document_title: Axial tilt

question_text: how much is the tilt of the earth's axis

question_tokens: how much is the tilt of the earth 's axis

text: Axial tilt

text: Standards[edit]

text: The positive pole of a planet is defined by the right-hand rule: if the fingers of the right hand are curled in the direction of the rotation then the thumb points to the positive pole. The axial tilt is defined as the angle between the direction of the positive pole and the normal to the orbital plane. The angles for Earth, Uranus and Venus are approximately 23°, 97°, and 177° respectively.

text: There are two standard methods of specifying tilt. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the north pole of a planet as that which lies on Earth's north side of the invariable plane of the Solar System;[3] under this system, Venus is tilted 3° and spins retrograde, opposite that of most of the other planets.[4][5]

text: The IAU also uses the right-hand rule to define a positive pole[6] for the purpose of determining orientation. Using this convention, Venus is tilted 177° ("upside down").

text: Earth[edit]

text: Earth's orbital plane is known as the ecliptic plane, and Earth's tilt is known to astronomers as the obliquity of the ecliptic, being the angle between the ecliptic and the celestial equator on the celestial sphere.[7] It is denoted by the Greek letter ε.

text: Earth currently has an axial tilt of about 23.4°.[8] This value remains about the same relative to a stationary orbital plane throughout the cycles of axial precession.[9] But the ecliptic (i.e., Earth's orbit) moves due to planetary perturbations, and the obliquity of the ecliptic is not a fixed quantity. At present, it is decreasing at a rate of about 47″ per century (see details in Short term below).

text: History[edit]

text: Earth's obliquity may have been reasonably accurately measured as early as 1100 BC in India and China.[10] The ancient Greeks had good measurements of the obliquity since about 350 BC, when Pytheas of Marseilles measured the shadow of a gnomon at the summer solstice.[11] About 830 AD, the Caliph Al-Mamun of Baghdad directed his astronomers to measure the obliquity, and the result was used in the Arab world for many years.[12] In 1437, Ulugh Beg determined the Earth's axial tilt as 23°30′17″ (23.5047°). [13]

text: It was widely believed, during the Middle Ages, that both precession and Earth's obliquity oscillated around a mean value, with a period of 672 years, an idea known as trepidation of the equinoxes. Perhaps the first to realize this was incorrect (during historic time) was Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth century[14] and the first to realize that the obliquity is decreasing at a relatively constant rate was Fracastoro in 1538.[15] The first accurate, modern, western observations of the obliquity were probably those of Tycho Brahe from Denmark, about 1584,[16] although observations by several others, including al-Ma'mun, al-Tusi,[17] Purbach, Regiomontanus, and Walther, could have provided similar information.

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Earth's axis remains tilted in the same direction with reference to the background stars throughout a year (regardless of where it is in its orbit). This means that one pole (and the associated hemisphere of Earth) will be directed away from the Sun at one side of the orbit, and half an orbit later (half a year later) this pole will be directed towards the Sun. This is the cause of Earth's seasons. Summer occurs in the Northern hemisphere when the north pole is directed toward the Sun. Variations in Earth's axial tilt can influence the seasons and is likely a factor in long-term climate change (also see Milankovitch cycles).

text: Oscillation[edit]

text: Short term[edit]

text: The exact angular value of the obliquity is found by observation of the motions of Earth and planets over many years. Astronomers produce new fundamental ephemerides as the accuracy of observation improves and as the understanding of the dynamics increases, and from these ephemerides various astronomical values, including the obliquity, are derived.

text: Annual almanacs are published listing the derived values and methods of use. Until 1983, the Astronomical Almanac's angular value of the mean obliquity for any date was calculated based on the work of Newcomb, who analyzed positions of the planets until about 1895:

text: where ε is the obliquity and T is tropical centuries from B1900.0 to the date in question.[18]

text: From 1984, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's DE series of computer-generated ephemerides took over as the fundamental ephemeris of the Astronomical Almanac. Obliquity based on DE200, which analyzed observations from 1911 to 1979, was calculated:

text: where hereafter T is Julian centuries from J2000.0.[19]

text: JPL's fundamental ephemerides have been continually updated. For instance, the Astronomical Almanac for 2010 specifies:[8]

text: These expressions for the obliquity are intended for high precision over a relatively short time span, perhaps ± several centuries.[20] J. Laskar computed an expression to order T10 good to 0.02″ over 1000 years and several arcseconds over 10,000 years.

text: where here t is multiples of 10,000 Julian years from J2000.0.[21]

text: These expressions are for the so-called mean obliquity, that is, the obliquity free from short-term variations. Periodic motions of the Moon and of Earth in its orbit cause much smaller (9.2 arcseconds) short-period (about 18.6 years) oscillations of the rotation axis of Earth, known as nutation, which add a periodic component to Earth's obliquity.[22][23] The true or instantaneous obliquity includes this nutation.[24]

text: Long term[edit]

text: Using numerical methods to simulate Solar System behavior, long-term changes in Earth's orbit, and hence its obliquity, have been investigated over a period of several million years. For the past 5 million years, Earth's obliquity has varied between 22° 2′ 33″ and 24° 30′ 16″, with a mean period of 41,040 years. This cycle is a combination of precession and the largest term in the motion of the ecliptic. For the next 1 million years, the cycle will carry the obliquity between 22° 13′ 44″ and 24° 20′ 50″.[25]

text: The Moon has a stabilizing effect on Earth's obliquity. Frequency map analysis conducted in 1993 suggested that, in the absence of the Moon, the obliquity can change rapidly due to orbital resonances and chaotic behavior of the Solar System, reaching as high as 90° in as little as a few million years (also see Orbit of the Moon).[26][27] However, more recent numerical simulations[28] made in 2011 indicated that even in the absence of the Moon, Earth's obliquity might not be quite so unstable; varying only by about 20–25°. To resolve this contradiction, diffusion rate of obliquity has been calculated, and it was found that it takes more than billions of years for Earth's obliquity to reach near 90°[29]. The Moon's stabilizing effect will continue for less than 2 billion years. As the Moon continues to recede from Earth due to tidal acceleration, resonances may occur which will cause large oscillations of the obliquity.[30]

text: Solar System bodies[edit]

text: All four of the innermost, rocky planets of the Solar System may have had large variations of their obliquity in the past. Since obliquity is the angle between the axis of rotation and the direction perpendicular to the orbital plane, it changes as the orbital plane changes due to the influence of other planets. But the axis of rotation can also move (axial precession), due to torque exerted by the sun on a planet's equatorial bulge. Like Earth, all of the rocky planets show axial precession. If the precession rate were very fast the obliquity would actually remain fairly constant even as the orbital plane changes.[31] The rate varies due to tidal dissipation and core-mantle interaction, among other things. When a planet's precession rate approaches certain values, orbital resonances may cause large changes in obliquity. The amplitude of the contribution having one of the resonant rates is divided by the difference between the resonant rate and the precession rate, so it becomes large when the two are similar.[31] Mercury and Venus have most likely been stabilized by the tidal dissipation of the Sun. Earth was stabilized by the Moon, as mentioned above, but before its capture, Earth, too, could have passed through times of instability. Mars's obliquity is quite variable over millions of years and may be in a chaotic state; it varies as much as 0° to 60° over some millions of years, depending on perturbations of the planets.[26][32] Some authors dispute that Mars's obliquity is chaotic, and show that tidal dissipation and viscous core-mantle coupling are adequate for it to have reached a fully damped state, similar to Mercury and Venus.[4][33] The occasional shifts in the axial tilt of Mars have been suggested as an explanation for the appearance and disappearance of rivers and lakes over the course of the existence of Mars. A shift could cause a burst of methane into the atmosphere, causing warming, but then the methane would be destroyed and the climate would become arid again.[34][35]

text: The obliquities of the outer planets are considered relatively stable.

text:
Axis and rotation of selected Solar System bodies

Body
NASA, J2000.0[36]
IAU, 0 January 2010, 0h TT[37]

Axial tilt
(degrees)
North Pole
Rotation
(hours)
Axial tilt
(degrees)
North Pole
Rotation
(deg/day)

R.A. (degrees)
Dec. (degrees)
R.A. (degrees)
Dec. (degrees)

Sun
7.25
286.13
63.87
609.12B
7.25A
286.15
63.89
14.18

Mercury
0.03
281.01
61.42
1407.6
0.01
281.01
61.45
6.14

Venus
2.64
272.76
67.16
–5832.6
2.64
272.76
67.16
−1.48

Earth
23.44
0.00
90.00
23.93
23.44
undef.
90.00
360.99

Moon
6.68
—
—
655.73
1.54C
270.00
66.54
13.18

Mars
25.19
317.68
52.89
24.62
25.19
317.67
52.88
350.89

Jupiter
3.13
268.05
64.49
9.93D
3.12
268.06
64.50
870.54D

Saturn
26.73
40.60
83.54
10.66D
26.73
40.59
83.54
810.79D

Uranus
82.23
257.43
–15.10
–17.24D
82.23
257.31
−15.18
−501.16D

Neptune
28.32
299.36
43.46
16.11D
28.33
299.40
42.95
536.31D

PlutoE
57.47
(312.99)
(6.16)
–153.29
60.41
312.99
6.16
−56.36

A with respect to the ecliptic of 1850
B at 16° latitude; the Sun's rotation varies with latitude
C with respect to the ecliptic; the Moon's orbit is inclined 5.16° to the ecliptic
D from the origin of the radio emissions; the visible clouds generally rotate at different rate
E NASA lists the coordinates of Pluto's positive pole; values in (parentheses) have been reinterpreted to correspond to the north/negative pole.

text: Extrasolar planets[edit]

text: The stellar obliquity ψs, i.e. the axial tilt of a star with respect to the orbital plane of one of its planets, has been determined for only a few systems. But for 49 stars as of today, the sky-projected spin-orbit misalignment λ has been observed,[38] which serves as a lower limit to ψs. Most of these measurements rely on the Rossiter–McLaughlin effect. So far, it has not been possible to constrain the obliquity of an extrasolar planet. But the rotational flattening of the planet and the entourage of moons and/or rings, which are traceable with high-precision photometry, e.g. by the space-based Kepler spacecraft, could provide access to ψp in the near future.

