document_title: Rail transport in India

question_text: when did the train service start in india

question_tokens: when did the train service start in india

text: Rail transport in India

text: History[edit]

text: Rail transport in India began in the early nineteenth century.

text: 1832–1852: Industrial railways[edit]

text: The first proposals for railways in India were made in Madras in 1832.[6] The first train in India ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in 1837.[6] It was called Red Hill Railway and used a rotary steam locomotive manufactured by William Avery. The railway was built by Sir Arthur Cotton and was mainly used for transporting granite stones for road-building work in Madras.[6] In 1845 Cotton built the Godavari Dam Construction Railway at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry, used to supply stones for construction of a dam over Godavari.[6]

text: On 8 May 1845, Madras Railway was incorporated, and East India Railway (EIR) was incorporated the same year. On 1 August 1849 Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR) was incorporated by an Act of Parliament. A "Guarantee System" providing free land and guaranteeing rates of return (5%) to private English companies building railways was finalized on 17 August 1849. In 1851 the Solani Aqueduct Railway was built in Roorkee, hauled by a steam locomotive called Thomason, named after a British officer. It was used for transporting construction materials for an aqueduct over the Solani river.[6] In 1852 the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated.

text: 1853–1924: Passenger railways and expansion[edit]

text:
The first passenger train in India ran between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on 16 April 1853. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: Sahib, Sindh and Sultan. It could carry 400 people and ran on a line of 34 kilometres (21 mi) built and operated by GIPR.[7][8] This line was built in 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, which became the standard for railways in the country. In Eastern India, the first passenger railway train ran from Howrah (near Calcutta) to Hoogly on 15 August 1854. The 39-kilometre (24 mi) line was built and operated by EIR.[9] In May 1854 the Bombay–Thane line was extended to Kalyan by building India's first railway bridge, the Dapoorie viaduct, over Ulhas river.[10] The line was extended to Khopoli in 1855. In August 1855, EIR Express and Fairy Queen steam locomotives started hauling trains.[11]
The first passenger train in South India ran from Royapuram and Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road (Arcot) on 1 July 1856 on a 97-kilometre (60 mi) line built and operated by Madras Railway.[12]

text:
On 24 February 1873 the first tramway, a 3.8-kilometre (2.4 mi) horse-drawn tramway, opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street.[13]
On 9 May 1874 a horse-drawn tramway began operation in Bombay between Colaba and Parel.
In 1880 Calcutta Tramways Company was incorporated.[14]

text:
GIPR started its first workshops in Byculla in 1854 and Madras Railway set up their first workshop at Perambur in 1856. The railway boom continued with the incorporation of Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway (BB&CI) in 1855,[15]
Eastern Bengal Railway in 1858,[16]
and East Coast State Railway in 1890. Great South Indian Railway (GSIR) and Carnatic Railway merged in 1874 to form the South Indian Railway.

text: In 1897 lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies. In 1902 the Jodhpur Railway became the first to introduce electric lights as standard fixtures. In 1920 electric lighting of signals was introduced between Dadar and Currey Road in Bombay.

text: 1925–1950: Electrification and further expansion[edit]

text: The first railway budget was presented in 1925. The Oudh and Rohilkhund Railway was merged with EIR in the same year.[17][18] In 1930, Hyderabad-Godavary Valley Railway was merged with Nizam's state railway.

text: On 3 February 1925 India's first electric passenger train ran between Victoria terminus and Kurla, on 1500 V DC overhead traction[19] with locomotives provided by Cammell Laird and Uerdingenwagonfabrik companies. Later that year the VT–Bandra section was electrified with an elevated platform at Sandhurst Road.[19] Kurla–Kalyan and lines to Poona and Igatpuri were electrified in 1926[19] and the Bandra–Virar section was electrified by January 1928. On 1 June 1930 the Deccan Queen began running, hauled by a WCP-1 (No. 20024, old No. EA/1 4006) with 7 coaches, on the GIPR's electrified route from Bombay VT to Poona (Pune).[20]

text: The Frontier Mail made its inaugural run in 1928 between Bombay VT and Peshawar.[21] In 1929 the Grand Trunk Express began running between Peshawar and Mangalore[22] and Punjab Limited Express began running between Mumbai and Lahore. Technical advancements saw automatic colour-light signals first become operational on GIPR's lines between Bombay VT and Byculla in 1928[23] and were extended to the Byculla–Kurla section the following year.

text: 1951–1983: Zonal re-organisation and further developments[edit]

text: India's railways were re-organised into regional zones beginning in 1951[24] with the creation of Southern Railway on 14 April and Central Railway and Western Railway on 5 November.[25] The post of Chief Commissioner of Railways was abolished and the Railway Board adopted the practice of making its senior-most member Chairman.[25] Also in 1951, the government of West Bengal entered into an agreement with the Calcutta Tramways Co. to take over its administrative functions. On 14 April 1952 Northern Railway, Eastern Railway and North-Eastern Railway were created.[25] On 1 August 1955 South-Eastern Railway was split from Eastern Railway, and the following year divisional systems of administration were set up for the various regional zones. In 1958 the North-Eastern Railway split to form a new Northeast Frontier Railway.[25]

text: In 1952 fans and lights were mandated for all compartments in all classes of passenger accommodation and sleeping accommodation was introduced in coaches. In 1956 the first fully air-conditioned train was introduced between Howrah and Delhi.[26] In 1966 the first containerized freight services began, between Bombay and Ahmedabad.

text: In 1957 India Railways took a decision to adopt 25 kV AC electrification and chose SNCF (French National Railway) as technical consultant.[27] The Main Line Electrification Project was established in the same year.[28] Raj Kharswan–Dongoposi became the first section to be electrified with 25 kV AC traction[27] with the first train running on 11 August 1960.[27] In 1966 electrification of several suburban tracks around Delhi, Madras and Calcutta was completed with the 25 kV AC system. In 1979 the Main Line Electrification Project was reconstituted into Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).

text: 1984–present: Rapid transit and later developments[edit]

text:
Calcutta Metro became the first metro in the country[29] with the 24 October 1984 line between Esplanade and Bhowanipur (now the Netaji Bhawan station).[30]
In 1988 the first Shatabdi Express was introduced between New Delhi and Jhansi (later extended to Bhopal), and was the fastest train at the time.[31] In 1993 air-conditioned 3-tier coaches were introduced as well as a sleeper class separate from second class. In 1999 South East Central was constituted.
On 6 July 2002 the East Coast, South Western, South East Central, North Central, and West Central zones were created.[32] On 5 April 2016 Gatiman Express, India's fastest train at a maximum speed of 160 km/h (99 mph), made its first run from Delhi to Agra.[33]

text:
India's first computerized ticketing and reservation was introduced at New Delhi in 1986.[34]
In 1990 the first self-printing ticket machine (SPTM) was introduced.
In September 1996 the CONCERT computerized reservation system was fully deployed at New Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai, and was completed nationwide on 18 April 1999. In 1998 coupon validating machines (CVMs) were introduced at Mumbai CST. Credit cards were accepted for booking tickets and reservations starting in 1999.
Indian Railways launched its web site in February 2000[35] and began taking online train reservations and ticketing on 3 August 2002, which was extended to many cities in December.[36] On 26 September 2013 the Tatkal system of ticketing extended to ordinary trains.

