document_title: Nobel Prize

question_text: where does the money come from for the nobel peace prize

text: Nobel Prize

text: History[edit]

text: Alfred Nobel ( listen (help·info)) was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers.[7] He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.[8]

text: In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will.[9] On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.[10]

text: Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895.[11][12] To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace.[13] Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes.[14][15] Because of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway.[16] The executors of Nobel's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organise the award of prizes.[17]

text: Nobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June.[18] The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II.[13] In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.

text: Nobel Foundation[edit]

text: Formation of Foundation[edit]

text: In the 19th century the Nobel family who were known for their innovations to the oil industry in Azerbaijan was the leading representative of foreign capital in Baku. Robert Nobel was the first foreign investor in oil sector in Baku. In 1875 R. Nobel bought a small refinery to Baku, thus the foundation of “The Nobel Brothers Company” that was nationalized by the Baku Council of People's Commissars the Company in 1918 was laid.[19]

text: In 1920 the Company was nationalized by the government of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Even the Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company`s symbol was created by taking inspiration from the Fire Temple (Ateshgah) in Surakhani and their oil tankers were given some religious and philosophical names such as Zoroaster, Muhammad, Buddha, Brahma, Socrates, Spinoza and Darwin.

text: According to the Alfred Nobel's will and testament read in Stockholm on 30th December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity.

text: The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel’s personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed from the shares 12% of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize. [20]

text: The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes.[21] In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established".[22] Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates.[23][24] In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953).[25] Since the 1980s, the Foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$560 million).[26]

text: According to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.[26]

text: First prizes[edit]

text: Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions.

text: The Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize.[27][28] In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize."[29] The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van 't Hoff.[30] Van 't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.[31][32]

text: The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded.[33] Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet.[34] The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.[35][36]

text: The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.

text: Second World War[edit]

text: In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes.[37] Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal.[38] Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940–42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.[39]

text: During the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden.[40] These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.[37]

text: Prize in Economic Sciences[edit]

text: In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Swedish National Bank) celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honour of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes."[41][42] The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.[43]

text: Award process[edit]

text: The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.[44]

text: Nominations[edit]

text: Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award.[44][45] The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names.[46] The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.[47][48]

text: Selection[edit]

text: The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions.[49] The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote.[50] A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals.[51]

text: Posthumous nominations[edit]

text: Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented.[52] On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously.[5] The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged.[53]

text: Recognition time lag[edit]

text: Nobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries.[54] However, some of these early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer.[55] To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time.[56][57][58] According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident."[57]

text: The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement.[59][60] The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts.[61][62] However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events.[63] For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations.[64] Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.[65]

text: Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution.[66][67] Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.[68][69][70]

text: Award ceremonies[edit]

text: Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events.[71][72] The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present).[73]

text: The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway.[72][74] At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that his mind changed once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.[75]

text: Nobel Banquet[edit]

text: After the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.

text: The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.

text: Nobel lecture[edit]

text: According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize.[76] The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format.[77] These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office.[78] The lectures are organised by the same association which selected the laureates.[79]

text: Prizes[edit]

text: Medals[edit]

text: It was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation.[80] Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal.[81] The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.[82]

text: All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in).[83] Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft.[84][85][86] During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.[87]

text: Diplomas[edit]

text: Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them.[81] The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.[88][89]

text: Award money[edit]

text: The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded.[81] The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US$350 000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$1.4 million).[90][91] In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK.[92] If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others.[93][94][95] It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.[96][97]

text: Controversies and criticisms[edit]

text: Controversial recipients[edit]

text: Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.[98][99][100]

text: Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. [101] Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities.[102] Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award. [47][103]

text: Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine.[47][104] Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned.[105] Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.[106]

text: Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009.[107] Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months.[108] Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award,[109] or worthy of the company it would place him in.[110] Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left-wing bias.[111]

text: The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art." He alleged that Jelinek's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure."[112][113] The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work.[114] This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.[115]

text: In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or "lobotomy" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize.[116][117]

text: Overlooked achievements[edit]

text: The Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937–39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948.[118] Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize.[119] Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006, said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question".[120] In 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate" that year.[119][121] Later, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi."[122] Other high-profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have."[123]

text: In 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.[124][125]

text: The Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism.[126][127] The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors.[128] This tendency towards European authors still leaves some European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe.[129]

text: Candidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155[130] nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016[update]. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115[131] nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84[132] in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016[update].[133] Otto Stern received 79[134] nominations in physics 1925–43 before being awarded in 1943.[135]

text: The strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial.[136] When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.[137][138] According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honour in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.[139]

text: Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. In 1962, Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize for discovering the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, a key contributor in that discovery, died of ovarian cancer four years earlier.[140] The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honour in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role.

text: Political subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power.[141] The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.

text: Emphasis on discoveries over inventions[edit]

text: Alfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind."[142] He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics." Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.[143][144]

text: Gender disparity[edit]

text: In terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Looking at the Nobel Prize, out of 199 laureates in Physics, 169 in Chemistry and 207 in Medicine, there were only two female laureates in physics, four in chemistry and 11 in medicine between 1901 and 2014.[145][146]

text: Specially distinguished laureates[edit]

text: Multiple laureates[edit]

text: Four people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium,[147] making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity.[148] Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.[149][150]

text: Two organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary.[151][152][153] The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.[154]

text: Family laureates[edit]

text: The Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her.[155] Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.[156]

text: Although no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine[157] as did the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe).[158] J. J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves.[159] William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer.[160] Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975.[156][161] Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981.[156][162] Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970.[156] C. V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983.[163][164] Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006.[165] Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize.[156] Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974.[156] Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers-in-law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, is the great-uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard 't Hooft.[166]

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Being a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize.[167]

text: Refusals and constraints[edit]

text: Two laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form."[168] Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.[169]

text: During the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying "this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award."[169] The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf.[170][171] Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012.[172] Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The memorial symbol "Planet of Alfred Nobel" was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.[173][174]


document_title: Three Days of the Condor

question_text: where was three days of the condor filmed

root

text: Three Days of the Condor

text: Plot[edit]

text: Joseph Turner (Robert Redford) is a CIA analyst, code named "Condor." He works in a clandestine office in New York City, which operates as a front called the "American Literary Historical Society." Turner's task is to read books, newspapers, and magazines from around the world, looking for hidden meanings and new ideas. As part of his duties, Turner files a report to CIA headquarters on a low-quality thriller novel his office has been reading, pointing out strange plot elements therein, and the unusual assortment of languages into which the book has been translated (Spanish and Dutch but not German or French, and both Arabic and Persian).

tag: p

text: On the day that Turner is expecting a response to his report, a team of assassins arrives during the lunch hour and murders six of Turner's co-workers: the receptionist, a security officer, the elderly office director, two male researchers, and a female researcher Janice Chong (who was also Turner's girlfriend). Turner wasn't gunned down because it was his turn to pick up lunch for the office, and due to rainy weather he took a back-lobby route out of the building that the killers weren't aware existed. Returning to find his co-workers' bodies, a frightened Turner calls the CIA's New York headquarters in the World Trade Center, and is given instructions to meet his Head of Department (Wicks), who will bring him into safety. Turner independently finds that a seventh co-worker, an older alcoholic man who stayed home that day, was also murdered. The rendezvous is however a trap. Wicks murders Turner's best friend, a CIA staffer who was genuinely trying to bring him in safely, and attempts to kill Turner, who wounds his assailant before escaping himself.

