document_title: Groot

question_text: what happened to groot in guardians of the galaxy movie

text: Groot

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Groot first appeared in Tales to Astonish #13 (November 1960), and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby.[2] Groot appeared again in The Incredible Hulk Annual #5 (Oct. 1976), alongside five other monsters from Marvel's anthology horror comics of the late 1950s and early 1960s. In The Sensational Spider-Man #−1 (July 1997), Groot was featured in a nightmare of the young Peter Parker.

text: Groot reappeared in 2006 in the six-issue limited series Nick Fury's Howling Commandos, and appeared in the Annihilation: Conquest and Annihilation: Conquest – Star-Lord limited series. Groot went on to join the Guardians of the Galaxy in the series of the same name, and remained a fixture of the title until its cancellation with issue #25 in 2010. Groot appeared in its follow-up, the limited series The Thanos Imperative, and, alongside fellow Guardian Rocket Raccoon, Groot starred in backup features in Annihilators #1–4 (March–June 2011) and Annihilators: Earthfall #1–4 (September–December 2011).

text: Groot appeared in issues #6–8 of Avengers Assemble as a member of the Guardians. Groot is one of the stars of Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 3, a part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch.[3]

text: In March 2015, it was announced that Groot would be getting his very first solo series by writer Jeff Loveness and artist Brian Kesinger.[4]

text: The Groot that debuted in Tales to Astonish and the one that was introduced in Annihilation: Conquest were retroactively established as being separate members of the same species in the sixth and final issue of the Groot ongoing series that launched in June 2015.[5]

text: Origins[edit]

text: Groot is a Flora colossus from Planet X, the capital of the branch worlds. The Flora colossi are tree-like beings whose language is almost impossible to understand due to the stiffness of their larynges, causing their speech to sound like they are repeating the phrase "I am Groot". Other beings try to be friendly but become angry with the Flora colossi for not being able to speak. (Groot was shown to be capable of speaking not just understandably but eloquently throughout Annihilation: Conquest.) The Flora colossi are ruled over by the "Arbor Masters" and teach the children of the species with "Photonic Knowledge", which is the collected knowledge of the Arbor Masters of the generations and is absorbed through photosynthesis; this is a highly advanced education method, making the Flora colossi geniuses. Planet X's biome is managed by "Maintenance Mammals" which are small squirrel-like beings.[volume & issue needed]

text: The Flora colossus sapling that would come to be known as "Groot" came from an "Ennobled Sap-line" and gifted with a tremendous grasp of quasi-dimensional super-positional engineering. Groot did not get along with fellow saplings but instead preferred the company of the "Maintenance Mammals", which the other saplings treated with prejudice. Groot was exiled by the "Arbor Masters" in GUARDIANS OF THE GALAXY #14[6] after killing another sapling to defend a maintenance mammal it was brutalizing.

text: An alternate origin was presented in the Groot ongoing series. In the story, it is revealed that the other Flora colossi had been abducting organisms from other planets, including a young human girl named Hannah. After seeing Hannah, Groot realized what his people were doing was wrong and managed to save the child and send her back to Earth. However, for his disobedience, Groot was exiled from Planet X and forced to wander the universe until he met Rocket Raccoon many decades later where this version of Groot later became a member of the Guardians of the Galaxy.[5]

text: Yet another alternate origin was presented in "Guardians of Infinity", written by Edgardo Miranda Rodriguez, wherein a woman makes the claim that Groot is a ceiba tree from Ponce, Puerto Rico. According to Puerto Rican folklore, a ceiba tree is believed to possess the spirits of the indigenous Taino population that formerly thrived on the Caribbean island. By her logic, the woman considers Groot to be Puerto Rican.[7]

text: Fictional character biography[edit]

text: Original Groot[edit]

text: Groot is an extraterrestrial tree monster who initially came to Earth seeking humans to capture and study. Groot was seemingly destroyed by termites used by Leslie Evans.[8]

text: Xemnu made a duplicate of Groot that was used to fight the Hulk, but it was destroyed in the battle.[9]

text: Groot was later revealed to have survived, but was a captive of the Collector and held in his zoo in Canada until Groot and the other captive creatures were freed by the Mole Man. Groot and the other creatures rampaged in New York City until they were stopped by a band of superheroes, and were then dumped through a portal to the Negative Zone.[10]

text: Groot was later tracked down and captured by S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Paranormal Containment Unit, nicknamed the Howling Commandos when his tree scent was detected by Sasquatch and Abominable Snowman.[11] While Groot was being held captive, Gorilla-Man talked to Groot about joining the Howling Commandos.[12] When Merlin and his forces attacked the base, the Howling Commandos let Groot and their other captives free and they stampeded on Merlin's army; Groot was the only one to turn back and offered to join the Howling Commandos.[13] Groot aided the Howling Commandos as they assaulted Merlin's forces.[14]

text: Guardians of the Galaxy's Groot[edit]

text: A different Groot played a part in Annihilation: Conquest, at which time it was shown Groot may be the last remaining member of the Flora Colossi, and was under arrest by the Kree for an unknown reason. Groot earned freedom by joining Star-Lord's strike force, where Groot and Rocket Raccoon formed a bond, Rocket being one of the few beings with the ability to understand Groot's language.[15] Star-Lord's team fought their way through the Phalanx, but after the death of Deathcry the team decided to escape through a drainage pipe that Groot could not fit into.

text: Groot seemingly died, buying the team some time to escape the battle.[16] A new Groot was created as a sprig offshoot and went on to accompany the team on their continued mission against the Phalanx, but was one of the team members captured by the Phalanx.[17] Groot and the others were freed by Mantis, and escaped back to the lines of the Kree resistance. In time, Groot's body regenerated from the twig, growing back to full size. Groot and the others intended to carry on as part of Star-Lord's team.[18]

text: Groot and the team returned to Hala to prepare another assault against the Phalanx, but their agent Blastaar was captured by the Phalanx and taken to their Babel Spire as he tried to carry Groot's pollen spores.[19] Groot and Rocket Raccoon continued their mission by sneaking into the sub-basement of the Babel Spire.[20] When Star-Lord was captured by Ultron, the original plan of laying explosives in the Spire failed, so Rocket Raccoon and Groot needed to come up with a new plan.[21] Groot decided to sprout inside the Spire, growing to colossal size and filling a large portion of the building.

text: Mantis was able to remix Groot's sap in a way as to make it extremely flammable, and again Groot died for the team, this time by purposefully igniting so the resulting fire would destroy the Babel Spire.[22] A cutting of Groot was kept by Rocket Raccoon, though, and Groot was again able to regrow.[23] Groot then joined the new Guardians of the Galaxy (or, as Groot would have it, "Groot and Branches"), and began regrowing under the care of Mantis.[24][25]

text: When the Guardians reformed, Groot joined with Star-Lord, Rocket Raccoon, Drax the Destroyer and Gamora, whom Groot counted as friends.[26]

text: During the 2015 Secret Wars storyline, Groot is with the Guardians of the Galaxy when they take part in the incursion between Earth-616 and Earth-1610. Groot and Rocket Raccoon are killed by the Children of Tomorrow.[27] However, when Peter Quill — one of the few survivors of the incursions from Earth-616 — finds himself confronted by Black Swan in the castle of Emperor Doom, he reveals that he has been carrying a small twig of Groot in his pocket ever since the incursion, slamming it into the roots of the World Tree and causing Groot to transform the giant tree into his body, decimating Doom's castle as the surviving heroes mount their final assault.[28]

text: Powers and abilities[edit]

text: Groot can absorb wood as food, and has the ability to regenerate. Groot can control trees and plants, using them to attack others, and appears to be resistant to fire. Groot is able to sprout dramatically increasing mass which then severely inhibits movement.[volume & issue needed]

text: Groot has been seemingly killed on multiple occasions, each time regrowing from a sprig.[volume & issue needed]

