document_title: NBA high school draftees

question_text: who was the last person to get drafted out of high school

text: NBA high school draftees

text: History[edit]

text: Early years[edit]

text: In the early years of the NBA draft, a player had to finish his four-year college eligibility to be eligible for selection. Reggie Harding, who had graduated from high school but did not enroll in a college, became the first player drafted out of high school when the Detroit Pistons selected him in the fourth round of the 1962 draft.[3] However, the NBA rules at that time prohibited a high school player to play in the league until one year after his high school class graduated.[4][5] Thus, he spent a year playing in a minor basketball league before he was drafted again in the 1963 draft by the Pistons.[6] He finally entered the league in the 1963–64 season and played four seasons in the NBA and American Basketball Association (ABA).[7]

text: In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court decision Haywood v. National Basketball Association ruled, 7–2 against the National Basketball Association's requirement that a player must wait four years after high school graduation (which in most cases was spent playing in college) before turning professional. This ruling allowed players to enter the NBA Draft without four years of college, provided they could give evidence of hardship to the NBA office.[8]

text: In 1974, the NBA's rival, the ABA, drafted high school star Moses Malone. He was immediately signed by the Utah Stars and became the first player to go directly from high school basketball to a professional league.[9] He became an instant success, averaging 18 points and 14 rebounds per game in his rookie season. He played in the ABA until the ABA–NBA merger in 1976. He then played 19 successful seasons with 7 NBA teams. He won the NBA championship, along with the Finals Most Valuable Player Award, with the Philadelphia 76ers in 1983. His other achievements include 3 Most Valuable Player Awards, 12 consecutive All-Star Game selections, 8 All-NBA Team selections and 6 rebounding titles. He has been inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame and was also named in the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History list announced at the league's 50th anniversary in 1996.[10]

text: A year later, two high school players, Darryl Dawkins and Bill Willoughby, applied for hardship and were declared eligible to be selected in the 1975 draft.[11] They had applied and gave evidence of financial hardship to the league, which granted them the right to start earning their living by starting their professional careers earlier.[8] Dawkins was selected 5th by the Philadelphia 76ers while Willoughby was selected 19th by the Atlanta Hawks. Dawkins played 14 seasons and averaged 12 points and 6 rebounds per game. Willoughby played 8 seasons with 6 different teams and averaged only 6 points per game. Neither player reached the level of success that was expected. It is argued that they could have been better players if they had college basketball experience before entering the NBA.[12][13][14]

text: After Dawkins and Willoughby, no high schoolers were drafted for 14 years, though several players entered the league without playing college basketball. One notable player, Shawn Kemp, enrolled in college but never played any games due to personal problems. In 1989, a year after his high school graduation, he was drafted by the Seattle SuperSonics.[15] He played 14 seasons in the NBA and was selected to 6 All-Star Games and 3 All-NBA Teams.[16]

text: In 1995, Kevin Garnett, USA Today's high school basketball player of the year, announced his intentions to forgo college, and declared himself eligible for the 1995 NBA draft. The move was highly controversial; the conventional wisdom at the time was that high-schoolers were neither emotionally nor physically mature enough for the rigors of the NBA game. On draft day, Garnett was selected with the #5 pick in the first round by the Minnesota Timberwolves. Garnett led the Timberwolves to eight consecutive playoff berths and was a multiple All-Star during his time with the team. In 2004, the Wolves advanced to the Western Conference Finals before losing to the Lakers; Garnett was named Most Valuable Player that year. After a trade in the 2007 offseason to the Boston Celtics, he was a core player in the Celtics' first NBA title in over 20 years.

text: In 1996, two notable players made the jump from high school to the NBA. The first was Kobe Bryant, selected by the Charlotte Hornets with the 13th pick of the NBA draft, but traded almost immediately to the Los Angeles Lakers. The second was Jermaine O'Neal, selected by the Trail Blazers with the 17th pick. O'Neal was traded in 2000 to the Indiana Pacers (and later to the Miami Heat). In 1997, another All-Star caliber player, Tracy McGrady, was selected by the Toronto Raptors. In 1998, three high-schoolers were drafted with Al Harrington and Rashard Lewis experiencing the most success. Darius Miles became the highest high school player selected with the third pick in the 2000, until the following year.

text: In 2001, Kwame Brown (selected by the Washington Wizards) became the first high-schooler to be selected with the number one pick in the draft; since then, LeBron James (2003) and Dwight Howard (2004) have also been selected with the first pick. Other notable high-schoolers include Tyson Chandler and Eddy Curry (2001); Amar'e Stoudemire (2002); Josh Smith, Sebastian Telfair, J. R. Smith, and Shaun Livingston (2004); Andrew Bynum and Monta Ellis (2005).

text: Many prep-to-pro players like Kevin Garnett, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, and Tracy Mcgrady went on to become star players in the NBA. Kevin Garnett, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James have all won the league's MVP Award; as well as holding at least one NBA title under their belt, and are widely regarded as future Hall-of-Famers. Dwight Howard, Jermaine O'Neal and Amar'e Stoudemire also became perennial All-Stars in their prime. However, not all high-schoolers were successful. Kwame Brown and Eddy Curry are widely regarded as draft busts, while Jonathan Bender and Darius Miles had their careers cut short by injury. Korleone Young (drafted in 1998) and Leon Smith (drafted in 1999) only played a handful of games in the NBA, while Lenny Cooke and DeAngelo Collins, both of whom declared for the 2002 Draft, went undrafted and never played in the NBA.

text: Beginning 2005, both the NBA and the players' union started to discuss the possibility of implementing a new age limit. The league lobbied for an age minimum of 20 while the union was against an age limit.[17] Finally in July 2005, both sides compromised in the new collective bargaining agreement, requiring that the minimum age for entry into the NBA be 19 and that entrants be at least one year removed from high school.[18] For the first time, teams are also allowed to send players, with two years of NBA experience or less, to the NBA Development League (NBA D-League).[17]

text: The terms of the new agreement ended the practice of drafting high school players, starting in the 2006 Draft. A high school player must wait at least a year to be eligible for selection. However, they are not required to spend that year in college. In 2008, high school star Brandon Jennings decided to skip college and play professional basketball in Italy. After a year, he was eligible for the 2009 draft and was selected 10th by the Milwaukee Bucks.[19] In the 2010 draft, Latavious Williams, who did not qualify academically to go to college, spent a year playing in the NBA D-League before he was drafted in the second round.[20] Emmanuel Mudiay decided to take a route similar to that of Brandon Jennings by skipping college to play professionally in China in 2014 before being selected by the Denver Nuggets at pick 7 a year later. In the 2015 draft, Satnam Singh Bhamara, who did not qualify academically to go to college, went straight to the NBA draft as a post-graduate after being at IMG Academy for five years. He would be taken by the Dallas Mavericks with the 52nd pick in the draft, thus becoming the first high school student to be drafted since the rule changes. Most recently, in the 2016 draft, one of the Top–10 players that was declared eligible for NCAA play in 2016, Thon Maker, decided to enter the draft instead as a post-graduate from Orangeville Prep in Orangeville, Ontario, Canada due to him originally declaring himself as eligible for college in 2015. Thon would also mark the first player to be drafted directly from a Canadian high school, as well as the second player to enter as a post-graduate. He'd also be the first high schooler to be drafted in the first round since 2005. He would be drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks with the tenth pick in the draft, becoming the first high school student to be taken in the first round in that range since 2005.

text: Some players support the new age limit. Gerald Green called it "a smart move", saying that "[not everybody is] LeBron James ... He came in ready and he dominated the league. There's a lot of players that have to get developed. Me, I've got to get developed. But I guess that age limit, that one year of college experience, can get you more developed and I think that's pretty good."[17] Others, however, strongly criticize the rule. Andrew Bynum said "That's something I'll never understand. Because in no other business can the owner, or a stock trader or a C.E.O. of a company try to protect themselves by putting rules like that."[21] Former Florida Gators and current Oklahoma City Thunder head coach Billy Donovan believed that the rule made high schoolers feel like they were being punished.[22]

text: List[edit]

text: There have been 44 high school draftees in the NBA Draft. Three draftees were selected first overall; Kwame Brown in 2001 NBA draft, LeBron James in 2003 and Dwight Howard in 2004 NBA draft. Two draftees went on to win the Rookie of the Year Award in their first season; LeBron James and 2002 draftee Amar'e Stoudemire.[23] Three draftees went on to win the Most Valuable Player Award; Kevin Garnett in 2004, Kobe Bryant in 2008 and LeBron James in 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2013.[24] Ten draftees have been selected to the All-Star Game while seven draftees have been selected to the All-NBA Team.

text:
Pos.
G
F
C

Position
Guard
Forward
Center

text:
^
Denotes player who has been inducted to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

*
Denotes player who has been selected for at least one All-Star Game and All-NBA Team

+
Denotes player who has been selected for at least one All-Star Game

#
Denotes player who never played in the NBA regular season or playoffs

text:
Draft[a]
Round
Pick
Player
Pos.
Nationality
Draft team
High school (city)
Ref.

