document_title: Religion in the United States

question_text: what is the largest religion in the us

question_tokens: what is the largest religion in the us

text: Religion in the United States

text: History

text: From early colonial days, when some English and German settlers came in search of religious freedom, America has been profoundly influenced by religion.[5] That influence continues in American culture, social life, and politics.[6] Several of the original Thirteen Colonies were established by settlers who wished to practice their own religion within a community of like-minded people: the Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by English Puritans (Congregationalists), Pennsylvania by British Quakers, Maryland by English Catholics, and Virginia by English Anglicans. Despite these, and as a result of intervening religious strife and preference in England[7] the Plantation Act 1740 would set official policy for new immigrants coming to British America until the American Revolution.

text: The text of the First Amendment to the country's Constitution states that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." It guarantees the free exercise of religion while also preventing the government from establishing a state religion. However the states were not bound by the provision and as late as the 1830s Massachusetts provided tax money to local Congregational churches.[8] The Supreme Court since the 1940s has interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as applying the First Amendment to the state and local governments.

text: President John Adams and a unanimous Senate endorsed the Treaty of Tripoli in 1797 that stated: "the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion."[9]

text: Going forward from its foundation, the United States has been called a Protestant nation by a variety of sources.[10][11][12][13]

text: According to a 2002 survey by the Pew Research Center, nearly 6 in 10 Americans said that religion plays an important role in their lives, compared to 33% in Great Britain, 27% in Italy, 21% in Germany, 12% in Japan, and 11% in France. The survey report stated that the results showed America having a greater similarity to developing nations (where higher percentages say that religion plays an important role) than to other wealthy nations, where religion plays a minor role.[1]

text: In 1963, 90% of U.S. adults claimed to be Christian while only 2% professed no religious identity.[14] In 2014, close to 70% identify as Christian while close to 23% claim no religious identity.[2]

text: Freedom of religion

text: The United States federal government was the first national government to have no official state-endorsed religion.[15] However, some states had established religions in some form until the 1830s.

text: Modeling the provisions concerning religion within the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, the framers of the Constitution rejected any religious test for office, and the First Amendment specifically denied the federal government any power to enact any law respecting either an establishment of religion or prohibiting its free exercise, thus protecting any religious organization, institution, or denomination from government interference. The decision was mainly influenced by European Rationalist and Protestant ideals, but was also a consequence of the pragmatic concerns of minority religious groups and small states that did not want to be under the power or influence of a national religion that did not represent them.[16]

text: Abrahamic religions

text: Christianity

text: The most popular religion in the U.S. is Christianity, comprising the majority of the population (70.6% of adults in 2014).[2] According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March 2017, based on data from 2010, Christians were the largest religious population in all 3,143 counties in the country.[17] Roughly 46.5% of Americans are Protestants, 20.8% are Catholics, 1.6% are Mormons (the name commonly used to refer to members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and 1.7% have affiliations with various other Christian denominations.[2] Christianity was introduced during the period of European colonization.

text: According to a 2012 review by the National Council of Churches, the five largest denominations are:[18]

text:
The Catholic Church, 68,202,492 members
The Southern Baptist Convention, 16,136,044 members
The United Methodist Church, 7,679,850 members
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 6,157,238 members
The Church of God in Christ, 5,499,875 members

text: The Southern Baptist Convention, with over 16 million adherents, is the largest of more than 200[19] distinctly named Protestant denominations.[20] In 2007, members of evangelical churches comprised 26% of the American population, while another 18% belonged to mainline Protestant churches, and 7% belonged to historically black churches.[21]

text: A 2015 study estimates some 450,000 Christian believers from a Muslim background in the country, most of them belonging to some form of Protestantism.[22] In 2010 there were approximately 180,000 Arab Americans and about 130,000 Iranian Americans who converted from Islam to Christianity. Dudley Woodbury, a Fulbright scholar of Islam, estimates that 20,000 Muslims convert to Christianity annually in the United States.[23]

text: Mainline Protestant denominations

text: Historians agree that members of mainline Protestant denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education.[24] According to Harriet Zuckerman, 72% of American Nobel Prize Laureates between 1901 and 1972, have identified from Protestant background.[25]

text: Episcopalians[26] and Presbyterians[27] tend to be considerably wealthier and better educated than most other religious groups, and numbers of the most wealthy and affluent American families as the Vanderbilts[26] and Astors,[26] Rockefeller,[28] Du Pont, Roosevelt, Forbes, Whitneys,[26] Morgans[26] and Harrimans are Mainline Protestant families,[26] though those affiliated with Judaism are the wealthiest religious group in the United States[29][30]and those affiliated with Catholicism, owing to sheer size, have the largest number of adherents of all groups in the top income bracket.[31]

text: Some of the first colleges and universities in America, including Harvard,[32] Yale,[33] Princeton,[34] Columbia,[35] Dartmouth,[36] Williams, Bowdoin, Middlebury,[37] and Amherst, all were founded by mainline Protestant denominations. By the 1920s most had weakened or dropped their formal connection with a denomination. James Hunter argues that:

text: Christian settlers

text: Beginning around 1600 European settlers introduced Anglican and Puritans religion, as well as Baptist, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Quaker, and Moravian denominations.[39]

text: Beginning in the 16th century, the Spanish (and later the French and English) introduced Catholicism. From the 19th century to the present, Catholics came to the US in large numbers due to immigration of Italians, Hispanics, Portuguese, French, Polish, Irish, Highland Scots, Dutch, Flemish, Hungarians, Germans, Lebanese (Maronite), and other ethnic groups.

text: Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to America by Greek, Ukrainian, Armenian, and other immigrant groups.[40][41]

text: Several Christian groups were founded in America during the Great Awakenings. Interdenominational evangelicalism and Pentecostalism emerged; new Protestant denominations such as Adventism; non-denominational movements such as the Restoration Movement (which over time separated into the Churches of Christ, the Christian churches and churches of Christ, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)); Jehovah's Witnesses (called "Bible Students" in the latter part of the 19th century); and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism).

text: The strength of various sects varies greatly in different regions of the country, with rural parts of the South having many evangelicals but very few Catholics (except Louisiana and the Gulf Coast, and from among the Hispanic community, both of which consist mainly of Catholics), while urbanized areas of the north Atlantic states and Great Lakes, as well as many industrial and mining towns, are heavily Catholic, though still quite mixed, especially due to the heavily Protestant African-American communities. In 1990, nearly 72% of the population of Utah was Mormon, as well as 26% of neighboring Idaho.[42] Lutheranism is most prominent in the Upper Midwest, with North Dakota having the highest percentage of Lutherans (35% according to a 2001 survey).[43]

text: The largest religion, Christianity, has proportionately diminished since 1990. While the absolute number of Christians rose from 1990 to 2008, the percentage of Christians dropped from 86% to 76%.[44] A nationwide telephone interview of 1,002 adults conducted by The Barna Group found that 70% of American adults believe that God is "the all-powerful, all-knowing creator of the universe who still rules it today", and that 9% of all American adults and 0.5% young adults hold to what the survey defined as a "biblical worldview".[45]

text: Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Eastern Orthodox and United Church of Christ members[46] have the highest number of graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita of all Christian denominations in the United States,[47][48] as well as the most high-income earners.[49][50]However, owing to the sheer size or demographic head count of Catholics, more individual Catholics have graduate degrees and are in the highest income brackets than have or are individuals of any other religious community.[51]

text: Judaism

text: After Christianity, Judaism is the next largest religious affiliation in the US, though this identification is not necessarily indicative of religious beliefs or practices.[44] There are between 5.3 and 6.6 million Jews. A significant number of people identify themselves as American Jews on ethnic and cultural grounds, rather than religious ones. For example, 19% of self-identified American Jews do not believe God exists.[52] The 2001 ARIS study projected from its sample that there are about 5.3 million adults in the American Jewish population: 2.83 million adults (1.4% of the U.S. adult population) are estimated to be adherents of Judaism; 1.08 million are estimated to be adherents of no religion; and 1.36 million are estimated to be adherents of a religion other than Judaism.[53] ARIS 2008 estimated about 2.68 million adults (1.2%) in the country identify Judaism as their faith.[44]

text: Jews have been present in what is now the US since the 17th century, and specifically allowed since the British colonial Plantation Act 1740. Although small Western European communities initially developed and grew, large-scale immigration did not take place until the late 19th century, largely as a result of persecutions in parts of Eastern Europe. The Jewish community in the United States is composed predominantly of Ashkenazi Jews whose ancestors emigrated from Central and Eastern Europe. There are, however, small numbers of older (and some recently arrived) communities of Sephardi Jews with roots tracing back to 15th century Iberia (Spain, Portugal, and North Africa). There are also Mizrahi Jews (from the Middle East, Caucasia and Central Asia), as well as much smaller numbers of Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews, Kaifeng Jews and others from various smaller Jewish ethnic divisions. Approximately 25% of the Jewish American population lives in New York City.[54]

text: According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Jews were the largest minority religion in 231 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country.[17] According to a 2014 survey conducted by the Pew Forum on Religion and Public life, 1.7% of adults in the U.S. identify Judaism as their religion. Among those surveyed, 44% said they were Reform Jews, 22% said they were Conservative Jews, and 14% said they were Orthodox Jews.[2][55] According to the 1990 National Jewish Population Survey, 38% of Jews were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish".[56]

text: The Pew Research Center report on American Judaism released in October 2013 revealed that 22% of Jewish Americans say they have "no religion" and the majority of respondents do not see religion as the primary constituent of Jewish identity. 62% believe Jewish identity is based primarily in ancestry and culture, only 15% in religion. Among Jews who gave Judaism as their religion, 55% based Jewish identity on ancestry and culture, and 66% did not view belief in God as essential to Judaism.[57]

text: A 2009 study estimated the Jewish population (including both those who define themselves as Jewish by religion and those who define themselves as Jewish in cultural or ethnic terms) to be between 6.0 and 6.4 million.[58] According to a study done in 2000 there were an estimated 6.14 million Jewish people in the country, about 2% of the population.[59]

text: According to the 2001 National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jewish adults have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural.[60] Jewishness is generally considered an ethnic identity as well as a religious one. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% have some sort of active engagement with Judaism, ranging from attendance at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum to attending Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other. The survey also discovered that Jews in the Northeast and Midwest are generally more observant than Jews in the South or West. Reflecting a trend also observed among other religious groups, Jews in the Northwestern United States are typically the least observant of tradition.[citation needed]

text: The Jewish American community has higher household incomes than average, and is one of the best educated religious communities in the United States.[46]

text: Islam

text: Islam is the third largest faith in the United States, after Christianity and Judaism, representing 0.9% of the population.[2][61] According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Muslims were the largest minority religion in 392 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country.[17] Islam in America effectively began with the arrival of African slaves. It is estimated that about 10% of African slaves transported to the United States were Muslim.[62] Most, however, became Christians, and the United States did not have a significant Muslim population until the arrival of immigrants from Arab and East Asian Muslim areas.[63] According to some experts,[64] Islam later gained a higher profile through the Nation of Islam, a religious group that appealed to black Americans after the 1940s; its prominent converts included Malcolm X and Muhammad Ali.[65][66] The first Muslim elected in Congress was Keith Ellison in 2006,[67] followed by André Carson in 2008.[68]

text: Research indicates that Muslims in the United States are generally more assimilated and prosperous than their counterparts in Europe.[69][70][71] Like other subcultural and religious communities, the Islamic community has generated its own political organizations and charity organizations.