text: "I am Groot"[edit]

text: Black Bolt's brother Maximus the Mad asserted that whenever Groot is saying the trademark "I am Groot!" he has actually been saying a number of things, and his varying inflections of the sentence are the equivalent of words and sentences. People who have interacted with Groot are gradually able to decipher the meaning of the inflections and can carry on full conversations with Groot as time goes on. The mature form of Groot's species is robust and heavyweight, which causes the organs of acoustic generation to become stiff and inflexible. It is this hardened nature of Groot's larynx that causes people, who are oblivious to the subtle nuances of Flora Colossi speech, to misinterpret Groot as merely repeating his name. It could not be determined whether Maximus's claim was true or merely another manifestation of his madness, though Groot did genuinely seem to be assisting Maximus with highly advanced engineering.[29] Later, in All New X-Men #23, Jean Grey telepathically links with Groot, showing that Groot's thought processes are indeed complex, and the declaration of "I am Groot!" usually represents attempts at highly intelligent communication.[30]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text:
Groot appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Troy Baker.[31] He (along with the other Guardians of the Galaxy) appear in the episode "Michael Korvac".
Groot appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man cartoon series, initially voiced by Michael Clarke Duncan (in "Guardians of the Galaxy"), and later by Kevin Michael Richardson (for subsequent episodes). He first appears in the episode "Guardians of the Galaxy" in his stick form before later growing to his full size to defeat Korvac and some of the Chitauri soldiers. At the end of the episode, two irises briefly open up as Groot says 'I am Groot' and Spider-Man says 'He is Groot', a dedication due to Duncan's passing in 2012 where the episode was dedicated in memory of him.[32] Groot returns in "The Return of the Guardians of the Galaxy" alongside the other Guardians to repair their spaceship at the same time when Titus was leading the Chitauri army into targeting Nova's helmet. While on Earth, Groot blended in by posing as a tree in front of Aunt May's house. The episode "Return to the Spider-Verse" Pt. 2 featured an alternate version of Groot who resides in a pirate reality and is the sentient pirate ship of Web Beard with his head being the figurehead of the pirate ship.
Groot appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson.[33]
Groot appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H., with Kevin Michael Richardson reprising the role.[34]
Groot appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers episode "Guardians of the Galaxy".
Kevin Michael Richardson reprises his role in the animated series Guardians of the Galaxy.[35] The episode "Origins" revealed that Groot's planet was invaded by Ronan the Accuser and Groot was the last of his kind once Ronan's army was done with the Flora Colossus. In "Can't Fight This Seedling", Star-Lord fell into the green thing within Groot while fighting the parasitic fungus and had a vision that the green thing can be used to recreate the Flora Colossus race.
Groot appears in the Christmas TV special Marvel Super Hero Adventures: Frost Fight! voiced again by Kevin Michael Richardson. In order to obtain money to repair their ship, Groot and Rocket Raccoon take up the bounty to apprehend Santa Claus where they have an encounter with Mrs. Claus.
Groot appears in the Rocket and Groot shorts, voiced again by Kevin Michael Richardson.

text: Film[edit]

text:
Groot appears in the 2014 Marvel Cinematic Universe film Guardians of the Galaxy, voiced by Vin Diesel (who performed the voice work for a number of languages the movie was released in and also provided some motion capture elements for the character).[36][37][38] Although initially simply described as Rocket's hired muscle, he shows a softer side throughout the film, growing a flower to give to a little girl and saving Drax the Destroyer's life even after Drax's actions brought Ronan the Accuser's forces to them. He agrees with Peter Quill's plan to stand up to Ronan, and later seemingly sacrifices himself to save the rest of the team by enveloping them in a wooden ball grown from himself as Ronan's ship crashes. At the film's conclusion, Rocket has recovered a twig from Groot, which is shown to be regrowing into a miniature Groot. When sacrificing himself, he actually speaks another phrase, "We are Groot", which implies a bond formed among the heroes.[citation needed]
Vin Diesel again voices Groot in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, released in May 2017.[39] Still a small child in the film, Baby Groot continues to travel with the Guardians, but genuinely acts like a child, such as dancing to music while the rest of the team are trying to defeat a multi-dimensional monster. He is briefly captured by the Ravagers, along with Rocket and Yondu, while Quill, Drax and Gamora are visiting Quill's father Ego, but when the Ravagers mockingly decide to make him their mascot, Groot is able to help Rocket and Yondu escape capture and go to assist the other Guardians in the confrontation with Ego. In the final battle, Groot is entrusted with planting a bomb on Ego's core as the only person small enough to fit through the cracks, although he was initially unable to remember which button on the bomb would start the timer and which would set it off immediately. In a mid-credits sequence, Groot has grown to a pre-teen level.
Diesel will reprise his role in Avengers: Infinity War[40] and its sequel. James Gunn revealed that Groot will be the same size as he was in the post-credits scene for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.[41]

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Groot appears as a summon skill for Rocket Raccoon called "My Friend Groot", in Marvel Heroes. He also appears in the game as a team-up hero.
Groot appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes[42] voiced by Troy Baker.[43]
Groot was a playable character in the Marvel: Avengers Alliance game on Facebook.
Groot is a playable character in Disney Infinity: Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson.
Groot is a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
Groot is a playable character in Marvel Contest of Champions.
Groot is a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight.
Groot appears in Guardians of the Galaxy: The Telltale Series, voiced by Adam Harrington.
Groot will appear in Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite as part of Rocket Raccoon's assist call-based moves during Rocket's gameplay. Kevin Michael Richardson reprises his role.[44]
Groot is as a playable character in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2, voiced by Stefan Ashton Frank[45]. He has three variations including Small Groot (based off Baby Groot from the second film), Small Groot with a Ravager uniform, and normal-sized Groot.[46]

text: Toys[edit]

text:
A Groot action figure was included with the Guardians of the Galaxy pack in 2011 part of the Marvel Universe toyline.
A Rocket Raccoon and Groot figure set with a "Dancing Baby Groot" will be released by Hot Toys.[47]
Funko announced the "Dancing Groot Funko POP" vinyl figure on August 26, 2014 and released it shortly after Christmas 2014.[48]

text: Telecommunications[edit]

text: In 2014 Twilio employee Ricky Robinett set up a phone number at which Groot can be texted, (866) 740-4531, which results in the character's familiar response "I am Groot".[49]

text: Theme Parks[edit]

text: Baby Groot appears in the ride Guardians of the Galaxy Mission Breakout at Disney's California Adventure voiced by Fred Tatasciore. He and the other Guardians are captured by the Collector and have to be rescued by Rocket and the guests. In the Halloween version of the ride titled "Monsters After Dark," the Guardians accidentally left Groot behind during their escape, so Rocket goes back and has the guests distract Surtur's Fire Dragon so they can escape.[citation needed]

text: Collected editions[edit]

text:
Rocket Raccoon & Groot: The Complete Collection (softcover, April 2013, ISBN 978-0-7851-6713-6) collects: a story from Tales to Astonish #13, the story from Marvel Preview #7, The Incredible Hulk #271, Rocket Raccoon Vol. 1 #1–4, Annihilators #1–4, and Annihilators: Earthfall #1–4.
Groot (hardcover, February 2016, ISBN 978-0785195528) collects: Groot (2015) #1-6
Rocket Raccoon & Groot Vol. 0: Bite and Bark (softcover, October 2016, ISBN 978-1302902186) collects: Rocket Raccoon Vol. 2 #1-11, Groot #1-6, and material from Guardians of the Galaxy: Tomorrow's Avengers #1.
Rocket Raccoon & Groot Vol. 1: Tricks of the Trades! (softcover, August 2016, ISBN 978-0785199731) collects: Rocket Raccoon & Groot #1-6.
Rocket Raccoon & Groot Vol. 2: (softcover, November 2016, ISBN 978-0785199748) collects: Rocket Raccoon & Groot #7-10, TBD.


