document_title: Corey Seager

question_text: who does corey seager's brother play for

question_tokens: who does corey seager 's brother play for

text: Corey Seager

text: Early life[edit]

text: Corey Seager was born in Charlotte, North Carolina to Jeff and Jody Seager.[1] He is the youngest of three brothers. Eldest brother Kyle Seager plays for the Seattle Mariners. Corey's older brother, Justin, was drafted in the 12th round of the 2013 Major League Baseball draft.

text: Baseball career[edit]

text: Amateur[edit]

text: Seager attended Northwest Cabarrus High School in Kannapolis, North Carolina. He committed to attend the University of South Carolina on a college baseball scholarship. The Los Angeles Dodgers of Major League Baseball (MLB) selected Seager in the first round, with the 18th overall selection, of the 2012 MLB Draft. He received a $2.35 million signing bonus to sign with the Dodgers instead of attending the University of South Carolina.[2]

text: Minor leagues[edit]

text: Seager began his professional career with the Ogden Raptors of the Pioneer League, where he had a .309 batting average in 46 games in 2012. They promoted him to the Great Lakes Loons of the Class A Midwest League for 2013. He hit .309 with 12 home runs and 57 runs batted in (RBIs) in 74 games for Great Lakes and was promoted on August 3 to the Rancho Cucamonga Quakes of the Class A-Advanced California League. However, in 27 games at the new level, he hit just .160.[3] Seager played for the Glendale Desert Dogs in the Arizona Fall League after the 2013 regular season, and was selected to play in the AFL Fall Stars Game, featuring the most promising prospects.[4]

text: In 2014, Seager hit .352 with 18 home runs and 70 RBIs for the Quakes and was selected to the mid-season California League All-Star team.[5] He played for the USA team at the 2014 All-Star Futures Game.[6] After the Futures Game, he was promoted to the Chattanooga Lookouts of the Class AA Southern League.[7] With the Lookouts, he played in 38 games and hit .345.[3]

text: Seager was named the MVP of the California League for 2014.[8] He was also selected to Baseball America's minor league All-Star team.[9] On September 26, the Dodgers announced that Seager was the co-winner, along with Joc Pederson, of the organization's "Minor League Player of the Year" award.[10] He returned to the Desert Dogs in the AFL after the season and was awarded with a spot on the AFL Top Prospects List.[11]

text: Seager received a non-roster invite to the Dodgers major league spring training in 2015.[12] MLB.com ranked him the 7th-best prospect in baseball, going into the 2015 season, and Baseball America named him the # 5 prospect in 2015.[13] [14] The Dodgers assigned Seager to the new AA affiliate, the Tulsa Drillers of the Texas League, to start the 2015 season.[15] In 20 games with the Drillers, Seager hit .375 with five homers and 15 RBI.[3] His manager, Razor Shines, said of him, "I'm running out of words to describe this kid. He's phenomenal."[16]

text: On May 1, 2015, Seager was promoted to the Oklahoma City Dodgers of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League (PCL).[17] In a game on May 28 against the Salt Lake Bees, Seager had six hits in six at-bats, including a home run, and six RBI. He was just the second player in the history of the Oklahoma City franchise to record six hits in one game.[18] He was selected to the mid-season PCL All-Star team.[19] In 104 games for Oklahoma City, Seager hit .276 with 13 homers and 59 RBI.[3] Baseball America selected him to their Minor League All-Star team,[20] as well as naming him a AAA All-Star and AAA Player of the Year.[21]

text: Los Angeles Dodgers[edit]

text: On September 3, 2015, the Dodgers called Seager up to the majors[22] and he made his debut that night as the starting shortstop against the San Diego Padres.[23] He had two hits in four at-bats with two RBI in his debut, with his first MLB hit being a double to right field off of Colin Rea of the Padres.[24]

text: On September 12, 2015, against the Arizona Diamondbacks, Seager was 4-for-4 with his first MLB home run (off Josh Collmenter), a walk and a stolen base, making him the third-youngest player in history to accomplish that feat (after Ken Griffey, Jr. and Orlando Cepeda).[25] On September 21, Seager passed Bill Russell by reaching base safely in his first 16 major league starts, a new L.A. Dodger record.[26] He hit .337 in 27 games with the Dodgers, with four homers and 17 RBI,[27] supplanting Jimmy Rollins as the Dodgers starting shortstop down the stretch.[28] He was the starting shortstop for the Dodgers in the first game of the 2015 National League Division Series, making him the youngest position player to start a postseason game in franchise history.[29]

text: The Dodgers' Opening Day starting shortstop in 2016, Seager became the youngest for the Dodgers since Gene Mauch in 1944.[30] On June 3, Seager hit three home runs in a game against the Atlanta Braves. He was the first Dodgers shortstop to do so since Kevin Elster in 2000, the youngest shortstop in major league history to accomplish that feat and the sixth youngest overall.[31] Seager was named the National League Rookie of the Month for June[32] and was selected to play to the National League All-Star team.[33] He also participated in the Home Run Derby and hit 15 homers, the second best total for a Dodgers player in the derby history, though he failed to advance past the first round.[34]

text: On August 6, 2016, Seager hit his 31st double of the season, passing Eric Karros to set a new Dodgers rookie record[35] and two days later, he hit his 20th home run of the season, passing Hanley Ramírez for sole possession of the Los Angeles Dodgers record for home runs in a season by a shortstop.[36] He hit his 22nd homer on August 22, tying Glenn Wright for the franchise record.[37] On August 27, he passed Wright to take sole possession of the record, with a first inning homer off of Jason Hammel of the Chicago Cubs.[38] He and his brother, Kyle Seager, became the first pair of brothers in major league history to each hit 25 or more homers in the same season.[39] With two hits on September 17, Seager moved past Steve Sax (1982) for the most hits in a season by a Los Angeles Dodgers rookie.[40] On September 20, he became the first Dodgers rookie to hit 40 doubles in a season.[41] He finished his rookie season with a .308 batting average, 26 home runs and 72 RBI in 157 games.[42] Baseball America selected him as their 2016 Rookie of the Year[43] as did The Sporting News,[44] and the Players Choice Awards.[45]

text: Seager homered in the first inning of game one of the 2016 National League Division Series against the Washington Nationals, becoming the youngest Dodgers player in history to hit a post-season home run.[46] He hit .130 with two home runs in the division series and .286 with no homers in the Championship Series.[27]

text: After the season, he was awarded with the Silver Slugger Award, the third Dodgers rookie to win the award.[47] He was also the unanimous winner of the National League Rookie of the Year Award,[48] and the 2016 Esurance MLB/This Year in Baseball Award winner as Best Rookie.[49]

text: On June 20, 2017, Seager hit his 2nd career three home run game, against the New York Mets. He was named to his second straight all-star game.[50] He batted .295/.375/.479 with 22 home runs. He won his second consecutive Silver Slugger Award, the first Dodger shortstop to ever win the award and the first Dodgers player to win back-to-back awards since Mike Piazza won five straight from 1993–97.[51]

text: Awards and accomplishments[edit]