text: Needing a place to hide, Turner forces a woman, Kathy Hale (Faye Dunaway), whom he encounters by chance in a ski shop, to take himself to her apartment in Brooklyn Heights. He holds Kathy prisoner while attempting to figure out what is going on. Hale begins to trust Turner and they become lovers. However, his hiding place is discovered by Joubert (Max von Sydow): a European contract killer who led the massacre of Turner's co-workers. Joubert spots Turner driving Hale's car and notes the license plate number. A hitman disguised as a mailman (Hank Garrett), with a parcel that requires a signature, arrives at the apartment and a fight ensues. Turner, although he has no history as a fighter or assassin, is able to ward off the "mailman" before he gets the drop on the hood and fatally shoots the gunman in front of a terrified Hale.

text: Deciding that he cannot trust anyone within the CIA, Turner begins to play a cat-and-mouse game with Higgins (Cliff Robertson), the Deputy Director of the CIA's New York division, and who had picked up the original report from Condor and forwarded it to Wicks back at HQ. With the help of Hale, Turner abducts Higgins, who identifies Joubert as a skilled freelance assassin with a history of contract work for the CIA. Back at his office, Higgins discovers that the "mailman" who attacked Turner in Hale's apartment worked with Joubert on a previous operation. Their CIA case officer on that occasion was Wicks.

text: Meanwhile, using a numbered hotel room key he found on the fake postman's body, Turner learns where Joubert is staying, then uses his skills as a former Army Signals Corps technician to trace a call made from his hotel room. This gives him the name and address of Leonard Atwood (Addison Powell); he is the CIA's Deputy Director of Operations for the Middle East and apparently senior to Higgins. Turner confronts Atwood in his Maryland mansion late at night and questions him at gunpoint. Turner learns that the report he had filed had uncovered a general operations plan to seize oil fields in the Middle East. The planning "game" is later described as a rogue project initiated without formal approval from above. Fear of its disclosure was sufficient to have Atwood privately order the elimination of Turner's section.

text: Joubert surprises them, takes away Turner's pistol, and then unexpectedly murders Atwood. Atwood's own superiors have hired the professional to stage the suicide of someone who was about to become an embarrassment, overriding Atwood's original contract for Joubert to kill Turner. Joubert suggests that Turner leave the country, even becoming an assassin himself since Turner had shown such resourcefulness in staying alive. Turner has no interest in becoming an assassin or leaving the U.S. However, Joubert outlines how he will ultimately be betrayed and killed (being offered a ride by a trusted friend on the first sunny and warm day of spring) and Turner clearly believes him. A sympathetic Joubert says he'll give Turner a ride to the local train station and also hands him back his pistol "for that day."

text: Turner goes back to New York City and meets Higgins on a busy street. Higgins defends the oil fields plan, claiming that there will be a day in which oil shortages will cause a major economic crisis for the country, and that Americans will want the government to use any means necessary to save them from discomfort. Turner says he has given the press "a story" (they are standing outside The New York Times office), presumably blowing the whistle on what he views as an increasingly volatile and a dangerously unchecked CIA. Higgins, however, questions whether the story will ever make it to print. "They'll print it," Turner replies. A moment later, an apprehensive Turner walks off -- silently contemplating the possibility that he may indeed have to continue running -- as Higgins' final question hangs in the air: "How do you know?"

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Robert Redford as Joseph Turner
Faye Dunaway as Kathy Hale
Cliff Robertson as Higgins
Max von Sydow as Joubert
John Houseman as Wabash
Addison Powell as Leonard Atwood
Walter McGinn as Sam Barber
Tina Chen as Janice Chong
Michael Kane as S.W. Wicks
Don McHenry as Dr. Lappe
Jess Osuna as The Major
Dino Narizzano as Harold
Helen Stenborg as Mrs. Russell
Patrick Gorman as Martin
Hansford Rowe as Jennings
Lee Steele as Heidegger
Carlin Glynn as Mae Barber
Hank Garrett as The Mailman
Arthur French as Messenger
Robert Phalen as Newberry
Ed Setrakian as Customer
Russell Johnson as Intelligence Officer
Sal Schillizzi as Locksmith

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: Three Days of the Condor was filmed in various locations in New York City, New Jersey, and Washington DC, including the World Trade Center, 55 East 77th Street, NYC, The Ansonia, Central Park, and the National Mall.[3][4]

text: The main point of variance from novel to film lies in the presentation of the CIA. In Grady's book, a rogue element within the Agency is motivated by drug-running greed. In the film, the same individuals act with equal ruthlessness to hide a project intended to protect long-term national interests.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box Office[edit]

text: The film earned $8,925,000 in theatrical showings in North America.[5]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 86% of 43 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review, and the average rating was 7.1/10; the site's consensus is: "This post-Watergate thriller captures the paranoid tenor of the times, thanks to Sydney Pollack's taut direction and excellent performances from Robert Redford and Faye Dunaway."[6]

text: When first released, the film was reviewed positively by critic Vincent Canby, who wrote that the film "is no match for stories in your local newspaper", but it benefits from good acting and directing.[7] Variety called it a B movie that was given a big budget despite its lack of substance.[8] Roger Ebert wrote, "Three Days of the Condor is a well-made thriller, tense and involving, and the scary thing, in these months after Watergate, is that it's all too believable."[9]

text: French philosopher Jean Baudrillard makes mention of the film as an example of a new genre of "retro cinema" in his essay on history in the now influential book, Simulacra and Simulation (1981):

text: In the 'real' as in cinema, there was history but there isn't any anymore. Today, the history that is 'given back' to us (precisely because it was taken from us) has no more of a relation to a 'historical real' than neofiguration [sic] in painting does to the classical figuration of the real...All, but not only, those historical films whose very perfection is disquieting: Chinatown, Three Days of the Condor, Barry Lyndon, 1900, All the President's Men, etc. One has the impression of it being a question of perfect remakes, of extraordinary montages that emerge more from a combinatory [sic] culture (or McLuhanesque mosaic), of large photo-, kino-, historicosynthesis [sic] machines, etc., rather than one of veritable films."[10]

text: Some critics also described the film as a piece of political propaganda, as it was released soon after the "Family Jewels" scandal came to light in December 1974 which exposed a variety of CIA misconduct. However, in an interview with Jump Cut, Pollack explained that the film was written solely to be a spy thriller and that production on the film was nearly over by the time the Family Jewels revelations were made, so even if they had wanted to take advantage of them, it was far too late in the filmmaking process to do so. He said that despite both Pollack and Redford being well-known political liberals, they were only interested in making the film because an espionage thriller was a genre neither of them had previously explored.[11]

text: I didn't want this picture to be judged; it’s a movie. I intended it always as a movie. I never had any pretensions about the picture and it’s making me very angry that I'm getting pretensions stuck on me like tails on a donkey. If I wanted to be pretentious, I'd take the CIA seal and advertise this movie and really take advantage of the headlines. Central Intelligence Agency, United States of America, Robert Redford, Faye Dunaway. And don't think it wasn't suggested—obviously, that’s what advertising people do. We really put our foot down—Redford and I—to absolutely stop that.[11]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Cartagena Film Festival: Golden India Catalina, Best Actor, Max von Sydow; 1976.
David di Donatello Awards: Special David, Sydney Pollack, for the direction; 1976.
Edgar Allan Poe Awards: Edgar; Best Motion Picture, Lorenzo Semple Jr. David Rayfiel; 1976.
Kansas City Film Critics Circle Awards: KCFCC Award; Best Supporting Actor, Max von Sydow; 1976.
Motion Picture Sound Editors: Golden Reel Award; Best Sound Editing - Sound Effects; 1976.

