document_title: List of The Haves and the Have Nots episodes

question_text: when does the next episode of the haves and the have nots come on

text: Series overview[edit]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)11"The Big Surprise"May 28, 2013 (2013-05-28)1.77[7]
The Cryer family has prepared a surprise 50th birthday celebration for Jim, but as he arrives, he is stunned when he sees that his latest mistress, Candace, has become friendly with his daughter Amanda and is partaking in the festivities.
22"Playing in the Deep End"May 28, 2013 (2013-05-28)1.81[7]
Jim has repeatedly requested that Candace leave the family's home, but she continues to disobey him by staying with Amanda.
33"Beautifully Dysfunctional"June 4, 2013 (2013-06-04)1.47[8]
Candace commits some mischievous acts that put Jim's career in jeopardy.
44"Entering the Race"June 11, 2013 (2013-06-11)1.31[9]
After Jim announces that he plans to run for Governor, Candace holds the affair against Jim and threatens to reveal the news to the media. Hanna is shocked when she discovers an eviction notice on her door.
55"A Woman's Pride"June 18, 2013 (2013-06-18)1.32[10]
After her eviction, Hanna goes to Benny with questions regarding possibly adjusting the mortgage on her home.
66"Angry Sex"June 25, 2013 (2013-06-25)1.82[11]
Jim falls into Candace's vindictive trap once again and David is irked by the fact that Jim is unable to control himself.
77"A True Friend"July 2, 2013 (2013-07-02)1.54[12]
Amanda has Wyatt and Jeffrey assist her with the move into her new apartment while Hanna is set up on a blind date by Benny.
88"The Criminal"July 9, 2013 (2013-07-09)1.56[13]
Benny prepares for his date by asking to borrow a car, but is arrested and charged with drug possession after falling trap to someone's malicious intent. Amanda seduces her law professor to raise her grade.
99"The Set Up"July 16, 2013 (2013-07-16)1.61[14]
Katheryn ends up bonding with Hanna over their issues.
1010"Number Nine"July 23, 2013 (2013-07-23)1.80[15]
Katheryn shames Candace directly after Jim reveals his affair.
1111"Not My Daughter"July 30, 2013 (2013-07-30)1.87[16]
Katheryn tells everyone that she is leaving for vacation, but that turns out to be false.
1212"In Recovery"August 6, 2013 (2013-08-06)2.02[17]
Jim and Candace end up in a verbal and physical altercation.
1313"What Are You Doing Here?"August 13, 2013 (2013-08-13)2.14[18]
Information is discovered by a detective that links Benny and Tony. Veronica continues to work toward answers for Benny's case.
1414"My Name Is Veronica"August 20, 2013 (2013-08-20)2.05[19]
Katheryn gets nervous when her secret almost goes public.
1515"The Truth Will Set You Free"August 27, 2013 (2013-08-27)2.32[20]
After her secret is revealed, Katheryn tells everyone what she really knows about Jim's secret activities. Jeffrey finally discloses his love for Wyatt.
1616"No More Hiding"September 3, 2013 (2013-09-03)2.61[21]
Jeffery comes out to his parents; Hanna discloses information to Benny about Tony being his father; Amanda learns about her inheritance; and Wyatt relapses and has a life-changing accident.

text: Season 2 (2014)[edit]

text: The fifth episode in Season 2 of The Haves and the Have Nots, "Why Didn't You Tell Me?" was not only a series high episode in ratings, but the most watched television program in all of cable for the night.[22] The episode brought in 3.4 million viewers.[23] Among all OWN programming since the network's January 2011 debut, only a March 2012 Oprah's Next Chapter interview with Bobbi Kristina has drawn more viewers (3.5 million) than the February-4-2014 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots.[22] On Tuesday, March 11, 2014, however, a season 2 episode of The Haves and the Have Nots—following a hiatus within the season—set a record for all of OWN programming, scoring the highest ratings in the station's history. The record-breaking episode brought in 3.6 million viewers.[24] Additionally, the episode came in at number 1 among all of cable television and number 4 among all shows on television for its airing night.[23]

text:
Season 2 episodesNo.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)171"The Black Sedan"January 7, 2014 (2014-01-07)2.77[25]
Amanda is having second thoughts about asking for her inheritance. Inside, Katheryn and Jim are arguing about Wyatt's accident Hanna is trying to find out any information about Benny.
182"Wyatt's Nightmare"January 14, 2014 (2014-01-14)2.55[26]
Wyatt kills a little girl after a hit-and-run, and Benny ends up on life support. Jim is unsure of what to do next once his campaign begins to fall apart. Amanda has an emotional breakdown.
193"Family Issues"January 21, 2014 (2014-01-21)2.84[27]
Hanna disagrees with Tony's suggestion to take Benny off life support. Celine and Katheryn have a confrontation about the former's shabby treatment of Hanna.
204"Unanswered Calls"January 28, 2014 (2014-01-28)2.78[28]
Jeffrey comes to the conclusion that Wyatt is the one who's at fault for Benny's condition and Lizzie's death.
215"Why Didn't You Tell Me?"February 4, 2014 (2014-02-04)3.50[29]
Candace talks with Jim to have Benny relocated to a private hospital.
226"Protecting Wyatt"February 11, 2014 (2014-02-11)3.01[30]
Jim does everything in his power to keep Wyatt from going to jail. Tony confronts Hanna and serves her with court papers.
237"Amanda's Revenge"February 18, 2014 (2014-02-18)3.21[31]
Amanda breaks into her professor's home while his family is asleep. Candace is chosen by Hanna to represent her in court.
248"Maggie's Plan"February 25, 2014 (2014-02-25)2.88[32]
As Jim gets ready to announce his campaign for Governor, Wyatt's behavior and warnings from Candace becomes too much to handle.
259"March for Justice"March 4, 2014 (2014-03-04)3.04[33]
The judge makes a decision and sides with Tony. Hanna begs Tony on her knees to keep Benny on life support.
2610"Starting the Race"March 11, 2014 (2014-03-11)3.59[34]
Candace tries once again to blackmail Jim and David during their campaign event. Wyatt finally gets arrested.
2711"You'll Be Sorry"May 27, 2014 (2014-05-27)3.11[35]
Wyatt is arrested. Candace is kidnapped by the Malones. Benny shows signs of brain activity.
2812"The Confession"June 3, 2014 (2014-06-03)2.62[36]
Jim conspires to save his son. Amanda gets a gun. Benny improves.
2913"Donald"June 10, 2014 (2014-06-10)2.42[37]
Jim proclaims his son's innocence. Quincy pays Hanna a surprise visit in search of Candace.
3014"The Awakening"June 17, 2014 (2014-06-17)2.81[38]
Benny wakes up from his coma.
3115"The Vulnerable"June 24, 2014 (2014-06-24)2.92[39]
Benny prepares for his release from the hospital. Hanna plans to testify against Wyatt. Maggie tries to seduce David.
3216"The Sarandon Hotel"July 1, 2014 (2014-07-01)3.47[40]
After escaping her kidnappers, Candace asks Warlock for help. Jeffrey is seduced by Melissa.
3317"Again and Again"July 8, 2014 (2014-07-08)3.32[41]
David is compromised. Jim is plotting. Candace is panicking.
3418"Something's Wrong With Amanda"July 15, 2014 (2014-07-15)3.26[42]
Amanda leaves the Cryer estate with Quincy. Candace hides out at Jeffrey's apartment. Katheryn and Celine get into another confrontation. Benny has conversation with Tony and later tries to restore peace between Hanna and Candace.
3519"Norman Hewens"July 22, 2014 (2014-07-22)2.86[43]
A news report claiming that another person is responsible for the hit-and-run saves Wyatt from jail. Katheryn berates Jim about his evil deeds. Hanna attempts to apologize to Jim for her hand in the tragedy, but he won't have it and orders her off his property; however, Katheryn has a tearful and beautiful reunion with her best friend, and offers Hanna her job back and to begin after Benny is settled in. Katheryn then tells Jim off about his attitude towards Hanna and orders him to keep Celine under control or else.
3620"Checkmate"July 29, 2014 (2014-07-29)3.49[44]
Jim is confronted by Carlos, his illegitimate son with Celine. Katheryn's celebratory dinner party goes awry when Quincy, Candace's ex, shows up as Amanda's date. David and Veronica continue to battle over the fact that Jeffrey is gay. Candace seeks her revenge on Jim. Maggie makes another attempt to sleep with David.