document_title: Brazil nut

question_text: which country is the most significant exporter of brazil nuts

root

text: Brazil nut

text: Order[edit]

text: The Brazil nut family is in the order Ericales, as are other well-known plants such as blueberries, cranberries, sapote, gutta-percha, tea, phlox and persimmons.

tag: p

text: Brazil nut tree[edit]

text: The Brazil nut tree is the only species in the monotypic genus Bertholletia. It is native to the Guianas, Venezuela, Brazil, eastern Colombia, eastern Peru, and eastern Bolivia. It occurs as scattered trees in large forests on the banks of the Amazon River, Rio Negro, Tapajós, and the Orinoco. The genus is named after the French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet.

text: The Brazil nut is a large tree, reaching 50 m (160 ft) tall and with a trunk 1 to 2 m (3.3 to 6.6 ft) in diameter, making it among the largest of trees in the Amazon rainforests. It may live for 500 years or more, and according to some authorities often reaches an age of 1,000 years.[1] The stem is straight and commonly without branches for well over half the tree's height, with a large emergent crown of long branches above the surrounding canopy of other trees.

text: The bark is grayish and smooth. The leaves are dry-season deciduous, alternate, simple, entire or crenate, oblong, 20–35 cm (7.9–13.8 in) long and 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) broad. The flowers are small, greenish-white, in panicles 5–10 cm (2.0–3.9 in) long; each flower has a two-parted, deciduous calyx, six unequal cream-colored petals, and numerous stamens united into a broad, hood-shaped mass.

text: Hazards[edit]

text: In Brazil, it is illegal to cut down a Brazil nut tree. As a result, they can be found outside production areas, in the backyards of homes and near roads and streets. The fruit containing nuts are very heavy and rigid, and they pose a serious threat to vehicles and people passing under the tree. Brazil nuts sink in fresh water, which can cause clogging of waterways in riparian areas.

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Brazil nut trees produce fruit almost exclusively in pristine forests, as disturbed forests lack the large-bodied bees of the genera Bombus, Centris, Epicharis, Eulaema, and Xylocopa which are the only ones capable of pollinating the tree's flowers, with different bee genera being the primary pollinators in different areas, and different times of year.[2][3][4] Brazil nuts have been harvested from plantations, but production is low and is currently not economically viable.[5][6][7]

text: The fruit takes 14 months to mature after pollination of the flowers. The fruit itself is a large capsule 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) in diameter, resembling a coconut endocarp in size and weighing up to 2 kg (4.4 lb). It has a hard, woody shell 8–12 mm (0.31–0.47 in) thick, which contains eight to 24 triangular seeds 4–5 cm (1.6–2.0 in) long (the "Brazil nuts") packed like the segments of an orange.

text: The capsule contains a small hole at one end, which enables large rodents like the agouti to gnaw it open. They then eat some of the seeds inside while burying others for later use; some of these are able to germinate into new Brazil nut trees. Most of the seeds are "planted" by the agoutis in shady places, and the young saplings may have to wait years, in a state of dormancy, for a tree to fall and sunlight to reach it, when it starts growing again. Capuchin monkeys have been reported to open Brazil nuts using a stone as an anvil.

text: Nomenclature[edit]

text: Despite their name, the most significant exporter of Brazil nuts is not Brazil but Bolivia, where they are called castañas o nuez de Brasil. In Brazil, these nuts are called castanhas-do-pará (literally "chestnuts from Pará"), but Acreans call them castanhas-do-acre instead. Indigenous names include juvia in the Orinoco area. In Cuba, the nut is alternatively called coquito de Santiago, literally St. James coconut.

text: Though it is commonly called the Brazil nut, in botanical terms it is the seed from the fruit of this tree. To a botanist, a nut is a hard-shelled indehiscent fruit. (An example of a botanical nut would be an acorn or a hazelnut.)

text: In North America, Brazil nuts are sometimes known by the epithet "nigger toes,"[8] though the term has fallen out of favor as public use of the racial slur became increasingly unacceptable by the 1960s. They can be seen being sold in a market under this name in a scene from the 1922 Stan Laurel film The Pest.

text: Nut production[edit]

text: In 2014, global production of Brazil nuts (in shell) was 95,000 tonnes, remaining a consistent annual total since 2009.[9] The largest producers were Bolivia (47% of world total) and Brazil (40%), and the United States was the largest importer, with 9% of the world production volume.[9]

text: Effects of harvesting[edit]

text: Brazil nuts for international trade can come from wild collection rather than from plantations. This has been advanced as a model for generating income from a tropical forest without destroying it. The nuts are gathered by migrant workers known as castanheiros.

text: Analysis of tree ages in areas that are harvested show that moderate and intense gathering takes so many seeds that not enough are left to replace older trees as they die. Sites with light gathering activities had many young trees, while sites with intense gathering practices had hardly any young trees.[10]

text: Statistical tests were done to determine what environmental factors could be contributing to the lack of younger trees. The most consistent effect was found to be the level of gathering activity at a particular site. A computer model predicting the size of trees where people picked all the nuts matched the tree size data gathered from physical sites that had heavy harvesting.[citation needed]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Nutrition[edit]

text:
Brazil nuts, dried, unblanched, shelled

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy
2,743 kJ (656 kcal)

Carbohydrates

12.27 g

Starch
0.25 g

Sugars
2.33 g

Dietary fiber
7.5 g

Fat

66.43 g

Saturated
15.137 g

Monounsaturated
24.548 g

Polyunsaturated
20.577 g

Protein

14.32 g

Tryptophan
0.141 g

Threonine
0.362 g

Isoleucine
0.516 g

Leucine
1.155 g

Lysine
0.492 g

Methionine
1.008 g

Cystine
0.367 g

Phenylalanine
0.630 g

Tyrosine
0.420 g

Valine
0.756 g

Arginine
2.148 g

Histidine
0.386 g

Alanine
0.577 g

Aspartic acid
1.346 g

Glutamic acid
3.147 g

Glycine
0.718 g

Proline
0.657 g

Serine
0.683 g

Vitamins

Thiamine (B1)

(54%)
0.617 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(3%)
0.035 mg

Niacin (B3)

(2%)
0.295 mg

Vitamin B6

(8%)
0.101 mg

Folate (B9)

(6%)
22 μg

Vitamin C

(1%)
0.7 mg

Vitamin E

(38%)
5.73 mg

Minerals

Calcium

(16%)
160 mg

Iron

(19%)
2.43 mg

Magnesium

(106%)
376 mg

Manganese

(57%)
1.2 mg

Phosphorus

(104%)
725 mg

Potassium

(14%)
659 mg

Sodium

(0%)
3 mg

Zinc

(43%)
4.06 mg

Other constituents

Water
3.48 g

Selenium
1917 μg

Beta-Sitosterol
64 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

tag: table

text: Brazil nuts are 14% protein, 12% carbohydrate, and 66% fat by weight; 85% of their calories come from fat, and a 100 gram amount provides 656 total calories.[11] The fat components are 23% saturated, 38% monounsaturated, and 32% polyunsaturated.[11][12] Due to their high polyunsaturated fat content, primarily omega-6 fatty acids, shelled Brazil nuts may quickly become rancid.