text:
Academy Awards: Oscar; Film Editing, Fredric Steinkamp and Don Guidice; 1976.
Cartagena Film Festival: Golden India Catalina; Best Film, Sydney Pollack; 1976.
Golden Globe Awards: Golden Globe; Best Motion Picture Actress - Drama, Faye Dunaway; 1976.
Grammy Awards: Grammy; Best Album of Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Special, Dave Grusin; 1977.
AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills; 2001[12]

text: Panning and scanning[edit]

text: In 1997, The Association of Danish Film Directors, on behalf of Pollack, sued Danmarks Radio, claiming that their broadcasting the film in a panned and scanned version violated his copyright. The case was unsuccessful, as the rights were not owned by Pollack personally in the first place. The case is believed to have been the first legal challenge to the practice of panning and scanning for broadcast on the grounds that it compromises the artistic integrity of an original film.[13]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Three Days of the Condor

Soundtrack album by Dave Grusin

Released
August 1975

Label
Capitol (1975)
DRG (2004 reissue)

Producer
Neely Plumb

tag: table

text: All music by Dave Grusin, except where noted.

text:
"Condor! (Theme from 3 Days of the Condor)" 3:35
"Yellow Panic" 2:15
"Flight of the Condor" 2:25
"We'll Bring You Home" 2:24
"Out to Lunch" 2:00
"Goodbye for Kathy (Love Theme from 3 Days of the Condor)" (2:16
"I've Got You Where I Want You" 3:12 (Grusin/Bahler; sung by Jim Gilstrap)
"Flashback to Terror" 2:24
"Sing Along with the C.I.A." 1:34
"Spies of a Feather, Flocking Together (Love Theme from 3 Days of the Condor)" 1:55
"Silver Bells" 2:37 (Livingstone / Evans; Vocal: Marti McCall)
"Medley: a) Condor! (Theme) / b) I've Got You Where I Want You" 1:57

tag: ol

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text:
Joubert's musings on how Turner would be killed are reprised almost word-for-word in the Seinfeld episode "The Junk Mail." The speech is used as a warning from Newman to Kramer about how the U.S. Postal Service will retaliate for Kramer's refusal to receive his mail.
In Out of Sight, Jack Foley (George Clooney) and Karen Sisco (Jennifer Lopez) discuss the film's romantic subplot, which Sisco describes as dubious.
The film was an influence on the 2014 superhero film Captain America: The Winter Soldier, in which Robert Redford also starred.

text: TV series[edit]

text: In March 2015, Skydance Media in partnership with MGM Television and Paramount Television will produce a TV series remake of the film.[14] In February 2017, Max Irons was cast as Joe Turner in the series entitled Condor for Audience.[15]


document_title: Memory and aging

question_text: which type of memory shows a much greater decline with age than others

text: Memory and aging

text: Mild cognitive impairment[edit]

text: Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a condition in which people face memory problems more often than that of the average person their age. These symptoms, however, do not prevent them from carrying out normal activities and are not as severe as the symptoms for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Symptoms often include misplacing items, forgetting events or appointments, and having trouble finding words.[2][3]

text: According to recent research, MCI is seen as the transitional state between cognitive changes of normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. Several studies have indicated that individuals with MCI are at an increased risk for developing AD, ranging from 1% to 25% per year; in one study 24% of MCI patients progressed to AD in 2 years and 20% more over 3 years, whereas another study indicated that the progression of MCI subjects was 55% in 4.5 years.[4][5] Some patients with MCI, however, never progress to AD.[6]

text: Studies have also indicated patterns that are found in both MCI and AD. Much like patients with Alzheimer's disease, those suffering from mild cognitive impairment have difficulty accurately defining words and using them appropriately in sentences when asked. While MCI patients had a lower performance in this task than the control group, AD patients performed worse overall. The abilities of MCI patients stood out, however, due to the ability to provide examples to make up for their difficulties. AD patients failed to use any compensatory strategies and therefore exhibited the difference in use of episodic memory and executive functioning.[7]

text: Normal aging[edit]

text: Normal aging is associated with a decline in various memory abilities in many cognitive tasks; the phenomenon is known as age-related memory impairment (AMI) or age-associated memory impairment (AAMI). The ability to encode new memories of events or facts and working memory shows decline in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.[8] Studies comparing the effects of aging on episodic memory, semantic memory, short-term memory and priming find that episodic memory is especially impaired in normal aging; some types of short-term memory are also impaired.[9] The deficits may be related to impairments seen in the ability to refresh recently processed information.[10]

text: Source information is one type of episodic memory that suffers with old age; this kind of knowledge includes where and when the person learned the information. Knowing the source and context of information can be extremely important in daily decision-making, so this is one way in which memory decline can affect the lives of the elderly. Therefore, reliance on political stereotypes is one way to use their knowledge about the sources when making judgments, and the use of metacognitive knowledge gains importance.[11] This deficit may be related to declines in the ability to bind information together in memory during encoding and retrieve those associations at a later time.[12][13]

text: Episodic memory is supported by networks spanning frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. The interconnections in the lobes are presumed to enable distinct aspects of memory, whereas the effects of gray matter lesions have been extensively studied, less is known about the interconnecting fiber tracts. In aging, degradation of white matter structure has emerged as an important general factor, further focusing attention on the critical white matter connections.

text: Exercise affects many people young and old. For the young if exercise is introduced it can form a constructive habit that can be instilled throughout adulthood. For the elderly, especially those with Alzheimer’s or other diseases that affect the memory, when the brain is introduced to exercise the hippocampus part of the brain can regain in size and improve memory.[citation needed]

text: In particular, associative learning, which is another type of episodic memory, is vulnerable to the effects of aging, and this has been demonstrated across various study paradigms.[14] This has been explained by the Associative Deficit Hypothesis (ADH), which states that aging is associated with a deficiency in creating and retrieving links between single units of information. This can include knowledge about context, events or items. The ability to bind pieces of information together with their episodic context in a coherent whole has been reduced in the elderly population.[15] Furthermore, the older adults’ performances in free recall involved temporal contiguity to a lesser extent than for younger people, indicating that associations regarding contiguity become weaker with age.[16]

text: Several reasons have been speculated as to why older adults use less effective encoding and retrieval strategies as they age. The first is the “disuse” view, which states that memory strategies are used less by older adults as they move further away from the educational system. Second is the “diminished attentional capacity” hypothesis, which means that older people engage less in self-initiated encoding due to reduced attentional capacity. The third reason is the “memory self-efficacy,” which indicates that older people do not have confidence in their own memory performances, leading to poor consequences.[14] It is known that patients with Alzheimer’s disease and patients with semantic dementia both exhibit difficulty in tasks that involve picture naming and category fluency. This is tied to damage to their semantic network, which stores knowledge of meanings and understandings.