text: Season 3 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)371"The Power Dance"January 6, 2015 (2015-01-06)3.22[45]
Hanna hosts a party for Benny upon his homecoming from the hospital. Jim is being held hostage by Warlock under Candace's orders.
382"The War Room"January 13, 2015 (2015-01-13)2.91[46]
Hanna seeks information about Quincy's mother so she can get one step closer to finding her grandson. Maggie continues her pursuit of David.
393"A Southern Brawl"January 20, 2015 (2015-01-20)2.60[47]
Veronica and Maggie have an outraged fight after Veronica catches David in Maggie's hotel room. Wyatt gives Celine a taste of reality and he finds out a about his brother Carlos.
404"Amanda's Room"January 27, 2015 (2015-01-27)2.98[48]
Jim gives up and finally gives in to Candace's demands.
415"The Press Conference"February 3, 2015 (2015-02-03)2.89[49]
Everyone prepares for Jim's announcement for Governor but he is nowhere to be found other than still being held against his will by Candace. Katheryn gets some devastating news.
426"A Tragic Day"February 10, 2015 (2015-02-10)3.42[50]
Everyone else is assembled at the Cryer mansion during a family tragedy.
437"April 7, 1979"February 17, 2015 (2015-02-17)3.22[51]
Katheryn tells the story of how she first met Jim.
448"In Crisis"February 24, 2015 (2015-02-24)3.28[52]
Emotions and rage get the best of Jim and Wyatt. Katheryn and David try to tell Veronica how wrong she is about Jeffery.
459"A Talk with Jim"March 3, 2015 (2015-03-03)2.90[53]
Benny is convinced that Candace has changed her ways. Hanna comforts Katheryn.
4610"Oscar"March 10, 2015 (2015-03-10)3.02[54]
Hanna comforts Jim after Amanda's death. Candace meets a new guy.
4711"Unglued"March 17, 2015 (2015-03-17)3.02[55]
David is angry at Veronica for telling Quincy to beat up Jeffrey and Veronica spirals out of control, especially since she thinks that Maggie is trying to steal David away form her.
4812"Enough is Enough"March 24, 2015 (2015-03-24)3.50[56]
Benny searches for Quincy after he shows up at Hanna's home.
4913"Two Funerals"June 30, 2015 (2015-06-30)3.29[57]
Veronica starts a fire that destroys her mansion and almost claims David's life.
5014"In Memoriam"July 7, 2015 (2015-07-07)2.79[58]
The Cryer family prepares for Amanda's funeral. Wyatt's confession to D.A. Sallison sparks controversy.
5115"Nine Lives"July 14, 2015 (2015-07-14)3.17[59]
Hanna finds out that Jim and Katheryn were holding Candace hostage.
5216"The Cougar"July 21, 2015 (2015-07-21)2.85[60]
Hanna covers for Benny after she discovers him in bed with Veronica.
5317"Candace Young, Esq."July 28, 2015 (2015-07-28)3.01[61]
Candace shows Benny where she works.
5418"Benny Does Battle"August 4, 2015 (2015-08-04)3.17[62]
Quincy is hurt from the accident involving Benny.
5519"Quincy Jr."August 11, 2015 (2015-08-11)3.12[63]
Hanna is reunited with Q.
5620"A Home For Q"August 18, 2015 (2015-08-18)3.06[65]
Candace learns that Hanna is seeking custody of Q; and the Cryers and Harringtons try to convince the D.A. that Wyatt's taped confession is a misunderstanding.[64]
5721"Candace's Closing"August 25, 2015 (2015-08-25)3.19[66]
Candace buys property with the money she extorted from Jim; and Jim is interviewed on TV.
5822"Dianna Winchill"September 1, 2015 (2015-09-01)3.23[67]
While Jim is being interviewed by Dianna Winchill, a surprise guest arrives. Veronica tells Jim that she had planned Wyatt's attack in prison, leading Jim to attack her and later put a hit on her, Professor Cannon, and Prison Guard Terrell by calling three hitmen and ordering a "bloodbath."
5923"Vetted"September 8, 2015 (2015-09-08)3.28[68]
Hanna grows suspicious of Benny's involvement with Veronica and how he acquired his new house; Quincy drives a car through Hanna's home in spite of revenge; Candace decides to let her guard down with Oscar.
6024"Sheep's Clothing"September 15, 2015 (2015-09-15)3.13[69]
Hanna becomes devastated when she learns that Quincy set her house on fire; Maggie tries to talk David into running for Governor; Jeffrey gives Wyatt the necessary ammunition to take his parents down.
6125"When The Chickens Come Home"September 22, 2015 (2015-09-22)3.71[70]
Hanna and Benny force Candace to tell the truth about everything. Oscar reveals his true colors to Candace.

text: Season 4 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)621"The Waters Run Deep"January 5, 2016 (2016-01-05)3.11[71]
Candace and Jeffrey disagree on what to do with Quincy's body when interrupted by a knock on the door. The Cryer and Harrington clan face repercussions.

Note: Actress Eva Tamargo who portrays Celine Gonzales leaves the main cast this season, although she is still featured in the opening sequence in the season 4 premiere.
632"Paid In Full"January 12, 2016 (2016-01-12)2.73[72]
Katheryn has had a lot of time for reflection while cooling her heels behind bars with Veronica. Candace and Jeffery get a visit from the police because of a nosy neighbor.
643"The Right Medicine"January 19, 2016 (2016-01-19)2.94[73]
Hanna discovers about her grandson's medical troubles. Katheryn is taken aback by the photo of Veronica in the arms of another man. Quincy wakes up and begs for Candace's help.
654"An Evil Soul"January 26, 2016 (2016-01-26)3.02[74]
Katheryn is unshaken by the DA's attempt to push. Candace's lies catch up with her when she receives a visit form Warlock.
665"Immunity"February 2, 2016 (2016-02-02)2.90[75]
Benny agrees to help Candace hide evidence in Quincy's murder.
676"Making Millions"February 9, 2016 (2016-02-09)2.81[76]
Quincy Jr. passes out on Hanna after getting really sick and is rushed to the hospital and placed in ICU. Candace finally learns that Wyatt hit Benny and goes up to Benny to talk to him about suing the Cryers.
687"A Front Row Seat"February 16, 2016 (2016-02-16)2.95[77]
Maggie's lie to David could cause her to lose him forever; Katheryn gets out of jail but she can't find anyone to help Jim or Veronica; Candace enlists Erica's help to plot for revenge.
698"Unexpected Visitors"February 23, 2016 (2016-02-23)3.07[78]
Candace interrogates the social worker; Hanna is steaking out at Cryer's mansion waiting for their return; Katheryn goes to visit David but little does she know that Wyatt is one step closer to getting his inheritance.
709"I Choose My Son"March 1, 2016 (2016-03-01)2.80[79]
Quita and Daylon break into Candace's house but are caught by Pearl, who calls her son Justin and his police squad to arrest them; Justin continues to harass Jeffery; Upon Wyatt's confession on hitting her son, Hanna confronts Katheryn.
7110"Beg For What You Need"March 8, 2016 (2016-03-08)2.64[80]
Candace puts a plan into action to save herself and Benny from War's rage. Katheryn pleads with Hanna to not end their friendship. Veronica handles the hired assassin hiding in her house in an unexpected manner.
7211"48 Hours"March 15, 2016 (2016-03-15)2.85[81]
Warlock has pushed up Candace's due date, so she goes to the bank to mortgage the houses and Benny's tow yard.
7312"My Friend Maggie"June 21, 2016 (2016-06-21)2.85[82]
Maggie visit's Veronica's home and gets the surprise of her life.
7413"Criminology 101"June 28, 2016 (2016-06-28)2.63[83]
Veronica treats David with much malice.
7514"Giving Candy To A Baby"July 5, 2016 (2016-07-05)2.70[84]
After talking with Pearl, Hanna hopes to gain custody of Quincy Jr.
7615"The Apple Tree"July 12, 2016 (2016-07-12)2.64[85]
Katheryn tries to process difficult news about one of her closest family members.
7716"The Heart of A Man"July 19, 2016 (2016-07-19)2.70[86]
Veronica and Jeffery go to visit Katheryn but Veronica pushes Jeffery to his limit.
7817"An Accident"July 26, 2016 (2016-07-26)3.05[87]
Jeffrey begins to implode so he calls Candace and Justin for help.
7918"A Tragic Assumption"August 2, 2016 (2016-08-02)3.02[88]
Jennifer arrives at Katheryn's house to tell her that Wyatt is alive.
8019"I Am Wolf"August 9, 2016 (2016-08-09)2.89[89]
Jim teams up with a former enemy in his scheme against Candace.
8120"Back In Business"August 16, 2016 (2016-08-16)2.93[90]
Mitch breaks up the fight between David and Benny; David gets some shocking information about Mitch.
8221"The Fugitive"August 23, 2016 (2016-08-23)2.95[91]
The police are on the look out for Hanna so they question Candace and Benny.
8322"The Silk Handkerchief"August 30, 2016 (2016-08-30)2.95[92]
Benny learns the truth of how Candace financed his property. Candace finally tells him the truth about War and how she got the money, and what Mitch did but he doesn't believe her.
8423"Promises Kept"September 6, 2016 (2016-09-06)3.24[93]
Katheryn explodes when she is pushed to the limit. Candace searches for Oscar. Benny finds out the truth about War by Mitch, who also reveals to Benny who he really is.