text: Nutritionally, Brazil nuts are an excellent source (> 19% of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber (30% DV) and various vitamins and dietary minerals. A 100 gram amount (75% of one cup) of Brazil nuts contains rich content of thiamin (54% DV), vitamin E (38% DV), magnesium (106% DV), phosphorus (104% DV), manganese (57% DV) and zinc (43% DV) (right table). Brazil nuts are perhaps the richest dietary source of selenium, with a one-ounce (28 g) serving of 6 nuts supplying 774% DV.[11] This is 10 times the adult U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance, more even than the Tolerable Upper Intake Level, although the amount of selenium within batches of nuts varies greatly.[13]

text: The European Union has imposed strict regulations on the import from Brazil of Brazil nuts in their shells, as the shells have been found to contain high levels of aflatoxins, which can lead to liver cancer.[14]

text: Brazil nuts contain small amounts of radium, a radioactive element, in about 1–7 nCi/kg or 40–260 Bq/kg, about 1000 times higher than in several other common foods.[15] According to Oak Ridge Associated Universities, this is not because of elevated levels of radium in the soil, but due to "the very extensive root system of the tree."[16]

text: Brazil nuts are a common ingredient in mixed nuts. Because of their large size, they tend to rise to the top upon forced vibrations likely encountered during transport, an example of granular convection, which for this reason is often called the "Brazil nut effect."

text: Brazil nut oil[edit]

text: Brazil nut oil contains 75% unsaturated fatty acids composed mainly of oleic and linolenic acids, as well as the phytosterol, beta-sitosterol,[17] and fat-soluble vitamin E.[18]

text: The following table presents the composition of fatty acids in Brazil nut oil:[11]

text:
Palmitic acid
16-20%

Palmitoleic acid
0.5-1.2%

Stearic acid
9-13%

Oleic acid
36-45%

Linolenic acid
33-38%

Saturated fats
25%

Unsaturated fats
75%

text: Other uses[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: As well as its food use, Brazil nut oil is also used as a lubricant in clocks, for making artists' paints, and in the cosmetics industry. Engravings in Brazil nut shells were supposedly used as decorative jewelry by the indigenous tribes in Bolivia, although no examples still exist. Because of its hardness, the Brazil nut's shell is often pulverized and used as an abrasive to polish materials such as metals and even ceramics (in the same way jeweler's rouge is used).

text: Wood[edit]

text: The lumber from Brazil nut trees (not to be confused with Brazilwood) is of excellent quality, but logging the trees is prohibited by law in all three producing countries (Brazil, Bolivia and Peru). Illegal extraction of timber and land clearances present a continuing threat.[19]


document_title: New Jerusalem

question_text: how many gates are there in the new jerusalem

question_tokens: how many gates are there in the new jerusalem

text: New Jerusalem

text: Judaism and origin[edit]

text: The Babylonian threat to the Kingdom of Judah began as the Babylonian Empire conquered Assyria and rose to power from 612-609 BCE. Jerusalem surrendered without major bloodshed to Babylon in 597. An Israelite uprising brought the destruction of Nebuchadnezzar’s army upon Jerusalem in 586 BCE. The entire city, including the First Temple, was burned. Israelite aristocrats were taken captive to Babylon.

text: The Book of Ezekiel contains the first record of the New Jerusalem. Within Ezekiel 40-48, there is an extended and detailed description of the measurements of the Temple, its chambers, porticos, and walls. Ezekiel 48:30-35 contains a list of twelve Temple gates named for Israel’s tribes.

text: The Book of Zechariah[6] expands upon Ezekiel’s New Jerusalem. After the Second Temple was built after the exile, Jerusalem’s population was only a few hundred. There were no defensive city walls until 445 BCE.[7] In the passage, the author writes about a city wall of fire to protect the enormous population. This text demonstrates the beginning of a progression of New Jerusalem thought. In Ezekiel, the focus is primarily on the human act of Temple construction. In Zechariah, the focus shifts to God’s intercession in the founding of New Jerusalem.

text: New Jerusalem is further extrapolated in Isaiah,[8] where New Jerusalem is adorned with precious sapphires, jewels, and rubies. The city is described as a place free from terror and full of righteousness. Here, Isaiah provides an example of Jewish apocalypticism, where a hope for a perfected Jerusalem and freedom from oppression is revealed.

text: As the original New Jerusalem composition, Ezekiel functioned as a source for later works such as 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, Qumran documents, and the Book of Revelation. These texts used similar measurement language and expanded on the limited eschatological perspective in Ezekiel.

text: Interpretation[edit]

text: Judaism sees the Messiah as a human male descendant of King David who will be anointed as the king of Israel and sit on the throne of David in Jerusalem. He will gather in the lost tribes of Israel, clarify unresolved issues of halakha, and rebuild the Holy Temple in Jerusalem according to the pattern shown to the prophet Ezekiel. During this time Jews believe an era of global peace and prosperity will be initiated, the nations will love Israel and will abandon their gods, turn toward Jerusalem, and come to the Holy Temple to worship the one God of Israel. Zechariah prophesied that any family among the nations who does not appear in the Temple in Jerusalem for the festival of Sukkoth will have no rain that year. Isaiah prophesied that the rebuilt Temple will be a house of prayer for all nations. The city of YHWH Shamma, the new Jerusalem, will be the gathering point of the world's nations, and will serve as the capital of the renewed Kingdom of Israel. Ezekiel prophesied that this city will have 12 gates, one gate for each of the tribes of Israel. The book of Isaiah closes with the prophecy "And it will come to pass, that from one new moon to another, and from one sabbath to another, all flesh will come to worship before Me, says YHWH".

text: Antiochene Persecutions, Hasmonean High Priesthood[edit]

text: The Animal Apocalypse within 1 Enoch (chapters 85-90), is another example where conflict sparks hopes for the New Jerusalem. First Enoch is an apocalyptic response to the persecutions under Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV. In 167 BCE, Emperor Antiochus returned from fighting in Egypt to quell a revolt in Jerusalem led by Jason, the former High Priest. An agitated Antiochus imposed harsh restrictions on Jewish religion. Circumcision, feast celebration, Sabbath observance were all banned. Antiochus ordered the burning of Torah copies. Jews were required to eat pork. The worst oppression came in the desecration of the Temple. A polytheistic cult was formed, and worship of Yahweh abolished. A statue to a Seleucid deity was constructed on the Jewish altar.

text: First Enoch was written in the wake of this calamity between 166 BCE-163 BCE. For the author of 1 Enoch, history is a steep descent into evil from the utopia in Eden. The author’s vision of the eschaton centers on the restoration of Jerusalem: “I saw until the owner of the sheep brought a house, new and larger and loftier than the former” (1 Enoch 90:29). In this New Jerusalem passage, the sheep are the Jewish people, the builder is the Lord, and the House is the Temple. During the same time period, the Dead Sea scrolls contain a New Jerusalem tradition formed out of strife. As a tiny Jewish sect living in the caves of Qumran, the Essenes opposed Temple leadership and the High Priesthood in Jerusalem. Their condemnation of the Temple focused on criticizing High Priests. They were also frustrated that Judean Kings were also given the role of High Priest.[dubious – discuss] The Essenes were not against the institution of the Temple and its cult per se. The Essenes at Qumran predicted the reunified twelve tribes to rise together against Roman occupation and incompetent Temple leadership and re-establish true Temple worship.

text: The surviving New Jerusalem texts in Qumran literature focus specifically on the twelve city gates, and on the dimensions of the entire new city. In 4Q554, the gates of Simeon, Joseph, and Reuben are mentioned in this partial fragment. For the author of this fragment, the New Jerusalem’s twelve gates signify the reunification of the twelve tribes of Israel. In 5Q15, the author accompanies an angel who measures the blocks, houses, gates, avenues, streets, dining halls, and stairs of the New Jerusalem. There are two important points to consider regarding the Qumran Essenes. First, we do not have enough scroll fragments to completely analyze their New Jerusalem ideologies. Second, based on the evidence available, the Essenes rebelled against Temple leadership, not the Temple itself. Their vision of the New Jerusalem looked for the reunification of the twelve tribes around an eschatological Temple.

text: 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, 3 Baruch[edit]

text: As evidenced above, the historical progression of New Jerusalem language is specifically tied to conflict. The Babylonian Exile, Antiochene persecutions, and corrupt leadership in Jerusalem incited apocalyptic responses with a vision for a New Jerusalem. In the 1st century CE, an even greater conflict exploded in Iudaea province; the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, as well as the other Roman-Jewish Wars. Subsequent apocalyptic responses fundamentally altered the New Jerusalem eschatology for Jews and Early Christians.