text: Bahá'í Faith

text: The United States has perhaps the second largest Bahá'í community in the world. First mention of the faith in the U.S. was at the inaugural Parliament of World Religions, which was held at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. In 1894, Ibrahim George Kheiralla, a Syrian Bahá'í immigrant, established a community in the U.S. He later left the main group and founded a rival movement.[72] According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Bahá'ís were the largest minority religion in 80 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country.[17]

text: Rastafarianism

text: Rastafarians began migrating to the United States in the 1950s, '60s and '70s from the religion's 1930s birthplace, Jamaica.[73][74] Marcus Garvey, who is considered a prophet by many Rastafarians,[75][76] rose to prominence and cultivated many of his ideas in the United States.

text: Asian religions

text: Buddhism

text: Buddhism entered the US during the 19th century with the arrival of the first immigrants from East Asia. The first Buddhist temple was established in San Francisco in 1853 by Chinese Americans.

text: During the late 19th century Buddhist missionaries from Japan came to the US. During the same time period, US intellectuals started to take interest in Buddhism.

text: The first prominent US citizen to publicly convert to Buddhism was Henry Steel Olcott in 1880. An event that contributed to the strengthening of Buddhism in the US was the Parliament of the World's Religions in 1893, which was attended by many Buddhist delegates sent from India, China, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and Sri Lanka.

text: The early 20th century was characterized by a continuation of tendencies that had their roots in the 19th century. The second half, by contrast, saw the emergence of new approaches, and the move of Buddhism into the mainstream and making itself a mass and social religious phenomenon.[77][78]

text: Estimates of the number of Buddhists in the United States vary between 0.5%[44] and 0.9%,[79] with 0.7% reported by both the CIA[55] and Pew.[80] According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Buddhists were the largest minority religion in 186 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country.[17]

text: Hinduism

text: Hinduism is the fourth largest faith in the United States, representing 0.7% of the population.[2] The first time Hinduism entered the U.S. is not clearly identifiable. However, large groups of Hindus have immigrated from India and other Asian countries since the enactment of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. During the 1960s and 1970s Hinduism exercised fascination contributing to the development of New Age thought. During the same decades the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (a Vaishnavite Hindu reform organization) was founded in the US.

text: In 2001, there were an estimated 766,000 Hindus in the US, about 0.2% of the total population.[81][82] According to the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies newsletter published March, 2017, based on data from 2010, Bahá'ís were the largest minority religion in 92 counties out of the 3143 counties in the country.[17]

text: In 2004 the Hindu American Foundation—a national institution protecting rights of the Hindu community of U.S.—was founded.

text: American Hindus have one of the highest rates of educational attainment and household income among all religious communities, and tend to have lower divorce rates.[46]

text: Jainism

text: Adherents of Jainism first arrived in the United States in the 20th century. The most significant time of Jain immigration was in the early 1970s. The United States has since become a center of the Jain Diaspora. The Federation of Jain Associations in North America is an umbrella organization of local American and Canadian Jain congregations to preserve, practice, and promote Jainism and the Jain way of life.[83]

text: Sikhism

text: Sikhism is a religion originating from South Asia (predominantly in modern-day India) which was introduced into the United States when, around the turn of the 20th century, Sikhs started emigrating to the United States in significant numbers to work on farms in California. They were the first community to come from India to the US in large numbers.[84][clarification needed] The first Sikh Gurdwara in America was built in Stockton, California, in 1912.[85] In 2007, there were estimated to be between 250,000 and 500,000 Sikhs living in the United States, with the largest populations living on the East and West Coasts, with additional populations in Detroit, Chicago, and Austin.[86][87]

text: The United States also has a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism.[88]

text: Taoism

text: In 2004 there were an estimated 56,000 Taoists in the US.[89] Taoism was popularized throughout the world through the writings and teachings of Lao Tzu and other Taoists as well as the practice of Qigong, Tai Chi Chuan and other Chinese martial arts.[90]

text: No religion

text: This group includes atheists, agnostics and people who describe their religion as "nothing in particular".[91]

text: "Unaffiliated" does not necessarily mean "non-religious". Some people who are unaffiliated with any particular religion express religious beliefs (such as belief in one or more gods or in reincarnation) and engage in religious practices (such as prayer).[citation needed]

text: Agnosticism, atheism, and humanism

text: A 2001 survey directed by Dr. Ariela Keysar for the City University of New York indicated that, amongst the more than 100 categories of response, "no religious identification" had the greatest increase in population in both absolute and percentage terms. This category included atheists, agnostics, humanists, and others with no stated religious preferences. Figures are up from 14.3 million in 1990 to 34.2 million in 2008, representing an increase from 8% of the total population in 1990 to 15% in 2008.[44] A nationwide Pew Research study published in 2008 put the figure of unaffiliated persons at 16.1%,[82] while another Pew study published in 2012 was described as placing the proportion at about 20% overall and roughly 33% for the 18–29-year-old demographic.[92]

text: In a 2006 nationwide poll, University of Minnesota researchers found that despite an increasing acceptance of religious diversity, atheists were generally distrusted by other Americans, who trusted them less than Muslims, recent immigrants and other minority groups in "sharing their vision of American society". They also associated atheists with undesirable attributes such as amorality, criminal behavior, rampant materialism and cultural elitism.[93][94] However, the same study also reported that "The researchers also found acceptance or rejection of atheists is related not only to personal religiosity, but also to one's exposure to diversity, education and political orientation – with more educated, East and West Coast Americans more accepting of atheists than their Midwestern counterparts."[95] Some surveys have indicated that doubts about the existence of the divine were growing quickly among Americans under 30.[96]

text: On 24 March 2012, American atheists sponsored the Reason Rally in Washington, D.C., followed by the American Atheist Convention in Bethesda, Maryland. Organizers called the estimated crowd of 8,000–10,000 the largest-ever US gathering of atheists in one place.[97]

text: Deism

text: In the United States, Enlightenment philosophy (which itself was heavily inspired by deist ideals) played a major role in creating the principle of religious freedom, expressed in Thomas Jefferson's letters and included in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. American Founding Fathers, or Framers of the Constitution, who were especially noted for being influenced by such philosophy of deism include Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, and Hugh Williamson. Their political speeches show distinct deistic influence. Other notable Founding Fathers may have been more directly deist. These include Thomas Paine, James Madison, possibly Alexander Hamilton, and Ethan Allen.[98]

text: Belief in the existence of a god

text: Various polls have been conducted to determine Americans' actual beliefs regarding a god:

text:
In 2014 the Pew Research Center's Religious Landscape Study showed 63% of Americans believed in God and were "absolutely certain" in their view, while the figure rose to 89% including those who were agnostic.[99]
A 2012 WIN-Gallup International poll showed that 5% of Americans considered themselves "convinced" atheists, which was a fivefold increase from the last time the survey was taken in 2005, and 5% said they did not know or else did not respond.[100]
A 2012 Pew Research Center survey found that doubts about the existence of a god had grown among younger Americans, with 68% telling Pew they never doubt God's existence, a 15-point drop in five years. In 2007, 83% of American millennials said they never doubted God's existence.[96][101]
A 2011 Gallup poll found 92% of Americans said yes to the basic question "Do you believe in God?", while 7% said no and 1% had no opinion.[102]
A 2010 Gallup poll found 80% of Americans believe in a god, 12% believe in a universal spirit, 6% don't believe in either, 1% chose "other", and 1% had no opinion. 80% is a decrease from the 1940s, when Gallup first asked this question.
A late 2009 online Harris poll of 2,303 U.S. adults (18 and older)[103] found that "82% of adult Americans believe in God", the same number as in two earlier polls in 2005 and 2007. Another 9% said they did not believe in God, and 9% said that they were not sure. It further concluded, "Large majorities also believe in miracles (76%), heaven (75%), that Jesus is God or the Son of God (73%), in angels (72%), the survival of the soul after death (71%), and in the resurrection of Jesus (70%). Less than half (45%) of adults believe in Darwin's theory of evolution but this is more than the 40% who believe in creationism..... Many people consider themselves Christians without necessarily believing in some of the key beliefs of Christianity. However, this is not true of born-again Christians. In addition to their religious beliefs, large minorities of adults, including many Christians, have "pagan" or pre-Christian beliefs such as a belief in ghosts, astrology, witches and reincarnation.... Because the sample is based on those who agreed to participate in the Harris Interactive panel, no estimates of theoretical sampling error can be calculated."
A 2008 survey of 1,000 people concluded that, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification, 69.5% of Americans believe in a personal God, roughly 12.3% of Americans are atheist or agnostic, and another 12.1% are deistic (believing in a higher power/non-personal God, but no personal God).[44]
Mark Chaves, a Duke University professor of sociology, religion and divinity, found that 92% of Americans believed in God in 2008, but that significantly fewer Americans have great confidence in their religious leaders than a generation ago.[104]
According to a 2008 ARIS survey, belief in God varies considerably by region. The lowest rate is in the West with 59% reporting a belief in God, and the highest rate is in the South at 86%.[105]

text: Spiritual but not religious

text: "Spiritual but not religious" (SBNR) is self-identified stance of spirituality that takes issue with organized religion as the sole or most valuable means of furthering spiritual growth. Spirituality places an emphasis upon the wellbeing of the "mind-body-spirit,"[106] so holistic activities such as tai chi, reiki, and yoga are common within the SBNR movement.[107] In contrast to religion, spirituality has often been associated with the interior life of the individual.[108]

text: One fifth of the US public and a third of adults under the age of 30 are reportedly unaffiliated with any religion, however they identify as being spiritual in some way. Of these religiously unaffiliated Americans, 37% classify themselves as spiritual but not religious.[109]

text: Others

text: Many other religions are represented in the United States, including Shinto, Caodaism, Thelema, Santería, Kemetism, Religio Romana, Kaldanism, Zoroastrianism, Vodou, Pastafarianism, and many forms of New Age spirituality.

