a wavelength of 21.12 cm. Also, frequencies of 30 Hz and below can be produced by and are important in the study of certain stellar nebulae[10] and frequencies as high as 7027290000000000000♠2.9×1027 Hz have been detected from astrophysical sources.[11]

text: Regions

text: The types of electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified into the following classes (regions, bands or types):[5]

text:
Gamma radiation
X-ray radiation
Ultraviolet radiation
Visible radiation
Infrared radiation
Terahertz radiation
Microwave radiation
Radio waves

text: This classification goes in the increasing order of wavelength, which is characteristic of the type of radiation.[5]

text: While, in general, the classification scheme is accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power, although the latter is, in the strict sense, not electromagnetic radiation at all (see near and far field).

text: Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each frequency and wavelength (or in each band) has a mix of properties of the two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.

text: The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays is partly based on sources: the photons generated from nuclear decay or other nuclear and subnuclear/particle process, are always termed gamma rays, whereas X-rays are generated by electronic transitions involving highly energetic inner atomic electrons.[12][13][14] In general, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays, but exceptions exist. By analogy to electronic transitions, muonic atom transitions are also said to produce X-rays, even though their energy may exceed 6 megaelectronvolts (0.96 pJ),[15] whereas there are many (77 known to be less than 10 keV (1.6 fJ)) low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g., the 7.6 eV (1.22 aJ) nuclear transition of thorium-229), and, despite being one million-fold less energetic than some muonic X-rays, the emitted photons are still called gamma rays due to their nuclear origin.[16]

text: The convention that EM radiation that is known to come from the nucleus, is always called "gamma ray" radiation is the only convention that is universally respected, however. Many astronomical gamma ray sources (such as gamma ray bursts) are known to be too energetic (in both intensity and wavelength) to be of nuclear origin. Quite often, in high energy physics and in medical radiotherapy, very high energy EMR (in the >10 MeV region)—which is of higher energy than any nuclear gamma ray—is not called X-ray or gamma-ray, but instead by the generic term of "high energy photons."

text: The region of the spectrum where a particular observed electromagnetic radiation falls, is reference frame-dependent (due to the Doppler shift for light), so EM radiation that one observer would say is in one region of the spectrum could appear to an observer moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light with respect to the first to be in another part of the spectrum. For example, consider the cosmic microwave background. It was produced, when matter and radiation decoupled, by the de-excitation of hydrogen atoms to the ground state. These photons were from Lyman series transitions, putting them in the ultraviolet (UV) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. Now this radiation has undergone enough cosmological red shift to put it into the microwave region of the spectrum for observers moving slowly (compared to the speed of light) with respect to the cosmos.

text: Rationale for names

text: Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways across the spectrum. These types of interaction are so different that historically different names have been applied to different parts of the spectrum, as though these were different types of radiation. Thus, although these "different kinds" of electromagnetic radiation form a quantitatively continuous spectrum of frequencies and wavelengths, the spectrum remains divided for practical reasons related to these qualitative interaction differences.

text:
Electromagnetic radiation interaction with matter

Region of the spectrum

Main interactions with matter

Radio

Collective oscillation of charge carriers in bulk material (plasma oscillation). An example would be the oscillatory travels of the electrons in an antenna.

Microwave through far infrared

Plasma oscillation, molecular rotation

Near infrared

Molecular vibration, plasma oscillation (in metals only)

Visible

Molecular electron excitation (including pigment molecules found in the human retina), plasma oscillations (in metals only)

Ultraviolet

Excitation of molecular and atomic valence electrons, including ejection of the electrons (photoelectric effect)

X-rays

Excitation and ejection of core atomic electrons, Compton scattering (for low atomic numbers)

Gamma rays

Energetic ejection of core electrons in heavy elements, Compton scattering (for all atomic numbers), excitation of atomic nuclei, including dissociation of nuclei

High-energy gamma rays

Creation of particle-antiparticle pairs. At very high energies a single photon can create a shower of high-energy particles and antiparticles upon interaction with matter.

tag: table

text: Types of radiation

text: Radio frequency

text: Radio waves are emitted and received by antennas, which consist of conductors such as metal rod resonators.  In artificial generation of radio waves, an electronic device called a transmitter generates an AC electric current which is applied to an antenna.  The oscillating electrons in the antenna generate oscillating electric and magnetic fields that radiate away from the antenna as radio waves.  In reception of radio waves, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of a radio wave couple to the electrons in an antenna, pushing them back and forth, creating oscillating currents which are applied to a radio receiver.  Earth's atmosphere is mainly transparent to radio waves, except for layers of charged particles in the ionosphere which can reflect certain frequencies.