text: Astrophysicists have applied tidal theories to predict the obliquity of extrasolar planets. It has been shown that the obliquities of exoplanets in the habitable zone around low-mass stars tend to be eroded in less than 109 years,[39][40] which means that they would not have seasons as Earth has.


document_title: Anterior pituitary

question_text: what controls hormone release from the anterior pituitary gland

root

text: Anterior pituitary

text: Structure[edit]

text: The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica (Turkish chair/saddle). It is composed of three lobes: the anterior, intermediate, and posterior lobes. In many animals, these lobes are distinct. However, in humans, the intermediate lobe is but a few cell layers thick and indistinct; as a result, it is often considered as part of the anterior pituitary. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary.

tag: p

text: The anterior pituitary is composed of three regions:

text: Nota bene: The term "Basophil" and "Acidophil" is used by some books, whereas others prefer to not use these terms. This is due to the possible confusion with white blood cells, where one may also find Basophils and Acidophils.

text: Development[edit]

text: The anterior pituitary is derived from the ectoderm, more specifically from that of Rathke’s pouch, part of the developing hard palate in the embryo.

text: The pouch eventually loses its connection with the pharynx, giving rise to the anterior pituitary. The anterior wall of Rathke's pouch proliferates, filling most of the pouch to form the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis. The posterior wall of the anterior pituitary forms the pars intermedia. Its formation from the soft tissues of the upper palate contrasts with the posterior pituitary, which originates from neuroectoderm.[5]

text: Function[edit]

text: The anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell, and  they  are defined by the hormones they secrete: somatotropes (GH); Lactotropes (PRL); gonadotropes (LH and FSH); corticotropes (ACTH) and thyrotropes (TSH).[6] It also contains non-endocrine folliculostellate cells which are thought to stimulate and support the endocrine cell populations.

text: Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones (Greek: trophe, “nourishment”)   and tropic hormones. Trophic hormones directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating. Tropic hormones are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones, causing numerous cascading physiological responses.[5]

text:
Hormone

Other names

Symbol(s)

Structure

Secretory cells

Staining

Target

Effect

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Corticotropin

ACTH

Polypeptide

Corticotrophs

Basophil

Adrenal gland

Secretion of glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid and androgens

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

Thyrotropin

TSH

Glycoprotein

Thyrotrophs

Basophil

Thyroid gland

Secretion of thyroid hormones

Follicle-stimulating hormone

-

FSH

Glycoprotein

Gonadotrophs

Basophil

Gonads

Growth of reproductive system

Luteinizing hormone

Lutropin

LH, ICSH

Glycoprotein

Gonadotrophs

Basophil

Gonads

Sex hormone production

Growth hormone

Somatotropin

GH, STH

Polypeptide

Somatotrophs

Acidophil

Liver, adipose tissue

Promotes growth; lipid and carbohydrate metabolism

Prolactin

Lactotropin

PRL

Polypeptide

Lactotrophs

Acidophil

Ovaries, mammary glands, testes, prostate

Secretion of estrogens/progesterone; milk production; spermatogenesis; prostate hyperplasia

TSH and ACTH secretion

tag: table

text: Role in the endocrine system[edit]

text: Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland is regulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus. Neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus project axons to the median eminence, at the base of the brain. At this site, these cells can release substances into small blood vessels that travel directly to the anterior pituitary gland (the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal vessels).

text: Aside from hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary, other systems in the body have been shown to regulate the anterior pituitary’s function. GABA can either stimulate or inhibit the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and growth hormone (GH) and can stimulate the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Prostaglandins are now known to inhibit adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and also to stimulate TSH, GH and LH release.[9] GABA, through action with the hypothalamus, has been shown experimentally to influence the level of GH secretion. Clinical evidence supports the experimental findings of the excitatory and inhibitory effects GABA has on GH secretion, dependent on GABA’s site of action within the hypothalamic-pituitary unit.[10]

text: Effects of the anterior pituitary[edit]

text: The homeostatic maintenance of the anterior pituitary is crucial to our physiological well being. Increased plasma levels of TSH induce hyperthermia through a mechanism involving increased metabolism and cutaneous vasodilation. Increased levels of LH also result in hypothermia but through a decreased metabolism action. ACTH increase metabolism and induce cutaneous vasoconstriction, increased plasma levels also result in hyperthermia and  prolactin decreases with decreasing temperature values. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) also may cause hypothermia if increased beyond homeostatic levels through an increased metabolic mechanism only.[11]

text: Gonadotropes, primarily luteinising hormone (LH) secreted from the anterior pituitary stimulates the ovulation cycle in female mammals, whilst in the males, LH stimulates the synthesis of androgen which drives the ongoing will to mate together with a constant production of sperm.[5]

text: Main article Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

text: The anterior pituitary plays a role in stress response. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates ACTH release in a cascading effect that ends with the production of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.[5]

text: Behavioral effects[edit]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Increased activity[edit]

text: Hyperpituitarism is the condition where the pituitary secretes excessive amounts of hormones. This hypersecretion often results in the formation of a pituitary adenoma (tumour), which are benign apart from a tiny fraction. There are mainly three types of anterior pituitary tumors and their associated disorders. For example, acromegaly results from excessive secretion of growth hormone (GH) often being released by a pituitary adenoma. This disorder can cause disfigurement and possibly death[19] and can lead to gigantism, a hormone disorder shown in “giants” such as André the Giant, where it occurs before the epiphyseal plates in bones close in puberty.[12] The most common type of pituitary tumour is a prolactinoma which hypersecretes prolactin.[20] A third type of pituitary adenoma secretes excess ACTH, which in turn, causes an excess of cortisol to be secreted and is the cause of Cushing's disease.[12]

text: Decreased activity[edit]

text: Hypopituitarism is characterized by a decreased secretion of hormones released by the anterior pituitary. For example, hypo-secretion of GH prior to puberty can be a cause of dwarfism. In addition,  secondary adrenal insufficiency can be caused by hypo-secretion of ACTH which, in turn, does not signal the adrenal cortex to produce a sufficient amount  of cortisol.  This is a life-threatening condition. Hypopituitarism could be caused by the destruction or removal of the anterior pituitary tissue through traumatic brain injury, tumor, tuberculosis, or syphilis, among other causes. This disorder used to be referred to as Simmonds' disease but now according to the Diseases Database it is called Sheehan syndrome.[21] If the hypopituitarism is caused by the blood loss associated with childbirth, the disorder is referred to as Sheehan syndrome.

text: History[edit]

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The anterior pituitary is also known as the adenohypophysis, meaning "glandular undergrowth", from the Greek adeno- ("gland"), hypo ("under"), and physis ("growth").

text: Additional images[edit]

text: The anterior pituitary is the anterior, glandular lobe of the pituitary gland.

tag: ul


document_title: Lady and the Tramp

question_text: who sings he's a tramp in lady and the tramp

question_tokens: who sings he 's a tramp in lady and the tramp

text: Lady and the Tramp

text: Plot

text: On Christmas morning, 1909, in a quaint Midwestern town, Jim Dear gives his wife Darling an American cocker spaniel puppy that she names Lady. Lady enjoys a happy life with the couple and befriends two local neighborhood dogs, Jock, a Scottish terrier, and Trusty, a bloodhound. Meanwhile, across town, a stray mongrel called the Tramp lives on his own, dining on scraps from Tony's Italian restaurant and protecting his fellow strays Peg (a Pekingese) and Bull (a bulldog) from the local dogcatcher. One day, Lady is saddened after her owners begin treating her rather coldly. Jock and Trusty visit her and determine that their change in behavior is due to Darling expecting a baby. While Jock and Trusty try to explain what a baby is, Tramp interrupts the conversation and offers his own thoughts on the matter, making Jock and Trusty take an immediate dislike to the stray and order him out of the yard. As Tramp leaves, he reminds Lady that "when the baby moves in, the dog moves out."

text: Eventually, the baby arrives and the couple introduces Lady to the infant, of whom Lady grows fond. Soon after, Jim Dear and Darling leave for a trip, with their Aunt Sarah looking after the baby and the house. Aunt Sarah's two trouble-making Siamese cats, Si and Am, deliberately mess up the house and trick her into thinking that Lady attacked them. Aunt Sarah then takes Lady to a pet shop to get a muzzle. Terrifed, Lady flees, only to be pursued by a trio of stray dogs. Tramp rescues her, fighting off the vicious strays, and finds a beaver at the local zoo who can remove the muzzle. Later, Tramp shows Lady how he lives "footloose and collar-free", eventually leading into a candlelit dinner at Tony's. Lady begins to fall in love with Tramp, but she chooses to return home in order to watch over the baby. Tramp offers to escort Lady back home, but when Tramp decides to chase hens around a farmyard for fun, Lady is captured by the dog catcher and brought to the local dog pound. While at the pound, the other dogs (including Peg and Bull, who have been caught) reveal to Lady that Tramp previously had multiple girlfriends and feel it is unlikely he will ever settle down. Lady is eventually claimed by Aunt Sarah, who chains her in the backyard as punishment for running away.

text: Jock and Trusty visit to comfort Lady, but when Tramp arrives to apologize, Lady angrily confronts him about his past girlfriends and failure to rescue her from the pound. Tramp sadly leaves, but immediately thereafter a rat sneaks into the house. Lady sees the rat and barks frantically at it, but Aunt Sarah tells her to be quiet. Tramp hears her barking and rushes back, entering the house and cornering the rat in the nursery. Lady breaks free and rushes to the nursery, where Tramp inadvertently knocks over the baby's crib before ultimately killing the rat. The commotion alerts Aunt Sarah, who sees both dogs in the room and thinks they are trying to harm the baby. She pushes Tramp in a closet and locks Lady in the basement, then calls the pound to take Tramp away. Jim Dear and Darling return home as the dog catcher departs, and when they release Lady, she leads them to the dead rat. Overhearing everything, Jock and Trusty chase after the dog catcher's wagon. The dogs are able to track down the wagon and scare the horses, causing the wagon to crash. Jim Dear arrives in a taxi with Lady, and she reunites with Tramp, but their joy is short-lived when they find Trusty pinned underneath the wagon's wheel, motionless, with Jock howling mournfully.