text: Season 5 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)851"A Cup of Tea"January 3, 2017 (2017-01-03)2.99[94]
Veronica tries to escape the Cryer mansion after the murder of D.A. Jennifer Sallison. Jeffery is still trying to get a hold of Candace, who is out on the search for Oscar. Benny is still upset because of how Candace mortgaged his house and the tow yard.
862"Waiting for Candace"January 10, 2017 (2017-01-10)2.16[95]
Veronica and Katheryn have a fight. Benny holds hope that Candace will come through with the money.
873"It's Ok to Love"January 17, 2017 (2017-01-17)2.68[96]
Veronica is still trying to escape Katheryn's house. Erica calls Candace to give her an update on things with David.
884"A Mother's Wisdom"January 24, 2017 (2017-01-24)2.36[97]
Veronica wants to meet with Candace and Jeffery. Jim returns home to help Katheryn clean up a mess she has created.
895"Brilliant Lawyers Lurking"January 31, 2017 (2017-01-31)2.70[98]
Veronica helps Candace and Jeffery out of a precarious predicament.
906"A Hurricane Offshore"February 7, 2017 (2017-02-07)2.75[99]
Veronica pays Erica a visit. Candace encounters Oscar again. Quita finds Wyatt's place and tells him that she's going to take his money.
917"Pieces of The Puzzle"February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)2.58[100]
Veronica lets Jim know that if anything happens to her she has dirt on him. Hanna questions Benny and Candace about what they did to Quincy.
928"Praying for Light"February 21, 2017 (2017-02-21)2.76[101]
Veronica planted a camera in those flowers she delivered to Erica. Hanna does all she can to keep the peace in her family.
939"We All Need Forgiveness"February 28, 2017 (2017-02-28)2.33[102]
Veronica tells Justin to stay away from Jeffery. Candace makes Charles her latest Mark.
9410"Forget The Bubble"March 7, 2017 (2017-03-07)2.41[103]
Veronica is pushing Jeffery's buttons. Erica is caught sleeping with David by War.
9511"In Pursuit of Prey"March 14, 2017 (2017-03-14)3.20[104]
Veronica tries to seduce Benny. Warlock looks for Candace and Erica reveals her true colors. Mitch returns from jail. Katheryn leaves Jim. Wyatt checks himself into rehab of his own volition.
9612"The Fallout From War"June 20, 2017 (2017-06-20)2.68[105]
In the aftermath of the shootout it is revealed that Quincy Jr is dead. Veronica goes in a rage after Melissa attempts suicide in her bed.
9713"My Grandson's War"June 27, 2017 (2017-06-27)2.44[106]
Veronica and Katheryn came face-to-face. Katheryn was able to be the friend that Hanna needed in comfort; Mama Rose inflict a bit of fear into Jim.
9814"Mad Day"July 11, 2017 (2017-07-11)2.33[107]
Veronica intervened and proved her skills by representing Benny. Jim taunts Veronica. Hanna found herself at Katheryn's new rental home.
9915"A Woman Under the Stairs"July 18, 2017 (2017-07-18)2.43[108]
Veronica threatens to reveal Officer Justin's secret and accuses him of sexually harassing Jeffrey. David and Jim find their sons. Charles reveals to Candace who he really is.
10016"Railroad"July 25, 2017 (2017-07-25)2.43[109]
Veronica visits Melissa at the hospital. Katheryn helps Hanna deal with Benny's situation. Wyatt gets released from the hospital. Charles beats Candace at her own game.
10117"Elevator Seven"August 1, 2017 (2017-08-01)2.30[110]
Veronica confronts Erica and David on the elevator about their relationship. Landon tries to warn Charles about Candace. Jeffrey meets up with Landon.
10218"A Broken Mirror"August 8, 2017 (2017-08-08)2.33[111]
Veronica catches Officer Justin in Jeffrey's hotel room, and records Officer Justin. Jim is trying to find Warlock before Mamma Rose does.
10319"Haunted By The Surname"August 15, 2017 (2017-08-15)2.40[112]
Veronica is confronted by Officer Justin. Candace starts to see Erica for who she truly is. Candace gets some devastating news about her son, Quincy Jr.
10420"The Enemy Called Trust"August 22, 2017 (2017-08-22)2.52[113]
Veronica tells Landon to stay away her son. Jim is shocked to see that his house is on fire. Candace ask Mitch for a favor. Warlock gets caught in a deadly trap.
10521"Kate"August 29, 2017 (2017-08-29)2.64[114]
Veronica makes Melissa clean her blood out of her bed. Jim and Katheryn implode with emotion and Jim begs her for retribution.
10622"For The Team"September 5, 2017 (2017-09-05)2.61[115]
Veronica gives Jeffrey and Officer Justin an ultimatum. Candace and Benny are at odds with each other. David tells Jeffrey to stay away from Veronica.
10723"The Veronica Show"September 12, 2017 (2017-09-12)2.58[116]
The Young family are all at odds with each other during a visit to the funeral home. Veronica does something that puts Officer Justin at rage. Candace struggles with sorrow and the death of Quincy Jr. Jim confronts Candace at The Artesian Hotel.

text: Season 6 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleOriginal air dateUS viewers(millions)1081"Afraid of Flames"January 9, 2018 (2018-01-09)2.30[117]
In the Season 6 premiere, Hanna is in mourning after the deadly shooting of her grandson; Candace rejects Benny's pleas to help her; and Veronica and Melissa find themselves in a dangerous situation.
1092"Searching For A Mother's Love"January 16, 2018 (2018-01-16)2.34[118]
Benny and Mitch risk their lives to save victims of a horrific auto accident; and Justin professes his love and lust for Jeffery.
1103"Undercover Vice"January 23, 2018 (2018-01-23)2.25[119]
David learns of Jeffrey's whereabouts; Hanna and Benny confront Candace.
1114"The Lion"January 30, 2018 (2018-01-30)2.20[120]
Hanna reveals a deep, dark secret; David calls upon Katheryn for help with Jeffrey.
1125"Errand Boy"February 6, 2018 (2018-02-06)2.17[121]
Justin continues his pursuit of Jeffery; Candace and Benny fight to keep their strong sibling relationship.
1136"Hanna's Tea"February 13, 2018 (2018-02-13)2.24[122]
Veronica returns home after her stay in the hospital; Candace and Jeffrey's murder of Quincy catches up with them and are faced with some serious consequences; Katheryn shows her new home to Hanna, where she meets a new man.
1147"Every Six Months"February 20, 2018 (2018-02-20)2.24[123]
Candace gets released from jail while David fights to get Jeffrey out.
1158"Wicked"February 27, 2018 (2018-02-27)2.02[124]
Sarah and George make progress in prosecuting the Cryers; Veronica hatches up a scheme against David.
1169"An Eye For An Eye"March 6, 2018 (2018-03-06)2.03[125]
David confronts Hanna about Benny and Jeffery; Charles is determined to see Candace; Veronica learns that Melissa has been drinking while pregnant; Hanna learns of Benny's recent encounter with Veronica; Katheryn confronts Jim about Jennifer Sallison; Wyatt learns about Jeffery being in jail.
11710"A Lover's Passions"March 13, 2018 (2018-03-13)2.08[126]
Candace works on a new plan to recoup her money from the Cryers; Veronica is preoccupied by an all-consuming desire for revenge; Hanna gets ready for her date with Derrick.
11811"Veronica's House"May 1, 2018 (2018-05-01)1.55[127]
Veronica finds out that David moved Erica into her dream home and also lets David know that she is the only queen in the world to reclaim her kingdom; Candace reverts to her old ways by drugging Oscar's drink in order to get her money back; Veronica and Justin have another confrontation; Hanna goes out on her date with Derrick; Melissa seduces Benny again; and Wyatt has a major relapse that spirals out of control.
11912"In His Eyes"May 8, 2018 (2018-05-08)1.74[128]
After Veronica catches Benny with Melissa in her house the two get into a fight, forcing Veronica to throw Melissa out, leaving her with no place to go. This prompts Benny to let Melissa stay with him; Hanna encounters singer Stephanie Mills on her date; Wyatt is forced to make a life-threatening decision; Candace enacts her new money scheme like a boss; Jim and Katheryn come to a revelation about their bad parenting skills; Justin tries to make Jeffery jealous; and Candace panics when Oscar won't wake up after finding him totally unconscious.
12013"The Right Cocktail"May 15, 2018 (2018-05-15)1.72[129]
After Candace revives Oscar, she reminds him of her getting her money back; Veronica makes Jeffery an unexpected offer; Wyatt's situation lands him in hot water; Candace decided to drop Gia after learning her money deposit is processing; Hanna gives Melissa advice regarding her and the baby; Veronica schemes to get back at Benny; and Hanna returns to work.
12114"The Rabbit and the Water Moccasin"May 22, 2018 (2018-05-22)1.79[130]
Wyatt learns the advantage and disadvantage of drug use.
12215"The Third Quarter"May 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)1.90[131]
Benny wants to return the money to the Malones but discovers it's not that simple.
12316"No Honor In This Game"June 5, 2018 (2018-06-05)1.81[132]
Katheryn learns that Wyatt's anger for her comes from deep childhood scars.
12417"The Broken Washer"June 12, 2018 (2018-06-12)1.80[133]
Veronica and Candace scheme up a plan to hurt David.
12518"Sugar Mamma"June 19, 2018 (2018-06-19)1.92[134]
Officer Justin shows Jeffery just how serious he is about being with him.
12619"Team of Rivals"June 26, 2018 (2018-06-26)1.95[135]
David is pushed to a point by Veronica that he didn't know he had.
12720"Smitten"July 3, 2018 (2018-07-03)1.65[136]
Charles learns that Landon may have ulterior motives.
12821"Moles"July 10, 2018 (2018-07-10)1.95[137]
Benny's arrest forces Candace to return to her old tricks to make some quick cash to leave town.
12922"Til Death Do Us Part"July 17, 2018 (2018-07-17)2.21[138]
Candace and Jim are up to their old tricks; people are caught in the crossfire of Veronica's wicked plots and intimidations.
13023"The Road to Hell"August 14, 2018 (2018-08-14)1.92[139]
After being pushed to the limit Veronica finally gets her revenge.
13124"The Black Dress"August 21, 2018 (2018-08-21)1.90[140]
David learns Erica's fate while being rushed to the hospital; the truth about Mitch's uncle comes out, and the Malones now have a new target.
13225"A Father's Regret"August 28, 2018 (2018-08-28)2.06[141]
An explosion in this small town sets more on fire than just a car.
13326"The Damned Defibrillator"September 4, 2018 (2018-09-04)1.84[142]
While David remains in the hospital, Veronica gets a surprising shock of her own.
13427"Laugh Not To Cry"September 11, 2018 (2018-09-11)2.11[143]
Veronica convinces RK to do some of her dirty work.
13528"Stronger Together"October 2, 2018 (2018-10-02)1.65[144]
Candace's plans begins to unravel as Benny learns of what she did to Hanna.
13629"The Black Man...."October 9, 2018 (2018-10-09)1.78[145]
Jim tries to save Wyatt from jail, and Jeffrey deals with an unexpected guest.
13730"Three's a Crowd"October 16, 2018 (2018-10-16)1.72[146]
Candace comes face-to-face with Katheryn Cryer.
13831"The Chosen"October 23, 2018 (2018-10-23)1.73[147]
Charles, the future president of the United States is back and chooses Candace.
13932"The Committee"October 30, 2018 (2018-10-30)TBD
Jeffery's scare with David brings him closer to Nurse Madison as the FBI gets one step closer to Veronica's wicked trail.
14033"Exhausted"November 6, 2018 (2018-11-06)TBD
Jim thinks that he's holding of all of the cards, but there is a ticking time bomb coming his way.