1962
4
29
Harding, ReggieReggie Harding
C
 United States
Detroit Pistons
Detroit Eastern High School (Detroit)1[›]
[25]

1975
1
5
Dawkins, DarrylDarryl Dawkins
C
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers
Maynard Evans High School (Orlando, Florida)
[26]

1975
2
19
Willoughby, BillBill Willoughby
F/C
 United States
Atlanta Hawks
Dwight Morrow High School (Englewood, New Jersey)
[27]

1995
1
5
Garnett, KevinKevin Garnett*
F
 United States
Minnesota Timberwolves
Farragut Career Academy (Chicago)
[28]

1996
1
13
Bryant, KobeKobe Bryant*
G
 United States
Charlotte Hornets
Lower Merion High School (Ardmore, Pennsylvania)
[29]

1996
1
17
O'Neal, JermaineJermaine O'Neal*
F/C
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
Eau Claire High School (Columbia, South Carolina)
[30]

1997
1
9
McGrady, TracyTracy McGrady^
F
 United States
Toronto Raptors
Mount Zion Christian Academy (Durham, North Carolina)
[31]

1998
1
25
Harrington, AlAl Harrington
F
 United States
Indiana Pacers
St. Patrick High School (Elizabeth, New Jersey)
[32]

1998
2
32
Lewis, RashardRashard Lewis+
F
 United States
Seattle SuperSonics
Alief Elsik High School (Houston, Texas)
[33]

1998
2
40
Young, KorleoneKorleone Young
F
 United States
Detroit Pistons
Hargrave Military Academy (Chatham, Virginia)
[34]

1999
1
5
Bender, JonathanJonathan Bender
F
 United States
Toronto Raptors
Picayune Memorial High School (Picayune, Mississippi)
[35]

1999
1
25
Smith, LeonLeon Smith
C
 United States
Dallas Mavericks
Martin Luther King High School (Chicago)
[36]

2000
1
3
Miles, DariusDarius Miles
F
 United States
Los Angeles Clippers
East St. Louis High School (East St. Louis, Illinois)
[37]

2000
1
23
Stevenson, DeShawnDeShawn Stevenson
G
 United States
Utah Jazz
Washington Union High School (Fresno, California)
[38]

2001
1
1
Brown, KwameKwame Brown
F
 United States
Washington Wizards
Glynn Academy (Brunswick, Georgia)
[39]

2001
1
2
Chandler, TysonTyson Chandler*
C
 United States
Los Angeles Clippers
Dominguez High School (Compton, California)
[40]

2001
1
4
Curry, EddyEddy Curry
C
 United States
Chicago Bulls
Thornwood High School (South Holland, Illinois)
[41]

2001
1
8
Diop, DeSaganaDeSagana Diop
C
 Senegal
Cleveland Cavaliers
Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia)
[42]

2001
2
46
Cisse, OusmaneOusmane Cisse#
F
 Mali
Denver Nuggets
St. Jude High School (Montgomery, Alabama)
[43]

2002
1
9
Stoudemire, Amar'eAmar'e Stoudemire*
F/C
 United States
Phoenix Suns
Cypress Creek High School (Orlando, Florida)
[44]

2003
1
1
James, LeBronLeBron James*
F
 United States
Cleveland Cavaliers
St. Vincent – St. Mary High School (Akron, Ohio)
[45]

2003
1
23
Outlaw, TravisTravis Outlaw
F
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
Starkville High School (Starkville, Mississippi)
[46]

2003
1
26
Ebi, NdudiNdudi Ebi
F
 United Kingdom
 Nigeria2[›]
Minnesota Timberwolves
Westbury Christian School (Houston, Texas)
[47]

2003
1
27
Perkins, KendrickKendrick Perkins
C
 United States
Memphis Grizzlies
Clifton J. Ozen High School (Beaumont, Texas)
[48]

2003
2
48
Lang, JamesJames Lang
C
 United States
New Orleans Hornets
Central Park Christian High School (Birmingham, Alabama)
[49]

2004
1
1
Howard, DwightDwight Howard*
F/C
 United States
Orlando Magic
Southwest Atlanta Christian Academy (Atlanta)
[50]

2004
1
4
Livingston, ShaunShaun Livingston
G
 United States
Los Angeles Clippers
Peoria High School (Peoria, Illinois)
[51]

2004
1
12
Swift, RobertRobert Swift
C
 United States
Seattle SuperSonics
Bakersfield High School (Bakersfield, California)
[52]

2004
1
13
Telfair, SebastianSebastian Telfair
G
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
Abraham Lincoln High School (Brooklyn, New York)
[53]

2004
1
15
Jefferson, AlAl Jefferson
F
 United States
Boston Celtics
Prentiss High School (Prentiss, Mississippi)
[54]

2004
1
17
Smith, JoshJosh Smith
F
 United States
Atlanta Hawks
Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia)
[55]

2004
1
18
Smith, J. R.J. R. Smith
G
 United States
New Orleans Hornets
Saint Benedict's Preparatory School (Newark, New Jersey)
[56]

2004
1
19
Wright, DorellDorell Wright
G/F
 United States
Miami Heat
South Kent Preparatory School (South Kent, Connecticut)
[57][58]

2005
1
6
Webster, MartellMartell Webster
G/F
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
Seattle Preparatory School (Seattle)
[59]

2005
1
10
Bynum, AndrewAndrew Bynum+
C
 United States
Los Angeles Lakers
St. Joseph High School (Metuchen, New Jersey)
[60]

2005
1
18
Green, GeraldGerald Green
F
 United States
Boston Celtics
Gulf Shores Academy (Houston, Texas)
[61]

2005
2
34
Miles, C. J.C. J. Miles
G
 United States
Utah Jazz
Skyline High School (Dallas)
[62]

2005
2
35
Sánchez, RickyRicky Sánchez#
F
 Puerto Rico
Portland Trail Blazers
IMG Academy (Bradenton, Florida)
[63]

2005
2
40
Ellis, MontaMonta Ellis
G
 United States
Golden State Warriors
Lanier High School (Jackson, Mississippi)
[64]

2005
2
45
Williams, LouisLouis Williams
G
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers
South Gwinnett High School (Snellville, Georgia)
[65]

2005
2
49
Blatche, AndrayAndray Blatche
F
 United States
 Philippines3[›]
Washington Wizards
South Kent Preparatory School (South Kent, Connecticut)
[66]

2005
2
56
Johnson, AmirAmir Johnson
F
 United States
Detroit Pistons
Westchester High School (Los Angeles)
[67]

2015
2
52
Singh, SatnamSatnam Singh#
C
 India4[›]
Dallas Mavericks
IMG Academy (Bradenton, Florida)
[68]

2016
1
10
Maker, ThonThon Maker
F/C
 Sudan
 South Sudan
 Australia5[›]
Milwaukee Bucks
Orangeville District Secondary School (Orangeville, Ontario, Canada)6[›]
[69]

text:
^ 1: Reggie Harding played and graduated from Detroit Eastern High School in January but he played high school basketball in Nashville, Tennessee prior to the draft.[70][71]
^ 2: While Ndudi Ebi was originally born and raised in London, England, he also holds Nigerian nationality due to his parents being born and raised there.
^ 3: Andray Blatche was born and raised in Syracuse, New York and holds American nationality, but he had become a naturalized Filipino since June 2014 and has officially represented the Philippines since.
^ 4: Satnam Singh officially marks the first ever player to be taken from India in the NBA. He also marks the first time since 2005 after their latest ruling on high school players that someone directly from high school would be taken in the draft, albeit as a postgraduate senior.
^ 5: Thon Maker was born in Wau, Sudan at the time, but Wau has now since become a part of South Sudan instead due to war. Even then, though, he would be raised as an Australian representative.
^ 6: Thon Maker would become the first high schooler (and second overall high school postgraduate student) to be selected from the nation of Canada instead of somewhere in the United States of America. Also, while Thon attended classes at Orangeville Prep, he would play basketball games for the Athlete Institute nearby in Mono, Ontario as well.

text: Other players[edit]

text: The following players also played in the NBA or were drafted without playing college basketball; however, these players did not get drafted or join the NBA directly after their high school graduation.

text:
Year[b]
Debut[c]
Player
Pos.
Nationality
High school (city)
Notes
Ref.

—[d]
1946
Kappen, TonyTony Kappen
G
 United States
—[d]

Played in the ABL before making his BAA debut
The first player to play in the BAA/NBA without any college experience
Made his BAA debut at the age of 27

[72][73][74]

—[d]
1946
Simmons, ConnieConnie Simmons
F/C
 United States
Flushing High School (Flushing, New York)5[›]

The second player to play in the BAA/NBA without any college experience
Made his BAA debut at the age of 21

[75][76]

—[d]
1948
Graboski, JoeJoe Graboski
F/C
 United States
Tuley High School (Chicago)

The third and final player to play in the BAA before its merger as the NBA
Made his BAA debut at the age of 18

[77][78]

1960
1969
Hawkins, ConnieConnie Hawkins^
F/C
 United States
Boys High School (Brooklyn, New York)

Was permanently banned by the NBA due to a point shaving scandal in college, but was later reinstated in 1969
Attended University of Iowa
Played in the ABL and the ABA before making his NBA debut

[79][80][81]

1974
1976
Malone, MosesMoses Malone^
F/C
 United States
Petersburg High School (Petersburg, Virginia)

Drafted by the Utah Stars in the 1974 ABA Draft
Played in the ABA before the ABA–NBA merger

[82]

1988
1989
Kemp, ShawnShawn Kemp*
F/C
 United States
Concord High School (Elkhart, Indiana)

Attended University of Kentucky and Trinity Valley Community College
Drafted by the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1989 NBA draft (1st round, 17th pick)

[83][84]

1986
1992
Daniels, LloydLloyd Daniels
G
 United States
Andrew Jackson High School (Queens, New York)

Attended Mt. San Antonio College
Played in various minor basketball leagues before making his NBA debut

[85][86][87]

1993
1996
Hamilton, ThomasThomas Hamilton
C
 United States
Martin Luther King High School (Chicago)

Attended University of Pittsburgh
Declared for the 1994 NBA draft but went undrafted

[88][89]

1996
2000
Jackson, StephenStephen Jackson
F
 United States
Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia)

Attended Butler Community College
Drafted by the Phoenix Suns in the 1997 NBA draft (2nd round, 43rd pick)

[90][91]

2001
2015
Huertas, MarceloMarcelo Huertas
G
 Brazil
 Italy
Coppell High School (Coppell, Texas)

Was born in Brazil and played for the Esporte Clube Pinheiros before moving to the U.S.A. around 2000.
Played senior year in Coppell High School before beginning his professional international career.
Went undrafted in the 2005 NBA draft.
Played in Brazil, Spain, and Italy before making his NBA debut in 2015.

[92]

2004
2005
Butler, JackieJackie Butler
F/C
 United States
Coastal Christian Academy (Virginia Beach, Virginia)

Initially committed to Mississippi State University and, later on, the University of Tennessee
Declared for the 2004 NBA draft but went undrafted
Played in the CBA before making his NBA debut

[93][94][95]

2008
2009
Jennings, BrandonBrandon Jennings
G
 United States
Oak Hill Academy (Mouth of Wilson, Virginia)

Initially committed to the University of Southern California and, later on, the University of Arizona
Played in the Italian league in the 2008–09 season
Drafted by the Milwaukee Bucks in the 2009 NBA draft (1st round, 10th pick)

[96][97]

2009

Williams, LataviousLatavious Williams#
F
 United States
Christian Life Center Academy (Humble, Texas)

Initially committed to the University of Memphis
Played in the NBA D-League in the 2009–10 season
Drafted by the Miami Heat in the 2010 NBA draft (2nd round, 43rd pick)

[98][99]

2010
2011
Kanter, EnesEnes Kanter
F/C
 Turkey
Stoneridge Preparatory School (Simi Valley, California)

Previously played in both youth squads and professionally in Turkey
Moved to the U.S.A. in 2009 and played basketball in his senior year of high school
Attended the University of Kentucky, but was barred from playing due to his previous time spent in Turkey
Drafted by the Utah Jazz in the 2011 NBA draft (1st round, 3rd pick)

2010
2011
Tyler, JeremyJeremy Tyler
C
 United States
San Diego High School (San Diego)

Initially committed to the University of Louisville
Left high school after his junior year in 2009
Played in the Israeli league in the 2009–10 season
Played in the Japanese league in the 2010–11 season
Drafted by the Charlotte Bobcats in the 2011 NBA draft (2nd round, 39th pick)

[100][101]

2012
2013
Ledo, RickyRicky Ledo
G
 United States
South Kent High School (South Kent, Connecticut)

Attended Providence College
Drafted by the Dallas Mavericks in the 2013 NBA draft (2nd round, 43rd pick)

2013
2015
Felício, CristianoCristiano Felício
C
 Brazil
CCSE Prep Academy (Sacramento)

Was born in Brazil and played professionally there before moving in his senior year.
Tried to get a scholarship for the University of Oregon, but was deemed ineligible.
Returned to playing professionally in Brazil.