text: At the core, apocalypses are a form of theodicy. They respond to overwhelming suffering with the hope of divine intercession and a perfected World to Come. The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 meant an end to Second Temple Judaism. Naturally, apocalyptic responses to the disaster followed. This section will first cover 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch. Fourth Ezra and 2 Baruch are important for two reasons. First, they look for a Temple in Heaven, not the eschaton. Second, these texts exhibit the final new Temple texts in Judaism. Jewish texts like 3 Baruch began to reject a restored Temple completely. However, these texts were deemed to be apocryphal by the Rabbis who maintained the belief in a Third Temple as central to Rabbinic Judaism.

text: The Jewish apocalypse of 4 Ezra is a text contained in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras. The genre of 4 Ezra is historical fiction, set thirteen years after the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem. Fourth Ezra is dated approximately in 83 CE, thirteen years after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem. The story follows Ezra’s period of mourning following Jerusalem’s fall. Ezra is Job-like in his criticism of God’s allowance of Jerusalem’s downfall.

text: In Ezra’s deep state of grief, he meets a woman lamenting over Jerusalem. Ezra consoles the woman, and tells her to, “shake off your great sadness, and lay aside your many sorrows… the Most High may give you rest.” (4 Ezra 10:24). Suddenly, the woman is transfigured in an array of bright lights. She transforms into the New Jerusalem being rebuilt. As a bereaved widow she convinced Ezra to apply solace to himself through the image of a New Jerusalem.

text: Fourth Ezra has two clear messages. First, do not grieve excessively over Jerusalem. Second, Jerusalem will be restored as a heavenly kingdom. Fourth Ezra also uses the title “Most High,” throughout the apocalypse to emphasis that the Lord will once again reign and reside in Jerusalem.

text: The apocalypse of 2 Baruch is a contemporary narrative of 4 Ezra. The text also follows the same basic structure 4 Ezra: Job-like grief, animosity towards the Lord, and the rectification of Jerusalem that leads to the comfort of the Job-figure. Second Baruch is historical fiction, written after the Roman destruction but set before the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians.

text: Baruch is distressed when the Lord informs him of Jerusalem’s impending doom. Baruch responds with several theological questions for God. For this study, Baruch’s inquiry about the future of Israel and the honor of the Lord are most pertinent (2 Baruch 3:4-6). Baruch learns that the Lord will destroy the city, not the enemy. Baruch also learns of a pre-immanent heavenly Temple: “[The Temple] was already prepared from the moment I decided to create paradise.” And I showed it to Adam before he sinned.” (2 Baruch 4:3). This Temple was created before Adam, and shown to him before Adam’s fall.

text: Two important conclusions come from 2 Baruch. First, the author dismisses hopes for an earthly re-built Temple. The focus is entirely on the heavenly Temple that pre-dated the Garden of Eden. This may be a device to express the supremacy of the heavenly Temple as a sanctuary built before Eden (the traditional location of the earthly Temple). Second, Baruch believes that restoration for the people of Israel exists in heaven, not on earth.

text: The apocalypse of 3 Baruch is the anomaly among post-revolt New Jerusalem texts. Unlike 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra, the text exemplifies an alternative tradition that lacks a restored Temple. Like other apocalypses, 3 Baruch still mourns over the Temple, and re-focuses Jews to the heavens. Yet 3 Baruch finds that the Temple is ultimately unnecessary. This move could be polemical against works which afforded the Temple with excessive veneration. In the passage, an angel comes to Baruch and consoles him over Jerusalem: “Where is their God? And behold as I was weeping and saying such things, I saw an angel of the Lord coming and saying to me: Understand, O man, greatly beloved, and trouble not thyself so greatly concerning the salvation of Jerusalem.” (3 Baruch 1:3)

text: Third Baruch certainly mourns over the Temple. Yet 3 Baruch is not ultimately concerned with the lack of a Temple. This text goes along with Jeremiah and Sibylline Oracles 4 to express a minority tradition within Jewish literature. In the first Christian apocalypse, the Book of Revelation coincides with this perspective on Jerusalem. The study will now move to early Christian perspectives on the Temple and the apocalyptic response in Revelation.[9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]

text: Christianity[edit]

text: Since Christianity originated from Judaism, the history of Jewish places of worship and the currents of thought in ancient Judaism described above served in part as the basis for the development of the Christian conception of the New Jerusalem. Christians have always placed religious significance on Jerusalem as the site of The Crucifixion and other events central to the Christian faith.

text: In particular, the destruction of the Second Temple that took place in the year 70, a few decades after Christianity began its split from Judaism, was seminal to the nascent Christian apocalypticism of that time. In the Olivet discourse of the Gospels, Jesus predicts the destruction of Herod's Temple, and promises that it will precede the return of the Son of Man, commonly called the Second Coming. This prophecy of the renewal of Jerusalem by the messiah echoes those of the Jewish prophets. John of Patmos' vision of the New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation draws on the Olivet discourse and all the historical precursors mentioned above.

text: Based on the Book of Revelation, premillennialism holds that, following the end times and the second creation of heaven and earth (see The New Earth), the New Jerusalem will be the earthly location where all true believers will spend eternity with God. The New Jerusalem is not limited to eschatology, however. Many Christians view the New Jerusalem as a current reality, that the New Jerusalem is the consummation of the Body of Christ, the Church and that Christians already take part in membership of both the heavenly Jerusalem and the earthly Church in a kind of dual citizenship.[17] In this way, the New Jerusalem represents to Christians the final and everlasting reconciliation of God and His chosen people, "the end of the Christian pilgrimage."[17] As such, the New Jerusalem is a conception of Heaven, see also Heaven (Christianity).

text: Interpretation[edit]

text: Christianity interprets the city as a physical reconstruction, spiritual restoration, or divine recreation of the city of Jerusalem. It is also interpreted by many Christian groups as referring to the Church to be the dwelling place of the saints.

text: John of Patmos describes the New Jerusalem in the Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible, and so the New Jerusalem holds an important place in Christian eschatology and Christian mysticism, and has also influenced Christian philosophy and Christian theology. Such a renewal of Jerusalem, if a reconstruction, is an important theme in Judaism, Christianity, and the Bahá'í Faith. Renewed Jerusalem bears as its motto the words Ad librum (Latin: "as by the book".)

text: Many traditions based on biblical scripture and other writings in the Jewish and Christian religions, such as Protestantism, Orthodox Christianity, and Orthodox Judaism, expect the literal renewal of Jerusalem to some day take place at the Temple Mount in accordance with various prophecies. Dispensationalists believe in a literal New Jerusalem that will come down out of Heaven, which will be an entirely new city of incredible dimensions. Other sects, such as various Protestant denominations, modernist branches of Christianity, Mormonism and Reform Judaism, view the New Jerusalem as figurative, or believe that such a renewal may have already taken place, or that it will take place at some other location besides the Temple Mount.

text: It is important to distinguish between "the camp of the saints, and the beloved city" spoken of in Revelation 20:9, and the New Jerusalem of chapter 21. Rev. 20:9 refers to an earthly City, description and purpose of which is found in book of Ezekiel, starting with chapter 36 and ending with chapter 48. One of the most obvious differences is, the dimensions of the New Jerusalem of Rev. 21 are 1000 times bigger than dimensions of the city in Ezekiel 48 (and in Rev. 20:9) New Jerusalem of Revelation 21 is 2225 km. in length, width, and height, a city of these gigantic proportions can not be located on this earth, but as stated in ch. 21 comes down from heaven on to the new earth.

