document_title: Newborn screening

question_text: when did they start screening for cystic fibrosis

text: Newborn screening

text: Targeted disorders[edit]

text: Newborn screening is intended as a public health program to identify infants with treatable conditions before they present clinically, or suffer irreversible damage. Phenylketonuria (PKU) was the first disorder targeted for newborn screening, being implemented in a small number of hospitals and quickly expanding across the United States and the rest of the world.[1] After the success of newborn screening for PKU (39 infants were identified and treated in the first two years of screening, with no false negative results), Guthrie and others looked for other disorders that could be identified and treated in infants, eventually developing bacterial inhibition assays to identify classic galactosemia and maple syrup urine disease.[1][2]

text: Newborn screening has expanded since the introduction of PKU testing in the 1960s, but can vary greatly between countries. In 2011, the United States screened for 54 conditions, Germany for 12, the United Kingdom for 2 (PKU and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCADD)), while France and Hong Kong only screened for one condition (PKU and congenital hypothyroidism, respectively).[3] The conditions included in newborn screening programs around the world vary greatly, based on the legal requirements for screening programs, prevalence of certain diseases within a population, political pressure, and the availability of resources for both testing and follow-up of identified patients.

text: Amino acid disorders[edit]

text: Newborn screening originated with an amino acid disorder, phenylketonuria (PKU), which can be easily treated by dietary modifications, but causes severe mental retardation if not identified and treated early. Robert Guthrie introduced the newborn screening test for PKU in the early 1960s.[4] With the knowledge that PKU could be detected before symptoms were evident, and treatment initiated, screening was quickly adopted around the world. Austria started screening for PKU in 1966[5] and England in 1968.[6]

text: Fatty acid oxidation disorders[edit]

text: With the advent of tandem mass spectrometry as a screening tool, several fatty acid oxidation disorders were targeted for inclusion in newborn screening programs. Medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCADD), which had been implicated in several cases of sudden infant death syndrome[7][8][9] was one of the first conditions targeted for inclusion. MCADD was the first condition added when the United Kingdom expanded their screening program from PKU only.[3] Population based studies in Germany, the United States and Australia put the combined incidence of fatty acid oxidation disorders at 1:9300 among Caucasians. The United States screens for all known fatty acid oxidation disorders, either as primary or secondary targets, while other countries screen for a subset of these.[10]

text: The introduction of screening for fatty acid oxidation disorders has been shown to have reduced morbidity and mortality associated with the conditions, particularly MCADD. An Australian study found a 74% reduction in episodes of severe metabolic decompensation or death among individuals identified by newborn screening as having MCADD versus those who presented clinically prior to screening. Studies in the Netherlands and United Kingdom found improvements in outcome at a reduced cost when infants were identified before presenting clinically.[10]

text: Newborn screening programs have also expanded the information base available about some rare conditions. Prior to its inclusion in newborn screening, short-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (SCADD) was thought to be life-threatening. Most patients identified via newborn screening as having this enzyme deficiency were asymptomatic, to the extent that SCADD was removed from screening panels in a number of regions. Without the cohort of patients identified by newborn screening, this clinical phenotype would likely not have been identified.[10]

text: Endocrinopathies[edit]

text: The most commonly included disorders of the endocrine system are congenital hypothyroidism (CH) and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).[11] Testing for both disorders can be done using blood samples collected on the standard newborn screening card. Screening for CH is done by measuring thyroxin (T4), thyrotropin (TSH) or a combination of both analytes. Elevated 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17α-OHP) is the primary marker used when screening for CAH, most commonly done using enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays, with many programs using a second tier tandem mass spectrometry test to reduce the number of false positive results.[11] Careful analysis of screening results for CAH may also identify cases of congenital adrenal hypoplasia, which presents with extremely low levels of 17α-OHP.[11]

text: CH was added to many newborn screening programs in the 1970s, often as the second condition included after PKU. The most common cause of CH is dysgenesis of the thyroid gland After many years of newborn screening, the incidence of CH worldwide had been estimated at 1:3600 births, with no obvious increases in specific ethnic groups. Recent data from certain regions have showed an increase, with New York reporting an incidence of 1:1700. Reasons for the apparent increase in incidence have been studied, but no explanation has been found.[11]

text: Classic CAH, the disorder targeted by newborn screening programs, is caused by a deficiency of the enzyme steroid 21-hydroxylase, and comes in two forms - simple virilizing and a salt-wasting form. Incidence of CAH can vary greatly between populations. The highest reported incidence rates are among the Yupic Eskimos of Alaska (1:280) and on the French island of Réunion (1:2100).[11]

text: Hemoglobinopathies[edit]

text: Any condition that results in the production of abnormal hemoglobin is included under the broad category of hemoglobinopathies. Worldwide, it is estimated that 7% of the population may carry a hemoglobinopathy with clinical significance.[12] The most well known condition in this group is sickle cell disease.[12] Newborn screening for a large number of hemoglobinopathies is done by detecting abnormal patterns using isoelectric focusing, which can detect many different types of abnormal hemoglobins.[12] In the United States, newborn screening for sickle cell disease was recommended for all infants in 1987, however it was not implemented in all 50 states until 2006.[12]

text: Early identification of individuals with sickle cell disease and other hemoglobinopathies allows treatment to be initiated in a timely fashion. Penicillin has been used in children with sickle cell disease, and blood transfusions are used for patients identified with severe thalassemia.[12]

text: Organic acidemias[edit]

text: Most jurisdictions did not start screening for any of the organic acidemias before tandem mass spectrometry significantly expanded the list of disorders detectable by newborn screening. Quebec has run a voluntary second-tier screening program since 1971 using urine samples collected at three weeks of age to screen for an expanded list of organic acidemias using a thin layer chromatography method.[13] Newborn screening using tandem mass spectrometry can detect several organic acidemias, including propionic acidemia, methylmalonic acidemia and isovaleric acidemia.

text: Cystic fibrosis[edit]

text: Cystic fibrosis (CF) was first added to newborn screening programs in New Zealand and regions of Australia in 1981, by measuring immunoreactive trypsinogen (IRT) in dried blood spots.[14] After the CFTR gene was identified, Australia introduced a two tier testing program to reduce the number of false positives. Samples with an elevated IRT value were then analyzed with molecular methods to identify the presence of disease causing mutations before being reported back to parents and health care providers.[15] CF is included in the core panel of conditions recommended for inclusion in all 50 states, Texas was the last state to implement their screening program for CF in 2010.[16] Alberta was the first Canadian province to implement CF screening in 2007.[17] Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island do not include CF in their screening programs.[18] The United Kingdom as well as many European Union countries screen for CF as well.[18] Switzerland is one of the latest countries to add CF to their newborn screening menu, doing so in January 2011.[14]

text: Urea cycle disorders[edit]

text: Disorders of the distal urea cycle, such as citrullinemia, argininosuccinic aciduria and argininemia are included in newborn screening programs in many jurisdictions that using tandem mass spectrometry to identify key amino acids. Proximal urea cycle defects, such as ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency and carbamoyl phosphate synthetase deficiency are not included in newborn screening panels because they are not reliably detected using current technology, and also because severely affected infants will present with clinical symptoms before newborn screening results are available. Some regions claim to screen for HHH syndrome (hyperammonemia, hyperornithinemia, homocitrullinuria) based on the detection of elevated ornithine levels in the newborn screening dried blood spot, but other sources have shown that affected individuals do not have elevated ornithine at birth.[19]

text: Lysosomal storage disorders[edit]

text: Lysosomal storage disorders are not included in newborn screening programs with high frequency. As a group, they are heterogenous, with screening only being feasible for a small fraction of the approximately 40 identified disorders. The arguments for their inclusion in newborn screening programs center around the advantage of early treatment (when treatment is available), avoiding a diagnostic odyssey for families and providing information for family planning to couples who have an affected child.[20] The arguments against including these disorders, as a group or individually center around the difficulties with reliably identifying individuals who will be affected with a severe form of the disorder, the relatively unproven nature of the treatment methods, and the high cost / high risk associated with some treatment options.[20]

text: New York State started a pilot study to screen for Krabbe disease in 2006, largely due to the efforts of Jim Kelly, whose son, Hunter, was affected with the disease.[21] A pilot screening program for four lysosomal storage diseases (Gaucher disease, Pompe disease, Fabry disease and Niemann-Pick disease was undertaken using anonymised dried blood spots was completed in Austria in 2010. Their data showed an increased incidence from what was expected in the population, and also a number of late onset forms of disease, which are not typically the target for newborn screening programs.[22]

text: Hearing loss[edit]