2014
2015
Mudiay, EmmanuelEmmanuel Mudiay
PG
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
 United States
Prime Prep Academy (Dallas)

Initially committed to Southern Methodist University
Played in the Chinese professional league in the 2014–15 season
Drafted by the Denver Nuggets in the 2015 NBA draft (1st round, 7th pick)

2014
2016
Papagiannis, GeorgiosGeorgios Papagiannis
C
 Greece
Westtown School (West Chester, Pennsylvania)

Was born in Greece and played professionally for Peristeri at 14 before moving in his freshman year
Went to Westtown as a junior before moving back to Greece
Played professionally for the Panathinaikos while also attending the American School in Athens, Greece
Drafted by the Phoenix Suns and traded to the Sacramento Kings in the 2016 NBA draft (1st round, 13th pick)

text: ^ 5: Secondary source mentions that Connie Simmons attended Forest Hills High School (Queens, New York).[76]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: Despite the success of some high school players drafted, the entry of high school players into the NBA remains controversial. Critics say that high school players are not mentally and physically mature or prepared enough to handle the pressure of professional play. Thus, they are more likely to fail.[14][102] Instead, they believe that colleges are useful at filtering out players who can dominate against weak competition in high school, but cannot succeed at a higher level of play. They also think that the influx of high schoolers bypassing colleges in favor of the NBA has caused collegiate game to deteriorate. Universities are wary of spending time recruiting as many players that are motivated financially to turn pro fresh out of high school.[102][103]

text: On the other hand, proponents argue that there is no valid reason to exclude high school players. Michael McCann, writer of law article "Illegal Defense: The Irrational Economics of Banning High School Players from the NBA Draft", contends that players drafted straight out of high school can do as well as any other players in the NBA. The article finds that "on average, these [high school] players perform better in every major statistical category than does the average NBA player".[104] Others instead believe that the problem was due to the lack of established farm system in basketball until recently. In other major sports, such as baseball and hockey, it is common for young players to develop in their minor league systems.[102]


document_title: Pulpit

question_text: what is the podium in a catholic church called

root

text: Pulpit

text: Location of pulpit and lectern[edit]

text: In many Reformed and Evangelical Protestant denominations, the pulpit is at the centre of the front of the church (and any altar or communion table off to one side), while in the Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican traditions the pulpit is placed to one side and the altar or communion table is in the centre. In many Christian churches, there are two speakers' stands at the front of the church. Often, the one on the left (as viewed by the congregation) is called the pulpit. Since the Gospel lesson is often read from the pulpit, the pulpit side of the church is sometimes called the gospel side.

tag: p

text: In both Catholic and Protestant churches the pulpit may be located closer to the main congregation in the nave, either on the nave side of the crossing, or at the side of the nave some way down. This is especially the case in large churches, to ensure the preacher can be heard by all the congregation. Fixed seating for the congregation came relatively late in the history of church architecture, so the preacher being behind some of the congregation was less of an issue than later. Fixed seating facing forward in the nave and modern electric amplification has tended to reduce the use of pulpits in the middle of the nave. Outdoor pulpits, usually attached to the exterior of the church, or at a preaching cross, are also found in several denominations.[2] If attached to the outside wall of a church, these may be entered from a doorway in the wall, or by steps outside.

text: The other speaker's stand, usually on the right (as viewed by the congregation), is known as the lectern. The word lectern comes from the Latin word "lectus" past participle of legere, meaning "to read", because the lectern primarily functions as a reading stand. It is typically used by lay people to read the scripture lessons (except for the Gospel lesson), to lead the congregation in prayer, and to make announcements. Because the epistle lesson is usually read from the lectern, the lectern side of the church is sometimes called the epistle side. In other churches, the lectern, from which the Epistle is read, is located to the congregation's left and the pulpit, from which the sermon is delivered, is located on the right (the Gospel being read from either the centre of the chancel or in front of the altar).

text: Though unusual, movable pulpits with wheels were also found in English churches. They were either wheeled into place for each service where they would be used or, as at the hospital church in Shrewsbury, rotated to different positions in the church quarterly in the year, to allow all parts of the congregation a chance to have the best sound.[3] A portable outside pulpit of wood and canvas was used by John Wesley, and a 19th century Anglican vicar devised a folding iron pulpit for using outdoors.[3]

text: Origins[edit]

text: The Ancient Greek bema (βῆμα) means both 'platform' and 'step', and was used for a variety of secular raised speaking platforms in ancient Greece and Rome, and from those times to today for the central raised platform in Jewish synagogues. Modern synagogue bimahs are often similar in form to centrally-placed pulpits in Evangelical churches.

text: The use of a bema carried over from Judaism into early Christian church architecture. It was originally a raised platform, often large, with a lectern and seats for the clergy, from which lessons from the Scriptures were read and the sermon was delivered. In Western Christianity the bema developed over time into the sanctuary and chancel (or presbytery).

text: The next development was the ambo, from a Greek word meaning an elevation. This was originally a raised platform from which the Epistle and Gospel would be read, and was an option to be used as a preacher's platform for homilies, though there were others. Saint John Chrysostom (died 407) is recorded as preaching from the ambo, but this was probably uncommon at this date. In cathedrals early bishops seem often to have preached from their chair in the apse, echoing the position of magistrates in the secular basilicas whose general form most large early churches adopted. Often there were two ambos, one to each side, one used more as a platform on which the choir sang; sometimes the gospel was read, chanted or sung from one side and the epistle from the other. The location of the ambo within the church varied, with about the same range of places as modern pulpits. In ancient Syrian churches it was often placed in the centre of the nave (on both axes). Gradually the ambo came to resemble the modern pulpit in both form and function, though early examples in large churches are often large enough to accommodate several people.[4] The steps up to the pulpit almost invariably approach it from the side or behind, and are often curved. The typical design of the Islamic minbar, where a straight flight of steps leads to the front of the pulpit, is very different.

text: The Ambon of Henry II, an Imperial gift of 1014 to Aachen Cathedral, was originally installed centrally, but later moved to the side. It is richly decorated with sheets of gold, ivory, and gems, probably emulating Justinian's lost pulpit of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, of which a description by Paul the Silentiary survives.[5] In churches where there is only one speaker's stand at the front of the church, it serves the functions of both lectern and pulpit and may be called the ambo, which is still the official Catholic term for the place the gospel is read from.

text: Catholicism[edit]

text: In Roman Catholic churches, the stand used for readings and homilies is formally called the ambo. Despite its name, this structure usually more closely resembles a lectern than the ambon of the Eastern Catholic churches. The readings are typically read from an ambo in the sanctuary, and depending on the arrangement of the church, the homily may be delivered from a raised pulpit where there is one.[6] The General Instruction of the Roman Missal (GIRM) specifies:

text: 309. The dignity of the word of God requires that in the church there be a suitable place from which it may be proclaimed and toward which the attention of the faithful naturally turns during the Liturgy of the Word. It is appropriate that generally this place be a stationary ambo and not simply a movable lectern. The ambo must be located in keeping with the design of each church in such a way that the ordained ministers and readers may be clearly seen and heard by the faithful. From the ambo only the readings, the Responsorial Psalm, and the Easter Proclamation (Exsultet) are to be proclaimed; likewise it may be used for giving the Homily and for announcing the intentions of the Universal Prayer. The dignity of the ambo requires that only a minister of the word should stand at it. ...[7]

text: Protestantism[edit]

text: In some Protestant churches, the pulpit is considered the most important piece of furniture in the sanctuary. It is located centrally in relation to the congregation and raised. In such churches it may be where the minister stands for most of the service. In the eighteenth century, two-decker and triple-decker pulpits were often introduced in English-speaking countries. The three levels of lecterns were intended to show the relative importance of the readings delivered there. The bottom tier was for community announcements, the middle was for the gospel, and the top tier was reserved for the delivery of the sermon. A good example of a three-decker pulpit is found in St Andrew's Church, Slaidburn, Lancashire. America's only surviving three-decker pulpit on the centerline of the church is at Trinity Church, Newport, Rhode Island.

text: In many Evangelical Christian churches, the pulpit stands squarely in the centre of the platform, and is generally the largest piece of church furniture. This is to symbolize the proclamation of the Word of God as the central focus of the weekly service of worship. In more contemporary evangelical churches, the pulpit may be much smaller, if used at all, and is generally carried out after the end of the song service. However, it usually is placed in the centre of the platform as well.

text: Presbyterian Protestant churches[edit]

text: Traditional Presbyterian Churches in Scotland and elsewhere often had a central pulpit, that is, the pulpit was located in the centre of the chancel in the position where most churches have the communion table or altar. The table could be situated in front of the pulpit or to the side, and sometimes was not in the chancel area at all.

text: This declares the Bible to be the foundation of the faith. Furthermore, the "Centrality of the Word" implies that the reading and preaching of the Bible is the centrepiece of a service of worship, and thus takes priority over the sacraments. The central pulpit is intended to give visual representation of this idea.[8][9]

text: Since the late 19th century, the fashion in the Church of Scotland and most other Presbyterian denominations has been for a return to the pre-Reformation layout. Thus many buildings which once had a central pulpit now have a pulpit to the side. See for example Skene Parish Church or Old West Church, Boston, Massachusetts.

text: This Presbyterian tradition is historically distinct from the tradition of the ambon in Eastern Christianity.

text: Eastern Orthodoxy[edit]

text: In modern Eastern Christianity the area directly in front of the Beautiful Gates of the iconostasis from which the Gospel is typically read is called the ambon, and the entire low elevation above the level of the nave in front of the iconostasis is called the soleas. In larger churches, the ambo might be distinguished by three curved steps by which one may reach it from the nave.[10] In addition many Orthodox churches, especially Greek-speaking churches, have pulpits for preaching from, which are similar to those in Western Christianity.