text: Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in radio communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television, two way radios,  mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking.  In a radio communication system, a radio frequency current is modulated with an information-bearing signal in a transmitter by varying either the amplitude, frequency or phase, and applied to an antenna.  The radio waves carry the information across space to a receiver, where they are received by an antenna and the information extracted by demodulation in the receiver.     Radio waves are also used for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons, and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar.  They are also used for remote control, and for industrial heating.

text: The use of the radio spectrum is strictly regulated by governments, coordinated by a body called the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) which allocates frequencies to different users for different uses.

text: Microwaves

text: Microwaves are radio waves of short wavelength, from about 10 centimeters to one millimeter, in the SHF and EHF frequency bands.   Microwave energy is produced with klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes.  Although they are emitted and absorbed by short antennas, they are also absorbed by polar molecules, coupling to vibrational and rotational modes, resulting in bulk heating.  Unlike higher frequency waves such as infrared and light which are absorbed mainly at surfaces, microwaves can penetrate into materials and deposit their energy below the surface.   This effect is used to heat food in microwave ovens, and for industrial heating and medical diathermy.    Microwaves are the main wavelengths used in radar, and are used for satellite communication, and wireless networking technologies such as Wifi, although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating. The copper cables (transmission lines) which are used to carry lower frequency radio waves to antennas have excessive power losses at microwave frequencies, and metal pipes called waveguides are used to carry them.  Although at the low end of the band the atmosphere is mainly transparent, at the upper end of the band absorption of microwaves by atmospheric gasses limits practical propagation distances to a few kilometers.

text: Terahertz radiation

text: Terahertz radiation is a region of the spectrum between far infrared and microwaves. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimeter waves or so-called terahertz waves), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing. Scientists are also looking to apply terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high-frequency waves might be directed at enemy troops to incapacitate their electronic equipment.[17]  Terahertz radiation is strongly absorbed by atmospheric gases, making this frequency range useless for long distance communication.

text: Infrared radiation

text: The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz to 400 THz (1 mm - 750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:[5]

text:
Far-infrared, from 300 GHz to 30 THz (1 mm – 10 μm). The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves or terahertz waves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere in effect opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges ("windows") within the opaque range that allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 μm up to a few mm is often referred to as "sub-millimeter" in astronomy, reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 μm.
Mid-infrared, from 30 to 120 THz (10–2.5 μm). Hot objects (black-body radiators) can radiate strongly in this range, and human skin at normal body temperature radiates strongly at the lower end of this region. This radiation is absorbed by molecular vibrations, where the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the fingerprint region, since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound.
Near-infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500–750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light. The highest frequencies in this region can be detected directly by some types of photographic film, and by many types of solid state image sensors for infrared photography and videography.

text: Visible radiation (light)

text: Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. The Sun emits its peak power in the visible region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light.[18] By definition, visible light is the part of the EM spectrum the human eye is the most sensitive to. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. This action allows the chemical mechanisms that underlie human vision and plant photosynthesis. The light that excites the human visual system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if it could be seen) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end.

text: Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 nm and 760 nm (400–790 terahertz) is detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially near infrared (longer than 760 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 380 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light, especially when the visibility to humans is not relevant. White light is a combination of lights of different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. Passing white light through a prism splits it up into the several colors of light observed in the visible spectrum between 400 nm and 780 nm.

text: If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum reflects off an object, say, a bowl of fruit, and then strikes the eyes, this results in visual perception of the scene. The brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this insufficiently-understood psychophysical phenomenon, most people perceive a bowl of fruit.

text: At most wavelengths, however, the information carried by electromagnetic radiation is not directly detected by human senses. Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum, and technology can also manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. Optical fiber transmits light that, although not necessarily in the visible part of the spectrum (it is usually infrared), can carry information. The modulation is similar to that used with radio waves.

text: Ultraviolet radiation

text: Next in frequency comes ultraviolet (UV). The wavelength of UV rays is shorter than the violet end of the visible spectrum but longer than the X-ray.

text: UV is the longest wavelength radiation whose photons are energetic enough to ionize atoms, separating electrons from them, and thus causing chemical reactions.  Short wavelength UV and the shorter wavelength radiation above it (X-rays and gamma rays) are called ionizing radiation, and exposure to them can damage living tissue, making them a health hazard.  UV can also cause many substances to glow with visible light; this is called fluorescence.

text: At the middle range of UV, UV rays cannot ionize but can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive. Sunburn, for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of middle range UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer. UV rays in the middle range can irreparably damage the complex DNA molecules in the cells producing thymine dimers making it a very potent mutagen.

text: The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb. This leaves less than 3% of sunlight at sea level in UV, with all of this remainder at the lower energies. The remainder is UV-A, along with some UV-B. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See ultraviolet for more information.