text:
All-Star Futures Game selection (2014)[6]
Arizona Fall League Fall Stars selection (2013)[4]
Baseball America Triple-A Minor Leagues Player of the Year (2015)[21]
Baseball America Rookie of the Year (2016)[43]
California League Most Valuable Player (2014)[8]
Esurance MLB/This Year in Baseball Award winner as Best Rookie (2016)[49]
Home Run Derby participant (2016)[34]
2x Major League Baseball All-Star selection (2016,[33] 2017[50])
National League Rookie of the Month (June 2016)[32]
National League Rookie of the Year (2016)[48]
Players Choice Award for National League Outstanding Rookie (2016)[45]
2x Silver Slugger Award at shortstop (2016, 2017)[47][51]
The Sporting News National League Rookie of the Year (2016)[44]
Topps All-Star Rookie Team (2016)[52]

text:
Los Angeles Dodgers record for home runs hit by a shortstop in one season (26 in 2016)[38]
Los Angeles Dodgers record for first consecutive major league starts reaching base (16 on September 21, 2015)[26]
MLB record, shared with Kyle Seager, as first pair of brothers to each hit at least 25 home runs in the same season (2016)[39]
MLB record as youngest shortstop and sixth youngest overall to hit three home runs in one game (June 4, 2016).[31]


document_title: The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)

question_text: who played anne frank in the original movie

root

text: The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1945, as a truckload of war survivors stops in front of an Amsterdam factory at the end of World War II, Otto Frank (Joseph Schildkraut) gets out and walks inside. After climbing the stairs to a deserted garret, Otto finds a girl's discarded glove and sobs, then is joined and comforted by Miep Gies (Dodie Heath) and Mr. Kraler (Douglas Spencer), factory workers who shielded him from the Nazis. After stating that he is now all alone, Otto begins to search for the diary written by his youngest daughter, Anne. Miep promptly retrieves the journal for Otto and he receives solace reading the words written by his young daughter three years earlier.

tag: p

text: The action moves back to July 1942, and Anne (Millie Perkins) begins by chronicling the restrictions placed upon Jews that drove the Franks into hiding over the spice factory. Sharing the Franks' hiding place are the Van Daans (Lou Jacobi and Shelley Winters) and their teenage son, Peter (Richard Beymer). Kraler, who works in the office below, and Miep, his assistant, have arranged the hideaway and warn the families that they must maintain strict silence during daylight hours while the workers are there. On the first day, the minutes drag by in silence. After work, Kraler delivers food and a box for Anne compiled by her father, which contains her beloved photos of movie stars and a blank diary. In the first pages of the diary, Anne describes the strangeness of never being able to go outside or breathe fresh air. She states that everybody is good at heart.

text: As the months pass, Anne's irrepressible energy reasserts itself and she constantly teases Peter, whose only attachment is to his cat, Moushie. Isolated from the world outside, Otto schools Anne and Margot (Diane Baker) as the sounds of sirens and bombers frequently fill the air. Mrs. Van Daan passes the time by recounting fond memories of her youth and stroking her one remaining possession, the fur coat given to her by her father. The strain of confinement causes the Van Daans to argue and pits the strong-willed Anne against her mother (Gusti Huber). One day, Kraler brings a radio to the attic, providing the families with ears onto the world. Soon after, Kraler asks them to take in another person, a Jewish dentist named Albert Dussell (Ed Wynn). When Van Daan complains that the addition will diminish their food supply, Dussell recounts the dire conditions outside, in which Jews suddenly disappear and are shipped to concentration camps. When Dussell confirms the disappearance of many of their friends, the families' hopes are dimmed.

text: One night, Anne dreams of seeing one of her friends in a concentration camp and wakes up screaming. In October 1942, news comes of the Allied landing in Africa, but rather than producing relief, the bombing outside the factory intensifies, fraying the refugees' already ragged nerves. During Hanukkah, Margot longingly recalls past celebrations and Anne produces little presents for everyone. When Van Daan abruptly announces that Peter must get rid of Moushie because he consumes too much food, Anne protests. Their argument is cut short when they hear a prowler break in the front door and the room falls silent. Peter then sends an object crashing to the floor while trying to catch Moushie, and the startled thief grabs a typewriter and flees. A watchman notices the break-in and summons two feld polizei officers, who search the premises, shining their flashlights onto the bookcase that conceals the attic entrance. The families wait in terror until Moushie knocks a plate from the table and meows, reassuring the officers that the noise was caused by a common cat. After the officers leave, Otto, hoping to foster faith and courage, leads everyone in a Hanukkah song.

text: In January 1944, Anne, on the threshold of womanhood, begins to attract Peter's attention. When Miep brings the group a cake, Dussell and Van Daan bicker over the size of their portions and then Van Daan asks Miep to sell his wife's fur coat so that he can buy cigarettes. After Kraler warns that one of his employees asked for a raise and implied that something strange is going on in the attic, Dussell dourly comments that it is just a matter of time before they are discovered. Anne, distraught, blames the adults for the war which has destroyed all sense of hope and ideals. When she storms out of the room, Peter follows and comforts her. Later, Anne confides her dreams of becoming a writer and Peter voices frustration about his inability to join the war effort. In April 1944, amid talk of liberation, the Franks watch helplessly as more Jews are marched through the streets. Tensions mount, and when Van Daan tries to steal some bread from the others, Edith denounces him and orders him to leave. As Dussell and Van Daan quarrel over food, word comes over the radio of the Normandy invasion and Van Daan breaks into tears of shame. Heartened by the news, everyone apologizes for their harsh words, and Anne dreams of being back in school by the fall.

text: By July 1944, the invasion has bogged down and Kraler is hospitalized with ulcers. Upon hearing that the Gestapo has found the stolen typewriter, Anne writes that her diary provides her with a way to go on living after her death. After the Van Daans begin to quarrel once more, Peter declares that he cannot tolerate the situation and Anne soothes him by reminding him of the goodness of those who have come to their aid. Their conversation is interrupted by the sirens of an approaching Gestapo truck. As Anne and Peter bravely stand arm in arm, certain of their impending arrest, they passionately kiss. As the German soldiers break down the bookcase entrance to the hideout, Otto declares they no longer have to live in fear, but can go forward in hope.

text: The film returns to 1945 as Otto tells Miep and Kraler that on his long journey home after his release from the concentration camp he learned how Edith, Margot, the Van Daans, and Dussell perished, but always held out hope that perhaps Anne had somehow survived. Otto sadly reveals that only the previous day in Rotterdam he met a woman who had been in Bergen-Belsen with Anne and confirmed her death. Otto then glances at Anne's diary and reads, "In spite of everything, I still believe that people are really good at heart," and reflects upon his daughter's unshakable optimism.[4]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Millie Perkins as Anne Frank
Joseph Schildkraut as Otto Frank (repeating his stage role)
Shelley Winters as Petronella van Daan
Richard Beymer as Peter van Daan
Gusti Huber as Edith Frank (repeating her stage role)
Lou Jacobi as Hans van Daan (repeating his stage role)
Diane Baker as Margot Frank
Douglas Spencer as Kraler
Dodie Heath as Miep (credited as Dody Heath)
Ed Wynn as Albert Dussell

tag: ul

text: Otto Frank wrote to Audrey Hepburn, asking her if she would play the part of his daughter Anne. He told Hepburn that his daughter would have been honoured to have such a famous Hollywood actress play her on film, and he also noted the striking resemblance that existed between Anne and Hepburn when she was an adolescent. She was initially interested in the role, and her name appears on the back cover of copies of the diary printed and sold to promote the "upcoming film".