text: In Eastern Orthodox Church cathedrals there is usually a low platform in the center of the nave called the episcopal ambo where the bishop is vested prior to the Divine Liturgy and where he is enthroned until the Little Entrance. If the bishop is serving in a simple parish church, an episcopal ambo is set temporarily in place.

text: In addition to the ambo, many major churches in Greece and Cyprus also have a raised pulpit on the left side of the nave, usually attached to a column and raised several feet high. This is reached by a narrow flight of stairs. It is considered an architectural element that is symmetrical to the bishop's throne, which is located in an equivalent position on the right. Pulpit and throne are usually similar in construction, usually made of either sculpted stone or sculpted wood. This pulpit was used mostly for sermons and in order to improve audibility, before the advent of modern public address systems in churches. Nowadays it is used rarely. Tradition dictates that it be used for the reading of the "12 Passion Gospels" during the Matins of Holy Friday, served late in the evening of Maundy Thursday. This is done to signify that the Passion of Christ is being "broadcast" for all to know. In the same spirit, a phonetic transcription of the relevant Gospel passages is provided in several common languages (e.g. English, French, Russian, Arabic etc.), so that they may be read from this pulpit at the same time.

text: Decoration[edit]

text: The exterior of a wood or stone pulpit may be decorated, especially with carved reliefs, and in the centuries after the Protestant Reformation these were sometimes, especially in Lutheran churches, one of the few areas of the church left with figurative decoration such as scenes from the Life of Christ. Pulpit reliefs were especially important at the start of the Italian Renaissance, including those from the Pisa Baptistry (1260) and Siena Cathedral Pulpit (1265–68) by Nicola Pisano, the Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia by Giovanni Pisano (1301), and those by Donatello

text: Elements of decoration shared between Catholic and Protestant denominations are the flowers that may be placed in front of the pulpit, and the antependium or "pulpit fall", a piece of cloth that covers the top of the book-stand in the pulpit and hangs down a short way at the front. It is often of a rich material and decorated with Christian symbols. Flags and banners used by church-related organizations may also stand on the floor around the pulpit.

text: In the Reformed tradition, though avoiding figurative art, pulpits were increasingly important as a focus for the church, with the sanctuary now comparatively bare and de-emphasized, and were often larger and more elaborately decorated than in medieval churches.[11]

text: The bookstand of the pulpit (usually in medieval churches) or lectern (common in Anglican churches) may be formed in the shape of an eagle. The eagle symbolizes the gospels, and shows where these were read from at the time the eagle was placed there. When pulpits like those by the Pisani with eagles in stone on them were built the gospel reading was done from the pulpit.

text: The spread of the sounding board offered artists decorating Catholic Baroque churches a space for spectacular features of various types on top of it. An artistic conceit largely confined to the 18th century Rococo churches of South Germany was to shape the body of the pulpit as a ship, to utilize the old metaphor of the church as a ship. This allowed for fantastical plaster or wood decoration of sails and rigging manned by angels above, and apostles hauling in nets below.

text: Gallery[edit]

text: Outdoor pulpits[edit]

text:
External gothic pulpit in Saint-Lô, France

Outdoor pulpit of Giovanni da Capistrano, Vienna Austria

St James's Church, Piccadilly, in the centre of London, 1680s

Open-air pulpit in the forecourt of the Chapel at Scotch College, Melbourne

Fr. Coughlin's outdoor pulpit at the Shrine of the Little Flower in Royal Oak, Michigan.

tag: ul

text: Modern pulpits[edit]

text:
A modern pulpit on the chancel of a Presbyterian Church in California

A modern pulpit in Jakobskirken, Roskilde, Denmark.

A pulpit in the chancel of a Methodist church in Ohio

text: Older pulpits[edit]

text:
Ambon of Henry II (1014), Aachen Cathedral

Baroque pulpit of 1613 carved in wood by Paolo Froni Parma Cathedral

Italian pulpit of 1150 or older

Gothic wood, France

Late Baroque polychromed wood in a South German pilgrimage church

Pulpit in Irsee Abbey, Bavaria in the shape of a ship's prow

A late 18th century pulpit in a small Roman Catholic church in Spielfeld, Styria, Austria.

Enånger old church in Sweden

boat-shaped German Rococo pulpit

Terracotta Pieve delle Sante Flora e Lucilla in Santa Fiora, Italy

Stone pulpit at Chiesa Bartolomeo in Pantano Pistoia Italy

Pulpit at St. John the Baptist Cathedral, Yaroslavl, Russia (17th century)

Stone pulpit at Worcester cathedral England

Wooden pulpit at the Church of the Holy Ghost in Tallinn in Estonia

Many of the most elaborate Catholic pulpits are from Baroque Belgium

Baroque Church of St. Anne in Kraków, Poland

A Calvinist 17th century pulpit of the Calvinist Dutch Reformed church in Buren, the Netherlands.

Gallus chapel in Greifensee ZH, Switzerland

Baroque pulpit in the Amiens Cathedral, France

Saint-Thiébaut Church, Thann, France

Strasbourg Cathedral, France

Old Ship Church, Hingham, Massachusetts

Stone with wooden top in the Collégiale Saint-Florent, Niederhaslach, France

Gothic-revival "wine glass" pulpit and sounding board from 1872 in St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church, Charleston, South Carolina

Neo-Byzantine in the Catholic Westminster Cathedral

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulpits.

tag: table

text: Christianity portal

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "Pulpit". Merriam-Wester Online Dictionary. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Francis, 19
^ Jump up to: a b Francis, 18
Jump up ^ Mountford, 34–36; Ryan, 50–51;
Jump up ^ Milson, 193
Jump up ^ Ryan, 51–52
Jump up ^ "Chapter V: The Arrangement and Ornamentation of Churches for the Celebration of the Eucharist". General Instruction of the Roman Missal. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. 2011.
Jump up ^ "Where's the Pulpit go?". Retrieved 10 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Ronald L. Dart. "The performance church". Retrieved 19 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopædia: Ambo (in the Russian and Greek Church)
Jump up ^ Mountford, 36

tag: ol


document_title: Duel (1971 film)

question_text: who played the truck driver in the movie duel

text: Duel (1971 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: David Mann is a middle-aged salesman driving on a business trip. He encounters a tanker truck on a two-lane highway in the Mojave Desert, traveling below the speed limit and expelling sooty diesel exhaust. Mann passes the truck, but the truck then roars past him. When Mann overtakes and passes it again, the truck blasts its horn. Mann leaves it in the distance.

text: Mann pulls into a gas station, and shortly afterward the truck arrives and parks next to him. Through the space beneath the truck bed, he sees the driver is wearing cowboy boots. Mann phones his wife, who is upset with him after an argument the previous night. The gas station attendant refills Mann's car and mentions that it needs a new radiator hose, but he says he will get it fixed later.

text: Back on the road, the truck catches up, passes, and blocks Mann’s path each time he attempts to pass. After antagonizing Mann for some time, the driver waves him past. However, when Mann attempts to pass he almost runs into an oncoming vehicle. He realizes the truck driver tried to trick him into a crash, so he passes the truck using an unpaved turnout next to the highway and taunts the driver as he speeds past.

text: The truck tailgates Mann at high speeds, forcing him to increase his speed to avoid being rear-ended. Mann finally drives his car off the road and collides with a fence opposite a diner. The truck continues down the road, and Mann enters the diner to compose himself. Though he assumes the truck driver's road rage has been satisfied, upon returning from the restroom he sees the truck parked outside. He studies the diner patrons and confronts a man wearing the same cowboy boots he saw on the truck driver. Offended, the driver strikes Mann and drives away in a different truck. The pursuing truck leaves seconds later, indicating its driver was never inside the diner.

text: Mann leaves the diner and stops to help a stranded school bus, but his front bumper becomes caught underneath the bus's rear bumper. The truck appears at the end of a tunnel. Mann panics, frees his car by jumping on the hood while the bus driver puts the car in reverse, and flees. To Mann's slight chagrin, the truck starts the bus by giving it a push-start to get it moving. Shortly afterward, Mann is stopped at a railroad crossing when the truck pushes his car toward a passing freight train. After the train passes, Mann crosses the tracks and pulls over. The truck continues down the road and Mann follows.

text: Mann stops at a gas station to call the police and replace his radiator hose, but when he steps into the phone booth, the truck drives into it. Mann jumps clear just in time, However, the truck also drives into some glass cages, featuring wild animals, where Mann barely escapes from getting bitten by a rattlesnake. The lady who runs the station cries out in horror as the truck destroys her cages and potentially kills some of the animals that lived in them. He gets into his car and speeds away. Around a corner he pulls off the road, hiding behind an embankment as the truck drives past.

text: After a long wait, Mann heads off again but finds the truck waiting for him down the road. Mann attempts to speed past, but it moves across the road, blocking his way. Mann seeks help from an older couple in a car, but they flee when the truck backs up towards them at speed. The truck stops before hitting Mann's car and the driver waves him past. At one point, Mann observes a black-and-white car parked on the side of the road. Thinking that it is a police car, he skids to a stop, only for him to realize that it is a pest control vehicle. He speeds off and the chase continues. The truck chases him up a mountain range. The radiator hose of Mann's car breaks, causing the car to overheat. He barely makes the summit and coasts downhill in neutral as the truck bears down on him. However, a sign states that trucks have to use low gear the next twelve miles and the truck driver is forced to slow down, allowing Mann to gain speed.

text: Mann's car cools off enough to allow him to drive up a dirt road and the truck follows him. He turns to face his opponent on a hill overlooking a canyon. He places his briefcase on the accelerator and steers toward the oncoming truck, jumping from the car at the last moment. The tanker hits the car, which bursts into flames, obscuring the truck driver's view. The driver realizes it is too late and honks one final time at Mann, before the truck plunges over the cliff, killing him. Above the wreckage, Mann jumps up and down, laughing with glee and relief. Physically and mentally exhausted, he sits at the cliff's edge and throws stones into the canyon as the sun sets.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Dennis Weaver as David Mann
Jacqueline Scott as Mrs. Mann
Carey Loftin as the Truck Driver
Eddie Firestone as Café owner
Lou Frizzell as Bus Driver
Eugene Dynarski as Man in café
Lucille Benson as Lady at Snakerama
Tim Herbert as Gas station attendant

