document_title: List of NBA champions

question_text: who has the most championships in the nba team

text: List of NBA champions

text: Trophies[edit]

text: Walter A. Brown Trophy[edit]

text: The trophy was originally referred to as the NBA Finals trophy,[14] but was renamed in 1964 after Walter A. Brown, the original owner of the Boston Celtics who was instrumental in merging the BAA and the National Basketball League into the NBA in 1949.[15][16]

text: The original trophy was awarded to the BAA/NBA champions from 1947 to 1976. The trophy was kept by the winning team for one year and given to the winning team of the following year's finals, unless the previous team won again, much like the NHL's Stanley Cup, which continues that tradition to this day.

text: A new trophy design was created for the 1977 NBA Finals, although it retained the Walter A. Brown title. Unlike the original championship trophy, the new trophy was given permanently to the winning team and a new one was made every year.

text: The inaugural winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia Warriors, who defeated the Chicago Stags.[17] From 1957 to 1969, the Celtics won the NBA Finals 11 out of 13 times, including eight consecutive wins. The final winners of the trophy were the Philadelphia 76ers, who defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in the 1983 NBA Finals. In 1984, the trophy was renamed the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy.

text: Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy[edit]

text: In 1984, the trophy was renamed to the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy, in honor of Larry O'Brien, who served as NBA commissioner from 1975 to 1984.[18]

text: The current trophy is made out of 14.5 pounds of sterling silver and vermeil with a 24 karat gold overlay and stands 2 feet (0.61 m) tall. It is designed to look like a basketball about to enter a net. The year and team names are engraved on the trophies, which are often prominently displayed in the winning team's arena.[19][20][21]

text: The Boston Celtics were the inaugural winners of the renamed trophy, defeating the Los Angeles Lakers in seven games (4–3) in the 1984 NBA Finals.[22]

text: Champions[edit]

text: Legend

text:
Bold
Winning team of the NBA Finals

Had or tied for the best regular season record for that season

(#)
Playoff seed

text: BAA champions[edit]

text:
Year
Western Champions
Result
Eastern Champions
Reference

1947
Chicago Stags
1–4
Philadelphia Warriors
[23]

1948
Baltimore Bullets
4–2
Philadelphia Warriors
[24]

1949
Minneapolis Lakers
4–2
Washington Capitols
[25]

text: NBA champions[edit]

text:
Year
Western Champions
Result
Eastern Champions
Reference

1950
Minneapolis Lakers[a]
4–2
Syracuse Nationals
[26][27]

1951
Rochester Royals (2)
4–3
New York Knicks (3)
[28]

1952
Minneapolis Lakers (2)
4–3
New York Knicks (3)
[29]

1953
Minneapolis Lakers (1)
4–1
New York Knicks (1)
[30]

1954
Minneapolis Lakers (1)
4–3
Syracuse Nationals (1)
[31]

1955
Fort Wayne Pistons (1)
3–4
Syracuse Nationals (1)
[32]

1956
Fort Wayne Pistons (1)
1–4
Philadelphia Warriors (1)
[33]

1957
St. Louis Hawks (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[34]

1958
St. Louis Hawks (1)
4–2
Boston Celtics (1)
[35]

1959
Minneapolis Lakers (2)
0–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[36]

1960
St. Louis Hawks (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[37]

1961
St. Louis Hawks (1)
1–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[38]

1962
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[39]

1963
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
2–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[40]

1964[b]
San Francisco Warriors (1)
1–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[41]

1965
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
1–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[42]

1966
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (2)
[43]

1967
San Francisco Warriors (1)
2–4
Philadelphia 76ers (1)
[44]

1968
Los Angeles Lakers (2)
2–4
Boston Celtics (2)
[45]

1969
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (4)
[46]

1970
Los Angeles Lakers (2)
3–4
New York Knicks (1)
[47]

1971
Milwaukee Bucks (1)
4–0
Baltimore Bullets (1)
[48]

1972
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–1
New York Knicks (2)
[49]

1973
Los Angeles Lakers (2)
1–4
New York Knicks (2)
[50]

1974
Milwaukee Bucks (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[51]

1975
Golden State Warriors (1)
4–0
Washington Bullets (2)
[52]

1976
Phoenix Suns (3)
2–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[53]

1977[c]
Portland Trail Blazers (3)
4–2
Philadelphia 76ers (1)
[54]

1978
Seattle SuperSonics (4)
3–4
Washington Bullets (3)
[55]

1979
Seattle SuperSonics (1)
4–1
Washington Bullets (1)
[56]

1980
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–2
Philadelphia 76ers (3)
[57]

1981
Houston Rockets (6)
2–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[58]

1982
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–2
Philadelphia 76ers (3)
[59]

1983
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
0–4
Philadelphia 76ers (1)
[60]

1984[d]
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
3–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[22]

1985
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–2
Boston Celtics (1)
[61]

1986
Houston Rockets (2)
2–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[62]

1987
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–2
Boston Celtics (1)
[63]

1988
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–3
Detroit Pistons (2)
[64]

1989
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
0–4
Detroit Pistons (1)
[65]

1990
Portland Trail Blazers (3)
1–4
Detroit Pistons (1)
[66]

1991
Los Angeles Lakers (3)
1–4
Chicago Bulls (1)
[67]

1992
Portland Trail Blazers (1)
2–4
Chicago Bulls (1)
[68]

1993
Phoenix Suns (1)
2–4
Chicago Bulls (2)
[69]

1994
Houston Rockets (2)
4–3
New York Knicks (2)
[70]

1995
Houston Rockets (6)
4–0
Orlando Magic (1)
[71]

1996
Seattle SuperSonics (1)
2–4
Chicago Bulls (1)
[72]

1997
Utah Jazz (1)
2–4
Chicago Bulls (1)
[73]

1998
Utah Jazz (1)
2–4
Chicago Bulls (1)
[74]

1999[e]
San Antonio Spurs (1)
4–1
New York Knicks (8)
[76]

2000
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–2
Indiana Pacers (1)
[77]

2001
Los Angeles Lakers (2)
4–1
Philadelphia 76ers (1)
[78]

2002
Los Angeles Lakers (3)
4–0
New Jersey Nets (1)
[79]

2003
San Antonio Spurs (1)
4–2
New Jersey Nets (2)
[80]

2004
Los Angeles Lakers (2)
1–4
Detroit Pistons (3)
[81]

2005
San Antonio Spurs (2)
4–3
Detroit Pistons (2)
[82]

2006
Dallas Mavericks (4)
2–4
Miami Heat (2)
[83]

2007
San Antonio Spurs (3)
4–0
Cleveland Cavaliers (2)
[84]

2008
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
2–4
Boston Celtics (1)
[85]

2009
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–1
Orlando Magic (3)
[86]

2010
Los Angeles Lakers (1)
4–3
Boston Celtics (4)
[87]

2011
Dallas Mavericks (3)
4–2
Miami Heat (2)
[88]

2012[f]
Oklahoma City Thunder (2)
1–4
Miami Heat (2)
[91]

2013
San Antonio Spurs (2)
3–4
Miami Heat (1)
[92]

2014
San Antonio Spurs (1)
4–1
Miami Heat (2)
[93]

2015
Golden State Warriors (1)
4–2
Cleveland Cavaliers (2)
[94]

2016
Golden State Warriors (1)
3–4
Cleveland Cavaliers (1)
[95]

2017
Golden State Warriors (1)
4–1
Cleveland Cavaliers (2)

text: Results by teams[edit]

text:
Teams
Win
Loss
Total
Year(s) won
Year(s) lost

Boston Celtics
17
4
21
1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1976, 1981, 1984, 1986, 2008
1958, 1985, 1987, 2010

Minneapolis/Los Angeles Lakers
16
15
31
1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1972, 1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010
1959, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1973, 1983, 1984, 1989, 1991, 2004, 2008

Chicago Bulls
6
0
6
1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998
—

Philadelphia/San Francisco/Golden State Warriors
5
4
9
1947, 1956, 1975, 2015, 2017
1948, 1964, 1967, 2016

San Antonio Spurs
5
1
6
1999, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2014
2013

Syracuse Nationals/Philadelphia 76ers
3
6
9
1955, 1967, 1983
1950, 1954, 1977, 1980, 1982, 2001