text: On 16 January 1995 the first regularly scheduled services using the 2 × 25 kV system of traction started on Bina–Katni. On 5 February 2012 Western Railway switched completely to 25 kV AC traction, ending its use of 1.5 kV DC traction.[37] On 11 April 2016 Central Railway completed switching to 25 kV AC traction, ending the use of DC traction on the country's main-line rail network.[38] Indian Railways announced on 31 March 2017 that the entire rail network would be electrified by 2022.[39]

text: Rolling stock[edit]

text: Locomotives[edit]

text: Locomotives in India largely consist of electric and diesel locomotives.  The world's first compressed natural gas (CNG) locomotives are also being used.[40] Steam locomotives are used only in heritage trains.

text: In India, locomotives are classified according to their gauge, motive power, the work they are suited for and their power or model number. The class name, composed of four or five letters, encodes this information. The first letter denotes the track gauge; the second denotes their motive power, diesel or alternating current (electric); the third letter denotes the type of traffic for which they are suited (goods, passenger, multi or shunting). The fourth letter used to denote the chronological model number but from 2002 denotes the horsepower range for diesel locomotives. Electric locomotives don't come under this scheme and not all diesels are covered; for these, the fourth letter denotes their chronological model number.

text: A locomotive may have a fifth letter in its class name which denotes a technical variant, subclass or subtype, indicating a variation in the basic model or series, possibly different motors or a different manufacturer. With the new scheme for classifying diesel locomotives (as mentioned above) the fifth letter further refines the horsepower indication in 100 hp (75 kW) increments: 'A' for 100 hp, 'B' for 200 hp, 'C' for 300 hp, etc. In this scheme, a WDM-3A refers to a wide-gauge diesel multi-use 3100 hp loco, while a WDM-3D would be a 3400 hp loco and WDM-3F would be 3600 hp loco.

text: Note: This classification system does not apply to heritage steam locomotives which retain their historical class names such as M class or WP class.

text: Diesel locomotives have been fitted with auxiliary power units which save nearly 88% of fuel while idling.[41]

text: Goods wagons[edit]

text: The number of goods wagons was 205,596 on 31 March 1951 and peaked at 405,183 on 31 March 1980, after which it declined to 239,321 on 31 March 2012.[citation needed] The number is far less than that required for demand and Indian Railways loses freight traffic to road carriers. The railway carried 93 million tonnes of goods in 1950–51, increasing to 1010 million tonnes in 2012–13.[42]

text: However, its share in goods traffic is much lower than road traffic. In 1951, its share was 65%, and the share of the road was 35%. Now the shares have been reversed, and the proportion of railways has declined to 30% while the share of road has increased to 70%.[citation needed]

text: Since the 1990s, Indian Railways has stopped single-wagon consignments and provides only full-rake freight trains.[citation needed]

text: Wagon types include:[43] BOXN = BOXN-HL, BOXN-HS, BOXN-HL, BOXN-CR, BOXN-LW, BOXN-AL, BOXN-EL, BOBYN, BCNA, BCNHL, BTPN, BCACBM, BCCN, BOBRN, BRH, BTPGLN, VVN.[expand acronym]

text: Passenger coaches[edit]

text: IR has several types of passenger coaches. (See §Passenger services, below.)

text: The coaches used in IR are produced at Integral Coach Factory, Rail Coach Factory, and Modern Coach Factory, Raebareli. This includes the new Linke-Hofmann (LHB) coaches.

text: Electric multiple unit (EMU) coaches are used for suburban traffic in large cities – mainly Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, Pune, Hyderabad and Bangalore. These coaches numbered 7,793 on 31 March 2012. They have second-class and first-class seating accommodation.

text: Passenger coaches numbered 46,722 and other coaches (luggage coach, parcel van, guard's coach, mail coach, etc.) numbered 6,560 on 31 March 2012.

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: The Chittaranjan Locomotive Works in Chittaranjan makes electric locomotives. The Diesel Locomotive Works in Varanasi makes diesel locomotives. The Integral Coach Factory in Perambur, Chennai makes integral coaches. These have a monocoque construction, and the floor is an integral unit with the undercarriage. The Rail Coach Factory in Kapurthala also makes coaches. The Rail Wheel Factory at Yelahanka, Bangalore and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, Chhapra, Bihar manufacture wheels and axles. Diesel-Loco Modernisation Works, Patiala upgrades the WDM-2 diesel loco from 2,600 to 3,100 hp (1,900 to 2,300 kW). Some electric locomotives have been supplied by BHEL, Jhansi and Palakkad, and locomotive components are manufactured in several other plants around the country.[44]

text: Network[edit]

text: Tracks[edit]

text: As of March 2017, IR network spans 121,407 km (75,439 mi) of track length, while the route length is 67,368 km (41,861 mi).[45] Track sections are rated for speeds ranging from 80 to 200 km/h (50 to 124 mph), though the maximum speed attained by passenger trains is 180 km/h (110 mph).

text: 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, is the predominant gauge used by IR and spans 61,680 km (38,330 mi) of route (92% of total route network). It is the broadest gauge in use across the world for passenger movement.[45]

text: The 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) metre gauge tracks; 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) and 610 mm (2 ft) narrow gauge tracks are present on decreasing number of  routes. All of these routes, except the heritage routes, are being converted to broad gauge. The metre gauge tracks were 3,479 kilometres (2,162 mi) (5% of total route network) and narrow gauges tracks were 2,208 km (1,372 mi) (3% of total route network) as of  31 March 2017.[update][45]

text: Urban rail transit systems in India mostly use standard gauge tracks. Trams in Kolkata, the only remaining tram service in the country uses standard gauge tracks. The Line 1 of Kolkata Metro and Delhi Metro use same broad gauge tracks as main-line railways. All other metro lines — constructed, under construction, future — use standard gauge tracks. These metro trains are operated by metro rail corporations which are independent of Indian Railways.[46] Metro trains operate in Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Kochi and Lucknow. Gurgaon has a Metro system operated by a private organisation. Metro tracks are being constructed or planned in all million-plus cities in the country.