Charles Seel as Old man
Shirley O'Hara as Waitress
Alexander Lockwood as Jim, Old man in car
Amy Douglass as Old woman in car
Sweet Dick Whittington as Radio interviewer
Dale Van Sickel as Car Driver
Shawn Steinman as Girl on School Bus (uncredited)

text: Production[edit]

text: The script is adapted by Richard Matheson from his own short story, originally published in Playboy magazine. Matheson got the inspiration for the story when he was tailgated by a trucker while on his way home from a golfing match with friend Jerry Sohl on November 22, 1963, the same day as the John F. Kennedy assassination.[1] After a series of unsuccessful attempts to pitch the idea as an episode for various television series, he decided to write it as a short story instead.[1] In preparation for writing the story, he drove from his home to Ventura and recorded everything he saw on a tape recorder.[1]

text: The original short story was given to Spielberg by his secretary, who told him that it was being made into a movie of the week and suggested he apply to be the director.[2] Duel was Spielberg's second feature-length directing effort, after his 1971 The Name of the Game NBC television series episode "L.A. 2017".

text: Much of the movie was filmed in and around the communities of Canyon Country, Agua Dulce, and Acton, California. In particular, sequences were filmed on the Sierra Highway, Agua Dulce Canyon Road, Soledad Canyon Road, and Angeles Forest Highway. Many of the landmarks from Duel still exist today, including the tunnel, the railroad crossing, and Chuck's Café, where Mann stops for a break. The building is still on Sierra Highway and has housed a French restaurant called Le Chene since 1980.[3] The "Snakerama" gas station seen in the film also appears in Spielberg's comedy film 1941 (1979) as an homage to Duel, with actress Lucille Benson again appearing as the proprietor.

text: Matheson's script made explicit that the unnamed truck driver, the villain of the film, is unseen aside from the shots of his arms and boots that were needed to convey the plot.[4]

text: Production of the television film was overseen by ABC's director of movies of the week Lillian Gallo.[5] The original made-for-television version was 74 minutes long and its filming was completed in 13 days (three longer than the scheduled 10 days), leaving 10 days for editing prior to broadcast as the ABC Movie of the Week. Following Duel's successful TV airing, Universal released the film overseas in 1972. The TV movie was not long enough for theatrical release, so Universal had Spielberg spend two days filming several new scenes, turning Duel into a 90-minute film. The new scenes were set at the railroad crossing, school bus, and the telephone booth. A longer opening sequence was added with the car backing out of a garage and driving through the city. Expletives were also added, to make the film sound less like a television production.[citation needed]

text: Spielberg lobbied to have Dennis Weaver in the starring role because he admired Weaver's work in Orson Welles' Touch of Evil.[2] Weaver repeats one of his lines from Touch of Evil, telling the truck driver in the cafe that he has "another think coming." This phrase is commonly misstated as "another thing coming", as Weaver's character did in Touch of Evil.[6]

text: In the Archive of American Television website, Spielberg is quoted in an interview given by Weaver as saying: "You know, I watch that movie at least twice a year to remember what I did".[7]

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: The car was carefully chosen, a red Plymouth Valiant, although three cars were used in the actual production of the movie.[8] The original release of Duel featured a 1970 model with a 318 V-8 engine[9] and "Plymouth" spelled out in block letters across the hood, as well as trunk lid treatment characteristic of the 1970 model; a 1971 model with a 225 Slant Six was also used.[10] When the film was released in theaters and scenes were added, a 1972 model with a 225 Slant Six was added, with the "Plymouth" name on the hood as one emblem.

text: Spielberg did not care what kind of car was used in the film, but insisted the final chosen model be red to enable the vehicle to stand out from the general landscape in the wide shots of the desert highway.[2]

text: Spielberg had what he called an "audition" for the truck, wherein he viewed a series of trucks to choose the one for the film. He selected the older 1955 Peterbilt 281 over the current flat-nosed "cab-over" style of trucks because the long hood of the Peterbilt, its split windshield, and its round headlights gave it more of a "face", adding to its menacing personality.[2] Additionally, Spielberg said that the multiple license plates on the front bumper of the Peterbilt subtly suggested that the truck driver is a serial killer, having "run down other drivers in other states".[2] For each shot, several people were tasked to make it uglier; each successively adding oil, grease, fake dead insects and other blemishes.[4]

text: The truck had twin rear axles, a CAT 1674 turbocharged engine with a 13-speed transmission, making it capable of hauling loads over 30 tons and top speeds reaching 75–80 mph. During the original filming, the crew only had one truck, so the shots of the truck falling off the cliff had to be completed in one take.[4] For the film's theatrical release, though, two additional trucks were purchased in order to film the additional scenes that were not in the original made-for-television version (the school bus scene and the railroad crossing scene). One of these, a 1964 Peterbilt 351, virtually identical to the original truck except for its air intake, was later destroyed in another movie production. Only one of those trucks has survived, a 1960 Peterbilt 281 that was kept and prepared as a back up truck for the 351 truck, but went unused.[11]

text: Stock footage of both vehicles was later used in an episode of the television series The Incredible Hulk, titled "Never Give a Trucker an Even Break". Spielberg was not happy about this, but the usage was legal, as the show was produced by Universal and the Duel contract said nothing about reusing the footage in other Universal productions.[12]

text: The 1960 Peterbilt 281 truck was purchased several times. It is currently owned by a truck collector and is on display at Brad's Trucks in North Carolina.[13]

text: Music[edit]

text: The film's original score was composed by Billy Goldenberg, who had previously written the music for Spielberg's segment of the Night Gallery pilot and his Columbo episode "Murder by the Book," and co-scored Spielberg's The Name of the Game episode "L.A. 2017" with Robert Prince. Spielberg and Duel producer George Eckstein told him that because of the short production schedule, he would have to write the music during filming, and Goldenberg visited the production on location at Soledad Canyon to help get an idea of what would be required. Spielberg then had Goldenberg ride in the tanker truck being driven by stunt driver Carey Loftin on several occasions; the experience terrified the composer, although he did eventually get used to it. Goldenberg then composed the score in about a week, for strings, harp, keyboards and heavy use of percussion instruments, with Moog synthesiser effects but eschewing brass and woodwinds. He then worked with the music editors to "pick from all the pieces (they) had and cut it together (with the sound effects and dialogue)." Much of his score was ultimately not used in the finished film.[14][15] In 2015 Intrada Records released a limited edition album featuring the complete score, plus four radio source music tracks composed by Goldenberg.

text: Release[edit]

text: Duel was initially shown on American television as an ABC Movie of the Week installment. It was eventually released to cinemas in Europe and Australia; it had a limited cinema release to some venues in the United States, while it was widely praised in the UK. The film's success enabled Spielberg to establish himself as a film director.[2]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received many positive reviews and is often considered one of the greatest TV movies ever made.[16][17] On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, Duel currently has a score of 87% based on 39 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7 out of 10.).[18]

text: Interpretations of Duel often focus on the symbolism of Mann and the truck. Some critics follow Spielberg's own interpretation of the story as an indictment against the mechanization of life, both by literal machines and by social regimentation.[19] The theme of gender performativity in Mann's quest to prove his manhood is another interpretation several observers have noted.[19][20]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival

text: Grand Prize: 1973[21]

text: Emmy

text: Outstanding Achievement in Film Sound Editing: 1972[22]

text: Golden Globe

text: Best Movie Made for TV: 1972[23]

text: Emmy

text: Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography for Entertainment Programming – For a Special or Feature Length Program Made for Television: 1972[24]

text: Saturn Award

text: Best DVD Classic Film Release: 2005[25]

text: References in other works[edit]

text: In computer games[edit]

text:
In 18 WOS PTTM, the truck appears as a very rare, exclusive mod since its upload in 2006.
In Euro Truck Simulator 2, the Peterbilt 351 and its interiors (mods, not part of the vanilla game) are based on the truck from the movie. It may come back in American Truck Simulator as both a 281 and as a 351.
In Grand Theft Auto V, a random encounter is based on the film.
In Hard Truck: 18 Wheels of Steel, the "Rusty" truck was based on the truck from Duel.
In Hidden Folks, in the Suburb-level, one of the hidden characters the player is tasked with finding is Driver Dave, who is tailgated by a crazy truck driver on one of the streets.

text: In film[edit]

text:
The dinosaur roar sound effect that is heard as the truck goes over the cliff is also heard in Jaws (1975), also directed by Spielberg, as the shark's carcass sinks into the ocean. Spielberg has said that this is because he feels there is a "kinship" between Duel and Jaws, as they are both about "these leviathans targeting everyman." He has also said that inserting the sound effect into Jaws was "my way of thanking Duel for giving me a career."[2]
The anime film Lupin III: The Mystery of Mamo (1978) parodies Duel by depicting a chase scene whereby lead characters Arsène Lupin III, Daisuke Jigen and Goemon Ishikawa XIII, driving in a red Austin Cooper, are pursued by a giant Kenworth W900 sent by the film's villain, Mamo, to eliminate them.[26]
The truck from Duel is seen in the film Torque (2004) and causes a biker to wipe out shortly after a red 4-door Valiant had driven past the bikers.
The horror anthology film Nightmares (1983) featured a segment very similar to Duel, though with overt supernatural elements.
In Fire Down Below (1997), the scene where Taggart is chased and nearly run off the road before luring the truck to ram his truck off of a cliff is directly inspired by Duel.
The Barcelona-based Spanish filmmaker Enric Folch crowdfunded the documentary film The Devil on Wheels.[27] The documentary centers the development of Duel.[28][29]
The film Joy Ride (2001) is heavily influenced by Duel and contains many direct references. In one scene a similar model truck menaces the protagonists, but the driver is revealed to be harmless.
The film Wrecker (2015), starring Drea Whitburn and Anna Hutchison, is almost a shot for shot remake of Duel.

text: In music[edit]

text:
The image of the truck pushing the Plymouth over the cliff is seen on the cover of the album Smokin' Taters! by Kentucky-based band Nine Pound Hammer.
The Swervedriver song "Duel" from their album Mezcal Head was named after the film.[30]
In David Lee Roth's (1994) music video "She's my Machine", the truck appears several times as a green tanker truck.