text: During the casting period, Hepburn ultimately wrote back declining the offer, saying she felt she was too old, and lacked the skills to portray Anne. She said she was greatly honoured to have been given the choice, and noted the similarity between her own war experience and that of the Franks and the others in the annex.[5][6]

text: Production[edit]

text: Origin[edit]

text:
The diary of Anne Frank is the film adaptation of a successful Broadway theatre play and of Anne Frank's work. At the time of the film shooting, the book had already sold millions of copies around the world.
According to a 1955 article published on the Daily Variety, Garson Kanin, who had staged the Broadway play, and Milton Sperlin from Warnes Bros. had intended to acquire the rights to the film adaptation. However, Buddy Adler from Twentieth Century Fox was the one to obtain them. An article published in October 1956 in The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Fox was negotiating with William Wyler to direct the film. However, according to information published in February 1957 in the same magazine, the person hired to direct was George Stevens.

text: Film shoot[edit]

text:
Duration: from March 5 to August 11 and November 24, 1958
Shooting scenario: Amsterdam
Anne Frank is described in the film as the universal victim of the Nazis and we do not ask ourselves about the conditions of her death. George Stevens explained that he did not want to venture into too troublesome zones. In the film, he does not show the concentration camps, only implying them in Anne's dream sequence.
During pre-production, George Stevens did not want to shoot the film in CinemaScope because he thought that this format was not going to transmit the claustrophobic effect he wanted to reproduce. When Spyros Skouras, president of Twentieth Century Fox, opted for the wide aspect ratio (Cinemascope), Stevens and the cinematographer William C. Mellor decided to reduce the space by limiting the action to the center of the screen. Mellor used fluorescent tubes, filters and gas[clarification needed] to create a natural light rather than using regular studios lighting.

text: Premiere[edit]

text: The film premiered March 18, 1959, at the Palace Theatre in New York City.[7]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Awards

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipients and nominees
Result

Academy Awards
April 4, 1960[8]
Best Picture
George Stevens
Nominated

Best Actor in a Supporting Role
Ed Wynn

Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Shelley Winters
(Shelley's Oscar statue now on display at the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam)
Won

Best Director
George Stevens
Nominated

Best Cinematography, Black-and-White
William C. Mellor
Won

Best Art Direction – Set Decoration, Black-and-White
Art Direction: George W. Davis and Stuart A. Reiss;
Set Decoration: Walter M. Scott and Lyle R. Wheeler

Best Costume Design, Black-and-White
Charles LeMaire and Mary Wills
Nominated

Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture
Alfred Newman

Directors Guild of America
February 6, 1960
Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
George Stevens

Golden Globe Awards
March 10, 1960
Best Motion Picture – Drama

Best Film Promoting International Understanding

Won

Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama
Joseph Schildkraut
Nominated

Best Actress in a Supporting Role – Motion Picture
Shelley Winters

Best Director – Motion Picture
George Stevens

Most Promising Newcomer – Female
Diane Baker

National Board of Review
Late December 1959
Top Ten Films

4th place

Writers Guild of America Awards
May 6, 1960
Best Written American Drama
Albert Hackett and Frances Goodrich
Won

tag: table

text: Other awards[edit]

text: The film was entered into the 1959 Cannes Film Festival[9] and the 1st Moscow International Film Festival.[10]

text: The American Film Institute included the film as No. 18 in its list of the most inspiring movies, AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Diary of Anne Frank was first released on DVD on February 3, 2004. The special features included some of the following; "The Diary of Anne Frank: Echoes From the Past" featurette, a press conference with director George Stevens, MovieTone news announcing public appearances by Millie Perkins, a screen test, and an audio commentary by Millie Perkins and George Stevens Jr, the director's son.

text: A fiftieth-anniversary edition of the film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on June 16, 2009, three months after the film's actual release anniversary, in commemoration of what would have been Anne Frank's 80th birthday.[11] It included seven major new featurettes: three cast interviews, a behind-the scenes look at the score, two short documentaries about George Stevens' memories from the war and the history of the diary, and a perspective piece on the film's legacy by Thomas Rothman.[12]

text: The Blu-ray was released only a month before Tony van Renterghem died on July 19, 2009.[13] Renterghem, a Dutch cinematographer and technical, historical and script adviser who worked with Stevens for many years, consulted on both the play and the film.[13] While his work was almost entirely behind the scenes, his knowledge no doubt helped in putting together the historical featurettes.[original research?]


document_title: Ground-glass opacity

question_text: what does ground glass appearance in lungs mean

text: Ground-glass opacity

text: In radiology, ground glass opacity (GGO) is a nonspecific finding on computed tomography (CT) scans that indicates a partial filling of air spaces in the lungs by exudate or transudate, as well as interstitial thickening or partial collapse of lung alveoli.

text: Possible diseases[edit]

text: The differential diagnosis of the many causes of GGO includes pulmonary edema, infections (including cytomegalovirus and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia), various noninfectious interstitial lung diseases (such as hypersensitivity pneumonitis, Hamman-Rich syndrome), diffuse alveolar hemorrhage, and cryptogenic organizing pneumonia.[1]


document_title: State of Emergency in India

question_text: who was the president of india during 1962 emergency

text: State of Emergency in India

text: National emergency under article 352[edit]

text:
National emergency can be declared on the basis of external aggression or armed rebellion in the whole of India or a part of its territory. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (China war), 1971 (Pakistan war), and 1975 (declared by Indira Gandhi).
The President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be laid before both houses of Parliament, and the state of emergency expires after one month unless approved within that time by both houses sitting and voting separately. However, if the Lok Sabha (the lower house) has been dissolved or dissolution takes place in the state of emergency, and the Rajya Sabha approves of the state of emergency, the deadline for the Lok Sabha is extended until thirty days after that house reconstituted. According to Article 352(6),[2] approval by each house requires a special majority: those in favour of the motion must be two thirds of those present and voting, and amount to a majority of the entire membership of that house. A Parliamentary resolution extends the state of emergency for up to six months, and it can be extended indefinitely by further resolutions in six-monthly increments.

text: During a national emergency, many Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. By contrast, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended according to the original Constitution. In January 1977, during the emergency declared controversially by Indira Gandhi, the government decided to suspend even the Right to Life and Personal Liberty by dispensing with Habeas corpus. Justice Hans Raj Khanna defended the Right to Life and asked: "Life is also mentioned in Article 21 and would Government argument extend to it also?". The Attorney General observed: "Even if life was taken away illegally, courts are helpless".[3]

text: A national emergency modifies the federal system of government to a unitary one by granting Parliament the power to make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all state money bills are referred to the Parliament for its approval.

text: During an emergency, the term of the Lok Sabha can be successively extended by intervals of up to one year, but not beyond six months after the state of emergency has been revoked.

text: State Emergency under Article 356[edit]

text: A state of emergency can be declared in any state of India (except Jammu and Kashmir) under article 356 on the recommendation of the governor of the state. Every state in India except two states, Chhattisgarh and Telangana  has been under a state of emergency at some point of time or the other. The state of emergency is commonly known as 'President's Rule'.

text: If the President is satisfied, based on the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources, that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he may declare an emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of two months.