text: As of March 2017, most of the broad-gauge network is equipped with long-welded rails, pre-stressed concrete (PSC) sleepers and high tensile strength 52kg/60kg 90 UTS rails.[45]

text: Electrification[edit]

text: Around 30,012 km (18,649 mi) of the route-kilometres or 43,357 km (26,941 mi) of running track was electrified as of  31 March 2016.[update] India uses 25 kV AC traction on all of its electrified tracks.[47]

text: Railway electrification in India began with the first 1500 V DC electric train between Bombay Victoria Terminus and Kurla on Harbour Line in 1925. Steep gradients on the Western Ghats necessitated the introduction of electric traction on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR) up to Igatpuri on the North East line and to Pune on the South East line. 1500 V DC traction was introduced on the suburban section of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway (BB&CI) between Colaba and Borivili in 1928, and between Madras Beach and Tambaram of the then existing Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway in 1931. This was primarily to meet the growing traffic on these metros. The electrification of the Howrah–Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway was done at 3000 V DC and completed in 1958.

text: The 25 kV AC system of traction emerged as an economical modernization resulting from research and trials in Europe, particularly on French Railways (SNCF). Indian Railways adopted this standard in 1957, first operational on the Raj Kharswan–Dongoaposi section on the South Eastern Railway in 1960. The first 25 kV AC electric multiple unit (EMU) coaches which were for Kolkata suburban services were inaugurated in September 1962. With a view to provide continuity of traction system, the Howrah–Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway and Madras Beach–Tambaram section of the Southern Railway were converted to the 25 kV AC system by 1968. Considering the limitations in the DC traction system, a decision was made in 1996–97 to convert to 25 kV AC. Conversion from DC traction to AC traction was completed on Western Railway in 2012 and on Central Railway in 2016. Since then, the entire electrified mainline rail network in India uses 25 kV AC, and DC traction is used only for metros and trams.

text: Indian Railways announced on 31 March 2017 that the country's entire rail network would be electrified by 2022.[39]

text: Signaling and Telecommunication[edit]

text: IR uses a range of signalling technologies and methods to manage its train operations based on traffic density and safety requirements.

text: As of March 2017, around 2,850 kilometres (1,770 mi) of the route uses automatic block signalling for train operations - concentrated in high density routes, large cities and junctions.[48] Remaining routes are based on absolute block signalling with trains manually controlled by signal men from the signal boxes typically located at stations. Few low density routes still use manual block signalling methods with communication on track clearance based on physical exchange of tokens.[49] In a few sections, intermediate block signalling is provided to further enhance line capacity with minimal investment. As of March 2017. 501 block sections have intermediate block signals on IR.[48]

text: IR primarily uses coloured signal lights, which replaced semaphores and disc-based signalling (dependent on position or colour).[50] IR uses two-aspect, three-aspect and four (or multiple) aspect colour signalling across its network.[51]

text: Signals at most stations are interlocked using Panel Interlocking, Route-Relay Interlocking or Electronic Interlocking methods that eliminate scope for human signalling errors. IR uses track circuiting, and block proving axle counters for train detection.

text: As of March 2017, 5584 stations across IR (about 90% of stations on Broad Gauge) have interlocked stations and multi-aspect signalling. Around 99% of key routes (A, B, C and D) have track circuitry or block proving axle counters for automated train detection. Also, IR has about 51,000 Route kilometers of Optical Fiber Cable (OFC) network across India, that is used for train control, voice and data communication. Around 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) of route is covered by GSM-R based Mobile Train Radio Communication.[48]

text: In December 2017, IR announced that it will implement ETCS Level 2 system for signalling and control on key routes with an investment of ₹12,000 crore (US$1.7 billion).[52] Currently IR uses Centralised Traffic Control (CTC) on the busy Ghaziabad - Kanpur route and real-time train monitoring systems on Mumbai and Kolkata suburban routes.[48]

text: Links with adjacent countries[edit]

text: Rail links between India and neighbouring countries are not well developed. Two trains operate to Pakistan: the Samjhauta Express between Delhi and Lahore, and the Thar Express between Jodhpur and Karachi. Bangladesh is connected by the biweekly Maitree Express, which runs from Kolkata to Dhaka, and Bandhan Express, which began running commercial trips between Kolkata and Khulna in November 2017.[53][54]

text: Two rail links to Nepal exist: passenger service between Jainagar and Bijalpura and freight services between Raxaul and Birganj.[55]

text:
Indian and Bangladeshi governments planned to start work by January 2015 on a new rail link to ease surface transport.[56] India will build a 15-kilometre (9.3 mi) railway linking Tripura's capital Agartala with Bangladesh's southeastern city of Akhaura, an important railway junction connected to Chittagong port, resource-rich Sylhet and Dhaka.[57] An agreement to implement the railway project was signed between India's former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Bangladesh Premier Sheikh Hasina during her visit to India in January 2010.[58] Total cost of the proposed project is estimated at ₹252 crore (₹2.5 billion). The Indian Railway Construction Company (IRCON) would lay the new railway tracks on both sides of the border. Of the 15 km rail line, 5 km of tracks fall in Indian territory.[59][60]
The Northeast Frontier Railways (NFR) is laying tracks to connect Tripura's southern-most border town, Sabroom, 135 km (84 mi) south of here. From Sabroom, the Chittagong international sea port is 72 km (45 mi)[61]

text: No rail link exists with Myanmar but a railway line is to be built from Jiribam (in Manipur) to Tamu through Imphal and Moreh.[62] The construction of this missing link, as per the feasibility study conducted by the Ministry of External Affairs through RITES Ltd, is estimated to cost ₹29.41 billion (US$430 million).[63] An 18-kilometre (11 mi) railway link with Bhutan is being constructed from Hashimara in West Bengal to Toribari in Bhutan. No rail link exists with either China or Sri Lanka.[64]

text: Services[edit]

text: Passenger service[edit]

text: Station categories[edit]

text: From December 2017, stations are categorised into the Non-Suburban Group NSG1 to NSG6, the Suburban Group SG1 to SG3, and the Halt Group HG1 to HG3 based on the  earnings, passenger footfall and strategic importance.[65]

text: Before December 2017, stations were classified into A1, A, B, C, D, E and F categories, based only on the passenger earnings from the sales of platform tickets, thus limiting the ability of IR to better focus its investments in passenger amenities .[65]

text: Travel classes[edit]

text: IR has several classes of travel with or without air conditioning; a train may include just one or several of these. Slow passenger trains have only unreserved seating class whereas Rajdhani, Duronto, Shatabdi, Garib Rath and Yuva trains have only air-conditioned classes. The fares are different for each class with unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The fare of Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains includes food served in the train, but for other trains food has to be bought separately. From September 2016, the IR have introduced dynamic fares for all accommodation classes for Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains (except 1AC and EC classes) to shore up revenue.[66] In long-distance trains a pantry car is usually included and the food is served at the berth or seat itself. Luxury trains such as Palace on Wheels have separate dining cars but fares are comparable to a five-star hotel.

text: A standard passenger train has four unreserved (also called "general") coaches, two at the front and two at the end, of which one may be exclusively for ladies. The number of other coaches varies according to the demand and route. A luggage coach may be included at the front or back. In some mail trains, a separate mail coach is attached. Lavatories are communal and feature both the Indian style as well as the Western style.

text: The following table lists the classes in operation. A train may not include all of these classes.

text:
Class[67]

Description[68][69]

1A

AC first class: The most expensive class, with fares are almost at par with airfares. There are eight cabins (including two coupes) in full AC first class coach and three cabins (including one coupe) in the half AC first class coach. The coach has an attendant, and bedding is included in the fare. This air-conditioned coach, present only on popular routes, can carry 18 (full coach) or 10 passengers (half coach).