text: One phenomenon, known as "Senior Moments", is a memory deficit that appears to have a biological cause. When an older adult is interrupted while completing a task, it is likely that the original task at hand can be forgotten. Studies have shown that the brain of an older adult does not have the ability to re-engage after an interruption and continues to focus on the particular interruption unlike that of a younger brain.[17] This inability to multi-task is normal with aging and is expected to become more apparent with the increase of older generations remaining in the work field.

text: A biological explanation for memory deficits in aging includes a postmortem examination of five brains of elderly people with better memory than average. These people are called the "super aged,” and it was found that these individuals had fewer fiber-like tangles of tau protein than in typical elderly brains. However, a similar amount of amyloid plaque was found.[18]

text: More recent research has extended established findings of age related decline in executive functioning,[19][20] by examining related cognitive processes that underlie healthy older adults’ sequential performance. Sequential performance refers to the execution of a series steps needed to complete a routine, such as the steps required to make a cup of coffee or drive a car. An important part of healthy aging involves older adults’ use of memory and inhibitory processes to carry out daily activities in a fixed order without forgetting the sequence of steps that were just completed while remembering the next step in the sequence. A recent study[21] examined how young and older adults differ in the underlying representation of a sequence of tasks and their efficiency at retrieving the information needed to complete their routine. Findings from this study revealed that when older and young adults had to remember a sequence of 8 animal images arranged in a fixed order, both age groups spontaneously used the organizational strategy of chunking to facilitate retrieval of information. However, older adults were slower at accessing each chunk compared to younger adults, and were better able to benefit from the use of memory aids, such as verbal rehearsal to remember the order of the fixed sequence. Results from this study suggest that there are age differences in memory and inhibitory processes that affect people’s sequence of actions and the use of memory aids could facilitate the retrieval of information in older age.

text: Causes[edit]

text: Memory lapses can be both aggravating and frustrating but they are due to the overwhelming amount of information that is being taken in by the brain. Issues in memory can also be linked to several common physical and psychological causes, such as: anxiety, dehydration, depression, infections, medication side effects, poor nutrition, vitamin B12 deficiency, psychological stress, substance abuse, chronic alcoholism, thyroid imbalances, and blood clots in the brain. Taking care of your body and mind with appropriate medication, doctoral check-ups, and daily mental and physical exercise can prevent some of these memory issues.[22]

text: Some memory issues are due to stress, anxiety, or depression. A traumatic life event, such as the death of a spouse, can lead to changes in lifestyle and can leave an elderly person feeling unsure of themselves, sad, and lonely. Dealing with such drastic life changes can therefore leave some people confused or forgetful. While in some cases these feelings may fade, it is important to take these emotional problems seriously. By emotionally supporting a struggling relative and seeking help from a doctor or counselor, the forgetfulness can be improved.[3]

text: Theories[edit]

text: Tests and data show that as people age, the contiguity effect weakens.[clarification needed] This is supported by the associative deficit theory of memory, which asserts old people's poor memory performance is attributed to their difficulty in creating and retaining cohesive episodes. The supporting research in this test, after controlling for sex, education, and other health-related issues, show that greater age was associated with lower hit and greater false alarm rates, and also a more liberal bias response on recognition tests.[23]

text: Older people have a higher tendency to make outside intrusions during a memory test. This can be attributed to the inhibition effect. Inhibition caused participants to take longer time in recalling or recognizing an item, and also subjected the participants to make more frequent errors. For instance, in a study using metaphors as the test subject, older participants rejected correct metaphors more often than literally false statements.[24]

text: Working memory, which as previously stated is a memory system that stores and manipulates information as we complete cognitive tasks, demonstrates great declines during the aging process. There have been various theories offered to explain why these changes may occur, which include fewer attentional resources, slower speed of processing, less capacity to hold information, and lack of inhibitory control. All of these theories offer strong arguments, and it is likely that the decline in working memory is due to the problems cited in all of these areas.

text: Some theorists argue that the capacity of working memory decreases as we age, and we are able to hold less information.[25] In this theory, declines in working memory are described as the result of limiting the amount of information an individual can simultaneously keep active, so that a higher degree of integration and manipulation of information is not possible because the products of earlier memory processing are forgotten before the subsequent products.[26]

text: Another theory that is being examined to explain age related declines in working memory is that there is a limit in attentional resources seen as we age. This means that older individuals are less capable of dividing their attention between two tasks, and thus tasks with higher attentional demands are more difficult to complete due to a reduction in mental energy.[27] Tasks that are simple and more automatic, however, see fewer declines as we age. Working memory tasks often involve divided attention, thus they are more likely to strain the limited resources of aging individuals.[27]

text: Speed of processing is another theory that has been raised to explain working memory deficits. As a result of various studies he has completed examining this topic, Salthouse argues that as we age our speed of processing information decreases significantly. It is this decrease in processing speed that is then responsible for our inability to use working memory efficiently as we age.[27] The younger persons brain is able to obtain and process information at a quicker rate which allows for subsequent integration and manipulation needed to complete the cognitive task at hand. As this processing slows, cognitive tasks that rely on quick processing speed then become more difficult.[27]

text: Finally, the theory of inhibitory control has been offered to account for decline seen in working memory. This theory examines the idea that older adults are unable to suppress irrelevant information in working memory, and thus the capacity for relevant information is subsequently limited. Less space for new stimuli due may attribute to the declines seen in an individual's working memory as they age.[27]

text: As we age, deficits are seen in the ability to integrate, manipulate, and reorganize the contents of working memory in order to complete higher level cognitive tasks such as problem solving, decision making, goal setting, and planning. More research must be completed in order to determine what the exact cause of these age-related deficits in working memory are. It is likely that attention, processing speed, capacity reduction, and inhibitory control may all play a role in these age-related deficits. The brain regions that are active during working memory tasks are also being evaluated, and research has shown that different parts of the brain are activated during working memory in younger adults as compared to older adults. This suggests that younger and older adults are performing these tasks differently.[27]

text: Mechanism research[edit]

text: A deficiency of the RbAp48 protein has been associated with age-related memory loss.

text: In 2010, experiments that have tested for the significance of under-performance of memory for an older adult group as compared to a young adult group, hypothesized that the deficit in associate memory due to age can be linked with a physical deficit. This deficit can be explained by the inefficient processing in the medial-temporal regions. This region is important in episodic memory, which is one of the two types of long-term human memory, and it contains the hippocampi, which are crucial in creating memorial association between items.[28]

text: Age-related memory loss is believed to originate in the dentate gyrus, whereas Alzheimer's is believed to originate in the entorhinal cortex.[29]

text: Prevention and treatment[edit]

text: Various actions have been suggested to prevent memory loss or even improve memory.

