document_title: Texas District Courts

question_text: state district judges in texas are selected by

text: Texas District Courts

text: The Texas District Courts form part of the Texas judicial system and are the trial courts of general jurisdiction of Texas. As of September 2011, 456 district courts serve the state, each with a single judge, elected by partisan election to a four-year term.

text: District courts have original jurisdiction in all felony criminal cases, divorce cases, land title disputes, election contests, civil matters in which at least $200 is disputed or claimed in damages, as well as other matters. Most district courts consider both criminal and civil cases but, in counties with many courts, each may specialize in civil, criminal, juvenile, or family law matters.

text: Districts can cover a single county or several counties, with many districts overlapping one another. Harris County, the state's most populous, is home to 59 district courts - each one covering the entire county. While district courts can and do share courthouses and clerks to save money, each is still legally constituted as a separate court. This is dramatically different from the situation in most U.S. states (or most other jurisdictions), in which a single trial court is staffed by multiple judges, each of whom has authority to act in the name of that court.

text: In sparsely populated areas, a single district can cover numerous counties: several districts span five counties, for example. Some counties share numerous overlapping districts, such as the 12 districts that serve the same 13 county region of central and eastern Texas, with each district covering the entirety of the 13 counties.

text: Counties containing the most districts[edit]

text:
County
Largest city
District courts

Harris County
Houston
59

Dallas County
Dallas
39

Bexar County
San Antonio
27

Tarrant County
Fort Worth
27

Travis County
Austin
17

El Paso County
El Paso
13

Hidalgo County
McAllen
11

Collin County
Plano
9

Jefferson County
Beaumont
8


document_title: Bhagya Reddy Varma

question_text: who started the social reform movement in telangana for the welfare of dalit

root

text: Bhagya Reddy Varma

text: Early life[edit]

text: Reddy was born in the princely Hyderabad State to Madare Venkaiah and Julia

tag: p

text:
1911 Adi Hindu social services started
1912 promoted Buddhism

tag: ul

text: In 1917 in a conference at Vijayawada 'Pratam Andhra - Adi Hindu' meeting was held. In the same year Bhagya Reddy Vermas's speech was very much attracted Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's attention at 'Akhila Bharata Hindu' round table conference in Calcutta. In 1919 a meeting held with Jangamulu, Dasulu, Mulnavasi, for the Adi Hindu beneficial program. The purpose of this event is to resolve the internal issues in Dalit community; he insisted the panchayat court system to be rebuilt. In 1925 Adi Hindu Hand skills exhibition was held to showcase the dalits skills to the world. Bhagya Reddy also campaigned on many social issues like Child Marriage, Black Magic, Women Education, Alcohol prohibition etc. His work was spread to neighboring states Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Andhra, from their as well people joined voices and followed the revolution. In 1930 in an historical speech he announced to take the dalit issues to the British notice in the upcoming All India Round Table Conference at Lucknow in the same year. He supposes to send BR Ambedkar to lead the group. The agenda was to recognize the dalits as Adi Hindu rather panchmilarnulu (untouchables), mala, madiga.

text: In 1931 the Nizam government has come forward to agree the demands of Reddy, and registered the dalits as Adi Hindus in the general elections. Nizam Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII praised Reddy for his social work, and recognised it with an award. Later, the Nizam appointed him as chief adviser to his government. Adi Hindu Bhavan, at Chadarghat, Hyderabad, has been the platform for the many revolutionary meetings.

text: Bhagya Memorial Girls High School at Esamia Bazar, Koti, Hyderabad, Telangana, which he started in 1913 is still functioning.

text: Devadasi Movement[edit]

text: Reddy had launched a movement against devadasi pratha, forcing the Nizam to declare it a crime.

text: During the andhra Movement in 2017the students of Telangana region renamed the G. M. C. Balayogi Athletic Stadium as Bhagya Reddy Varma Stadium.

text: Honour[edit]

text: Arya Samaj in 1913 organised a function to honour him with the title Varma.


document_title: Wild 'n Out

question_text: where is the show wild n out located

question_tokens: where is the show wild n out located

text: Wild 'n Out

text: Premise[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Similar in premise to shows such as Whose Line Is It Anyway?, the series puts two teams of comedians against each other in a series of Wild 'n Out games which are all basically "improvisational" comedy games. The Teams are the "Red Squad", which was the team name until season 5 where they became the "Platinum Squad" and were permanently captained by Cannon; and the "Black Squad", led by a celebrity guest until season 7 where the situation was reversed with Cannon becoming the Black Squad team captain and the celebrity guest leading the Platinum Squad. For season 8, the colors were revamped once again with the Gold Squad replacing the Black Squad. The Gold Squad is led by Cannon while the celebrity guest remains captain of the Platinum Squad. However starting in Season 9, Nick returned to leading his original Red Squad team color while the Black Squad team color returned also.

text: After three such games, the two teams square off against each other in the final round of the game called 'WildStyle', in which they must deliver a punchline directed at their opponent's team member(s) within a freestyle rap. The comedians "beef" with each other; however, some are impersonal jokes. Although similar to Whose Line, the "points don't matter", the teams score one point per round victory during the normal rounds, plus one point per favorably judged punchline during 'Wild Style', which makes it similar in format to the improv show ComedySportz.[6]

text: Each episode also includes a musical performance, occasionally by the guest captain for the Black/Platinum Squad (Nick Cannon performed with Migos in Season 6 in the episode featuring Chanel Iman). At times, the musical guest comes out just before 'Wild Style' as the judge for the beefs. Major changes were implemented for the second season including shifting the show location to Hollywood and the teams now compete for a "Wild 'n Out" Championship belt which if the Black Squad wins, the team captain gets to take home.

text: Production[edit]

text: For the first four seasons, the show filmed from Los Angeles/Hollywood and aired on MTV. The first run episodes were suspended as Mr. Renaissance Entertainment became Ncredible Entertainment in 2012. Upon being revived in 2012, the show was produced in New York City and aired on MTV2 during Seasons 5–7, it also returned to that location for Season 9. In 2016, the show returned to airing new episodes on MTV and also for the first time since Season 4, production is in Los Angeles.