text: X-rays

text: After UV come X-rays, which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the Compton effect. Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays and as they can pass through many substances with little absorption, they can be used to 'see through' objects with 'thicknesses' less than that equivalent to a few meters of water. One notable use is diagnostic X-ray imaging in medicine (a process known as radiography). X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays, enabling studies of these phenomena. X-rays are also emitted by the coronas of stars and are strongly emitted by some types of nebulae. However, X-ray telescopes must be placed outside the Earth's atmosphere to see astronomical X-rays, since the great depth of the atmosphere of Earth is opaque to X-rays (with areal density of 1000 grams per cm2), equivalent to 10 meters thickness of water.[19] This is an amount sufficient to block almost all astronomical X-rays (and also astronomical gamma rays—see below).

text: Gamma rays

text: After hard X-rays come gamma rays, which were discovered by Paul Ulrich Villard in 1900. These are the most energetic photons, having no defined lower limit to their wavelength. In astronomy they are valuable for studying high-energy objects or regions, however as with X-rays this can only be done with telescopes outside the Earth's atmosphere. Gamma rays are used experimentally by physicists for their penetrating ability and are produced by a number of  radioisotopes. They are used for irradiation of foods and seeds for sterilization, and in medicine they are occasionally used in radiation cancer therapy.[20] More commonly, gamma rays are used for diagnostic imaging in nuclear medicine, an example being PET scans. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy through the effects of Compton scattering.


document_title: Top of the Lake

question_text: who played tui in top of the lake

question_tokens: who played tui in top of the lake

text: Top of the Lake

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Elisabeth Moss as Robin Griffin, a Sydney detective specialising in sexual assault who is visiting her remote New Zealand hometown of Laketop, agrees to investigate the pregnancy and disappearance of a local 12-year-old girl, Tui Mitcham. Her ability to empathise with Tui's circumstances is based on a horrific event during her own teenage years.
David Wenham as Al Parker, an old-school and well-liked detective sergeant, based in Queenstown, who also manages a café where young offenders are given a second chance.
Peter Mullan as Matt Mitcham, a Scotsman and head of the Mitcham family. He is the informal leader of the town, feared by the townspeople, but with a complex inner life.
Tom Wright (Season 1) as Johnno Mitcham, Matt's estranged youngest son, and Robin's teenage sweetheart. He recently returned to Laketop after serving eight years in Bangkwang, a Thai prison, for drug possession.
Holly Hunter as GJ, an androgynous Swiss spiritual leader, arriving at Paradise with a group of troubled women, who hope GJ and Laketop will help them rediscover themselves.

text: Supporting[edit]

text:
Kip Chapman and Jay Ryan as Luke and Mark Mitcham, Matt's brute sons.
Jacqueline Joe as Tui Angel Mitcham, Matt's 12-year-old daughter who disappears after it is discovered that she is five months pregnant.
Robyn Nevin as Jude Griffin, Robin's mother, who is suffering from cancer.
Calvin Tuteao as Turangi, Jude's caring Māori boyfriend, who has a violent temper.

text:
Alison Bruce as Anne-Marie
Georgi Kay as Melissa
Lucy Lawless as Caroline Platt
Genevieve Lemon as Bunny
Robyn Malcolm as Anita
Griz Pomirska as "the Naked Lady"
Sarah Valentine as Prue
Skye Wansey as Grishina

text:
Ben Barrington as Terry
James Blake as Shotover
Byron Coll as Penguin
Cohen Holloway as Mike
Oscar Redding as Sarge
Edwin Wright as Scuzz

text:
Luke Buchanan as Jamie
Sam Dickson as Jase
Connor Olivia Moore as Kayla
Layne Opetaia as Daniel
Alice Ward as Gemma

text:
Stephen Lovatt as Officer Pete
Gavin Rutherford as Officer Joy
Madeleine Sami as Zena the secretary

text:
Edward Campbell as Putty, the "village idiot".
Lauren Dawes as Mandy, Johnno's girlfriend.
Erica Englert as Narelle, Matt's housekeeper.
Mirrah Foulkes as Simone, Jamie's mother.
Dra McKay as Delia, Tui's teacher.

text: Top of the Lake: China Girl[edit]