text: It is imposed for an initial period of six months and can last for a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. The 42nd amendment act of 1976 extended the initial time duration of state emergency from 6 months to 1 year. Subsequently, 44th CAA 1978 restored the 1-year period back to 6 months. Originally, the maximum period of operation of state emergency was 3 years. This 3-year period was divided into 1 year of ordinary period and 2 years of extra ordinary period for which certain conditions are to be fulfilled. Therefore, from now on after every 1 year Parliament needs to approve the same. If the emergency has to be extended for more than three years, it can only be done by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.

text: During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation). All money bills have to be referred to the Parliament for approval. In this occasion ministers of state legislature do not perform actions in state.

text: Financial Emergency Under Article 360[edit]

text: If the President is satisfied that there is an economic situation in which the financial stability or credit of India is threatened, he or she can declare financial emergency. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months. It has never been declared. Such a situation had arisen but was avoided by putting the gold assets of India as collateral for foreign credit.

text: In case of a financial emergency, the President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts. All money bills passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for his approval. He can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters; but fundamental rights cannot be suspended.


document_title: Gravitation of the Moon

question_text: what is the value of g on the surface of the moon

text: Gravitation of the Moon

text: The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Moon is about 1.625 m/s2, about 16.6% that on Earth's surface or 0.16 ɡ.[1] Over the entire surface, the variation in gravitational acceleration is about 0.0253 m/s2 (1.6% of the acceleration due to gravity). Because weight is directly dependent upon gravitational acceleration, things on the Moon will weigh only 16.6% of what they weigh on the Earth.

text: The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured by tracking the radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The principle used depends on the Doppler effect, whereby the line-of-sight spacecraft acceleration can be measured by small shifts in frequency of the radio signal, and the measurement of the distance from the spacecraft to a station on Earth. Since the gravitational field of the Moon affects the orbit of a spacecraft, one can use these tracking data to detect gravity anomalies. However, because of the Moon's synchronous rotation it is not possible to track spacecraft from Earth much beyond the limbs of the Moon, so until the recent GRAIL mission the far-side gravity field was not accurately known.

text: A major feature of the Moon's gravitational field is the presence of mascons, which are large positive gravity anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins. These anomalies significantly influence the orbit of spacecraft around the Moon, and an accurate gravitational model is necessary in the planning of both manned and unmanned missions. They were initially discovered by the analysis of Lunar Orbiter tracking data:[2] navigation tests prior to the Apollo program showed positioning errors much larger than mission specifications.

text: Mascons are in part due to the presence of dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill some of the impact basins.[3] However, lava flows by themselves cannot fully explain the gravitational variations, and uplift of the crust-mantle interface is required as well. Based on Lunar Prospector gravitational models, it has been suggested that some mascons exist that do not show evidence for mare basaltic volcanism.[4] The huge expanse of mare basaltic volcanism associated with Oceanus Procellarum does not cause a positive gravity anomaly. The center of gravity of the Moon does not coincide exactly with its geometric center, but is displaced toward the Earth by about 2 kilometers.[5]


document_title: Computer mouse

question_text: how does a mouse communicate with the computer

question_tokens: how does a mouse communicate with the computer

text: Computer mouse

text: Naming[edit]

text: The earliest known publication of the term mouse as referring to a computer pointing device is in Bill English's July 1965 publication, "Computer-Aided Display Control".[1][2][3]

text: The plural for the small rodent is always "mice" in modern usage. The plural of a computer mouse is "mouses" and "mice" according to most dictionaries, but "mice" being more common.[4] The first recorded plural usage is "mice"; the online Oxford Dictionaries cites a 1984 use, and earlier uses include J. C. R. Licklider's "The Computer as a Communication Device" of 1968.[5]

text: History[edit]

text: The trackball, a related pointing device, was invented in 1946 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a post-World War II-era fire-control radar plotting system called Comprehensive Display System (CDS). Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service. Benjamin's project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a "roller ball" for this purpose.[6][7]

text: The device was patented in 1947,[7] but only a prototype using a metal ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret.[6]

text: Another early trackball was built by British electrical engineer Kenyon Taylor in collaboration with Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff. Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navy's DATAR (Digital Automated Tracking and Resolving) system in 1952.[8]

text: DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamin's display. The trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. Several rollers provided mechanical support. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, producing pulses of output with each movement of the ball. By counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the resulting data to other ships in a task force using pulse-code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball. It was not patented, since it was a secret military project.[9][10]

text: Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini,[11] Paul Ceruzzi,[12] Howard Rheingold,[13] and several others[14][15][16] as the inventor of the mouse. Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013.[17][18][19][20]

text: By 1963, Engelbart had already established a research lab at SRI, the Augmentation Research Center (ARC), to pursue his objective of developing both hardware and software computer technology to "augment" human intelligence. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to X-Y coordinate input.[11] On November 14, 1963, he first recorded his thoughts in his personal notebook about something he initially called a "bug," which in a "3-point" form could have a "drop point and 2 orthogonal wheels."[11] He wrote that the "bug" would be "easier" and "more natural" to use, and unlike a stylus, it would stay still when let go, which meant it would be "much better for coordination with the keyboard."[11]

text: In 1964, Bill English joined ARC, where he helped Engelbart build the first mouse prototype.[2][21] They christened the device the mouse as early models had a cord attached to the rear part of the device which looked like a tail, and in turn resembled the common mouse.[22] As noted above, this "mouse" was first mentioned in print in a July 1965 report, on which English was the lead author.[1][2][3] On December 9, 1968, Engelbart publicly demonstrated the mouse at what would come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. Engelbart never received any royalties for it, as his employer SRI held the patent, which expired before the mouse became widely used in personal computers.[23] In any event, the invention of the mouse was just a small part of Engelbart's much larger project of augmenting human intellect.[24][25]

text: Several other experimental pointing-devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS) exploited different body movements – for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose – but ultimately the mouse won out because of its speed and convenience.[27] The first mouse, a bulky device (pictured) used two potentiometers perpendicular to each other and connected to wheels: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one axis.[28] At the time of the "Mother of All Demos", Engelbart's group had been using their second generation, 3-button mouse for about a year.

text: On October 2, 1968, a mouse device named Rollkugel (German for "rolling ball") was described as an optional device for its SIG-100 terminal was developed by the German company Telefunken.[29] As the name suggests and unlike Engelbart's mouse, the Telefunken model already had a ball. It was based on an earlier trackball-like device (also named Rollkugel) that was embedded into radar flight control desks. This trackball had been developed by a team led by Rainer Mallebrein at Telefunken Konstanz for the German Bundesanstalt für Flugsicherung as part of their TR 86 process computer system with its SIG 100-86[29][30] vector graphics terminal.

text: When the development for the Telefunken main frame TR 440 (de) began in 1965, Mallebrein and his team came up with the idea of "reversing" the existing Rollkugel into a moveable mouse-like device, so that customers did not have to be bothered with mounting holes for the earlier trackball device. Together with light pens and trackballs, it was offered as an optional input device for their system since 1968. Some Rollkugel mouses installed at the Leibniz-Rechenzentrum in Munich in 1972 are well preserved in a museum.[29][31] Telefunken considered the invention too unimportant to apply for a patent on it.

text: The Xerox Alto was one of the first computers designed for individual use in 1973 and is regarded as the first modern computer to utilize a mouse.[32] Inspired by PARC's Alto, the Lilith, a computer which had been developed by a team around Niklaus Wirth at ETH Zürich between 1978 and 1980, provided a mouse as well. The third marketed version of an integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the Xerox 8010 Star in 1981.