text: The "Wild 'n Out Theme Song" for Seasons 1–4 was produced by Fatman Scoop. The theme music for Season 5 onward was created by Nick Cannon himself, with a new remixed version made for Season 8.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Season 1–4[edit]

text:
Nick Cannon
DJ D-Wrek
Affion Crockett
Alanna Ubach
Biz Markie
Brandon T. Jackson
Cameron Goodman
Carlos "Spanky" Hayes
Christine Lakin
Corey Holcomb
Darrel Heath
Deon Cole
DeRay Davis
Dominique
Earthquake
Gene Hong
Jackie Long
Joshua Funk
Katt Williams
Kevin Hart
Leonard Robinson
Loni Love
Luenell
Marques Ray
Mikey Day
Nic Nac
Nyima Funk
Porscha Coleman
Randall Park
N. Shiver
Rasika Mathur
Rob Hoffman
Taran Killam

text: Seasons 5–7 (the revival/MTV2 era)[edit]

text:
Nick Cannon
DJ D-Wrek
Aarona Lopez
Akaash Singh
Anthony "Chico" Bean
B-Daht
Blair Christian
Carlos "Spanky" Hayes
Chaunte Wayans
Conceited
Corey Holcomb
Darren Brand
DC Young Fly
DeRay Davis
DoBoy
Emmanuel Hudson
Esther Ku
Hitman Holla
Hunter Steibel
Jack Thriller
Jacob Williams
James Davis
Jon Gabrus
Karlous Miller
King Bach
Kojo
Lauren Flans
Matt Rife
Mikey Day
Natasha Rothwell
Pete Davidson
Rasika Mathur
Rip Micheals
Rosa Acosta
Shak Standley
Shawty
TattooManPaige
Timothy DeLaGhetto
Will "Spank" Horton
LuiFromDaRoc

text: Season 8-present (the return to MTV)[edit]

text:
Nick Cannon
DJ D-Wrek
Anthony "Chico" Bean
B-Daht
Becky "Pickles" Robinson
Billy Sorrells
Blair Christian
Charlie Clips
Corey Charron
Conceited
Corey Holcomb
Cynthia LuCiette
Darren Brand
DC Young Fly
DeRay Davis
DoBoy
Elgin "Davisito" David
Emmanuel Hudson
Hitman Holla
Jack Thriller
Jacob Williams
Jess Hilarious
Jeremy "Burpie" Alsop
Jon Gabrus
Justina Valentine
Karlous Miller
Matt Rife
Michael Blackson
Nate Jackson
Rip Micheals
Ross Bryant
Teddy Ray
Timothy DeLaGhetto
Tonio Skits

text: Games[edit]

text:
World's Worst: a game where the world best goes wrong; introduced in Season 1 in an episode featuring SNL comedian, Kenan Thompson.
You Can't Say That: A game where the most inappropriate thing is said on live TV; this game was first introduced in Season 1 in an episode featuring Wu-Tang Clan member, Method Man.
Let Me Holla: Members from each team use a pick up line on a wild'n out girl. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.
The Interrogation Game: an improv comedy game of interrogating an unknown suspect and the suspect must give out a clue of who they are. This was used in Season 1 by Christina Milian.
The Hating Game: a comedic version of the Dating Game with bad intentions heard about the bachelors. Used in Season 1 featuring guest team captain, Fonzworth Bentley.
Before and After: A game where one person from each team is giving a category as he/she must act out a person or thing before and after.
Tore Up from the Floor Up: A game where people from the audience are called to walk the runway as the teams clown about the outfits. the team with funny lines, earn bells. Buzzers for non-funny jokes.
Celebrity Death Battle: an improv game where two people rhyme as the celebrities shown in a picture.
Turn Up For What: A member from each team shout "Turn up......" The audience then ask "Turn up for what?" If the reply is funny, music is played; if it's unfunny, they get crickets. The team with the most points wins.
Got Props: Each team is given a prop and has to use it in a scenario. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.
That's My Dog: A game where two people of the same team (one the owner of the dog and the other as the dog) must come to an understanding of clues DJ D-Wrek gives out. First introduced in Season 1 by principal cast member (later guest team captain), Kevin Hart.
Unhappily Ever After: A funny take on fairy tales with bad endings. Used in Season 1 by guest team captain, Kanye West.
Remix: Each team has to remix a nursery rhyme or a song of some sort. The audience decides the winner after.
Trap N Out: an alternative version of Remix first introduced in Wild N' Out Season 8 when Migos were team captains/performers.
R and Beef: Each team has to make a R&B song from audience suggestions or problems. The audience decides the winner after.
Rock N Beef: An alternative version of R & Beef used in an episode featuring Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy.
Pie or Die: Each member is given a word and has to use it correctly in a freestyle rap. If they use it correctly, they gain a bell. If they don't use it correctly, they get a pie to the face. The team with the most bells wins.
Talking Spit: The team captains sit down and fill their mouth with water. Opposite members of each team try to make them laugh. The team that has the most spits loses.
Pillow Talk: An alternative version of Talkin' Spit using pillows in substitution of water bottles and a bucket. This concept was used in an episode featuring Victoria's Secret model Chanel Iman.
Family Reunion: Each member of each team have to introduce a member of the audience as their "family member" and if the introduction is funny they get a bell, if it's unfunny they get a buzzer. The team with the most points wins .
Eat Dat Ass Up: Each team is given a random dance to do. The team that does it the best wins.
Plead the fifth: The team captain of both teams sit in a cage and are asked questions by the opposing members. The captains have to answer the questions truthfully. The only way to get out of answering the question is saying "I plead the fifth". The team who pleads the fifth the most loses.
Now You Wild Out: Each team is given a place to rap a description about what to do at the place and end with punchline "Now You Wild Out" and its keep going until one team cant think of a rhyme. The team with the most points wins.
Pick up and Kill it: One person from each team is rap battling about a specific topic. The team with most points wins.
Flow Job: One member of each team must freestyle rap about the occupation they are given to a Wild 'n Out girl. If she gets it, they earn a bell, and if she doesn't, they get a buzzer.
Twerk Work: Teams make up twerk songs based on occupation suggestions from twitter. The audience decides the winner after.
Breaking up is hard to do: Members from each team use their best breaking up technique on a wild'n out girl. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.
So Fly: Members from each team compliment their captain. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.
So Ballin': an alternative version of So Fly used in Season 4 by rap artist, Jim Jones.
Late Night Questions: A game were one person ask a question in bed causing the other to be uncomfortable.
Star Sightings: Members from each team go out and find people in the audience that look like stars. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.
Who's On The Pole: Members from each team can say jokes about audience members who go up on stage and dance on the pole. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's not funny, you get nothing. The team with the most points wins.
Bail Me Out: Members from each team try to get their captain to say which celebrity they are trying to be. The team that gets the most right wins.
Wildagram: DJ D-Wrek will give each team a celebrity name and they got 15 seconds to act out their "Wildagram" post. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.
Instaham: Photo of a celebrity will be shown on the screen and the cast members have to explain what happened with a funny punchline. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins. This game was introduced in Season 1 as Snap on the Shots with guest team captain, Eva Pigford.
Hood Jeopardy: Jeopardy with a twist, each team member can go up and say the answer to whats on screen. If it's funny, it gets a bell; if it's unfunny, it gets a buzzer. The team with the most points wins.