text:
Gwendoline Christie as Miranda Hilmarson, a 35-year-old Constable in the Sydney Police Force, who becomes Robin's partner.[5]
Alice Englert as Mary Edwards, Robin's 17-year-old daughter, whom she gave up for adoption at two days old. Suffering from anxiety and low self-esteem, Mary has begun to act out, due to the separation of her parents.[5]
Nicole Kidman as Julia Edwards, Mary's overbearing adoptive mother. She has recently become estranged from her husband and daughter, due to having an affair with a female teacher from Mary's school, with whom she now lives.
Ewen Leslie as Pyke Edwards, a successful lawyer and Mary's adoptive father. Mary resents him for his passivity in his relationship with Julia.[6]
David Dencik as Alexander "Puss" Braun, a 42-year-old charismatic German, who owns a building in Sydney he rents to a brothel. He is also Mary's boyfriend. Puss's grooming of Mary frightens Robin, Pyke and Julia.[7]
Clayton Jacobson as Detective Sergeant Adrian Butler, Robin's boss[8]
Kym Gyngell as Bootie, who owns the Silk 41 brothel in Sydney, in space rented from Puss[9]
Ling Cooper Tang as Dang, Bootie's Thai-born wife and madam of the brothel
Geoff Morrell as Ray, the police pathologist
Liv Hewson as Michaela, Mary's best friend at school
Christiaan Van Vuuren as Stally, a police constable interested in Robin
Lincoln Vickery, as Brett Iles, a young computer science student in love with a missing brothel worker, Cinnamon
Mark Leonard Winter as Johnno, Robin's childhood love and now ex-fiancé, whom she dumped on their wedding day

text: Production[edit]

text: Top of the Lake[edit]

text: Actress Jennifer Ehle auditioned for the role of GJ, which went to Holly Hunter. Jane Campion originally offered the role of Robin to Anna Paquin, who had worked with her on The Piano (1993). Paquin declined due to her pregnancy, and the role went to American Elisabeth Moss.[10]

text: The series was originally intended as a co-production with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. But after Moss was cast as Robin, the network pulled their funding before production began, citing a prior agreement to put an Australian actress in the lead.[11] Australian-based channel UKTV, owned by BBC Worldwide, filled the funding gap left by the ABC.[12] Philippa Campbell was the New Zealand-based producer.

text: Filming took 18 weeks and was shot entirely on location in Queenstown and Glenorchy, in Otago, on the South Island of New Zealand. While Queenstown is referred to during the series, Glenorchy doubles as the fictitious town of Laketop. The scenes in the women's commune were filmed at Moke Lake.[10]

text: Top of the Lake: China Girl[edit]

text: In early 2013, co-creator Jane Campion said that Top of the Lake comes to a distinct ending, and there would be no additional series.[13] Despite this, it was announced in October 2014 that the series had been renewed for a second season.[14] China Girl began shooting on location in Sydney, Australia in December 2015.[15][16]

text: Campion returned as co-writer and co-director. Gerard Lee returned as co-writer. The original co-director, Garth Davis, was replaced by Ariel Kleiman due to scheduling conflicts.[17] Philippa Campbell returned as producer. Actress Nicole Kidman joined the cast for China Girl, which is the second time she has worked with Campion. Kidman "plays an Australian mother, Julia, whose story dovetails with that of Detective Robin Griffin", played by Elisabeth Moss.[18] Christie, a fan of Campion's The Piano, joined the cast after sending a letter through a mutual friend.[19]

text: Release[edit]

text: Top of the Lake screened in its entirety at the January 2013 Sundance Film Festival, in a single seven-hour session with one intermission and a break for lunch. This was the first such screening in the history of the festival.[20] Top of the Lake was additionally shown at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.

text: The US premiere was on the Sundance Channel on 18 March 2013,[21] in Australia on BBC UKTV on 24 March 2013,[22] and in New Zealand on 25 March, also on BBC UKTV.[23]

text: China Girl was screened in its entirety at the May 2017 Cannes Film Festival.[24] In the UK, it premiered on BBC Two on 27 July 2017, and the entire series was released on the BBC iPlayer immediately afterwards. [25] In the US, it premiered in September 2017, on Sundance TV,[26] and each episode will be available on Hulu the day after its screening on SundanceTV.[27] In Canada, China Girl premiered on October 25, 2017, on CBC Television.[28]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Series 1[edit]

text: This article needs an improved plot summary. (November 2017)

text:
Sundance episodes

No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

1
1
"Episode 1"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
18 March 2013 (2013-03-18)

In the small town of Laketop, New Zealand, a young girl named Tui Mitcham is discovered standing chest-deep in the icy, glacial waters of the titular lake. Afterwards, a school nurse notices that the girl is pregnant. Robin Griffin, who grew up in the area, is now a police inspector in Sydney who specializes in cases involving children. While home visiting her sick mother, she agrees to interview Tui at the local police station.

2
2
"Episode 2"
Garth Davis with Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
18 March 2013 (2013-03-18)

Robin encounters two women from Paradise. They tell her Tui was with them the day before she disappeared but was gone in the morning. Robin organizes the local authorities to search for Tui. During the search, Robin walks into the lake and has a vision of Tui doing the same, the latter clenching her fists in the water.

3
3
"Episode 3"
Garth Davis
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
25 March 2013 (2013-03-25)

Matt Mitcham goes to Paradise and sits in on a session with GJ, the enigmatic leader of the camp. In a mocking tone, Matt asks the group about the human mind. GJ tells Matt that the human mind schemes. Later, Al meets Matt in the middle of the lake for a secret meeting.