text: In print[edit]

text:
The Mr. Monk book Mr. Monk on the Road features a similar sub-plot in which Adrian Monk, driving a rented RV, is pursued by a truck like that from Duel, which meets a similar end, although the truck driver's motive is known.
In the third part of JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, Stardust Crusaders, the Wheel of Fortune chapters have various references to the movie, as the protagonists must deal with an assassin controlling a car (which resembles a Plymouth).
In 2009, writers Stephen King and Joe Hill decided to honor Matheson's classic with an homage prose story titled "Throttle." In time, this was turned into a four-issue miniseries called "Road Rage". IDW Publishing gave both "Duel" and "Throttle" two issues each to find a new audience with their comic book adaptation. "Road Rage" #1 was released to the public on Feb 15th, 2012.[31]

text: In television[edit]

text:
Stock footage from Duel appears throughout The Incredible Hulk first season episode "Never Give a Trucker an Even Break" (originally airdate on CBS: April 28, 1978).[32] Spielberg was reportedly "not too happy about it," according to Matheson.[33]
In the Red Dwarf series 8 episode "Only the Good...", Arnold Rimmer claims that a scar on the right side of his neck resulted from a friend's attacking him with the video case from the film Duel.
The opening scene of the Transformers: Prime episode "Nemesis Prime" pays homage to Duel.
The one-hour special Tiny Toons' Night Ghoulery features a parody segment of the film named "Fuel" with Calamity Coyote.
The Bob's Burgers season 4 episode "Christmas in the Car" contains numerous Duel references when Bob is terrorized by a candy-cane shaped truck.
In the television murder mystery series Murder, She Wrote episode "The Cemetery Vote", Jessica is traveling along a country road as a passenger in a station wagon when they are chased and rammed by a large powerful truck covered in mud with the driver invisible behind a mud-caked windshield.
It was the movie of the week for the Svengoolie program on November 5, 2016, his first airing of the film.[34]

text: Notes[edit]


document_title: Aaron Judge

question_text: what position did aaron judge play in football

text: Aaron Judge

text: Early life and amateur career

text: Judge was born and raised in Linden, California and was adopted the day after he was born by Patty and Wayne Judge, who both worked as teachers. When he was 10 years old, his parents told him that he was adopted; he recalls, "I knew I didn't look like them."[1] He telephones his parents every day.[1] He has an older brother, John, who was also adopted.[2]

text: Judge attended Linden High School, where he was a three-sport star. He played as a pitcher and first baseman for the baseball team, a wide receiver for the football team, and as a center for the basketball team. He set a school record for touchdowns (17) in football and led the team in points per game (18.2) in basketball. In baseball, he was part of the Linden High School team that made the California Interscholastic Federation Division III playoffs.[3][4]

text: Various colleges recruited Judge to play tight end in football, including Notre Dame, Stanford, and UCLA, but he preferred baseball. The Oakland Athletics selected him in the 31st round of the 2010 Major League Baseball draft, but he opted to enroll at California State University, Fresno (Fresno State), to play for the Fresno State Bulldogs baseball team in the Western Athletic Conference (WAC). Louisville Slugger named him a Freshman All-American. He won the 2012 TD Ameritrade College Home Run Derby.[5] In his junior year, Judge led the Bulldogs in home runs, doubles, and runs batted in (RBIs).[6] Judge was named to the all-conference team in all three of his seasons for the Bulldogs—in the WAC in his first two seasons, and the Mountain West Conference (MW) as a junior (the Bulldogs joined the MW in July 2012, between his sophomore and junior seasons).[6]

text: Professional career

text: Minor leagues

text: The Yankees drafted Judge in the first round of the 2013 Major League Baseball draft with the 32nd overall selection,[7][8] a pick the team received as compensation after losing Nick Swisher in free agency.[9] Judge signed with the Yankees, receiving a $1.8 million signing bonus.[10] He tore a quadriceps femoris muscle while participating in a base running drill, which kept him out of the 2013 season.[5][11] He made his professional debut with the Charleston RiverDogs of the Class A South Atlantic League in 2014.[5] He had a .333 batting average, .428 on-base percentage (OBP), .530 slugging percentage (SLG), and hit nine home runs with 45 RBIs in 65 games for Charleston. The Yankees promoted him to the Tampa Yankees of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League during the season, where he hit .283 with a .411 OBP, .442 SLG, eight home runs, and 33 RBIs in 66 games for Tampa.[6]

text: The Yankees invited Judge to spring training as a non-roster player in 2015.[12] Judge began the 2015 season with the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League.[13] After Judge batted .284 with a .350 OBP and 12 home runs in 63 games for Trenton, the Yankees promoted Judge to the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders of the Class AAA International League in June.[14] He was chosen to represent the Yankees at the 2015 All-Star Futures Game.[15] The Yankees decided not to include Judge in their September call-ups.[16] Judge batted .224 with eight home runs in 61 games for Scranton/Wilkes-Barre.[17] The Yankees invited Judge to spring training in 2016, and he began the season with Scranton/Wilkes-Barre. Judge was named to the International League All-Star Team in 2016, but did not play in the 2016 Triple-A All-Star Game after he spent on a month of the disabled list due to a knee sprain.[18][19] In 93 games for the RailRiders, Judge had a .270 batting average, 19 home runs, and 65 RBIs.[20]

text: New York Yankees

text: Judge made his MLB debut on August 13, 2016, starting in right field against the Tampa Bay Rays.[21] In his first at-bat, Judge hit a home run off Matt Andriese; the previous batter, Tyler Austin, also making his MLB debut, had done the same. This marked the first time that two teammates had hit home runs in their first career at bats in the same game.[22] Judge also hit a home run in his second MLB game, becoming the second Yankees player to do so, after Joe Lefebvre in 1980.[23] Judge's debut season, in which he batted .179 and struck out 42 times in 84 at-bats (95 plate appearances), ended prematurely when he was placed on the 15-day disabled list with a grade 2 right oblique strain on September 13, 2016 against the Los Angeles Dodgers.[24]

text: 2017: All-Star season

text: The Yankees named Judge their right fielder for Opening Day against the Tampa Bay Rays.[25] He had his first multi-home run game on April 28 against the Baltimore Orioles to help the Yankees win 14–11, coming back from a 9–1 deficit.[26] One of the home runs had a measured exit velocity of 119.4 miles per hour (192.2 km/h), the fastest exit velocity for a home run measured by Statcast since it was adopted in 2015.[27][28] Judge ended the month of April with 10 home runs, tying the rookie record set by José Abreu and Trevor Story.[29] He was named the American League's (AL) Rookie of the Month for April.[30] In April, he had a .303 batting average, 10 home runs, 20 RBIs, and a .411 OBP in 22 games.[31]

text: On May 3, Judge hit his 13th home run of the season, becoming the youngest player to hit 13 home runs within the first 26 games of a season.[32] The Yankees debuted a cheering section in the right-field seats of Yankee Stadium on May 22, called "The Judge's Chambers", three rows in section 104, containing 18 seats.[33][34] Fans are chosen by the team to sit there, and are outfitted with black robes, wigs, and foam gavels.[34][35] In a game against the Oakland Athletics on May 28, Judge hit his first career grand slam.[36] Judge was named AL Rookie of the Month once again for May. In May, he had a .347 batting average, seven home runs, 17 RBIs, and a .441 OBP in 26 games.[37]

text: On June 10, Judge hit a home run that had an exit velocity of 121.1 miles per hour (194.9 km/h), again setting a new record for the hardest ever measured by Statcast.[38] The following day, Judge went 4-for-4 with two home runs, one of which traveled 495 feet (151 m), which was the longest in MLB in the 2017 season.[39] On June 12, Judge was named the AL Player of the Week. His week ended with him leading the AL in all three Triple Crown categories.[40] Judge was named the AL Player of the Month for the month of June, batting .324 with 10 home runs, 25 RBIs and a .481 OBP. His performance in the month of June also earned him his third consecutive AL Rookie of the Month award, the longest streak since Mike Trout won four in a row in 2012.[41] Judge had a 32-game on-base streak, including reaching base in every game in the month of June.[42] On July 2, Judge was voted as a starting outfielder to the 2017 MLB All-Star Game, receiving 4,488,702 votes, the most out of any player in the AL.[43]

text: Judge broke Joe DiMaggio's record for most home runs hit in a Yankees' rookie season with his 30th on July 7.[44] He became the second rookie to hit 30 home runs before the All-Star break after Mark McGwire in 1987,[45] the first Yankee to do so since Alex Rodriguez in 2007[46] and the first player in baseball since Chris Davis and Miguel Cabrera in 2013.[47] Before the All-Star break, Judge hit .329 with 30 home runs and 66 RBIs.

text: Judge won the 2017 Home Run Derby, besting Minnesota Twins third baseman Miguel Sanó 11–10 in the final round to become the first rookie to ever win the Derby outright.[48] Judge hit four home runs over 500 feet, one of which travelled 513 feet, the farthest in the Derby.[49] After his performance, MLB commissioner Rob Manfred stated that Judge is a player "who can become the face of the game."[50] On July 21, Judge a hit a home run that almost travelled out of Safeco Field. The ball was hit so hard that Statcast could not measure the details on the home run.[51]

text: On July 27, Judge lost a portion of his front left tooth during a celebration circle after Brett Gardner hit a walk-off home run.[52][53] The next game, Judge hit his 33rd home run of the season, for 37 home runs total through his first 125 career games, third-most in MLB history.[54] On August 17, Judge hit a 457-foot home run at Citi Field that reached the third deck but also struck out in the game, which marked 33 consecutive games with a strikeout, breaking Adam Dunn's record for a position player.[55][56] On August 20, Judge tied pitcher Bill Stoneman's streak of striking out in 37 consecutive games.[57][58] Judge would break Curtis Granderson's record of 195 for most single-season strikeouts in Yankees history.[59]

text: On September 4, Judge became the first AL rookie to record 100 walks in a single season since Al Rosen (1950), and the first player in MLB to do it since Jim Gilliam (1953). During a game on September 10, Judge received his 107th walk, the most walks by a rookie in a season since Ted Williams in 1939.[60] During the same game, he also became the second rookie in MLB history to hit 40 home runs in a season since McGwire (1987).[61] He joined Babe Ruth (1920), Lou Gehrig (1927), Joe DiMaggio (1937) and Mickey Mantle (1956) as the only Yankees to hit 40 home runs in a season at age 25 or younger.[62] On September 20, Judge became the first player since José Bautista in 2010, and the first rookie, to record 100 runs, 45 home runs, 100 RBIs, and 100 walks in a single season.[63]

text: On September 25, Judge hit his 49th and 50th home runs, tying and surpassing Mark McGwire's single season rookie home run record.[64] With this historic achievement, Judge also took his first 'curtain call' at Yankee Stadium as the crowd called him out of the dugout to a standing ovation.