text: That Christmas, Tramp has been adopted into the family, and he and Lady have started their own family, with three daughters who look like Lady and a son who looks similar to Tramp. Jock comes to see the family along with Trusty, who is still alive and merely suffered a broken leg, which is still healing. Thanks to the puppies, Trusty has a fresh audience for his old stories about his Grandpappy Old Reliable, but he has forgotten them.

text: Cast

text:
Barbara Luddy as Lady, an American Cocker Spaniel.
Larry Roberts as Tramp, a mongrel with a knack for dodging dog-catchers and the ability to pick locks with his nose. He calls Lady "Pidge", short for Pigeon.
Bill Thompson as Jock, a Scottish Terrier who is one of Lady's neighbors. Thompson also voiced Joe, Tony's assistant chef; Bull, a stray male bulldog from the dog pound who speaks with a slight Cockney-Australian accent; Dachsie, a stray male dachshund at the dog pound who speaks with a German accent; and a policeman.
Bill Baucom as Trusty, a bloodhound who used to track criminals with his Grandpappy, Old Reliable, until he lost his sense of smell.
Verna Felton as Aunt Sarah, Darling's sister who comes to take care of the baby when Jim Dear and Darling leave for a few days. Aunt Sarah is strict; she does not understand dogs and thinks they are trouble. She blames both Lady and Tramp for the baby's crib being knocked over, not knowing that they were actually protecting the baby from a vicious rat. However, she sends a box of dog biscuits in the final scene of the film in a presumed attempt to make amends for her mistreatment of the two dogs.
George Givot as Tony, owner and chef of Tony's Italian restaurant. He and Joe both have great affection for Tramp.
Lee Millar as Jim Dear, the fatherly human figure and Darling's husband. Millar also voiced the Dogcatcher.
Peggy Lee as Darling, the motherly human figure and Jim Dear's wife. Lee also voiced Si and Am, Aunt's Sarah's twin Siamese cats with a knack for mischief and never-ending trouble; and Peg, a stray female Pekingese whom Lady meets at the pound (along with the other dog inmates she was put in a cage with). The names of Si and Am are a play on the country of Siam and the idea of "Siamese twins", the terminology of the time for conjoined twins. It is implied that Peg had a relationship with Tramp in the past, through the lyrics of the song she sings (He's a Tramp). Peg was formerly from the "Dog and Pony Follies" (dog and pony show); either the show ended or she was left behind. Peg has a Brooklyn Accent.
Stan Freberg as the beaver, a clever, hard-working beaver at the zoo who speaks with a lisp. He gnaws off the muzzle that Aunt Sarah had placed upon Lady after Tramp realizes that the muzzle is just what the beaver needs for pulling logs. This character would later serve as the inspiration for Gopher from Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree.
Alan Reed as Boris, a stray male Borzoi from the dog pound. He speaks with a Russian accent.
Thurl Ravenscroft as Al the alligator
Dallas McKennon as Toughy, a stray male mutt from the dog pound. He speaks with a slight Brooklyn accent, like Peg. McKennon also voiced Pedro, a stray male Chihuahua from the dog pound who speaks with a Mexican accent; a professor, and a laughing hyena.
The Mellomen (Thurl Ravenscroft, Bill Lee, Max Smith, Bob Hamlin and Bob Stevens) as Dog Chorus

text: Production

text: Story development

text: In 1937, Disney story man Joe Grant came up with an idea inspired by the antics of his English Springer Spaniel Lady, and how she got "shoved aside" by Joe's new baby. He approached Walt Disney with sketches of Lady. Disney enjoyed the sketches and commissioned Grant to start story development on a new animated feature entitled Lady.[4] Through the late 1930s and early 1940s, Joe Grant and other artists worked on the story, taking a variety of approaches, but Disney was not pleased with any of them, primarily because he thought Lady was too sweet, and there was not enough action.[4]

text: In the early 1940s, Walt read the short story written by Ward Greene, "Happy Dan, The Whistling Dog", in Cosmopolitan magazine.[5] He thought Grant's story would be improved if Lady fell in love with a cynical dog character like the one in Greene's story and bought the rights to it.[6] The cynical dog had various names during development, including Homer, Rags, and Bozo, before "Tramp" was chosen.[5]

text: The finished film is slightly different from what was originally planned. Lady was to have only one next-door neighbor, a Ralph Bellamy-type canine named Hubert. Hubert was later replaced by Jock and Trusty. Aunt Sarah was the traditional overbearing mother-in-law. In the final film, she is softened to a busybody. Aunt Sarah's Nip and Tuck were later renamed Si and Am.[5] Originally, Lady's owners were called Jim Brown and Elizabeth. These were changed to highlight Lady's point of view. They were briefly referred to as "Mister" and "Missis" before settling on the names "Jim Dear" and "Darling". To maintain a dog's perspective, Darling and Jim's faces are rarely shown, similar to Mammy Two Shoes in the Tom and Jerry cartoons. The rat was a somewhat comic character in early sketches, but became a great deal more frightening, due to the need to raise dramatic tension. A scene created but then deleted was one in which after Trusty says "Everybody knows, a dog's best friend is his human", Tramp describes a world in which the roles of both dogs and humans are switched; the dogs are the masters and vice versa.[4] There was a love triangle among Lady, Tramp, and a Russian wolfhound named Boris (who appears in the dog pound in the final version).[7]

text: The film's opening sequence, in which Darling unwraps a hat box on Christmas morning and finds Lady inside, is inspired by an incident when Walt Disney presented his wife Lily with a Chow puppy as a gift in a hat box.[8]

text: In 1949, Grant left the studio, yet Disney story men were continually pulling Grant's original drawings and story off the shelf to retool.[4] A solid story began taking shape in 1953,[6] based on Grant's storyboards and Greene's short story.[4] Greene later wrote a novelization of the film that was released two years before the film itself, at Walt Disney's insistence, so that audiences would be familiar with the story.[9] Grant did not receive film credit for his story work, an issue that animation director Eric Goldberg hoped to rectify in the Lady and the Tramp Platinum Edition's behind-the-scenes vignette that explained Grant's role.[4]

text: Singer Peggy Lee not only voiced four characters but co-wrote six songs for the movie.[10]

text: Animation

text: As they had done with deer on Bambi, the animators studied many dogs of different breeds to capture the movement and personality of dogs. Although the spaghetti eating sequence is probably now the best known scene from the film, Walt Disney was prepared to cut it, thinking that it would not be romantic and that dogs eating spaghetti would look silly. Animator Frank Thomas was against Walt's decision and animated the entire scene himself without any lay-outs. Walt was impressed by Thomas's work and how he romanticized the scene and kept the scene in.[4] On viewing the first take of the scene, the animators felt that the action should be slowed down, so an apprentice trainee was assigned to create "half numbers" in between many of the original frames.[11]

text: Originally, the background artist was supposed to be Mary Blair and she did some inspirational sketches for the film. However, she left the studio to become a children's book illustrator in 1953. Claude Coats was then appointed as the key background artist. Coats made models of the interiors of Jim Dear and Darling's house, and shot photos and film at a low perspective as reference to maintain a dog's view.[9] Eyvind Earle (who later became the art director of Disney's Sleeping Beauty) did almost 50 miniature concept sketches for the Bella Notte sequence and was a key contributor to the film.[9]

text: CinemaScope

text: Originally, Lady and the Tramp was planned to be filmed in a regular full frame aspect ratio. However, due to the growing interest of widescreen film among movie-goers, Disney decided to animate the film in CinemaScope making Lady and the Tramp the first animated feature filmed in the process.[5] This new innovation presented additional problems for the animators: the expansion of space created more realism but gave fewer closeups.[6] It also made it difficult for a single character to dominate the screen so that groups had to be spread out to keep the screen from appearing sparse.[5] Longer takes become necessary since constant jump-cutting would seem too busy or annoying.[3] Layout artists essentially had to reinvent their technique. Animators had to remember that they had to move their characters across a background instead of the background passing behind them.[6] Yet the animators overcame these obstacles during the action scenes, such as Tramp killing the rat.[3]

text: More problems arose as the premiere date got closer since not all theaters had the capability to show CinemaScope at the time. Upon learning this, Walt issued two versions of the film: one in widescreen, and another in the Academy ratio. This involved gathering the layout artists to restructure key scenes when characters were on the edges of the screen.[12]

text: Release

text: Lady and the Tramp was originally released to theaters on June 22, 1955. An episode of Disneyland called "A Story of Dogs" aired before the film's release.[13] The film was also reissued to theaters in 1962, 1972, 1980, and 1986. Lady and the Tramp also played a limited engagement in select Cinemark Theatres from February 16–18, 2013.[14]

text: Home media

text: Lady and the Tramp was first released on North American VHS and Laserdisc in 1987 as part of the Walt Disney Classics video series and in the United Kingdom in 1990. At the end of its initial home video release, it was reported to have sold more than three million copies becoming the best-selling videocassette at the time.[15] It went into moratorium on March 31, 1988.[16] It was released on VHS in 1998 as part of the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection video series. A Disney Limited Issue series DVD of the film was released on November 23, 1999 for a limited sixty-day time period.[17]

text: After the first release on video tapes, Peggy Lee sought performance and song royalties on the video sales. Disney CEO Michael Eisner refused, thus she filed suit in 1988. Eventually in 1992, the California Court of Appeals order Disney to pay Lee $3.2 million in compensation or about a 4% on the video sales.[10]