4
4
"Episode 4"
Garth Davis with Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
1 April 2013 (2013-04-01)

Robin has dinner at Al's ultramodern, immaculate, lakeside house. Robin tells Al she thinks Tui's note, that said "No One", meant there were multiple rapists. Al counsels Robin she is getting too involved in Tui's case, likely because of Robin's own history of having been gang raped, at age 15.

5
5
"Episode 5"
Jane Campion with Garth Davis
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
8 April 2013 (2013-04-08)

Robin asks Johnno what he wanted to tell her about the night she was raped. Johnno describes how he heard Robin screaming and he peed himself. He says he found a latch to get out of the dog cage in the back of the truck but was too afraid to persist in trying to stop the men from raping her.

6
6
"Episode 6"
Garth Davis with Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
15 April 2013 (2013-04-15)

Robin reveals to Johnno that she plans to make a case against Matt Mitcham, in hopes of encouraging Tui to come home. Robin shares that she caught Jamie attempting to take Tui with rohypnol, a "date rape" drug that Robin suspects Matt manufactures. Johnno warns Robin against bringing a case against Matt, as Matt's drug business provides much of the town with a livelihood.

7
7
"Episode 7"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
15 April 2013 (2013-04-15)

Robin goes to work at the police station the next day and tells Al that Matt said he was her father. Matt, certain that Tui could not be pregnant, searches for and finds her with her newborn baby. As he is about to kill the baby, Tui appears and kills Matt. Robin discovers that Al has been pimping young boys and girls from the barista training, including Tui, to other men for sex.

text:
BBC episodes

No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
UK air date
UK[29] viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Paradise Sold"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
13 July 2013 (2013-07-13)
2.70

Tui's pregnancy is discovered, and the Paradise community moves in.

2
2
"Searchers Search"
Garth Davis
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
20 July 2013 (2013-07-20)
1.92

Robin's search for Tui begins.

3
3
"The Edge of the Universe"
Garth Davis
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
27 July 2013 (2013-07-27)
1.57

Robin makes a breakthrough. Over dinner at Al's place he warns her about her past being known.

4
4
"A Rainbow Above Us"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
3 August 2013 (2013-08-03)
1.32

Al dismisses Robin from the case. Her passionate affair with Johnno intensifies.

5
5
"The Dark Creator"
Garth Davis
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
10 August 2013 (2013-08-10)
1.50

Robin is back on the case. Matt gathers troops to hunt Tui down. Tui's friends celebrate her birthday in the mountains.

6
6
"No Goodbyes Thanks"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
17 August 2013 (2013-08-17)
1.72

Matt reveals his secret about Robin, and the investigation concludes.

text: Series 2: China Girl[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
UK air date
UK[30] viewers
(millions)

7
1
"China Girl"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
27 July 2017 (2017-07-27)
3.39

In Sydney, brothel owners Bootie and Dang throw a heavy suitcase off a cliff into the ocean. Four years after the events with Tui, Robin tries to adjust back to life in Sydney while dealing with residual PTSD from shooting Al Parker. Parker turned witness in the case of the paedophile ring in exchange for immunity, but has now filed a civil suit against Robin, claiming the shooting was personally motivated. Robin's daughter, Mary, is now nearly 18 and exhibiting signs of mental instability that her adoptive parents worry is more than teen angst. Unbeknownst to her parents, Mary is dating a 42-year-old German, Alexander, nicknamed "Puss", who lives above a brothel, Silk 41. Mary is enamoured with Puss, who claims to be "empowering" the young Asian prostitutes by teaching them English and other life lessons. Mary is aggressively rebelling and openly hostile against her adoptive parents, Pyke and Julia, who are getting a divorce after Julia came out as a lesbian. Pyke and Julia are appalled after meeting Puss, who informs them he plans to marry Mary. Robin's new boss, Detective Sergeant Adrian Butler, brings a large stuffed panda to a young Asian woman. Brett, a socially awkward university student who frequents brothels, worries because he can't find a prostitute named Cinnamon, whom he believes is his girlfriend. Meanwhile, the suitcase washes up on Bondi Beach and it contains the decomposing body of a woman. Robin and a rookie constable, the awkward Miranda, are assigned to the case.