text: Broadcast history[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
No.
Team captain
Writer
Performer/guest
Original airdate
No. in total

1
"Orlando Jones"
Nick Cannon
Cassidy/Biz Markie
July 28, 2005
1

The first episode sets up the whole season. The start off the show by playing "The Questions Game", in which the Black and Red team can only ask each other questions. Orlando Jones comes up with a funny question, "Did Yo Mamma tell you?", and wins it for the Black Team. The second game they play is "Tore up from the Floor Up". They bring people out of the audience that they think look funny and make fun of them. During this game Robert Hoffman strips nearly all the way down, leaving his underwear and his long, white, grey-on-the-tip socks. Robert Hoffman seems to love being in his socks, and leaves his shoes off for a while. Hoffman's team wins that round. The 3rd game is a game called "I’m On the List!", wherein the Black Team and the Red Team have to act out celebrity personalities and the team captains have to figure out who the impression is of, then let that "celebrity" into the club. The Red Team wins the 3rd game. And the last game is called "Wild Style". The cast has to go head to head free styling each other and making punch lines. Who ever is the funniest wins the whole game. The Red Team Wins the whole thing! Cassidy comes through and plays "I'm A Hustla" from his album I'm A Hustla.

2
"Christina Milian"
Nick Cannon
Common
August 4, 2005
2

Nick Cannon on the Red Team goes against Christina Millian on the Black Team to see who can win. Christina Millian tries to take Nick Cannon's comedy crown. They play "Talkin' Spit", "The Interrogation Game", "R&Beef" and "Wild Style" like they do at the end of the show every night. Nick Cannon's Red Team wins at the end of the show. Common Performs "Go" from his album BE and break dances on the floor with Affion Crockett, one of the stars off "Nick Cannon Presents: Wild N' Out".

3
"Ying Yang Twins"
Nick Cannon
Ying Yang Twins
August 11, 2005
3

In this episode the Ying Yang Twins are the captain of the Black Team. In the first game called "Got Props?" the team members get a prop and use them to do funny things. The Black Team wins that round. In the next round called "Star Sightings" the two teams have to go out in the audience and find people that look like celebrities, but do it in a funny way. The Red Team wins that round. Up next is funny game called "That's My Dog", 1 person from each team has to be a dog, they only can bark and act out things, but they can’t speak. And the other person from each team has to find out what the dog is saying. The Black Team wins that game. In the last round called "Wild Style", the teams go head to head and do funny punch lines. The Red team wins that round, so that means they win the whole thing. Afterwards the Ying Yang Twins perform their hit song "Wait (The Whisper Song)" from their CD USA (United States of Atlanta).

4
"Kanye West"
Nick Cannon
Kanye West/Tracee Ellis Ross
August 18, 2005
4

This week's episode is with Kanye West, he is the captain of the Black Team. The first game is called "Tore up from the Floor Up", the teammates go out into the audience and get people that they think looks funny and sends them on stage and make punch lines about them. The Black Team wins that round. Next up is a game called "The Hating Game", it's like the dating game but the woman picks the guy that she hates the most by their lines. Tracee Ross plays the lady that pick between two guys that she hates the most. The Red Team wins that one. In this round they play a game called the "Unhappily Ever After" game, the audience comes up with a story that the cast comes up with that doesn’t end "Happily Ever After". The Red Team wins that. In the "Wildstyle" round Kanye West and Nick Cannon's team goes against each other making punch lines as they go along. Kanye's Black Team wins the whole thing. At the end Kanye hypes the crowd with a song from his "Late Registration" album called "Diamonds of Sierra Leone".

5
"Eva Pigford"
Nick Cannon
T.I. & P$C
August 25, 2005
5

This time the Black Team captain is Eva Pigford. She was along her protege Chynna Terrell. In the first game "Snap on the Shots", the team members off each team make jokes of pictures that come up on a screen: if it's funny, they get a ding; if it's not they get a buzzer. The Black Team wins that round. The 2nd game 1 person from each team has to sit in a chair and put water in his or her mouth, one of the people from each team and has to say something funny so that the other person can spit the water out of their mouth and win a point. The Red Team takes that round. The 3rd game is "60 Second Sequel" where the audience screams out a movie so that the team members can make a sequel to it. If the audience screams loud for a team that team wins. The Red team wins that round. In the last round "Wildstyle" the two teams go head to head making punch lines; the Red Team wins the last round. At the end T.I. and P$C perform "Set It Out".

6
"Kenan Thompson"
Nick Cannon
The Pussycat Dolls
September 1, 2005
6

This episode Kenan Thompson comes through and is the captain of the Black Team. In the 1st game "World's Worst" the team members have to do a skit and make fun of things that a person can do the worst of. The Red Team wins that round. The next game is called "Star Sightings": the two teams go out and find people in the audience that look like stars. In the 3rd game called "Unhappily Ever After", the team members make a skit of stories that end happily ever after, but the team has to make their ending unhappy and funny. The Red Team wins. In the last game "Wildstyle" they go against each other making funny punch lines. The Red Team wins it all. At the end The Pussycat Dolls perform their hit single "Don’t Cha".

7
"Fonzworth Bentley"
Nick Cannon
Trillville/Vanessa Minnillo
September 8, 2005
7

In this episode Farnsworth Bentley is the captain of the Black Team. In the first game called "Got Props?" the Wild N’ Out members have to do something funny with the props that are given to them. The Black Team takes that round. In the next game "Tore up from the Floor Up" the cast goes out and finds people they think are funny and send them on stage to make fun of them and how they are dressed. The Black Team wins that one. TRL’S host Vanessa Minnillo selects the Red Team as she plays the game "The Hating Game"; the Red Team wins that round. In the last round "Wildstyle" the Black Team wins overall. After the show Trillville plays a hit song from their album Some Cut.