text: Native American religions

text: Native American religions historically exhibited much diversity, and are often characterized by animism or panentheism.[110] The membership of Native American religions in the 21st century comprises about 9,000 people.[111]

text: Neopaganism

text: Neopaganism in the United States is represented by widely different movements and organizations. The largest Neopagan religion is Wicca, followed by Neo-Druidism.[112][113] Other neopagan movements include Germanic Neopaganism, Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism, Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism, and Semitic neopaganism.

text: Druidry

text: According to the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS), there are approximately 30,000 druids in the United States.[114] Modern Druidism came to North America first in the form of fraternal Druidic organizations in the nineteenth century, and orders such as the Ancient Order of Druids in America were founded as distinct American groups as early as 1912. In 1963, the Reformed Druids of North America (RDNA) was founded by students at Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota. They adopted elements of Neopaganism into their practices, for instance celebrating the festivals of the Wheel of the Year.[115]

text: Wicca

text: Wicca advanced in North America in the 1960s by Raymond Buckland, an expatriate Briton who visited Gardner's Isle of Man coven to gain initiation.[116] Universal Eclectic Wicca was popularized in 1969 for a diverse membership drawing from both Dianic and British Traditional Wiccan backgrounds.[117]

text: New Thought Movement

text: A group of churches which started in the 1830s in the United States is known under the banner of "New Thought". These churches share a spiritual, metaphysical and mystical predisposition and understanding of the Bible and were strongly influenced by the Transcendentalist movement, particularly the work of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Another antecedent of this movement was Swedenborgianism, founded on the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg in 1787.[118] The New Thought concept was named by Emma Curtis Hopkins ("teacher of teachers") after Hopkins broke off from Mary Baker Eddy's Church of Christ, Scientist. The movement had been previously known as the Mental Sciences or the Christian Sciences. The three major branches are Religious Science, Unity Church and Divine Science.

text: Unitarian Universalism

text: Unitarian Universalists (UU's) are among the most liberal of all religious denominations in America[119]. The shared creed includes beliefs in inherent dignity, a common search for truth, respect for beliefs of others, compassion, and social action.[120] They are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth and by the understanding that an individual's theology is a result of that search and not obedience to an authoritarian requirement.[121]. UU's have historical ties to anti-war, civil rights, and LGBT rights movements[122], as well as providing inclusive church services for the broad spectrum of liberal Christians, liberal Jews, secular humanists, LGBT, Jewish-Christian parents and partners, Earth-centered/Wicca, and Buddhist meditation adherents.[123]

text: Major religious movements founded in the United States

text: Christian

text:
Pentecostalism – movement which emphasizes the role of the Holy Spirit, finds its historic roots in the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles from 1904 to 1906, sparked by Charles Parham. It is estimated to have over 279 million followers worldwide, many in Africa and South America.[124]
Adventism – began as an inter-denominational movement. Its most vocal leader was William Miller, who in the 1830s in New York became convinced of an imminent Second Coming of Jesus. The most prominent modern group to emerge from this is the Seventh-day Adventists.
The Latter Day Saint movement founded in 1830 by Joseph Smith in upstate New York. Multiple Latter Day Saint denominations can be found throughout the United States. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest denomination, is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and it has members in many countries. The Community of Christ, the second-largest denomination, is headquartered in Independence, Missouri. Worldwide they claim about 15 million members.
Jehovah's Witnesses – originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in Pennsylvania in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. In their early years, the Bible Students were loosely connected with Adventism, and the Jehovah's Witnesses still share some similarities with it. They claim about 7.69 million active members worldwide.
Christian Science – founded by Mary Baker Eddy in the late 19th century. The church claims some 400,000 members worldwide.
Churches of Christ/Disciples of Christ – a restoration movement with no governing body. The Restoration Movement solidified as a historical phenomenon in 1832 when restorationists from two major movements championed by Barton W. Stone and Alexander Campbell merged. It has an estimated 3 million followers worldwide.
Metropolitan Community Church – founded by Troy Perry in Los Angeles, 1968.
Unitarianism Developed out of the Congregational Churches. In 1825 the American Unitarian Association was formed in Boston, MA.

text: Universalist Church of America's first regional conference was founded in 1793.

text: Other

text:
New Thought Movement – two of the early proponents of New Thought beliefs during the mid to late 19th century were Phineas Parkhurst Quimby and the Mother of New Thought, Emma Curtis Hopkins. The three major branches are Religious Science, Unity Church and Divine Science.
Scientology – founded by L. Ron Hubbard in 1954. Numbers estimated from a few tens of thousands to 15 million (latter is the religion's estimation in 2004).
Reconstructionist Judaism – founded by Mordecai Kaplan and started in the 1920s.
Native American Church – founded by Quanah Parker beginning in the 1890s and incorporating in 1918. An estimated 250,000 followers.
Nation of Islam – a sect of Islam, created and followed predominantly by African-Americans.
Church of Satan – founded in San Francisco in 1966 by Anton LaVey.
Eckankar – founded in Las Vegas in 1965 by Paul Twitchell.
Self-Realization Fellowship - founded in Los Angeles by Paramahansa Yogananda in 1920.
Unitarian Universalist Association in 1961 from the consolidation of the American Unitarian Association and the Universalist Church of America. Historically Christian denominations the UUA is no longer Christian and is the largest Unitarian Universalist denomination in the world.

text: Government positions

text: The First Amendment guarantees both the free practice of religion and the non-establishment of religion by the federal government (later court decisions have extended that prohibition to the states).[125] The U.S. Pledge of Allegiance was modified in 1954 to add the phrase "under God", in order to distinguish itself from the state atheism espoused by the Soviet Union.[126][127][128][129]

text: Various American presidents have often stated the importance of religion. On February 20, 1955, President Dwight D. Eisenhower stated that "Recognition of the Supreme Being is the first, the most basic, expression of Americanism."[130] President Gerald Ford agreed with and repeated this statement in 1974.[131]

text: Statistics

text: The U.S. Census does not ask about religion. Various groups have conducted surveys to determine approximate percentages of those affiliated with each religious group.

text: Gallup, Inc. data

text: Religion in the United States according to Gallup, Inc. (2016)[132]

text:
Religion in the United States according to Gallup, Inc. (2016)[132]

Affiliation
% of U.S. population

Christian
73.7
73.7

Protestant/Other Christian
48.9
48.9

Catholic
23.0
23

Mormon
1.8
1.8

None/Atheist/Agnostic
18.2
18.2

Non-Christian faiths
5.4
5.4

Jewish
2.1
2.1

Muslim
0.8
0.8

Other non-Christian religion
2.5
2.5

No response given
2.6
2.6

Total
100
100

text: Pew Research Center data

text: Religion in the United States according to the Pew Research Center (2014)[2]

text:
Religion in the United States according to the Pew Research Center (2014)[2]

Affiliation
% of U.S. population

Christian
70.6
70.6

Protestant
46.5
46.5

Evangelical Protestant
25.4
25.4

Mainline Protestant
14.7
14.7

Black church
6.5
6.5

Catholic
20.8
20.8

Mormon
1.6
1.6

Jehovah's Witnesses
0.8
0.8

Eastern Orthodox
0.5
0.5

Other Christian
0.4
0.4

Unaffiliated
22.8
22.8

Nothing in particular
15.8
15.8

Agnostic
4.0
4

Atheist
3.1
3.1

Non-Christian faiths
5.9
5.9

Jewish
1.9
1.9

Muslim
0.9
0.9

Buddhist
0.7
0.7

Hindu
0.7
0.7

Other Non-Christian faiths
1.8
1.8

Don't know/refused answer
0.6
0.6

Total
100
100

text: PROLADES data

text:
Religion in the United States (1962-2012)[133]

Date
Christianity
Protestantism
Catholicism
Other Christian groups
Non-Christian groups
Non-religious/Non-response

1962
93.0%
70.0%
23.0%
0.0%
5.0%
2.0%

1970
91.0%
65.0%
26.0%
0.0%
4.0%
7.0%

1980
89.3%
61.0%
28.0%
0.3%
2.0%
3.0%

1990
86.2%
59.4%
26.5%
0.3%
3.2%
7.5%

1995
85.0%
56.0%
27.0%
1.0%
7.0%
8.0%

2000
76.5%
53.9%
21.4%
1.2%
2.6%
13.2%

2001
78.7%
52.2%
24.5%
2.9%
3.7%
14.2%

2007
78.5%
51.3%
23.9%
3.3%
5.4%
16.1%

2008
78.0%
52.9%
25.1%
3.1%
3.9%
17.2%

2010
78.5%
52.7%
23.2%
2.6%
2.2%
17.4%

2011
75.6%
48.3%
25.2%
2.8%
4.4%
21.0%

2012
77.3%
51.9%
23.3%
2.1%
4.9%
18.2%

text: Attendance

text: A 2013 survey reported that 31% of Americans attend religious services at least weekly. It was conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute with a margin of error of 2.5.[134]

text: In 2006, an online Harris Poll (they stated that the magnitude of errors cannot be estimated due to sampling errors, non-response, etc.; 2,010 U.S. adults were surveyed)[135] found that 26% of those surveyed attended religious services "every week or more often", 9% went "once or twice a month", 21% went "a few times a year", 3% went "once a year", 22% went "less than once a year", and 18% never attend religious services.

text: In a 2009 Gallup International survey, 41.6%[136] of American citizens said that they attended a church, synagogue, or mosque once a week or almost every week. This percentage is higher than other surveyed Western countries.[137][138] Church attendance varies considerably by state and region. The figures, updated to 2014, ranged from 51% in Utah to 17% in Vermont.

text:
Weekly church attendance by state[139]