8
2
"The Loved One"
Ariel Kleiman
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
3 August 2017 (2017-08-03)
2.38

A flashback reveals that four weeks earlier, Johnno was arrested on their wedding day after his pot farm was raided, and Robin left him after discovering he had cheated on her as well. Meanwhile, Tui is now raising her son at the women's commune. In the present, Robin, who had three miscarriages while with Johnno, has nightmares about babies. Robin is obsessed with the case of the Asian Jane Doe found in the suitcase, dubbed "China Girl," whose cause of death was possibly strangulation. With no matching reports from missing persons, they suspect she was working as a prostitute, possibly entering the country with a false passport. Robin and Miranda observe the autopsy, where the coroner learns that China Girl was about 17 weeks pregnant. An emotional Miranda leaves the autopsy when she sees the tiny foetus, and she later reveals she is 18 weeks pregnant. Robin is irritated by Miranda, but Adrian insists they work together, because nobody else will work with either of them. They visit brothels, which are legal in Sydney. Robin notices a large stuffed panda at one, Silk 41, and asks Adrian what happened to the one he had in his office. He claims he gave it to his son. Brett goes to Silk 41 to find Cinnamon, and is eventually told she went to Canberra. He refuses to believe she would without telling him. Robin finally works up the courage to contact Mary, leaving a letter at the Edwards' home. She first meets with Pyke and Julia at his office, and Julia angrily informs her that Mary's behavioural problems began four years earlier, after she never received a reply to the letter she sent Robin. She chastises her for not having the decency to respond, and that Mary agonised over whether she had said something wrong in the letter. Julia storms off, but Pyke is more patient and listen as Robin explains she was just 16 years old when Mary was born. Robin is able to meet Mary, who behaves oddly and exhibits very low self-esteem. Mary reveals she assumed that she was the product of rape, which Robin confirms. Mary volunteers to murder her mother's rapist, and Robin confesses that she never knew who the father was, being a victim of a gang rape. A DNA test on the male foetus reveals China Girl was not his biological mother, mystifying the pathologist. Robin, though, realises the dead girl was acting as a surrogate mother, changing the course of the investigation.

9
3
"Surrogate"
Ariel Kleiman
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
10 August 2017 (2017-08-10)
1.97

Robin believes that China Girl was acting as an illegal surrogate, as the law states surrogates must be over 25 and have already had a child of their own, and thus the biological parents were working outside the normal system. She and Miranda visit a fertility clinic, where a doctor tells Robin that although many parents may be desperate enough to try illegal surrogacy, that would bring great risk as the law would side with the surrogate mother, who could decide to keep the child. Robin comes out to see Miranda arguing with the receptionist. Robin gets a lead after potentially finding the biological parents for whom China Girl was a surrogate, after a mentally unstable woman is wandering in traffic, crying about her missing baby. Robin visits the woman, Felicity, and her husband, Mike, in the psychiatric ward. Mike, who has a criminal record for cocaine possession, eventually agrees to take a DNA test. Robin is irritated by Miranda, who smokes and drinks despite her pregnancy, and who is now sleeping with Robin's brother on top of having an affair with the married Adrian. Another detective, Stally, continues to make unwanted advances on Robin. After some investigating, Pyke and Julia confront Puss with the fact that he is already married, causing him to have a bizarre outburst in a restaurant and a further rift between them and Mary. Puss locks himself in his apartment and refuses to see Mary or any of the prostitutes in to see him. After being called by Pyke, Robin takes Mary to her apartment, where Mary breaks down because of Puss refusing to see her. Robin's mediation with Al, now confined to a wheelchair, does not go as planned when he tries to kill her before it begins.

10
4
"Birthday"
Ariel Kleiman
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
17 August 2017 (2017-08-17)
1.92

Puss manipulates Mary to start working as a prostitute when she turns 18, mocking her for her privileged upbringing and implying she thinks she is better than her friends at the brothel. Pyke and Mary attend her school's Daddy/Daughter dance, which he has been looking forward to. Mary at first stops to check on Puss, who talks his way into attending, claiming he is her "Daddy." At the dance, he interrupts Pyke and Mary's waltz and causes outrage when he begins dancing sexually with Mary, and is thrown out. Brett, who has seen the news about the Asian Jane Doe, contacts the police and gives them a photo of Cinnamon. Upset that the police consider him a suspect, Brett tells them about the creepy guy at the brothel. As he describes him, Robin fears he is talking about Mary's boyfriend. Mary takes some of the prostitutes (whom she claims are students) to the beach with her, Pyke and Robin, to teach them how to swim. Puss comes along and, after noticing Robin's air of hostility towards him, he brings up her rape, makes sexually suggestive remarks and then violently attacks her, biting her on the nose. Mary, screaming and hitting herself in the head, convinces Robin not to press charges. The DNA test reveals that Felicity and Mike are not the biological parents, but Robin is shocked to find out they have three young Asian women as surrogate mothers. Mary asks Dang to start working there, and Dang refuses. On Mary's 18th birthday, Puss takes Mary to a hookers' strip. She says she is afraid and he hits her in the face. He tells her that is worse than what any John will do to her, and now she doesn't have to be afraid, and then leaves her there. Unable to complete the act, she is thrown out of a car by a John, and phones Robin for help. In Robin's car, Mary sees the photo of Cinnamon, whom she recognises. Robin hints that Mary is in great danger. At Robin's apartment, Mary breaks down crying, saying she doesn't know how to leave him.