document_title: List of To Kill a Mockingbird characters

question_text: jems real name in to kill a mockingbird

question_tokens: jems real name in to kill a mockingbird

root

text: Primary characters[edit]

text: Atticus Finch[edit]

text: Atticus Finch is the middle-aged father of Jem and Scout Finch. He is a lawyer and was once known as "the deadliest shot in Maycomb County". Although he was a good shot, he does not like to mention the fact as he does not like the thought of having an advantage over people. He appears to support racial equality and was appointed to represent Tom Robinson, a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman, Mayella Ewell. The town disapproves of him defending Tom especially when he makes clear his intent to defend Tom Robinson to the best of his abilities. He is portrayed by Gregory Peck in the film adaptation of To Kill a Mockingbird.

tag: p

text: "Scout" Finch[edit]

text: Jean Louise "Scout" Finch is the narrator and To Kill a Mockingbird is told by an adult Scout who often comments on how she could not understand something at the time but now can appreciate it. She gets in trouble with her teacher Miss Caroline because Miss Caroline expects Scout to learn reading and writing her way. She is a tomboy and spends the most of her time with her brother Jem and best friend Dill. To Jem's advice to pretend to be a lady and start sewing or something, she answers 'Hell no.' The rare hints the narrator gives us about her grown-up life reveal that she ultimately hasn't changed herself for others.[2]

text: She matures from age 6 to age 9 as the novel progresses but remains naive and idealistic, despite an increased understanding of human nature and racism in her town. At the beginning of the book, Scout is confused by some of the words and names she hears people directing towards her father, such as "nigger-lover". Being only six, Scout does not know how to handle such situations so she tries to resolve her problems by fighting, or by talking to Atticus about what she has heard. By the end of the book, Scout realizes that racism does exist and comes to terms with its presence in her town. Scout also learns how to deal with others, including the Finch family housekeeper, Calpurnia, and her aunt, Alexandra. Scout is the only one of the novel's primary three children (Dill, Jem, and herself) to see and speak to Boo Radley during the course of the novel and realize that he is harmless, despite her initial fear of him. She also stops a mob that is trying to lynch Tom Robinson by talking to the mob leader, Mr. Cunningham, about inviting his son, Walter, over for dinner. Mr. Cunningham then tells the other mob members to get back in their cars and leave them alone. The members listen, and Scout unintentionally saves Tom Robinson's life. She is portrayed by Mary Badham in the film adaption of To Kill a Mockingbird.

text: Notable quote: "Until I feared I would lose it, I never loved to read. One does not love breathing." [3]

text: "Jem" Finch[edit]

text: Jeremy Atticus "Jem" Finch is Atticus' son and Scout's older brother by four years. Jem matures greatly throughout the course of the novel, much more affected by events than Scout seems to be. Being four years Scout's senior, Jem is seen to have a greater understanding of - and therefore greater difficulty in navigating - the obstacles thrown their way. Jem is seen explaining many things to Scout throughout the novel. Bob Ewell breaks Jem's arm during his assault on the Finch children, subsequently resulting in it being shorter than it had been, in an attempt to protect his sister. He is portrayed by Phillip Alford in the film adaptation of To Kill a Mockingbird.

text: Dill Harris[edit]

text: Charles Baker "Dill" Harris is a short, smart boy who visits Maycomb every summer from Meridian, Mississippi, and stays with his Aunt Rachel (Aunt Stephanie in the film). Dill is the best friend of both Jem and Scout, and his goal throughout the novel is to get Boo Radley to come out of his house. The children concoct many plans to lure Boo Radley out of his house for a few summers until Atticus tells them to stop. In chapter 5 of the novel, Dill promises to marry Scout and they become "engaged". One night Dill runs away from his home in Meridian, arriving in Maycomb County where he hides under Scout's bed. When she finds Dill, he tells both Scout and Atticus that he was chained to a wall in his father's basement; later, he confesses he actually ran away because he felt he was being replaced by his stepfather. Before Dill returned to Meridian after the summer, he went swimming with Jem at the Barker's Eddy creek. Scout, unfortunately, was unable to participate, because both boys were swimming naked.

text: Unlike Scout and Jem, Dill lacks the security of family support. He is unwanted and unloved by his mother and stepfather: "They do get on a lot better without me, I cannot help them any." As Francis (a cousin of Jem and Scout) says, "He hasn't got a home, he just gets passed around from relative to relative." Dill maintains he has no father; he doesn't know where his father might live, or if he will ever come back. He is played by John Megna in the film adaption of To Kill a Mockingbird.

text: This character is believed to be based on author Truman Capote, a childhood friend of Harper Lee.[4]

text: Calpurnia[edit]

text: Calpurnia, nicknamed Cal, is the Finch family's African-American housekeeper, whom the children love and Atticus deeply respects (he remarks in her defense that she "never indulged [the children] like most colored nurses"). She is highly regarded by Atticus. She is an important figure in Scout's life, providing discipline, instruction, and love. She also fills the maternal role for the children after their mother's death. Calpurnia is a mother herself and raised her son, Zeebo, to adulthood. Calpurnia is one of the few black characters in the novel who is able to read and write, and it is she who taught Scout to write. She learned how to read from Miss Maudie's aunt, Miss Buford, who taught her how to read out of Blackstone's Commentaries, a book given to her. Aunt Alexandra despised Calpurnia because Alexandra believed that Calpurnia was not a "maternal figure" for Jem and Scout, especially for Scout.

text: Calpurnia is a member of the First Purchase M.E. African Church in Maycomb. While Scout always hears her speak proper English, she is surprised to learn that Calpurnia does not do so at church, especially with the uneducated members of the congregation.

text: While everyone in the novel is filtered through Scout's perception, Calpurnia in particular appears for a long time more as Scout's idea of her than as a real person. At the beginning of the novel, Scout appears to think of Calpurnia as the wicked stepmother to Scout's own Cinderella. However, towards the end of the book, Scout views Calpurnia as someone she can look up to, and realizes Calpurnia has only protected her over the years. She is played by Estelle Evans in the film.

text: Arthur "Boo" Radley[edit]

text: Arthur "Boo" Radley is a recluse in To Kill a Mockingbird.

text: Maycomb children believe he is a horrible person, due to the rumors spread about him and a trial he underwent as a teenager. It is implied during the story that Boo is a very lonely man who attempts to reach out to Jem and Scout for love and friendship, such as leaving them small gifts and figures in a tree knothole. Scout finally meets him at the very end of the book, when he saves the children's lives from Bob Ewell. Scout describes him as being sickly white, with a thin mouth, thin and feathery hair, and grey eyes, almost as if he were blind. During the same night, when Boo whispers to Scout to walk him back to the Radley house, Scout takes a moment to picture what it would be like to be Boo Radley. While standing on his porch, she realizes his "exile" inside his house is really not that lonely.

text: Boo Radley's heroics in protecting the children from Bob Ewell are covered up by Atticus, Sheriff Tate, and Scout. This can be read as a wise refusal of fame. As Tate notes, if word got out that Boo killed Ewell, Boo would be inundated with gifts and visits, calamitous for him due to his reclusive personality. The precocious Scout recognizes the danger: renown would "kill the mockingbird". Boo Radley is a ghost who haunts the book yet manifests himself at just the right moments in just the right way. He is, arguably, the most potent character in the whole book and as such, inspires the other key characters to save him when he needs saving.

text: After the Tom Robinson trial, Jem and Scout have a different understanding of Boo Radley. "Scout, I think I'm beginning to understand something. I think I'm beginning to understand why Boo Radley's stayed shut up in the house all this time… it's because he wants to stay inside." (23.117)  Having seen a sample of the horrible things their fellow townspeople can do, choosing to stay out of the mess of humanity doesn't seem like such a strange choice.[5]

text: When Boo finally does come out, he has a good reason: Bob Ewell is trying to murder the Finch children. No one sees what happens in the scuffle, but at the end of it, Ewell is dead and Boo carries an unconscious Jem to the Finch house. Finally faced with Boo, Scout doesn't recognize him at first, but suddenly realizes who he is.   Boo Radley is played by Robert Duvall in the film.