text: By 1982 the Xerox 8010 was probably the best-known computer with a mouse. The Sun-1 also came with a mouse, and the forthcoming Apple Lisa was rumored to use one, but the peripheral remained obscure; Jack Hawley of The Mouse House reported that one buyer for a large organization believed at first that his company sold lab mice. Hawley, who manufactured mice for Xerox, stated that "Practically, I have the market all to myself right now"; a Hawley mouse cost $415.[33] That year Microsoft made the decision to make the MS-DOS program Microsoft Word mouse-compatible, and developed the first PC-compatible mouse. Microsoft's mouse shipped in 1983, thus beginning the Microsoft Hardware division of the company.[34] However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Macintosh 128K (which included an updated version of the Lisa Mouse) in 1984,[35] and of the Amiga 1000 and the Atari ST in 1985.

text: Operation[edit]

text: A mouse typically controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse turns movements of the hand backward and forward, left and right into equivalent electronic signals that in turn are used to move the pointer.

text: The relative movements of the mouse on the surface are applied to the position of the pointer on the screen, which signals the point where actions of the user take place, so hand movements are replicated by the pointer.[36] Clicking or hovering (stopping movement while the cursor is within the bounds of an area) can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through small images called "icons" and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper notebook and clicking while the cursor hovers this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window.

text: Different ways of operating the mouse cause specific things to happen in the GUI:[36]

text:
Click: pressing and releasing a button.

(left) Single-click: clicking the main button.
(left) Double-click: clicking the button two times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than two separate single clicks.
(left) Triple-click: clicking the button three times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than three separate single clicks. Triple clicks are far less common in traditional navigation.
Right-click: clicking the secondary button, or clicking with two fingers. (This brings a menu with different options depending on the software)
Middle-click: clicking the tertiary button.

Drag and drop: pressing and holding a button, then moving the mouse without releasing. (Using the command "drag with the right mouse button" instead of just "drag" when one instructs a user to drag an object while holding the right mouse button down instead of the more commonly used left mouse button.)
Mouse button chording (a.k.a. Rocker navigation).

Combination of right-click then left-click.
Combination of left-click then right-click or keyboard letter.
Combination of left or right-click and the mouse wheel.

Clicking while holding down a modifier key.
Moving the pointer a long distance: When a practical limit of mouse movement is reached, one lifts up the mouse, brings it to the opposite edge of the working area while it is held above the surface, and then replaces it down onto the working surface. This is often not necessary, because acceleration software detects fast movement, and moves the pointer significantly faster in proportion than for slow mouse motion.
Multi-touch: this method is similar to a multi-touch trackpad on a laptop with support for tap input for multiple fingers, the most famous example being the Apple Magic Mouse.

text: Mouse gestures[edit]

text: Users can also employ mice gesturally; meaning that a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself, called a "gesture", can issue a command or map to a specific action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid "x" motion over a shape might delete the shape.

text: Gestural interfaces occur more rarely than plain pointing-and-clicking; and people often find them more difficult to use, because they require finer motor control from the user. However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread, including the drag and drop gesture, in which:

text:
The user presses the mouse button while the mouse cursor hovers over an interface object
The user moves the cursor to a different location while holding the button down
The user releases the mouse button

tag: ol

text: For example, a user might drag-and-drop a picture representing a file onto a picture of a trash can, thus instructing the system to delete the file.

text: Standard semantic gestures include:

text:
Crossing-based goal
Drag and drop
Menu traversal
Pointing
Rollover (Mouseover)
Selection

text: Specific uses[edit]

text: Other uses of the mouse's input occur commonly in special application-domains. In interactive three-dimensional graphics, the mouse's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual objects' or camera's orientation. For example, in the first-person shooter genre of games (see below), players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player's "head" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head. A related function makes an image of an object rotate, so that all sides can be examined. 3D design and animation software often modally chords many different combinations to allow objects and cameras to be rotated and moved through space with the few axes of movement mice can detect.

text: When mice have more than one button, the software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a right-handed configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right-handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the Mozilla web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary-button click, and will often open the link in a new tab or window in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button.

text: Variants[edit]

text: Mechanical mice[edit]

text:
Operating an opto-mechanical mouse

Moving the mouse turns the ball.
X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement.
Optical encoding disks include light holes.
Infrared LEDs shine through the disks.
Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y vectors.

text: The German company Telefunken published on their early ball mouse on October 2, 1968.[29] Telefunken's mouse was sold as optional equipment for their computer systems. Bill English, builder of Engelbart's original mouse,[37] created a ball mouse in 1972 while working for Xerox PARC.[38]

text: The ball mouse replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. It came as part of the hardware package of the Xerox Alto computer. Perpendicular chopper wheels housed inside the mouse's body chopped beams of light on the way to light sensors, thus detecting in their turn the motion of the ball. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted trackball and became the predominant form used with personal computers throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full-size keyboard and grabbing the mouse when required.

text: The ball mouse has two freely rotating rollers. These are located 90 degrees apart. One roller detects the forward–backward motion of the mouse and other the left–right motion. Opposite the two rollers is a third one (white, in the photo, at 45 degrees) that is spring-loaded to push the ball against the other two rollers. Each roller is on the same shaft as an encoder wheel that has slotted edges; the slots interrupt infrared light beams to generate electrical pulses that represent wheel movement. Each wheel's disc has a pair of light beams, located so that a given beam becomes interrupted or again starts to pass light freely when the other beam of the pair is about halfway between changes.

text: Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which direction the wheel is rotating. This incremental rotary encoder scheme is sometimes called quadrature encoding of the wheel rotation, as the two optical sensors produce signals that are in approximately quadrature phase. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via the mouse cable, directly as logic signals in very old mice such as the Xerox mice, and via a data-formatting IC in modern mice. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along X and Y axes on the computer screen.

text: The ball is mostly steel, with a precision spherical rubber surface. The weight of the ball, given an appropriate working surface under the mouse, provides a reliable grip so the mouse's movement is transmitted accurately. Ball mice and wheel mice were manufactured for Xerox by Jack Hawley, doing business as The Mouse House in Berkeley, California, starting in 1975.[39][40] Based on another invention by Jack Hawley, proprietor of the Mouse House, Honeywell produced another type of mechanical mouse.[41][42] Instead of a ball, it had two wheels rotating at off axes. Key Tronic later produced a similar product.[43]

text: Modern computer mice took form at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor Jean-Daniel Nicoud and at the hands of engineer and watchmaker André Guignard.[44] This new design incorporated a single hard rubber mouseball and three buttons, and remained a common design until the mainstream adoption of the scroll-wheel mouse during the 1990s.[45] In 1985, René Sommer added a microprocessor to Nicoud's and Guignard's design.[46] Through this innovation, Sommer is credited with inventing a significant component of the mouse, which made it more "intelligent";[46] though optical mice from Mouse Systems had incorporated microprocessors by 1984.[47]

text: Another type of mechanical mouse, the "analog mouse" (now generally regarded as obsolete), uses potentiometers rather than encoder wheels, and is typically designed to be plug compatible with an analog joystick. The "Color Mouse", originally marketed by RadioShack for their Color Computer (but also usable on MS-DOS machines equipped with analog joystick ports, provided the software accepted joystick input) was the best-known example.