11
5
"Who's Your Daddy"
Jane Campion
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
24 August 2017 (2017-08-24)[31]
1.69

Mary leaves the safety of Robin's home to reconnect with Puss, who learns from her that Robin is looking into the murder of Cinnamon. Robin tells Pyke about picking Mary up from under the overpass. Pyke wants to kill Puss, and Robin says even she arrests him, she knows he won't be held long. Brett becomes further unhinged after identifying her Cinnamon's body and begins suffering from hallucinations. Miranda has another crying spell at work and admits she fears her baby has died. They return to the same fertility clinic where Miranda shows the receptionist the photo of Cinnamon, and demands to know if she recognises her. Miranda informs her that the girl in the photo was not a student, but a sex worker, and then starts screaming that she wants an ultrasound. Robin takes her out to the beach to calm down, where Miranda reveals she is not actually pregnant and that her pregnancy is being done via surrogacy because of her own fertility issues. Miranda says their surrogate is pregnant with a daughter but has gone missing, and she fears it is because of a miscarriage. Miranda still insists that their surrogate was a student, but Robin asks if Adrian gave her a stuffed panda, because she saw one at Silk 41. A doctor at the fertility clinic, unaware that the girls were sex workers, connects Robin with a couple who identify Cinnamon as their surrogate mother, whose real name was Pathma. With the assistance of Mary's schoolfriend Michaela, Puss directs make some sort of "art film" with the prostitutes and Caucasian babies, set in a Thai village. Mary becomes worried when Caramel, another pregnant girl from Silk 41, is taken away by Puss and Dang. Connected by concern over Mary and Puss, Robin and Pyke grow closer, much to Julia's annoyance and jealousy. Brett, armed with a rifle, shows up at the brothel and demands to see Puss. Puss pushes Mary in front of him and escapes in the elevator as Brett fires the gun.

12
6
"The Battle of the Mothers"
Ariel Kleiman
Jane Campion & Gerard Lee
31 August 2017 (2017-08-31)[31]
1.84

Robin and Pyke make love when she receives a late-night call from Mary. Nobody speaks, but Robin hears people arguing about a taxi fare and Mary screams before the phone is disconnected. Miranda calls and tells her there was a shooting at Silk 41, and that the suspect is Brett Iles, who took Mary hostage. The taxi is found at Bondi Beach, with the taxi driver shot dead. Security footage from the brothel shows Puss escaping as Brett shot Bootie, before leaving with Mary. The security footage also shows another room, in which Miranda spots her surrogate. That room is not at the brothel, and none of the sex workers know its location. The next day, Pyke and Julia go to Mary's school to appeal to her classmates for any information. Michaela tells them about a place on Liverpool Street called Stasi Cafe, where Mary first met Puss. The manhunt for Brett intensifies, but Robin is convinced he's still on Bondi Beach, now packed with people. She notices an empty case of beer that was there the previous night. She and Miranda move in and try to quietly move beachgoers away from the box. One group refuses to move and distracts Robin while Miranda discovers a shoe sticking out from the sand. She kicks the box away to find Brett's face peeking out, his eyes closed. Miranda moves in to check his pulse. Robin yells at Miranda to draw her weapon but she freezes. Brett suddenly pulls the rifle out of the sand and shoots Miranda in the abdomen. Robin jumps on him, her gun to his head, demanding to know where Mary is. Meanwhile, Mary shows up at home, unharmed. Crying, Julia begs her to stay, promising that she will change and try to understand her, but Mary leaves. Robin visits the hospital, where Miranda is in a coma, her outlook grim. Adrian vows to tell everyone he loves her, and begs Robin to find their surrogate. Robin finds Pyke at Stasi Cafe, where they kiss and embrace. He leaves after getting a text from Julia informing him that Mary's passport is missing. Robin then finds Puss in the kitchen, where she cuts him with a kitchen knife. He claims that Cinnamon hanged herself. Robin puts her gun to his head and he discloses the address of the missing surrogates, giving her the key. She shows up to find not only Adrian but the other expectant couples, including Felicia and Mike, all of whom received calls from their surrogates. They find the apartment empty, with a DVD left behind. Meanwhile, Mary escorts the dozen or so surrogates through the airport. Puss shows up as they board the plane, and Mary, upset, tells him that she could have been shot while he fled. He lies and tells her the elevator doors closed and he couldn't do anything. She asks what will happen to the babies and who will love them, and he tells them the "people who made them" will buy them back. She pulls away and he slaps her. She hits him back, over and over. Caramel calls for Mary, but she refuses to board and watches him leave. At the apartment, Adrian plays the DVD, which shows the video shot at the brothel of the Thai women with the babies. Puss narrates, mocking the parents, and accusing the West of exploiting the bodies of oppressed Asian women through prostitution and now surrogacy. He declares that their babies have flown away but each one will bring enough money to feed an entire poor village, as the video shows Bootie handing a bundle of cash in exchange for a white baby. Robin rushes to the airport, while the couples become hysterical, begging Adrian to call the airport and detain the women who are kidnapping their children. Adrian, stunned, tells them there is nothing that can be done legally, as the women can do whatever they want, even while pregnant with another mother's child. Robin arrives at the airport and finds an empty gate, with just the stuffed panda. Mary, however, is safe with her parents. Robin arrives at the Edwards' home, where Julia says she and Pyke are going to give it another try as a couple. Before she leaves, Robin asks if she can borrow the DVD Pyke told her about, showing Mary growing up. Julia protests and says it is their only copy, so Pyke says he will come pick it up as soon as Robin has finished watching it, which Robin says she will do that evening. Julia looks concerned, but says nothing. Later that night, Robin watches the video, crying happy tears, then looks up as she hears a knock on her door – presumably from Pyke.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Reviews of Top of the Lake have been positive, referring to the series as "masterfully made", "beautiful", "mysterious", "riveting", and "a masterpiece".[32][33][34][35][36] It received a score of 86 out of 100 from Metacritic[37] and a score of 93 per cent from Rotten Tomatoes.[38]