text: Lady and the Tramp was remastered and restored for DVD on February 28, 2006, as the seventh installment of Disney's Platinum Editions series.[18] On its first day, one million copies of the Platinum Edition were sold.[19] The Platinum Edition DVD went on moratorium on January 31, 2007, along with the 2006 DVD re-issue of the film's sequel Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure.[20]

text: Lady and the Tramp was released on Blu-ray on February 7, 2012 as a part of Disney's Diamond Editions series.[21] A standalone 1-disc DVD edition was released on March 20, 2012.[22][23]

text: Reception

text: Critical reaction

text: During its initial release, the film was initially panned by critics.[24] Bosley Crowther of The New York Times claimed the film was "not the best [Disney] has done in this line. The sentimentality is mighty, and the CinemaScope size does not make for any less aware of the thickness of the goo. It also magnifies the animation, so that the flaws and poor foreshortening are more plain. Unfortunately, and surprisingly, the artists' work is below par in this film."[25] Time wrote "Walt Disney has for so long parlayed gooey sentiment and stark horror into profitable cartoons that most moviegoers are apt to be more surprised than disappointed to discover that the combination somehow does not work this time."[26] However, Variety deemed the film "a delight for the juveniles and a joy for adults".[27]

text: However, the film has since gone on to become regarded as a classic. Dave Kehr, writing for The Chicago Tribune gave the film four stars.[28] Animation historian Charles Solomon praised the film.[29] The sequence of Lady and Tramp sharing a plate of spaghetti — climaxed by an accidental kiss as they swallow opposite ends of the same strand of spaghetti — is considered an iconic scene in American film history.[30] The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received a 90% approval rating, with an average rating of 7.7/10, based on 40 reviews. The website's consensus states, "A nostalgic charmer, Lady and the Tramp's token sweetness is mighty but the songs and richly colored animation are technically superb and make for a memorable experience."[31]

text: Lady and the Tramp was named number 95 out of the "100 Greatest Love Stories of All Time" by the American Film Institute in their 100 Years...100 Passions special, as one of only two animated films to appear on the list, along with Disney's Beauty and the Beast which ranked 34th.[32] In 2010, Rhapsody called its accompanying soundtrack one of the all-time great Disney and Pixar soundtracks.[33] In June 2011, TIME named it one of "The 25 All-TIME Best Animated Films".[34]

text: Box office

text: In its initial release, the film took in a higher figure than any other Disney animated feature since Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs,[35] earning an estimated $6.5 million in domestic box office rentals.[36]

text: Lady and the Tramp has had a domestic lifetime gross of $93.6 million,[1][37] and a lifetime international gross of $187 million.[2]

text: Accolades

text:
Year
Ceremony
Award
Result

1956
BAFTA Awards[38]
Best Animated Film
Nominated

David di Donatello Awards[39]
Best Foreign Producer
(Walt Disney)
Won

2006
Satellite Awards[40]
Best Youth DVD
Nominated

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – Nominated[41]
AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – No. 95
AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

He's a Tramp – Nominated[42]

AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals – Nominated[43]
AFI's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Animated Film[44]

text: Music

text:
Lady and the Tramp

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
9 September 1997

Genre
Classical

Length
48:00

Label
Walt Disney

Producer
Ted Kryczko (executive)

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[45]

text: The score for the film was composed and conducted by Oliver Wallace. Recording artist Peggy Lee wrote the songs with Sonny Burke and assisted with the score as well.[5] In the film, she sings "La La Lu", "The Siamese Cat Song", and "He's a Tramp".[46] She helped promote the film on the Disney TV series, explaining her work with the score and singing a few of the film's numbers.[5] These appearances are available as part of the Lady and the Tramp Platinum Edition DVD set.

text: On November 16, 1988, Peggy Lee sued the Walt Disney Company for breach of contract, claiming that she retained the rights to transcriptions of the music, arguing that videotape editions were transcriptions.[47] After a protracted legal battle, she was awarded $2.3 million in 1991.[48]

text: The remastered soundtrack of Lady and the Tramp was released on CD by Walt Disney Records on September 9, 1997, and was released as a digital download on September 26, 2006.[49]

text: Track listing

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Main Title (Bella Notte) / The Wag of a Dog's Tail"
2:03

2.
"Peace on Earth (Silent Night)"
1:01

3.
"It Has a Ribbon / Lady to Bed / A Few Mornings Later"
3:53

4.
"Sunday / The Rat / Morning Paper"
1:44

5.
"A New Blue Collar / Lady Talks To Jock & Trusty / It's Jim Dear"
3:17

6.
"What a Day! / Breakfast at Tony's"
1:05

7.
"Warning / Breakout / Snob Hill / A Wee Bairn"
2:44

8.
"Countdown to B-Day"
2:05

9.
"Baby's First Morning / What Is a Baby / La La Lu"
3:11

10.
"Going Away / Aunt Sarah"
1:51

11.
"The Siamese Cat Song / What's Going on Down There?"
2:35

12.
"The Muzzle / Wrong Side of the Tracks"
1:54

13.
"You Poor Kid / He's Not My Dog"
1:23

14.
"Through the Zoo / A Log Puller"
1:59

15.
"Footloose and Collar-Free / A Night at the Restaurant / Bella Notte"
4:22

16.
"It's Morning / Ever Chase Chickens / Caught"
2:51

17.
"Home Sweet Home"
1:30

18.
"The Pound"
1:27

19.
"What a Dog / He's a Tramp"
2:24

20.
"In the Doghouse / The Rat Returns / Falsely Accused / We've Got to Stop That Wagon / Trusty's Sacrifice"
6:05

21.
"Watch the Birdie / Visitors"
2:05

22.
"Finale (Peace on Earth)"
0:31

Total length:
48:00

text: Other media

text: Sequel

text: On February 27, 2001, Disney Television Animation released a direct-to-video sequel to the film entitled Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure. Produced 46 years after its predecessor, the film centers on the adventures of Lady and Tramp's only son, Scamp, who desires to be a wild dog. He runs away from his family and joins a gang of junkyard dogs to fulfill his longing for freedom and a life without rules. Reviews for the sequel were generally mixed to negative, with critics panning its plot.

text: Live-action adaptation

text: A live-action remake of Lady and the Tramp is in active development for Disney's planned streaming service.[50] Charlie Bean will direct the film from a screenplay by Andrew Bujalski.[51][52] The film is set to begin shooting in Atlanta, Georgia and Savannah, Georgia in September 2018.[53]


document_title: Star Wars: The Last Jedi

question_text: when does star wars last jefi come out on dvd

text: Star Wars: The Last Jedi

text: Plot

text: Resistance forces, led by General Leia Organa, flee D'Qar when a First Order fleet arrives. Poe Dameron leads a costly counterattack that destroys a First Order dreadnought, but after the Resistance escapes to hyperspace, the First Order tracks them and attacks the Resistance convoy. Kylo Ren, Leia's son, hesitates to fire on the lead Resistance ship after sensing his mother's presence, but his TIE fighter wingmen destroy the bridge, incapacitating Leia and killing most of their leadership, including Admiral Ackbar. Disapproving of new leader Vice Admiral Holdo's passive strategy, Poe helps Finn, BB-8, and mechanic Rose Tico embark on a secret mission to disable the tracking device on the lead ship.

text: Meanwhile, Rey arrives on Ahch-To with Chewbacca and R2-D2 aboard the Millennium Falcon to recruit Luke Skywalker to the Resistance. Disillusioned by his failure to train Kylo as a Jedi, and under self-imposed exile from the Force, Luke refuses to help—even after he learns of Han Solo's death at Kylo's hands—and believes that the Jedi should become extinct. Unbeknownst to Luke, Rey and Kylo can communicate through the Force, puzzling the two enemies. As the rival Force users learn about each other, each has future visions of themselves as partners.

text: R2-D2 persuades Luke to train Rey. After Kylo tells Rey what happened between him and Luke that caused him to choose the dark side of the Force, Luke confesses that he momentarily contemplated killing Kylo upon sensing that Supreme Leader Snoke was corrupting him, causing Kylo to destroy Luke's new Jedi Order in retaliation. Convinced that Kylo can be redeemed, Rey leaves Ahch-To to confront Kylo without Luke. Luke prepares to burn the Ahch-To Jedi temple and library, but hesitates. Yoda's ghost appears and destroys the temple by summoning a thunderstorm, claiming Rey has all she needs to learn, and encourages Luke to learn from his failure.

text: Holdo reveals her plan to discreetly evacuate the remaining Resistance members using small transports. Believing her actions cowardly and risky, Poe leads a mutiny. Finn, Rose, and BB-8 travel to the Canto Bight casino and acquire the help of the hacker DJ, who says he can help them disable the tracking device. They infiltrate Snoke's ship, but all but BB-8 are captured by Captain Phasma. Meanwhile, Rey lands on the ship, and Kylo brings her to Snoke, who claims that he facilitated the mental connection between her and Kylo as part of a plan to destroy Luke. Ordered to kill Rey, Kylo instead kills Snoke and, with Rey, defeats Snoke's guards. Rey believes that Kylo has returned to the light side of the Force, but he instead invites her to rule the galaxy with him, which she refuses. They use the Force to fight for possession of Anakin Skywalker's lightsaber, which splits in two.

text: Leia recovers and stuns Poe, allowing the evacuation to begin. Holdo remains on the ship to mislead Snoke's fleet as the others flee to an abandoned Rebel Alliance base on Crait. DJ reveals the Resistance's plan to the First Order, and the evacuation transports are slowly destroyed. Holdo sacrifices herself by ramming Snoke's fleet at lightspeed; Rey escapes in the chaos, while Kylo declares himself Supreme Leader. BB-8 frees Finn and Rose, who escape after defeating Phasma, and they join survivors on Crait. When the First Order arrives, Poe, Finn, and Rose attack with old speeders. Rey and Chewbacca draw the TIE fighters away with the Falcon, while Rose stops Finn from completing a suicide run against the enemy siege cannon, which penetrates the Resistance fortress.