2A

AC two tier: These air-conditioned coaches have sleeping berths across eight bays. Berths are usually arranged in two tiers in bays of six: four across the width of the coach and two lengthwise across the corridor, with curtains along the corridor. Bedding is included in the fare. A coach can carry 48 (full coach) or 20 passengers (half coach).

FC

First class: Similar to 1A, but without air-conditioning. No bedding is available in this class, and the berths are narrower than 1A. There is an attendant, and only heritage trains still have this class.

3A

AC three tier: Air-conditioned coaches with 64 sleeping berths. Berths are similar to 2A, but with three tiers across the width and two lengthwise for eight bays of eight. They are slightly less well-appointed, usually with no reading lights or curtains. Bedding is included in the fare.

3E

AC three tier (economy): Air-conditioned coaches with sleeping berths on the Garib Rath Express. Berths are usually arranged as in 3A, but with three tiers across the width and three llengthwise. Appointments are similar to 3A, and bedding is not included.

EC

Executive chair car: An air-conditioned coach with spacious seats and legroom. With four seats in a row, it is used for intercity day travel and is available on the Tejas and Shatabdi Express.

CC

AC chair car: An air-conditioned coach with five seats in a row, used for intercity day travel. Air-conditioned double-deck coaches are used on the Double Decker Express.

SL

Sleeper class: The sleeper class is the most common coach on IR, with ten or more SL coaches attached to a train rake. They are sleeping coaches with three berths across the width and two lengthwise, without air-conditioning. They carry 72 passengers per coach.

2S

Second seater: similar to CC, without air-conditioning. Double-deck second seaters are used on the Flying Ranee.

UR/GEN

Unreserved/General: The least-expensive accommodation, with a seat not guaranteed. Tickets are valid on any train on a route if used within 24 hours of purchase.

text: At the rear of the train is a special compartment known as the guard's cabin. It is fitted with a transceiver and is where the guard usually gives the all-clear signal before the train departs.

text: Train types[edit]

text: Trains are sorted into categories which dictate the number of stops on a route, their priority on the network and their fare structure. Each express train is identified by a five-digit number. if the first digit  is 1 or 2 in the train number, they are long-distance express trains. If the first digit is 0, the train is a special train which will operate for a limited period of time with a different fare structure. A first digit of 5 denotes a passenger train.

text: The second digit indicates the zone operating the train. However, for high-speed trains, the second digit is either 0 or 2 (the first remains 1 or 2).[70] The third digit denotes the division within the zone which is responsible for maintenance and cleanliness, and the last two digits are the train's serial number.[70] The train numbering system was changed from four digits from December 2010,[71] to accommodate an increasing number of trains.

text: Trains traveling in opposite directions along the same route are usually labelled with consecutive numbers.[70] However, there is considerable variation in train numbers; some zones, such as Central Railway, have a less-systematic method of numbering trains.[70]

text: Trains are classified by average speed.[72] A faster train has fewer stops (halts) than a slower one, and is usually used for long-distance travel. Most express trains have special names to identify them easily. The names of the trains usually denote the regions they connect, the routes they traverse; a famous person or a tourist spot connected with the train.[73][74]

text:
S.no

Train

Description

1

Tejas Express

A semi-high-speed, air-conditioned train which had its inaugural run on 24 May 2017, covering 551.7 kilometres (343 mi) in eight hours, 30 minutes. Coaches have bio-vacuum toilets, water-level indicators, tap sensors, hand dryers, integrated Braille displays, an LED TV for each passenger with a phone jack, local cuisine, Wi-Fi, tea and coffee vending machines, magazines, snack tables, CCTV cameras and a fire and smoke detection and extinguishing system.

2

Gatimaan Express

The first semi-high-speed, air-conditioned train running between Delhi and Agra. With a speed of 160 km/h (99 mph), it is India's fastest train and takes 100 minutes to cover 188 km (117 mi).

3

Shatabdi Express

Air-conditioned, intercity trains for daytime travel. Unlike the Rajdhani or Duronto Expresses, the Shatabdi expresses make a round trip on the same day. The Bhopal Shatabdi Express (train number 12001/12002) is India's second-fastest train between New Delhi and Agra, with an average speed of 90 km/h (56 mph) and a top speed of 150 kilometres per hour (93 mph). The limited-stop trains have Wi-Fi.[75]

4

Rajdhani Express

Limited-stop, air-conditioned trains linking major cities to New Delhi, they have a top speed of 130–140 km/h (81–87 mph). The 2014 railway budget proposed increasing the Rajdhani and Shatabdi Expresses to 180 km/h (110 mph).

5

Duronto Express

Non-stop (except for technical halts) service introduced in 2009. In January 2016, it became possible to book tickets from those technical stops. They connect India's metros and major state capitals, and were introduced to equal (or exceed) the speed of the Rajdhani Express. With air-conditioned one-, two- and three-tier seating, some have non-air-conditioned sleeper-class accommodations.

6

Humsafar Express

Air-conditioned, three-tier coach trains with LED screens displaying information about stations and train speed, a PA system, vending machines for tea and coffee, charging ports for electronic devices, bio-toilets, smoke alarms, CCTV cameras, curtains and heating and refrigeration facilities for food.

7

AC Express

Air-conditioned, limited-stop trains linking major cities, with a speed of about 130 km/h (81 mph).

8

Double Decker Express

Air-conditioned, limited-stop, two-tier express trains for daytime travel

9

Uday Express

Similar to the Double Decker Express, with berths for night travel

10

Garib Rath

Air-conditioned, economy, three-tier trains with a top speed of 130 km/h (81 mph)

11

Yuva Express

Introduced with the Duronto Express to provide air-conditioned travel to young Indians, 60 percent of its seats were reserved for passengers between 18 and 45 years of age. The trains were unsuccessful, and operate only on the Delhi-Howrah and Delhi-Mumbai routes.

12

Jan Shatabdi Express

A more-economical version of the Shatabdi Express, with air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned classes and a top speed of 110 km/h (68 mph)

13

Sampark Kranti Express

Express service to New Delhi

14

Kavi Guru Express

Introduced in honor of Rabindranath Tagore, four pairs of the trains operate on the network.

15

Vivek Express

Introduced to commemorate the 150th birth Anniversary of Swami Vivekananda in 2013, four pairs of Vivek Expresses run in the country.

16

Rajya Rani Express

Introduced to connect state capitals to major cities in that state.

17

Mahamana Express

Superfast train with Indian Railways ModelRake coaches

18

Intercity Express

Introduced to connect major cities on short routes with high and semi-high speeds. Trains include the Deccan Queen, Flying Ranee and Bilaspur Nagpur Intercity Express.