Fort Wayne/Detroit Pistons
3
4
7
1989, 1990, 2004
1955, 1956, 1988, 2005

Miami Heat
3
2
5
2006, 2012, 2013
2011, 2014

New York Knicks
2
6
8
1970, 1973
1951, 1952, 1953, 1972, 1994, 1999

Houston Rockets
2
2
4
1994, 1995
1981, 1986

St. Louis/Atlanta Hawks
1
3
4
1958
1957, 1960, 1961

Baltimore/Washington Bullets/Washington Wizards
1
3
4
1978
1971, 1975, 1979

Seattle SuperSonics/Oklahoma City Thunder
1
3
4
1979
1978, 1996, 2012

Cleveland Cavaliers
1
3
4
2016
2007, 2015, 2017

Portland Trail Blazers
1
2
3
1977
1990, 1992

Milwaukee Bucks
1
1
2
1971
1974

Dallas Mavericks
1
1
2
2011
2006

Baltimore Bullets (original) (folded in 1954)[g]
1
0
1
1948
—

Rochester/Cincinnati Royals/Kansas City/Sacramento Kings
1
0
1
1951
—

Phoenix Suns
0
2
2
—
1976, 1993

New Orleans/Utah Jazz
0
2
2
—
1997, 1998

New Jersey/Brooklyn Nets
0
2
2
—
2002, 2003

Orlando Magic
0
2
2
—
1995, 2009

Chicago Stags (folded in 1950)
0
1
1
—
1947

Washington Capitols (folded in 1951)
0
1
1
—
1949

Indiana Pacers
0
1
1
—
2000

Buffalo Braves/San Diego/Los Angeles Clippers
—
—
—

Charlotte Bobcats/Hornets
—
—
—

Denver Nuggets
—
—
—

Minnesota Timberwolves
—
—
—

New Orleans Hornets/Pelicans
—
—
—

Toronto Raptors
—
—
—

Vancouver/Memphis Grizzlies
—
—
—

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Due to the NBA's realignment into three divisions, the team with the best regular season record after the Divisional Finals advanced automatically to the NBA Finals while the other two teams faced off in the NBA Semifinals to determine the other finalist. Eastern Division champion Syracuse had the best regular season record among the division champions, causing Central Division (no relation to the current Central Division) champion Minneapolis to face Western Division champion Anderson Packers in the NBA Semifinals.[26]
Jump up ^ The trophy was renamed for Walter A. Brown.
Jump up ^ The trophy was replaced by a new design.[19][20]
Jump up ^ The trophy was renamed for Larry O'Brien.
Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until February 5, 1999, and all 29 teams played a shortened 50-game regular season schedule.[75]
Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until December 25, 2011 and all 30 teams played a shortened 66-game regular season schedule.[89][90]
Jump up ^ Not affiliated with the present-day Washington Wizards who were known as the Baltimore/Capital/Washington Bullets from 1963 to 1997.

tag: ol


document_title: Be More Chill (musical)

question_text: who plays jenna rolan in be more chill

question_tokens: who plays jenna rolan in be more chill

root

text: Be More Chill (musical)

text: Productions[edit]

text: The musical premiered in June 2015 at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey. The production featured Will Conolly as Jeremy, Eric William Morris as the Squip, George Salazar as Michael, Stephanie Hsu, Katie Ladner, Lauren Marcus, Jake Boyd, Gerard Canonico, Katlyn Carlson, and Paul Whitty. The musical was commissioned by Two River Theater as part of their new play development program.[2][3]

tag: p

text: Be More Chill received an Off-Broadway production at the Irene Diamond Stage at the Pershing Square Signature Center.[4] This production will feature several original cast members including Stephanie Hsu, George Salazar, Gerard Canonico, Katlyn Carlson and Lauren Marcus reprising their respective roles. New cast members include Will Roland of Dear Evan Hansen as Jeremy, Jason Tam as the SQUIP, Britton Smith as Jake, Tiffany Mann as Jenna, and Jason "Sweettooth" Williams as Mr. Heere.[5]

text: Act One[edit]

text: Jeremy Heere signs up for the school play in an attempt to get closer to his crush, Christine Canigula. He laments his status as a social outcast and longs to be cool ("More Than Survive"). At rehearsal, Jeremy strikes up a conversation with Christine, who professes her love of the stage ("I Love play rehearsal").

text: Jeremy runs into school bully Rich Goranski, who tells him about a pill called a "super quantum unit intel processor," or "SQUIP." The SQUIP implants itself in the host's brain and tells them how to act. Rich tells Jeremy how he used to be a social outcast, but with the SQUIP's help, became popular. Rich suggests that Jeremy gets one. ("The SQUIP Song").

text: Jeremy tells Michael, his best friend, about his conversation with Rich. Michael is skeptical but reassures Jeremy that they will always be friends ("Two Player Game"). They purchase a SQUIP for Jeremy, who takes the pill with Mountain Dew, as instructed and the SQUIP activates ("The SQUIP Enters").

text: The SQUIP tells Jeremy that it will change everything about him ("Be More Chill Pt. 1"). While shopping, Jeremy runs into two popular girls from school, Brooke Lohst and Chloe Valentine, who offer him a ride home ("Do You Wanna Ride?"). However, against the SQUIP's orders, Jeremy leaves to find Michael — only for the SQUIP to tell him that Michael had left. Seeing what happened when he disobeyed the SQUIP, Jeremy vows to be more obedient ("Be More Chill Pt. 2"). Jeremy heads to school the next morning with a renewed confidence ("More Than Survive (Reprise)").

text: At rehearsals, they begin to rehearse their zombie-apocalypse version of A Midsummer Night's Dream. During a break, Christine tells Jeremy about her feelings for a guy she knows, which turns out to be Jake ("A Guy That I'd Kinda Be Into"). After rehearsal, the SQUIP informs him that Christine won't date him until his social standing drastically improves. The SQUIP encourages Jeremy to meet up with Brooke to use as a stepping stone to popularity ("Upgrade"). Also at the SQUIP's recommendation, Jeremy purposefully ignores Michael using a method called "optic nerve blocking," who is a link to "Jeremy 1.0" ("Loser Geek Whatever").

text: Act Two[edit]

text: Act Two begins at Jake's Halloween party where chaos ensues ("Halloween"). Jeremy arrives and meets Brooke. Chloe, who is jealous of Brooke, takes Jeremy upstairs and tries to seduce him. While Jeremy is clearly not interested, the SQUIP makes him kiss her ("Do You Wanna Hang?") The SQUIP suddenly begins trying to warn Jeremy of something, but it can only speak Japanese, a side effect of Jeremy's alcohol consumption.

text: Jeremy runs into a bathroom, finding Michael who is furious that he's been abandoned. Michael tells Jeremy that he researched the SQUIP and warns him about its dangers— Michael uncovers that a previous student who took one and while it improved his life a little, he landed in a mental hospital after going crazy trying to get it out. Jeremy, thinking that Michael is just jealous of his popularity, storms out after calling Michael a loser. Michael locks himself in the bathroom and begins to have a panic attack as he mourns the loss of his only friend ("Michael in the Bathroom").

text: Meanwhile, Jeremy meets Christine at the party and with a sudden burst of confidence, he asks her out. Christine who has found herself in an existential crisis, declines, thinking it is best for her to not see anybody else until she knows who she is. Rich meanwhile is asking around the now nearly over party if anyone has any Mountain Dew Red. Jeremy's SQUIP finally reactivates and reviews the events of the next, forcibly removing Jeremy from the party immediately.

text: The next morning, Jenna Rolan, the school gossip, texts everyone with the news that Jake's house burned down in a fire set by Rich after the party and both of them are in the hospital. The news spreads throughout the school ("The Smartphone Hour (Rich Set a Fire)"). Jeremy's SQUIP reveals its master plan — to put SQUIPs in the entire student body ("The Pitiful Children").

text: At home, Jeremy is confronted by his father, who asks why Jeremy's personality has changed. Jeremy reprimands his father for acting like he cares since Mr. Heere's entire life has been on pause since his divorce. Jeremy storms out, and, shaken by Jeremy's words, Mr. Heere realizes that something is wrong and that he must take charge. He tracks down Michael and convinces him to not give up on his friendship with Jeremy ("The Pants Song").