text: Luke appears and confronts the First Order to enable surviving Resistance members to escape. Kylo orders the First Order's forces to fire on Luke to no effect. He then engages Luke in a lightsaber duel; upon striking Luke, Kylo realizes he has been fighting a Force projection of him. Rey uses the Force to help the Resistance escape on the Falcon. Luke, exhausted, dies peacefully on Ahch-To. His death is sensed by Rey and Leia, but Leia tells surviving rebels that the Resistance has all it needs to rise again. At Canto Bight, one of the children who helped Finn and Rose escape grabs a broom with the Force and gazes into space.

text: Cast

text:
Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker, a powerful Jedi Master who has been in self-imposed exile on the planet Ahch-To.[13][14] Hamill voices Dobbu Scay, named after the film's editor, Bob Ducsay. During the Canto Bight scene, the character mistakes BB-8 as a slot machine.[15][16][17]
Carrie Fisher as General Leia Organa, twin sister to Luke, former princess of Alderaan, and a leading general in the Resistance.[14] This was Fisher's final film role before her death on December 27, 2016.
Adam Driver as Kylo Ren, Supreme Leader Snoke's disciple, who is strong with the dark side of the Force and leader to the Knights of Ren. He is the son of Han Solo and Leia Organa, nephew of Luke Skywalker, and the grandson of Anakin Skywalker.[14]
Daisy Ridley as Rey, a highly Force-sensitive scavenger from the desert planet Jakku, who joined the Resistance and goes to find Luke Skywalker.[14]
John Boyega as Finn, a former stormtrooper of the First Order who defected to the Resistance.[14][18]
Oscar Isaac as Poe Dameron, a high-ranking X-wing fighter pilot in the Resistance.[14][19]
Andy Serkis as Supreme Leader Snoke, the leader of the First Order and Kylo Ren's master.[14]
Lupita Nyong'o as Maz Kanata, a pirate and ally of the Resistance.[14]
Domhnall Gleeson as General Hux, the former head of the First Order's Starkiller Base.[14]
Anthony Daniels as C-3PO, a humanoid protocol droid in the service of Leia Organa.[14]
Gwendoline Christie as Captain Phasma, the commander of the First Order's stormtroopers.[14][20]
Kelly Marie Tran as Rose Tico, a member of the Resistance who works in maintenance.[21][22]
Laura Dern as Vice Admiral Amilyn Holdo, an officer in the Resistance.[23][2]
Frank Oz as Yoda, the deceased former Grand Master of the Jedi, and Luke's wise former mentor, who appears as a Force-ghost.[24]
Benicio del Toro as DJ, an underworld codebreaker.[23]

text: Joonas Suotamo appears as Chewbacca, taking over the role from Peter Mayhew after previously serving as his body double for The Force Awakens. Mayhew, who was 73 years old and suffering from chronic knee and back pain,[25] is credited as "Chewbacca consultant." Billie Lourd, Mike Quinn, and Timothy D. Rose reprise their roles as Lieutenant Connix, Nien Nunb, and Admiral Ackbar respectively from previous films.[26][27][28] Due to the death of Erik Bauersfeld, Admiral Ackbar is now voiced by Tom Kane. Amanda Lawrence appears as Commander D'Acy, and Mark Lewis Jones and Adrian Edmondson play Captains Canady and Peavey respectively. BB-8 is controlled by puppeteers Dave Chapman and Brian Herring,[29] with initial voice work by Ben Schwartz and final sound effects voiced by Bill Hader modulated through a synthesizer.[30] Jimmy Vee portrays R2-D2, taking over the role from Kenny Baker who died on August 13, 2016.[31][32] Veronica Ngo portrays Rose's sister Paige Tico,[23] a Resistance gunner who sacrifices her life to destroy a First Order dreadnought.

text: Justin Theroux plays the master codebreaker, while Lily Cole plays his companion.[33] Joseph Gordon-Levitt has a voice cameo as Slowen Lo.[34] Warwick Davis plays Wodibin.[35] Gareth Edwards, director of the Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One,[36] has a cameo appearance as a Resistance Soldier, as does Gary Barlow.[37] Directors Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish also cameo in the film. Hermione Corfield appears as Tallissan "Tallie" Lintra, a Resistance A-Wing pilot and squadron leader. Noah Segan and Jamie Christopher appear as Resistance pilots Starck and Tubbs.[38] Hamill's children, Griffin, Nathan, and Chelsea, cameo as Resistance soldiers. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry filmed cameo appearances as stormtroopers.[39] Tom Hardy also filmed an appearance as a stormtrooper, but his cameo was ultimately dropped from the final cut.[40] Hugh Skinner cameos as a Resistance Officer.

text: Production

text: Development

text: In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney announced a new trilogy of Star Wars films.[41] J. J. Abrams was named director of the first episode in the trilogy, The Force Awakens, in January 2013.[42][43] In June 2014, director Rian Johnson was reported to be in talks to write and direct its sequel, dubbed Episode VIII, and to write a treatment for the third film, Episode IX, with Ram Bergman producing both films.[44][45] Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII.[46] In September, filmmaker Terry Gilliam asked Johnson about what it felt like to take over something that was made famous by another filmmaker, to which Johnson responded:

text: I'm just starting into it, but so far, honestly, it's the most fun I've ever had writing. It's just joyous. But also for me personally, I grew up not just watching those movies but playing with those toys, so as a little kid, the first movies I was making in my head were set in this world. A big part of it is that direct connection, almost like an automatic jacking back into childhood in a weird way. But I don't know, ask me again in a few years and we'll be able to talk about that.[47]

text: The story begins immediately after the last scene of The Force Awakens.[36] He had his story group watch films such as Twelve O'Clock High, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Gunga Din, Three Outlaw Samurai, Sahara, and Letter Never Sent for inspiration while developing ideas.[36][48] He felt it was difficult to work on the film while The Force Awakens was being finished.[36]

text: In December 2015, Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that "we haven't mapped out every single detail [of the sequel trilogy] yet". She said that Abrams was collaborating with Johnson and that Johnson would in turn work with (then) Episode IX director Colin Trevorrow to ensure a smooth transition.[49] Abrams is an executive producer along with Jason McGatlin and Tom Karnowski.[50] Lucasfilm announced the film's title, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, on January 23, 2017.[51]

text: Casting

text: In September 2015, Disney shortlisted the female cast members to Gina Rodriguez, Tatiana Maslany, and Olivia Cooke.[52] Later that month, Benicio del Toro confirmed that he would play a villain in the film,[53] and Mark Hamill was also confirmed.[13] In October 2015, Gugu Mbatha-Raw was rumored to have been cast in the film.[54] In November, Jimmy Vee was cast as R2-D2.[31] In November, Kennedy announced at the London premiere for The Force Awakens that the entire cast would return for Episode VIII, along with "a handful" of new cast members.[14] In February 2016, at the start of filming, it was confirmed that Laura Dern and Kelly Marie Tran had been cast in unspecified roles.[2] In April 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Lucasfilm announced that Tran plays Resistance maintenance worker Rose Tico, which Johnson described as the film's largest new role.[21][22] To keep Frank Oz's return as Yoda a secret, producers excluded Oz's name in the billing for the film's pre-release marketing and ensured that Oz stayed on set during filming.[24]

text: Filming

text: Second unit photography began during pre-production at Skellig Michael in Ireland on September 14, 2015, due to the difficulties of filming at that location during other seasons. It would have lasted four days,[55][56][57] but filming was canceled for the first day due to poor weather and rough conditions.[58] In November 2014, Ivan Dunleavy, chief executive of Pinewood Studios, confirmed that the film would be shot at Pinewood,[59] with additional filming in Mexico.[18] In September 2015, del Toro revealed that principal photography would begin in March 2016;[53] Kennedy later stated that filming would begin in January 2016.[14] The production began work on the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios on November 15, 2015.[60] Rick Heinrichs served as production designer.[61]

text: In January 2016, production of Episode VIII was delayed until February 2016, due to script rewrites.[62] Additionally, filming was potentially in danger of being delayed further due to an upcoming strike between the Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television and the Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union.[63] On February 10, 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that principal photography had begun,[64] under the working title Space Bear.[36] Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik, Croatia from March 9 to 16, 2016,[65][66] as well as in Ireland in May.[67] Malin Head in County Donegal and a mountain headland, Ceann Sibeal in County Kerry, served as additional filming locations.[68] To increase the scenes' intimacy Driver and Ridley were both present when filming Kylo and Rey's Force visions.[69] Location filming for the battle scenes on the planet Crait took place in July 2016 at the Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia.[70]

text: Principal photography wrapped on July 22, 2016,[71] though as of early September 2016, Nyong'o had not filmed her scenes.[72] In February 2017, it was announced that sequences from the film were shot in IMAX.[73] Production designer Rick Heinrichs said the original screenplay called for 160 sets, double what might be expected, but that Johnson did some "trimming and cutting". Ultimately 125 sets were created on 14 sound stages at Pinewood Studios.[74]

text: According to creature designer Neal Scanlan, The Last Jedi uses more practical effects than any Star Wars film, with 180 to 200 creatures created with practical effects, some cut from the final edit.[75] For Yoda's appearance in the film as a Force ghost, the character was created using puppetry, as was done in the original Star Wars trilogy (as opposed to computer-generated imagery, which was used to create Yoda in most of the prequel trilogy).[76]

text: The film's Canto Bight sequence contains a reference to the 1985 Terry Gilliam film Brazil, in which Finn and Rose are arrested for committing parking violation 27B/6.[77]

text: Music

text: In July 2013, Kennedy announced at Star Wars Celebration Europe that John Williams would return to score the Star Wars sequel trilogy.[1][78] Williams confirmed his assignment for The Last Jedi at a Tanglewood concert in August 2016,[79] stating he would begin recording the score "off and on" in December 2016 until March or April 2017.[80] On February 21, 2017, it was confirmed that recording was underway, with both Williams and William Ross conducting the sessions.[81][82]