Rank
State
Percent

1
 Utah
51%

2
 Mississippi
47%

3
 Alabama
46%

4
 Louisiana
46%

5
 Arkansas
45%

6
 South Carolina
42%

7
 Tennessee
42%

8
 Kentucky
41%

9
 North Carolina
40%

10
 Georgia
39%

11
 Texas
39%

12
 Oklahoma
39%

13
 New Mexico
36%

14
 Nebraska
35%

15
 Indiana
35%

16
 Virginia
35%

17
 Delaware
35%

18
 Missouri
35%

19
 Idaho
34%

20
 West Virginia
34%

21
 Arizona
33%

22
 Kansas
33%

23
 Michigan
32%

24
 Ohio
32%

25
 Illinois
32%

26
  North Dakota
32%

27
 Pennsylvania
32%

28
 Iowa
32%

29
 Florida
32%

30
 Maryland
31%

31
 South Dakota
31%

32
 Minnesota
31%

33
 New Jersey
30%

34
 Wisconsin
29%

35
 Rhode Island
28%

36
 Wyoming
28%

37
 California
28%

38
 New York
27%

39
 Nevada
27%

40
 Montana
27%

41
 Alaska
26%

42
 Connecticut
25%

43
 Colorado
25%

44
 Hawaii
25%

45
 Oregon
24%

46
 Washington
24%

47
 District of Columbia
23%

48
 Massachusetts
22%

49
 Maine
20%

50
 New Hampshire
20%

51
 Vermont
17%

text: Religion and politics

text: In August 2010, 67% of Americans said religion was losing influence, compared with 59% who said this in 2006. Majorities of white evangelical Protestants (79%), white mainline Protestants (67%), black Protestants (56%), Catholics (71%), and the religiously unaffiliated (62%) all agreed that religion was losing influence on American life; 53% of the total public said this was a bad thing, while just 10% see it as a good thing.[140]

text: Politicians frequently discuss their religion when campaigning, and fundamentalists and black Protestants are highly politically active. However, to keep their status as tax-exempt organizations they must not officially endorse a candidate. Historically Catholics were heavily Democratic before the 1970s, while mainline Protestants comprised the core of the Republican Party. Those patterns have faded away—Catholics, for example, now split about 50–50. However, white evangelicals since 1980 have made up a solidly Republican group that favors conservative candidates. Secular voters are increasingly Democratic.[141]

text: Only three presidential candidates for major parties have been Catholics, all for the Democratic party:

text:
Alfred E. Smith in presidential election of 1928 was subjected to anti-Catholic rhetoric, which seriously hurt him in the Baptist areas of the South and Lutheran areas of the Midwest, but he did well in the Catholic urban strongholds of the Northeast.
John F. Kennedy secured the Democratic presidential nomination in 1960. In the 1960 election, Kennedy faced accusations that as a Catholic president he would do as the Pope would tell him to do, a charge that Kennedy refuted in a famous address to Protestant ministers.
John Kerry, a Catholic, won the Democratic presidential nomination in 2004. In the 2004 election religion was hardly an issue, and most Catholics voted for his Protestant opponent George W. Bush.[142]

text: Joe Biden is the first Catholic vice president.[143]

text: Joe Lieberman was the first major presidential candidate that was Jewish, on the Gore-Lieberman campaign of 2000 (although John Kerry and Barry Goldwater both had Jewish ancestry, they were practicing Christians). Bernie Sanders ran against Hillary Clinton in the Democratic primary of 2016. He was the first major Jewish candidate to compete in the presidential primary process. However, Sanders noted during the campaign that he does not actively practice any religion.[144]

text: In 2006 Keith Ellison of Minnesota became the first Muslim elected to Congress; when re-enacting his swearing-in for photos, he used the copy of the Qur'an once owned by Thomas Jefferson.[145] André Carson is the second Muslim to serve in Congress.

text: A Gallup poll released in 2007[146] indicated that 53% of Americans would refuse to vote for an atheist as president, up from 48% in 1987 and 1999. But then the number started to drop again and reached record low 43% in 2012 and 40% in 2015. [147][148]

text: The 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney is Mormon and a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He is the former governor of the state of Massachusetts, and his father George Romney was the governor of the state of Michigan. The Romneys were involved in Mormonism in their states and in the state of Utah.

text: Membership reported by congregations

text: Christian bodies

text: The table below is based mainly on data reported by individual denominations to the Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, and published in 2011 by the National Council of Churches of Christ in USA. It only includes religious bodies reporting 60,000 or more members. The definition of a member is determined by each religious body.[149]

text:
Religious body
Year reported
Places of worship reported
Membership (thousands)
Number of ministers

African Methodist Episcopal Church
1999
0-sm=n
2,500
7,741

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
2002
3,226
1,431
3,252

American Baptist Association
1998
1,760
275
1,740

American Baptist Churches USA
1998
3,800
1,507
4,145

Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America
1998
220
65
263

Armenian Apostolic Church
1998
28
200
25

Assemblies of God USA
2009
12,371
2,914
34,504

Baptist Bible Fellowship International
1997
4,500
1,200
–

Baptist General Conference
1998
876
141
–

Baptist Missionary Association of America
1999
1,334
235
1,525

Christian and Missionary Alliance, The
1998
1,964
346
1,629

Plymouth Brethren Christian Church
1997
1,150
100
–

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
1997
3,818
879
3,419

Christian churches and churches of Christ
1998
5,579
1,072
5,525

Christian Congregation, Inc., The
1998
1,438
117
1,436

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church
1983
2,340
719
–

Christian Reformed Church in North America
1998
733
199
655

Church of God in Christ
1991
15,300
5,500
28,988

Church of God of Prophecy
1997
1,908
77
2,000

Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)
1998
2,353
234
3034

Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee)
1995
6,060
753
3,121

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)
2006
13,010
5,779
39,030

Church of the Brethren
1997
1,095
141
827

Church of the Nazarene
1998
5,101
627
4,598

Churches of Christ
1999
15,000
1,500
14,500

Conservative Baptist Association of America
1998
1,200
200
–

Community of Christ
1998
1,236
140
19,319

Coptic Orthodox Church
2003
200
1,000
200

Cumberland Presbyterian Church
1998
774
87
634

Episcopal Church
1996
7,390
2,365
8,131

Evangelical Covenant Church, The
1998
628
97
607

Evangelical Free Church of America, The
1995
1,224
243
1,936

Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
1998
10,862
5,178
9,646

Evangelical Presbyterian Church
1998
187
61
262

Free Methodist Church of North America
1998
990
73
–

Full Gospel Fellowship
1999
896
275
2,070

General Association of General Baptists
1997
790
72
1,085

General Association of Regular Baptist Churches
1998
1,415
102
–

U.S. Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches
1996
368
82
590

Grace Gospel Fellowship
1992
128
60
160

Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
1998
523
1,955
596

Independent Fundamental Churches of America
1999
659
62
–

International Church of the Foursquare Gospel
1998
1,851
238
4,900

International Council of Community Churches
1998
150
250
182

International Pentecostal Holiness Church
1998
1,716
177
1,507

Jehovah's Witnesses
2011
13,309
1,200
–

Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, The
1998
6,218
2,594
5,227

Mennonite Church USA
2005
943
114
–

National Association of Congregational Christian Churches
1998
416
67
534

National Association of Free Will Baptists
1998
2,297
210
2,800

National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.
1987
2,500
3,500
8,000

National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.
1992
33,000
8,200
32,832

National Missionary Baptist Convention of America
1992
–
2,500
–

Old Order Amish Church
1993
898
81
3,592

Orthodox Church in America
1998
625
28
700

Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, Inc.
1998
1,750
1,500
4,500

Pentecostal Church of God
1998
1,237
104
–

Presbyterian Church in America
1997
1,340
280
1,642

Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
1998
11,260
3,575
9,390

Progressive National Baptist Convention, Inc.
1995
2,000
2,500
–

Reformed Church in America
1998
902
296
915

Conservative Friends (Quakers)
1994
1,200
104
–

Catholic Church
2002
19,484
66,404
–

Romanian Orthodox Episcopate
1996
37
65
37

Salvation Army, The
1998
1,388
471
2,920

Serbian Orthodox Church
1986
68
67
60

Seventh-day Adventist Church
1998
4,405
840
2,454

Southern Baptist Convention
1998
40,870
16,500
71,520

United Church of Christ
1998
6,017
1,421
4,317

United Methodist Church, The
1998
36,170
8,400
–

Wesleyan Church, The
1998
1,590
120
1,806

Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod
1997
1,240
411
1,222

text: ARDA survey

text: The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) surveyed congregations for their memberships. Churches were asked for their membership numbers. Adjustments were made for those congregations that did not respond and for religious groups that reported only adult membership.[150] ARDA estimates that most of the churches not responding were black Protestant congregations. Significant difference in results from other databases include the lower representation of adherents of 1) all kinds (62.7%), 2) Christians (59.9%), 3) Protestants (less than 36%); and the greater number of unaffiliated (37.3%).

text:
Religious groups

Religious group
Number
in year
2010
 % in
year
2010

Total US pop year 2010
308,745,538
100.0%

Evangelical Protestant
50,013,107
16.2%

Mainline Protestant
22,568,258
7.3%

Black Protestant
4,877,067
1.6%

Protestant total
77,458,432
25.1%

Catholic
58,934,906
19.1%

Orthodox
1,056,535
0.3%

adherents (unadjusted)
150,596,792
48.8%

unclaimed
158,148,746
51.2%

other – including Mormon & Christ Scientist
13,146,919
4.3%

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon, LDS)
6,144,582
2.0%

other – excluding Mormon
7,002,337
2.3%

Jewish estimate
6,141,325
2.0%

Buddhist estimate
2,000,000
0.7%

Muslim estimate
2,600,082
0.8%

Hindu estimate
400,000
0.4%

Source: ARDA[59][151]

text: ARIS findings regarding self-identification

text: The United States government does not collect religious data in its census. The survey below, the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) of 2008, was a random digit-dialed telephone survey of 54,461 American residential households in the contiguous United States. The 1990 sample size was 113,723; 2001 sample size was 50,281.

text: Adult respondents were asked the open-ended question, "What is your religion, if any?" Interviewers did not prompt or offer a suggested list of potential answers. The religion of the spouse or partner was also asked. If the initial answer was "Protestant" or "Christian" further questions were asked to probe which particular denomination. About one third of the sample was asked more detailed demographic questions.

text:
Religious Self-Identification of the U.S. Adult Population: 1990, 2001, 2008[44]
Figures are not adjusted for refusals to reply; investigators suspect refusals are possibly more representative of "no religion" than any other group.