text: Backstage at the play, the director brings out a prop — a beaker of Mountain Dew, with SQUIPs in it. Jeremy suddenly realizes that the cast has been SQUIP'ed. At the SQUIP's prompt, Jeremy realizes that — green Mountain Dew activates a SQUIP, and Mountain Dew Red shuts it off. In the last moment Michael enters holding Mountain Dew Red. Jake, under the control of his SQUIP empties the bottle, destroying all hope of deactivating the SQUIP's. Jeremy is moments away from drinking the last drop of Mountain Dew Red left in the bottle when a SQUIP'ed Christine appears, confessing her love for Jeremy. The SQUIP reveals that Christine will now do whatever he wants. Jeremy instructs her to drink the last drop of Mountain Dew Red left, causing her to release an ear-piercing shriek, destroying all of the SQUIP's ("The Play").

text: Jeremy wakes up in the hospital, in the same room as Rich who without his SQUIP realizes that he is bisexual and that he never needed a SQUIP to be happy. Michael and the new pants-wearing Mr. Heere arrive to visit Jeremy. Jeremy summons the courage to ask Christine out once more and she concurs. Jeremy understands that there will always be voices in his head, but his own must be the loudest ("Voices in My Head").

text: Musical numbers[1][edit]

text:
Act 1
"Jeremy's Theme" – Orchestra
"More Than Survive" – Jeremy, Michael, Ensemble
"I Love Play Rehearsal" – Christine
† "The SQUIP Song" – Rich, Ensemble
"Two-Player Game" – Michael, Jeremy
"The Squip Enters" – Ensemble
"Be More Chill Pt. 1" – Squip, Jeremy, Mall People
"Do You Wanna Ride?" – Brooke, Chloe
"Be More Chill Pt. 2" – Squip, Jeremy, Mall People
† "More Than Survive (Reprise)" – Jeremy, Squip, Ensemble
"A Guy That I'd Kinda Be Into" – Christine, Jeremy, Squip, Ensemble
"The SQUIP Lurks" – Orchestra
†† "Upgrade" – Brooke, Squip, Jeremy, Jake, Christine, Company
†† "Loser Geek Whatever" — Jeremy

Act 2
"Halloween" – Brooke, Jake, Chloe, Rich, Jenna, Company
"Do You Wanna Hang?" – Chloe
"Michael in the Bathroom" – Michael
"A Guy That I'd Kinda Be Into (Reprise)" - Jeremy, Christine
"The Smartphone Hour" – Jenna, Chloe, Brooke, Ensemble
† ◇ "The Pitiful Children" – Squip, Jeremy, Jenna, Ensemble
◇ "The Pants Song" – Mr. Heere, Michael
† "The Play" – Michael, Jake, Brooke, Chloe, Jeremy, Christine, Ensemble
"Voices in My Head" – Jeremy, Christine, Ensemble

tag: table

text: † The lyrics for "The SQUIP Song", "More Than Survive (Reprise), "The Pitiful Children", and "The Play" were rewritten for the Off-Broadway production.

text: †† "Loser Geek Whatever" was added to the Off-Broadway production which occurs after "Upgrade". Because of this, the ending of “Upgrade” was rewritten to remove Jeremy’s solo, and a part of it was added to “Loser Geek Whatever”.

text: ◇ The order of "The Pants Song" and "The Pitiful Children" is flipped in the Off-Broadway production.

text: Roles and original casts[edit]

text: Original productions[5][edit]

text:
Character(s)

World Premiere Cast (2015)  Two River Theatre

Original Off-Broadway Cast (2018) Pershing Square Signature Center

Jeremy Heere

Will Connolly

Will Roland

Michael Mell

George Salazar

Christine Canigula

Stephanie Hsu

The SQUIP

Eric William Morris

Jason Tam

Chloe Valentine

Katlyn Carlson

Brooke Lohst

Lauren Marcus

Rich Goranski

Gerard Canonico

Jenna Rolan

Katie Ladner

Tiffany Mann

Jake Dillinger

Jake Boyd

Britton Smith

Mr. HeereMr. ReyesScary Stockboy

Paul Whitty

Jason "SweetTooth" Williams

text: Recording[edit]

text: The world premiere cast recorded an original cast album on July 21, 2015, which was released on October 31, 2015.[7] The cast recording will be released on vinyl from Ghostlight Records in July.[8]


document_title: List of New York Yankees seasons

question_text: when was the last time the yankees finished under .500

text: List of New York Yankees seasons

text: Table key[edit]

text:
Legend for "Year by year" table below

Term
Meaning

ALCS
American League Championship Series

ALDS
American League Division Series

ASGMVP
All-Star Game Most Valuable Player

CPOY
Comeback Player of the Year

CYA
Cy Young Award

Finish
Final position in league or division

GB
"Games back" from first-place team[a]

Losses
Number of regular season losses

MOY
Manager of the Year

MVP
Most Valuable Player

ROY
American League Rookie of the Year

Season
Each year is linked to an article about that particular MLB season

Wins
Number of regular season wins

WSMVP
World Series Most Valuable Player

Yankees season
Each year is linked to an article about that particular Yankees season

text: Year by year[edit]

text:
World Series champions
(1903–present) †
American League champions
(1901–present)[b] *
Division champions
(1969–present) ^
Wild Card berth
(1994–present) ¤

text:
Win–loss records and final positions in league/division standings, by season, with playoff results and award winners

MLB season
Yankees season
League[11]
Division[11]
Finish[11]
Wins[11]
Losses[11]
Win%[11]
GB[11][c]
Playoffs[12]
Awards

1903
1903
AL
—
04 !4th
72
62
.537
17 !17
06 !—
—

1904
1904
AL
—
02 !2nd
92
59
.609
01½ !1½
06 !—
—

1905
1905
AL
—
06 !6th
71
78
.477
21½ !21½
06 !—
—

1906
1906
AL
—
02 !2nd
90
61
.596
03 !3
06 !—
—

1907
1907
AL
—
05 !5th
70
78
.473
21 !21
06 !—
—

1908
1908
AL
—
08 !8th
51
103
.331
39½ !39½
06 !—
—

1909
1909
AL
—
05 !5th
74
77
.490
23½ !23½
06 !—
—

1910
1910
AL
—
02 !2nd
88
63
.583
14½ !14½
06 !—
—

1911
1911
AL
—
06 !6th
76
76
.500
25½ !25½
06 !—
—

1912
1912
AL
—
08 !8th
50
102
.329
55 !55
06 !—
—

1913
1913
AL
—
07 !7th
57
94
.377
38 !38
06 !—
—

1914
1914
AL
—
06 !6th
70
84
.455
30 !30
06 !—
—

1915
1915
AL
—
05 !5th
69
83
.454
32½ !32½
06 !—
—

1916
1916
AL
—
04 !4th
80
74
.519
11 !11
06 !—
—

1917
1917
AL
—
06 !6th
71
82
.464
28½ !28½
06 !—
—

1918
1918
AL
—
04 !4th
60
63
.488
13½ !13½
06 !—
—

1919
1919
AL
—
03 !3rd
80
59
.576
07½ !7½
06 !—
—

1920
1920
AL
—
03 !3rd
95
59
.617
03 !3
06 !—
—

1921
1921
AL *
—
01 !1st
98
55
.641
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to New York Giants, 5–3[13] *
—

1922
1922
AL *
—
01 !1st
94
60
.610
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to New York Giants, 4–0–1[d][14] *
—

1923 †
1923
AL *
—
01 !1st
98
54
.645
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. New York Giants, 4–2[15] †
Babe Ruth (MVP)[16]

1924
1924
AL
—
02 !2nd
89
63
.586
02 !2
06 !—
—

1925
1925
AL
—
07 !7th
69
85
.448
28½ !28½
06 !—
—

1926
1926
AL *
—
01 !1st
91
63
.591
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to St. Louis Cardinals, 4–3[17] *
—

1927 †
1927
AL *
—
01 !1st
110
44
.714
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Pittsburgh Pirates, 4–0[18] †
Lou Gehrig (MVP)[19]

1928 †
1928
AL *
—
01 !1st
101
53
.656
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. St. Louis Cardinals, 4–0[20] †
—