text: In lieu of a traditional spotting session with Johnson, Williams was provided a temp track of music from his previous film scores as a reference for scoring The Last Jedi.[83] The score briefly quotes "Aquarela do Brasil" by Ary Barroso in its "Canto Bight" track as another reference to the film Brazil. It also contains a brief quote of Williams performing[84] his own theme for The Long Goodbye (co-composed by Johnny Mercer) during Finn and Rose's escape, although this quote is not heard in the official soundtrack release.[85]

text: The official soundtrack album was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2017 in digipak CD, digital formats, and streaming services.[86]

text: Release

text: In January 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Episode VIII would be released in 2017,[87] and in March, Lucasfilm announced a release date of May 26, 2017.[88][89] In January 2016, The Last Jedi was rescheduled for December 15, 2017 in 3D and IMAX 3D.[50][90] On January 23, 2017, the film's title was announced as Star Wars: The Last Jedi.[51] Similarly to The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens, "Episode VIII" was included in the film's opening crawl, although not in its official title.[91]

text: The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017.[92] The European premiere was held at London's Royal Albert Hall on December 12, 2017, with a red carpet event.[93]

text: It was reported that Disney had placed notable conditions on U.S. cinemas screening The Last Jedi, which some operators described as being "onerous". Disney required that the film be screened in a cinema's largest auditorium for a four-week period (other Disney releases have had similar clauses, but only for two weeks), and was given a 65% cut of ticket sales (a percentage higher than the 55–60% average of other major films, and cited as the highest split ever demanded by a Hollywood film behind the 64% split of The Force Awakens). The agreement, which was required to be kept confidential, also contained regulations on promotions and restrictions on removing any scheduled screening. Violations were to be penalized with an additional 5% cut of ticket sales. Some cinemas declined to screen the film due to these conditions, particularly smaller or one-screen cinemas that would otherwise be barred from screening any other film during the commitment period. Industry representatives considered this policy to be reasonable, citing the performance of Disney releases and the Star Wars franchise, and that the guaranteed business attracted by the film, and concession sales, would make up for the larger cut of ticket sales.[94][95][96][97]

text: Marketing

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2017)

text: A set of eight promotional postage stamps were released on October 12, 2017 in the UK by the Royal Mail with artwork by Malcolm Tween.[98] On September 19, 2017, Australia Post released a set of stamp packs.[99] Tie-in promotional campaigns were done with Nissan Motors and Bell Media, among others. Two main trailers were released, followed by numerous television spots. Figurines of many of the characters were released in October, and advance tickets for Last Jedi went on sale in October.

text: Several tie-in books were released on the same day of the North American release of the movie, including The Last Jedi: Visual Dictionary, and various children's reading and activity books. Related novelizations included the prequel book Cobalt Squadron, and the Canto Bight, a collection of novellas about the Canto Bight Casino.

text: Video games

text: As with The Force Awakens, there is no official tie-in game for The Last Jedi, in favor of integrating content from the film into other Star Wars video games,[100] including Star Wars Battlefront II, which introduced various content from the film, during the second week of the game's first "season".[101] An update to the MOBA mobile game Star Wars: Force Arena added new content from the sequel era, including some characters as they appeared in The Last Jedi. Characters from the film also appeared in the mobile RPG Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes.

text: Home media

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Star Wars: The Last Jedi digitally in HD and 4K via digital download and Movies Anywhere on March 13, 2018, with an Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD physical release on March 27. It was the first Star Wars film to be released on the Ultra HD Blu-ray format.[102]

text: Tie-in literature and merchandise

text: The official novelization is by Jason Fry, with an audiobook version narrated by Marc Thompson. There is a "junior novel" by Michael Kogge (2018 Lucasfilm Press), and an audiobook version narrated by Jessica Almasy.

text: Reception

text: Box office

text: Star Wars: The Last Jedi  grossed $620.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $712.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.333 billion.[7] It had a worldwide opening of $450.8 million, the fifth-biggest of all time, including $40.6 million that was attributed to IMAX screenings, the second biggest for IMAX.[103][104] It was estimated that the film would need to gross $800 million worldwide to break even;[105] Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $417.5 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the most profitable release of 2017.[106]

text: On December 31, 2017, its 17th day of release, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the fourth film of 2017, the fifteenth Disney film, the fourth Star Wars film and the thirty-second film overall to pass the mark.[107][108] The film was the highest-grossing film of 2017, the second highest-grossing film in the franchise (behind The Force Awakens), the fourth highest-grossing film released by Walt Disney Studios, the sixth highest-grossing film in North America and the ninth-highest-grossing film of all time.[109][110][111][112]

text: United States and Canada

text: Pre-sale tickets went on sale in the United States on October 9, 2017, and as with The Force Awakens and Rogue One, ticket service sites such as Fandango had their servers crash due to heavy traffic and demand.[113] In the United States and Canada, industry tracking had The Last Jedi grossing around $200 million from 4,232 theaters in its opening weekend.[114] The film made $45 million from Thursday night previews, the second-highest amount ever (behind The Force Awakens' $57 million).[115] It went on to make $104.8 million on its first day (including previews) and $220 million over the weekend, both the second-highest amounts of all time.[116] The opening weekend figure included an IMAX opening-weekend of $25 million, the biggest IMAX opening of the year and the second biggest ever behind The Force Awakens.[117]

text: After dropping by 76% on its second Friday, the worst Friday-to-Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 67.5% in its second weekend, grossing $71.6 million. It was the largest second-weekend drop of the franchise, although it remained atop the box office.[118] The three day total was the 14th biggest second weekend of all time.[119] It grossed an additional $27.5 million on Christmas Day, the second biggest Christmas Day gross of all time behind The Force Awakens ($49.3 million), for a four-day weekend total of $99 million.[120] It made $52.4 million in its third weekend, again topping the box office. It also brought its domestic total to $517.1 million, overtaking fellow Disney vehicle Beauty and the Beast as the highest of 2017.[121] It was the 6th biggest third weekend of all time.[122] It had the 7th biggest New Year's Day gross of all time with $14.3 million, bringing the four day total to $66.8 million.[123][124] It grossed $23.7 million and was surpassed the following weekend by Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (which was in its third week) and Insidious: The Last Key.[125]

text: Outside North America

text: In its first two days of release the film made $60.8 million from 48 markets. The top countries were the United Kingdom ($10.2 million), Germany ($6.1 million), France ($6 million), Australia ($5.6 million) and Brazil ($2.5 million).[126] By the end of the weekend, the film made $230.8 million outside North America, the ninth-highest of all time. This included $36.7 million in the UK (third-highest), $23.6 million in Germany (second-highest), $18.1 million in France, $15.9 million in Australia (second-highest), $14.4 million in Japan, $8.5 million in Russia, $8.3 million in Spain, $7.2 million in Brazil, $7 million in Italy and Mexico, $6.0 million in Sweden and $5.1 million in South Korea.[127] On its second weekend, it grossed $76.1 million overseas and became the fourth-highest-grossing film of the year in Europe.[128] As of January 21, the largest markets outside of the United States and Canada are the United Kingdom ($109.3 million), Germany ($79.8 million), France ($63.5 million), Japan ($60.8 million) and Australia ($43.5 million).[129]

text: The film had a $28.7 million opening weekend in China, the lowest for a Star Wars film in that country since 2005. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened to $52 million two years prior and Rogue One, which featured Chinese stars Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen, opened to $30 million in 2016. The Last Jedi added only $7 million during the week, to reach a total of $34.2 million in its first seven days. A week after its debut, China's movie exhibitors dropped the film's showtimes by 92 percent, from its 34.5% percent share of the territory's total screenings.[130][131][132][133] The film grossed $910,000 in its third weekend, dropping to ninth place at the Chinese box office, overshadowed by new releases including Bollywood film Secret Superstar, Hollywood films Ferdinand and Wonder, and Chinese film A Better Tomorrow 2018. The Last Jedi grossed $41 million in China, as of January 21, 2018.[134]

text: Critical response

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has an approval rating of 91% based on 374 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi honors the saga's rich legacy while adding some surprising twists—and delivering all the emotion-rich action fans could hope for."[135] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 56 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[136]

text: Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, praising the surprises and risks that it took, writing that "The movie works equally well as an earnest adventure full of passionate heroes and villains and a meditation on sequels and franchise properties.... [The film] is preoccupied with questions of legacy, legitimacy and succession, and includes multiple debates over whether one should replicate or reject the stories and symbols of the past."[137] Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast and the direction: "You're in hyper-skilled hands with Johnson who makes sure you leave the multiplex feeling euphoric. The middle part of the current trilogy, The Last Jedi ranks with the very best Star Wars epics (even the pinnacle that is The Empire Strikes Back) by pointing the way ahead to a next generation of skywalkers – and, thrillingly, to a new hope."[138]

text: Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3.5/4 stars, saying, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi...doesn't pack quite the same emotional punch [as The Force Awakens] and it lags a bit in the second half, [but] this is still a worthy chapter in the Star Wars franchise, popping with exciting action sequences, sprinkled with good humor and containing more than a few nifty 'callbacks' to previous characters and iconic moments."[139] For The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "Loaded with action and satisfying in the ways its loyal audience wants it to be, writer-director Rian Johnson's plunge into George Lucas' universe is generally pleasing even as it sometimes strains to find useful and/or interesting things for some of its characters to do."[140]

text: Will Gompertz, arts editor of BBC News, gave the film 4/5 stars, writing "Rian Johnson ... has not ruined your Christmas with a turkey. His gift to you is a cracker, a blockbuster movie packed with invention, wit, and action galore."[141] Mark Kermode, British film critic, gave the film 4/5 stars saying Johnson "proves himself the master of the balancing act, keeping the warring forces of this intergalactic franchise in near-perfect harmony."[142] The unpredictability of the plot was appreciated by reviewers such as Alex Leadbeater of Screen Rant, who commented specifically that the death of Snoke was "the best movie twist in years".[143]