text: Undiagnosed hearing loss in a child can have serious effects on many developmental areas, including language, social interactions, emotions, cognitive ability, academic performance and vocational skills, any combination of which can have negative impacts on the quality of life.[23] The serious impacts of a late diagnosis, combined with the high incidence (estimated at 1 - 3 per 1000 live births, and as high as 4% for neonatal intensive care unit patients) have been the driving forces behind screening programs designed to identify infants with hearing loss as early as possible. Early identification allows these patients and their families to access needed resources to help them develop.[23]

text: Newborn hearing testing is done at the bedside using transiently evoked otoacoustic emissions, automated auditory brainstem responses or a combination of both techniques. Hearing screening programs have found the initial testing to cost between $10.20 and $23.37 per baby, depending on the technology used.[23] As these are screening tests only, false positive results will occur. A review of hearing screening programs found varied initial referral rates (screen positive results) from 0.6% to 16.7%. The highest overall incidence of hearing loss detection was 0.517%.[23] A significant proportion of screen positive infants were lost to follow-up, before a diagnosis could be confirmed or ruled out in all screening programs.[23]

text: Congenital heart defects[edit]

text: Pulse oximetry has been recently added as a bedside screening test for critical congenital heart defects.[24]

text: Severe combined immunodeficiency[edit]

text: Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) caused by T-cell deficiency is a disorder that was recently added to newborn screening programs in some regions of the United States. Wisconsin was the first state to add SCID to their mandatory screening panel in 2008, and it was recommended for inclusion in all states' panels in 2010. Identification of infants with SCID is done by detecting T-cell receptor excision circles (TRECs) using real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). TRECs are decreased in infants affected with SCID.[25]

text: SCID has not been added to newborn screening in a wide scale for several reasons. It requires technology that is not currently used in most newborn screening labs, as PCR is not used for any other assays included in screening programs. Follow-up and treatment of affected infants also requires skilled immunologists, which may not be available in all regions. Treatment for SCID is a stem cell transplant, which cannot be done in all centers.[25]

text: Other conditions[edit]

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked disorder caused by defective production of dystrophin. Many jurisdictions around the world have screened for, or attempted to screen for DMD using elevated levels of creatine kinase measured in dried blood spots. Because universal newborn screening for DMD has not been undertaken, affected individuals often have a significant delay in diagnosis. As treatment options for DMD become more and more effective, interest in adding a newborn screening test increases. At various times since 1978, DMD has been included (often as a pilot study on a small subset of the population) in newborn screening programs in Edinburgh, Germany, Canada, France, Wales, Cyprus, Belgium and the United States. In 2012, Belgium was the only country that continued to screen for DMD using creatine kinase levels.[26]

text: As treatments improve, newborn screening becomes a possibility for disorders that could benefit from early intervention, but none was previously available. Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD), a peroxisomal disease that has a variable clinical presentation is one of the disorders that has become a target for those seeking to identify patients early. ALD can present in several different forms, some of which do not present until adulthood, making it a difficult choice for countries to add to screening programs. The most successful treatment option is a stem cell transplant, a procedure that carries a significant risk.[27]

text: Eye and vision screening that can be performed within the few months of life include: strabismus screening using the Hirschberg test (or more recently using binocular retinal birefringence screening for higher precision), and retinoblastoma screening using the red reflex. Further eye examination may be called for in some cases.

text: Disease qualification[edit]

text: Newborn screening programs initially used screening criteria based largely on criteria established by JMG Wilson and F. Jungner in 1968.[28] Although not specifically about newborn population screening programs, their publication, Principles and practice of screening for disease proposed ten criteria that screening programs should meet before being used as a public health measure. Newborn screening programs are administered in each jurisdiction, with additions and removals from the panel typically reviewed by a panel of experts. The four criteria from the publication that were relied upon when making decisions for early newborn screening programs were:

text:
having an acceptable treatment protocol in place that changes the outcome for patients diagnosed early with the disease
an understanding of the condition's natural history
an understanding about who will be treated as a patient
a NBS screening test that is reliable for both affected and unaffected patients and is acceptable to the public[29]

tag: ol

text: As diagnostic techniques have progressed, debates have arisen as to how screening programs should adapt. Tandem mass spectrometry has greatly expanded the potential number of diseases that can be detected, even without satisfying all of the other criteria used for making screening decisions.[29][30] Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a disease that has been added to screening programs in several jurisdictions around the world, despite the lack of evidence as to whether early detection improves the clinical outcome for a patient.[29]

text: Techniques[edit]

text: Sample collection[edit]

text: Newborn screening tests are most commonly done from whole blood samples collected on specially designed filter paper. The filter paper is often attached to a form containing required information about the infant and parents. This includes date and time of birth, date and time of sample collection, the infant's weight and gestational age. The form will also have information about whether the baby has had a blood transfusion and any additional nutrition the baby may have received (total parenteral nutrition). Most newborn screening cards also include contact information for the infant's physician in cases where follow up screening or treatment is needed. The Canadian province of Quebec performs newborn screening on whole blood samples collected as in most other jurisdictions, and also runs a voluntary urine screening program where parents collect a sample at 21 days of age and submit it to a provincial laboratory for an additional panel of conditions.[31][13]

text: Newborn screening samples are collected from the infant between 24 hours and 7 days after birth, with the requirement that the baby has fed at least once. Samples can be collected at the hospital, or by midwives. If a sample is collected from an infant who is less than 24 hours old, the laboratory will often request a repeat specimen be taken after 24 hours. Samples are mailed daily to the laboratory responsible for testing. In the United States and Canada, newborn screening is mandatory, with an option for parents to opt out of the screening in writing if they desire.[32][33] In most of Europe, newborn screening is done with the consent of the parents. Proponents of mandatory screening claim that the test is for the benefit of the child, and that parents should not be able to opt out on their behalf. In regions that favour informed consent for the procedure, they report no increase in costs, no decrease in the number of children screened and no cases of included diseases in children who did not undergo screening.[34]

text: Laboratory testing[edit]

text: Because newborn screening programs test for a number of different conditions, a number of different laboratorial methodologies are used, as well as bedside testing for hearing loss using evoked auditory potentials[23] and congenital heart defects using pulse oximetry.[24] Newborn screening started out using simple bacterial inhibition assays to screen for a single disorder, starting with phenylketonuria in the early 1960s.[4] With this testing methodology, newborn screening required one test to detect one condition. As mass spectrometry became more widely available, the technology allowed rapid determination of a number of acylcarnitines and amino acids from a single dried blood spot. This increased the number of conditions that could be detected by newborn screening. Enzyme assays are used to screen for galactosemia and biotinidase deficiency. Immunoassays measure thyroid hormones for the diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone for the diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Molecular techniques are used for the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis and severe combined immunodeficiency.

text: Reporting results[edit]

text: The goal is to report the results within a short period of time. If screens are normal, a paper report is sent to the submitting hospital and parents rarely hear about it. If an abnormality is detected, employees of the agency, usually nurses, begin to try to reach the physician, hospital, and/or nursery by telephone. They are persistent until they can arrange an evaluation of the infant by an appropriate specialist physician (depending on the disease). The specialist will attempt to confirm the diagnosis by repeating the tests by a different method or laboratory, or by performing other corroboratory or disproving tests. The confirmatory test varies depending on the positive results on the initial screen. Confirmatory testing can include analyte specific assays to confirm any elevations detected, functional studies to determine enzyme activity, and genetic testing to identify disease-causing mutations. In some cases, a positive newborn screen can also trigger testing on other family members, such as siblings who did not undergo newborn screening for the same condition or the baby's mother, as some maternal conditions can be identified through results on the baby's newborn screen. Depending on the likelihood of the diagnosis and the risk of delay, the specialist will initiate treatment and provide information to the family. Performance of the program is reviewed regularly and strenuous efforts are made to maintain a system that catches every infant with these diagnoses. Guidelines for newborn screening and follow up have been published by the American Academy of Pediatrics[35] and the American College of Medical Genetics.[36]

text: Laboratory performance[edit]

text: Newborn screening programs participate in quality control programs as in any other laboratory, with some notable exceptions. Much of the success of newborn screening programs is dependent on the filter paper used for the collection of the samples. Initial studies using Robert Guthrie's test for PKU reported high false positive rates that were attributed to a poorly selected type of filter paper.[37] This source of variation has been eliminated in most newborn screening programs through standardization of approved sources of filter paper for use in newborn screening programs. In most regions, the newborn screening card (which contains demographic information as well as attached filter paper for blood collection) is supplied by the organization carrying out the testing, to remove variations from this source.[37]

text: History[edit]

text: Robert Guthrie is given much of the credit for pioneering the earliest screening for phenylketonuria in the late 1960s using blood samples obtained by pricking a newborn baby's heel on the second day of life on filter paper.[38] Congenital hypothyroidism was the second disease widely added in the 1970s.[39] Guthrie and colleagues also developed bacterial inhibition assays for the detection of maple syrup urine disease and classic galactosemia.[40] The development of tandem mass spectrometry screening in the early 1990s led to a large expansion of potentially detectable congenital metabolic diseases that can be identified by characteristic patterns of amino acids and acylcarnitines.[41]

text: In the United States, the American College of Medical Genetics recommended a uniform panel of diseases that all infants born in every state should be screened for. They also developed an evidence-based review process for the addition of conditions in the future. The implementation of this panel across the United States meant all babies born would be screened for the same number of conditions. Prior to this, babies born in different states had received different levels of screening. On April 24, 2008, President George W. Bush signed into law the Newborn Screening Saves Lives Act of 2007. This act was enacted to increase awareness among parents, health professionals, and the public on testing newborns to identify certain disorders. It also sought to improve, expand, and enhance current newborn screening programs at the state level.