text:
Source: ARIS 2008[44]

Group
1990
adults
x 1,000
2001
adults
x 1,000
2008
adults
x 1,000

Numerical
Change
1990–
2008
as %
of 1990
1990
% of
adults
2001
% of
adults
2008
% of
adults
change
in % of
total
adults
1990–
2008

Adult population, total
175,440
207,983
228,182
30.1%

Adult population, responded
171,409
196,683
216,367
26.2%
97.7%
94.6%
94.8%
−2.9%

Total Christian
151,225
159,514
173,402
14.7%
86.2%
76.7%
76.0%
−10.2%

Catholic
46,004
50,873
57,199
24.3%
26.2%
24.5%
25.1%
−1.2%

non-Catholic Christian
105,221
108,641
116,203
10.4%
60.0%
52.2%
50.9%
−9.0%

Baptist
33,964
33,820
36,148
6.4%
19.4%
16.3%
15.8%
−3.5%

Mainline Christian
32,784
35,788
29,375
−10.4%
18.7%
17.2%
12.9%
−5.8%

Methodist
14,174
14,039
11,366
−19.8%
8.1%
6.8%
5.0%
−3.1%

Lutheran
9,110
9,580
8,674
−4.8%
5.2%
4.6%
3.8%
−1.4%

Presbyterian
4,985
5,596
4,723
−5.3%
2.8%
2.7%
2.1%
−0.8%

Episcopal/Anglican
3,043
3,451
2,405
−21.0%
1.7%
1.7%
1.1%
−0.7%

United Church of Christ
438
1,378
736
68.0%
0.2%
0.7%
0.3%
0.1%

Christian Generic
25,980
22,546
32,441
24.9%
14.8%
10.8%
14.2%
−0.6%

Christian Unspecified
8,073
14,190
16,384
102.9%
4.6%
6.8%
7.2%
2.6%

Non-denominational Christian
194
2,489
8,032
4040.2%
0.1%
1.2%
3.5%
3.4%

Protestant – Unspecified
17,214
4,647
5,187
−69.9%
9.8%
2.2%
2.3%
−7.5%

Evangelical/Born Again
546
1,088
2,154
294.5%
0.3%
0.5%
0.9%
0.6%

Pentecostal/Charismatic
5,647
7,831
7,948
40.7%
3.2%
3.8%
3.5%
0.3%

Pentecostal – Unspecified
3,116
4,407
5,416
73.8%
1.8%
2.1%
2.4%
0.6%

Assemblies of God
617
1,105
810
31.3%
0.4%
0.5%
0.4%
0.0%

Church of God
590
943
663
12.4%
0.3%
0.5%
0.3%
0.0%

Other Protestant Denominations
4,630
5,949
7,131
54.0%
2.6%
2.9%
3.1%
0.5%

Churches of Christ
1,769
2,593
1,921
8.6%
1.0%
1.2%
0.8%
−0.2%

Jehovah's Witness
1,381
1,331
1,914
38.6%
0.8%
0.6%
0.8%
0.1%

Seventh-Day Adventist
668
724
938
40.4%
0.4%
0.3%
0.4%
0.0%

Mormon/Latter Day Saints
2,487
2,697
3,158
27.0%
1.4%
1.3%
1.4%
0.0%

Total non-Christian religions
5,853
7,740
8,796
50.3%
3.3%
3.7%
3.9%
0.5%

Jewish
3,137
2,837
2,680
−14.6%
1.8%
1.4%
1.2%
−0.6%

Eastern Religions
687
2,020
1,961
185.4%
0.4%
1.0%
0.9%
0.5%

Buddhist
404
1,082
1,189
194.3%
0.2%
0.5%
0.5%
0.3%

Muslim
527
1,104
1,349
156.0%
0.3%
0.5%
0.6%
0.3%

New Religious Movements & Others
1,296
1,770
2,804
116.4%
0.7%
0.9%
1.2%
0.5%

None/No religion, total
14,331
29,481
34,169
138.4%
8.2%
14.2%
15.0%
6.8%

Agnostic+Atheist
1,186
1,893
3,606
204.0%
0.7%
0.9%
1.6%
0.9%

Did Not Know/Refused to reply
4,031
11,300
11,815
193.1%
2.3%
5.4%
5.2%
2.9%

text:
The ARIS 2008 survey was carried out during February–November 2008 and collected answers from 54,461 respondents who were questioned in English or Spanish.
The American population self-identifies as predominantly Christian, but Americans are slowly becoming less Christian.

86% of American adults identified as Christians in 1990 and 76% in 2008.
The historic mainline churches and denominations have experienced the steepest declines, while the non-denominational Christian identity has been trending upward, particularly since 2001.
The challenge to Christianity in the U.S. does not come from other religions but rather from a rejection of all forms of organized religion.

34% of American adults considered themselves "Born Again or Evangelical Christians" in 2008.
The U.S. population continues to show signs of becoming less religious, with one out of every seven Americans failing to indicate a religious identity in 2008.

The "Nones" (no stated religious preference, atheist, or agnostic) continue to grow, though at a much slower pace than in the 1990s, from 8.2% in 1990, to 14.1% in 2001, to 15.0% in 2008.
Asian Americans are substantially more likely to indicate no religious identity than other racial or ethnic groups.

One sign of the lack of attachment of Americans to religion is that 27% do not expect a religious funeral at their death.
Based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification in 2008, 70% of Americans believe in a personal God, roughly 12% of Americans are atheist (no God) or agnostic (unknowable or unsure), and another 12% are deistic (a higher power but no personal God).
America's religious geography has been transformed since 1990. Religious switching along with Hispanic immigration has significantly changed the religious profile of some states and regions. Between 1990 and 2008, the Catholic population proportion of the New England states fell from 50% to 36% and in New York fell from 44% to 37%, while it rose in California from 29% to 37% and in Texas from 23% to 32%.
Overall the 1990–2008 ARIS time series shows that changes in religious self-identification in the first decade of the 21st century have been moderate in comparison to the 1990s, which was a period of significant shifts in the religious composition of the United States.

text: Ethnicity

text: The table below shows the religious affiliations among the ethnicities in the United States, according to the Pew Forum 2014 survey.[2] People of Black ethnicity were most likely to be part of a formal religion, with 85% percent being Christians. Protestant denominations make up the majority of the Christians in the ethnicities.

text:
Religion
Non-Hispanic
White
Black
Hispanic
Other/mixed

Christian
70%
79%
77%
49%

Protestant
48%
71%
26%
33%

Catholic
19%
5%
48%
13%

Mormon
2%
<0.5%
1%
1%

Jehovah's Witness
<0.5%
2%
1%
1%

Orthodox
1%
<0.5%
<0.5%
1%

Other
<0.5%
1%
<0.5%
1%

Non-Christian faiths
5%
3%
2%
21%

Jewish
3%
<0.5%
1%
1%

Muslim
<0.5%
2%
<0.5%
3%

Buddhist
<0.5%
<0.5%
1%
4%

Hindu
<0.5%
<0.5%
<0.5%
8%

Other world religions
<0.5%
<0.5%
<0.5%
2%

Other faiths
2%
1%
1%
2%

Unaffiliated (including atheist and agnostic)
24%
18%
20%
29%


document_title: Jay Gatsby

question_text: what kind of car does jay gatsby drive

question_tokens: what kind of car does jay gatsby drive

root

text: Jay Gatsby

text: Character biography[edit]

text: James Gatz hails from rural North Dakota,[1] and was born into a poor farmer family. He attended St. Olaf College but dropped out a few weeks into his first semester because he hated supporting himself by working as a janitor.

tag: p

text: After dropping out, he went to Lake Superior, where he met copper tycoon Dan Cody in Little Girl Bay. Cody became Gatz's mentor and invited him to join his ten-year yacht trek. At seventeen, Gatz changed his name to Jay Gatsby and, over the next five years, learned the ways of the wealthy. Cody left Gatsby $25,000 in his will, but after his death, Cody's mistress cheated Gatsby out of the inheritance.

text: In 1917, during his training for the infantry in World War I, 27-year-old Gatsby met and fell in love with 18-year-old debutante Daisy Fay, who was everything Gatsby was not: rich and from a patrician Louisville family.

text: During the war, Gatsby reached the rank of Major in the U.S. 16th Infantry Regiment, and was decorated for valor for his participation in the Marne and the Argonne. After the war (as he also tells Nick Carraway years later), he briefly attended Trinity College, Oxford.[2][3] While there, he received a letter from Daisy, telling him that she had married the wealthy Tom Buchanan. Gatsby then decided to commit his life to becoming a man of the kind of wealth and stature he believed would win Daisy's love.[4]

text: Gatsby returned home and settled in New York, which was being transformed by the Jazz Age. It is speculated, but never confirmed, that Gatsby took advantage of Prohibition by making a fortune from bootlegging and built connections with various gangsters such as Meyer Wolfsheim (who Gatsby claims is "the man who fixed the World's Series back in 1919").

text: With his vast income, Gatsby purchased a mansion in the fictional West Egg (a reference to Great Neck or perhaps Kings Point) of Long Island. West Egg lies on the opposite bay from old-money East Egg (a reference to Sands Point), where Daisy, Tom, and their three-year-old daughter Pammy live. At his West Egg mansion, Gatsby hosts elaborate parties every weekend, open to all comers, in an attempt to attract Daisy as a party guest. Through Daisy's cousin Nick Carraway, Gatsby finally has a chance to reunite with her. Gatsby does not reveal to Daisy or to Nick the truth of how he came to acquire his wealth. During several meetings, Gatsby tries to revive his relationship with Daisy to what had been five years ago. He seeks to woo her with his wealth and asks her to leave her boorish, faithless husband.

text: At the Buchanan home, Jordan Baker, Nick, Jay, and the Buchanans decide to visit New York City. Tom borrows Gatsby's yellow Rolls Royce to drive up to the city. On the way to New York City, Tom makes a detour at a gas station in "the Valley of Ashes", a run-down part of Long Island. The owner, George Wilson, shares his concern that his wife, Myrtle, may be having an affair. This unnerves Tom, who has been having an affair with Myrtle, and he leaves in a hurry.