text: New York Yankees franchise records

text:
Most home runs in a season by a rookie: 50 (Joe DiMaggio held the record with 29)[65]
Fifth Yankee to have 50 home runs in a single season. He joins Babe Ruth (54 in 1920, 59 in 1921, 60 in 1927, 54 in 1928), Mickey Mantle (52 in 1956, 54 in 1961), Roger Maris (61 in 1961), and Alex Rodriguez (54 in 2007).
First Yankee with at least 110 walks and 110 runs scored since Mickey Mantle in 1961 (126 walks, 131 runs).[66]
Second player in Yankees history to hit a home run in each of his first two games. (Joe Lefebvre was the first Yankee to do so in 1980).[67]
Holds the Yankees single season record for strikeouts with 199. (Passing Curtis Granderson's 195)[59]
27 home runs at Yankee Stadium in a single season.[68]
First right-handed hitter in Yankees history with at least 100 RBIs, 100 runs scored and 100 walks; in a single season
Eighth player in Yankees history with at least 100 runs, 100 RBIs and 100 walks in a season.[69]
Fourth rookie in franchise history with 100 RBIs in a season (joining Joe DiMaggio, Tony Lazzeri and Hideki Matsui).[70]

text: MLB records

text:
Most home runs by a rookie, 50 (Mark McGwire held record with 49)[71]
Became the youngest player to hit 13 home runs within the first 26 games of a season.[72]
Measured exit velocity of 119.4 miles per hour (192.2 km/h), the fastest exit velocity for a home run measured by Statcast. (April 28, 2017)[73]
Measured exit velocity of 121.1 miles per hour (194.9 km/h), again setting a new record for the hardest ever measured by Statcast. (June 10, 2017)[74]
Second rookie to hit 30 home runs before the All-Star break after Mark McGwire (33 in 1987).[75]
Holds the MLB record for striking out in 37 consecutive games. (2017)[76]
Holds the MLB record for most strikeouts by a rookie with 201.
First rookie in MLB history with at least 45 home runs, 100 RBIs and 100 runs scored.[77]
Second rookie in MLB history with 100+ RBIs, 100+ runs scored and 100+ walks in a season. (Ted Williams is the other).[69]

text: Uniform

text: Judge has worn the unusual uniform number of 99 since it was given to him during 2016 spring training[78] (higher numbers are often given to young players who are not expected to make the regular-season team). Judge has stated he would prefer either No. 44 (retired by the Yankees to honor Reggie Jackson) or No. 35 (worn by Michael Pineda since 2014), but is not sure whether he would switch if the latter two were to become available.[78]

text: MLB along with the MLB Players Association, created Players Weekend to let players 'express themselves while connecting with their past in youth baseball'. From August 25-27, 2017, players wore alternate team jerseys inspired by youth league designs. They also had the option to replace their last names with their nicknames on their jersey nameplates, and the vast majority of players did so. Judge chose the nickname "All Rise" (given to him by teammate Todd Frazier) to be worn on the back of his jersey nameplate.[79]

text: Player profile

text: Judge is listed at 6 feet 7 inches (2.01 m) and 282 pounds (128 kg). Due to his large size and strength, he has elicited comparisons to Giancarlo Stanton, Richie Sexson,[80] Dave Winfield, and Willie Stargell.[6][2]

text: Personal life

text: Judge is a Christian and has posted about his faith on his Twitter account.[81] He keeps a note on his phone that reads ".179", his batting average with the Yankees in 2016, and looks at it daily as a source of motivation.[82] Judge appeared on the cover of the edition of May 15, 2017 of Sports Illustrated.[83] On May 15, 2017, he appeared on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon where he posed undercover to ask Yankee fans questions about himself.[84] Judge has earned praise for his humble personality and willingness to be a team player.[85]


document_title: Grey matter

question_text: the gray matter on the right and left sides of the spinal cord is connected by the

text: Grey matter

text: Structure[edit]

text: Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the central nervous system. It is present in the brain, brainstem and cerebellum, and present throughout the spinal cord.

text: Grey matter is distributed at the surface of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) and of the cerebellum (cerebellar cortex), as well as in the depths of the cerebrum (thalamus; hypothalamus; subthalamus, basal ganglia – putamen, globus pallidus, nucleus accumbens; septal nuclei), cerebellar (deep cerebellar nuclei – dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, fastigial nucleus), brainstem (substantia nigra, red nucleus, olivary nuclei, cranial nerve nuclei).

text: Grey matter in the spinal cord is known as the grey column which travels down the spinal cord distributed in three grey columns that are presented in an "H" shape. The forward-facing column is the anterior grey column, the rear-facing one is the posterior grey column and the interlinking one is the lateral grey column. The grey matter on the left and right side is connected by the grey commissure. The grey matter in the spinal cord consists of interneurons, as well as the cell bodies of projection neurons.

text:
Diagram of a spinal vertebra. The grey matter is in the central part of the spinal cord.

Cross-section of spinal cord with grey matter labelled.

text: Grey matter undergoes development and growth throughout childhood and adolescence.[3] Recent studies using cross-sectional neuroimaging have shown that by around the age of 8 the volume of grey matter begins to decrease.[4] However, the density of grey matter appears to increase as a child develops into early adulthood.[4] Males tend to exhibit grey matter of increased volume but lower density than that of females.

text: Function[edit]

text: Grey matter contains most of the brain's neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control.[5]

text: The grey matter in the spinal cord is split into three grey columns:

text:
The anterior grey column contains motor neurons. These synapse with interneurons and the axons of cells that have travelled down the pyramidal tract. These cells are responsible for the movement of muscles.
The posterior grey column contains the points where sensory neurons synapse. These receive sensory information from the body, including fine touch, proprioception, and vibration. This information is sent from receptors of the skin, bones, and joints through sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the dorsal root ganglion. This information is then transmitted in axons up the spinal cord in spinal tracts, including the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract and the spinothalamic tract.
The lateral grey column is the third column of the spinal cord.

text: The grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into different layers, called Rexed laminae. These describe, in general, the purpose of the cells within the grey matter of the spinal cord at a particular location.

text:
Interneurons present in the grey matter of the spinal cord

Rexed laminae groups the grey matter in the spinal cord according to its function.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)

text: High alcohol consumption has been correlated with significant reductions in grey matter volume.[6][7] Short-term cannabis use (30 days) is not correlated with changes in white or grey matter.[8] However, several cross-sectional studies have shown that repeated long-term cannabis use is associated with smaller grey matter volumes in the hippocampus, amygdala, medial temporal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, with increased grey matter volume in the cerebellum.[9][10][11] Long-term cannabis use also alters white matter integrity in an age-dependent manner,[12] with heavy cannabis use during adolescence and early adulthood causing the greatest amount of damage.[13]

text: Meditation has been shown to change grey matter structure.[14][15][16][17][18]

text: Habitual playing of action video games has been reported to promote a reduction of grey matter in the hippocampus while 3D platformer games have been reported to increase grey matter in the hippocampus.[19][20][21][22]

text: Women and men with equivalent IQ scores have differing proportions of grey to white matter in cortical brain regions associated with intelligence.[23]

text: Pregnancy renders substantial changes in brain structure, primarily reductions in gray matter volume in regions subserving social cognition. The gray matter reductions endured for at least 2 years post-pregnancy.[24]

text: History[edit]

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In the current edition[25] of the official Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica, substantia grisea is used for English grey matter. The adjective grisea for grey is however not attested in classical Latin.[26] The adjective grisea is derived from the French word for grey, gris.[26] Alternative designations like substantia cana [27] and substantia cinerea[28] are being used alternatively. The adjective cana, attested in classical Latin,[29] can mean grey,[26] or greyish white.[30] The classical Latin cinerea means ash-coloured.[29]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Human brain right dissected lateral view

Schematic representation of the chief ganglionic categories (I to V).


document_title: Hail

question_text: what time of year is hail most likely

question_tokens: what time of year is hail most likely

text: Hail

text: Definition[edit]

text: Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.[4] Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[3] Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 0.5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[5]

text: Unlike ice pellets, hailstones are layered and can be irregular and clumped together. Hail is composed of transparent ice or alternating layers of transparent and translucent ice at least 1 millimetre (0.039 in) thick, which are deposited upon the hailstone as it travels through the cloud, suspended aloft by air with strong upward motion until its weight overcomes the updraft and falls to the ground. Although the diameter of hail is varied, in the United States, the average observation of damaging hail is between 2.5 cm (1 in) and golf ball-sized (1.75 in).[6]

text: Stones larger than 2 cm (0.80 in) are usually considered large enough to cause damage. The Meteorological Service of Canada issues severe thunderstorm warnings when hail that size or above is expected.[7] The US National Weather Service has a 2.5 cm (1 in) or greater in diameter threshold, effective January 2010, an increase over the previous threshold of ¾-inch hail.[8] Other countries have different thresholds according to local sensitivity to hail; for instance grape growing areas could be adversely impacted by smaller hailstones. Hailstones can be very large or very small, depending on how strong the updraft is: weaker hailstorms produce smaller hailstones than stronger hailstorms (such as supercells).

text: Formation[edit]

text: Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C (32 °F).[3] These types of strong updrafts can also indicate the presence of a tornado.[9] The growth rate is maximized where air is near a temperature of −13 °C (9 °F).[citation needed]

text: Layer nature of the hailstones[edit]

text: Like other precipitation in cumulonimbus clouds, hail begins as water droplets. As the droplets rise and the temperature goes below freezing, they become supercooled water and will freeze on contact with condensation nuclei. A cross-section through a large hailstone shows an onion-like structure. This means the hailstone is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with layers that are thin, white and opaque. Former theory suggested that hailstones were subjected to multiple descents and ascents, falling into a zone of humidity and refreezing as they were uplifted. This up and down motion was thought to be responsible for the successive layers of the hailstone. New research, based on theory as well as field study, has shown this is not necessarily true.