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Newborn screening tests have become a subject of political controversy in the last decade. In 2003, two California babies, Zachary Wyvill and Zachary Black, were both born with Glutaric acidemia type I. Wyvill's birth hospital only tested for the four diseases mandated by state law, while Black was born at a hospital that was participating in an expanded testing pilot program. Black's disease was treated with diet and vitamins; Wyvill's disease went undetected for over six months, and during that time the damage from the enzyme deficiency became irreversible.[42] Birth-defects lobbyists pushing for broader and more universal standards for newborn testing cite this as an example of how much of an impact testing can have.[citation needed]

text: Instituting MS/MS screening often requires a sizable up front expenditure. When states choose to run their own programs the initial costs for equipment, training and new staff can be significant. Moreover, MS/MS gives only the screening result and not the confirmatory result. The same has to be further done by higher technologies or procedure like GC/MS, Enzyme Assays or DNA Tests. This in effect adds more cost burden and makes physicians lose precious time. To avoid at least a portion of the up front costs, some states such as Mississippi have chosen to contract with private labs for expanded screening. Others have chosen to form Regional Partnerships sharing both costs and resources.

text: But for many states, screening is an integrated part of the department of health which can not or will not be easily replaced. Thus the initial expenditures can be difficult for states with tight budgets to justify. Screening fees have also increased in recent years as health care costs rise and as more states add MS/MS screening to their programs. (See Report of Summation of Fees Charged for Newborn Screening, 2001–2005) Dollars spent for these programs may reduce resources available to other potentially lifesaving programs. It has been recommended that one disorder, Short Chain Acyl-coenzyme A Dehydrogenase Deficiency, or SCAD, be eliminated from screening programs, due to a "spurious association between SCAD and symptoms.[43] However, recent studies suggest that expanded screening is cost effective (see ACMG report page 94-95 and articles published in Pediatrics[44]'.[45] Advocates are quick to point out studies such as these when trying to convince state legislatures to mandate expanded screening.

text: Expanded newborn screening is also opposed by among some health care providers, who are concerned that effective follow-up and treatment may not be available, that false positive screening tests may cause harm, and issues of informed consent.[46] A recent study by Genetic Alliance and partners suggests that communication between health care providers and parents may be key in minimizing the potential harm when a false positive test occurs. The results from this study also reveal that parents found newborn screening to be a beneficial and necessary tool to prevent treatable diseases.[47] To address the false positive issue, researchers from the University of Maryland, Baltimore and Genetic Alliance established a check-list to assist health care providers communicate with parents about a screen-positive result.[48]

text: Controversy has also erupted in some countries over collection and storage of blood or DNA samples by government agencies during the routine newborn blood screen. It was revealed that in Texas the state had collected and stored blood and DNA samples on millions of newborns without the parents' knowledge or consent. These samples were then used by the state for genetic experiments and to set up a database to catalog all of the samples/newborns. Samples obtained without parents' consent were destroyed.[49]

text: Bioethics[edit]

text: As additional tests are discussed for addition to the panels, issues arise. Many question if the expanded testing still falls under the requirements necessary to justify the additional tests.[50] Many of the new diseases being tested for are rare and have no known treatment, while some of the diseases need not be treated until later in life.[50] This raises more issues, such as: if there is no available treatment for the disease should we test for it at all? And if we do, what do we tell the families of those with children bearing one of the untreatable diseases?[51] Studies show that the more rare the disease is and the more diseases being tested for, the more likely the tests are to produce false-positives.[52] This is an issue because the newborn period is a crucial time for the parents to bond with the child, and it has been noted that ten percent of parents whose children were diagnosed with a false-positive still worried that their child was fragile and/or sickly even though they were not, potentially preventing the parent-child bond forming as it would have otherwise.[51] As a result, some parents may begin to opt out of having their newborns screened. Many parents are also concerned about what happens with their infant's blood samples after screening. The samples were originally taken to test for preventable diseases, but with the advance in genomic sequencing technologies many samples are being kept for DNA identification and research,[50][51] increasing the possibility that more children will be opted out of newborn screening from parents who see the kept samples as a form of research done on their child.[50]


document_title: Where Are You Now (My Love)

question_text: who sang where are you now my love

question_tokens: who sang where are you now my love

root

text: Where Are You Now (My Love)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: "Where Are You Now (My Love)" is a 1965 song written by Tony Hatch and Jackie Trent, and recorded in December 1964 by Trent.[1] The single gave Trent her only No. 1 hit when it reached the top of the UK Singles Chart for one week in May 1965.[2] The song was featured in the popular television series It's Dark Outside.[3]

tag: p

text: "Where Are You Now" was Hatch and Trent's first composition together, and one of many hits they would have as a song writing partnership. Although Trent released two follow-up singles, these were only minor hits in the UK.[1] The song was written and recorded in just four days after Hatch was asked by Granada TV to produce a song for the female lead in the programme to be seen on screen playing to herself. The lyrics were written by Trent in December 1964 (around Christmas), and she recorded the song in December 1964 just before she headed off to South Africa on a three-month tour. When the song first hit the screen, people contacted TV Times to ask where they could get it and the rush was on to get it into the shops. The song went to number 1 in May 1965 and, according to some UK Charts, it knocked The Beatles's "Ticket to Ride" off the number one spot.[2]

text: A duet with Hatch, "The Two of Us", later achieved success on the Australian chart.


document_title: Police impersonation

question_text: what does it mean to impersonate a police officer

text: Police impersonation

text:
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text: Police impersonation is an act of falsely portraying oneself as a member of the police, for the purpose of deception. In the vast majority of countries, the practice is illegal and carries a custodial sentence.

text: Impersonating a police officer is sometimes committed in order to assert police-like authority in order to commit a crime. Posing as a police officer enables the offender to legitimize the appearance of an illegal act, such as: burglary, making a traffic stop, or detaining.

text: Dressing up as a police officer in costume (e.g. for Halloween), or pretending to be a police officer for the purpose of play or a harmless prank toward an acquaintance is generally not considered a crime, provided that those involved recognize the imposter is not a real police officer, and the imposter is not trying to deceive those involved into thinking they are. Nevertheless, replica police uniforms sold in the UK must not be identical to the uniforms currently used by the police, and traders have been jailed in the past for selling on genuine uniforms[1][2]

text: The following impersonations class as the offence:

text:
Verbal identification: The imposter announces to the unsuspecting victim that they are a police officer or other law enforcement agent.
Fake Badge or Warrant card: The imposter, though not in any special clothes, displays a police-like badge or identification card to the victim. Sometimes, even a real police officer will not even be able to differentiate between the real and fake badge, as some duplicates are very similar to a real badge, if not identical to one. This is much more of a problem in the USA than in the UK, as in the UK, police identification includes photographic ID as well as the police shield, whereas in the USA, a police shield alone counts as ID, making it easier for people to pretend to be police officers.
Fake uniform: The imposter wears a uniform that looks very much like that of a police officer.
Fake vehicle: The imposter places police lights (these can be either permanently mounted onto the car or temporary lights magnetically attached to the cartop), decals, siren, or other equipment on a personal vehicle to disguise it as a police car and enable the offender to pass through red traffic lights, bypass traffic other non-emergency traffic would have to wait for, make traffic stops, or even arrests.

tag: ul

text: Much of the equipment described above is available for purchase by the general public, thereby enabling imposters to obtain the necessary materials to commit such a crime. While the equipment will not bear the name of a specific law enforcement agency, the unsuspecting victim may not notice the difference.