text: The Book of Revelation[edit]

text: The term New Jerusalem occurs twice in the New Testament, in verses Rev 3:12 and Rev 21:2 of the Book of Revelation. A large portion of the final two chapters of Revelation deals with John of Patmos' vision of the New Jerusalem. He describes the New Jerusalem as "'the bride, the wife of the Lamb'", where the river of the Water of Life flows (22:1).

text: After John witnesses the new heaven and a new earth "that no longer has any sea", an angel takes him "in the Spirit" to a vantage point on "a great and high mountain" to see the New Jerusalem's descent. The enormous city comes out of heaven down to the New Earth. John's elaborate description of the New Jerusalem retains many features of the Garden of Eden and the paradise garden, such as rivers, a square shape, a wall, and the Tree of Life.

text: Description[edit]

text: According to John, the New Jerusalem is "pure gold, like clear glass" and its "brilliance [is] like a very costly stone, as a stone of crystal-clear jasper." The street of the city is also made of "pure gold, like transparent glass". The base of the city is laid out in a square and surrounded by a wall made of jasper. It says in Revelation 21:16 that the height, length, and width are of equal dimensions - as were the Holy of Holies in the Tabernacle and First Temple - and they measure 12,000 furlongs which is approximately 1500.3 miles). John writes that the wall is 144 cubits, which is assumed to be the width since the length is mentioned previously. 144 cubits are about equal to 65 meters, or 72 yards. It is important to note that 12 is the square root of 144. The number 12 was very important to early Jews and Christians, representing the 12 tribes of Israel and 12 Apostles of Jesus Christ. The four sides of the city represented the four cardinal directions (North, South, East, and West.) In this way, New Jerusalem was thought of as an inclusive place, with gates accepting all of the 12 tribes of Israel from all corners of the earth.

text: There is no temple building in the New Jerusalem. God and the Lamb are the city's temple, since they are worshiped everywhere. Revelation 22 goes on to describe a river of the water of life that flows down the middle of the great street of the city from the Throne of God. The tree of life grows in the middle of this street and on either side, or in the middle of the street and on either side of the river. The tree bears twelve fruits, or kinds of fruits, and yields its fruit every month. According to John, "The leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations." This inclusion of the tree of life in the New Jerusalem harkens back to the Garden of Eden. The fruit the tree bears may be the fruit of life.

text: John states that the New Jerusalem will be free of sin. The servants of God will have theosis, and "His name will be on their foreheads." Night will no longer fall, and the inhabitants of the city will "have need no lamp nor light of the sun, for the Lord God gives them light." John ends his account of the New Jerusalem by stressing its eternal nature: "And they shall reign forever and ever."

text: Gates[edit]

text: There are twelve gates in the wall oriented to the compass with three each on the east, north, south, and west sides. There is an angel at each gate, or gatehouse. These gates are each made of a single pearl, giving them the name of the "pearly gates". The names of the twelve tribes of Israel are written on these gates.

text: The new Jerusalem gates may bear some relation to the gates mentioned in Enoch, Chapters 33 - 35, where the prophet reports (at the extremities of the whole earth) "heavenly gates opening into heaven; three of them distinctly separated." [33, 3.] And so on for each of the four major compass directions.[ref. Laurence translation, Book of Enoch.]

text: Foundation stones[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The wall has twelve foundation stones, and on these are written the names of the Twelve Apostles. Revelation lacks a list of the names of the Twelve Apostles, and does not describe which name is inscribed on which foundation stone, or if all of the names are inscribed on all of the foundation stones, so that aspect of the arrangement is open to speculation. The layout of the precious stones is contested. All of the precious stones could adorn each foundation stone, either in layers or mixed together some other way, or just one unique type of stone could adorn each separate foundation stone.

text: This latter possibility is favored by tradition, as each gate presumably stands on one foundation stone, and each of the twelve tribes has long been associated with a certain type of precious stone. These historical connections go back to the time of Temple worship, when the same kinds of stones were set in the golden Breastplate of the Ephod worn by the Kohen Gadol, and on the Ephod the names of each of the twelve tribes of Israel were inscribed on a particular type of stone.

text: It is interesting to note that the translated meanings of the various sorts of foundation stones have varied through the centuries: those in King James Version are differently named in later translations.

text: "18: And the building of the wall of it was of jasper: and the city was pure gold, like unto clear glass. 19: And the foundations of the wall of the city were garnished with all manner of precious stones. The first foundation was jasper; the second, sapphire; the third, a chalcedony; the fourth, an emerald; 20: The fifth, sardonyx; the sixth, sardius; the seventh, chrysolite; the eighth, beryl; the ninth, a topaz; the tenth, a chrysoprasus; the eleventh, a jacinth; the twelfth, an amethyst." Rev 21:18-20

text: with the more modern, New Jerusalem Bible version,

text: "18 The wall was built of diamond, and the city of pure gold, like clear glass. 19 The foundations of the city wall were faced with all kinds of precious stone: the first with diamond, the second lapis lazuli, the third turquoise, the fourth crystal, 20 the fifth agate, the sixth ruby, the seventh gold quartz, the eighth malachite, the ninth topaz, the tenth emerald, the eleventh sapphire and the twelfth amethyst." <NJB, Rev. 21>

text: Geometry[edit]

text: In 21:16, the angel measures the city with a golden rod or reed, and records it as 12,000 stadia by 12,000 stadia at the base, and 12,000 stadia high. A stadion is usually stated as 185 meters, or 607 feet, so the base has dimensions of about 2220 km by 2220 km, or 1380 miles by 1380 miles. In the ancient Greek system of measurement, the base of the New Jerusalem would have been equal to 144 million square stadia, 4.9 million square kilometers or 1.9 million square miles (roughly midway between the sizes of Australia and India). If rested on the Earth, its ceiling would be inside the upper boundary of the exosphere but outside the lower boundary.[18] By way of comparison, the International Space Station maintains an orbit with an altitude of about 386 km (240 mi) above the earth.[19]

text: Revelation 21:22[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Book of Revelation was composed during the end of the 1st century AD, sometime during the later end of the reign of Emperor Nero Domitius (54 to 68 CE). The work is addressed to the “seven churches that are in Asia” (1:4). Revelation is normally broken into three sections: the prologue (1:1-3:22), the visions (4:1-22:5), and the epilogue (22:6-20). This study is principally concerned with chapter 21.

text: The author of Revelation was both a Jew by birth and a believing Christian. For the author and the addressees of Revelation, they are searching for the Lord to vindicate them and judge the “inhabitants of the earth,” for their suffering (6:10). The fall of Jerusalem coupled with the Neronian persecutions form the tension within the subtext of Revelation.

text: Throughout Revelation, several references to the Temple are made REV 3:12,7:15,11:19,14:15,16:1. This Temple appears to be of heavenly origin. When the eschaton arrives in REV 21:1, the reader expects the temple to come down from heaven with the New Jerusalem. Revelation 21 even contains typical New Jerusalem terminology that accompanies a restored Temple. Specific measurements are given for the new city (Ezekiel 40-48, 4Q554), and the city is built with gold, sapphires, and emeralds (Isaiah, Tobit). In addition, 21:21 references the “twelve gates.” Revelation maintains another typically aspect of New Jerusalem tradition – the reunification of the twelve tribes of Israel (Ezekiel 48:33-34, 4Q554).

text: Verse 22 marks a sudden and remarkable shift in New Jerusalem apocalyptic rhetoric: “I saw no temple in the city, for its temple is the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb.” Following with the tradition of 3 Baruch and 4 Sibylline Oracles, Revelation foresees an eschaton without the Temple. Why has the Revelation suddenly denied an eschatological Temple? Verse 23 sheds light on this disparity.