text: The Mayo Clinic has suggested seven steps: stay mentally active, socialize regularly, get organized, eat a healthy diet, include physical activity in your daily routine, and manage chronic conditions.[30] Because some of the causes of memory loss include medications, stress, depression, heart disease, alcohol abuse, thyroid problems, vitamin B12 deficiency, not drinking enough water, and not eating nutritiously, fixing those problems could be a simple, effective way to slow down dementia. Some say that exercise is the best way to prevent memory problems, because that would increase blood flow to the brain and perhaps help new brain cells grow.

text: The treatment will depend on the cause of memory loss, but various drugs to treat Alzheimer’s disease have been suggested in recent years. There are four drugs currently approved by the FDA for the treatment of Alzheimer’s, and they all act on the cholinergic system: Donepezil, Galantamine, Rivastigmine, and Tacrine. Although these medications are not the cure for Alzheimer’s, symptoms may be reduced for up to eighteen months for mild or moderate dementia. These drugs do not forestall the ultimate decline to full Alzheimer's.[31]

text: Also, modality is important in determining the strength of the memory. For instance, auditory creates stronger memory abilities than visual. This is shown by the higher recency and primacy effects of an auditory recall test compared to that of a visual test. Research has shown that auditory training, through instrumental musical activity or practice, can help preserve memory abilities as one ages. Specifically, in Hanna-Pladdy and McKay's experiment, they tested and found that the number of years of musical training, all things equal, leads to a better performance in non-verbal memory and increases the life span on cognition abilities in one's advanced years.[32]

text: Caregiving[edit]

text: By keeping the patient active, focusing on their positive abilities, and avoiding stress, these tasks can easily be accomplished. Routines for bathing and dressing must be organized in a way so that the patient still feels a sense of independence. Simple approaches such as finding clothes with large buttons, elastic waist bands, or Velcro straps can ease the struggles of getting dressed in the morning. Further, finances must be managed. Changing passwords to prevent over-use and involving a trusted family member or friend in managing accounts can prevent financial issues. When household chores begin to pile up, find ways to break down large tasks into small, manageable steps that can be rewarded. Finally, talking with and visiting a family member or friend with memory issues is very important. Using a respectful and simple approach, talking one-on-one can ease the pain of social isolation and bring much mental stimulation.[33]

text: Domains of memory spared vs. affected[edit]

text: In contrast, implicit, or procedural memory, typically shows no decline with age.[34] Other types of short-term memory show little decline,[9] and semantic knowledge (e.g. vocabulary) actually improves with age.[35] In addition, the enhancement seen in memory for emotional events is also maintained with age.[36]

text: Losing working memory has been cited as being the primary reason for a decline in a variety of cognitive tasks due to aging. These tasks include long-term memory, problem solving, decision making, and language.[27] Working memory involves the manipulation of information that is being obtained, and then using this information to complete a task. For example, the ability of one to recite numbers they have just been given backwards requires working memory, rather than just simple rehearsal of the numbers which would require only short-term memory. One's ability to tap into one's working memory declines as the aging process progresses.[27] It has been seen that the more complex a task is, the more difficulty the aging person has with completing this task. Active reorganization and manipulation of information becomes increasingly harder as adults age.[37] When an older individual is completing a task, such as having a conversation or doing work, they are using their working memory to help them complete this task. As they age, their ability to multi-task seems to decline; thus after an interruption it is often more difficult for an aging individual to successfully finish the task at hand.[38] Additionally, working memory plays a role in the comprehension and production of speech. There is often a decline in sentence comprehension and sentence production as individuals age. Rather than linking this decline directly to deficits in linguistic ability, it is actually deficits in working memory that contribute to these decreasing language skills.[39]

text: Qualitative changes[edit]

text: Most research on memory and aging has focused on how older adults perform worse at a particular memory task. However, researchers have also discovered that simply saying that older adults are doing the same thing, only less of it, is not always accurate. In some cases, older adults seem to be using different strategies than younger adults. For example, brain imaging studies have revealed that older adults are more likely to use both hemispheres when completing memory tasks than younger adults.[40] In addition, older adults sometimes show a positivity effect when remembering information, which seems to be a result of the increased focus on regulating emotion seen with age.[36] For instance, eye tracking reveals that older adults showed preferential looking toward happy faces and away from sad faces.[41]


document_title: Pregnancy test

question_text: when did the first home pregnancy test come out

text: Pregnancy test

text: Modern tests[edit]

text: The test for pregnancy which can give the quickest result after fertilisation is a rosette inhibition assay for early pregnancy factor (EPF). EPF can be detected in blood within 48 hours of fertilization.[3] However, testing for EPF is expensive and time-consuming.

text: Most chemical tests for pregnancy look for the presence of the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood or urine. hCG can be detected in urine or blood after implantation, which occurs six to twelve days after fertilization.[1] Quantitative blood (serum beta) tests can detect hCG levels as low as 1 mIU/mL, while urine test strips have published detection thresholds of 10 mIU/mL to 100 mIU/mL, depending on the brand.[4] Qualitative blood tests generally have a threshold of 25 mIU/mL, and so are less sensitive than some available home pregnancy tests. Most home pregnancy tests are based on lateral-flow technology.

text: With obstetric ultrasonography the gestational sac sometimes can be visualized as early as four and a half weeks of gestation (approximately two and a half weeks after ovulation) and the yolk sac at about five weeks' gestation. The embryo can be observed and measured by about five and a half weeks. The heartbeat may be seen as early as six weeks, and is usually visible by seven weeks' gestation.[5][6]

text: Accuracy[edit]

text: A systematic review published in 1998 showed that home pregnancy test kits, when used by experienced technicians, are almost as accurate as professional laboratory testing (97.4%). When used by consumers, however, the accuracy fell to 75%: the review authors noted that many users misunderstood or failed to follow the instructions included in the kits. Improper usage may cause both false negatives and false positives.[7]

text: Timing of test[edit]

text: False negative readings can occur when testing is done too early. Quantitative blood tests and the most sensitive urine tests usually begin to detect hCG shortly after implantation, which can occur anywhere from 6 to 12 days after ovulation. hCG levels continue to rise through the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, so the chances of false negative test results diminish with time (gestation age).[1] Less sensitive urine tests and qualitative blood[8] tests may not detect pregnancy until three or four days after implantation. Menstruation occurs on average 14 days after ovulation, so the likelihood of a false negative is low once a menstrual period is late.

text: Ovulation may not occur at a predictable time in the menstrual cycle, however. A number of factors may cause an unexpectedly early or late ovulation, even for women with a history of regular menstrual cycles. Using ovulation predictor kits (OPKs), or charting the fertility signs of cervical mucus or basal body temperature give a more accurate idea of when to test than day-counting alone.[9][unreliable medical source?]