text: In an extreme case, a Hempstead, New York man set up a fake police station in addition to the above, where he interrogated those he arrested.[3]

text: Some of the following crimes have been committed while impersonating a police officer:[citation needed]

text:
Home invasion, by gaining entry under the guise of a police officer, followed by theft from the premises, rape, torture, or in rare cases, murder.
Theft and motor vehicle theft - approaching a victim, explaining that an item or a vehicle is stolen. The impersonator will then seize the "evidence" and never return it.
Armed robbery, following a traffic stop
Kidnapping following a traffic stop or false arrest
Fake authority, in which the officer attempts to extort money from the victim, claiming it is a fine, or can be paid on the spot to avoid further legal consequences.
Prank phone calls and other fraudulent / deceptive electronic communications, where one might make a comment about a group that invites retaliation.

text: Popular culture[edit]

text:
The 2014 American film Let's Be Cops features the main characters pretending to be police officers.
A popular webseries Dick Figures aired an episode called 'We're Cops' featured 'red' and 'blue' rob a bank dressed as a police officer.


document_title: Beverage can

question_text: when did soft drinks first come in cans

question_tokens: when did soft drinks first come in cans

text: Beverage can

text: History[edit]

text: The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia.[2] Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for storing beverages in cans was the interior liner, typically plastic or sometimes a waxy substance, that helped to keep the product's flavor from being ruined by a chemical reaction with the metal. Another major factor for the timing was the repeal of Prohibition in the United States at the end of 1933.

text: In 1935,[3] the Felinfoel Brewery at Felinfoel in Wales was the first brewery outside the USA to commercially can beer. Prior to this time, beer was only available in barrels or in glass bottles. From this time, lightweight tin cans could be used. Felinfoel was a major supplier to British armed forces abroad in the Second World War - cans saved a great deal of space and weight for wartime exports compared to glass bottles, and did not have to be returned for refilling. These early cans did not have a pull tab, instead they had a crown cork (beer bottle top). All modern UK canned beer is descended from these small, early cans which helped change the drinking and beer-buying habits of the British public. From the 18th century until the early 20th century Wales dominated world tinplate production, peaking in the early 1890s when 80% of the world's tinplate was produced in south Wales.

text: Canned beverages were factory-sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom. They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a "church key", that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.

text: In the mid-1930s, some cans were developed with caps so that they could be opened and poured more like a bottle. These were called "cone tops", as their tops had a conical taper up to the smaller diameter of the cap. Cone top cans were sealed by the same crimped caps that were put on bottles, and could be opened with the same bottle-opener tool. There were three types of conetops: high profile, low profile, and j-spout. The low profile and j-spout were the earliest, dating from about 1935. The "crowntainer" was a different type of can that was drawn steel with a bottom cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading beverage packaging and beverage can producer. Various breweries used crowntainers and conetops until the late 1950s, but many breweries kept using the simple cylindrical cans.

text: The popularity of canned beverages was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas. Cans had two advantages over glass bottles. First for the distributors, flat-top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles. Second for consumers, they did not require the deposit typically paid for bottles, as they were discarded after use. Glass-bottle deposits were reimbursed when consumers took the empties back to the store.

text: By the time the United States entered World War II, cans had gained only about ten percent of the beverage container market; this was drastically reduced during the war to accommodate strategic needs for metal.

text: These problems were both addressed by the invention of the "push-tab". Used primarily on Coors Beer cans in the mid-1970s, the push-tab was a raised circular scored area used in place of the pull-tab. It needed no ring to pull up. Instead, the raised aluminium blister was pushed down into the can, with a small unscored piece that kept the tab connected after being pushed inside. Push-tabs never gained wide popularity because while they had solved the litter problem of the pull-tab, they created a safety hazard where the person's finger upon pushing the tab into the can was immediately exposed to the sharp edges of the opening. An unusual feature of the push-tab Coors Beer cans was that they had a second, smaller, push-tab at the top as an airflow vent — a convenience that was lost with the switch from can opener to pull-tab. The "push-tab" was introduced into Australia in the early 1980s and was locally known as "pop-tops".

text: The safety and litter problems were both eventually solved later in the 1970s with Daniel F. Cudzik's invention of the non-removing "Stay-Tab". The pull-ring was replaced with a stiff aluminium lever, and the removable tab was replaced with a pre-scored round tab that functioned similarly to the push-tab, but the raised blister was no longer needed, as the riveted lever would now do the job of pushing the tab open and into the interior of the can.

text: In 2008, an aluminium version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca-Cola's Caribou Coffee beverage. In 2004, Anheuser-Busch adopted an all-aluminium bottle for use with Budweiser and Bud Light beers.

text: Standard sizes[edit]

text:
Comparison chart of various standards

ml
imp fl oz
US fl oz

1,000
35.2
33.8

568
20.0[nb 1]
19.2

500
17.6
16.9

473
16.6
16.0[nb 2]

440
15.5
14.9

375
13.2
12.7

355
12.5
12.0

350
12.3
11.8

341
12.0
11.5

330
11.6
11.2

250
8.8
8.5

237
8.3
8.0

222
7.8
7.5

200
7.0
6.8

150
5.3
5.1

Jump up ^ one imp pint
Jump up ^ one US pint

text: Capacity in countries[edit]

text: Various standard capacities are used throughout the world.

text: In Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks are commonly served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes.

text: In Brazil the standard can size is 355 ml.

text: In New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml, although Coca-Cola Amatil changed its canned beverages to 330 ml in 2017.[5]

text: In China the most common size is 330 ml.

text: Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units. Imperial dimensions for canmaking are written as inches+sixteenths of an inch (e.g. "202" = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).[6]

text: In Europe the standard can used to be 330 ml but since the 1990s the 250 ml size has slowly become about just as common. In European countries the 500 ml can size is second standard. It's often used for beer, cider and energy drinks.

text: In the UK 440 ml is commonly used for lager and cider.

text: In Austria energy drinks are usually sold in sizes 200 to 330 ml.

text: In Hong Kong most cans are 330 ml.

text: In India standard cans are 500 ml.

text: In Japan the most common sizes are 350 ml and 500 ml. Larger and smaller cans are also sold.

text: In South Korea 250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks. However, when accompanying take out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245 ml can is standard. Recently, some 355 ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper. Finally, beer cans also come in 500 ml forms.

text: In both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks where it would usually cost a lot more than local ones.

text: In Pakistan the most common sizes are 250 ml and 330 ml. 200 ml cans are also sold.

text: In North America, the standard can size is 12 US fl oz or 355 ml. The US standard can is 4.83 inches high, 2.13 inches in diameter at the lid, and 2.60 inches in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are 16oz cans known as pounders, and 24oz cans or larger are referred to as tall boys.[citation needed]

text: In Canada, the standard size was previously 10 Imperial fluid ounces (284 ml), later redefined and labeled as 280 ml in around 1980. This size was commonly used with steel beverage cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s, upon the conversion from steel to aluminium. Some beverage such as Nestea are sold in 341 ml cans. In Quebec by the year 2015, a new standard for carbonated drink have been added as many important grocery store now only sell 6-packs (with plastic holds) with 222 ml cans instead of the original 341 ml (for the same price) and that from every major carbonated drinks. Many convenience stores began selling "slim cans" with a 310ml capacity as of late 2015

text: South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for "mixers" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans.

text: Middle East

text: In the Middle East standard cans are 330 ml.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Most metal beverage cans manufactured in the United States are made of aluminium,[7] whereas in some parts of Europe and Asia approximately 55 percent are made of steel and 45 percent are aluminium alloy. Steel cans often have a top made of aluminium. The aluminium used in United States and Canada are alloys containing 92.5% to 97% aluminium, <5.5% magnesium, <1.6% manganese, <0.15% chromium and some trace amounts of iron, silicon and copper according to MSDS from aluminium producer Alcoa.[8] Alloys used include 3004, 3105, or other 3xxx/5xxx series aluminium.[9]

text: An empty aluminium can weighs approximately half an ounce (14.2 grams). There are 34 empty 12 ounce aluminium cans to a pound or 70 to a kilogram.[10]

text: In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminium containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminium cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminium is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminium requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.

text: Aluminium cans are coated internally to protect the aluminium from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminium can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition.[11][12] Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.[13]

text: In order to achieve primary aluminium for manufacturing, bauxite is converted to alumina through the Bayer process.[14] After this process, aluminium can be extracted from alumina. Subsequently, it goes through a process called aluminium smelting and ingot casting. Simply, these two stages require alumina to undergo an extremely hot temperature and high-energy bath. Following this process is hot rolling and cold rolling. This is ultimately done to cast the aluminium can into shape for further processing. Finally, the process of “ironing” is performed which forms the shape of the can.

text: Filling cans[edit]

text: Cans are filled before the top is crimped on. The filling and sealing operations need to be extremely fast and precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the beverage flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling.