text: Conversely, Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "Despite a few stunning decorative touches (most of which involve the color red) and that brief central sequence of multiple Reys, the movie comes off as a work that's ironed out, flattened down, appallingly purified. Above all, it delivers a terrifyingly calculated consensus storytelling, an artificial universality that is achieved, in part, through express religious references."[144] Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail gave the film 2/4 stars, saying the film suffered from too many new additions and writing, "Nifty new animals, a maturing villain, a flagging heroine, muffled humour – as it seeks to uphold a giant cultural legacy, this unfolding trilogy struggles to maintain a balance that often seems just out of reach."[145]

text: Audience response

text: Audience reception measured by scientific polling methods was highly positive. Audiences randomly polled by CinemaScore on opening day gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[116] Surveys from SurveyMonkey and comScore's PostTrak found that 89% of audience members graded the film positively, including a rare five-star rating.[146][147][148]

text: The user-generated review sections of Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic contained scores that were significantly more negative, achieving ratings of 47% and 4.6/10, respectively.[149][150] Several reviewers speculated that the low user scores are the result of manipulation, either by coordinated vote brigading from internet groups or from bots.[151][152][153] Quartz noted that some new accounts gave negative ratings to both The Last Jedi and Thor: Ragnarok, while Bleeding Cool stated that reviews for Thor had tapered off up to that point but skyrocketed afterwards.[154][155] In response to tampering claims, Rotten Tomatoes released a statement that they did not detect any unusual activity aside from a noticeable "uptick in the number of written user reviews" on The Last Jedi.[156]

text: Reviewers characterized The Last Jedi as divisive among audiences.[157] Todd VanDerWerff of Vox found that disgruntled fans saw the film as too progressive, disliked its humor, plot, or character arcs, or felt betrayed that it ignored fan theories.[151] Other reviewers made similar observations.[158][159][160] Particularly divisive was the reveal that Rey's parents are insignificant;[151][158][160] many fans had expected her to be Luke's daughter or to share a lineage with another character from the original trilogy.[161][162] There was also sentiment that Snoke's character was underdeveloped and that Luke's actions contrasted his previous heroic portrayal.[160][163][164] Reviewers stated that fan theories were held so strongly among some viewers that it was difficult for them to accept different stories,[158][160][164] but that other viewers appreciated the film's action, tone and deviation from Star Wars tradition.[158][160]

text: Accolades

text:
Award

Date of ceremony

Category

Recipient(s) and nominee(s)

Result

Ref.

Academy Awards

March 4, 2018

Best Original Score

John Williams

Nominated

[165]

Best Sound Editing

Matthew Wood and Ren Klyce

Nominated

Best Sound Mixing

David Parker, Michael Semanick, Ren Klyce and Stuart Wilson

Nominated

Best Visual Effects

Ben Morris, Mike Mulholland, Neal Scanlan and Chris Corbould

Nominated

Art Directors Guild Awards

January 27, 2018

Excellence in Production Design for a Fantasy Film

Rick Heinrichs

Nominated

[166]

British Academy Film Awards

February 18, 2018

Best Sound

Ren Klyce, David Parker, Michael Semanick, Stuart Wilson, Matthew Wood

Nominated

[167]

Best Special Visual Effects

Stephen Alpin, Chris Courbould, Ben Morris, Neal Scanlan

Nominated

Costume Designers Guild

February 20, 2018

Excellence in Fantasy Film

Michael Kaplan

Nominated

[168]

Empire Awards

March 18, 2018

Best Film

Star Wars: The Last Jedi

Won

[169]

Best Director

Rian Johnson

Won

Best Actor

John Boyega

Nominated

Best Actress

Daisy Ridley

Won

Best Female Newcomer

Kelly Marie Tran

Nominated

Best Sci-Fi/Fantasy Film

Star Wars: The Last Jedi

Nominated

Best Production Design

Nominated

Best Visual Effects

Won

Best Costume Design

Michael Kaplan

Won

Saturn Awards

June 2018

Best Science Fiction Film

Star Wars: The Last Jedi

Pending

[170]

Best Actor

Mark Hamill

Pending

Best Actress

Daisy Ridley

Pending

Best Supporting Acress

Carrie Fisher

Pending

Best Supporting Actress

Kelly Marie Tran

Pending

Best Director

Rian Johnson

Pending

Best Screenplay

Pending

Best Production Design

Rick Heinrichs

Pending

Best Editing

Bob Ducsay

Pending

Best Music

John Williams

Pending

Best Costume Design

Michael Kaplan

Pending

Best Makeup

Peter Swords King, Neal Scanlan

Pending

Best Film Special / Visual Effects

Ben Morris, Mike Mulholland, Chris Corbould, Neal Scanlan

Pending

Visual Effects Society Awards

February 13, 2018

Outstanding Visual Effects in a Photoreal Feature

Ben Morris, Tim Keene, Eddie Pasquarello, Daniel Seddon, Chris Corbould

Nominated

[171]

Outstanding Virtual Cinematography in a Photoreal Project

Cameron Nielsen, Albert Cheng, John Levin, Johanes Kurnia for "Crait Surface Battle"

Nominated

Outstanding Effects Simulations in a Photoreal Feature

Peter Kyme, Miguel Perez Senet, Ahmed Gharraph, Billy Copley for "Bombing Run"

Nominated

Mihai Cioroba, Ryoji Fujita, Jiyong Shin, Dan Finnegan for "Mega Destroyer Destruction"

Nominated

text: Sequel

text: Episode IX, the final installment of the sequel trilogy, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019.[12] Principal photography is set to begin in June 2018.[172] Colin Trevorrow was expected to direct the film; however, on September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm announced that he had stepped down.[173] A week later, Lucasfilm announced that J. J. Abrams would return to direct Episode IX and co-write it with Chris Terrio. Abrams and Terrio stated that Episode IX will bring together all three trilogies, with elements from the previous two trilogies.[174][175]


document_title: American (word)

question_text: where does the word america come from and what does it mean

text: American (word)

text: Other languages[edit]

text: French, German, Italian, Japanese,[a] Hebrew, Arabic, and Russian[b] speakers may use cognates of American to refer to inhabitants of the Americas or to U.S. nationals. They generally have other terms specific to U.S. nationals, such as the German US-Amerikaner,[6] French étatsunien,[7] Japanese beikokujin (米国人),[8] Arabic amrīkānī (أمريكاني as opposed to amrīkī أمريكي),[9][not in citation given] and Italian statunitense.[10] These specific terms may be less common than the term American.[7]

text: In French, états-unien, étas-unien or étasunien, from États-Unis d'Amérique ("United States of America"), is a rarely used word that distinguishes U.S. things and persons from the adjective américain, which denotes persons and things from the United States, but may also refer to "the Americas".[7]

text: Likewise, German's use of U.S.-amerikanisch and U.S.-Amerikaner[6] observe said cultural distinction, solely denoting U.S. things and people. Note that these are "politically correct" terms and that in normal parlance, the adjective "American" and its direct cognates are usually used if the context renders the nationality of the person clear.

text: This differentiation is prevalent in German-speaking countries, as indicated by the style manual of the Neue Zürcher Zeitung (one of the leading German-language newspapers in Switzerland) which dismisses the term U.S.-amerikanisch as both ′unnecessary′ and ′artificial′ and recommends replacing it with amerikanisch.[11] The respective guidelines of the foreign ministries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland all prescribe Amerikaner and amerikanisch in reference to the United States for official usage, making no mention of U.S.-Amerikaner or U.S.-amerikanisch.[12]

text: Portuguese has americano, denoting both a person or thing from the Americas and a U.S. national.[13] For referring specifically to a U.S. national and things, some words used are estadunidense (also spelled estado-unidense, "United States person"), from Estados Unidos da América, and ianque ("Yankee")—both usages exist in Brazil, but are uncommon in Portugal—but the term most often used, and the only one in Portugal, is norte-americano, even though it could, as with its Spanish equivalent, apply to Canadians, Mexicans, etc. as well.

text: In Spanish, americano denotes geographic and cultural origin in the New World, as well as (infrequently) a U.S. citizen;[14][15][c] the more common term is estadounidense ("United States person"), which derives from Estados Unidos de América ("United States of America"). The Spanish term norteamericano ("North American") is frequently used to refer things and persons from the United States, but this term can also denote people and things from Canada and Mexico.[17] Among Spanish-speakers, North America generally doesn't include Central America or the Caribbean.

text: In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for "U.S. national" is měiguórén (simplified Chinese: 美国人; traditional Chinese: 美國人)[18][d] is derived from a word for the United States, měiguó, where měi is an abbreviation for Yàměilìjiā ("America") and guó is "country".[19][20][21] The name for the American continents is měizhōu, from měi plus zhōu ("continent").[22] Thus, a měizhōurén is an American in the continent sense, and a měiguórén is an American in the U.S. sense.[e]

text: Conversely, in Czech, there is no possibility for disambiguation. Američan (m.) and američanka (f.) can refer to persons from the United States or from the continents of the Americas, and there is no specific word capable of distinguishing the two meanings. For this reason, the latter meaning is very rarely used, and word američan(ka) is used almost exclusively to refer to persons from the United States. The usage is exactly parallel to the English word.

text: Korean and Vietnamese also use unambiguous terms, with Korean having Migug (미국(인)) for the country versus Amerika (아메리카) for the continents,[23] and Vietnamese having Hoa Kỳ for the country versus Châu Mỹ for the continents.[citation needed] Japanese has such terms as well (beikoku(jin) [米国(人) versus beishū(jin) [米洲人]), but they are found more in newspaper headlines than in speech, where amerikajin predominates.[a][citation needed]

text: In Swahili, Marekani means specifically the United States, and Mwamarekani is a U.S. national, whereas the international form Amerika refers to the continents, and Mwaamerika would be an inhabitants thereof.[24][25][26][f] Likewise, the Esperanto word Ameriko refers to the continents. For the country there is the term Usono. Thus, a citizen of the United States is an usonano, whereas an amerikano is an inhabitant of the Americas.[28][29][30][31]

text: In Hungarian the term amerikai (American) refers to a person or a thing from the United States.

text: History[edit]

text: The name America was coined by Martin Waldseemüller from Americus Vespucius, the Latinized version of the name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), the Italian explorer who mapped South America's east coast and the Caribbean Sea in the early 16th century. Later, Vespucci's published letters were the basis of Waldseemüller's 1507 map, which is the first usage of America. The adjective American subsequently denoted the New World.