text: Judge John Taylor[edit]

text: Judge John Taylor is a white-haired old man with a reputation for running his court in an informal fashion and an enjoyment of singing and dipping tobacco. He is unimportant to the children until he presides over the Tom Robinson trial, in which he shows great distaste for the Ewells and great respect for Atticus. Because of the judge's sympathies for Tom, Bob Ewell breaks into the judge's house while the judge's wife is at church. After the trial, Miss Maudie points out to the children that the judge had tried to help Tom by appointing Atticus to the case instead of Maxwell Green, the new, untried lawyer who usually received court-appointed cases. Judge Taylor knew that Atticus was the only man who would stand a chance at acquitting Tom, or at least would be able to keep the jury thinking for more than just a few minutes. By doing this, Judge Taylor was not giving in or supporting racism. He is portrayed in the film by Paul Fix.

text: Miss Maudie Atkinson[edit]

text: Miss Maude "Maudie" Atkinson lives across the street from the Finch family. She had known the Finches for many years, having been brought up on the Buford place, which was near the Finches' ancestral home, Finch's Landing. She is described as a woman of about 50 who enjoys baking and gardening; her cakes are especially held in high regard. However, she is frequently harassed by devout "Foot-Washing Baptists", who tell her that her enjoyment of gardening is a sin. The Foot-Washing Baptists also believe that women are a sin as well. Miss Maudie befriends Scout and Jem and tells them stories about Atticus as a boy. It is strongly implied that she and Atticus have a more than platonic relationship. Also, she is one of the few adults that Jem and Scout hold in high regard and respect. She does not act condescendingly towards them, even though they are young children. During the course of the novel, her house burns down; however, she shows remarkable courage throughout this (even saying that she wanted to burn it down herself to make more room for her flowers). She is not prejudiced, though she talks caustically to Miss Stephanie Crawford, unlike many of her Southern neighbors, and teaches Scout important lessons about racism and human nature. It is important to note that Miss Maudie fully explains that "it is a sin to kill a mockingbird", whereas Atticus Finch initially brings up the subject but doesn't go into depth. When Jem gets older, and doesn't want to be bothered by Scout, Miss Maudie keeps her from getting angry.  Maudie is played by Rosemary Murphy in the film.

text: Robert E. Lee "Bob" Ewell[edit]

text: Robert E. Lee "Bob" Ewell is the main antagonist of To Kill a Mockingbird. He has a daughter named Mayella and a younger son named Burris, as well as six other unnamed children. He is an alcoholic, poaching game to feed his family because he spends whatever money they legally gain via government "relief checks" on alcohol. It is implied, and evidence suggests, that he was the one who abused his daughter Mayella, not Tom Robinson (the African American man accused of doing so). Although most everybody in town knows that the Ewells are a disgrace and not to be trusted, it is made clear that Tom Robinson was convicted because he is a Negro whose accuser is white. Upon hearing of Tom's death, Bob is absolutely gleeful, gloating about his success. After being humiliated at the trial, however, he goes on a quest for revenge, becoming increasingly violent. He begins by spitting in Atticus' face, followed by a failed attempt to break into the home of Judge Taylor, then finally menacing Helen, the poor widow of Tom Robinson. Ewell later attempts to murder Jem and Scout Finch with a knife to complete his revenge. Boo Radley saves Jem and Scout and it is believed that he kills Ewell with the knife. Heck Tate, the sheriff, puts in the official report that Bob Ewell fell on his own knife and died after lying under a tree for 45 minutes. Ewell is played by James Anderson in the film.

text: Mayella Ewell[edit]

text: Mayella Violet Ewell, 19, is the oldest of the eight Ewell children. Before the trial, Mayella is noted for growing red geraniums outside her otherwise dirty home in order to bring some beauty into her life. Due to her family's living situation, Mayella has no opportunity for human contact or love. She eventually gets so desperate that she attempts to seduce a black man, Tom Robinson, by saving up nickels to send her siblings to go get ice cream so that Mayella can be alone with Tom. Her father sees this through a window and in punishment he beats her. Ewell then finds the sheriff, Heck Tate, and tells him that his daughter has been raped and beaten by Tom. At the trial, Atticus points out that only the right side of Mayella's face is injured, suggesting a left-handed assailant; Tom's left arm is mangled and useless, but Bob Ewell is left-handed. When Atticus asks her if she has any friends, she becomes confused because she does not know what a friend is. During her testimony she is confused by Atticus' polite speech and thinks that his use of "Miss Mayella" is meant to mock her. She testifies against Tom Robinson. Mayella is played by Collin Wilcox in the film.

text: Tom Robinson[edit]

text: Thomas "Tom" Robinson is an African-American who is put on trial for the rape of a white woman, Mayella Ewell. Atticus is assigned to defend him, and stands up to a lynch mob intent on exacting their own justice against him before the trial begins. Tom's left arm is crippled and useless, the result of an accident with a cotton gin when he was a child. Atticus uses this fact as the cornerstone of his defense strategy, pointing out that the nature of Mayella's facial injuries strongly suggest a left-handed assailant. Tom testifies that he had frequently helped Mayella with household chores because he felt sorry for her and the family's difficult life - a statement that shocks the all-white, male jury. Despite Atticus' skilled defense, the jury's racial prejudices lead them to find Tom guilty. Atticus plans to appeal the verdict, but before he can do so, Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape the prison where he is being held. Tom Robinson is played by Brock Peters.

text: Aunt Alexandra[edit]

text: Alexandra Hancock (née Finch) is Atticus' and Jack's sister, married to James "Uncle Jimmy" Hancock. She has a son named Henry and a very spoiled grandson named Francis. Around the middle of the book, Aunt Alexandra decides to leave her husband at Finch's Landing, the Finch family homestead to come stay with the Finches. Aunt Alexandra doesn't consider the black Calpurnia to be a very good motherly figure for Jem and Scout; she disapproves of Scout being a tomboy and wants to make Scout into a southern belle (encouraging her to act more 'lady like').[6] This is the cause of many conflicts between Scout and Alexandra throughout the course of the novel. However, as the trial progresses, Scout comes to see how much her aunt cares for her father and what a strong woman she is. This is especially evidenced by a tea party when Scout is horrified by the racism displayed, and her aunt and Miss Maudie help her deal with her feelings. By the end of the book, it's clear that Alexandra cares very much for her niece and nephew, though she and Scout will probably never really get along.

text: Minor characters[edit]

text: Jack Finch[edit]

text: John Hale "Jack" Finch is Atticus' and Alexandra's younger brother. (He is about 40, which is 10 years younger than Atticus.) Jack smells like alcohol and something sweet, and is said that he and Alexandra have similar features. Jack is a childless doctor who can always make Scout and Jem laugh, and they adore him. He and Miss Maudie are close to the same age; he frequently teases her with marriage proposals, which she always declines. Jack also has a pet cat named Rose Aylmer, who is mentioned during the Christmas visit.

text: Francis Hancock[edit]

text: Francis Hancock is the spoiled grandson of Aunt Alexandra. (The son of her son, Henry Hancock.) Every Christmas, Henry and his wife drop Francis at Finch's Landing, which is the only time Scout and Jem see him. Francis lives in Mobile, Alabama, and is a bit of a tattle-tale. He gets along well with Jem, but often spars with Scout. One Christmas, Francis calls Atticus a "nigger-lover," as well as insisting that he was ruining the family and the likes, which infuriates Scout and causes them to get into a fight. Francis lies about his role in it, telling Uncle Jack that Scout started it by calling him a "whore lady", and Jack therefore punishes Scout. However, she explains the full story and charitably persuades her uncle not to punish Francis about it, but to let Atticus think they had been fighting about something else (although Atticus later discovers the truth).

text: Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose[edit]

text: Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose is an elderly woman who lives near the Finches. She is hated by the children, who run by her house to avoid her. Scout describes Mrs. Dubose as "plain hell." A virulent racist, she calls Atticus a "nigger-lover" to his children's faces, and Jem flies into a rage and ravages Mrs. Dubose's camellia bushes. As a punishment, Jem is required to read to Mrs. Dubose each day for a month. As Jem reads, she experiences a fit of drooling and twitching and does not seem to pay any attention to the words. When an alarm rings, Jem is allowed to leave for the day. She extends the punishment for one extra week and dies shortly after letting Jem go for the last time. Atticus informs him that Mrs. Dubose was terminally ill and had become addicted to morphine. By reading to her, Jem had distracted her so that she could break the addiction. In thanks, she leaves him a candy box with a camellia flower in it; Jem burns the box in anger, but is later seen by Scout admiring the flower. Atticus tells Jem that Mrs. Dubose was the bravest person he ever knew, and she was trying to teach Jem the importance of bravery and true courage to endure anything when the situation is hopeless, as in her morphine addiction.

text: Mr. Heck Tate[edit]

text: Mr. Heck Tate is a friend of Atticus and also the sheriff of Maycomb County. He believes in protecting the innocent although he doesn't usually show it. At the end of the book, the Atticus and Heck argue over whether Jem or Boo Radley should be held responsible for the death of Bob Ewell. Heck eventually persuades Atticus to accept the theory that Ewell accidentally fell on his own knife, thus saving the harmless, reclusive Boo from the public exposure of a criminal trial.

text: Mr. Braxton Underwood[edit]

text: Mr. Braxton Bragg Underwood is a news reporter and a friend of Atticus. He owns and also publishes The Maycomb Tribune. Being a racist, he disagrees with Atticus on principle. He also has a strong belief in justice, as exemplified when he defends Atticus from the Cunningham mob by having his double barrel shotgun loaded and ready to shoot them. He also demonstrates some humanity when he publishes a scathing editorial comparing the killing of Tom Robinson (a cripple) to "the senseless slaughter of songbirds by hunters and children".