text: Fabrication process[edit]

text: Modern cans are generally produced through a mechanical cold forming process that starts with punching a flat blank from very stiff cold-rolled sheet. This sheet is typically alloy 3104-H19 or 3004-H19, which is aluminium with about 1% manganese and 1% magnesium to give it strength and formability. The flat blank is first formed into a cup about three inches in diameter. This cup is then pushed through a different forming process called "ironing" which forms the can. The bottom of the can is also shaped at this time. The malleable metal deforms into the shape of an open-top can. With the sophisticated technology of the dies and the forming machines, the side of the can is significantly thinner than either the top and bottom areas, where stiffness is required.

text: Plain lids (known as shells) are stamped from a coil of aluminium, typically alloy 5182-H48, and transferred to another press that converts them to easy-open ends. This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening, while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminium.

text: Opening mechanisms [edit]

text: Early metal beverage cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can-piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid—a large one for drinking, and a second (smaller) one to admit air.

text: As early as 1922, inventors were applying for patents on cans with tab tops, but the technology of the time made these inventions impractical.[15] Later advancements saw the ends of the can made out of aluminium instead of steel.

text: Cans are usually in sealed paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, or trays covered with plastic film. The entire distribution system and packaging need to be controlled to ensure freshness.[16]

text: Pop-tab[edit]

text: Mikolaj Kondakow and James Wong of Thunder Bay,[dubious – discuss] Ontario, Canada invented the pull tab version for bottles in or before 1951 (Canadian patent 476789).[17] Then, in 1962, Ermal Cleon Fraze (1913–1989)[18] of Dayton, Ohio, United States, invented the similar integral rivet and pull-tab version (also known as ring pull in British English), which had a ring attached at the rivet for pulling, and which would come off completely to be discarded. He received US Patent No. 3,349,949 for his pull-top can design in 1963 and licensed his invention to Alcoa and Pittsburgh Brewing Company, the latter of which first introduced the design on Iron City Beer cans. The first soft drinks to be sold in all-aluminium cans were R.C. Cola and Diet-Rite Cola, both made by the Royal Crown Cola company, in 1964.

text: The early pull-tabs detached easily. In 1976 the Journal of the American Medical Association noted cases of children ingesting pull-tabs that had broken off and dropped into the can.[19]

text: Full-top pull-tabs were also used in some oil cans and are currently used in some soup, pet food, tennis ball, nuts and other cans.

text: Stay-on-tab[edit]

text: In 1975, Daniel F. Cudzik, an engineer with Reynolds Metals, filed a design patent application for a "End closure for a container."[20] This later became known as a "Sta-Tab." When the Sta-Tab launched in 1975, on Falls City beer and, quickly, other beverages, there was an initial period of consumer testing and education. Cudzik later received patents for this "Easy Open Wall" (US 3967752, issued 1976-07-06  US 3967753, issued 1976-07-06 ). The validity of these patents was upheld in subsequent litigation.[21]

text: The similarly designed "Easy-open ecology end" was invented by Ermal Fraze and Omar Brown. Its patent application was also filed in 1975. This design, like Cudzik's, uses a separate tab attached to the upper surface as a lever to depress a scored part of the lid, which folds underneath the top of the can and out of the way of the resulting opening, thus reducing injuries and roadside litter caused by removable tabs.[22]

text: Such "retained ring-pull" cans supplanted pull-off tabs in the United Kingdom in 1989 for soft drinks and 1990 for alcoholic beverages.[23]

text: Wide mouth[edit]

text: One of the more recent modifications to can design was the introduction of the "wide mouth" can in the late 1990s.[24] The American Can Company, now a part of Rexam,[25] and Coors Brewing Company have owned wide mouth design patent (number D385,192)[26] since 1997. Other companies have similar designs for the wide mouth. Ball Corporation's from 2008 has a vent tube to allow direct airflow into the can reducing the amount of gulps during the pour.[27]

text: Sustainable beverage ends[edit]

text: The SuperEnd[28] from Crown Holdings launched in 2000 was designed to use 10% less metal in production than standard beverage ends.[29]

text: Press button can[edit]

text: One variation was the press button can,[30] which featured two pre-cut buttons—one small and one large—in the top of the can sealed with a plastic membrane. These buttons were held closed by the outward pressure of the carbonated beverage. The consumer would open the can by depressing both buttons, which would result in two holes. The small hole would act as a vent to relieve internal pressure so the larger button could then be pressed down to create the hole used for drinking the beverage. Consumers could also easily cut themselves on the edges of the holes or get their fingers stuck.

text: Press button cans were used by Pepsi in Canada from the 1970s to 1980s and Coors in the 1970s. They have since been replaced with pull tabs. Used in Australia, locally known as "pop-tops", for soft drinks during the early 1980s.

text: Full aperture end[edit]

text: Another variation on the beverage can is the "full aperture end", where the entire lid can be removed – turning an aluminium can into a cup. Crown Holdings first designed the "360 End"[31] for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.[28] It has been used by Anheuser-Busch InBev in China[32] and Brazil[33] and by the Sly Fox Brewing Company[34] in the United States.

text: Resealable lid[edit]

text: Another variation on the beverage can is to have a resealable lid. A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.

text: Collecting[edit]

text: Beer can collecting was a minor fad in the late 1970s and 1990s. However, the hobby waned rapidly in popularity. The Beer Can Collectors of America (BCCA), founded in 1970, was an organization supporting the hobby, but has now renamed itself Brewery Collectibles Club of America to be more modern.[35]

text: As of late 2009, membership in the Brewery Collectibles Club of America was 3,570, down from a peak of 11,954 in 1978. Just 19 of the members were under the age of 30, and the members' average age had increased to 59.[36]


document_title: Temperance "Bones" Brennan

question_text: when do booth and brennan have their first real kiss

text: Temperance "Bones" Brennan

text: Character history[edit]

text: Temperance "Bones" Brennan is a forensic anthropologist who works in the Medico-Legal lab at the Jeffersonian Institute in Washington, D.C. She received her Ph.D. from Northwestern University, as stated in "The Girl in the Fridge". She has three doctorates, as referred to by Dr. Jack Hodgins in the episode "The Parts of the Sum in the Whole", in anthropology, forensic anthropology and kinesiology; it is implied that most of her work at the lab was related to either long-dead bodies or victims of genocide.[5][6]

text: Her occasional contract work for the FBI shifted the focus of her work.[6] She was paired with FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth, and helped to solve two difficult cases;[5][6] since then, they have worked together almost exclusively on modern-day murder cases.

text: Brennan works with a group of other well-qualified colleagues, including the entomologist Jack Hodgins, her boss and forensic pathologist Camille Saroyan, forensic artist Angela Montenegro, and a host of eager graduate students. Booth refers to her crew of colleagues as "squints", because they come to crime scenes and squint at evidence. He is also responsible for her nickname, "Bones", which she initially detested.[5]

text: In the first-season finale (which aired on May 17, 2006), Brennan stated that she was born in 1976,[7] which would have made her either 29 or 30 (approximately the same age as Deschanel, who was born on October 11, 1976). In the fifth-season episode "The Death of the Queen Bee" (which aired nearly four years later, on April 15, 2010), it is implied that her then-current age was 33 years (based on Brennan's identification of a former high school classmate as the victim and statement that the classmate was 33).

text: First mentioned in season 1, Brennan has a love of dolphins, which she shared with her late mother: in the season one finale, "The Woman in Limbo", Brennan examines a custom-made belt with a dolphin on the buckle, which had belonged to her mother, and which she mentions having once borrowed without asking first. Brennan's love of dolphins is highlighted again in season 2 episodes "The Titan on the Tracks", "The Killer in the Concrete" and "Stargazer in a Puddle", when she mentions the constellation Delphinus, (the Dolphin), her and her mother's favorite. In season 6, "The Doctor in the Photo", she is shown to wear a dolphin ring.

text: In "Mummy in the Maze", Brennan exhibited ophidiophobia when confronted with snakes, but later only shows a moment of fright when confronted with another snake in "The Mastodon in the Room". She takes note of this, voicing her observation that she only seems to lose her head around snakes when Booth is also "there to be jumped upon", and also she mentions that she once had a pet snake during high school. It should also be noted that, in "The Man in the Morgue," Brennan handled a snake without any trace of fear, even while Booth is in the room.

text: In season one, in "A Man on Death Row", Dr. Brennan expresses her stance on the death penalty; "I believe in the death penalty. There are certain people who shouldn't be in this world. The people who hacked hundreds of innocent children to death in Rwanda; beheaded them at their desks at school! The people who did that, they should be executed." In "The Woman at the Airport", Dr. Brennan is shown to have a strong dislike for plastic surgeons, believing them to be no more than "glorified butchers with medical degrees", and this dislike is voiced again in season 4, in "Cinderella in the Cardboard". In "The Woman in the Car", Dr. Brennan reveals that her third doctorate is in kinesiology, a field that would allow her and Angela to unravel how one of the bodies that had been found had been killed.