text: There were also some less positive reviews. Mike Hale of The New York Times criticized the "elaborately introduced plotlines" and described Tui's disappearance as "less a story element than a metaphor for the kind of armed resistance to male hegemony that constitutes the central idea of Ms Campion’s body of work."[39]

text: Top of the Lake was lauded by feminist critics[40] for its explicit effort to analyse rape culture[41] as well as its radical construction of narratives entirely foregrounding the experiences of single women.[citation needed]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: AACTA Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated artist/work
Result

2014
Best Telefeature, Mini Series or Short Run Series
Emile Sherman, Iain Canning, Jane Campion and Philippa Campbell
Won

Best Direction in a Drama or Comedy
Garth Davis for "The Dark Creator"
Nominated

Best Guest or Supporting Actor in a Television Drama
Peter Mullan
Nominated

Best Guest or Supporting Actress in a Television Drama
Robyn Nevin
Nominated

Best Cinematography in Television
Adam Arkapaw for Episode 5: "The Dark Creator"
Won

Best Sound in Television
Richard Flynn, Tony Vaccher, John Dennison, Craig Butters, Danny Longhurst and Blair Slater, for Episode 5: "The Dark Creator"
Won

Best Original Music Score in Television
Mark Bradshaw, for Episode 5: "The Dark Creator"
Nominated

Best Production Design in Television
Fiona Crombie for Episode 5: "The Dark Creator"
Nominated

Best Costume Design in Television
Emily Seresin for Episode 5: "The Dark Creator"
Nominated

Best Editing in Television
Scott Gray for Episode 5: "The Dark Creator"
Nominated

text: Critics' Choice Television Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated artist/work
Result

2013
Best Movie/Miniseries
—
Nominated

Best Actress in a Movie/Miniseries
Elisabeth Moss
Won

Best Supporting Actor in a Movie/Miniseries
Peter Mullan
Nominated

Best Supporting Actor in a Movie/Miniseries
David Wenham
Nominated

Best Supporting Actor in a Movie/Miniseries
Thomas M. Wright
Nominated

text: Emmy Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated artist/work
Result

2013
Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Miniseries or Movie

Nominated

Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie
Elisabeth Moss
Nominated

Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie
Peter Mullan
Nominated

Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie, or Dramatic Special
Jane Campion, Garth Davis
Nominated

Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries, Movie, or Dramatic Special
Jane Campion, Gerard Lee
Nominated

Creative Arts Emmy Awards

Outstanding Casting for a Miniseries, Movie, or Special

Nominated

Outstanding Cinematography for a Miniseries or Movie
Episode: "Part 1"
Won

Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Miniseries or Movie
Episode: "Part 5"
Nominated

text: Golden Globe Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated artist/work
Result

2014
Best Miniseries or Television Film
—
Nominated

Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film
Elisabeth Moss
Won

text: Golden Nymph Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated artist/work
Result

2014
Best Miniseries
—
Won

Best Actor — Miniseries
Peter Mullan
Won

Best Actress — Miniseries
Elisabeth Moss
Won

text: Screen Actors Guild Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Nominated artist/work
Result

2014
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie
Elisabeth Moss
Nominated

2014
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie
Holly Hunter
Nominated

text: New Zealand Film Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Result
Ref

2013
Best Television Feature or Drama Series
Won
[42]

text: Screen Producers Australia Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Result
Ref

2013
Drama Television Production of the Year
Won
[43]

text: Equity Ensemble Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Category
Result
Ref

2013
Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Miniseries or Telemovie
Won
[44]