1929
1929
AL
—
02 !2nd
88
66
.571
18 !18
06 !—
—

1930
1930
AL
—
03 !3rd
86
68
.558
16 !16
06 !—
—

1931
1931
AL
—
02 !2nd
94
59
.614
13½ !13½
06 !—
—

1932 †
1932
AL *
—
01 !1st
107
47
.695
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Chicago Cubs, 4–0[e][21] †
—

1933
1933
AL
—
02 !2nd
91
59
.607
07 !7
06 !—
—

1934
1934
AL
—
02 !2nd
94
60
.610
07 !7
06 !—
—

1935
1935
AL
—
02 !2nd
89
60
.597
03 !3
06 !—
—

1936 †
1936
AL *
—
01 !1st
102
51
.667
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. New York Giants, 4–2[22] †
Lou Gehrig (MVP)[23]

1937 †
1937
AL *
—
01 !1st
102
52
.662
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. New York Giants, 4–1[24] †
—

1938 †
1938
AL *
—
01 !1st
99
53
.651
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Chicago Cubs, 4–0[25] †
—

1939 †
1939
AL *
—
01 !1st
106
45
.702
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Cincinnati Reds, 4–0[26] †
Joe DiMaggio (MVP)[23]

1940
1940
AL
—
03 !3rd
88
66
.571
02 !2
06 !—
—

1941 †
1941
AL *
—
01 !1st
101
53
.656
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–1[27] †
Joe DiMaggio (MVP)[23]

1942
1942
AL *
—
01 !1st
103
51
.669
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to St. Louis Cardinals, 4–1[28] *
Joe Gordon (MVP)[23]

1943 †
1943
AL *
—
01 !1st
98
56
.636
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. St. Louis Cardinals, 4–1[29] †
Spud Chandler (MVP)[23]

1944
1944
AL
—
03 !3rd
83
71
.539
06 !6
06 !—
—

1945
1945
AL
—
04 !4th
81
71
.533
06 !6½
06 !—
—

1946
1946
AL
—
03 !3rd
87
67
.565
17 !17
06 !—
—

1947 †
1947
AL *
—
01 !1st
97
57
.630
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–3[30] †
Joe DiMaggio (MVP)[23]

1948
1948
AL
—
03 !3rd
94
60
.610
02½ !2½
06 !—
—

1949 †
1949
AL *
—
01 !1st
97
57
.630
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–1[31] †
—

1950 †
1950
AL *
—
01 !1st
98
56
.636
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Philadelphia Phillies, 4–0[32] †
Phil Rizzuto (MVP)[23]

1951 †
1951
AL *
—
01 !1st
98
56
.636
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. New York Giants, 4–2[33] †
Yogi Berra (MVP)[23]
Gil McDougald (ROY)[34]

1952 †
1952
AL *
—
01 !1st
95
59
.617
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–3[35] †
—

1953 †
1953
AL *
—
01 !1st
99
52
.656
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–2[36] †
—

1954
1954
AL
—
02 !2nd
103
51
.669
08 !8
06 !—
Yogi Berra (MVP)[23]
Bob Grim (ROY)[34]

1955
1955
AL *
—
01 !1st
96
58
.623
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–3[37] *
Yogi Berra (MVP)[23]

1956 †
1956
AL *
—
01 !1st
97
57
.630
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Brooklyn Dodgers, 4–3[f][38] †
Mickey Mantle (MVP)[23]
Don Larsen (WSMVP)[39]

1957
1957
AL *
—
01 !1st
98
56
.636
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to Milwaukee Braves, 4–3[40] *
Mickey Mantle (MVP)[23]
Tony Kubek (ROY)[34]

1958 †
1958
AL *
—
01 !1st
92
62
.597
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Milwaukee Braves, 4–3[41] †
Bob Turley (CYA, WSMVP)[39][42]

1959
1959
AL
—
03 !3rd
79
75
.513
15 !15
06 !—
—

1960
1960
AL *
—
01 !1st
97
57
.630
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to Pittsburgh Pirates, 4–3[43] *
Roger Maris (MVP)[23]
Bobby Richardson (WSMVP)[39]

1961 †
1961
AL *
—
01 !1st
109
53
.673
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. Cincinnati Reds, 4–1[44] †
Roger Maris (MVP)[23]
Whitey Ford (CYA, WSMVP)[39][42]

1962 †
1962
AL *
—
01 !1st
96
66
.593
00 !—
01 !Won World Series vs. San Francisco Giants, 4–3[45] †
Mickey Mantle (MVP)[23]
Tom Tresh (ROY)[34]
Ralph Terry (WSMVP)[39]

1963
1963
AL *
—
01 !1st
104
57
.646
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to Los Angeles Dodgers, 4–0[46] *
Elston Howard (MVP)[23]

1964
1964
AL *
—
01 !1st
99
63
.611
00 !—
02 !Lost World Series to St. Louis Cardinals, 4–3[47] *
—

1965
1965
AL
—
06 !6th
77
85
.475
25 !25
06 !—
—

1966
1966
AL
—
10 !10th
70
89
.440
26½ !26½
06 !—
—

1967
1967
AL
—
09 !9th
72
90
.444
20 !20
06 !—
—

1968
1968
AL
—
05 !5th
83
79
.512
20 !20
06 !—
Stan Bahnsen (ROY)[34]

1969
1969
AL
East[g]
05 !5th
80
81
.497
28½ !28½
06 !—
—

1970
1970
AL
East
02 !2nd
93
69
.574
15 !15
06 !—
Thurman Munson (ROY)[34]

1971
1971
AL
East
04 !4th
82
80
.506
21 !21
06 !—
—

1972[h]
1972
AL
East
04 !4th
79
76
.510
06½ !6½
06 !—
—

1973
1973
AL
East
04 !4th
80
82
.494
17 !17
06 !—
—

1974
1974
AL
East
02 !2nd
89
73
.549
02 !2
06 !—
—

1975
1975
AL
East
03 !3rd
83
77
.519
12 !12
06 !—
—

1976
1976
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
97
62
.610
00 !—
02 !Won ALCS vs. Kansas City Royals, 3–2
Lost World Series to Cincinnati Reds, 4–0[48] *
Thurman Munson (MVP)[23]
Dock Ellis (CPOY)[49]

1977 †
1977
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
100
62
.617
00 !—
01 !Won ALCS vs. Kansas City Royals, 3–2
Won World Series vs. Los Angeles Dodgers, 4–2[50] †
Sparky Lyle (CYA)[42]
Reggie Jackson (WSMVP)[39]

1978 †
1978
AL *
East ^
01 !1st[i]
100
63
.613
00 !—
01 !Won ALCS vs. Kansas City Royals, 3–1
Won World Series vs. Los Angeles Dodgers, 4–2[51] †
Ron Guidry (CYA)[42]
Bucky Dent (WSMVP)[39]

1979
1979
AL
East
04 !4th
89
71
.556
13½ !13½
06 !—
—

1980
1980
AL
East ^
01 !1st
103
59
.636
00 !—
03 !Lost ALCS to Kansas City Royals, 3–0[52]
—

1981[j]
1981
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
34
22
.607
00 !—
02 !Won ALDS vs. Milwaukee Brewers, 3–2
Won ALCS vs. Oakland Athletics, 3–0
Lost World Series to Los Angeles Dodgers, 4–2[53] *
Dave Righetti (ROY)[34]

06 !6th
25
26
.490
05 !5

1982
1982
AL
East
05 !5th
79
83
.488
16 !16
06 !—
—

1983
1983
AL
East
03 !3rd
91
71
.562
07 !7
06 !—
—

1984
1984
AL
East
03 !3rd
87
75
.537
17 !17
06 !—
—

1985
1985
AL
East
02 !2nd
97
64
.602
02 !2
06 !—
Don Mattingly (MVP)[23]

1986
1986
AL
East
02 !2nd
90
72
.556
05½ !5½
06 !—
—

1987
1987
AL
East
04 !4th
89
73
.549
09 !9
06 !—
—

1988
1988
AL
East
05 !5th
85
76
.528
03½ !3½
06 !—
—

1989
1989
AL
East
05 !5th
74
87
.460
14½ !14½
06 !—
—

1990
1990
AL
East
07 !7th
67
95
.414
21 !21
06 !—
—

1991
1991
AL
East
05 !5th
71
91
.438
20 !20
06 !—
—

1992
1992
AL
East
04 !4th
76
86
.469
20 !20
06 !—
—

1993
1993
AL
East
02 !2nd
88
74
.543
07 !7
06 !—
—

1994[k]
1994
AL
East
01 !1st
70
43
.619
00 !—
06 !—
Buck Showalter (MOY)[54]