19

Antyodaya Express

Non-reserved, high-speed LHB coaches on peak routes to ease congestion

20

Jan Sadharan Express

Non-reserved express trains on peak routes to ease congestion

21

Superfast Express/Mail

Trains with a speed greater than 100–110 km/h (62–68 mph), whose tickets have a superfast surcharge

22

Express/Mails

India's most common train type, with stops at relatively-important intermediate stations

23

Fast Passenger and Passenger

Slow, economical trains which stop at every (or almost every) station on a route. With generally-unreserved seating, some night trains have sleeper and three-tier air-conditioned compartments. The trains travel at about 40–80 km/h (25–50 mph).

24

Suburban trains

These trains operate in Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Pune and between Kanpur and Lucknow, usually stop at every station, and have unreserved seating.

25

Metro

Designed for urban transport, the first metro was the Kolkata Metro.

26

Luxury Trains

IR operates luxury trains, such as the Palace on Wheels, Royal Rajasthan on Wheels, Maharaja Express, Deccan Odyssey, The Golden Chariot and the Mahaparinirvan Express. The Fairy Queen, a tourist attraction as the world's oldest operating steam engine, hauls a luxury train from Delhi to Alwar.

27

Mountain railways

Three of the lines were declared a World Heritage site as Mountain Railways of India by UNESCO.[76]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: The Palace on Wheels is a luxury-train service, frequently hauled by a steam locomotive, to promote tourism in Rajasthan.[77] The train has a seven-night, eight-day itinerary on a round trip from New Delhi via Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur and Chittaurgarh, Udaipur, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Bharatpur and Agra.

text: Royal Rajasthan on Wheels covers a number of tourist destinations in Rajasthan. The seven-day, eight-night tour is a round trip from New Delhi's Safdarjung station via Jodhpur, Udaipur and Chittaurgarh, Ranthambore National Park and Jaipur, Khajuraho, Varanasi and Sarnath, and Agra.[78]

text: Maharajas' Express, a luxury train operated by the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC), runs on five routes[79] to about 12 destinations across north-West and central India (centered around Rajasthan) from October to April.

text: The Deccan Odyssey covers tourist destinations in Maharashtra and Goa. Its seven-night, eight-day tour begins in Mumbai and stops at Jaigad Fort, Ganapatipule and Ratnagiri, Sindhudurg, Tarkarli and Sawantwadi, Goa, Kolhapur and Pune (Day 5), Aurangabad and Ellora Caves, and Ajanta Caves and Nashik.[80] The Golden Chariot runs on two tours: Pride of the South[81] and Splendor of the South.[82]

text: The Mahaparinirvan Express, an air-conditioned service also known as the Buddhist Circuit Train, is run by the IRCTC for Buddhist pilgrims. Its seven-night, eight-day tour begins in New Delhi and visits Bodh Gaya, Rajgir and Nalanda, Varanasi and Sarnath, Kushinagar and Lumbini, Sravasti and the Taj Mahal.[83]

text: Ticketing[edit]

text: India has some of the lowest train fares in the world. Basic passenger traffic is heavily subsidised by more-expensive higher-class fares.[84] Until the late 1980s, Indian Railways ticket reservations were done manually. In 1987 the Railways started using a computerised ticketing system. The entire ticketing system went online in 1995 to provide up-to-date information on status and availability. The ticketing network is computerised to a large extent, with the exception of some remote places. Computerized tickets can be booked for any two points in the country, through the Internet and via mobile phones, though this method carries an additional surcharge.

text: Discounted tickets are available for senior citizens (above 60 years) and some other categories of passengers including the disabled, students, athletes, persons affected by serious diseases, or persons appearing for competitive examinations. One compartment of the lowest class of accommodation is reserved for ladies in every passenger-carrying train. Some berths or seats in sleeper class and second class are also reserved for ladies.[85] Season tickets permitting unlimited travel on specific sections or specific trains for a specific time period may also be available. Foreign tourists can buy an Indrail Pass,[86] which is modelled on the Eurail Pass, permitting unlimited travel in India for a specific time period.

text: For long-distance travel, reservation of a berth can be made up to 120 days before departure.[85] Details such as the name, age and concession (if eligible) are required and are recorded on the ticket. The ticket price usually includes the base fare, which depends on the classification of the train (example: super-fast surcharge if the train is classified as a super-fast), the class in which one wishes to travel and the reservation charge for overnight journeys.

text: If a seat is not available then the ticket is given a waitlist number; otherwise the ticket is confirmed and a berth number is printed on the ticket. A person receiving a wait-listed ticket may be able to obtain a confirmed ticket if there are sufficient cancellations.[85][86] Some of the tickets are assigned to the Reservation against Cancellation (RAC), which is between the waiting list and the confirmed list.[85][86] These allow the ticket holder to board the train and obtain an allotted seat decided by a ticket collector, after the ticket collector has ascertained that a seat is vacant.

text: Reserved railway tickets can be booked through the website of Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC)[87] and also through mobile phones and SMS. Tickets booked through this site are categorised into iTickets and eTickets. iTickets are booked by a passenger and then printed and delivered to the passenger for carrying during journey. eTickets are printed by the passenger and carried while travelling. While travelling on an eTicket, one must carry an authorised valid photo identity card. Cancellation of eTickets are also done online, without the requirement for the passenger to go to any counter. Unreserved tickets are available for purchase on the platform at any time before departure. An unreserved-ticket holder may only board the general-compartment class. All suburban networks issue unreserved tickets valid for a limited time. For frequent commuters, a season pass (monthly or quarterly) guarantees unlimited travel between two stops.

text: Freight service[edit]

text:
In 1999, the Konkan Railway Corporation introduced the Roll on Roll off (RORO) service, a unique road–rail system, on the section between Kolad in Maharashtra and Verna in Goa,[88] which was extended in 2004 to Surathkal in Karnataka.[89][90]
The RORO service, the first of its kind in India, allowed trucks to be transported on flatbed trailers. It was highly popular,[91] carrying about 110,000 trucks and bringing in about ₹740 million worth of earnings to the corporation by 2007.[92]

text: Urban rail[edit]

text: Suburban rail[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway is India's first commuter rail system and transports 6.3 million passengers daily, the highest passenger-density in the world.[93] The Kolkata Suburban Railway was established in Kolkata in 1854.[94]

text: The operational suburban rail systems in India are Mumbai Suburban Railway, Kolkata Suburban Railway, Lucknow–Kanpur Suburban Railway, Chennai Suburban Railway, Delhi Suburban Railway, Pune Suburban Railway, Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System, Barabanki–Lucknow Suburban Railway and Pernem–Karwar Suburban Railway.[95] Other planned systems are Bengaluru Commuter Rail, Ahmedabad Suburban Railway and Coimbatore Suburban Railway.