8
"Omarion"
Nick Cannon
Lil Wayne
September 15, 2005
8

In the 8th episode Omarion is the captain of the Black Team. In the first game "World's Worst" the members do things that people can be the worst at; the Red Team wins the 1st round. In the 2nd round they play a game called "Do Dat Dance". DJ D-Wrek has to come up with a new dance move and the cast has to create it. The Red Team wins again. In the next game called "Deaf Jam" they have to play out a song without saying any words, and their teammate has to figure it out. The Red Team wins this round too. In the last game "Wildstyle" everyone pitches in and goes against others. The Black team wins overall. Lil’ Wayne performs "Earthquake" after the show.

9
"Kevin Hart"
Nick Cannon
David Banner
September 22, 2005
9

Kevin Hart joins his black team crew in a game called "That's My Dog". That's where one teammate has to be a dog and the other has to be a person who tries to figure out what the person is saying. The Black Team wins that round. The next round DJ D-Wrek explains "The Questions Game" where a Red teammate and a Black teammate have to keep asking questions, and if one teammate doesn't know a question to ask the other team wins the point. The Red Team wins the round. In the next game "60 Second Sequel" both of the teams are giving a movie to make a sequel to. The Black Team wins that round. In the last round "WildStyle", at the end the black team wins. David Banner gets the crowd hyped with a song.

10
"Method Man"
Nick Cannon
Lil Scrappy
September 29, 2005
10

Method Man comes through, captain of the Black Team. They start it off playing the game "You Can't Say That Shit" were you can say bad things but not make it obvious you are saying it. The Black Team wins that. The next game they play is called "Star Sighting" where the person has to find an audience member that looks like a celebrity. The Black Team wins. Next up is the "R&Beef Game"; you have to sings songs that are really funny. The Black Team wins that one. At the end they play the "WildStyle" game. The Red Team wins the whole thing. Lil' Scrappy then performs "No Problem".

text: Season 2[edit]

text: The second season contains a total of 10 episodes which were originally broadcast in the United States from February 2 to April 6, 2006.

text:
Lil Jon (Team Captain & Performer)
Tyra Banks (Team Captain)
Cedric the Entertainer (Team Captain)
Marques Houston (Team Captain)
Rev Run (Team Captain)
Kelly Rowland (Team Captain)
Mike Jones (Team Captain & Performer)
Charlie Murphy (Team Captain)
Wayne Brady (Team Captain)
Mike Epps (Team Captain)
Ne-Yo (Performer)
Sean Paul (Performer and special referee for WildStyle)
Three 6 Mafia (Performers)
Dem Franchize Boyz with Jermaine Dupri & Da Brat (Performers)
Young Jeezy with Akon (Performers)
Rhymefest (Performer for WildStyle)
Bobby Brown (Joined Red Squad for the game R & Beef in the Marques Houston episode)
Joy Bryant (Bachelorette for The Hating Game in the Mike Epps episode)
Rich Boy (Performer)
Busta Rhymes (Performer)
Paul Wall (Performer)
Pitbull (Performer)

text: Season 3[edit]

text: The third season contains a total of 8 episodes which were originally broadcast in the United States from August 10 to October 5, 2006.

text:
Big Boi (Team Captain & Performer)
Fat Joe (Team Captain)
Andy Milonakis (Team Captain)
Warren Sapp (Team Captain)
Jamie Kennedy (Team Captain)
E-40 (Team Captain & Performer)
Ray J (Team Captain)
Talib Kweli (Team Captain)
Purple Ribbon All-Stars (Performers; member Killer Mike was a guest judge for WildStyle)
Chamillionaire with Krayzie Bone (Performers)
Method Man (Performer)
Lupe Fiasco (Performer)
Field Mob (Performers)
Clipse and Pharrell (Performers)
Yung Joc (Performer)
Lil Jon (Judge for Remix in the Big Boi episode)
Nicole "Hoopz" Alexander (Judge for Let Me Holla in the E-40 episode)

text: Season 4[edit]

text: The fourth season contains a total of 20 episodes which were originally broadcast in the United States from May 12 to September 6, 2007.

text:
Snoop Dogg (Team Captain & Performer)
Ne-Yo (Team Captain & Performer)
Lloyd (Team Captain & Performer)
Steve-O (Team Captain)
Fabolous (Team Captain & Performer)
Brooke Hogan (Team Captain)
Redman (Team Captain & Performer)
Swizz Beatz (Team Captain & Performer)
Tara Reid (Team Captain)
Young Buck (Team Captain & Performer)
Pauly Shore (Team Captain)
Jim Jones (Team Captain & Performer)
Serena Williams (Team Captain)
Common (Team Captain & Performer)
Terry Crews (Team Captain)
Paula DeAnda (Team Captain)
Big Boy (Team Captain)
Sommore (Team Captain)
Bruce Bruce (Team Captain)
Katt Williams (Team Captain)
Big Daddy Kane (Performer)
Three 6 Mafia (Performers)
Izzy Battle (Performer)
Nate Dogg (Performer)
The Fixxers (Performers & Judges for Wildstyle in the Pauly Shore episode)
Crime Mob (Performers)
Pretty Ricky (Performers)
Baby Boy da Prince (Performer & Judge for Wildstyle in the Paula DeAnda episode)
Unk (Performer)
Mike Jones (Performer)
Paul Wall (Performer)
Huey (Performer)
Lil Jon (Special Guest in the Common episode)
Liz Hernandez (bachelorette for the Hating Game in the Big Boy episode)

text: There was also a reunion episode to show the funniest moments of the show. It aired on May 23, 2010.

text: Season 5[edit]

text: The fifth season contains a total of 12 episodes which were originally broadcast in the United States from July 9 to September 24, 2013.[7]

text:
Kevin Hart (Team Captain )
Mac Miller (Team Captain & Performer)
2 Chainz (Team Captain & Performer)
Vinny Guadagnino (Team Captain)
French Montana (Team Captain & Performer)
A$AP Rocky (Team Captain & Performer)
Amar'e Stoudemire (Team Captain)
Lil Duval (Team Captain)
Chanel West Coast (Team Captain)
Joe Budden (Team Captain & Performer)
Machine Gun Kelly (Team Captain & Performer)
DJ Khaled (Performer)
Talib Kweli (Performer)
Macklemore & Ryan Lewis (Performers)
Joey Badass (Performer)
Pusha T (Performer)
Kirko Bangz (Performer)
Mike Epps (Special Guest)
Cast of Guy Code (Special Guests)
Mariah Carey (Special Guest)
Big Boi (Special Guest)
Styles P (Special Guest)

text: Season 6[edit]

text: In 2014, Wild 'N Out was renewed for a sixth season.[8] The sixth season contains a total of 16 episodes which broadcast from July 2, 2014 to February 4, 2015.