text: Mr. Horace Gilmer[edit]

text: Mr. Horace Gilmer is a lawyer from Abbottsville, and is the prosecuting attorney in the Tom Robinson case. Mr. Gilmer is between the ages of forty and sixty. Mr. Gilmer has a slight cast with one eye, which he uses to his advantage in trial. Mr. Gilmer appeared to be racist in his harsh cross-examination of Tom Robinson, but it is hinted at that he is in fact going easy on Tom. He and Atticus are not rivals and talk to each other during recesses during the case.

text: Dr. Reynolds[edit]

text: Dr. Reynolds is the Maycomb doctor. He is well known to Scout and Jem. Scout says that he "had brought Jem and me into the world, had led us through every childhood disease known to man including the time Jem fell out of the tree house, and he had never lost our friendship. Dr. Reynolds said that if we were boil-prone things would have been different..." (ch. 28). He inspects Jem's broken arm and Scout's minor bruises after the attack from Bob Ewell under the tree.

text: Dolphus Raymond[edit]

text: Dolphus Raymond is a white landowner who is jaded by the hypocrisy of the white society and prefers to live among black folks. In fact, he has children with a black woman. Dolphus pretends he is an alcoholic so that the people of Maycomb will have an excuse for his behavior, but in fact he only drinks Coca Cola out of a paper bag to try to hide it. When Dill and Scout discover that he is not a drunk, they are amazed. He shows Scout how sometimes you can pretend to be someone you're not so people will be more understanding of you.

text: Link Deas[edit]

text: Link Deas owns cotton fields and a store in Maycomb who employs Tom and later Helen because she does not get accepted by any other employers in the county due to Tom Robinson's legal troubles. He announces to the court (in defense of Tom) at one point in the trial that he hadn't "had a speck o' trouble outta him" in the eight years Tom had been working for him, and gets sent out by Judge John Taylor for doing so. When Bob Ewell starts threatening Helen after the trial, Mr. Deas fiercely defends her and threatens to have Mr. Ewell arrested if he keeps bothering her. He is on Tom Robinson's side during the trial and remains loyal to the family afterward.

text: Miss Caroline Fisher[edit]

text: Miss Caroline Fisher is Scout's first grade teacher and is new to Maycomb, Alabama and its ways. She attempts to teach the first grade class using a new system which she learned from taking certain college courses (Jem mistakenly refers to it as the "Dewey Decimal System", which is really how library books are organized.). She is upset by Scout's advanced reading capabilities and believes that Scout is receiving lessons from Atticus. She feels as though Scout is trying to outsmart and mock her. In an effort to standardize the class, she forbids Scout from reading with her father. Atticus asks Scout to step into Miss Caroline's skin.  However, he continues to allow Scout to read with him at night so long as she continues to go to school.  Miss Caroline has good intentions but proves quite incompetent as a teacher. When Scout tells Miss Fisher that she shamed a student (Walter Cunningham, Jr.) by giving him lunch money, she raps Scout's palms with a ruler (a punishment unheard of in Maycomb). She is also very sensitive and gets emotionally hurt quite easily, as seen when she cries after Burris Ewell yells at her, "Report and be damned to ye! Ain't no snot-nosed slut of a schoolteacher ever born c'n make me do nothin'! You ain't makin' me go nowhere, missus. You just remember that, you ain't makin' me go nowhere!"  After the Burris Ewell incident, Miss Caroline is seldom seen and soon forgotten.

text: Reverend Sykes[edit]

text: Reverend Sykes is the reverend of the First Purchase M.E. African Church in Maycomb County, where most if not all of the African-American characters go to church. Reverend Sykes forces the congregation to donate 10 dollars for Tom Robinson's family since at the time, Tom's wife, Helen, was having trouble finding work. During the trial, when the courtroom was too packed for the children to find seats, Reverend Sykes lets the kids sit with him up in the colored balcony and even saves their seats for them.

text: Miss Stephanie Crawford[edit]

text: Stephanie Crawford is the neighborhood gossip who claimed that she saw Boo Radley from her bedroom standing outside of her cleaned window one night. Crawford is one of the first on the scene after a loud gunshot is heard behind the Radley house. Because she is the neighborhood gossip, it is unwise to think of anything that she says as true, because most of the time it is not true at all. She is a friend of Alexandra Hancock. She lets Miss Maudie live with her when Miss Maudie's house burns down, supposedly in order to steal Miss Maudie's Lane cake recipe. She is thrilled to pass on gossip to the kids about Boo Radley. She claimed to have witnessed Bob Ewell's threatening Atticus at the Post Office corner as she was returning from the local Jitney Jungle grocery store.

text: In the film, she takes the place of Rachel Haverford and is now Dill's aunt.

text: Miss Rachel Haverford[edit]

text: Miss Rachel Haverford is Dill's aunt and the Finches' next door neighbor. She drank neat whiskey heavily after seeing a rattlesnake coiled in her closet, on her washing, when she hung her negligee up. Even though she can be very hard to deal with, she truly does love her nephew.  Her family name, in the legends of Maycomb County, is synonymous with jackass. She is also a Southern Belle.

text: In the film, she is not a character and Miss Stephanie takes her place as Dill's aunt.

text: Helen Robinson[edit]

text: Helen Robinson is the wife of Tom Robinson. She is spoken about a few times. She has three children. Employed by Link Deas following the death of her husband, she is repeatedly harassed by Bob Ewell when traveling to work. Upon learning of this, Deas threatens Ewell, forcing him to stop. She is an example of how one person's actions can have an effect on a lot of people and she elucidates the hardships that surround the Tom Robinson case.

text: Nathan Radley[edit]

text: Nathan Radley is the brother of Arthur "Boo" Radley and another difficult character to understand in To Kill a Mockingbird. When the children try to catch a view of "Boo" late one night through a window, he shoots over their heads with a shotgun (albeit thinking he was aiming at a black person). Nathan also cements up the knothole in which Arthur leaves little gifts for the children. On the other hand, he helps Miss Maudie by saving some of her belongings when her house is on fire. He is more present than his brother, but equally mysterious.

text: Jessie[edit]

text: Jessie is Mrs. Dubose's black nurse. She is the woman who shoos the children out when Mrs. Dubose has her fits, and she seems to care enormously for Mrs. Dubose. When Jem is forced to stay reading to Mrs. Dubose, Jessie kindly leads Jem and Scout to the door when Mrs. Dubose's alarm goes off. The rumors about Mrs. Dubose concealing a gun about her person involves Jessie; the book says "and even if Mrs. Dubose missed, her girl Jessie wouldn't".

text: Burris Ewell[edit]

text: Burris Ewell is a son of Bob Ewell and a younger sibling of Mayella Ewell as well as the first antagonist of the novel.  Burris is described as being chiefly antagonistic of Little Chuck Little and his teacher Miss Caroline Fisher. He comes to the first day of school, but departs just as everyone else in his family does. Burris is also poor. He has live lice in his hair. Burris also scared his teacher Caroline Fisher. He behaves rudely when she tells him to go home, wash his hair, and come back clean the next day. He refuses, and a student explains to Miss Caroline that Ewell children don't attend school. All they do is show up for the first day, get marked down on the register, and then they miss the entire school year until the first day of the next year. His famous quote was, "Report and be damned to ye! Ain't no snot-nosed slut of a schoolteacher ever born c'n make me do nothin'! You ain't makin' me go nowhere, missus. You just remember that, you ain't makin' me go nowhere!" As of Scout's first year of school (the first grade), Burris has repeated the first grade three times. Burris is also like his father and is very belligerent.

text: Lula[edit]

text: Lula is an African-American woman with a dislike for white people.  She doesn't like the idea of Calpurnia bringing Atticus Finch's children, Jem and Scout, with her to church and tells her so but is overruled by the other congregants. According to James Zeebo, Calpurnia's son, Lula's said to be, "a troublemaker from way back, with fancy ideas and haughty ways." She's threatened with being "churched" (subjected to church discipline) by Reverend Sykes.

text: Mrs. Grace Merriweather[edit]

text: Mrs. Grace Merriweather is the producer of the play in which Scout plays as a ham. She tells Everett that "the ladies of the South Maycomb Alabama Methodist Episcopal Church are behind him one hundred percent." She is mostly known for her devotion to the church and is widely held as the most devout lady in Maycomb; however, like many of her peers, she is very hypocritical and loves to gossip with all the other women.

text: Walter Cunningham, Jr.[edit]

text: Walter Cunningham, Jr. is a child who is almost as old as Jem but is in Scout's class. He lives on a farm. He is too poor to even pay off a 25-cent debt because the Great Depression hit his poor family hard. He doesn't take money because his family can't pay people back in cash.  His father paid Atticus for his service for something a while back with some goods.  Walter is invited over to the Finches' house once, after engaging in a fight with Scout, where he covers up all of his dinner with molasses, much to Scout's vocal dismay. This teaches Scout a lesson in humility and compassion.

text: Walter Cunningham, Sr.[edit]

text: Walter Cunningham, Sr. is Walter Cunningham Jr.'s father. He appears only twice, once at the beginning of the story when he has to pay off the debt to Atticus (Walter Cunningham Sr. was his client) by giving him firewood, vegetables and other supplies. He also leads the mob that comes to lynch Tom Robinson the night before the trial. Only when Scout talks to him about his son and how much he owes to Atticus does he reconsider and call off the mob. Scout innocently shames him because Scout reminds him of all the things that Atticus has done for him and for Maycomb County. After the verdict is given in the trial, Atticus tells Jem that one of the Cunninghams had changed his thoughts about Tom and pleaded that Tom was not guilty to the jury.