text: During the party in an expensive hotel suite, the casual conversation evolves into a confrontation between Daisy, Gatsby and Tom. In a fit of anger, Gatsby insists that Daisy always loved him, not Tom, and that she only married Tom for his money. Daisy admits she loved both Tom and Gatsby. The party then breaks up, with Daisy driving Gatsby out of New York City in the yellow Rolls-Royce and Tom leaving with Daisy's friend Jordan Baker and Nick in Tom's car.

text: From her upstairs room at the gas station, Myrtle sees an approaching car. Mistakenly believing Tom has returned for her, she runs out towards the car, but is struck and killed instantly. Panicked, Daisy drives away from the scene of the accident. At Daisy's house in East Egg, Gatsby promises Daisy he would take the blame if they are ever caught.

text: Tom tells George that it was Gatsby's car that killed Myrtle. George goes to Gatsby's house in West Egg, where he shoots and kills Gatsby before committing suicide. Gatsby is later found dead, floating in his pool.

text: Despite the many guests who attended Gatsby's parties, only one (an individual known as "Owl Eyes") attends his funeral. Also at the funeral are Nick Carraway and Gatsby's father, Henry C. Gatz, who states that he was proud of his son's achievement as a self-made millionaire.[5]

text: Gatsby as a reference point[edit]

text: The figure of Jay Gatsby became a cultural touchstone in 20th century America. When the poor native son Gatsby tells Nick Carraway, his only true friend and a relative of Daisy's, he was brought up wealthy and that he attended Oxford because "all my ancestors have been educated there", MSNBC political commentator Chris Matthews sees him as the eternal American striver: "Gatsby needed more than money: he needed to be someone who had always had it..... this blind faith that he can retrofit his very existence to Daisy's specifications is the heart and soul of The Great Gatsby. It's the classic story of the fresh start, the second chance."[6]

text: "Jay Gatsby..... appears to be the quintessential American male hero. He is a powerful businessman with shady connections, drives a glamorous car..... and pursues the beautiful, privileged Daisy," Michael Kimmel and Amy Aronson write.[7] In the Handbook of American Folklore, Richard Dorson sees Gatsby as a new American archetype who made a decision to transform himself after his first chance encounter with his mentor Dan Cody, who opens the door to riches in bootlegging. "The ragged youth who some months later (after Gatsby drops out of St. Olaf) introduces himself to a degenerate yachtsman as Jay Gatsby has explicitly rejected the Protestant ethic... in favor of a much more extravagant form of ambition."[8]

text: Referring to real life figures as Gatsby has been common in the United States, usually in reference to rich men whose rise to prominence involved an element of deception. In a story on R. Foster Winans, a reporter for the Wall Street Journal's "Heard on the Street" column who was fired after it was discovered he was giving advance knowledge of the columns' contents to Peter Brant, the Seattle Post Intelligencer described Brant as "Winan's Gatsby." The article noted that Brant had changed his name from Bornstein and said he was "a man who turned his back on his heritage and his family because he felt that being recognized as Jewish would be a detriment to his career."[9]

text: The character is often used as a symbol of great wealth. Reporting in 2009 on the collapse of home prices and tourist spending in the exclusive Hamptons on Long Island, not far from the fictional setting of Gatsby's home, the Wall Street Journal quoted a struggling hotelier as saying "Jay Gatsby is dead."[10]

text: Portrayals[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text: Jay Gatsby has been portrayed by several actors in film adaptations of Fitzgerald's novel. Warner Baxter first played the role in the lost 1926 silent film. Gatsby was later portrayed by Alan Ladd in the 1949 film adaptation, Robert Redford in the 1974 film adaptation, Leonardo DiCaprio in director Baz Luhrmann's 2013 film adaptation, and Gregg Sulkin (as "Dylan Carson") in Kevin Asch's 2014 drama film Affluenza, billed as a loose re-telling of the novel set among a group of rich and privileged teenagers in Long Island before the 2008 financial crash.

text: Television[edit]

text: Toby Stephens played Gatsby in the 2000 television adaptation.

text: Mr. Burns is heavily based on Gatsby in The Simpsons episode "The Great Phatsby".

text: Radio[edit]

text: Kirk Douglas starred as Gatsby in an adaptation broadcast on CBS' Family Hour of Stars on January 1, 1950.[11]

text: Andrew Scott played Gatsby in the 2012 two-part BBC Radio 4 Classic Serial production.[12]


document_title: New Game!

question_text: in the new game what is the name of the game company aoba works at

text: New Game!

text: Plot[edit]

text: Having been inspired by the character designs of a particular video game when she was younger, Aoba Suzukaze, a high school graduate, begins working as a character designer for the game's developer, Eagle Jump. As she works on modelling and designing characters for games in development, she becomes acquainted with her fellow colleagues in the character design department, as well as those from across the company.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Media[edit]

text: Manga[edit]

text: The original manga by Shōtarō Tokunō began serialization in Houbunsha's Manga Time Kirara Carat magazine from January 28, 2013. Houbunsha has published seven tankōbon volumes between February 27, 2014 and March 27, 2018.[7] The fifth volume, subtitled The Spinoff!, takes place prior to the main series and features content not included in the magazine serialization.[7] Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the series in North America.[8]

text:
No.Japanese release dateJapanese ISBNEnglish release dateEnglish ISBN
1 February 27, 2014[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4414-6March 27, 2018[9]ISBN 978-1-626927-76-6
2 March 27, 2015[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4546-4May 29, 2018[10]ISBN 978-1-626927-85-8
3 January 27, 2016[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4656-0September 25, 2018[11]ISBN 978-1-626929-00-5
4 July 27, 2016[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4720-8December 4, 2018[12]ISBN 978-1-626929-62-3
5 July 27, 2016[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4721-5March 26, 2019[13]ISBN 978-1-642750-14-0
6 June 27, 2017[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4847-2July 23, 2019[14]ISBN 978-1-642751-05-5
7 March 27, 2018[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4929-5——
8 October 25, 2018[7]ISBN 978-4-8322-4986-8——

tag: table

text: Three comic anthologies have been released as of August 26, 2017.[15]

text:
No.Japanese release dateJapanese ISBN
1 August 27, 2016ISBN 978-4-8322-4740-6
2 July 27, 2017ISBN 978-4-8322-4859-5
3 August 26, 2017ISBN 978-4-8322-4867-0

text: Anime[edit]

text: A 12-episode anime television series adaptation aired in Japan between July 4 and September 19, 2016 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll.[16][17] The anime is produced by Doga Kobo, with Yoshiyuki Fujiwara as the director and Fumihiko Shimo as the series' script supervisor, featuring character designs by Ai Kikuchi.[18] An original video animation (OVA) episode was made available for those who purchased all six Blu-ray/DVD volumes of the series, released between September 28, 2016 and February 24, 2017.[19] The opening and ending themes respectively are "Sakura Skip" (SAKURAスキップ, Sakura Sukippu) and "Now Loading!!!", both performed by Fourfolium (Yūki Takada, Megumi Yamaguchi, Ayumi Takeo, and Megumi Toda). A second season titled New Game!! aired in Japan between July 11 and September 26, 2017 and was simulcast by Crunchyroll.[20][21] The second season's opening theme is "Step by Step Up ↑↑↑↑" while the ending themes are "Jumpin' Jump Up!!!!" for the first six episodes and "Yumeiro Compass" (ユメイロコンパス, Dream-colored Compass) for episode seven onwards, all performed by Fourfolium.[22] The series is licensed in North America by Crunchyroll, and Funimation dubbed and released it on home video.[23]

text: Video games[edit]

text: A visual novel developed by 5pb., titled New Game!: The Challenge Stage, was released for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita in Japan on January 26, 2017.[24] Characters from the series also appear alongside other Manga Time Kirara characters in the 2017 mobile role-playing game Kirara Fantasia.[25]


document_title: Tape measure

question_text: when was the first retractable tape measure invented

text: Tape measure

text: Types[edit]

text: There are two basic types of tape measures with cases, spring return pocket tape measures and long tape measures.  Spring return pocket tape measures will generally fit in a pocket.  They are small, the case is up to about three inches across.  The tape is returned to the case by a spring mechanism.  Pocket tape measures have a tape one foot to fifteen feet in length and ¼ to ¾ inches across.  When most people think of a tape measure, they are thinking of the pocket tape measure.

text: A second tape measure design is what is called the long tape.  These are cased tape measures with tapes of 25, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, and even 500 feet in length, designed for engineers and builders. Because surveying was usually done in rods, surveyors use long tapes of 33 feet (2 rods), and 66 feet (4 rods).  Surveyors also used 49½ feet of a 50-foot tape for 3 rods and 99 feet of a 100-foot tape measure for 6 rods.  Long tapes instead of being returned by a spring, were usually returned by hand crank.

text: Tape measures are often designed for specific uses or trades. Tapes may have different scales, be made of different materials, and be of different lengths depending on the use it is intended for.  Tape measures that were intended for use in tailoring or dressmaking were made from flexible cloth or plastic. They are named “sewing tape”. These types of tape measures were mainly used for the measuring of the subject’s waist line. Today, measuring tapes made for sewing are made of fiberglass, which does not tear or stretch as easily.  Measuring tapes designed for carpentry or construction often use a stiff, curved metallic ribbon that can remain stiff and straight when extended, but retracts into a coil for convenient storage. This type of tape measure will have a floating tang or hook on the end to aid measuring. The tang is connected to the tape with loose rivets through oval holes, and can move a distance equal to its thickness, to provide both inside and outside measurements that are accurate.[1]  A tape measure of 25 or even 100 feet can wind into a relatively small container. The self-marking tape measure allows the user an accurate one hand measure.

text: History[edit]

text: The first record of people using a measuring device was by the Romans using marked strips of leather, but this was more like a regular ruler than a tape measure.

text: On December 6, 1864 patent #45,372 was issued to William H. Bangs of West Meriden, Connecticut. Bang's rule was the first attempt in the United States to make a spring return pocket tape measure.   The tape could be stopped at any point and held by the mechanism.  The tape could be returned to the case by sliding a button on the side of the case which then allowed the spring to pull the tape back into the case.  [2]

text: On 3 January 1922, Hiram A. Farrand received patent #1,402,589 for his concave-convex tape, a major improvement for spring pocket tape measures.[3] Between 1922 and December 1926, Farrand experimented with the help of The Hipolito Company in Cainta Autoplex.[4] It is there Farrand and William Wentworth Brown began  mass-producing the tape measure.[5] Their product was later sold to Stanley Works.  It was Farrand's concave-convex tape that went on to become the standard for the majority of pocket tape measure tapes today

text: The first patented for a long tape measure in the United States was patent #29,096 issued July 10, 1860 to William H. Paine of Sheboygan, Wisconsin [6], and produced by George M. Eddy and Company of Brooklyn, New York.  This tape had no increments on it.  It accurately measured only a distance equal to the total length of the tape from beginning to end marker, a brass piece attached to the tape at a measured distance.  The measured length was marked on the case or crank.