text: The storm's updraft, with upwardly directed wind speeds as high as 110 miles per hour (180 km/h),[11] blows the forming hailstones up the cloud. As the hailstone ascends it passes into areas of the cloud where the concentration of humidity and supercooled water droplets varies. The hailstone’s growth rate changes depending on the variation in humidity and supercooled water droplets that it encounters. The accretion rate of these water droplets is another factor in the hailstone’s growth. When the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of water droplets, it captures the latter and acquires a translucent layer. Should the hailstone move into an area where mostly water vapour is available, it acquires a layer of opaque white ice.[12]

text: Furthermore, the hailstone’s speed depends on its position in the cloud’s updraft and its mass. This determines the varying thicknesses of the layers of the hailstone. The accretion rate of supercooled water droplets onto the hailstone depends on the relative velocities between these water droplets and the hailstone itself. This means that generally the larger hailstones will form some distance from the stronger updraft where they can pass more time growing.[12] As the hailstone grows it releases latent heat, which keeps its exterior in a liquid phase. Because it undergoes 'wet growth', the outer layer is sticky (i.e. more adhesive), so a single hailstone may grow by collision with other smaller hailstones, forming a larger entity with an irregular shape.[13]

text: Hail can also undergo 'dry growth' in which the latent heat release through freezing is not enough to keep the outer layer in a liquid state. Hail forming in this manner appears opaque due to small air bubbles that become trapped in the stone during rapid freezing. These bubbles coalesce and escape during the 'wet growth' mode, and the hailstone is more clear. The mode of growth for a hailstone can change throughout its development, and this can result in distinct layers in a hailstone's cross-section.[14]

text: The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft. This may take at least 30 minutes based on the force of the updrafts in the hail-producing thunderstorm, whose top is usually greater than 10 km high. It then falls toward the ground while continuing to grow, based on the same processes, until it leaves the cloud. It will later begin to melt as it passes into air above freezing temperature.[15]

text: Thus, a unique trajectory in the thunderstorm is sufficient to explain the layer-like structure of the hailstone. The only case in which multiple trajectories can be discussed is in a multicellular thunderstorm, where the hailstone may be ejected from the top of the "mother" cell and captured in the updraft of a more intense "daughter" cell. This, however, is an exceptional case.[12]

text: Factors favoring hail[edit]

text: Hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[16] Movement of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.[17]

text: Hail growth becomes vanishingly small when air temperatures fall below −30 °C (−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare at these temperatures.[16] Around thunderstorms, hail is most likely within the cloud at elevations above 20,000 feet (6,100 m). Between 10,000 feet (3,000 m) and 20,000 feet (6,100 m), 60 percent of hail is still within the thunderstorm, though 40 percent now lies within the clear air under the anvil. Below 10,000 feet (3,000 m), hail is equally distributed in and around a thunderstorm to a distance of 2 nautical miles (3.7 km).[18]

text: Climatology[edit]

text: Hail occurs most frequently within continental interiors at mid-latitudes and is less common in the tropics, despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes.[19] Hail is also much more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.[20] The higher elevations also result in there being less time available for hail to melt before reaching the ground. One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.[21] China also experiences significant hailstorms.[22] Central Europe and southern Australia also experience a lot of hailstorms. Popular regions for hailstorms are southern and western Germany, northern and eastern France and southern and eastern Benelux. In south-eastern Europe, Croatia and Serbia experience frequent occurrences of hail.[23]

text: In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley".[24] Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.[25] To the north of this area and also just downwind of the Rocky Mountains is the Hailstorm Alley region of Alberta, which also experiences an increased incidence of significant hail events.

text: Short-term detection[edit]

text: Weather radar is a very useful tool to detect the presence of hail-producing thunderstorms. However, radar data has to be complemented by a knowledge of current atmospheric conditions which can allow one to determine if the current atmosphere is conducive to hail development.

text: Modern radar scans many angles around the site. Reflectivity values at multiple angles above ground level in a storm are proportional to the precipitation rate at those levels. Summing reflectivities in the Vertically Integrated Liquid or VIL, gives the liquid water content in the cloud. Research shows that hail development in the upper levels of the storm is related to the evolution of VIL. VIL divided by the vertical extent of the storm, called VIL density, has a relationship with hail size, although this varies with atmospheric conditions and therefore is not highly accurate.[26] Traditionally, hail size and probability can be estimated from radar data by computer using algorithms based on this research. Some algorithms include the height of the freezing level to estimate the melting of the hailstone and what would be left on the ground.

text: Certain patterns of reflectivity are important clues for the meteorologist as well. The three body scatter spike is an example. This is the result of energy from the radar hitting hail and being deflected to the ground, where they deflect back to the hail and then to the radar. The energy took more time to go from the hail to the ground and back, as opposed to the energy that went directly from the hail to the radar, and the echo is further away from the radar than the actual location of the hail on the same radial path, forming a cone of weaker reflectivities.

text:
More recently, the polarization properties of weather radar returns have been analyzed to differentiate between hail and heavy rain.[27][28] The use of differential reflectivity (

Z

d
r

{\displaystyle Z_{dr}}

), in combination with horizontal reflectivity (

Z

h

{\displaystyle Z_{h}}

) has led to a variety of hail classification algorithms.[29] Visible satellite imagery is beginning to be used to detect hail, but false alarm rates remain high using this method.[30]

text: Size and terminal velocity[edit]

text: The size of hailstones is best determined by measuring their diameter with a ruler. In the absence of a ruler, hailstone size is often visually estimated by comparing its size to that of known objects, such as coins.[31] Using the objects such as hen's eggs, peas, and marbles for comparing hailstone sizes is imprecise, due to their varied dimensions. The UK organisation, TORRO, also scales for both hailstones and hailstorms.[32] When observed at an airport, METAR code is used within a surface weather observation which relates to the size of the hailstone. Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 0.25 inches (6.4 mm). GR is derived from the French word grêle. Smaller-sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grésil.[33]

text: Terminal velocity of hail, or the speed at which hail is falling when it strikes the ground, varies. It is estimated that a hailstone of 1 centimetre (0.39 in) in diameter falls at a rate of 9 metres per second (20 mph), while stones the size of 8 centimetres (3.1 in) in diameter fall at a rate of 48 metres per second (110 mph). Hailstone velocity is dependent on the size of the stone, friction with air it is falling through, the motion of wind it is falling through, collisions with raindrops or other hailstones, and melting as the stones fall through a warmer atmosphere. As hail stones are not perfect spheres it is difficult to calculate their speed accurately.[34]

text: Hail records[edit]

text: Megacryometeors, large rocks of ice that are not associated with thunderstorms, are not officially recognized by the World Meteorological Organization as "hail," which are aggregations of ice associated with thunderstorms, and therefore records of extreme characteristics of megacryometeors are not given as hail records.

text:
Heaviest: 1.02 kg (2.25 lb); Gopalganj District, Bangladesh, 14 April 1986.[35][36]
Largest diameter officially measured: 7.9 inches (20 cm) diameter, 18.622 inches (47.3 cm) circumference; Vivian, South Dakota, 23 July 2010.[37]
Largest circumference officially measured: 18.74 inches (47.6 cm) circumference, 7.0 inches (17.8 cm) diameter; Aurora, Nebraska, 22 June 2003.[36][38]
Greatest average hail precipitation: Kericho, Kenya experiences hailstorms, on average, 50 days annually. Kericho is close to the equator and the elevation of 7,200 feet contributes to it being a hot spot for hail.[39] Kericho reached the world record for 132 days of hail in one year.[40]

text: Hazards[edit]

text: Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, crops.[25] Hail damage to roofs often goes unnoticed until further structural damage is seen, such as leaks or cracks. It is hardest to recognize hail damage on shingled roofs and flat roofs, but all roofs have their own hail damage detection problems.[41] Metal roofs are fairly resistant to hail damage, but may accumulate cosmetic damage in the form of dents and damaged coatings.[42]

text: Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft.[43] When hailstones exceed 0.5 inches (13 mm) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds.[44] The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Hail is also a common nuisance to drivers of automobiles, severely denting the vehicle and cracking or even shattering windshields and windows. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.[21] Hail is one of Canada's most expensive hazards.[45] Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma. Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest known incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India, where 200 to 600 nomads seem to have died of injuries from hail the size of cricket balls.[46] The largest hailstone in terms of diameter and weight ever recorded in the United States fell on July 23, 2010 in Vivian, South Dakota; it measured 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter and 18.62 inches (47.3 cm) in circumference, weighing in at 1.93 pounds (0.88 kg).[47] This broke the previous record for diameter set by a hailstone 7 inches diameter and 18.74 inches circumference (still the greatest circumference hailstone) which fell in Aurora, Nebraska in the United States on June 22, 2003, as well as the record for weight, set by a hailstone of 1.67 pounds (0.76 kg) that fell in Coffeyville, Kansas in 1970.[47]

text: Accumulations[edit]

text: Narrow zones where hail accumulates on the ground in association with thunderstorm activity are known as hail streaks or hail swaths,[48] which can be detectable by satellite after the storms pass by.[49] Hailstorms normally last from a few minutes up to 15 minutes in duration.[25] Accumulating hail storms can blanket the ground with over 2 inches (5.1 cm) of hail, cause thousands to lose power, and bring down many trees. Flash flooding and mudslides within areas of steep terrain can be a concern with accumulating hail.[50]

text: Depths of up to 18 in (0.46 m) have been reported. A landscape covered in accumulated hail generally resembles one covered in accumulated snow and any significant accumulation of hail has the same restrictive effects as snow accumulation, albeit over a smaller area, on transport and infrastructure.[51] Accumulated hail can also cause flooding by blocking drains, and hail can be carried in the floodwater, turning into a snow-like slush which is deposited at lower elevations.

text: On somewhat rare occasions, a thunderstorm can become stationary or nearly so while prolifically producing hail and significant depths of accumulation do occur; this tends to happen in mountainous areas, such as the July 29, 2010 case[52] of a foot of hail accumulation in Boulder County, Colorado. On June 5, 2015, hail up to four feet deep fell on one city block in Denver, Colorado. The hailstones, described as between the size of bumble bees and ping pong balls, were accompanied by rain and high winds. The hail fell in only the one area, leaving the surrounding area untouched. It fell for one and a half hours between 10 p.m. and 11:30 p.m. A meteorologist for the National Weather Service in Boulder said, "It's a very interesting phenomenon. We saw the storm stall. It produced copious amounts of hail in one small area. It's a meteorological thing." Tractors used to clear the area filled more than 30 dump-truck loads of hail.[53]

text: Research focused on four individual days that accumulated more than 5.9 inches (15 cm) of hail in 30 minutes on the Colorado front range has shown that these events share similar patterns in observed synoptic weather, radar, and lightning characteristics,[54] suggesting the possibility of predicting these events prior to their occurrence. A fundamental problem in continuing research in this area is that, unlike hail diameter, hail depth is not commonly reported. The lack of data leaves researchers and forecasters in the dark when trying to verify operational methods. A cooperative effort between the University of Colorado and the National Weather Service is in progress. The joint project's goal is to enlist the help of the general public to develop a database of hail accumulation depths.[55]

text: Suppression and prevention[edit]

text: During the Middle Ages, people in Europe used to ring church bells and fire cannons to try to prevent hail, and the subsequent damage to crops. Updated versions of this approach are available as modern hail cannons. Cloud seeding after World War II was done to eliminate the hail threat,[11] particularly across the Soviet Union – where it was claimed a 70 to 98 percent reduction in crop damage from hail storms was achieved by deploying silver iodide in clouds using rockets and artillery shells.[56][57] Hail suppression programs have been undertaken by 15 countries between 1965 and 2005.[11][21]