text:
Rick Ross (Team Captain & Performer)
Nelly (Team Captain & Performer)
Skylar Diggins (Team Captain)
Bow Wow (Team Captain)
Chrissy Teigen (Team Captain)
Austin Mahone (Team Captain & Performer)
Riff Raff (Team Captain & Performer)
Asher Roth (Team Captain)
Tech N9ne (Team Captain & Performer)
Amber Rose (Team Captain)
Brandon T. Jackson (Team Captain)
Maino (Team Captain)
Chanel Iman (Team Captain)
Peter Gunz (Team Captain)
Sage The Gemini (Team Captain & Performer)
Adrian Broner (Team Captain)
Meek Mill (Performer)
Vic Mensa (Performer)
Que (Performer)
PWD (Performers)
Troy Ave (Performer)
Krizz Kaliko (Performer)
Wiz Khalifa (Performer)
Wonder Broz (Performers)
Yo Gotti (Performer)
Rich Homie Quan (Performer)
Migos (Performers)
Angel Haze (Performer)
Michael Strahan (Special Guest)
Drita D'Avanzo (Special Guest)
MURS (Special Guest)
Jim Jones (Special Guest)
Jessica White (Special Guest)

text: Season 7[edit]

text: The seventh season contains a total of 16 episodes which broadcast from June 10, 2015 to January 6, 2016. There are also stand up specials after the episodes in this season are finished.

text:
Fabolous (Team Captain & Performer)
Rae Sremmurd (Team Captains & Performers)
T-Pain (Team Captain & Performer)
Pete Wentz (Team Captain)
Zendaya (Team Captain)
Ne-Yo (Team Co-Captain & Performer)
Nick Young (Team Captain)
Ty Dolla $ign (Team Captain & Performer)
Mack Wilds (Team Captain)
DJ Drama (Team Co-Captain)
DeJ Loaf (Team Captain & Performer)
A$AP Ferg (Team Captain & Performer)
Jordin Sparks (Team Captain)
Snoop Dogg (Team Co-Captain & Performer)
Shaquille O'Neal (Team Captain)
Ray J (Team Captain)
Remy Ma (Team Captain)
Tiny Lister, Jr. (Team Captain)
Fat Joe (Team Captain & Performer)
Fetty Wap (Performer)
French Montana (Performer)
O.T. Genasis (Performer)
Migos (Performers)
K Camp (Performer)
Hitman Holla & Conceited (Performers)
Kevin Hart (Special Guest)
Safaree Samuels (Special Guest)
A-Town & Snacks (Special Guests)
IceJJFish (Special Guest)
Hailey Clauson (Special Guest)
Arsonal Da Rebel (Special Guest)
Lil Duval (Special Guest & Performer)
The Breakfast Club (Special Guests)
The Kid Mero & Desus (Special Guests)

text: Season 8[edit]

text: The eighth season contains a total of 21 episodes which were broadcast from August 4, 2016 to April 20, 2017 on MTV, marking the first time in almost a decade that the show aired new episodes on its original network.

text:
Tyga (Team Captain & Performer)
Iggy Azalea (Team Captain & Performer)
Waka Flocka Flame (Team Captain)
Travis Scott (Team Captain & Performer)
Bella Thorne (Team Captain)
Jadakiss (Team Co-Captain & Performer)
T.I. (Team Captain & Performer)
Young Dro (Team Co-Captain)
Lil Dicky (Team Captain & Performer)
Keke Palmer (Team Captain)
Erykah Badu (Team Co-Captain)
Timbaland (Team Captain)
Stevie J & Joseline Hernandez (Team Captains)
2 Chainz (Team Captain & Performer)
K. Michelle (Team Captain)
Flo Rida (Team Co-Captain & Performer)
Trevor Jackson (Team Captain)
Chris Paul (Team Captain)
Samantha Hoopes (Team Captain)
Trina (Team Captain & Performer)
Lil Bibby (Team Captain)
Migos (Team Captains & Performers)
Faizon Love (Team Captain)
Deontay Wilder (Team Captain)
Omarion (Team Captain & Performer)
Tate Kobang (Performer)
Curren$y (Performer)
Kehlani (Performer)
Yo Gotti (Performer)
D.R.A.M. (Performer)
ILoveMemphis (Performer)
Jeremih (Performer)
Dreezy (Performer)
2 Milly (Performer)
Tory Lanez (Performer)
Scott Disick (Special Guest)
Travis Mills (Special Guest)
Erica Mena (Special Guest)
DJ Whoo Kid (Special Guest)
Russell Simmons (Special Guest)
Rachel Hilbert (Special Guest)
Mack Wilds (Special Guest)
Too $hort (Special Guest)
Lyfe Jennings (Special Guest)
Les Twins (Special Guests)
Jay Leno (Special Guest)
Antonio Cromartie (Special Guest)
Lance Stephenson (Special Guest)
Don Benjamin (Special Guest)
Russell Peters (Special Guest)
Ta'Rhonda Jones (Special Guest)
Safaree Samuels (Special Guest)

text: Season 9[edit]

text: The ninth season contains a total of 16 episodes which were broadcast from June 29, 2017 to October 5, 2017 on MTV.