text: Later, by the early 1870s, Justus Roe of Patchogue, New York added rivets attaching small brass washers, to the tape to mark inches and feet.  They were attached ever inch in the first and last foot and every foot from one to the end of the last foot.  A small brass tag, marked with a number indicating the number of feet to that point, was attached every five feet.  This feature was never patented, but Justus Roe and Sons produced tape measures, "Roe Electric Reel Tape Measures", with this feature until 1895 when they started etching or stamping increments and numbers on the tapes.  (The "electric" part of the name was purely an affectation; there was nothing electrical about it.)

text: Design[edit]

text: The basic design on which all modern spring tape measures are built can trace its origins back to an 1864 patent by a West Meriden,  Connecticut resident named William H. Bangs Jr. According to the text of his patent, Bang's tape measure was an improvement on other versions previously designed.  [7]

text: The spring tape measure has existed in the U.S. since Bang's patent in 1864, but its usage did not become very popular due to the difficulty in communication from one town to another and the expense of the tape measure. In the late 1920s, carpenters began slowly adopting H. A. Farrand's design as the one more commonly used.  Farrand's new design was a concave/convex tape made of metal which would stand straight out a distance of four to six feet.  This design is the basis for most modern pocket tape measures used today.

text: With the mass production of the integrated circuit (IC) the tape measure has also entered into the digital age with the digital tape measure. Some incorporate a digital screen to give measurement readouts in multiple formats. An early patent for this type of measure was published in 1977.[8]

text: There are also other styles of tape measures that have incorporated lasers and ultrasonic technology to measure the distance of an object with fairly reliable accuracy.

text: Tape measure's  often have black and red measurements on a yellow background as this is the optimal color combination for readability. [9]

text: United States[edit]

text: Justus Roe, a surveyor and tape-maker by trade, made the longest tape measure in 1956, at 600 feet (183 m).[10]

text: The Northern Virginia Surveyors Association presented the 600-foot, gold-plated surveyor's tape measure to Mickey Mantle in 1956.[11]

text: Some tapes sold in the United States have additional marks in the shape of small black diamonds, which appear every 19.2 inches (488 mm).  These are used to mark out equal spacing for joists (five joists or trusses per standard 8-foot (2,438 mm) length of building material).

text: Many tapes also have special markings every 16 inches (406 mm), which is a standard interval for studs in construction. Three spaces of 16 inches make exactly 4 feet (1,219 mm) which is the commercial width of a sheet of plywood, gyprock or particle board.

text: It should also be mentioned that the sale of dual metric/customary scale tapes is slowly becoming common in the United States. For example, in some Walmarts there are Hyper Tough brand tapes[12] available in US customary units and Metric units. Unlike US rulers, of which an overwhelming majority contain both cm and inch scales, tape measures are longer and thus traditionally have had scales in both inches and feet + inches. So, inclusion of a metric scale requires the measuring device to either contain 3 scales of measure or the elimination of one of the customary scales.

text: The use of millimeter only tape measures for housing construction is a part of the US metric building code[13][14]. The use of centimeters is not allowed. Millimeters produce whole (integer) numbers, reduce arithmetic errors, decreasing scrap. Australia, Bangladesh, Botswana, Cameroon, India, Kenya, Mauritius, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, United Kingdom, and Zimbabwe all use millimeters only as their unit for building construction.[15] The separation between studs is 600 millimeters which has 24 different divisors easing calculation. The metric roll-up tape shown is a millimeter only tape measure. The dual scale Stanley tape measure is US inches and centimeters.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Tape measures sold in the UK often have dual scales for metric and imperial units. Like the American tape measures described above, they also have markings every 16 in (40.6 cm) and 19.2 in (48.8 cm).

text: Canada[edit]

text: Tape measures sold in Canada often have dual scales for metric and imperial units. All tapes in imperial units have markings every 16 in (40.6 cm), but not at every 19.2 in (48.8 cm).

text: In surveying[edit]

text:
Tapes are used in surveying for measuring Horizontal, vertical or slope distances. Tapes are issued in various lengths and widths and graduated in variety of ways.[16]
The measuring tapes used for surveying purposes are classified in 4 types according to the material from which they are manufactured:

text:
Linen or Cloth Tape. It is made of linen cloth with brass handle at zero end whose length is included in the tape length. It is very light and handy, but cannot withstand much wear and tear. So it cannot be used for accurate work. It is little used in surveying except for taking subsidiary measurements like offsets.
Metallic Tape. The tape is reinforced with copper wires to prevent stretching or twisting of fibers and is then called as metallic tape. They are available in many lengths but tapes of 20 m and 30 m are more commonly used.[17]
Steel Tape. It is made of steel ribbon varying in width from 6 mm to 16 mm. It is available in lengths of 1, 2, 10, 30 and 50 meters. It cannot withstand rough usage and therefore it should be used with great care.
Invar Tape. It is made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%). It is 6 mm wide and is available in lengths of 30 m, 50 m and 100 m. It is costly and delicate and should be thus handled with great care.[18]

tag: ol


document_title: List of governors-general of India

question_text: first governor general of india of free india

text: List of governors-general of India

text: The Regulating Act of 1773 created the office with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William, or Governor-General of Bengal to be appointed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company (EIC). The Court of Directors assigned a Council of Four (based in India) to assist The Governor General, and decision of council was binding on Governor General during 1773-1784.

text: The Saint Helena Act 1833 (or Government of India Act 1833) re-designated the office with the title of Governor-General of India.

text: After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the company rule was brought to an end, and the British India along with princely states came under the direct rule of the Crown. The Government of India Act 1858 created the office of Secretary of State for India in 1858 to oversee the affairs of India, which was advised by a new Council of India with 15 members (based in London). The existing Council of Four was formally renamed as the Council of Governor General of India or Executive Council of India. The Council of India was later abolished by Government of India Act 1935.

text: Following the adoption of the Government of India Act of 1858, the Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation 'Viceroy', although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to Lord Canning as "first Viceroy and Governor-General", none of the Warrants appointing his successors referred to them as 'Viceroys', and the title, which was frequently used in Warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the Sovereign's representative. The Governor-General continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the Government of India continued to be vested in the Governor-General-in-Council.[1]

text: From the year 1858 onwards, the appointments of Governor-General of India were made by British Crown at the advice of Secretary of State for India. The office of Governor-General continued to exist as a ceremonial post in each of the new dominions until they adopted republican constitutions in 1950 and 1956 respectively..

text: List of Viceroys and Governor-Generals[edit]

text:
Name
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Term of office
Happenings
Appointer

Governors of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal), 1773–1833

Warren Hastings
(1732-1818)

20 October 1773
(originally joined on 28 April 1772)
1 February 1785

Regulating Act of 1773
Supreme Council Of Bengal
Asiatic Society of Bengal
Stopped Mughal pension to Shah Alam II
Stopped Diarchy in Bengal
New Sanskrit School by Jonathan Deccan
Moved Treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta
Bengal Gazette- First Indian newspaper published
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)
Second Anglo-Mysore war (1780–84)
First Rohilla War of 1773–1774
Second Rohilla War 1779
Experimentation on land settlements. (1772-five years settlement, changed to 1 year in 1776)
English Translation of Bhagwat Gita[2]

East India
Company

(1773–1858)

John Macpherson
(acting)
(1745–1821)

1 February 1785
12 September 1786

Charles Cornwallis, The Earl Cornwallis[3]
(1738–1805)

12 September 1786
28 October 1793

Established lower courts and appellate courts
Permanent Settlement in Bihar and Bengal in 1793
3rd Mysore war
Introduction of Cornwallis Code
Introduction of Civil Services in India

John Shore
(1751–1834)

28 October 1793
18 March 1798

Policy of Non-intervention
Charter Act of 1793
Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Marathas (1795)

Alured Clarke
(acting)
(1744–1832)

18 March 1793
18 May 1798

Richard Wellesley, Earl of Mornington [4]
(1760–1842)

18 May 1798
30 July 1805

Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance
Fourth Anglo Mysore War 1799
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)
Fort William College at Calcutta
Formation of Madras Presidency in 1801

The Marquess Cornwallis
(1738–1805)

30 July 1805
5 October 1805

George Barlow, Bt
(acting)
(1762–1847)

10 October 1805
31 July 1807

Sepoy mutiny at Vellore

The Lord Minto
(1751–1814)

31 July 1807
4 October 1813

Charter Act of 1813
Treaty of Amritsar, 1809 with Ranjit Singh

Francis Rawdon-Hastings, The Earl of Moira
[5]
(1754–1826)

4 October 1813
9 January 1823

Ended the policy of Non-intervention
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1816-1818)
1816,Treaty of Sagauli with Nepal
Creation of Bombay Presidency in 1818
Establishment of Ryotwari System in Madras and
Mahalwari System in Central India,Punjab And Western UP.