text: Verse 23 proclaims, “And the city has no need of sun or moon to shine on it, for the glory of God is the light, and its lamp is the lamb.” For the author of Revelation, there is no need for a Temple because the Lord will be the New Jerusalem’s eternal light and Jesus (the lamb) will be its lamp. This re-interpretation utilizes Isaiah to make its case: “The LORD will be your everlasting light, and your God will be your glory. Your sun shall no more go down, or your moon withdraw itself; for the LORD will be your everlasting light, and your days of mourning shall be ended.” (Isaiah 60:19)

text: The Temple is discarded in the eschaton because the Lord will provide illumination for the New Jerusalem, and Christ will be the glory for its residents. Henceforth, Christians believed that the New Jerusalem no longer required a Temple. For Christians, their Lord sufficiently replaced the Temple.

text: New Jerusalem - Dead Sea Scrolls[edit]

text: Discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls near Qumran, Israel, were fragments of a scroll which describes New Jerusalem in minute detail. The New Jerusalem Scroll (as it is called) appears to contain apocalyptic vision, although, being fragmented, it is hard to categorize. Written in Aramaic, the text describes a vast city, rectangular in shape, with twelve gates and encircled by a long wall. Similar descriptions appear in Ezekiel 40-48 and Revelation 21-22 and comparison to the Temple Scroll (also found near Qumran) shows many similarities despite no direct literary links between the two.

text: Montanism[edit]

text: From the middle of the 2nd century CE to the middle of the 6th century CE, the ancient Christian sect of Montanism, which spread all over the Roman Empire, expected the New Jerusalem to descend to earth at the neighboring Phrygian towns of Pepuza and Tymion. In late antiquity, both places attracted crowds of pilgrims from all over the Roman Empire. Pepuza was the headquarters of the Montanist church. The Montanist patriarch resided at Pepuza. Women played an emancipated role in Montanism, serving as priests and also bishops. In the 6th century CE, this church became extinct.

text: Since 2001, Peter Lampe of the University of Heidelberg has directed annual archaeological campaigns in Phrygia, Turkey. During these interdisciplinary campaigns, together with William Tabbernee of Tulsa, numerous unknown ancient settlements were discovered and archaeologically documented. Two of them are the best candidates so far in the search for the identification of the two holy centers of ancient Montanism, Pepuza and Tymion, the sites of the expected descent of the New Jerusalem. Scholars had searched for these lost sites since the 19th century.

text: The ancient settlement discovered and identified as Pepuza by William Tabbernee and Peter Lampe was settled continuously from Hellenistic times to Byzantine times. In Byzantine times, an important rock-cut monastery belonged to the town. The town is located in the Phrygian Karahallı area, near the village of Karayakuplu (Uşak Province, Aegean Region, Turkey). The ancient site of Tymion identified by Peter Lampe is located not far away at the Turkish village of Şükranje. For the Montanists, the high plane between Pepuza and Tymion was an ideal landing place for the heavenly New Jerusalem.

text: Catholicism[edit]

text: The Catholic Church places the New Jerusalem in the eschatological role found in Revelation. Catholicism also holds that the New Jerusalem already exists as a spiritual community in Heaven, the Church triumphant, with an outpost on earth, the Church militant. Together, the Church triumphant, Church militant, and Church suffering form the Church universal. Augustine of Hippo, a Doctor of the Church and Church Father, draws inspiration from John's account of the New Jerusalem to outline this view in his monumental work The City of God.

text: The Catholic Encyclopedia article on "Heaven" states that Catholic

text: theologians deem more appropriate that there should be a special and glorious abode, in which the blessed have their peculiar home and where they usually abide, even though they be free to go about in this world. For the surroundings in the midst of which the blessed have their dwelling must be in accordance with their happy state; and the internal union of charity which joins them in affection must find its outward expression in community of habitation. At the end of the world, the earth together with the celestial bodies will be gloriously transformed into a part of the dwelling-place of the blessed (Revelation 21). Hence there seems to be no sufficient reason for attributing a metaphorical sense to those numerous utterances of the Bible which suggest a definite dwelling-place of the blessed. Theologians, therefore, generally hold that the heaven of the blessed is a special place with definite limits. Naturally, this place is held to exist, not within the earth, but, in accordance with the expressions of Scripture, without and beyond its limits. All further details regarding its locality are quite uncertain. The Church has decided nothing on this subject.

text: Eastern Christianity[edit]

text: Emperor Lalibela of Ethiopia built the city of Lalibela as a new reconstructed Jerusalem in response to the Muslim capture of Jerusalem by Saladin's forces in 1187. The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that the New Jerusalem is the City of God that will come down from heaven in the manner described in the Book of the Apocalypse (Revelation). The Church is an icon of the heavenly Jerusalem.[20] The New Jerusalem Monastery in Russia takes its name from the heavenly Jerusalem.

text: Puritan[edit]

text: The New Jerusalem was an important theme in the Puritan colonization of New England in the 17th century. The Puritans were inspired by the passages in Revelation about the New Jerusalem, which they interpreted as being a symbol for the New World. The Puritans saw themselves as the builders of the New Jerusalem on earth. This idea was foundational to American nationalism.[21]

text: Swedenborgian[edit]

text: Ecclesiastic Swedenborgians often refer to their organizations as part of or contributing to the New Jerusalem as explained by Emanuel Swedenborg in such books as New Jerusalem and Its Heavenly Doctrine, Apocalypse Revealed, and Apocalypse Explained. According to Swedenborg, the New Jerusalem described in the Bible is a symbol for a new dispensation that was to replace/restore Christianity. Also according to these books, this New Jerusalem began to be established around 1757. This stems from their belief that Jerusalem itself is a symbol of the Church, and so the New Jerusalem in the Bible is a prophetic description of a New Church.

text: Latter Day Saint[edit]

text: In the Latter Day Saint movement, the New Jerusalem is viewed as a physical kingdom that will be built in North America,[22] centered on Independence, Missouri.[23] The movement refers to the New Jerusalem as Zion. The movement's founder, Joseph Smith, attempted to establish this Zion in the early 1830s, and drafted a detailed plat of Zion based on his view of the biblical description of the New Jerusalem, including plans for a temple. However, due to political and military rivalry with other Missouri settlers, members of the religion were expelled from Missouri in 1838. Subsequently, several Latter Day Saint denominations have established residence there, believing that it will be the center of God's Millennial kingdom.

text: Jehovah's Witnesses[edit]

text: Jehovah's Witnesses believe that New Jerusalem is made up of anointed Christians serving in heaven as Kings and Priests over the earth. The number of these King-Priests will eventually number 144,000. This belief is based on New Jerusalem being described as "a bride adorned for her husband" REV 21:2, and this same "bride" then being described as "the Lamb's wife" REV 21:9-10. REV 14:1 is seen as depicting a wife-like relationship between the Lamb and the 144,000, therefore linking the identity of the 144,000 with the Lamb's wife and in-turn also that of New Jerusalem.[24]

text: Universal Friends[edit]

text: The religious community known collectively as the Publick Universal Friends that gathered around the Quaker evangelist Jemima Wilkinson in the late 18th century was one of religious righteousness and devotion to Christian ideals. In 1790, Jemima founded a community she called New Jerusalem, planned as a communal society where righteousness would prevail. It was situated in the wilderness of New York's Finger Lakes region, in what is today the town of Jerusalem, New York. The society faded away after the death of their leader, and so died the prospect of a community based on the will of God.

text: British Israelism[edit]

text: Richard Brothers, the originator of British Israelism, developed a viewpoint that the British are descended from the Lost Tribes of Israel, and that the capital city of Britain should therefore be re-modeled as a New Jerusalem for the coming Age of Enlightenment. Supposedly this idea was already present in 6th Century England, and that it reached its height of influence during and just after the First World War; certain buildings, such as St Paul's Cathedral, supposedly contain elements of the plan in their design.

text: Bedwardism[edit]

text: Bedwardism, a Jamaican religious movement active between 1889 and 1921, asserted that August Town (a suburb of Kingston) was the New Jerusalem for the western hemisphere, and that Union Camp, where Alexander Bedward's Free Baptist Church was located, was Zion. This movement fell apart when Bedward was arrested in 1921.