1995[l]
1995
AL
East
02 !2nd ¤
79
65
.549
07 !7
04 !Lost ALDS to Seattle Mariners, 3–2[55]
—

1996 †
1996
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
92
70
.568
00 !—
01 !Won ALDS vs. Texas Rangers, 3–1
Won ALCS vs. Baltimore Orioles, 4–1
Won World Series vs. Atlanta Braves, 4–2[56] †
Derek Jeter (ROY)[34]
Joe Torre (MOY)[54]
John Wetteland (WSMVP)[39]

1997
1997
AL
East
02 !2nd ¤
96
66
.593
02 !2
04 !Lost ALDS to Cleveland Indians, 3–2[57]
—

1998 †
1998
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
114
48
.704
00 !—
01 !Won ALDS vs. Texas Rangers, 3–0
Won ALCS vs. Cleveland Indians, 4–2
Won World Series vs. San Diego Padres, 4–0[58] †
Joe Torre (MOY)[54]
Scott Brosius (WSMVP)[39]

1999 †
1999
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
98
64
.605
00 !—
01 !Won ALDS vs. Texas Rangers, 3–0
Won ALCS vs. Boston Red Sox, 4–1
Won World Series vs. Atlanta Braves, 4–0[59] †
Mariano Rivera (WSMVP)[39]

2000 †
2000
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
87
74
.540
00 !—
01 !Won ALDS vs. Oakland Athletics, 3–2
Won ALCS vs. Seattle Mariners, 4–2
Won World Series vs. New York Mets, 4–1[60] †
Derek Jeter (ASGMVP, WSMVP)[39][61]

2001
2001
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
95
65
.594
00 !—
02 !Won ALDS vs. Oakland Athletics, 3–2
Won ALCS vs. Seattle Mariners, 4–1
Lost World Series to Arizona Diamondbacks, 4–3[62] *
Roger Clemens (CYA)[42]

2002
2002
AL
East ^
01 !1st
103
58
.640
00 !—
04 !Lost ALDS to Anaheim Angels, 3–1[63]
—

2003
2003
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
101
61
.623
00 !—
02 !Won ALDS vs. Minnesota Twins, 3–1
Won ALCS vs. Boston Red Sox, 4–3
Lost World Series to Florida Marlins, 4–2[64] *
—

2004
2004
AL
East ^
01 !1st
101
61
.623
00 !—
03 !Won ALDS vs. Minnesota Twins, 3–1
Lost ALCS to Boston Red Sox, 4–3[65]
—

2005
2005
AL
East ^
01 !1st[m]
95
67
.586
00 !—
04 !Lost ALDS to Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, 3–2[66]
Alex Rodriguez (MVP)[23]
Jason Giambi (CPOY)[67]

2006
2006
AL
East ^
01 !1st
97
65
.599
00 !—
04 !Lost ALDS to Detroit Tigers, 3–1[68]
—

2007
2007
AL
East
02 !2nd ¤
94
68
.580
02 !2
04 !Lost ALDS to Cleveland Indians, 3–1[69]
Alex Rodriguez (MVP)[23]

2008
2008
AL
East
03 !3rd
89
73
.549
08 !8
06 !—
—

2009 †
2009
AL *
East ^
01 !1st
103
59
.636
00 !—
01 !Won ALDS vs. Minnesota Twins, 3–0
Won ALCS vs. Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, 4–2
Won World Series vs. Philadelphia Phillies, 4–2[70] †
Hideki Matsui (WSMVP)[39]

2010
2010
AL
East
02 !2nd ¤
95
67
.586
01 !1
03 !Won ALDS vs. Minnesota Twins, 3–0
Lost ALCS to Texas Rangers, 4–2
—

2011
2011
AL
East ^
01 !1st
97
65
.599
00 !—
04 !Lost ALDS to Detroit Tigers, 3–2
—

2012
2012
AL
East ^
01 !1st
95
67
.586
00 !—
03 !Won ALDS vs. Baltimore Orioles, 3–2
Lost ALCS to Detroit Tigers, 4–0
—

2013
2013
AL
East
03 !3rd[n]
85
77
.525
12 !12
06 !—
Mariano Rivera (CPOY)[71]

2014
2014
AL
East
02 !2nd
84
78
.519
12 !12
06 !—
—

2015
2015
AL
East
02 !2nd ¤
87
75
.537
06 !6
05 !Lost ALWC to Houston Astros
—

2016
2016
AL
East
04 !4th
84
78
.519
09 !9
06 !—
—

2017
2017
AL
East
02 !2nd ¤
91
71
.562
02 !2
Won ALWC vs. Minnesota Twins
Won ALDS vs. Cleveland Indians, 3–2
ALCS vs. Houston Astros
—

text: These statistics are from Baseball-Reference.com's New York Yankees History & Encyclopedia,[11] except where noted, and are current as of October 3, 2016.

text: Record by decade[edit]

text: The following table describes the Yankees' MLB win–loss record by decade.

text:
Decade
Wins
Losses
Pct

1900s
520
518
.501

1910s
701
780
.473

1920s
933
602
.608

1930s
970
554
.636

1940s
929
609
.604

1950s
955
582
.621

1960s
887
720
.552

1970s
892
715
.555

1980s
854
708
.547

1990s
851
702
.548

2000s
965
651
.597

2010s
627
507
.553

All-time
10084
7648
.569

text: These statistics are from Baseball-Reference.com's New York Yankees History & Encyclopedia,[11] and are current as of October 18, 2016.

text: All-time records[edit]

text:
Statistic
Wins
Losses
Win%

All-time regular season record
10,084
7,648
.569

All-time postseason record
223
155
.590

All-time regular and postseason record
10,307
7,803
.569

text: Notes[edit]

text:
a This is determined by calculating the difference in wins plus the difference in losses divided by two.
b For lists of all American League pennant winners, see American League pennant winners 1901–68 and American League Championship Series.
c Half-game increments are possible because games can be cancelled due to rain. If a postponed game is the last of the season between two teams in one of their stadiums, it may not be made up if it does not affect the playoff race.[72]
d The second game of the series ended after 10 innings due to darkness, with the score tied 2–2.[73]
e During Game 3 of this series, Babe Ruth hit his called shot, a home run into the center field bleachers of Wrigley Field.[74]
f Don Larsen pitched the only perfect game in World Series history in Game 5.[75]
g In 1969, the American League split into East and West divisions.[76]
h The 1972 Major League Baseball strike forced the cancellation of the Yankees' first seven games of the season.[77]
i The Yankees finished the season tied for first with the Boston Red Sox. New York defeated the Red Sox 5–4 in a one-game playoff to clinch the division title. The game is best remembered for Bucky Dent's three-run home run in the seventh inning, which gave the Yankees a 3–2 lead.[78]
j The 1981 Major League Baseball strike caused the season to be split into two halves. The Yankees were given a berth in an expanded playoff tournament because they led the American League East when the strike began. The Milwaukee Brewers finished the second half in first place to earn the division's other playoff berth.[79]
k The 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike, which started on August 12, 1994, led to the cancellation of the playoffs and World Series.[80] As a result of the abbreviated season, MLB did not officially award division championships.[81] The Yankees led the American League East, and held the best record in the American League, at the time of the strike,[82]
l The 1994–95 MLB strike lasted until April 2, 1995, causing the shortening of the 1995 season to 144 games.[77]
m The Yankees finished the season tied for first with the Boston Red Sox, but were awarded the division title because they won the season series with the Red Sox.[83]
n The Yankees finished the season tied for third with the Baltimore Orioles.[84]

tag: ul


document_title: List of people executed in Nebraska

question_text: when was the last time nebraska executed someone

text: List of people executed in Nebraska

text: The following is a list of individuals executed by the U.S. State of Nebraska since its statehood.

text: Before 1903[edit]

text: A total of 14 individuals have been executed in Nebraska from its statehood in 1867 when counties carried out executions until 1903 when the state took over executions.