text: The accuracy of a pregnancy test is most closely related to the day of ovulation, not of the act of intercourse or insemination that caused the pregnancy. It is normal for sperm to live up to five days in the fallopian tubes, waiting for ovulation to occur.[9][unreliable medical source?][10] It could take up to 12 further days for implantation to occur,[1] meaning even the most sensitive pregnancy tests may give false negatives up to 17 days after the act that caused the pregnancy. Because some home pregnancy tests have high hCG detection thresholds (up to 100 mIU/mL),[4] it may take an additional three or four days for hCG to rise to levels detectable by these tests — meaning false negatives may occur up to three weeks after the act of intercourse or insemination that causes pregnancy.[citation needed]

text: False positives[edit]

text: False positive test results may occur for several reasons, including errors of test application, use of drugs containing the hCG molecule, and non-pregnant production of the hCG molecule. Urine tests can be falsely positive in those that are taking the medications: chlorpromazine, phenothiazines and methadone among others.[11]

text: Spurious evaporation lines may appear on many home pregnancy tests if read after the suggested 3–5 minute window or reaction time, independent of an actual pregnancy. False positives may also appear on tests used past their expiration date.

text: A woman who has been given an hCG injection as part of infertility treatment will test positive on pregnancy tests that assay hCG, regardless of her actual pregnancy status. However, some infertility drugs (e.g., clomid) do not contain the hCG hormone.[medical citation needed]

text: Some diseases of the liver, cancers, and other medical conditions may produce elevated hCG and thus cause a false positive pregnancy test. These include choriocarcinoma and other germ cell tumors, IgA deficiencies, heterophile antibodies, enterocystoplasties, gestational trophoblastic diseases (GTD), and gestational trophoblastic neoplasms.[medical citation needed]

text: Viability[edit]

text: Pregnancy tests may be used to determine the viability of a pregnancy. Serial quantitative blood tests may be done, usually 3–4 days apart. Below an hCG level of 1,200 mIU/ml the hCG usually doubles every 48–72 hours, though a rise of 50–60% is still considered normal. Between 1,200 and 6,000 mIU/ml serum the hCG usually takes 72–90 hours to double, and above 6,000 mIU/ml, the hCG often takes more than four days to double. Failure to increase normally may indicate an increased risk of miscarriage or a possible ectopic pregnancy.

text: Ultrasound is also a common tool for determining viability. A lower than expected heart rate or missed development milestones may indicate a problem with the pregnancy.[6] Diagnosis should not be made from a single ultrasound, however. Inaccurate estimations of fetal age and inaccuracies inherent in ultrasonic examination may cause a scan to be interpreted negatively. If results from the first ultrasound scan indicate a problem, repeating the scan 7–10 days later is reasonable practice.[5]

text: History[edit]

text: Records of attempts at pregnancy testing have been found as far back as the ancient Greek and ancient Egyptian cultures. The ancient Egyptians watered bags of wheat and barley with the urine of a possibly pregnant woman. Germination indicated pregnancy. The type of grain that sprouted was taken as an indicator of the fetus's sex. Hippocrates suggested that a woman who had missed her period should drink a solution of honey in water at bedtime: resulting abdominal distention and cramps would indicate the presence of a pregnancy. Avicenna and many physicians after him in the Middle Ages performed uroscopy, a nonscientific method to evaluate urine.

text: Selmar Aschheim and Bernhard Zondek introduced testing based on the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in 1928.[13] Early studies of hCG had concluded that it was produced by the pituitary gland. In the 1930s, Georgeanna Jones discovered that hCG was produced not by the pituitary gland, but by the placenta. This discovery was important in relying on hCG as an early marker of pregnancy.[14] In the Aschheim and Zondek test, an infantile female mouse was injected subcutaneously with urine of the person to be tested, and the mouse later was killed and dissected. Presence of ovulation indicated that the urine contained hCG and meant that the person was pregnant. A similar test was developed using immature rabbits. Here, too, killing the animal to check her ovaries was necessary. An improvement arrived with the frog test, introduced by Lancelot Hogben, which still was used in the 1950s and allowed the frog to remain alive and be used repeatedly: a female frog was injected with serum or urine of the patient; if the frog produced eggs within the next 24 hours, the test was positive. This was called the Bufo test, named after the toad genus Bufo, which was originally used for the test. Other species of toads and frogs have been used later on.

text: Hormonal pregnancy tests such as Primodos and Duogynon were used in the 1960s and 1970s in the UK and Germany. These tests involved taking a dosed amount of hormones, and observing the response a few days later. A pregnant woman does not react, as she is producing the hormones in pregnancy; a woman not pregnant responds to the absence of the hormone by beginning a new menstrual cycle. While the test was (is) generally considered accurate, research advancements have replaced it with simpler techniques.[15]

text: Immunologic pregnancy tests were introduced in 1960 when Wide and Gemzell presented a test based on in-vitro hemagglutination inhibition. This was a first step away from in-vivo pregnancy testing[16][17] and initiated a series of improvements in pregnancy testing leading to the contemporary at-home testing.[18] Direct measurement of antigens, such as hCG, was made possible after the invention of the radioimmunoassay in 1959.[19] Radioimmunoassays require sophisticated apparatus and special radiation precautions and are expensive.

text: Organon International obtained the first patent on a home pregnancy test in 1969, two years after product designer Margaret Crane noticed that the laboratory testing procedure was relatively simple and made a prototype. The product became available in Canada in 1971, and the United States in 1977, after delays caused by concerns over sexual morality and the ability of women to perform test and cope with the results without a doctor.[20]

text: Another home pregnancy testing kit was based on the work of Judith Vaitukaitis and Glenn Braunstein, who developed a sensitive hCG assay at the National Institutes of Health.[21] That test went onto the market in 1978.[22] In the 1970s, the discovery of monoclonal antibodies led to the development of the relatively simple and cheap immunoassays, such as agglutination-inhibition-based assays and sandwich ELISA, used in modern home pregnancy tests. Tests are now so cheap that they can be massed produced in a general publication and used for advertising.[23]


document_title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels (season 2)

question_text: who wins season 2 of rock of love

question_tokens: who wins season 2 of rock of love

text: Production and legal problems[edit]

text: In April 2008 a breach-of-contract lawsuit was filed against both Michaels and the show's producers by the owner of the mansion, Ray Sahranavard. He claims that there was about $380,000 worth of damages done to the mansion, and that the producers failed to get insurance that they had previously promised to purchase for the house. Sahranavard stated that there were multiple holes in the walls and ceilings, the doors had been removed, and that almost the entire interior of the house had been repainted. He also claimed that most of the landscaping was either dead or dying.[2]

text: Contestants[edit]

text:
Name
Age
Eliminated

Ambre Lake
37
Winner

Daisy de la Hoya
25
Runner-Up

Destiney Sue Moore
31
Episode 11

Jessica Kinni[3]
25
Episode 10

Megan Hauserman
24
Episode 9

Kristy Joe Muller
26
Episode 8

Inna Dimitrenko
23
Episode 7

Catherine Brown[4]
45
Episode 6

Peyton Turner[5]
38
Episode 6

Aubry Fisher
32
Episode 4a

Angelique Morgan
28
Episode 3

Roxy Collins
24
Episode 3

Korie Hutchinson
25
Episode 2

Niki Kuskey
29
Episode 2

Sara Wilson
28
Episode 2

Courtney Van Dusen
30
Episode 1/2*

Ashley Dingess
24
Episode 1

Erin Martin
24
Episode 1

Jackye Migliaccio
25
Episode 1

Missi Chancey
26
Episode 1

text: Courtney was eliminated in the first episode but due to her not attending the elimination ceremony, she was asked to leave the next morning.