text: In season two, she expressed the desire to get a pet pig, whom she would have named "Jasper". Brennan's expertise in kinesiology would again prove its worth in "The Truth in the Lye" (she could tell that one of the murder suspects was pregnant just from having observed her gait), in "The Girl with the Curl" (she could tell if one of the young beauty pageant contestants was suffering from scoliosis just by watching them perform on stage), and in "The Woman in the Sand" (while undercover with Booth, she was able to tell Booth exactly how to beat his opponent from just having watched his moves). In "Judas on a Pole", she and her brother are identified as having the same blood type, blood type O. In "Glowing Bones in the Old Stone House", she is shown to be a good cook: Booth's comment on her mac and cheese is that he'd "like to be alone with it".

text: In the season 3 episode, "Mummy in the Maze", it is revealed that Brennan's favorite superhero is Wonder Woman, and that she always goes as Wonder Woman to the Jeffersonian's Halloween party. In "The Baby in the Bough", it is revealed that Brennan is a registered foster parent, at her brother's request, to take in his stepdaughters in case anything should happen to him and his girlfriend. In the season 3 episode, "Intern in the Incinerator", Booth reveals that Brennan's favorite flower is a Daffodil, her second favorite flower is a Daisy, and her favorite planet is Jupiter.

text: In season 5, in "The Death of the Queen Bee", when asked if she'd had a pet rat, Brennan discloses that she, in fact, had a pet mouse, snake and some spiders. During her time at Burtonsville high school, her only friend was the school custodian, Ray Buxley, with whom she would enjoy long, in-depth conversations on life and death, and who would also provide her with dead animals to dissect (Brennan having set out to become a forensic anthropologist,) and who would later be one of her books' biggest fans (she having named the killer in her first book, Bred in the Bone, after him). According to the Burtonsville high school on-line yearbook entry on Brennan, in her senior year, she was a member of the Chemistry club and Math club, her interests were chemistry and mathematics, and she was a National Merit Scholar and an Academic All Star.

text: In the season 6 episode, "The Blackout in the Blizzard", Brennan mentions her pet iguana for the first time. This same episode show that one of the number of scientific publications that Brennan reads is Medicinal Physics Quarterly, with one article on electrostatics and triboluminescence proving useful during the lab's power outage. Further concerning her pet iguana in "The Truth in the Myth", as a part of his rehab from alcohol abuse, Vincent Nigel-Murry made apologies for, among other things, having borrowed her iguana one night, wearing him as a hat for a party. She comments that he must have taken good care of her iguana as she has observed nothing wrong with him and further expresses some surprise that Vincent Nigel-Murry was able to get her iguana to stay perched atop his head, to which he replies that he was good with ribbons.

text: In season 8, "The Tiger in the Tale", Booth mentions to Sweets that Dr. Brennan once took Peyote with Native Americans.

text: In season 11, "The Senator in the Street Sweeper", Dr. Brennan is mentioned to be a member of the Green Party of the United States along with Dr. Hodgins.

text: Family and early life[edit]

text: Although Brennan seemed to have a relatively normal childhood, her parents disappeared when she was 15 years old.[8] Her older brother Russ, himself still an adolescent, was unable to care for her and she was put in the foster care system. By the time she started college she had been to twelve different schools and has specifically said that she hated the lack of consistency.[9]

text: There has been contradictory evidence about her time in the system; in one episode, Brennan stated that her grandfather got her out of the foster system,[10] but in a later episode, she indicates that she never knew her grandparents (possibly the two references are to two separate sets of grandparents, paternal and maternal).[11] However, taking into consideration the fact that Brennan's parents had assumed new identities when she was 3-years-old, the grandfather who had taken her in from her time in the foster system may not have been her biological grandfather.

text: Her time in foster care was quite traumatic and abusive; Brennan indicated that she was once locked in the trunk of a car for two days because she broke a plate,[12] and in the episode "The Finger in the Nest", she reveals to Booth that she walked into her elderly neighbor's house to find the woman dead. In the same episode, she also mentions to Booth that her parents were very concerned about her afterwards, because she started faking her own death. In Season 2, she mentions that during her time in the foster care system, she kept a list of foster homes she had been kicked out of on the bottom of her shoe.

text: In the first season she hands Booth the file on her parents' disappearance and he agrees to look into it as a personal favor.[13] It is later revealed in Season 2 that her parents, who were bank robbers specializing in safety deposit boxes, changed the family's identity after they stole some damaging FBI documents regarding the murder of an FBI agent and the false imprisonment of civil rights activist Marvin Beckett. Brennan's birth name was Joy Keenan.[7] Her mother (real name Ruth Keenan, known under the assumed identity of Christine Brennan) had hoped to someday return to her children and family, but made a tape for Brennan to watch on her 16th birthday in case that never happened. Brennan later discovered that Ruth/Christine was murdered in 1993, two years after she and her husband went on the run.

text: Her father Max Keenan re-entered Brennan's life when she and her brother were being threatened by an old acquaintance, who turned out to be Booth's boss, Deputy Director Kirby.[14] Max evades capture after killing Kirby, and takes Russ into hiding to protect him.[14] Later, Max allows Booth to arrest him in order to improve his relationship with his daughter.[11] At trial, Max is acquitted of murdering Director Kirby (due in large part to a defense Booth indirectly came up with, positing an alternate theory of the crime in which Temperance was the killer instead, creating reasonable doubt), and he begins to rebuild his life.[15]

text: He temporarily works at the Jeffersonian as a guide for children visiting the place and demonstrates his brilliant talent as a former science teacher. However, Brennan is concerned about a convicted felon having access to a lab that investigates crimes.[16] Max also introduces Brennan to her cousin Margaret Whitesell,[17] portrayed by Deschanel's real-life sister Zooey Deschanel.

text: Brennan is best friends with her coworker, Angela, saying in the 6th-season premiere she loves Angela "like a sister" and is going to be an aunt to Hodgins' and Angela's newborn child. It is revealed at the end of the season six finale "The Change in the Game" that Brennan is pregnant and the father is Booth.

text: In Season 7, episode 2 "The Hot Dog in the Competition", Brennan and Booth found out they were having a baby girl. Their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named for Brennan's mother and her best friend), was born in a stable during the episode "The Prisoner in the Pipe". In the Season 7 finale, "The Past in the Present", key evidence in the death of her friend, Ethan Sawyer, is linked to Brennan. Max convinces her to go on the run along with Christine, saying that if she is arrested, even if she is found innocent, she may never see her daughter again.

text: In Season 8 premiere, it is revealed that while on the run, Brennan was communicating with Angela, via flowers, and eventually used this as a way to communicate with Booth. Despite being on the run, Brennan risks her safety and decides to meet directly with Booth in a hotel room after months of being a single mother. Eventually, they arrest Christopher Pelant, who was the real murderer of Ethan Sawyer, and Brennan is allowed to return to her family. Although Pelant blackmails Booth to prevent him from accepting Brennan's proposal by threatening to kill five innocent people if Booth accepted, also warning Booth not to give a reason for his refusal, this threat is removed when the team manage to kill Pelant, and Booth and Brennan marry in the Season 9 episode 'The Woman in White'.

text: In the Season 10 episode, "The Eye in the Sky", Brennan learns that she is pregnant with her and Booth's second child.

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Throughout the course of the series, Brennan is portrayed as a straightforward, brilliant anthropologist, who lacks social skills. Her social ineptitude is especially apparent when it comes to sarcasm, metaphors which she often interprets literally, and pop culture jokes and is often the source of comedy in the show.[5] An example of this is when she mistakes Colin Farrell for Will Ferrell.[10] In earlier seasons, she was characterized as straightforward and unable to detect social cues – she states that Booth once told her that she "stinks at non-verbal communication"[18] – and was well-known within the FBI for being extremely difficult to work with. She began to acknowledge her lack of sensitivity after Booth bluntly told her outright that she was "bad with people" in "A Boy in a Tree". Her lack of "political savvy" and social skills was also a reason why she was passed over for Dr. Camille Saroyan as head of the Jeffersonian in Season 2. Other characters have described her as "no fun"[19] and "a rigid traditionalist".[9]

text: She had a difficult adolescence, and it is implied, often by Sweets, that her withdrawn social tendencies are a defense mechanism. She also sometimes struggles in identifying and explaining her emotions, and takes comfort in the rationality of her anthropological discipline. Although it has been stated that Brennan was based on a person with Asperger syndrome, this has never been confirmed in the plot of the series.[20] The creator of the series has stated that the character was never labeled as having the syndrome in order to increase the appeal of the show on network television.[21] This influence on her character also helps to explain her extreme rationality in early seasons, as well as some of her social difficulties. Brennan is a self-proclaimed atheist and often points out what she believes to be the irrationality of religious and spiritual beliefs. This has led to more than one argument with Booth, who is a devout Roman Catholic; he becomes particularly irate when she compares less common religions, such as voodoo, to Christianity.[22] During the Sleepy Hollow crossover episode "Dead Men Tell No Tales", Sleepy Hollow protagonist Ichabod Crane notes that Brennan is so sceptical that she would dismiss the demon Moloch — the primary antagonist in the first two seasons of Sleepy Hollow — as nothing more than a tall man with a skin condition, although this does leave him reassured that she will not realise the nature of the secret tomb they have uncovered underneath the White House.