text: Optical and laser mice[edit]

text: Optical mice rely entirely on one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and an imaging array of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, eschewing the internal moving parts a mechanical mouse uses in addition to its optics. A laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses coherent (laser) light.

text: The earliest optical mice detected movement on pre-printed mousepad surfaces, whereas the modern LED optical mouse works on most opaque diffuse surfaces; it is usually unable to detect movement on specular surfaces like polished stone. Laser diodes are also used for better resolution and precision, improving performance on opaque specular surfaces. Battery powered, wireless optical mice flash the LED intermittently to save power, and only glow steadily when movement is detected.

text: Inertial and gyroscopic mice[edit]

text: Often called "air mice" since they do not require a surface to operate, inertial mice use a tuning fork or other accelerometer (US Patent 4787051, published in 1988) to detect rotary movement for every axis supported. The most common models (manufactured by Logitech and Gyration) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive to spatial translation. The user requires only small wrist rotations to move the cursor, reducing user fatigue or "gorilla arm".

text: Usually cordless, they often have a switch to deactivate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user freedom of movement without affecting the cursor position. A patent for an inertial mouse claims that such mice consume less power than optically based mice, and offer increased sensitivity, reduced weight and increased ease-of-use.[48] In combination with a wireless keyboard an inertial mouse can offer alternative ergonomic arrangements which do not require a flat work surface, potentially alleviating some types of repetitive motion injuries related to workstation posture.

text: 3D mice[edit]

text: Also known as bats,[49] flying mice, or wands,[50] these devices generally function through ultrasound and provide at least three degrees of freedom. Probably the best known example would be 3Dconnexion/Logitech's SpaceMouse from the early 1990s. In the late 1990s Kantek introduced the 3D RingMouse. This wireless mouse was worn on a ring around a finger, which enabled the thumb to access three buttons. The mouse was tracked in three dimensions by a base station.[51] Despite a certain appeal, it was finally discontinued because it did not provide sufficient resolution.

text: One example of a 2000s consumer 3D pointing device is the Wii Remote. While primarily a motion-sensing device (that is, it can determine its orientation and direction of movement), Wii Remote can also detect its spatial position by comparing the distance and position of the lights from the IR emitter using its integrated IR camera (since the nunchuk accessory lacks a camera, it can only tell its current heading and orientation). The obvious drawback to this approach is that it can only produce spatial coordinates while its camera can see the sensor bar. More accurate consumer devices have since been released, including the PlayStation Move, the Razer Hydra and the controllers part of the HTC Vive virtual reality system. All of these devices can accurately detect position and orientation in 3D space regardless of angle relative to the sensor station.[citation needed]

text: A mouse-related controller called the SpaceBall[52] has a ball placed above the work surface that can easily be gripped. With spring-loaded centering, it sends both translational as well as angular displacements on all six axes, in both directions for each. In November 2010 a German Company called Axsotic introduced a new concept of 3D mouse called 3D Spheric Mouse. This new concept of a true six degree-of-freedom input device uses a ball to rotate in 3 axes without any limitations.[53]

text:
Various setups for 3D mice

Logitech spacemouse 3D. On display at the Bolo Computer Museum, EPFL, Lausanne

Silicon Graphics SpaceBall model 1003 (1988), allowing manipulation of objects with six degrees of freedom.

Logitech 3D Mouse (1990), the first ultrasonic mouse

text: Tactile mice[edit]

text: In 2000, Logitech introduced a "tactile mouse" that contained a small actuator to make the mouse vibrate. Such a mouse can augment user-interfaces with haptic feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a window boundary. To surf by touch requires the user to be able to feel depth or hardness; this ability was realized with the first electrorheological tactile mice[54] but never marketed.

text: Pucks[edit]

text: Tablet digitizers are sometimes used with accessories called pucks, devices which rely on absolute positioning, but can be configured for sufficiently mouse-like relative tracking that they are sometimes marketed as mice.[55]

text: Ergonomic mice[edit]

text: As the name suggests, this type of mouse is intended to provide optimum comfort and avoid injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, arthritis and other repetitive strain injuries. It is designed to fit natural hand position and movements, to reduce discomfort.

text: When holding a typical mouse, ulna and radius bones on the arm are crossed. Some designs attempt to place the palm more vertically, so the bones take more natural parallel position.[56] Some limit wrist movement, encouraging to use arm instead that may be less precise but more optimal from the health point of view. A mouse may be angled from the thumb downward to the opposite side – this is known to reduce wrist pronation.[57] However such optimizations make the mouse right or left hand specific, making more problematic to change the tired hand. Time magazine has criticized manufacturers for offering few or no left-handed ergonomic mice: "Oftentimes I felt like I was dealing with someone who’d never actually met a left-handed person before."[58]

text: Another solution is a pointing bar device. The so-called roller bar mouse is positioned snugly in front of the keyboard, thus allowing bi-manual accessibility.[59]

text: Gaming mice[edit]

text: These mice are specifically designed for use in computer games. They typically employ a wide array of controls and buttons and have designs that differ radically from traditional mice. It is also common for gaming mice, especially those designed for use in real-time strategy games such as StarCraft, or in multiplayer online battle arena games such as Dota 2 to have a relatively high sensitivity, measured in dots per inch (DPI).[60] Some advanced mice from gaming manufacturers also allow users to customize the weight of the mouse by adding or subtracting weights to allow for easier control.[61] Ergonomic quality is also an important factor in gaming mice, as extended gameplay times may render further use of the mouse to be uncomfortable. Some mice have been designed to have adjustable features such as removable and/or elongated palm rests, horizontally adjustable thumb rests and pinky rests. Some mice may include several different rests with their products to ensure comfort for a wider range of target consumers.[62] Gaming mice are held by gamers in three styles of grip:[63][64]

text:
Palm Grip: the hand rests on the mouse, with extended fingers.[65]
Claw Grip: palm rests on the mouse, bent fingers.[66]
Finger-Tip Grip: bent fingers, palm doesn't touch the mouse.[67]

text: Connectivity and communication protocols[edit]

text: To transmit their input, typical cabled mice use a thin electrical cord terminating in a standard connector, such as RS-232C, PS/2, ADB or USB. Cordless mice instead transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth), although many such cordless interfaces are themselves connected through the aforementioned wired serial buses.

text: While the electrical interface and the format of the data transmitted by commonly available mice is currently standardized on USB, in the past it varied between different manufacturers. A bus mouse used a dedicated interface card for connection to an IBM PC or compatible computer.

text: Mouse use in DOS applications became more common after the introduction of the Microsoft Mouse, largely because Microsoft provided an open standard for communication between applications and mouse driver software. Thus, any application written to use the Microsoft standard could use a mouse with a driver that implements the same API, even if the mouse hardware itself was incompatible with Microsoft's. This driver provides the state of the buttons and the distance the mouse has moved in units that its documentation calls "mickeys",[68] as does the Allegro library.[69]

text: Early mice[edit]

text: The earliest mass-market mice, such as on the original Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari ST used a D-subminiature 9-pin connector to send the quadrature encoded X and Y axis signals directly, plus one pin per mouse button. The mouse was a simple optomechanical device, and the deciding circuitry was all in the main computer.