John Adam
(acting)
(1779–1825)

9 January 1823
1 August 1823
Licensing Regulations

The Lord Amherst[6]
(1773–1857)

1 August 1823
13 March 1828

First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26)
Treaty of Yandabo, 1826

William Butterworth Bayley
(acting)
(1782–1860)

13 March 1828
4 July 1828

Governors-General of India, 1833–1858

Lord William Bentinck
(1774–1839)

4 July 1828
20 March 1835

First Governor General of India
Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829
Charter Act, 1833
Saint Helena Act 1833
English Education Act 1835
Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata

East India
Company

(1773–1858)

Charles Metcalfe, Bt
(acting)
(1785–1846)

20 March 1835
4 March 1836
Repealed 1823 Licensing Regulations

The Lord Auckland[7]
(1784–1849)

4 March 1836
28 February 1842

The Lord Ellenborough
(1790–1871)

28 February 1842
June 1844

William Wilberforce Bird
(acting)
(1784–1857)

June 1844
23 July 1844

Henry Hardinge[8]
(1785–1856)

23 July 1844
12 January 1848

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)
Treaty of Lahore

The Earl of Dalhousie[9]
(1812–1860)

12 January 1848
28 February 1856

Doctrine of Lapse
Charles Wood Despatch
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852)
First Railway line connecting Bombay and Thane
First telegraph Line was laid between Diamond Harbour to Calcutta.
Post Office Act, 1854
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856
Established Public Works Department
Engineering College was established at Roorkee

Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858–1947

The Viscount Canning[10]
(1812–1862)

28 February 1856
21 March 1862

University of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were set up in 1858
The revolt of 1857
The Government of India Act, 1858
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856

Victoria

(1837–1901)

The Earl of Elgin
(1811–1863)

21 March 1862
20 November 1863

Robert Napier
(acting)
(1810–1890)

21 November 1863
2 December 1863

William Denison
(acting)
(1804–1871)

2 December 1863
12 January 1864

Sir John Lawrence, Bt
(1811–1879)

12 January 1864
12 January 1869

Bhutan War
Establishment of Shimla as India's summer capital in 1863

The Earl of Mayo
(1822–1872)

12 January 1869
8 February 1872

Assassinated by a Pathan Sher Ali Afridi

Sir John Strachey
(acting)
(1823–1907)

9 February 1872
23 February 1872

The Lord Napier
(acting)
(1819–1898)

24 February 1872
3 May 1872

The Lord Northbrook
(1826–1904)

3 May 1872
12 April 1876

The Lord Lytton
(1831–1891)

12 April 1876
8 June 1880

Vernacular Press Act
Second Anglo-Afghan War
The Indians Act (1878)[11]

The Marquess of Ripon
(1827–1909)

8 June 1880
13 December 1884

First Factory Act (1881)
Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882)
Ilbert Bill

The Earl of Dufferin
(1826–1902)

13 December 1884
10 December 1888

Formation of Indian National Congress
Third Anglo-Burmese War

The Marquess of Lansdowne
(1845–1927)

10 December 1888
11 October 1894

The Earl of Elgin
(1849–1917)

11 October 1894
6 January 1899

The Lord Curzon of Kedleston[12]
(1859–1925)

6 January 1899
18 November 1905

Partition of Bengal (1905)
Second Delhi Darbar (1903)

The Earl of Minto
(1845–1914)

18 November 1905
23 November 1911

Edward VII

(1901–1910)

The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst
(1858–1944)

23 November 1911
4 April 1916

George V

(1910–1936)

The Lord Chelmsford
(1868–1933)

4 April 1916
2 April 1921

The Earl of Reading
(1860–1935)

2 April 1921
3 April 1926

The Lord Irwin
(1881–1959)

3 April 1926
18 April 1931

The Earl of Willingdon
(1866–1941)

18 April 1931
18 April 1936

The Marquess of Linlithgow
(1887–1952)

18 April 1936
1 October 1943

Edward VIII

(1936)

The Viscount Wavell
(1883–1950)

1 October 1943
21 February 1947

George VI

(1936–1952)

The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
(1900–1979)

21 February 1947
15 August 1947

Governors-General of the Dominion of India, 1947–1950

The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma[13]
(1900–1979)

15 August 1947
21 June 1948

George VI

(1936–1952)

C. Rajagopalachari
(1878–1972)

21 June 1948
26 January 1950


document_title: Endoplasmic reticulum

question_text: what are the two main functions of endoplasmic reticulum

text: Endoplasmic reticulum

text: History[edit]

text: The ER was observed with light microscope by Garnier in 1897, who coined the term "ergastoplasm".[2][3] With electron microscopy, the lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, Brody Meskers and Ernest F. Fullam.[4] Later, the word "reticulum", which means "network", was applied by Porter in 1953 to describe this fabric of membranes.[5]

text: Structure[edit]

text: The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes called cisternae. These sac-like structures are held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane encloses the cisternal space (or lumen), which is continuous with the perinuclear space but separate from the cytosol. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum can be summarized as the synthesis and export of proteins and membrane lipids, but varies between ER and cell type and cell function.  The quantity of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum in a cell can slowly interchange from one type to the other, depending on the changing metabolic activities of the cell.  Transformation can include embedding of new proteins in membrane as well as structural changes.  Changes in protein content may occur without noticeable structural changes.[6][7][citation needed]

text: Rough endoplasmic reticulum[edit]

text: The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (often abbreviated RER or Rough ER) (also called granular endoplasmic reticulum) is studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name).[8] The binding site of the ribosome on the rough endoplasmic reticulum is the translocon.[9] However, the ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle's structure as they are constantly being bound and released from the membrane. A ribosome only binds to the RER once a specific protein-nucleic acid complex forms in the cytosol.  This special complex forms when a free ribosome begins translating the mRNA of a protein destined for the secretory pathway.[10] The first 5–30 amino acids polymerized encode a signal peptide, a molecular message that is recognized and bound by a signal recognition particle (SRP). Translation pauses and the ribosome complex binds to the RER translocon where translation continues with the nascent (new) protein forming into the RER lumen and/or membrane. The protein is processed in the ER lumen by an enzyme (a signal peptidase), which removes the signal peptide. Ribosomes at this point may be released back into the cytosol; however, non-translating ribosomes are also known to stay associated with translocons.[11]

text: The membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum forms large double membrane sheets that are located near, and continuous with, the outer layer of the nuclear envelope.[12] The double membrane sheets are stacked and connected through several right or left-handed helical ramps, the so-called Terasaki ramps, giving rise to a structure resembling  a multi-storey car park.[13][14] Although there is no continuous membrane between the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus, membrane-bound transport vesicles shuttle proteins between these two compartments.[15] Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII. COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and COPI marks them to be brought back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations. A second method of transport out of the endoplasmic reticulum involves areas called membrane contact sites, where the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules.[16][17]

text: The rough endoplasmic reticulum is key in multiple functions:

text:
Manufacture of lysosomal enzymes with a mannose-6-phosphate marker added in the cis-Golgi network.[citation needed]
Manufacture of secreted proteins, either secreted constitutively with no tag or secreted in a regulatory manner involving clathrin and paired basic amino acids in the signal peptide.
Integral membrane proteins that stay embedded in the membrane as vesicles exit and bind to new membranes. Rab proteins are key in targeting the membrane; SNAP and SNARE proteins are key in the fusion event.
Initial glycosylation as assembly continues. This is N-linked (O-linking occurs in the Golgi).
N-linked glycosylation: If the protein is properly folded, Oligosaccharyltransferase recognizes the AA sequence NXS or NXT (with the S/T residue phosphorylated) and adds a 14-sugar backbone (2-N-acetylglucosamine, 9-branching mannose, and 3-glucose at the end) to the side-chain nitrogen of Asn.

tag: ul

text: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum[edit]

text: In most cells the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (abbreviated SER) is scarce. Instead there are areas where the ER is partly smooth and partly rough, this area is called the transitional ER. The transitional ER gets its name because it contains ER exit sites. These are areas where the transport vesicles that contain lipids and proteins made in the ER, detach from the ER and start moving to the Golgi apparatus. Specialized cells can have a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and in these cells the smooth ER has many functions.[6] It synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, and steroids. Cells which secrete these products, such as those in the testes, ovaries, and sebaceous glands have an abundance of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.[18] It also carries out the metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of natural metabolism products and of alcohol and drugs, attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins, and steroid metabolism.[19] In muscle cells, it regulates calcium ion concentration. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in a variety of cell types (both animal and plant), and it serves different functions in each. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum also contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis. It is connected to the nuclear envelope and  consists of tubules that are located near the cell periphery. These tubes sometimes branch forming a network that is reticular in appearance.[12] In some cells, there are dilated areas like the sacs of rough endoplasmic reticulum. The network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum allows for an increased surface area to be devoted to the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes.

text: Sarcoplasmic reticulum[edit]

text: The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek σάρξ sarx ("flesh"), is smooth ER found in myocytes.  The only structural difference between this organelle and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the medley of proteins they have, both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens. This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions: The endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes molecules, while the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and pumps them out into the sarcoplasm when the muscle fiber is stimulated.[20][21] After their release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions interact with contractile proteins that utilize ATP to shorten the muscle fiber. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role in excitation-contraction coupling.[22]

text: Functions[edit]

text: The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus. Correct folding of newly made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins, including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member BiP/Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family. Only properly folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus – unfolded proteins cause an unfolded protein response as a stress response in the ER. Disturbances in redox regulation, calcium regulation, glucose deprivation, and viral infection[23] or the over-expression of proteins[24] can lead to endoplasmic reticulum stress response (ER stress), a state in which the folding of proteins slows, leading to an increase in unfolded proteins. This stress is emerging as a potential cause of damage in hypoxia/ischemia, insulin resistance, and other disorders.[25]

text: Protein transport[edit]

text: Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins, are moved across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence. The N-terminus (one end) of a polypeptide chain (i.e., a protein) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Nascent peptides reach the ER via the translocon, a membrane-embedded multiprotein complex. Proteins that are destined for places outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the cytoskeleton toward their destination. In human fibroblasts, the ER is always co-distributed with microtubules and the depolymerisation of the latter cause its co-aggregation with mitochondria, which are also associated with the ER.[26]

text: The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell. The majority of its resident proteins are retained within it through a retention motif. This motif is composed of four amino acids at the end of the protein sequence. The most common retention sequences are KDEL for lumen located proteins and KKXX for transmembrane protein.[27] However, variations of KDEL and KKXX do occur, and other sequences can also give rise to endoplasmic reticulum retention. It is not known whether such variation can lead to sub-ER localizations. There are three KDEL (1, 2 and 3) receptors in mammalian cells, and they have a very high degree of sequence identity. The functional differences between these receptors remain to be established.[28]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Abnormalities in XBP1 lead to a heightened endoplasmic reticulum stress response and subsequently causes a higher susceptibility for inflammatory processes that may even contribute to Alzheimer's disease.[29]  In the colon, XBP1 anomalies have been linked to the inflammatory bowel diseases including Crohn's disease.[30]

text: The unfolded protein response (UPR) is a cellular stress response related to the endoplasmic reticulum.[31] The UPR is activated in response to an accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. The UPR functions to restore normal function of the cell by halting protein translation, degrading misfolded proteins, and activating the signaling pathways that lead to increasing the production of molecular chaperones involved in protein folding. Sustained overactivation of the UPR has been implicated in prion diseases as well as several other neurodegenerative diseases and the inhibition of the UPR could become a treatment for those diseases.[32]