text: Brennan is a bestselling author, who has been on the New York Times Best Seller List for 18 weeks.[23] She is trained in three types of martial arts,[22][24] has hunting licenses in four states,[22] and has a legally registered gun[5] as well as a diving certificate.[25] She promised to consider becoming a vegetarian after seeing how pigs were slaughtered (which was also the way her mother had been killed).[7] However, in "The Tough Man in the Tender Chicken" (season 5, episode 6) Angela cites health reasons for Brennan's vegetarian diet. Brennan is also a trained amateur highwire performer,[26] and speaks at least seven other languages, including Spanish,[27] French,[5] Latin,[28] Chinese,[29] , Pashto[30] Japanese,[31] Norwegian (although she says only "skull" and avers that, as a forensic anthropologist, this is a word she knows "in just about every language"),[12] Farsi, and German.[32] She has also admitted to knowing a bit of Russian.[26] She often says she does not "put much stock in psychology" and makes a point of noting that Dr. Sweets is not a real scientist as he "bases his life on the vagary of psychology and emotions".

text: Brennan's personality undergoes significant changes throughout the course of the series. Her thinking becomes less rigid in later seasons, something which is observed by Dr. Gordon Wyatt, who notes that she is now able to distinguish the difference between accuracy and truth.[33] In season 4, Booth takes her along to his interrogations and helps her learn how to set aside her scientific perspective and relate with the victim's family and suspects on a more interpersonal level. She is also able to put aside her rationality to support her friends in sometimes irrational pursuits, such as Angela's quest to raise money to save a pig from slaughter,[34] and to comfort Booth, even using science or quoting directly from the Bible to rationalize his religious beliefs. Her sensitivity and empathy towards others are also much improved, seen quite strongly when she comforts his grandfather,[35] and when she attends a funeral so that the victim's single mother won't be alone.[17] She also displays more "typical" human emotions when in extreme stress. One example of this is her fear of snakes in "The Mummy in the Maze," when a girl is in the process of being scared to death in a room, the floor teeming with snakes. This goes against her empirical nature, as, when Booth tells her that the snakes aren't venomous, she states that she is aware, but still refuses to step in the room, causing Booth to carry her on his back.

text: Brennan begins to feel both dissatisfaction and discomfort with her work toward the end of the fifth season.[36] She also sees some futility in her work, stating that no matter how many killers they catch, there will always be more.[37] To help her gain new perspective, she later decides to head up an anthropological expedition to Indonesia for a year to identify some ancient proto-human remains, after mulling it over during the episode.[37] However, 7 months later, she and everyone else return to D.C. in order to save Cam's job, and they all decide to stay.

text: As season 6 progresses, Brennan must confront her feelings for Booth, whom she rejected in the 100th episode from the previous season. Having returned from 7 months of introspection, she has come to terms with her romantic affection towards him, even admitting that she regretted not having given them a chance together, midway through the season. However, Booth returns from Afghanistan with a new love interest, war correspondent Hannah Burley, whom Brennan befriends. When Hannah rejects Booth's marriage proposal, Brennan must help him through the emotional fallout.

text: In the second to last episode of season 6 Booth and Brennan had sex, consummating their relationship, and it is revealed in the last few moments of the season finale that as a result, Brennan has become pregnant, with Booth the father. Throughout the episode ("The Change in the Game") Brennan has been seen asking Angela questions and making comments that make her seem excited and apprehensive; when she sees that Booth is happy with the news, she also seems overjoyed. This reflects her earlier desire to become a mother, circa season 4, as well as her desire that Booth be the father of the baby.

text: In the Season 8 episode "The Shot in the Dark", Brennan is shot while working in the lab late at night. While undergoing emergency surgery, she experiences a vision of meeting with her deceased mother, Christine Brennan. Initially dismissing this as a hallucination, Brennan experiences several more visions throughout the episode. During these discussions, it's revealed that Brennan's hyper rationalization originates from the very last piece of advice her mother gave to her (before going on the run) which was to use her brain instead of her heart. While that advice enabled Brennan to survive all these years, the vision of her mother explains, it's now time for Brennan to do more than just survive.

text: Since entering a relationship with and marrying Booth and then having children, the character has undergone development personally and is shown to be a caring wife and protective mother. She would often put aside her own atheistic views and uses her hyper-rationality to justify Booth's religious beliefs, as shown in season 8 where she references the Bible in order to persuade Booth to forgive his mother[38] and in the season finale where she agrees to a church wedding, rationalizing that she could appreciate the "beauty" of the ceremony and its significance to Booth.[39]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Brennan has had a number of relatively short relationships, including an ill-fated date with a man who turned out to be a murderer[40] and the re-kindling of a romance with her former thesis supervisor. She has stated that although she does not always feel the need for a committed emotional relationship, she has engaged in casual relationships to "satisfy biological urges".[41] In one episode, she was spending time with two men, one for his intelligence and the other for his sexual skills.[42] In Season 5, episode "The Plain in the Prodigy", she tells Booth she lost her virginity at the age of 22 and when asked why she waited so long, she said it was because the decision was "important to her". FBI psychologist Lance Sweets postulates in a number of episodes that Brennan's apprehension over having relationships is largely due in part to the abandonment and abuse she experienced as a teenager after her parents disappeared. It is said that she "hides" herself behind a front of hyper-rationalism and she always keeps people at arms' length, except for those closest to her (namely FBI partner Seeley Booth and best friend Angela Montenegro). After much character growth, Temperance Brennan is now married to her principal love interest of the series Seeley Booth, and they have a daughter (Season 7) and a son together.

text: Seeley Booth[edit]

text: FBI Special Agent Seeley Booth is Brennan's husband and partner, and the principal liaison between the Jeffersonian and law enforcement agencies. Prior to their marriage, he is also Brennan's principal love interest throughout the series. Although his working style initially clashed with Brennan's,[5] they have since become full-fledged partners. Their compatibility has become one of the central points of the show, with many new characters mistaking them for a couple and co-workers, especially Angela, constantly speculating that they were "more than partners".[22] Booth and Brennan have repeatedly risked their safety to save each other, including when Booth took a bullet meant for Brennan.[23] After Booth rescues Brennan from the corrupt Agent Kenton, Booth lifts her off the hook she was hung on by putting her tied hands around his neck even though he himself was severely injured.[43] In "Two Bodies in the Lab", in season 1, and in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle", in season 5, Brennan and Booth's mutual love for Foreigner's Hot Blooded is mentioned; Booth even refers to it as 'their song' in "The Rocker in the Rinse Cycle". Brennan once commented to Dr. Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) that she "[couldn't] think of anything [she] wouldn't do to help Booth."[44] Brennan's novels are also dedicated to him and the character Special Agent Andy Lister is based on him even though she still denies it.

text: Initially Brennan was mostly dismissive of Booth due to their opposing worldviews and work styles – which is a source of friction and banter between them. Although she refused to admit it at first, Brennan enjoyed working with him from the beginning, even after their falling out when Booth got her drunk and "fired" her, and, in Season 1, she cajoled him into launching an investigation after finding three bone fragments on a golf course so he could work with the Jeffersonian team on the case despite the fact that the FBI technically had no jurisdiction.[13] She often unknowingly offends him on a number of occasions during the first few seasons with her tactlessness, only realizing after being gently admonished by Angela or another member of the team.[45][46][47] She comes to admire his ability to connect with people and read behavioral cues when interrogating suspects after coming to terms with her own lack of social skills. After finding out about his abusive childhood and haunted past in the Army, she also begins to respect him as a person. Booth, who is particularly taciturn in revealing emotions or speaking about his past, begins to open up to and confide in her. Since entering a relationship with (and eventually marrying) Booth, she is shown to be extremely supportive of him,[48][49][50] even at the expense of her friendship with Angela.[19] Additionally, she put aside her own misgivings several times for Booth's benefit; for example, she agrees to have Christine christened into the Catholic church and referenced the Bible when trying to talk Booth into forgiving his mother.