text: Metro[edit]

text: The first modern rapid transit in India is the Kolkata Metro which started operations in 1984, as the 17th Zone of Indian Railways.[96] The Delhi Metro in New Delhi is India's second conventional metro and began operations in 2002. The Namma Metro in Bangalore became India's third rapid-transit system in 2011. Following these were Rapid Metro in Gurgaon, Mumbai Metro, Jaipur Metro, Chennai Metro, Kochi Metro, Hyderabad Metro and Lucknow Metro.

text: Further systems in planning include: Noida Metro, Ghaziabad Metro, Navi Mumbai Metro, Nagpur Metro, Metro-Link Express for Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad, Varanasi Metro, Kanpur Metro, Pune Metro, Vijayawada Metro, Patna Metro, Meerut Metro, Guwahati Metro, Chandigarh Metro, Bhopal Metro, Kozhikode Light Metro, Indore Metro, Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro, Agra Metro, Coimbatore Metro, Visakhapatnam Metro, Dehradun Metro, Surat Metro, Srinagar Metro, Greater Gwalior Metro, Jabalpur Metro and Greater Nashik Metro. Some of these may be under construction and planned to be opened shortly.

text: Monorail[edit]

text: Monorail is generally considered a feeder system for the metro trains in India. The Mumbai Monorail, which started in 2014, is the first operational monorail network in India[97] (excluding the Skybus Metro) since the Patiala State Monorail Trainways closed in 1927.

text: Other planned systems are Chennai Monorail, Kolkata Monorail, Allahabad Monorail, Bengaluru Monorail, Delhi Monorail, Indore Monorail, Kanpur Monorail, Navi Mumbai Monorail, Patna Monorail, Pune Monorail, Ahmedabad Monorail, Aizawl Monorail, Bhubaneswar Monorail, Jodhpur Monorail, Kota Monorail, Nagpur Monorail and Nashik Monorail.

text: Light rail[edit]

text: Like monorail, light rail is also considered a feeder for the metro systems. The planned systems are Kolkata Light Rail Transit and Delhi Light Rail Transit.

text: Tram[edit]

text: In addition to trains, trams were introduced in many cities in late 19th century, though almost all of these were phased out. The trams in Kolkata are currently the only tram system in the country. The nationalised Calcutta Tramways Company is in the process of upgrading the existing tramway network at a cost of ₹240 million (US$3.5 million).[98]

text: Private railways[edit]

text: Though state-owned companies like IR and the various metro companies enjoy a near monopoly in India, a few private railways do exist. These private railway lines are used exclusively for freight.

text: There are railway lines owned and operated by companies including plantations, sugar mills, collieries and other mines, dams, harbours and ports. Broad-gauge railways are operated by the Mumbai Port Trust, Madras Port Trust,[99] Calcutta Port Trust, Visakhapatnam Port Trust and Bhilai Steel Plant.[99] The Tata Group operate funicular railways at Bhira and at Bhivpuri Road (as well as the Kamshet–Shirawta Dam railway line). The Pipavav Rail Corporation holds a 33-year concession for building and operating a railway line from Pipavav to Surendranagar.[99] The Kutch Railway Company, a joint venture of the Gujarat state government and private parties, is involved (along with the Kandla Port Trust and the Gujarat Adani Port) to build a Gandhidham–Palanpur railway line.[99]

text: UNESCO World Heritage Sites[edit]

text: There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on Indian Railways, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus[100] and the Mountain Railways of India.[101] The latter consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of India: the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a 610 mm (2 ft) narrow gauge railway in Lesser Himalayas in West Bengal, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) metre gauge rack railway in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and the Kalka–Shimla Railway, a 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) narrow gauge railway in the Siwalik Hills in Himachal Pradesh.[101]

text: Issues[edit]

text: The IR receive rail subsidies of around ₹260 billion ($3.8 billion), 60% of which goes to commuter rail and short-haul trips.[102]

text: IR earns about 70% of its revenues from freight traffic (₹686.2 billion from freight and ₹304.6 billion from passengers in 2011–12). Most of its profits come from transporting freight, and this makes up for losses on passenger traffic. It deliberately keeps its passenger fares low.

text: According to the Report of High Level Safety Review Committee of 2012, from 2007–08 to October 2011 casualties in train accidents accounted for 1,019 deaths and 2,118 injuries. In the same period 1,600 railway staff were killed and 8,700 injured. The committee estimated that almost 15,000 persons get killed each year by what is called unlawful trespassing.[103] A Daily Telegraph article[104] stated that Indian Railway officials believe that a large proportion of bodies found dead on railways died elsewhere and were put on the railway in dishonest attempts to get compensation from the railway authorities and companies.

text: IR announced that by 2022 all trains would be electric to reduce their carbon footprint.[105]

text: Future[edit]

text: IR's Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) undertakes research, design and standardisation. The railway has undertaken several initiatives to upgrade its ageing infrastructure and improve its quality of service. The Indian government plans to invest ₹9.05 trillion (US$130 billion) to upgrade IR by 2020.[106]

text: Infrastructure[edit]

text: Infrastructure modernisation projects include high-speed rail, with the first Ahmdabad-Mumbai train in operation in 2025;[107][108][109] redevelopment of 400 stations by monetizing 2,700 acres (1,100 ha) of spare railway land under a ₹1,070,000 crore (US$156 billion) plan;[110] doubling tracks to reduce congestion and delays while improving safety (15,000 km of double track existed in 2016, and funding for 12,500 km more was approved that year);[111] the refurbishing of 12- to 15-year-old coaches at the Carriage Rehabilitation Workshop in Bhopal to enhance passenger amenities and fire safety;[112][113] Global Positioning System (GPS)-enabled tracking of trains to improve safety and service;[114] Digital India-driven ₹3,500,000 million (US$51 billion) digitalisation of the railway to improve efficiency and reduce cost;[111] rainwater harvesting, with 1885 systems installed by December 2016,[115] and reforestation of railway land and along the tracks.[116]

text: Electrification and power[edit]

text: All routes will be electrified to save on imported-fuel costs (48 percent of the network was electrified by May 2016, with full electrification planned by March 2021.[111] Off-the-grid Solar-powered trains are planned with the installation of one gigawatt of solar and 130 megawatts of wind power between 2017 and 2022; India introduced the world's first solar-powered train and 50 coaches with rooftop solar farms in June 2017.[117][118][119] Rooftop solar electricity is planned at stations to reduce long-term fuel costs and protect the environment,[120] and sustainable LED lighting at all stations is planned by March 2018 to cut electricity costs.[121] Locomotive factories have been modernised, including two new factories in Bihar: an electric locomotive factory in Madhepura and a diesel locomotive factory in Marhaura, and 2,285 bio-toilets were introduced from April to July 2014.[122][123][124] A ₹200 billion (US$2.9 billion) partnership with Alstom to supply 800 electric locomotives from 2018 to 2028 was announced.[106]

text: Safety[edit]

text: Safety projects include the elimination of an average of 1,217 unguarded level crossings per year by building an average of 1,066 overpasses and underpasses per year;[125][111] an automated fire alarm system on Rajdhani Express trains was begun in 2013, extending to the air-conditioned coaches of all trains,[126] and 6,095 GPS-enabled Fog Pilot Assistance System railway signalling devices (replacing the practice of placing firecrackers on tracks to alter train drivers) installed in 2017 in four zones: Northern, North Central, North Eastern and North Western.[127]


document_title: Julius Caesar

question_text: who became emperor of rome after the death of caesar and the civil war

question_tokens: who became emperor of rome after the death of caesar and the civil war

root

text: Julius Caesar

text: Early life and career

text: Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus.[7] The family originated from Alba Longa, twenty miles south of Rome.[8] The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedere, caes-).[9] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle.[10] Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored this interpretation of his name.