text: ^a Contestant Bret planned to eliminate

text: Elimination Order[edit]

text:
Bret's Call-out Order

#
Contestants
Episodes

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
13

1

Ambre
Megan
Inna
Destiney
Daisy
Ambre
Jessica
Ambre
Ambre
Ambre
Daisy
Ambre
Ambre

2

Angelique
Daisy
Peyton
Daisy
Ambre
Destiney
Ambre
Destiney
Daisy
Destiney
Ambre
Daisy
Daisy

3

Ashley
Destiney
Ambre
Inna
Peyton
Kristy Joe
Daisy
Jessica
Jessica
Daisy
Destiney
Destiney

4

Aubry
Aubry
Destiney
Aubry
Inna
Megan
Megan
Megan
Destiney
Jessica
Jessica

5

Catherine
Peyton
Megan
Peyton
Catherine
Inna
Destiney
Daisy
Megan
Megan

6

Courtney
Inna
Daisy
Catherine
Jessica
Jessica
Kristy Joe
Kristy Joe
Kristy Joe

7

Daisy
Roxy
Roxy
Ambre
Destiney
Catherine
Inna
Inna

8

Destiney
Korie
Jessica
Megan
Megan
Peyton
Catherine

9

Erin
Jessica
Kristy Joe
Jessica
Kristy Joe
Daisy
Peyton

10

Inna
Sara
Catherine
Kristy Joe
Aubry

11

Jackye
Catherine
Aubry
Angelique

12

Jessica
Kristy Joe
Angelique
Roxy

13

Korie
Niki
Korie

14

Kristy Joe
Angelique
Niki

15

Megan
Ambre
Sara

16

Missi
Courtney

17

Niki
Erin

18

Peyton
Missi

19

Roxy
Ashley

20

Sara
Jackye

text: Contestants in bold indicates that they received V.I.P. Access/Passes.

text:
In Episode 1, Bret had the final pass for Jackye, although she came down and decided to quit the competition due to her anxiety of being there. Therefore, Bret decided to give the final pass to Ambre, and allow her to stay.
In Episode 1, Courtney got drunk and passed out on her bed. She slept throughout the elimination ceremony. After the elimination ceremony was over, Bret said that Courtney was allowed to stay until the next morning where she would be told that her tour ends here.
In Episode 4, Aubry chose to give up her spot before the last pass was given, only for Bret to reveal it after she left that she was to be eliminated anyway
In Episode 5, Bret did not eliminate anyone and stated he was "saving the best for last" referring to Daisy.
In Episode 11, Bret called down Destiney and eliminated her, no passes were handed out and the remaining contestants' names are listed in alphabetical order.
Episode 12 was a recap episode.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Back to the Rocking Horse[edit]

text: First aired January 13, 2008

text: Bret Michaels, lead singer of rock band Poison, is back looking for love, and this time he means it! Twenty more beautiful babes vie for his love and affection. Some bare more than their souls in an attempt to grab Bret's attention. Only fifteen will stay after an elimination ceremony with two startling surprises.

text:
V.I.P.'s: Daisy, Destiney, Erin, Megan
Bottom 6: Ambre, Ashley, Courtney, Erin, Jackye, Missi
Withdrew: Jackye
Eliminated: Ashley, Erin, Missi
Allowed to Stay: Ambre, Courtney
Reasons for Elimination:
Jackye: Quit because she stated that she has anxiety and could not handle being there*
Ashley: Didn't stand out to Bret
Missi: Didn't stand out to Bret
Erin: Bret felt like she was too young and innocent
Courtney: Because she missed the elimination ceremony due to being too intoxicated
Note: Ambre was originally planned to be eliminated. But because Jackye quit, Ambre was allowed to stay.

text: Peep Show[edit]

text: First aired January 20, 2008

text: Fifteen girls better watch what they say...especially when they're on a dare. Meanwhile in the first ever Peep Show Contest, the girls all compete for a date with Bret by showing off their greatest "talents." To stir things up at the house, Bret decides to hold an old school dance off. Three girls fail to make the cut.

text:
Challenge Winners: Ambre, Daisy, Peyton
Bottom Four: Angelique, Korie, Niki, Sara
Eliminated: Korie, Niki, Sara
Reasons for Eliminations:
Korie: She still had not made an impression on Bret
Niki: Bret felt that she did not have the confidence to be with him
Sara: Sara allegedly said that she was on the show on a dare. She denied it, but Bret didn't believe her.

text: Stroller Derby[edit]

text: First aired January 27, 2008

text: Bret might be a big time rock star but he's also a big time family man. He needs a woman who's got those motherly instincts and what better way to find out than to put them in roller skates, hand them a stroller and see if they can outskate a fearsome foursome that includes a surprise guest, Lacey! But things turn ugly when the most hated girl in the house gets alone time with Bret -- the fangs come out and the girls are out for blood! Bret goes with his gut feeling and sends two girls packing.

text:
Challenge Winners: Aubry, Angelique, Kristy Joe, Inna
Bottom Three: Angelique, Kristy Joe, Roxy
Eliminated: Angelique, Roxy
Reasons for Elimination:
Roxy: Bret felt she was not making an effort to get to know him after not using her VIP Pass
Angelique: Bret felt she was too promiscuous for him

text: A Ride on the Wild Side[edit]

text: First aired February 10, 2008

text: Bret wants a girl with good manual skills so he tests their aptitude with nuts and bolts in a custom motorcycle build off. One girl gets down and dirty, bringing her team both victory and a group date -- a pinup photo shoot. Emotions run high as the girls continue to fall for Bret but are threatened by his connections with other girls. Two girls buckle under the pressure leaving Bret with a huge dilemma about whom to send packing.

text:
Challenge Winners: Ambre, Aubry, Daisy, Inna, Megan
Bottom Two: Aubry, Kristy Joe
Quit: Aubry
Reason for Withdrawal:
Aubry: Quit because she felt like Kristy Joe deserved to stay because she liked Bret so much and she felt like she was her friend Kristy Joe a gift by quitting, however Bret revealed that she was going to be eliminated anyway because Bret felt that she was incredibly jealous, and this made him nervous since they had only known each other for a few days.

text: Mud Bowl II[edit]

text: First aired February 17, 2008

text: The "Divine Nine" compete in the second annual Bret Michaels Mud Bowl! Only this time they have to play in harsh rain, snow and wind! Bret's attention shifts from the former front-runner to an overlooked PYT, while the other girls struggle to get his attention.

text:
Challenge Winners: Fallen Angels
MVP: Daisy
Bottom Two: Daisy*, Peyton
Eliminated: No one
Episode Notes:
Megan was not picked by the team captains to compete in the Mud Bowl II challenge since they needed an even amount of players.
Bret stated he did not want to eliminate anyone without giving them a chance, so he eliminated no one this episode.
Bret stated that he was "saving the best for last" referring to Daisy.