text:
Executed person

Date of execution

Method

Crime

Victims

Under Governor

1

Samuel Richards

January 15, 1879

hanging

murder

Peter Anderson

Albinus Nance

2

Orlando Caslar

May 20, 1879

hanging

murder

George L. Monroe

Albinus Nance

3

Milton W. Smith

July 24, 1885

hanging

murder

his wife (name unknown)

James W. Dawes

4

Jim Reynolds

May 21, 1886

hanging

murder

James and John Pinkston

James W. Dawes

5

William Jackson MarionA

March 25, 1887

hanging

murder

James Cameron

John Milton Thayer

6

David Hoffman

July 22, 1887

hanging

murder

James B. DeWitt

John Milton Thayer

7

Albert Haunstine

May 17, 1891

hanging

murder

Hiram Roten and William Ashley

John Milton Thayer

8

Christian FurstB

June 5, 1891

hanging

murder

Carl J. Pulsifer

John Milton Thayer

9

Charles ShepherdB

June 5, 1891

hanging

murder

Carl J. Pulsifer

John Milton Thayer

10

Ed Neil

October 9, 1891

hanging

murder

Allen and Dorothy Jones

John Milton Thayer

11

Clinton E. DixonC

June 24, 1892

hanging

murder

Corporal Thomas Carter

James E. Boyd

12

Harry Hill

March 1, 1895

hanging

murder

Mattes Akeson

Silas A. Holcomb

13

Claude H. Hoover

August 7, 1896

hanging

murder

Samual DuBois

Silas A. Holcomb

14

George W. Morgan

October 8, 1897

hanging

murder

Ida Gaskill

Silas A. Holcomb

text:
A  William Jackson Marion was convicted and executed for the murder of John Cameron. However, Cameron turned up alive in 1891. Marion received a posthumous pardon by Nebraska Governor Bob Kerrey on the 100th anniversary of his execution.

B B  Although Christian Furst and Charles Shepherd are listed at 8 and 9, they were both hanged together simultaneously in the only double hanging in Nebraska's history.

C  Private Clinton Dixon and his victim Corporal Thomas Carter were both members of the U.S. Army (Sixth U.S. Cavalry) making Dixon's execution a U.S. military execution. As such, only the President could grant clemency. President Benjamin Harrison declined to intervene.

text: A total of 20 individuals were executed by Nebraska after 1897 and before the 1972 Supreme Court capital punishment ban.

text:
Executed person

Date of execution

Method

Crime

Victims

Under Governor

1

Gottlieb Neigenfiend

March 13, 1903

hanging

murder

Anna Bryer and Albert Bryer (ex-wife and ex-father in law)

John H. Mickey

2

William Rhea

July 10, 1903

hanging

murder

Herman Zahn

John H. Mickey

3

Harrison Clark

December 13, 1907

hanging

murder

Ed Flury

George L. Sheldon

4

Frank Barker

January 17, 1908

hanging

murder

Daniel and Alice Barker (his brother and sister in law)

George L. Sheldon

5

Robert M. Shumway

March 5, 1909

hanging

murder

Sarah Martin

Ashton C. Shallenberger

6

Bert M. Taylor

January 28, 1910

hanging

murder

Pearl Taylor (sister in law)

Ashton C. Shallenberger

7

Thomas Johnson

May 19, 1911

hanging

murder

Henry R. Frankland

Chester H. Aldrich

8

Albert Prince

March 21, 1913

hanging

murder

Nebraska State Penitentiary Deputy Warden Edward D.Davis

John H. Morehead

9

Allen V. GrammerA

December 20, 1920

electric chair

murder

Lulu Vogt (Grammer's mother in law)

Samuel R. McKelvie

10

Alson B. ColeA

December 20, 1920

electric chair

murder

Lulu Vogt (Allen Grammer's mother in law)

Samuel R. McKelvie

11

James B. King

June 9, 1922

electric chair

murder

Nebraska State Penitentiary prison guard Robert L. Taylor

Samuel R. McKelvie

12

Walter R. Simmons

August 11, 1925

electric chair

murder

Frank Pahl

Adam McMullen

13

Henry E. Bartlett

April 29, 1927

electric chair

murder

Asa Ranson (Minden, Nebraska Police Chief)

Adam McMullen

14

Frank Carter

June 24, 1927

electric chair

murder

William McDevitt and Dr. A.D. Searles

Adam McMullen

15

Frank E. Sharp

October 19, 1928

electric chair

murder

Hariet Sharp (his wife)

Adam McMullen

16

Henry Sherman

May 31, 1929

electric chair

murder

Roger and Hattie Pochon, Eugenie Pochon

Arthur J. Weaver

17

Joseph T. MacAvoy

March 23, 1945

electric chair

murder

Anna Milroy

Dwight Griswold

18

Timothy Iron Bear

December 1, 1948

electric chair

murder

John W. and Grace Stollar

Val Peterson

19

Roland Dean Sundahl

April 30, 1952

electric chair

murder

Bonnie Lou Merrill

Val Peterson

20

Charles StarkweatherB

June 25, 1959

electric chair

murder

Robert Jensen

Ralph G. Brooks

text:
A A  Allen Grammer and Alson Cole were the first men electrocuted, and the only double electrocution in Nebraska. Allen Grammer was the first man to be electrocuted by the State of Nebraska, pronounced dead at 3:24 pm. Alson Cole was pronounced dead at 3:37 pm.

B  Although Charles Starkweather murdered 10 people in Nebraska (and one in Wyoming), he was tried, convicted, and executed for only one murder, that of 17-year-old Robert Jensen.

text: After 1976[edit]

text: Three individuals convicted of murder have been executed by Nebraska since 1976. All were executed by the electric chair. On April 21, 2011, the Nebraska Supreme Court set the first execution date via lethal injection for June 14, 2011. On May 26, 2011, the Nebraska Supreme Court stayed the execution due to objections that the sodium thiopental that Nebraska purchased from a Mumbai company failed to comply with U.S. pharmaceutical standards.

text:
Executed person

Date of execution

Victims

Under Governor

1

Harold Lamont "Wili" Otey

September 2, 1994

Jane McManus

Ben Nelson

2

John Joseph Joubert A

July 17, 1996

Danny Eberle and Christopher Walden

3

Robert E. Williams B [1][2]

December 2, 1997

Catherine Brooks and Patricia McGarry

text:
A  John Joubert was also tried and convicted of murdering Ricky Stetson in Portland, Maine. He received a life sentence in Maine.

B  Robert E. Williams also murdered Virginia Rowe of Sioux Rapids, Iowa.[2]


document_title: Colosseum

question_text: where did the roman emperor sit in the colosseum

text: Colosseum

text: Name

text: The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheatre. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero.[11] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic[12][13] as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[14]

text: The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby[4] This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

text: In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[15] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

text: The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[16]

text: The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as Coloseumul (Romanian), le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

text: History

text: Construction, inauguration, and Roman renovations

text: The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[16]

text: Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both symbolically and precisely at the heart of Rome.

text: Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." Along with the spoils, estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after the war, and many contributed to the massive workforce needed for construction. The slaves undertook manual labor such as working in the quarries at Tivoli where the travertine was quarried, along with lifting and transporting the quarried stones 20 miles from Tivoli to Rome.[17] Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials: wood, limestone, tuff, tiles, cement, and mortar.

text: Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian[4] in around 70–72 AD (73–75 AD according to some sources)[17] The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in 80,[4] and the inaugural games were held in A.D. 80 or 81.[17] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration.[18] The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.[19]

text: In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[20]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[21] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.[16]

text: Medieval

text: The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

text: Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century [22] and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[16] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

text: Modern

text: During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[23] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

text: In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Significance in Christianity). However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.[24]

text: Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.[16]

text: The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices).

text: In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[25] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of Connecticut in April 2012.[26]

text: Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[27] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[28] Elton John (September 2005),[29] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

text: Physical description

text: Exterior

text: Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 24,000 square metres (6 acres). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

text: The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[16] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

text: The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[30] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

text: Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[4] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[31]

text: The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[4] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) survive.[16]

text: Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

text: Interior seating

text: According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

text: The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

text: Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.[16]

text: Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[32]

text: Arena and hypogeum

text: The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[16] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[16]

text: The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[16]

text: Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[16] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum's existence.

text: Supporting buildings

text: The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

text: Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

text: Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.[16]

text: Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

text: Use

text: The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ad bestias would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces.  Other performances would also take place by acrobats and magicians, typically during the intervals.