tag: p

text: Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century BC.[11] Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia,[12] and his sister Julia, Caesar's aunt, married Gaius Marius, one of the most prominent figures in the Republic.[13] His mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood.[14]

text: In 85 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly,[15] so Caesar was the head of the family at 16. His coming of age coincided with a civil war between his uncle Gaius Marius and his rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Both sides carried out bloody purges of their political opponents whenever they were in the ascendancy. Marius and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna were in control of the city when Caesar was nominated to be the new high priest of Jupiter,[16] and he was married to Cinna's daughter Cornelia.[17][18] Following Sulla's final victory, though, Caesar's connections to the old regime made him a target for the new one. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry, and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding.[19] The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.[14]

text: Caesar felt that it would be much safer far away from Sulla should the Dictator change his mind, so he left Rome and joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in the Siege of Mytilene. He went on a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, but he spent so long at Nicomedes' court that rumours arose of an affair with the king, which Caesar vehemently denied for the rest of his life.[20] Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.[21]

text: Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. He lacked means since his inheritance was confiscated, but he acquired a modest house in Subura, a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome.[22] He turned to legal advocacy and became known for his exceptional oratory accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption.

text: On the way across the Aegean Sea,[23] Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held prisoner.[24][25] He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. The pirates demanded a ransom of 20 talents of silver, but he insisted that they ask for 50.[26][27] After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them. He had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity[28]—a promise that the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut. He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from the east.[29]

text: On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC,[30] and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, and included images of her husband Marius in the funeral procession, unseen since the days of Sulla. His wife Cornelia also died that year.[31] Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Spain after her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC.[32] While there, he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC,[33] he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla, whom he later divorced in 61 BC after her embroilment in the Bona Dea scandal.[34] In 65 BC, he was elected curule aedile, and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support.[35]

text: In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two powerful senators. Accusations of bribery were made by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing.[36] Cicero was consul that year, and he exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic; several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.[37]

text: After serving as praetor in 62 BC, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (modern south-eastern Spain) as propraetor,[38][39][40] though some sources suggest that he held proconsular powers.[41][42] He was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others, in return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus be open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Spain, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as imperator by his troops; he reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.[43]

text: Caesar was acclaimed Imperator in 60 and 45 BC. In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, army troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.[44]

text: Consulship and military campaigns

text: In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other candidates. The election was sordid – even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favour of one of Caesar's opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus.[45]

text: Caesar was already in Crassus' political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so Caesar tried to reconcile them. The three of them had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate ("rule of three men"), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia.[46] Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, who was the daughter of another powerful senator.[47]

text: Caesar proposed a law for redistributing public lands to the poor—by force of arms, if need be—a proposal supported by Pompey and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, a move which intimidated the triumvirate's opponents. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but he was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His bodyguards had their ceremonial axes broken, two high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and he had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts proved ineffective in obstructing Caesar's legislation. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar."[48]

text: When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over.[49] With the help of political allies, Caesar later overturned this, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (southeastern Europe), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.[50] When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province.[51]

text: Conquest of Gaul

text: Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion[52] or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals at the Battle of Magetobriga, with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.[53]

text: In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite Britain.[54] During the spring of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The Lucca Conference renewed the First Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years.[55] The conquest of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained.[56] Caesar now had a secure base from which to launch an invasion of Britain.

text: In 55 BC, Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year, possibly the Veneti of Brittany.[57] His intelligence information was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could not advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter.[58] He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a few alliances. However, poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, which forced Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.[59]

text: While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the brink of civil war. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was dead.[60]

text: Though the Gallic tribes were just as strong as the Romans militarily, the internal division among the Gauls guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar. Vercingetorix's attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came too late.[61][62] He proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender.[63] Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year,[64] Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that during the Gallic Wars the army had fought against three million men (of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved), subjugated 300 tribes, and destroyed 800 cities.[65]

text: Civil war

text: In 50 BC, the Senate (led by Pompey) ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor had finished.[66] Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On January 10, 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is cast".[67] Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea iacta esto", let the die be cast.[68] Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in Pompey's newly raised troops. Pompey, despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, did not intend to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture Pompey before his legions could escape.[69]

text: Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Heading for Spain, Caesar left Italy under the control of Mark Antony. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, Caesar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Illyria, where, in July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium, Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece.[70]

text: In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator,[71] with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this dictatorship.[71][72] Caesar then pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, Caesar was presented with Pompey's severed head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears.[73] He then had Pompey's assassins put to death.[74]

text: Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.[75]

text: Caesar and Cleopatra were not married. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage—in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery—and probably fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.[75]

text: Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year.[72] After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.[76] On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC (25–27 Maygreg.), where he met enthusiastic support, but where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point.[77][78][79] Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory in 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide.[80]

text: After this victory, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.[81] Pompey's sons escaped to Spain; Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC.[82] During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague).

text: Dictatorship and assassination

text: While he was still campaigning in Spain, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honour Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans.[83] On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar) as his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus would be the next heir in succession.[84] In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome.

text: During his early career, Caesar had seen how chaotic and dysfunctional the Roman Republic had become. The republican machinery had broken down under the weight of imperialism, the central government had become powerless, the provinces had been transformed into independent principalities under the absolute control of their governors, and the army had replaced the constitution as the means of accomplishing political goals. With a weak central government, political corruption had spiralled out of control, and the status quo had been maintained by a corrupt aristocracy, which saw no need to change a system that had made its members rich.[citation needed]

text: Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.[85] First, he wanted to suppress all armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together all of the provinces into a single cohesive unit.[85]

text: The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.[85] To accomplish the other two goals, he needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,[86] so he assumed these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.[87]

text: Dictatorship

text: When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. Not everything went Caesar's way. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains, the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity.[88] Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars.[89] At the Circus Maximus, two armies of war captives, each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants, fought to the death. Again, some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests on the Field of Mars.[89]

text: After the triumph, Caesar set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.[89] He ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and decreed that jurors could only come from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this, he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed.[89]

text: The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among many other public works.[90] Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register.[91] From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.[92]

text: The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The calendar was then regulated by the movement of the moon, and this had left it in a mess. Caesar replaced this calendar with the Egyptian calendar, which was regulated by the sun. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year.[87]

text: To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC.[87][89] This calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar.