text:
Chance the Rapper (Team Captain & Performer)
Vic Mensa (Team Captain & Performer)
Dave East (Team Captain & Performer)
Nev Schulman (Team Co-Captain)
Lil Yachty (Team Captain & Performer)
Blac Chyna (Team Captain)
The Cast of The New Edition Story (Team Captains)
Tami Roman (Team Captain)
Remy Ma (Team Captain)
Papoose (Team Co-Captain)
Killer Mike (Team Captain)
Young M.A (Team Captain & Performer)
Rick Ross (Team Captain & Performer)
Jake Miller (Team Captain & Performer)
Lil Rel Howery (Team Captain)
LeSean McCoy (Team Captain)
DJ Self (Team Captain)
Wendy Williams (Team Captain)
Saba (Performer)
It's A Movie (Performer)
Nick Grant (Performer)
Lecrae (Performer)
Hitman Holla & Conceited (Performers)
Run the Jewels (Performers)
Ayo & Teo (Performers)
Kid the Wiz, SNS & The Waffle Crew (Performers)
Kodie Shane (Performer)
Blac Youngsta (Performer)
Terrence Jenkins (Special Guest)
Method Man (Special Guest)
Dick Gregory (Special Guest)
Naturi Naughton (Special Guest)
YesJulz (Special Guest)
Shameik Moore (Special Guest)
Mia Kang (Special Guest)
Todrick Hall (Special Guest)
Demaris Lewis (Special Guest)
Cipha Sounds (Special Guest)


document_title: Sodium

question_text: sodium or potassium salts of heavier fatty acids are called

text: Sodium

text: Characteristics[edit]

text: Physical[edit]

text: Sodium at standard temperature and pressure is a soft silvery metal that combines with oxygen in air and forms grayish white sodium oxide unless immersed in oil or inert gas, which are the conditions it is usually stored in. Sodium metal can be easily cut with a knife and is a good conductor of electricity and heat because it has only one electron in its valence shell, resulting in weak metallic bonding and free electrons, which carry energy. Due to having low atomic mass and large atomic radius, sodium is third-least dense of all elemental metals and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being lithium and potassium.[4] The melting (98 °C) and boiling (883 °C) points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the heavier alkali metals potassium, rubidium, and caesium, following periodic trends down the group.[5] These properties change dramatically at elevated pressures: at 1.5 Mbar, the color changes from silvery metallic to black; at 1.9 Mbar the material becomes transparent with a red color; and at 3 Mbar, sodium is a clear and transparent solid. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.[6]

text: In a flame test, sodium and its compounds glow yellow[7] because the excited 3s electrons of sodium emit a photon when they fall from 3p to 3s; the wavelength of this photon corresponds to the D line at about 589.3 nm. Spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm; hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines.[8]

text: Isotopes[edit]

text: Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable. 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together; this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses.[9] Two radioactive, cosmogenic isotopes are the byproduct of cosmic ray spallation: 22Na has a half-life of 2.6 years and 24Na, a half-life of 15 hours; all other isotopes have a half-life of less than one minute.[10] Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the longer-lived one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Acute neutron radiation, as from a nuclear criticality accident, converts some of the stable 23Na in human blood to 24Na; the neutron radiation dosage of a victim can be calculated by measuring the concentration of 24Na relative to 23Na.[11]

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the extremely stable configuration of the noble gas neon. Because of this and its low first ionization energy of 495.8 kJ/mol, the sodium atom is much more likely to lose the last electron and acquire a positive charge than to gain one and acquire a negative charge. This process requires so little energy that sodium is readily oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the second ionization energy is very high (4562 kJ/mol), because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation.[12]

text: The most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium.[13] Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the standard reduction potential for the Na+/Na couple being −2.71 volts,[14] though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials.[15]

text: Salts and oxides[edit]

text: Sodium compounds are of immense commercial importance, being particularly central to industries producing glass, paper, soap, and textiles.[16] The most important sodium compounds are table salt (NaCl), soda ash (Na2CO3), baking soda (NaHCO3), caustic soda (NaOH), sodium nitrate (NaNO3), di- and tri-sodium phosphates, sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3·5H2O), and borax (Na2B4O7·10H2O).[17] In compounds, sodium is usually ionically bonded to water and anions, and is viewed as a hard Lewis acid.[18]

text: Most soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Sodium soaps have a higher melting temperature (and seem "harder") than potassium soaps.[17]

text: Like all the alkali metals, sodium reacts exothermically with water, and sufficiently large pieces melt to a sphere and may explode. The reaction produces caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and flammable hydrogen gas. When burned in air, it forms primarily sodium peroxide with some sodium oxide.[19]

text: Aqueous solutions[edit]

text: Sodium tends to form water-soluble compounds, such as halides, sulfates, nitrates, carboxylates and carbonates. The main aqueous species are the aquo complexes [Na(H2O)n]+, where n = 4–8; with n = 6 indicated from X-ray diffraction data and computer simulations.[20]

text: Direct precipitation of sodium salts from aqueous solutions is rare because sodium salts typically have a high affinity for water; an exception is sodium bismuthate (NaBiO3).[21] Because of this, sodium salts are usually isolated as solids by evaporation or by precipitation with an organic solvent, such as ethanol; for example, only 0.35 g/L of sodium chloride will dissolve in ethanol.[22] Crown ethers, like 15-crown-5, may be used as a phase-transfer catalyst.[23]

text: Sodium content in bulk may be determined by treating with a large excess of uranyl zinc acetate; the hexahydrate (UO2)2ZnNa(CH3CO2)·6H2O precipitates and can be weighed. Caesium and rubidium do not interfere with this reaction, but potassium and lithium do.[24] Lower concentrations of sodium may be determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry[25] or by potentiometry using ion-selective electrodes.[26]

text: Electrides and sodides[edit]

text: Like the other alkali metals, sodium dissolves in ammonia and some amines to give deeply colored solutions; evaporation of these solutions leaves a shiny film of metallic sodium. The solutions contain the coordination complex (Na(NH3)6)+, with the positive charge counterbalanced by electrons as anions; cryptands permit the isolation of these complexes as crystalline solids. Sodium forms complexes with crown ethers, cryptands and other ligands.[27] For example, 15-crown-5 has high affinity for sodium because the cavity size of 15-crown-5 is 1.7–2.2 Å, which is enough to fit sodium ion (1.9 Å).[28][29] Cryptands, like crown ethers and other ionophores, also have a high affinity for the sodium ion; derivatives of the alkalide Na− are obtainable[30] by the addition of cryptands to solutions of sodium in ammonia via disproportionation.[31]

text: Organosodium compounds[edit]

text: Many organosodium compounds have been prepared. Because of the high polarity of the C-Na bonds, they behave like sources of carbanions (salts with organic anions). Some well known derivatives include sodium cyclopentadienide (NaC5H5) and trityl sodium ((C6H5)3CNa).[32] Because of the large size and very low polarising power of the Na+ cation, it can stabilize large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as in sodium naphthalenide, Na+[C10H8•]−, a strong reducing agent.[33]

text: Intermetallic compounds[edit]