text: The DE-9 connectors were designed to be electrically compatible with the joysticks popular on numerous 8-bit systems, such as the Commodore 64 and the Atari 2600. Although the ports could be used for both purposes, the signals must be interpreted differently. As a result, plugging a mouse into a joystick port causes the "joystick" to continuously move in some direction, even if the mouse stays still, whereas plugging a joystick into a mouse port causes the "mouse" to only be able to move a single pixel in each direction.

text: Serial interface and protocol[edit]

text: Because the IBM PC did not have a quadrature decoder built in, early PC mice used the RS-232C serial port to communicate encoded mouse movements, as well as provide power to the mouse's circuits. The Mouse Systems Corporation version used a five-byte protocol and supported three buttons. The Microsoft version used a three-byte protocol and supported two buttons. Due to the incompatibility between the two protocols, some manufacturers sold serial mice with a mode switch: "PC" for MSC mode, "MS" for Microsoft mode.[70]

text: Apple Desktop Bus[edit]

text: In 1986 Apple first implemented the Apple Desktop Bus allowing the daisy-chaining together of up to 16 devices, including arbitrarily many mice and other devices on the same bus with no configuration whatsoever. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to computer/mouse communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models (including a number of non-Apple workstations) until 1998 when iMac joined the industry-wide switch to using USB. Beginning with the Bronze Keyboard PowerBook G3 in May 1999, Apple dropped the external ADB port in favor of USB, but retained an internal ADB connection in the PowerBook G4 for communication with its built-in keyboard and trackpad until early 2005.

text: PS/2 interface and protocol[edit]

text: With the arrival of the IBM PS/2 personal-computer series in 1987, IBM introduced the eponymous PS/2 interface for mice and keyboards, which other manufacturers rapidly adopted. The most visible change was the use of a round 6-pin mini-DIN, in lieu of the former 5-pin connector. In default mode (called stream mode) a PS/2 mouse communicates motion, and the state of each button, by means of 3-byte packets.[71] For any motion, button press or button release event, a PS/2 mouse sends, over a bi-directional serial port, a sequence of three bytes, with the following format:

text:
Bit 7
Bit 6
Bit 5
Bit 4
Bit 3
Bit 2
Bit 1
Bit 0

Byte 1
YV
XV
YS
XS
1
MB
RB
LB

Byte 2
X movement

Byte 3
Y movement

text: Here, XS and YS represent the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right mouse buttons (1 = pressed). PS/2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self-test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors.

text: A Microsoft IntelliMouse relies on an extension of the PS/2 protocol: the ImPS/2 or IMPS/2 protocol (the abbreviation combines the concepts of "IntelliMouse" and "PS/2"). It initially operates in standard PS/2 format, for backwards compatibility. After the host sends a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format in which a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements. The IntelliMouse Explorer works analogously, with the difference that its 4-byte packets also allow for two additional buttons (for a total of five).[72]

text: Mouse vendors also use other extended formats, often without providing public documentation. The Typhoon mouse uses 6-byte packets which can appear as a sequence of two standard 3-byte packets, such that an ordinary PS/2 driver can handle them.[73] For 3-D (or 6-degree-of-freedom) input, vendors have made many extensions both to the hardware and to software. In the late 1990s, Logitech created ultrasound based tracking which gave 3D input to a few millimeters accuracy, which worked well as an input device but failed as a profitable product. In 2008, Motion4U introduced its "OptiBurst" system using IR tracking for use as a Maya (graphics software) plugin.

text: USB[edit]

text: The industry-standard USB (Universal Serial Bus) protocol and its connector have become widely used for mice; it is among the most popular types.[74]

text: Cordless or wireless[edit]

text: Cordless or wireless mice transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth and Wi-Fi). The receiver is connected to the computer through a serial or USB port, or can be built in (as is sometimes the case with Bluetooth and WiFi[75]). Modern non-Bluetooth and non-WiFi wireless mice use USB receivers. Some of these can be stored inside the mouse for safe transport while not in use, while other, newer mice use newer "nano" receivers, designed to be small enough to remain plugged into a laptop during transport, while still being large enough to easily remove.[76]

text:
The Logitech Metaphor, the first wireless mouse (1984). On display at the Musée Bolo, EPFL

A Microsoft wireless mouse made for notebook computers

text: Multiple-mouse systems[edit]

text: Some systems allow two or more mice to be used at once as input devices. 16-bit era home computers such as the Amiga used this to allow computer games with two players interacting on the same computer (Lemmings and The Settlers for example). The same idea is sometimes used in collaborative software, e.g. to simulate a whiteboard that multiple users can draw on without passing a single mouse around.

text: Microsoft Windows, since Windows 98, has supported multiple simultaneous pointing devices. Because Windows only provides a single screen cursor, using more than one device at the same time requires cooperation of users or applications designed for multiple input devices.

text: Multiple mice are often used in multi-user gaming in addition to specially designed devices that provide several input interfaces.

text: Windows also has full support for multiple input/mouse configurations for multi-user environments.

text: Starting with Windows XP, Microsoft introduced a SDK for developing applications that allow multiple input devices to be used at the same time with independent cursors and independent input points.[77]

text: The introduction of Vista and Microsoft Surface (now known as Microsoft PixelSense) introduced a new set of input APIs that were adopted into Windows 7, allowing for 50 points/cursors, all controlled by independent users. The new input points provide traditional mouse input; however, they were designed with other input technologies like touch and image in mind. They inherently offer 3D coordinates along with pressure, size, tilt, angle, mask, and even an image bitmap to see and recognize the input point/object on the screen.

text: As of 2009, Linux distributions and other operating systems that use X.Org, such as OpenSolaris and FreeBSD, support 255 cursors/input points through Multi-Pointer X. However, currently no window managers support Multi-Pointer X leaving it relegated to custom software usage.

text: There have also been propositions of having a single operator use two mice simultaneously as a more sophisticated means of controlling various graphics and multimedia applications.[78]

text: Buttons[edit]

text: Mouse buttons are microswitches which can be pressed to select or interact with an element of a graphical user interface, producing a distinctive clicking sound.

text: Since around the late 1990s, the three-button scrollmouse has become the de facto standard. Users most commonly employ the second button to invoke a contextual menu in the computer's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse cursor currently sits. By default, the primary mouse button sits located on the left-hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right-handed users; left-handed users can usually reverse this configuration via software.

text: Scrolling[edit]

text: Nearly all mice now have an integrated input primarily intended for scrolling on top, usually a single-axis digital wheel or rocker switch which can also be depressed to act as a third button. Though less common, many mice instead have two-axis inputs such as a tiltable wheel, trackball, or touchpad.

text: Mouse speed[edit]

text: Mickeys per second is a unit of measurement for the speed and movement direction of a computer mouse,[68] where direction is often expressed as "horizontal" versus "vertical" mickey count. However, speed can also refer to the ratio between how many pixels the cursor moves on the screen and how far the mouse moves on the mouse pad, which may be expressed as pixels per mickey, pixels per inch, or pixels per centimeter.