text: Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms.[89] He established a police force, appointed officials to carry out his land reforms, and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theatre, and a library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria.[89]

text: He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, and avenge the loss at Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilisation. Shortly before his assassination, the Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was renamed July in his honour.[89]

text: He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult, with Mark Antony as his high priest.[89]

text: Political reforms

text: The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.[86] His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies.[86] He was first appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.[93]

text: In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,[94][not in citation given] which made his person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,[94] although on at least one occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case were brought before the Senate and divested of their office.[94] This was not the first time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it. After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly, faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College.[94]

text: When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900.[95] All the appointments were of his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the Senate increasingly subservient to him.[96] To minimise the risk that another general might attempt to challenge him,[93] Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits.[93]

text: In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its powers were identical to those of the censors.[94] Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various titles and honours upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator".[93]

text: Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings.[93] Caesar then increased the number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar to reward his supporters.[95]

text: Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a single cohesive unit. This addressed the underlying problem that had caused the Social War decades earlier, where individuals outside Rome and Italy were not considered "Roman", thus were not given full citizenship rights. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the emperor Augustus.

text: In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator for life. Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants,[93] mostly because Caesar was frequently out of Italy.[93] In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognise a single consul without a colleague.[95]

text: Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC.[95] This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator.[95]

text: Assassination

text: On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had conspired to assassinate Caesar. Mark Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however, had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was to be held, and detain him outside. (Plutarch, however, assigns this action to delay Antony to Brutus Albinus.) When he heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled.[97]

text: According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled brother.[98] The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!").[99]

text: At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"[100] Casca, frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει", "adelphe, boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.[101]

text: According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal.[102] The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ, τέκνον;"[103] (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English). However, for himself, Suetonius says Caesar said nothing.[104]

text: Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.[105] The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus?");[106][107] this derives from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assertion that Caesar would have been using the language, rather than the Greek reported by Suetonius, but because the phrase was already popular when the play was written, as it appears in Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke & etc. of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays.[108]

text: According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.[109] Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it.

text: Caesar's body was cremated, and on the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum). Only its altar now remains.[110] A life-size wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had gathered there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. In the ensuing chaos, Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire.

text: Aftermath of the assassination

text: The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.[111] The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. To his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir (hence the name Octavian), bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic.[112]

text: The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the civil war, fulfilling at least in part Antony's threat against the aristocrats.[113] Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars, particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position.

text: To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the lex Titia on 27 November 43 BC,[114] the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, composed of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus.[115] It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of a god").[116]

text: Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since Sulla.[117] It engaged in the legally sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents to secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.[118] Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi.[119]

text: Afterward, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to the status of a deity.[120]

text: Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus, and Scythia, and then march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination.[121] His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results.

text: Deification

text: Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously granted the title Divus Iulius or Divus Julius (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1 January 42 BC. The appearance of a comet during games in his honour was taken as confirmation of his divinity. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours during his lifetime:[122] and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest).[123] Both Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of Divi Filius (son of a god).

text: Personal life

text: Health and physical appearance

text: Based on remarks by Plutarch,[124] Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s.[125] Several specialists in headache medicine believe that instead of epilepsy, a more accurate diagnosis would be migraine headache.[126] Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm.[127][128]

text: Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.[129][130][131]

text: In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.[132]

text: A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.[133] No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence.[134]

text: Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations—headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility—and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease.[135]

text: The Roman historian Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as "tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes".[136]

text: Name and family

text: The name Gaius Julius Caesar

text: Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.)

text: In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser.

text: In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong [ae̯] first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel [ɛː]. Then, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like [ˈtʃeːsar] in Italian and [ˈtseːzar] in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, [ˈseːsar]) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived. The original /k/ is preserved in Norse mythology, where he is manifested as the legendary king Kjárr.[137]

text: Caesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became Kaiser in German and Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946. This means that for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name.

text: His family

text:
Father Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder (proconsul of Asia in 90s BC)
Mother Aurelia (one of the Aurelii Cottae)

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text:
Julia Major
Julia Minor

text:
First marriage to Cornelia (Cinnilla), from 84 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC
Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal
Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until Caesar's death

text:
Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC
Caesarion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus.
Posthumously adopted: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became Emperor Augustus.

text: Suspected Children

text:
Marcus Junius Brutus (born 85 BC): The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.[138] Caesar would have been 15 years old when Brutus was born.
Junia Tertia (born ca. 60s BC), the daughter of Caesar's lover Servilia was believed by Cicero among other contemporaries, to be Caesar's natural daughter.
Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born ca. 85–81 BC): On several occasions Caesar expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. This Brutus was also named an heir of Caesar in case Octavius had died before the latter. Ronald Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son of Caesar, Decimus was more likely than Marcus.[139]

text: Grandson from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.

text:
Cleopatra VII, mother of Caesarion
Servilia, mother of Brutus
Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes

text:
Gaius Marius (married to his paternal aunt Julia)
Mark Antony (his relative through Antony's mother Julia)
Lucius Julius Caesar (his third-cousin)
Julius Sabinus, a Gaul of the Lingones at the time of the Batavian rebellion of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the Gallic Wars.[140]

text: Rumors of homosexuality

text: Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."[141] According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion.[142] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition.[citation needed]

text: Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers,[143] but later apologised.[144]

text: Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus.[145]

text: Literary works

text: During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.[146] Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published praise. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.[147]

text: Memoirs

text:
The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years.
The Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.

text: Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt:

text:
De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;
De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and
De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula.

text: These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front." They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings.[148] As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students.

text: Legacy

text: Historiography

text: The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind, so historians must struggle to filter the exaggerations and bias contained in it.[149] The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by the Octavian traditions, such as when Caesar's epoch is considered a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. Still, historians try to filter the Octavian bias.[150]

text: Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place in Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one afterwards.[151]

text: Politics

text: Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government.[152] Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.[153] The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.

text: Depictions

text:
Bust in the Vatican Museums

Bust in Naples National Archaeological Museum, photograph published in 1902

Bust in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples

Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Museum

Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, Rimini, Italy

text: Chronology of Caesar's life

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ Caesar ruled as undisputed master of the Roman Republic from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. During the time, he served as either dictator or consul, or both
Jump up ^ Caesar's titulary name was Imperator Gaius Iulius Gai(i) filius Gai(i) nepos Caesar Patris Patriae "Commander Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius, Father of his Country", pronounced [ɪm.pɛˈraː.tɔr ˈgaː.i.ʊs ˈjuː.li.ʊs ˈgaː.i.iː ˈfiː.li.ʊs ˈgaː.i.iː ˈnɛ.poːs ˈkae̯.sar ˈpa.trɪs ˈpa.tri.ae̯] (Suetonius, Divus Julius 76.1). Official name after deification in 42 BC: Divus Iulius ("The Divine Julius").

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