text: Brennan acquired the nickname "Bones" from Booth. She initially disliked it but comes to regard it with affection. Booth and his son Parker are the only characters in the show she permits to use it and the former rarely addresses her by her first name or "Tempe".

text: In Season 2 Brennan shot and killed a person for the first time while working on a string of murders connected to serial killer Howard Epps. She was forced to pull the trigger after Epps' accomplice attacked and injured Booth with a pipe. At the end of the episode she confides in Booth of her conflicted feelings and finds comfort in the fact that Booth understood how she felt.[51]

text: The relationship between Brennan and Booth has often become strained when either partner has a significant other. For example, Booth was quite irritable when Brennan dated Agent Sully,[52] and their relationship was also strained when Booth's brother Jared was showing an interest in Brennan. Brennan constantly needled Booth while he was dating Tessa.

text: When Brennan decided that she wanted to have a baby, she asked Booth if he would be the sperm donor. He agrees to Brennan's request at first, but subsequently struggles with the thought of not being involved in the life of his prospective child. Eventually he tells Brennan he cannot let her have his child if he is not allowed to be a father to it. Soon thereafter, it is discovered that he has a (benign) brain tumour.[53] He has to undergo surgery, and though the surgery is successful, a poor reaction to anesthesia left him in a coma for several days. While in his coma, Brennan reads to him from her new novel, and he has an elaborate dream in which Brennan is his wife and that she is pregnant, and that the staff at the Jeffersonian play the characters in the novel. When he awakens, he initially suffers from amnesia, not recognizing Brennan.[54][55]

text: Although for the majority of the series Booth and Brennan denied that their relationship was anything more than friendly professionalism, they admitted to Dr. Sweets that they kissed and nearly spent the night together after their very first case together. After this discussion, Booth attempted to convince Brennan to give a relationship a try. However, she declined, telling him that she, unlike him, is not a gambler, and isn't able to take that kind of a chance.[6] They have subsequently attempted to date other people,[56] although the fact that Booth once comments that he regards Brennan as his "standard" for other women suggests that he, at least, has not completely moved on. Brennan does admit to her best friend Angela Montenegro that as time has gone on, she is unsure if she wants to keep doing consulting work for the FBI, citing that she is tired of murderers and victims, and is constantly worried that something will happen to Booth and she will be unable to save him. In the climax of Season Five, Brennan and Booth part ways for a year – he goes to Afghanistan while she leaves for the Maluku Islands in Indonesia – but they promise to meet, one year from that day, at the Lincoln Memorial.[37]

text: In the beginning of season six (7 months later), they reunite in the stated place. Booth came back from Afghanistan, along with everyone else from various places, to help save Cam's job. They all decided to stay. Booth has a serious new girlfriend, Hannah, and despite the hints of her colleagues at Brennan's unconscious jealousy of their relationship, she vehemently denies feeling uncomfortable with the new situation. Through subsequent episodes her jealousy and resentfulness began becoming more apparent as Hannah and Booth started becoming more serious. In the episode "The Doctor in the Photo", Brennan realizes she is in love with Booth and confronts him, but she is let down when Booth says that he loves Hannah and she is not a "consolation prize", prompting Brennan to conclude that she has missed her chance, later reflecting that she should move on. In episode 10 of the sixth season "The Body in the Bag", Booth tells his girlfriend about the incident, stating that it (his love for Temperance) was all in the past and whatever he felt, he does not feel it anymore, except for Hannah. However it was clear in the following episode that he still has feelings for Brennan.

text: Despite her apparent resolve to move on, Brennan later showed sorrow when her father noted that he always thought she and Booth would end up together. During a subsequent case involving a polygamist who would spend the night with his first wife on the night he was scheduled to sleep alone, Booth commented that, while you can love several people, there is only ever one person you love the most, prompting Brennan to ask what happens when you push that person away, something Booth answered saying that it never truly leaves, adding further weight to the implication that he still has feelings for Brennan. Following Hannah's departure, the two have begun to reconnect, to the point that, during a case that saw the two trapped in an elevator during a blackout for several hours, Booth and Brennan admitted that they are each interested in a relationship, but require more time to sort out their own feelings before they make such a commitment.

text: In episode 22 of season 6, "The Hole in the Heart", which saw the death of Vincent Nigel-Murray (Brennan's favorite intern) at the hands of renegade sniper Jacob Broadsky, Booth has Brennan stay at his apartment for her safety. Later that night, Brennan, still overcome with shock and grief over Vincent's death, goes into Booth's bedroom and they talk about the events of that day, and then allows Booth to hold her in bed. It is implied in the following day that they had sex. In the last scene of the season 6 finale, "The Change in the Game", after the birth of Angela and Hodgins' son, Brennan tells Booth that she is pregnant and that he is the father.

text: At the start of Season 7, a very pregnant Brennan and Booth are a couple but are going back and forth between apartments. Booth suggests that they should have their own place, whereas Brennan wants Booth to move into her apartment. It causes a minor rift between them, but is resolved when Booth admits why he wants to move into a new house and Brennan having some time to think over it says it's a good idea because she'd need him practically, emotionally and sexually. In episode 6, "The Crack in the Code," they decide to buy a two-story house in the suburbs—which they jokingly called "The Mighty Hut"—that Booth found at a police auction and renovate it, (according to a mailed check sent to Brennan in "The Heiress in the Hill", in season 9, the "Mighty Hut"'s address is "1297 Janus Street, Washington DC, 20002"). In episode 7, "The Prisoner in the Pipe", Brennan goes into labor inside a prison just as she discovers who killed in an inmate there and Booth rushes her out with the intention to take her to the nearest hospital, but they both know she won't make it in time. This leads them to driving to an inn close to the prison. At first, they are rejected and are told to leave, but after some desperate pleading from an agonized Brennan, the two of them are led to a stall where she gives birth to their daughter, Christine Angela Booth (named after Temperance's mother, Christine Brennan, and Temperance's best friend Angela Montenegro). Some time after the delivery, Temperance and Seeley both go back to their home where they celebrate with their friends from the Jeffersonian, who brought dinners that would last a few nights as well as a few baby supplies. In "The Past in the Present", Brennan becomes the prime suspect in the murder of her schizophrenic friend, Ethan Sawyer, after supposedly threatening to kill Christine. Max advises Brennan to get off the grid and go into hiding, but she and Booth do not follow up at this suggestion. However, at the end of the episode, after Christine is christened in a Catholic church, it is revealed Brennan decided to take her father's advice and flee with her daughter until her name is cleared. Just before Brennan flees town with Christine, she tells Booth she loves him and not just because of their daughter. After she is cleared of Sawyer's murder, Brennan, Booth and Christine resume their family life.

text: At the end of Season 8, Brennan finally decides to marry Booth. However, their plans are ruined when a vengeful Christopher Pelant blackmails Booth, threatening to kill five random people if Booth marries Brennan. Booth calls off the wedding, but does not explain the real reason to Brennan. Brennan is devastated but pretends to be fine with this.[57][58] In the season 9 premiere, Brennan fears that since Booth turned down her proposal, she fears that the love from their life is fading. After talking with bartender Aldo Clemens, a former priest and Army chaplain Booth confessed to, she realizes that it was uncharacteristic for Booth to suddenly cancel the wedding as he believed in marriage and that he likely had a legitimate reason to do so. Despite her colleagues' anger at Booth, she decides to stay with him, telling him that she understands that he has his reasons and has faith that he will resolve the issue. In the episode 4, "The Sense in the Sacrifice", after Booth singlehandedly tracks Pelant down through an abandoned building and kills him with a single gunshot, he reveals to her that Pelant had blackmailed him. Pelant had threatened to kill five innocent people if Booth continued with the wedding or went to the police or FBI. At the end of the episode he proposes and she happily accepts; unknown to them, Caroline, Angela and Hodgins witnessed it via the security cameras. In "The Woman in White", Booth and Brennan marry at a small garden ceremony outside the Jeffersonian.

text: Tim "Sully" Sullivan[edit]

text: Brennan had a brief relationship with FBI Agent Tim Sullivan (Eddie McClintock), also known as Sully, whom she met while on a case when Booth was in therapy due to his grief-induced rage over his self-perceived role in the death of serial killer Howard Epps. Sully asked Dr. Brennan out on a date after their case was completed, and they began a relationship.[52] Their relationship ended, however, when Sully decided to sail a boat down to the Caribbean, and Brennan declined to leave the Jeffersonian to go with him despite Angela trying to persuade her to follow him;[29] psychiatrist Doctor Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) speculated that this was due to Brennan being unable to live a life without purpose. Despite Dr. Wyatt's original perception as to why she stayed, there exist strong indications, especially through Angela's observations of the situation, that the real reason she stayed was because of Booth. Sully returns in Season 12.