text: Sodium forms alloys with many metals, such as potassium, calcium, lead, and the group 11 and 12 elements. Sodium and potassium form KNa2 and NaK. NaK is 40–90% potassium and it is liquid at ambient temperature. It is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor. Sodium-calcium alloys are by-products of electrolytic production of sodium from binary salt mixture of NaCl-CaCl2 and ternary mixture NaCl-CaCl2-BaCl2. Calcium is only partially miscible with sodium. In liquid state, sodium is completely miscible with lead. There are several methods to make sodium-lead alloys. One is to melt them together and another is to deposit sodium electrolytically on molten lead cathodes. NaPb3, NaPb, Na9Pb4, Na5Pb2, and Na15Pb4 are some of the known sodium-lead alloys. Sodium also forms alloys with gold (NaAu2) and silver (NaAg2). Group 12 metals (zinc, cadmium and mercury) are known to make alloys with sodium. NaZn13 and NaCd2 are alloys of zinc and cadmium. Sodium and mercury form NaHg, NaHg4, NaHg2, Na3Hg2, and Na3Hg.[34]

text: History[edit]

text: Because of its importance in human metabolism, salt has long been an important commodity, as shown by the English word salary, which derives from salarium, the wafers of salt sometimes given to Roman soldiers along with their other wages. In medieval Europe, a compound of sodium with the Latin name of sodanum was used as a headache remedy. The name sodium is thought to originate from the Arabic suda, meaning headache, as the headache-alleviating properties of sodium carbonate or soda were well known in early times.[35] Although sodium, sometimes called soda, had long been recognized in compounds, the metal itself was not isolated until 1807 by Sir Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide.[36][37] In 1809, the German physicist and chemist Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the names Natronium for Humphry Davy's "sodium" and Kalium for Davy's "potassium".[38] The chemical abbreviation for sodium was first published in 1814 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in his system of atomic symbols,[39][40] and is an abbreviation of the element's New Latin name natrium, which refers to the Egyptian natron,[35] a natural mineral salt mainly consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate. Natron historically had several important industrial and household uses, later eclipsed by other sodium compounds.[41]

text: Sodium imparts an intense yellow color to flames. As early as 1860, Kirchhoff and Bunsen noted the high sensitivity of a sodium flame test, and stated in Annalen der Physik und Chemie:[42]

text: In a corner of our 60 m3 room farthest away from the apparatus, we exploded 3 mg. of sodium chlorate with milk sugar while observing the nonluminous flame before the slit. After a while, it glowed a bright yellow and showed a strong sodium line that disappeared only after 10 minutes. From the weight of the sodium salt and the volume of air in the room, we easily calculate that one part by weight of air could not contain more than 1/20 millionth weight of sodium.

text: Occurrence[edit]

text: The Earth's crust contains 2.27% sodium, making it the seventh most abundant element on Earth and the fifth most abundant metal, behind aluminium, iron, calcium, and magnesium and ahead of potassium.[43] Sodium's estimated oceanic abundance is 1.08×104 milligrams per liter.[44] Because of its high reactivity, it is never found as a pure element. It is found in many different minerals, some very soluble, such as halite and natron, others much less soluble, such as amphibole and zeolite. The insolubility of certain sodium minerals such as cryolite and feldspar arises from their polymeric anions, which in the case of feldspar is a polysilicate.

text: Astronomical observations[edit]

text: Atomic sodium has a very strong spectral line in the yellow-orange part of the spectrum (the same line as is used in sodium vapour street lights). This appears as an absorption line in many types of stars, including the Sun. The line was first studied in 1814 by Joseph von Fraunhofer during his investigation of the lines in the solar spectrum, now known as the Fraunhofer lines. Fraunhofer named it the 'D line', although it is now known to actually be a group of closely spaced lines split by fine and hyperfine structure.[45]

text: The strength of the D line means it has been detected in many other astronomical environments. In stars, it is seen in any whose surfaces are cool enough for sodium to exist in atomic form (rather than ionised). This corresponds to stars of roughly F-type and cooler. Many other stars appear to have a sodium absorption line, but this is actually caused by gas in the foreground interstellar medium. The two can be distinguished via high-resolution spectroscopy, because interstellar lines are much narrower than those broadened by stellar rotation.[46]

text: Sodium has also been detected in numerous Solar System environments, including Mercury's atmosphere,[citation needed] the exosphere of the Moon,[47] and numerous other bodies. Some comets have a sodium tail,[48] which was first detected in observations of Comet Hale-Bopp in 1997.[49] Sodium has even been detected in the atmospheres of some extrasolar planets via transit spectroscopy.[50]

text: Commercial production[edit]

text: Employed only in rather specialized applications, only about 100,000 tonnes of metallic sodium are produced annually.[16] Metallic sodium was first produced commercially in the late 19th century[51] by carbothermal reduction of sodium carbonate at 1100 °C, as the first step of the Deville process for the production of aluminium:[52][53][54]

text: The high demand of aluminium created the need for the production of sodium. The introduction of the Hall–Héroult process for the production of aluminium by electrolysing a molten salt bath ended the need for large quantities of sodium. A related process based on the reduction of sodium hydroxide was developed in 1886.[52]

text: Sodium is now produced commercially through the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, based on a process patented in 1924.[55][56] This is done in a Downs cell in which the NaCl is mixed with calcium chloride to lower the melting point below 700 °C. As calcium is less electropositive than sodium, no calcium will be deposited at the cathode.[57] This method is less expensive than the previous Castner process (the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide).[58]

text: The market for sodium is volatile due to the difficulty in its storage and shipping; it must be stored under a dry inert gas atmosphere or anhydrous mineral oil to prevent the formation of a surface layer of sodium oxide or sodium superoxide.[59]

text: Applications[edit]

text: Though metallic sodium has some important uses, the major applications for sodium use compounds; millions of tons of sodium chloride, hydroxide, and carbonate are produced annually. Sodium chloride is extensively used for anti-icing and de-icing and as a preservative; examples of the uses of sodium bicarbonate include baking, as a raising agent, and sodablasting. Along with potassium, many important medicines have sodium added to improve their bioavailability; though potassium is the better ion in most cases, sodium is chosen for its lower price and atomic weight.[60] Sodium hydride is used as a base for various reactions (such as the aldol reaction) in organic chemistry, and as a reducing agent in inorganic chemistry.[61]