text: During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[16]

text: Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

text: Today

text: The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year entering to view the interior arena.[33] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[34]

text: The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI led the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[35][36] on Good Fridays.[10]

text: Restoration

text: In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm  Tod's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years.[37] Due to the controversial nature of using a public–private partnership to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum's history.[38] The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum's arcaded façade and replace the metal enclosures that block the ground-level arches. Taking three years, the final product of this work was unveiled July 1, 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level."[39] The project also plans to create a services center and to restore the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum.[40]. New to tours of the restored marvel beginning November 1, 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day-long event. [41]

text:
Colosseum 2013

Colosseum 2013

Colosseum 2012

Colosseum 2013

Colosseum 2013

Colosseum 2013

Colosseum 2013

Colosseum 2014

Colosseum 2018

text: Significance in Christianity

text: The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as a site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, as evidenced by Church history and tradition.[42][43][44] On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still-intact physical evidence or historical records.[45][46][47]These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum—their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods", but most Christian martyrs of the early Church were executed for their faith at the Circus Maximus.[48][49] According to Irenæus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to the lions in Rome around 107 A.D and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place.[50][51][52][53]

text: In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry,"[54] which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites.[55] This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site.[56] It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms.[57]  Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian religious order, but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason.

text: Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction.[58]  A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra. Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary.[59]

text: At the insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874.[60] Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, before he died in 1783.[60]  Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating:

text: The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions.[50]

text: Other Christian crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheater.

text: Flora

text: The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned.[16] 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.

text: The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Another reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported either on the fur or in the feces of animals brought there from all corners of the empire.[61]

text: Works modeled on, or inspired by, the Colosseum

text:
The Kongresshalle, or "Congress Hall", (1935, unfinished) at the Nazi Party Rally grounds, Nuremberg, Germany
The Summer Olympic Games medal from 1928 to 2000, designed by Giuseppe Cassioli, features a depiction of the Colosseum. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens the Colosseum was replaced by a depiction of the Panathinaiko Stadium
The exterior of the Vancouver Public Library in British Columbia resembles the current state of the Colosseum. It was designed by Moshe Safdie.
The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum entrance was inspired by the Colosseum.
The Palazzo della Civilta Italiana was very closely modelled on the Colosseum. It was built for Mussolini for the Universal Exhibition of 1942 but the exhibition never happened due to the outbreak of World War II. The architects were Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto Bruno La Padula, and Mario Romano.
McCaig's Tower, overlooking Oban, Scotland.

text: Popular culture references

text: The Colosseum was featured in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. The Colosseum is of great importance to the entire Assassin's Creed series as a whole: first, it was an entrance site to a Lair of Romulus, second, the Lair beneath the Colosseum led directly to the Temple of Juno Moneta which housed the Apple of Eden, third, it was used in a Passion Play depicting Jesus Christ's crucifixion where an assassination attempt was unfoiled by the protagonist Ezio Auditore da Firenze, fourth, in the 21st century, Desmond Miles freeran through the maze in the Colosseum in order to find the Temple of Juno Moneta below the Basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli and the Apple kept in it by Ezio in 1506 and fifth, it has a glyph at the top.[62] In addition, the Colosseum is elliptical (oval-shaped) in reality, but it was made circular for Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, since devising shadows for different sides of the buildings would have "driven game designers nuts".[63]

text: The iconic status of the Colosseum has led it to be featured in numerous films, such as Roman Holiday, Demetrius and the Gladiators, 20 Million Miles to Earth, Way of the Dragon, Gladiator (in which it was re-created via CGI), Megiddo: The Omega Code 2, The Core, The Lizzie McGuire Movie,  Jumper, and the animated movie Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted.


document_title: Green Bay Packers, Inc.

question_text: how much is a share of green bay packers stock

text: Green Bay Packers, Inc.

text: Board of directors[edit]

text: Green Bay Packers, Inc., is governed by a seven-member Executive Committee elected from a 45-member board of directors. It consists of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary and three members-at-large; only the president is compensated. Responsibilities include directing corporate management, approving major capital expenditures, establishing broad policy, and monitoring management performance.

text: The team's elected president normally represents the Packers in NFL owners meetings. During his time as coach, Vince Lombardi generally represented the team at league meetings in his role as GM, except at owners-only meetings, where president Dominic Olejniczak appeared.[citation needed]

text: Shareholder rights[edit]

text: Even though it is referred to as "common stock" in corporate offering documents, a share of Packers stock does not share the same rights traditionally associated with common or preferred stock. It does not include an equity interest, does not pay dividends, cannot be traded, and has no securities-law protection. It also brings no season ticket purchase privileges. All shareholders receive are voting rights, an invitation to the corporation's annual meeting, and an opportunity to purchase exclusive shareholder-only merchandise.[4] Shares of stock cannot be resold, except back to the team for a fraction of the original price. While new shares can be given as gifts, transfers are technically allowed only between immediate family members once ownership has been established.[3]

text: Stock sales[edit]

text: There have been five stock issues over the history of the Packers organization:

text:
1923 Shares of stock were first sold to establish the club as a corporation in 1923.[2] A total of $5,000 was raised through 1,000 shares offered at $5 apiece. Each stockholder was required to buy six season tickets.[3] Based on the original "Articles of Incorporation for the Green Bay Football Corporation" enacted at that time, should the franchise to have been sold, any post-expenses money would have gone to the Sullivan-Wallen Post of the American Legion to build "a proper soldier's memorial." This stipulation was included to ensure there could never be any financial inducement for shareholders to move the club from Green Bay. At the November 1997 annual meeting, shareholders voted to change the beneficiary from the Sullivan-Wallen Post to the Green Bay Packers Foundation, which makes donations to many charities and institutions throughout Wisconsin.
1935 A second stock offering was held in 1935, raising $15,000 after the corporation had gone into receivership. The nonprofit Green Bay Football Corporation was then reorganized as the Green Bay Packers, Inc., the present company, with 300 shares of stock outstanding.[3]
1950 A third was held in 1950, to raise money to prevent the team from becoming insolvent and/or moving out of Green Bay on the heels of competition from the All-America Football Conference and founder Curly Lambeau’s departure after a 30-year reign as coach.[4] Club officers amended corporation’s bylaws to permit up to 10,000 total shares of stock to be held. To ensure no individual could assume control, a 200 share limit per stockholder was put in place, and the number of directors increased from 15 to 25. Approximately half the potential 9,700 new shares were sold, raising over $118,000 on some 4,700 $25 shares.[3]

text:
1997–98 In mid-November 1997 the club's then-1,940 shareholders voted to create 1,000,000 new shares, giving themselves a 1000 to 1 split at the same time (which rewarded each with 1,000 shares for every 1 they had owned, turning the original 1,940 into 1,940,000 before the first new share was sold). The net effect was to ensure existing shareholders retained the vast majority of voting power.[4][6][7] A 400,000 share public offering followed to raise money for Lambeau Field redevelopment. Running for 17 weeks from late 1997 to March 16, 1998 it raised over $24 million through the purchase of 120,010 shares by 105,989 new shareholders at $200 apiece.[3]
2011 To raise money for a large $143-million Lambeau Field expansion, which included approximately 6,700 new seats, new HD video boards, a new sound system, and two new gates, a fifth stock sale began on December 6, 2011. Demand exceeded expectations, and the original 250,000 share limit had to be increased by 30,000. By the offering's end on February 29, 2012 over $64 million had been raised through 250,000 buyers purchasing 269,000 shares at $250 apiece.[6] Buyers were from all 50 U.S. states, and for the first time, sales were briefly allowed in Canada, adding around 2,000 shareholders. Approximately 99% of the shares were purchased online.[3] In the summer of 2011, when the team traveled to the White House to celebrate their Super Bowl XLV victory, Charles Woodson presented President Barack Obama, a Chicago Bears fan, with a share of the team stock.[8]

text: Green Bay Packers Foundation[edit]

text: The team created the Green Bay Packers Foundation in December 1986. It assists in a wide variety of activities and programs benefiting education, civic affairs, health services, human services and youth-related programs.