text: Little Chuck Little[edit]

text: Little Chuck Little is a student in Scout's first-grade class who has the mindset of an adult. His real name is Charles. He is depicted as chiefly antagonistic of Burris Ewell. He is presented in the novel when Miss Caroline is frightened by Burris' lice. He warned Miss Caroline that if Burris wasn't released from class, he might try something that would put their classmates at risk. When Burris starts advancing on Little Chuck after his warning/veiled insult, Little Chuck's hand moved to his pocket (implying that he was going to pull out a knife) while saying, "Watch your step, Burris. I'd soon's kill you as look at you. Now go home." Scared by Little Chuck's bravery and his implied knife, Burris retreats. From this we see, through the narrative view of Scout, his gentlemanly attitude and how it calms Miss Caroline down. Little Chuck may be even more intelligent than originally meets the eye, as he easily could have been bluffing about the aforementioned implied knife to scare Burris into retreating.

text: Mr. Dick Avery[edit]

text: Mr. Dick Avery is an overweight neighbor who tells Jem and Scout that dramatic changes in the weather are caused by disobedient and misbehaving children. After it snows, they build a snowman that resembles him. Mr. Avery can also be seen in the story pushing a mattress out of a window when Miss Maudie's house catches fire. The kids, including Jem and Scout, always waited for him to do something interesting. For instance, Jem claims that one night he urinated from his front porch in an impressive arc.

text: Miss Gates[edit]

text: Miss Gates is a third grade teacher at Scout's school who insists that America isn't prejudiced like Hitler's Germany. Despite this, Scout has heard her say that the blacks need to be taught a lesson after Tom's trial.

text: Eula May[edit]

text: Eula May is Maycomb's most prominent telephone operator. She sends out public announcements, invitations, and activates the fire alarm. She announced the closing of schools when it snowed and announced the rabid dog that entered Maycomb. Also, Eula May knows everybody in the town because of her unique job.

text: Cecil Jacobs[edit]

text: Cecil Jacobs teases Scout and Jem at school. Scout almost gets into a fight with Cecil over the trial of Tom Robinson. Scout beats up Cecil Jacobs because he says Atticus is a "Nigger Lover." He gives a current event on Adolf Hitler and later frightens Scout and Jem on their way to the Halloween pageant. He and Scout then pair up at the carnival. At the Halloween pageant afterwards, Cecil was a cow. He hints that black people are not as good as white people while talking about Hitler during current events. He also tends to take jokes too far. However importantly he shows how prejudice is passed on from parent to child.

text: Tim Johnson[edit]

text: Tim Johnson is a dog belonging to Harry Johnson (a character in the book who is mentioned once but is never seen). He is infected by rabies in chapter 10 and goes mad, putting everyone in the town at risk. Atticus is forced to shoot Tim Johnson before he reaches the Radley House or attacks anyone. When Atticus shoots the dog, his excellent marksmanship is revealed to Scout and Jem (his nickname used to be One-Shot Finch). The dog's body is collected by Zeebo.

text: Simon Finch[edit]

text: Simon Finch is the founder of Finch's Landing. He is referred to in the first chapter of the book, being a direct ancestor of Atticus. He is a Cornish Methodist, and emigrated from England to avoid religious persecution, landing in Philadelphia before settling in Alabama. He was married, with one son, eight daughters. He is also an apothecary.

text: Maxwell Green[edit]

text: Maxwell Green is the new lawyer in town. He is normally the judicially-assigned defense attorney but Judge Taylor assigned Tom Robinson's case to Atticus to give Tom Robinson a better chance.

text: Mr. X Billups[edit]

text: Mr. X Billups who is seen only once in the book, going to the trial, is described as a "funny man".  X is his name, and not his initial.  He was asked repeated times what his name was until he signed it.  X was the name he had been given when he was born because his parents marked his birth certificate with an X instead of a name.

text: The Barber Sisters (Miss "Tutti" and Miss "Frutti")[edit]

text: The Barber Sisters (Miss Sarah, nicknamed "Tutti" and Miss Frances, nicknamed "Frutti") are maiden sisters who live in the only house in Maycomb with a cellar. They were originally from Clanton, Alabama; and are rumored to be Republicans. Besides their Yankee ways, both sisters are deaf (Tutti completely deaf; Frutti uses an ear trumpet), and had a Halloween prank pulled on them by some "wicked" schoolchildren (Scout claims she was not included) who put all of their furniture in their cellar.

text: Mrs. Gertrude Farrow[edit]

text: Mrs. Farrow is a lady in the missionary society who visits the Finch house occasionally.

text: Mr. Conner[edit]

text: Mr. Conner is mentioned early on in the book. He was locked in an outhouse by "Boo" Radley and his friends. After taking the teenagers to court, Mr. Conner accused them of "disorderly conduct, disturbing the peace, assault and battery, and using abusive and profane language in the presence and hearing of a female." He added the last charge after claiming that the teens had "cussed so loud he was sure every lady in Maycomb heard them."

text: Zeebo[edit]

text: Calpurnia's eldest son, Zeebo, was taught how to read by Calpurnia. Zeebo is one of just four people in First Purchase Church who can read, so he is the vocal leader, leading hymns in their church by "lining"—reading a line of verse and having the congregation repeat it. He is also the garbage man of Maycomb, and took away the dead rabid dog, Tim Johnson. When Lula, a fellow church member tries to make Scout and Jem feel bad for attending church with Calpurnia, Zeebo welcomes them with open arms.


document_title: Larynx

question_text: where is the larynx located in the human body

text: Larynx

text: Structure[edit]

text: Cartilages[edit]

text: There are six cartilages, three unpaired and three paired, that support the mammalian larynx and form its skeleton.

text: Unpaired cartilages:

text:
Thyroid cartilage: This forms the Adam's apple. It is usually larger in males than in females. The thyrohyoid membrane is a ligament associated with the thyroid cartilage that connects the thyroid cartilage with the hyoid bone.
Cricoid cartilage: A ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx. It is attached to the top of the trachea. The median cricothyroid ligament connects the cricoid cartilage to the thyroid cartilage.
Epiglottis: A large, spoon-shaped piece of elastic cartilage. During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx rise. Elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food and drink; elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing it off.

tag: ul

text: Paired cartilages:

text:
Arytenoid cartilages: Of the paired cartilages, the arytenoid cartilages are the most important because they influence the position and tension of the vocal folds. These are triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage located at the posterosuperior border of the cricoid cartilage.
Corniculate cartilages: Horn-shaped pieces of elastic cartilage located at the apex of each arytenoid cartilage.
Cuneiform cartilages: Club-shaped pieces of elastic cartilage located anterior to the corniculate cartilages.

text: Muscles[edit]

text: The muscles of the larynx are divided into intrinsic and extrinsic muscles.

text: The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the phonatory muscles (the muscles of phonation). The respiratory muscles move the vocal cords apart and serve breathing. The phonatory muscles move the vocal cords together and serve the production of voice. The extrinsic, passing between the larynx and parts around; and intrinsic, confined entirely. The main respiratory muscles are the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles. The phonatory muscles are divided into adductors (lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, arytenoid muscles) and tensors (cricothyroid muscles, thyroarytenoid muscles).

text: Intrinsic[edit]

text: The intrinsic laryngeal muscles are responsible for controlling sound production.

text:
Cricothyroid muscle lengthen and tense the vocal folds.
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscles abduct and externally rotate the arytenoid cartilages, resulting in abducted vocal folds.
Lateral cricoarytenoid muscles adduct and internally rotate the arytenoid cartilages, increase medial compression.
Transverse arytenoid muscle adduct the arytenoid cartilages, resulting in adducted vocal folds.[2]
Oblique arytenoid muscles narrow the laryngeal inlet by constricting the distance between the arytenoid cartilages.
Thyroarytenoid muscles – sphincter of vestibule, narrowing the laryngeal inlet, shortening the vocal folds, and lowering voice pitch. The internal thyroarytenoid is the portion of the thyroarytenoid that vibrates to produce sound.

text: Notably the only muscle capable of separating the vocal cords for normal breathing is the posterior cricoarytenoid. If this muscle is incapacitated on both sides, the inability to pull the vocal folds apart (abduct) will cause difficulty breathing. Bilateral injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve would cause this condition. It is also worth noting that all muscles are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal branch of the vagus except the cricothyroid muscle, which is innervated by the external laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (a branch of the vagus).

text: Additionally, intrinsic laryngeal muscles present a constitutive Ca2+-buffering profile that predicts their better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to other muscles.[3] This profile is in agreement with their function as very fast muscles with a well-developed capacity for prolonged work. Studies suggests that mechanisms involved in the prompt sequestering of Ca2+ (sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-reuptake proteins, plasma membrane pumps, and cytosolic Ca2+-buffering proteins) are particularly elevated in laryngeal muscles, indicating their importance for the myofiber function and protection against disease, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy.[4] Furthermore, differential levels of Orai1 in rat intrinsic laryngeal muscles and extraocular muscles over the limb muscle suggests a role for store operated calcium entry channels in those muscles' functional properties and signaling mechanisms.

text: Extrinsic[edit]

text: The extrinsic laryngeal muscles support and position the larynx within the trachea.