text: 16th-century European usage of American denoted the native inhabitants of the New World.[33] The earliest recorded use of this term in English is in Thomas Hacket's 1568 translation of André Thévet's book France Antarctique; Thévet himself had referred to the natives as Ameriques.[33] In the following century, the term was extended to European settlers and their descendants in the Americas. The earliest recorded use of "English-American" dates to 1648, in Thomas Gage's The English-American his travail by sea and land: or, a new survey of the West India's.[33]

text: In English, American was used especially for people in the British America. Samuel Johnson, the leading English lexicographer, wrote in 1775, before the United States declared independence: "That the Americans are able to bear taxation is indubitable."[33] The Declaration of Independence of July 1776 refers to "[the] unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America" adopted by the "Representatives of the United States of America" on July 4, 1776.[34] The official name of the country was reaffirmed on November 15, 1777, when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first of which says, "The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'". The Articles further state:

text: In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America.

text: Sam Haselby, a history professor in Lebanon and Egypt, claims it was British officials who first called the colonists "Americans". When the drafters of the Declaration—Thomas Jefferson from Virginia, for example, or John Adams from Massachusetts—talked about "my country", they meant Virginia or Massachusetts, respectively. This situation was changed by the Revolution and the impulse toward nationalism.[35] Jefferson, newly elected president in May 1801 wrote, "I am sure the measures I mean to pursue are such as would in their nature be approved by every American who can emerge from preconceived prejudices; as for those who cannot, we must take care of them as of the sick in our hospitals. The medicine of time and fact may cure some of them."[36]

text: In The Federalist Papers (1787–88), Alexander Hamilton and James Madison used the adjective American with two different meanings: one political and one geographic; "the American republic" in Federalist No. 51 and in Federalist No. 70,[37][38] and, in Federalist No. 24, Hamilton used American to denote the lands beyond the U.S.'s political borders.[39]

text: Early official U.S. documents show inconsistent usage; the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France used "the United States of North America" in the first sentence, then "the said United States" afterwards; "the United States of America" and "the United States of North America" derive from "the United Colonies of America" and "the United Colonies of North America". The Treaty of Peace and Amity of September 5, 1795, between the United States and the Barbary States contains the usages "the United States of North America", "citizens of the United States", and "American Citizens".[40][improper synthesis?]

text: U.S. President George Washington, in his 1796 Farewell Address, declaimed that "The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation."[41] Political scientist Virginia L. Arbery notes that, in his Farewell Address:

text: "...Washington invites his fellow citizens to view themselves now as Americans who, out of their love for the truth of liberty, have replaced their maiden names (Virginians, South Carolinians, New Yorkers, etc.) with that of “American”. Get rid of, he urges, “any appellation derived from local discriminations.” By defining himself as an American rather than as a Virginian, Washington set the national standard for all citizens. "Over and over, Washington said that America must be something set apart. As he put it to Patrick Henry, 'In a word, I want an American character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced we act for ourselves and not for others.'"[42]

text: As the historian Garry Wills has noted: "This was a theme dear to Washington. He wrote to Timothy Pickering that the nation 'must never forget that we are Americans; the remembrance of which will convince us we ought not to be French or English'."[43] Washington's countrymen subsequently embraced his exhortation with notable enthusiasm.

text: This semantic divergence among North American anglophones, however, remained largely unknown in the Spanish-American colonies. In 1801, the document titled Letter to American Spaniards—published in French (1799), in Spanish (1801), and in English (1808)—might have influenced Venezuela's Act of Independence and its 1811 constitution.[44]

text: The Latter-day Saints' Articles of Faith refer to the American continents as where they are to build Zion.[45]

text: Common short forms and abbreviations are the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., and America; colloquial versions include the U.S. of A. and the States. The term Columbia (from the Columbus surname) was a popular name for the U.S. and for the entire geographic Americas; its usage is present today in the District of Columbia's name. Moreover, the womanly personification of Columbia appears in some official documents, including editions of the U.S. dollar.

text: Usage at the United Nations[edit]

text: Use of the term American for U.S. nationals is common at the United Nations,[citation needed] and financial markets in the United States are referred to as "American financial markets".[46]

text: American Samoa is a recognized territorial name at the United Nations.[47]

text: Cultural views[edit]

text: Spain and Hispanic America[edit]

text: The use of American as a national demonym for U.S. nationals is challenged, primarily by Hispanic Americans.[2] Spanish speakers in Spain and Latin America use the term estadounidense to refer to people and things from the United States (from Estados Unidos), while americano refers to the continents as a whole.[14][48] The term gringo is also accepted in many parts of Latin America to refer to a person or something from the United States,[49] however this term may be ambiguous in certain parts. Up to and including the 1992 edition, the Diccionario de la lengua española, published by the Real Academia Española, did not include the United States definition in the entry for americano; this was added in the 2001 edition.[14][g][50] The Real Academia Española advised against using americanos exclusively for U.S. nationals:[17][51]

text: [Translated] It is common, and thus acceptable, to use norteamericano as a synonym of estadounidense, even though strictly speaking, the term norteamericano can equally be used to refer to the inhabitants of any country in North America, it normally applies to the inhabitants of the United States. But americano should not be used to refer exclusively to the inhabitants of the United States, an abusive usage which can be explained by the fact that in the United States, they frequently abbreviate the name of the country to "America" (in English, with no accent).[g]

text: Canada[edit]

text: Modern Canadians typically refer to people from the United States as Americans, though they seldom refer to the United States as America; they use the terms the United States, the U.S., or (informally) the States instead.[52] Canadians rarely apply the term American to themselves – some Canadians resent either being referred to as Americans because of mistaken assumptions that they are U.S. citizens or others' inability, particularly of those overseas, to distinguish Canadian from American accents.[52] Some Canadians have protested the use of American as a national demonym.[53] People of U.S. ethnic origin in Canada are categorized as "Other North American origins" by Statistics Canada for purposes of census counts.[54]

text: Portugal and Brazil[edit]

text: Generally, americano denotes "U.S. citizen" in Portugal.[13] Usage of americano to exclusively denote people and things of the U.S. is discouraged by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, because the specific word estado-unidense (also estadunidense) clearly denotes a person from the United States. The term currently used by the Portuguese press is norte-americano.[citation needed]

text: In Brazil, the term americano is used to address both that which pertains to both American continents and, in current speech, that which pertains to the U.S.; the particular meaning is deduced from context. Alternatively, the term norte-americano ("North American") is also used in more informal contexts, while estadunidense (of the U.S.) is the preferred form in academia. Use of the three terms is common in schools, government, and media. The term América is used almost exclusively for the continents, and the U.S. is called Estados Unidos ("United States") or Estados Unidos da América ("United States of America"), often abbreviated EUA.[citation needed]

text: The Getting Through Customs website advises business travelers not to use "in America" as a U.S. reference when conducting business in Brazil.[55]

text: In other contexts[edit]

text: "American" in the 1994 Associated Press Stylebook was defined as, "An acceptable description for a resident of the United States. It also may be applied to any resident or citizen of nations in North or South America." Elsewhere, the AP Stylebook indicates that "United States" must "be spelled out when used as a noun. Use U.S. (no space) only as an adjective."[citation needed]

text: The entry for "America" in The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage from 1999 reads:

text: [the] terms "America", "American(s)" and "Americas" refer not only to the United States, but to all of North America and South America. They may be used in any of their senses, including references to just the United States, if the context is clear. The countries of the Western Hemisphere are collectively 'the Americas'.

text: Media releases from the Pope and Holy See frequently use "America" to refer to the United States, and "American" to denote something or someone from the United States.[56]

text: International law[edit]

text: This article or section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: At least one international law uses U.S. citizen in defining a citizen of the United States rather than American citizen; for example, the English version of the North American Free Trade Agreement includes:

text: Only air carriers that are "citizens of the United States" may operate aircraft in domestic air service (cabotage) and may provide international scheduled and non-scheduled air service as U.S. air carriers...

text: Under the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, a "citizen of the United States" means:

text: Many international treaties use the terms American and American citizen:

text:
1796 – The treaty between the United States and the Dey of the Regency of Algiers on March 7, 1796, protected "American citizens".[58]
1806 – The Louisiana Purchase Treaty between France and United States referred to "American citizens".[59]
1825 – The treaty between the United States and the Cheyenne tribe refers to "American citizen"s.[60]
1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the U.S. uses "American Government" to refer to the United States, and "American tribunals" to refer to U.S. courts.[61]
1858 – The Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan protected "American citizens" and also used "American" in other contexts.[62]
1898 – The Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War, known in Spanish as the Guerra Hispano–Estadounidense ("Spain–United States War") uses "American" in reference to United States troops.[63]
1966 – The United States–Thailand Treaty of Amity protects "Americans" and "American corporations".[64]

text: U.S. commercial regulation[edit]

text: Products that are labeled, advertised, and marketed in the U.S. as "Made in the USA" must be, as set by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), "all or virtually all made in the U.S." The FTC, to prevent deception of customers and unfair competition, considers an unqualified claim of "American Made" to expressly claim exclusive manufacture in the U.S: "The FTC Act gives the Commission the power to bring law enforcement actions against false or misleading claims that a product is of U.S. origin."[65]

text: Alternatives[edit]

text: There are a number of alternatives to the demonym American as a citizen of the United States that do not simultaneously mean any inhabitant of the Americas. One uncommon alternative is Usonian, which usually describes a certain style of residential architecture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Other alternatives have also surfaced, but most have fallen into disuse and obscurity. Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage says:

text: The list contains (in approximate historical order from 1789 to 1939) such terms as Columbian, Columbard, Fredonian, Frede, Unisian, United Statesian, Colonican, Appalacian, Usian, Washingtonian, Usonian, Uessian, U-S-ian, Uesican, United Stater.[66]

text: Nevertheless, no alternative to American is common.[1]