text: The computer industry often measures mouse sensitivity in terms of counts per inch (CPI), commonly expressed as dots per inch (DPI) – the number of steps the mouse will report when it moves one inch. In early mice, this specification was called pulses per inch (ppi).[39] The Mickey originally referred to one of these counts, or one resolvable step of motion. If the default mouse-tracking condition involves moving the cursor by one screen-pixel or dot on-screen per reported step, then the CPI does equate to DPI: dots of cursor motion per inch of mouse motion. The CPI or DPI as reported by manufacturers depends on how they make the mouse; the higher the CPI, the faster the cursor moves with mouse movement. However, software can adjust the mouse sensitivity, making the cursor move faster or slower than its CPI. Current[update] software can change the speed of the cursor dynamically, taking into account the mouse's absolute speed and the movement from the last stop-point. In most software, an example being the Windows platforms, this setting is named "speed," referring to "cursor precision". However, some operating systems name this setting "acceleration", the typical Apple OS designation. This term is incorrect. Mouse acceleration in most mouse software refers to the change in speed of the cursor over time while the mouse movement is constant.

text: For simple software, when the mouse starts to move, the software will count the number of "counts" or "mickeys" received from the mouse and will move the cursor across the screen by that number of pixels (or multiplied by a rate factor, typically less than 1). The cursor will move slowly on the screen, with good precision. When the movement of the mouse passes the value set for some threshold, the software will start to move the cursor faster, with a greater rate factor. Usually, the user can set the value of the second rate factor by changing the "acceleration" setting.

text: Operating systems sometimes apply acceleration, referred to as "ballistics", to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of Windows prior to Windows XP doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very nonlinear response.[79]

text: Mousepads[edit]

text: Engelbart's original mouse did not require a mousepad;[80] the mouse had two large wheels which could roll on virtually any surface. However, most subsequent mechanical mice starting with the steel roller ball mouse have required a mousepad for optimal performance.

text: The mousepad, the most common mouse accessory, appears most commonly in conjunction with mechanical mice, because to roll smoothly the ball requires more friction than common desk surfaces usually provide. So-called "hard mousepads" for gamers or optical/laser mice also exist.

text: Most optical and laser mice do not require a pad. Whether to use a hard or soft mousepad with an optical mouse is largely a matter of personal preference. One exception occurs when the desk surface creates problems for the optical or laser tracking, for example, a transparent or reflective surface.

text: In the marketplace[edit]

text: Around 1981 Xerox included mice with its Xerox Star, based on the mouse used in the 1970s on the Alto computer at Xerox PARC. Sun Microsystems, Symbolics, Lisp Machines Inc., and Tektronix also shipped workstations with mice, starting in about 1981. Later, inspired by the Star, Apple Computer released the Apple Lisa, which also used a mouse. However, none of these products achieved large-scale success. Only with the release of the Apple Macintosh in 1984 did the mouse see widespread use.[81]

text: The Macintosh design,[82] commercially successful and technically influential, led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products (by 1986, Atari ST, Amiga, Windows 1.0, GEOS for the Commodore 64, and the Apple IIGS).[83]

text: The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the software of the 1980s and 1990s made mice all but indispensable for controlling computers. In November 2008, Logitech built their billionth mouse.[84]

text: Use in games[edit]

text: The Classic Mac OS Desk Accessory Puzzle in 1984 was the first game designed specifically for a mouse.[85] The device often functions as an interface for PC-based computer games and sometimes for video game consoles.

text: First-person shooters[edit]

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text: FPSs naturally lend themselves to separate and simultaneous control of the player's movement and aim, and on computers this has traditionally been achieved with a combination of keyboard and mouse. Players use the X-axis of the mouse for looking (or turning) left and right, and the Y-axis for looking up and down; the keyboard is used for movement and supplemental inputs.

text: Many shooting genre players prefer a mouse over a gamepad analog stick because the mouse is a linear input device, which allows for fast and precise control. Holding a stick in a given position produces a corresponding constant movement or rotation, i.e. the output is an integral of the user's input, and requires that time be spent moving to or from its null position before this input can be given; in contrast, the output of a mouse directly and instantaneously corresponds to how far it is moved in a given direction (often multiplied by an "acceleration" factor derived from how quickly the mouse is moved). The effect of this is that a mouse is well suited to small, precise movements; large, quick movements; and immediate, responsive movements; all of which are important in shooter gaming.[86] This advantage also extends in varying degrees to similar game styles such as third-person shooters.

text: Some incorrectly ported games or game engines have acceleration and interpolation curves which unintentionally produce excessive, irregular, or even negative acceleration when used with a mouse instead of their native platform's non-mouse default input device. Depending on how deeply hardcoded this misbehavior is, internal user patches or external 3rd-party software may be able to fix it.[87]

text: Due to their similarity to the WIMP desktop metaphor interface for which mice were originally designed, and to their own tabletop game origins, computer strategy games are most commonly played with mice. In particular, real-time strategy and MOBA games usually require the use of a mouse.

text: The left button usually controls primary fire. If the game supports multiple fire modes, the right button often provides secondary fire from the selected weapon. Games with only a single fire mode will generally map secondary fire to ironsights. In some games, the right button may also invoke accessories for a particular weapon, such as allowing access to the scope of a sniper rifle or allowing the mounting of a bayonet or silencer.

text: Gamers can use a scroll wheel for changing weapons (or for controlling scope-zoom magnification, in older games). On most first person shooter games, programming may also assign more functions to additional buttons on mice with more than three controls. A keyboard usually controls movement (for example, WASD for moving forward, left, backward and right, respectively) and other functions such as changing posture. Since the mouse serves for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag (latency) will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice. In some cases the right mouse button may be used to move the player forward, either in lieu of, or in conjunction with the typical WASD configuration.

text: Many games provide players with the option of mapping their own choice of a key or button to a certain control. An early technique of players, circle strafing, saw a player continuously strafing while aiming and shooting at an opponent by walking in circle around the opponent with the opponent at the center of the circle. Players could achieve this by holding down a key for strafing while continuously aiming the mouse towards the opponent.

text: Games using mice for input are so popular that many manufacturers make mice specifically for gaming. Such mice may feature adjustable weights, high-resolution optical or laser components, additional buttons, ergonomic shape, and other features such as adjustable CPI. Mouse Bungees are typically used with gaming mice because it eliminates the annoyance of the cable.

text: Many games, such as first- or third-person shooters, have a setting named "invert mouse" or similar (not to be confused with "button inversion", sometimes performed by left-handed users) which allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of non-inverted movement). This control system resembles that of aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; computer joysticks also typically emulate this control-configuration.

text: After id Software's commercial hit of Doom, which did not support vertical aiming, competitor Bungie's Marathon became the first first-person shooter to support using the mouse to aim up and down.[88] Games using the Build engine had an option to invert the Y-axis. The "invert" feature actually made the mouse behave in a manner that users now[update] regard as non-inverted (by default, moving mouse forward resulted in looking down). Soon after, id Software released Quake, which introduced the invert feature as users now[update] know it.

text: Home consoles[edit]

text: In 1988, the VTech Socrates educational video game console featured a wireless mouse with an attached mouse pad as an optional controller used for some games. In the early 1990s, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game system featured a mouse in addition to its controllers. The Mario Paint game in particular used the mouse's capabilities[89] as did its successor on the N64. Sega released official mice for their Genesis/Mega Drive, Saturn and Dreamcast consoles. NEC sold official mice for its PC Engine and PC-FX consoles. Sony released an official mouse product for the PlayStation console, included one along with the Linux for PlayStation 2 kit, as well as allowing owners to use virtually any USB mouse with the PS2, PS3, and PS4. Nintendo's Wii also had this added on in a later software update, retained on the Wii U.