text:
Sternothyroid muscles depress the larynx.
Omohyoid muscles depress the larynx.
Sternohyoid muscles depress the larynx.
Inferior constrictor muscles
Thyrohyoid muscles elevates the larynx.
Digastric elevates the larynx.
Stylohyoid elevates the larynx.
Mylohyoid elevates the larynx.
Geniohyoid elevates the larynx.
Hyoglossus elevates the larynx.
Genioglossus elevates the larynx

text: Innervation[edit]

text: The larynx is innervated by branches of the vagus nerve on each side. Sensory innervation to the glottis and laryngeal vestibule is by the internal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve innervates the cricothyroid muscle. Motor innervation to all other muscles of the larynx and sensory innervation to the subglottis is by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. While the sensory input described above is (general) visceral sensation (diffuse, poorly localized), the vocal fold also receives general somatic sensory innervation (proprioceptive and touch) by the superior laryngeal nerve.

text: Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not be preserved, but breathing becomes difficult.

text: Development[edit]

text: In adult humans, the larynx is found in the anterior neck at the level of the C3–C6 vertebrae. It connects the inferior part of the pharynx (hypopharynx) with the trachea. The laryngeal skeleton consists of six cartilages: three single (epiglottic, thyroid and cricoid) and three paired (arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform). The hyoid bone is not part of the larynx, though the larynx is suspended from the hyoid. The larynx extends vertically from the tip of the epiglottis to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage. Its interior can be divided in supraglottis, glottis and subglottis.

text: In newborn infants, the larynx is initially at the level of the C2–C3 vertebrae, and is further forward and higher relative to its position in the adult body.[5] The larynx descends as the child grows.[6][7]

text: Function[edit]

text: Sound generation[edit]

text: Sound is generated in the larynx, and that is where pitch and volume are manipulated. The strength of expiration from the lungs also contributes to loudness.

text: Manipulation of the larynx is used to generate a source sound with a particular fundamental frequency, or pitch. This source sound is altered as it travels through the vocal tract, configured differently based on the position of the tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx. The process of altering a source sound as it passes through the filter of the vocal tract creates the many different vowel and consonant sounds of the world's languages as well as tone, certain realizations of stress and other types of linguistic prosody. The larynx also has a similar function to the lungs in creating pressure differences required for sound production; a constricted larynx can be raised or lowered affecting the volume of the oral cavity as necessary in glottalic consonants.

text: The vocal folds can be held close together (by adducting the arytenoid cartilages) so that they vibrate (see phonation). The muscles attached to the arytenoid cartilages control the degree of opening. Vocal fold length and tension can be controlled by rocking the thyroid cartilage forward and backward on the cricoid cartilage (either directly by contracting the cricothyroids or indirectly by changing the vertical position of the larynx), by manipulating the tension of the muscles within the vocal folds, and by moving the arytenoids forward or backward. This causes the pitch produced during phonation to rise or fall. In most males the vocal folds are longer and with a greater mass than most females' vocal folds, producing a lower pitch.

text: The vocal apparatus consists of two pairs of mucosal folds. These folds are false vocal folds (vestibular folds) and true vocal folds (folds). The false vocal folds are covered by respiratory epithelium, while the true vocal folds are covered by stratified squamous epithelium. The false vocal folds are not responsible for sound production, but rather for resonance. The exceptions to this are found in Tibetan Chant and Kargyraa, a style of Tuvan throat singing. Both make use of the false vocal folds to create an undertone. These false vocal folds do not contain muscle, while the true vocal folds do have skeletal muscle.

text: Other[edit]

text: The most important role of the larynx is its protecting function; the prevention of foreign objects from entering the lungs by coughing and other reflexive actions. A cough is initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal folds, followed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction (closing) of the vocal folds. The forced expiration that follows, assisted by tissue recoil and the muscles of expiration, blows the vocal folds apart, and the high pressure expels the irritating object out of the throat. Throat clearing is less violent than coughing, but is a similar increased respiratory effort countered by the tightening of the laryngeal musculature. Both coughing and throat clearing are predictable and necessary actions because they clear the respiratory passageway, but both place the vocal folds under significant strain.[8]

text: Another important role of the larynx is abdominal fixation, a kind of Valsalva maneuver in which the lungs are filled with air in order to stiffen the thorax so that forces applied for lifting can be translated down to the legs. This is achieved by a deep inhalation followed by the adduction of the vocal folds. Grunting while lifting heavy objects is the result of some air escaping through the adducted vocal folds ready for phonation.[8]

text: Abduction of the vocal folds is important during physical exertion. The vocal folds are separated by about 8 mm (0.31 in) during normal respiration, but this width is doubled during forced respiration.[8]

text: During swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue forces the epiglottis over the glottis' opening to prevent swallowed material from entering the larynx which leads to the lungs; the larynx is also pulled upwards to assist this process. Stimulation of the larynx by ingested matter produces a strong cough reflex to protect the lungs.

text: In addition, intrinsic laryngeal muscles are spared from muscle wasting disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, may facilitate the development of novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of muscle wasting in a variety of clinical scenarios. ILM have a calcium regulation system profile suggestive of a better ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to other muscles, and this may provide a mechanistic insight for their unique pathophysiological properties [9]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Disorders[edit]

text: There are several things that can cause a larynx to not function properly.[10] Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing difficulties. Larynx transplant is a rare procedure. The world's first successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland Clinic,[11] and the second took place in October 2010 at the University of California Davis Medical Center in Sacramento.[12]

text:
Acute laryngitis is the sudden inflammation and swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling, or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more serious than acute laryngitis.
Presbylarynx is a condition in which age-related atrophy of the soft tissues of the larynx results in weak voice and restricted vocal range and stamina. Bowing of the anterior portion of the vocal folds is found on laryngoscopy.
Ulcers may be caused by the prolonged presence of an endotracheal tube.
Polyps and nodules are small bumps on the vocal folds caused by prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke and vocal misuse, respectively.
Two related types of cancer of the larynx, namely squamous cell carcinoma and verrucous carcinoma, are strongly associated with repeated exposure to cigarette smoke and alcohol.
Vocal cord paresis is weakness of one or both vocal folds that can greatly impact daily life.
Idiopathic laryngeal spasm.
Laryngopharyngeal reflux is a condition in which acid from the stomach irritates and burns the larynx. Similar damage can occur with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).[13][14]
Laryngomalacia is a very common condition of infancy, in which the soft, immature cartilage of the upper larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing airway obstruction.
Laryngeal perichondritis, the inflammation of the perichondrium of laryngeal cartilages, causing airway obstruction.
Laryngeal paralysis is a condition seen in some mammals (including dogs) in which the larynx no longer opens as wide as required for the passage of air, and impedes respiration. In mild cases it can lead to exaggerated or "raspy" breathing or panting, and in serious cases can pose a considerable need for treatment.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, intrinsic laryngeal muscles (ILM) are spared from the lack of dystrophin and may serve as a useful model to study the mechanisms of muscle sparing in neuromuscular diseases.[4] Dystrophic ILM presented a significant increase in the expression of calcium-binding proteins. The increase of calcium-binding proteins in dystrophic ILM may permit better maintenance of calcium homeostasis, with the consequent absence of myonecrosis. The results further support the concept that abnormal calcium buffering is involved in these neuromuscular diseases.[15]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Pioneering work on the structure and evolution of the larynx was carried out in the 1920s by the British comparative anatomist Victor Negus, culminating in his monumental work The Mechanism of the Larynx (1929). Negus, however, pointed out that the descent of the larynx reflected the reshaping and descent of the human tongue into the pharynx. This process is not complete until age six to eight years. Some researchers, such as Philip Lieberman, Dennis Klatt, Brant de Boer and Kenneth Stevens using computer-modeling techniques have suggested that the species-specific human tongue allows the vocal tract (the airway above the larynx) to assume the shapes necessary to produce speech sounds that enhance the robustness of human speech. Sounds such as the vowels of the words see and do, [i] and [u], (in phonetic notation) have been shown to be less subject to confusion in classic studies such as the 1950 Peterson and Barney investigation of the possibilities for computerized speech recognition.[16]

text: In contrast, though other species have low larynges, their tongues remain anchored in their mouths and their vocal tracts cannot produce the range of speech sounds of humans. The ability to lower the larynx transiently in some species extends the length of their vocal tract, which as Fitch showed creates the acoustic illusion that they are larger. Research at Haskins Laboratories in the 1960s showed that speech allows humans to achieve a vocal communication rate that exceeds the fusion frequency of the auditory system by fusing sounds together into syllables and words. The additional speech sounds that the human tongue enables us to produce, particularly [i], allow humans to unconsciously infer the length of the vocal tract of the person who is talking, a critical element in recovering the phonemes that make up a word.[16]

text: Non-mammals[edit]

text: Most tetrapod species possess a larynx, but its structure is typically simpler than that found in mammals. The cartilages surrounding the larynx are apparently a remnant of the original gill arches in fish, and are a common feature, but not all are always present. For example, the thyroid cartilage is found only in mammals. Similarly, only mammals possess a true epiglottis, although a flap of non-cartilagenous mucosa is found in a similar position in many other groups. In modern amphibians, the laryngeal skeleton is considerably reduced; frogs have only the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, while salamanders possess only the arytenoids.[17]

text: Vocal folds are found only in mammals, and a few lizards. As a result, many reptiles and amphibians are essentially voiceless; frogs use ridges in the trachea to modulate sound, while birds have a separate sound-producing organ, the syrinx.[17]

text: History[edit]

text: The ancient Greek physician Galen first described the larynx, describing it as the "first and supremely most important instrument of the voice"[18]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Larynx.Deep dissection. Anterior view.

Larynx.Deep dissection. Posterior view.