text: Metallic sodium is used mainly for the production of sodium borohydride, sodium azide, indigo, and triphenylphosphine. A once-common use was the making of tetraethyllead and titanium metal; because of the move away from TEL and new titanium production methods, the production of sodium declined after 1970.[16] Sodium is also used as an alloying metal, an anti-scaling agent,[62] and as a reducing agent for metals when other materials are ineffective. Note the free element is not used as a scaling agent, ions in the water are exchanged for sodium ions. Sodium plasma ("vapor") lamps are often used for street lighting in cities, shedding light that ranges from yellow-orange to peach as the pressure increases.[63] By itself or with potassium, sodium is a desiccant; it gives an intense blue coloration with benzophenone when the desiccate is dry.[64] In organic synthesis, sodium is used in various reactions such as the Birch reduction, and the sodium fusion test is conducted to qualitatively analyse compounds.[65] Sodium reacts with alcohol and gives alkoxides, and when sodium is dissolved in ammonia solution, it can be used to reduce alkynes to trans-alkenes.[66][67] Lasers emitting light at the sodium D line are used to create artificial laser guide stars that assist in the adaptive optics for land-based visible light telescopes.[68]

text: Heat transfer[edit]

text: Liquid sodium is used as a heat transfer fluid in some types of nuclear reactors[70] because it has the high thermal conductivity and low neutron absorption cross section required to achieve a high neutron flux in the reactor.[71] The high boiling point of sodium allows the reactor to operate at ambient (normal) pressure,[71] but the drawbacks include its opacity, which hinders visual maintenance, and its explosive properties.[72] Radioactive sodium-24 may be produced by neutron bombardment during operation, posing a slight radiation hazard; the radioactivity stops within a few days after removal from the reactor.[73] If a reactor needs to be shut down frequently, NaK is used; because NaK is a liquid at room temperature, the coolant does not solidify in the pipes.[74] In this case, the pyrophoricity of potassium requires extra precautions to prevent and detect leaks.[75] Another heat transfer application is poppet valves in high-performance internal combustion engines; the valve stems are partially filled with sodium and work as a heat pipe to cool the valves.[76]

text: Biological role[edit]

text: In humans, sodium is an essential mineral that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day.[77] Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative in such commodities as pickled preserves and jerky; for Americans, most sodium chloride comes from processed foods.[78] Other sources of sodium are its natural occurrence in food and such food additives as monosodium glutamate (MSG), sodium nitrite, sodium saccharin, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), and sodium benzoate.[79] The US Institute of Medicine set its Tolerable Upper Intake Level for sodium at 2.3 grams per day,[80] but the average person in the United States consumes 3.4 grams per day.[81] Studies have found that lowering sodium intake by 2 g per day tends to lower systolic blood pressure by about two to four mm Hg.[82] It has been estimated that such a decrease in sodium intake would lead to between 9 and 17% fewer cases of hypertension.[82]

text: Hypertension causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide each year.[83] (Note that salt contains about 39.3% sodium[84]—the rest being chlorine and trace chemicals; thus, 2.3 g sodium is about 5.9 g, or 2.7 ml of salt—about one US teaspoon.[85][86]) The American Heart Association recommends no more than 1.5 g of sodium per day.[87]

text: One study found that people with or without hypertension who excreted less than 3 grams of sodium per day in their urine (and therefore were taking in less than 3 g/d) had a higher risk of death, stroke, or heart attack than those excreting 4 to 5 grams per day. Levels of 7 g per day or more in people with hypertension were associated with higher mortality and cardiovascular events, but this was not found to be true for people without hypertension.[88] The US FDA states that adults with hypertension and prehypertension should reduce daily intake to 1.5 g.[86]

text: The renin–angiotensin system regulates the amount of fluid and sodium concentration in the body. Reduction of blood pressure and sodium concentration in the kidney result in the production of renin, which in turn produces aldosterone and angiotensin, retaining sodium in the urine. When the concentration of sodium increases, the production of renin decreases, and the sodium concentration returns to normal.[89] The sodium ion (Na+) is an important electrolyte in neuron function, and in osmoregulation between cells and the extracellular fluid. This is accomplished in all animals by Na+/K+-ATPase, an active transporter pumping ions against the gradient, and sodium/potassium channels.[90] Sodium is the most prevalent metallic ion in extracellular fluid.[91]

text: Unusually low or high sodium levels in humans are recognized in medicine as hyponatremia and hypernatremia. These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, ageing, or prolonged vomiting or diarrhea.[92]

text: In C4 plants, sodium is a micronutrient that aids metabolism, specifically in regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate and synthesis of chlorophyll.[93] In others, it substitutes for potassium in several roles, such as maintaining turgor pressure and aiding in the opening and closing of stomata.[94] Excess sodium in the soil can limit the uptake of water by decreasing the water potential, which may result in plant wilting; excess concentrations in the cytoplasm can lead to enzyme inhibition, which in turn causes necrosis and chlorosis.[95] In response, some plants have developed mechanisms to limit sodium uptake in the roots, to store it in cell vacuoles, and restrict salt transport from roots to leaves;[96] excess sodium may also be stored in old plant tissue, limiting the damage to new growth. Halophytes have adapted to be able to flourish in sodium rich environments.[96]

text: Safety and precautions[edit]

text:
NFPA 704
fire diamond

1
3
2
W

The fire diamond hazard sign for sodium metal[97]

text: Sodium forms flammable hydrogen and caustic sodium hydroxide on contact with water;[98] ingestion and contact with moisture on skin, eyes or mucous membranes can cause severe burns.[99][100] Sodium spontaneously explodes in the presence of water due to the formation of hydrogen (highly explosive) and sodium hydroxide (which dissolves in the water, liberating more surface). However, sodium exposed to air and ignited or reaching autoignition (reported to occur when a molten pool of sodium reaches about 290 °C)[101] displays a relatively mild fire. In the case of massive (non-molten) pieces of sodium the reaction with oxygen eventually becomes slow due to formation of a protective layer.[102] Fire extinguishers based on water accelerate sodium fires; those based on carbon dioxide and bromochlorodifluoromethane should not be used on sodium fire.[100] Metal fires are Class D, but not all Class D extinguishers are workable with sodium. An effective extinguishing agent for sodium fires is Met-L-X.[100] Other effective agents include Lith-X, which has graphite powder and an organophosphate flame retardant, and dry sand.[103] Sodium fires are prevented in nuclear reactors by isolating sodium from oxygen by surrounding sodium pipes with inert gas.[104] Pool-type sodium fires are prevented using different design measures called catch pan systems. They collect leaking sodium into a leak-recovery tank where it is isolated from oxygen.[104]