text: Once a Cowgirl[edit]

text: First aired February 24, 2008

text: For the two women who have yet to win a date with Bret, Rodeo's Rocking Rodeo could be their last chance to make a connection. Bret takes the winning team to a "dinner in the dark," and when the lights go down, so do their inhibitions! Can the losers wipe their tears away in time to stay in the saddle, or will they get bucked from the competition?

text:
Challenge Winners: Ambre, Destiney, Kristy Joe, Jessica
Bottom Three: Catherine, Inna, Peyton
Eliminated: Catherine, Peyton
Reasons for Eliminations:
Catherine: Bret did not feel that he and Catherine were connecting.
Peyton: Bret felt she was more of a friend than a love interest.

text: Red, White and a Little...[edit]

text: First aired March 2, 2008

text: The remaining seven girls display their ability to rock an audience as they perform at a show for military veterans. Later on, all hell breaks loose at a lovely family style dinner in which one girl is called out for showing Bret no love at all.

text:
Challenge Winners: Jessica, Megan
Bottom Two: Inna, Kristy Joe
Eliminated: Inna
Reasons for Elimination
Inna: Bret felt that Inna was no longer a front runner, and that she was now disappearing in the crowd.

text: Video Vixens[edit]

text: First aired March 16, 2008

text: With only six girls left in the house, tensions run high as Bret tests the girls' creativity by making them shoot, direct and edit their own music videos. Who will shine and who will be left on the cutting room floor? When one of his favorites has a major meltdown, Bret is forced to make his most drastic decision yet.

text:
Challenge Winners: Ambre, Kristy Joe, Megan
Bottom Two: Kristy Joe, Megan
Withdrew: Kristy Joe[w]
Reasons for Withdrawal:
Kristy Joe: She felt that she needed to deal with things at home before she entered a serious relationship, and that she was under too much stress. Bret did not reveal to the others that Kristy Joe would have received the last pass and Megan would have been eliminated. After saying goodbye to Kristy Joe, Bret dropped the pass by the door to show the viewers that the last pass was for Kristy Joe.

text: ^[w] Megan won a date with Bret, but did not receive a pass at elimination. However, Kristy Joe decided that she needed to go home and take care of some things. Because she quit, Megan was safe and nobody was eliminated.

text: Going to Ex-tremes[edit]

text: First aired March 23, 2008

text: Bret shocks the girls by inviting their exes. He takes the guys out on the town to dig up dirt on the girls. Meanwhile the final five girls are left to stew back at the house under the supervision of yet one more surprise guest Heather Chadwell. Secrets are revealed, sparks fly, and mayhem ensues on the craziest day yet at the Rock of Love mansion.

text:
Bottom Two: Jessica, Megan
Eliminated: Megan
Reasons for Elimination:
Megan: When the girls' ex-boyfriends came to the house, Megan cried and yelled at her ex-boyfriend when he revealed he was only there to promote his bar, which made her upset and she had never cried about anything when she was in the house except for her ex-boyfriend which when Bret found out he thought she still was in love with her boyfriend and decided to end her tour.

text: Bitter Suite[edit]

text: First aired March 30, 2008

text: Bret surprises the final four with a trip to Las Vegas. One girl's lies cause Bret to question her intentions toward him. Bret invites an old friend Heather Chadwell to stir things up between the remaining girls and causes everyone to call out the girl who's been keeping secrets.

text:
Bottom 2: Destiney, Jessica
Eliminated: Jessica
Reasons for Elimination:
Jessica: Bret felt that she was not 100% ready for his lifestyle

text: Rockin' the 'Rents[edit]

text: First aired April 6, 2008

text: Bret wants to know more about the three remaining girls, and what better way to get the 411 than moving their parents into the house! Bret is surprised when he meets the sister of a girl's ex-boyfriend instead of her parent. Bret takes each family on a date, and someone gets a tattoo! Accusations fly as one girl goes home, and the remaining two head to the finale.

text:
Eliminated: Destiney
Reasons for Elimination:
Destiney: When Daisy and Ambre revealed that they had fallen in love with Bret, Bret asked Destiney if she was in love, when she said she was not sure, Bret ended her tour.
NOTE: On the show Destiney's dad Tommy revealed that he had liver cancer and only had a few months left to live. After hearing Tommy compliment Bret on his fantastic bikes, Bret took Destiney's family on a Harley motorcycle ride because he knew Tommy would enjoy it very much. Shortly after the show wrapped he died. The episode was dedicated in his memory.

text: The Clip Show[edit]

text: First aired April 8, 2008

text: This was a bonus recap episode of the season.

text: Bret's Rock of Love[edit]

text: First aired April 13, 2008

text: Bret takes his final two girls south of the border to spend some quality, romantic time with each one before making his final choice. Guards come down and gloves come off as the girls open their hearts and fight for their man. One girl will be Bret's rock of love, the other will leave heartbroken.

text:
Dates: Bret takes each girl on an individual date.
Ambre's Date: they get a romantic massage.
Daisy's Date: they go on a boat and Daisy gets really sea sick. Bret has a romantic evening with Daisy.
Final Two: Ambre and Daisy
Bret's Rock of Love: Ambre
Eliminated: Daisy
Reasons for Elimination:
Daisy: Bret felt that there were too many secrets involving Daisy and her past with ex-boyfriend Charles, and he felt that she may have needed him more than she wanted him.

text: Reunion[edit]

text: First aired April 20, 2008

text: The girls come back for the reunion but only a select few get to be onstage to talk with Bret. Aubry and Kristy Joe talk about their relationship while Daisy and Heather have a showdown.

text: Additional Cast[edit]

text:
Big John - All Episodes
Lacey Conner - Cameo, January 27, 2008
LA Derby Dolls - Cameo, January 27, 2008
Cindy "Rodeo" Steedle - Cameo, February 24, 2008
Dean Karr - Cameo, March 16, 2008
Heather Chadwell - Cameo, March 23, 2008 and March 30, 2008

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The season finale ranked third in the week for cable shows, behind SpongeBob SquarePants and The Memory Keeper's Daughter.[18]

text: After the show[edit]

text:
Ambre made a cameo appearance on the third season of Rock of Love.
Daisy had her own dating show entitled Daisy of Love
Destiney and Megan appeared on the first season of I Love Money where they placed 13th and 3rd respectively.
Angelique, Courtney, Destiney, Jessica, Kristy Joe, Inna and Megan appeared on the second season of Charm School where they placed 12th, 13th, 2nd, 5th, 6th, 9th, and 10th respectively.
Prior to the show, Megan won the third season of Beauty and the Geek. She also had her own dating show called Megan Wants a Millionaire, but was canceled on August 23, 2009, due to a controversy involving castmember Ryan Jenkins.
Angelique appeared on the second season of I Love Money where she placed 6th. She also appeared on the fourteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother in 2014, where she placed 11th.
Erin appeared on the second season of NBC The Voice, where she was on "Team Cee Lo". She was eliminated on April 11, 2012.