text: At the team's 1997 annual stockholders meeting, the foundation was designated, in place of a Sullivan-Wallen Post soldiers memorial, as recipient of any residual assets upon the team's sale or dissolution.[3]


document_title: Windy City (nickname)

question_text: where does the term windy city come from

text: Windy City (nickname)

text: Origins[edit]

text: There are four main possibilities to explain the city's nickname: the weather, as Chicago is near Lake Michigan; the World's Fair; politics; and the rivalry with Cincinnati.

text: Weather[edit]

text: While Chicago is widely known as the "Windy City", it is not the windiest city in the United States. Some of the windier cities recorded by the NOAA/NCDC are Mount Washington, NH at 35.1 mph (56.5 km/h),[2] Blue Hill, MA at 15.2 mph (24.5 km/h),[2] Dodge City, KS at 13.9 mph (22.3 km/h),[2] Amarillo, Texas at 13.5 mph (21.7 km/h),[2] and Lubbock, Texas at 12.4 mph (20 km/h).[3] Chicago is not significantly windier than any other U.S. city. For example, the average annual wind speed of Chicago is 10.3 mph (16.6 km/h); Boston: 12.4 mph (20.0 km/h); Central Park, New York City: 9.3 mph (15.0 km/h); and Los Angeles: 7.5 mph (12.1 km/h).[4]

text: The following "windy city" explanation is from the Freeborn County Standard of Albert Lea, Minnesota, on November 20, 1892:[5]

text: Chicago has been called the “windy” city, the term being used metaphorically to make out that Chicagoans were braggarts. The city is losing this reputation, for the reason that as people got used to it they found most of her claims to be backed up by facts. As usual, people go to extremes in this thing also, and one can tell a stranger almost anything about Chicago today and feel that he believes it implicitly.

text: But in another sense Chicago is actually earning the title of the “windy” city. It is one of the effects of the tall buildings which engineers and architects apparently did not foresee that the wind is sucked down into the streets. Walk past the Masonic Temple or the Auditorium any day even though it may be perfectly calm elsewhere, and you will meet with a lively breeze at the base of the building that will compel you to put your hand to your hat.

text: An explanation for Chicago being a naturally breezy area is that it is on the shores of Lake Michigan.[citation needed]

text: Chicago had long billed itself as an ideal summer resort because of its cool lake breeze. The Boston Globe of July 8, 1873, wrote that "a few years ago, Chicago advertised itself as a summer resort, on the strength of the lake breezes which so nicely tempered the mid-summer heats." The Chicago Tribune of June 14, 1876, discussed "Chicago as a Summer Resort" at length, proudly declaring that "the people of this city are enjoying cool breezes, refreshing rains, green fields, a grateful sun, and balmy air—winds from the north and east tempered by the coolness of the lake, and from the south and west, bearing to us frequent hints of the grass, flowers, wheat and corn of the prairies."

text: The February 4, 1873, Philadelphia Inquirer called Chicago "the great city of winds and fires."[6]

text: Cincinnati rivalry[edit]

text: Cincinnati and Chicago were rival cities in the 1860s and 1870s. Cincinnati was well known in the meatpacking trade and it was called "Porkopolis" from at least 1843. Starting from the early 1860s, Chicago surpassed Cincinnati in this trade and proudly claimed the very same "Porkopolis" nickname.[7]

text: The baseball inter-city matches were especially intense. The 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings were the pride of all of baseball, so Chicago came up with a rival team called the White Stockings to defeat them. "Windy City" often appeared in the Cincinnati sporting news of the 1870s and 1880s.

text: Four of the first known citations of "Windy City" are from 1876, all involving Cincinnati:

text:
Chicago Tribune, April 20, 1876, headline: "The WINDY CITY Jay-Rollers La-Crosse Team Wins Inaugural Game against Cincinnati Nannies." That High.
The Cincinnati Enquirer, May 9, 1876, headline: "THAT WINDY CITY. Some Freaks of the Last Chicago Tornado."
The Cincinnati Enquirer, May 13, 1876: "Only the plucky nerve of the eating-house keeper rescued the useful seats from a journey to the Windy City."
Chicago Tribune, July 2, 1876: "The Cincinnati Enquirer, in common with many other papers, has been waiting with great anxiety for the fulfillment of its prophecy: that the Chicago papers would call the Whites hard names when they lost. Witness these scraps the day after the Whites lost to the Athletics: There comes a wail to us from the Windy City."

text: World's Fair[edit]

text: As the 400th anniversary of Columbus' arrival in the Americas approached, the United States planned to hold a world's fair to celebrate. This was considered an important time, due to the French successes at the previous World's Fair with the construction of the Eiffel Tower.

text: The prestige of holding the fair enticed several prominent cities to compete to host the fair. At the top, New York City, St. Louis and Washington, D.C. all fought hard for the right and many New Yorkers thought they had a win guaranteed. In the end, it came down to New York and Chicago. In 1890, Chicago won the bid to host the World's Fair, also known as the World's Columbian Exposition, after eight ballots.[8] Many prominent New Yorkers were extremely irritated that a "frontier town" could beat them.

text: It is a popular myth that the first person to use the term "Windy City" was The New York Sun editor, Charles Dana. Charles Dana was New York's leading fair booster, but there is little evidence that he ever used the "Windy City" term. The first known attribution of Dana to the origin of "Windy City" was 40 years later in the Chicago Tribune, "Chicago Dubbed 'Windy' in Fight for Fair of '93," June 11, 1933:[9]

text: "Don’t pay any attention", wrote Charles A. Dana, day in and day out in his New York Sun, "to the nonsensical claims of that windy city. Its people could not build a World’s Fair even if they won it".

text: Politics[edit]

text: Long-winded politicians and the frequent political conventions in Chicago have been suggested as the source of the nickname. Another related suggestion is the business boosterism that other cities resented.[10]

text: The Hawk wind, or Hawkins[edit]

text: Chicago's wind is often called "The Hawk". This term has long been popular in African American Vernacular English. The Baltimore Sun's series of columns in 1934 attempted to examine the origin of the phrase, "Hawkins is coming", for a cold, winter wind. The first recorded Chicago citation is in the Chicago Defender, October 20, 1936: "And these cold mornings are on us—in other words 'Hawkins' has got us."[11]

text: In the 1967 song, "Dead End Street",[12] Chicago native Lou Rawls speaks the following intro:

text: "I was born in a city that they call 'The Windy City'. They call it The Windy City because of the Hawk. 'The Hawk' - all mighty Hawk. 'Mr Wind'. Takes care of plenty of business around winter time..."

text: It is also referenced in the first line of Steve Goodman's song, "A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request", is "By the shores of old Lake Michigan / Where the Hawk Wind blows so cold..."[13]

text: Other cities[edit]

text: Various other cities have also claimed the nickname "Windy City". They include:

text:
Baku, Azerbaijan, Küləklər şəhəri ("the City of Winds")
Edinburgh, Scotland
Essaouria, Morocco, "Wind City of Africa"
Hsinchu, "Windy City" of Taiwan
Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
Luleå, Sweden, Den blåsiga staden ("The Windy City")
Majalengka on Java, Indonesia ("the City of Wind")
Pachuca, Hidalgo in Mexico, La Bella Airosa ('The Beautiful Windy One')
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Wellington, New Zealand
Zaragoza, Spain, La ciudad del viento ("The Windy City")

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Popik, Barry (2004-10-11). "The Big Apple: Windy City (summary)". Barrypopik.com. Retrieved 2011-10-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/extremes/extreme-us-climates.php
Jump up ^ http://wind-speed.weatherdb.com/l/232/Lubbock-Texas
Jump up ^ Dellinger, Dan (2004-01-04). "Wind - Average Wind Speed - (MPH)". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
Jump up ^ https://chicagology.com/chicagoname
Jump up ^ The Big Apple: Windy City (summary)
Jump up ^ The Big Apple: Porkopolis (Cincinnati and Chicago nickname)
Jump up ^ Chicago Tribune, Feb. 25, 1890, p.1 (reporting the Congressional votes for the host city)
Jump up ^ Bierma, Nathan L. K. (2004). "Windy City". nbierma.com. Retrieved 2008-11-26.
Jump up ^ Windy City, Electronic Encyclopedia of Chicago, Chicago Historical Society, 2005
Jump up ^ “The Hawk” or Hawkins (strong cold winter wind)
Jump up ^ Lou Rawls: Dead Eand Street
Jump up ^ Steve Goodman: A Dying Cubs Fan's Last Request