text: Kimbanguism[edit]

text: Kimbanguism, a Congolese sectarian church founded in 1921 by Simon Kimbangu, refers to Kimbangu's birthplace in Nkamba, Congo (a village near Mbanza-Ngungu), as New Jerusalem, where he reputedly performed miracles. Like Bedward, Kimbangu was imprisoned for life in the year 1921, however his movement continues with many followers to the present.

text: The Kimbanguist believe that people of the Nkamba village saw the New Jerusalem descending from heaven (a building) physically in 1935, by which time Father Simon Kimbangu was in prison. The Kimbanguist has constructed this same design of the building, calling it Nkamba New Jerusalem, in reference to Revelation 21; it has a river with supposed healing power.

text: Taiping Heavenly Kingdom[edit]

text: In 1853, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom captured Nanjing (Nanking) During the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty of China and renamed the city "New Jerusalem".[25]

text: Bahá'í Faith[edit]

text: The Bahá'í Faith views the New Jerusalem as the renewal of religion that takes place about every thousand years and which secures the prosperity of the human world.[26][27] Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, identified the New Jerusalem with his claimed revelation (the word of God), and more specifically with the Law of God.[28][29]

text: `Abdu'l-Bahá, Bahá'u'lláh's son, further explains that the New Jerusalem which descends from heaven is not an actual city which is renewed, but the law of God since it descends from heaven through a new revelation and it is renewed.[30] Shoghi Effendi, head of the religion after the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá, stated that specifically Bahá'u'lláh's book of laws, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, is the new Jerusalem.[31][32] Bahá'u'lláh, in the Tablet of Carmel, also states that the new Jerusalem had appeared upon the new Mount Zion, Mount Carmel.[28]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Science fiction writer Robert Heinlein wrote the story If This Goes On—, depicting a charismatic preacher managing to be elected President of the United States and setting up a theocratic dictatorship. Among other things, the capital is moved from Washington, D.C. to "New Jerusalem".

text: In American hip hop culture and the Five-Percent Nation, "New Jerusalem" and "New Jeru" refer to New Jersey.[33][34][35][36]


document_title: Chinese Grand Prix

question_text: who won the 2017 chinese grand pix held in shanghai china

text: Chinese Grand Prix

text: History[edit]

text: The vision of a Chinese Grand Prix started in the early 1990s. The Chinese government had originally planned for an F1 circuit to be located in the city of Zhuhai in Guangdong Province, southern China. The Zhuhai International Circuit was designed and built and was provisionally added to the 1999 F1 World Championship calendar, but the track failed to meet certain standards set by the FIA.[5] However, the Chinese government did not give up and eventually, with assistance from the organizers of the Macau Grand Prix, held the first ever Formula One race in China in 2004.[1]

text: In 2002, it was announced that the management of the Shanghai International Circuit had signed a 7-year contract with Formula One Management to host the Chinese Grand Prix starting from the 2004 season until the 2011 season. The Chinese Grand Prix debuted on 26 September 2004, and was won by Ferrari's Rubens Barrichello. The following year, it hosted the final round of the Formula One championship, in which the newly crowned world champion Fernando Alonso won and claimed the constructor's title for Renault. In 2006, the Chinese Grand Prix was won by Michael Schumacher - his last victory in Formula One.

text: In November 2008 the BBC reported a senior race official, Qiu Weichang, as suggesting that the loss-making race might be cancelled. Following a similar announcement about the French Grand Prix, Qiu Weichang said that the race's future was under consideration, and a decision would be made in 2009.[6]

text: 2010 came and went with no formal announcement of an extension to the initial 7 race deal struck in 2004. However, immediately after the 2010 Shanghai race Bernie Ecclestone, who manages the contracts with the various circuits, said of the 2011 calendar, "We are not dropping anything. [It's] 20 races - getting ready for 25".[7]

text: It was only in February 2011 that a deal was agreed between F1 and the organisers of the Chinese round of the world championship. Reasons for the delay appear to have been over the fee paid to F1 to host the race. After racking up losses year after year, the organisers of the race refused to pay the fee required, reported to be amongst the highest paid to host an F1 race. F1 bosses appear to have reduced the fee and the new agreement to host an F1 race ran to 2017.[8]

text: In September 2017, a new three-year contract to host the race was announced, keeping the race on the calendar until 2020.[3][4]

text: Sponsors[edit]

text:
2004–2008: Sinopec Chinese Grand Prix
2011–2014: UBS Chinese Grand Prix
2016: Pirelli Chinese Grand Prix
2017–present: Heineken Chinese Grand Prix

tag: ul

text: Winners of the Chinese Grand Prix[edit]

text: Multiple winners (drivers)[edit]

text: Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.

text:
# Wins
Driver
Years Won

5
 Lewis Hamilton
2008, 2011, 2014, 2015, 2017

2
 Fernando Alonso
2005, 2013

 Nico Rosberg
2012, 2016

text: Multiple winners (constructors)[edit]

text: Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season.

text:
# Wins
Constructor
Years Won

5
 Mercedes
2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017

4
 Ferrari
2004, 2006, 2007, 2013

3
 McLaren
2008, 2010, 2011

text: By year[edit]

text: All Chinese Grands Prix have been held at Shanghai International Circuit.

text:
Year
Driver
Constructor
Report

2017
 Lewis Hamilton
Mercedes
Report

2016
 Nico Rosberg
Mercedes
Report

2015
 Lewis Hamilton
Mercedes
Report

2014
 Lewis Hamilton
Mercedes
Report

2013
 Fernando Alonso
Ferrari
Report

2012
 Nico Rosberg
Mercedes
Report

2011
 Lewis Hamilton
McLaren-Mercedes
Report

2010
 Jenson Button
McLaren-Mercedes
Report

2009
 Sebastian Vettel
Red Bull-Renault
Report

2008
 Lewis Hamilton
McLaren-Mercedes
Report

2007
 Kimi Räikkönen
Ferrari
Report

2006
 Michael Schumacher
Ferrari
Report

2005
 Fernando Alonso
Renault
Report

2004
 Rubens Barrichello
Ferrari
Report

text: Support races[edit]

text: Formula BMW Asia and Porsche Carrera Cup Asia have both supported the Chinese Grand Prix since 2004. In 2008, the GP2 Asia Series also raced the same weekend. In 2015, the TCR International Series also supported the Chinese Grand Prix.


document_title: Junctional epithelium

question_text: the junctional epithelium once it has migrated apically attaches to the cementum by means of

text: Junctional epithelium

text: Location[edit]

text: The junctional epithelium, a nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium,[1] lies immediately apical to the sulcular epithelium, which lines the gingival sulcus from the base to the free gingival margin, where it interfaces with the epithelium of the oral cavity.The gingival sulcus is bounded by the enamel of the crown of the tooth and the sulcular epithelium. Immediately apical to the base of the pocket, and coronal to the most coronal of the gingival fibers is the junctional epithelium. The JE attaches to the surface of the tooth by way of the EA with hemidesmosomes and is, on average, roughly 1 mm in width in the apico-coronal dimension, constituting about one half of the biologic width.[2] The attachment of the JE to the tooth surface can occur on enamel, cementum, or dentin. The position of the EA on the tooth surface is initially on the cervical half of the anatomical crown when the tooth first becomes functional after tooth eruption.[3][4]

text: Origin[edit]

text: Junctional epithelium is derived from the reduced enamel epithelium (REE) during tooth development.[5] Before the eruption of the tooth and after enamel maturation, the ameloblasts secrete a basal lamina on the tooth surface that serves as a part of the primary EA. As the tooth actively erupts, the coronal part of the fused and surrounding epithelium peels back off the crown. The ameloblasts also develop hemidesmosomes for the primary EA and become firmly attached to the enamel surface. However, the cervical part of the fused tissue remains attached to the neck of the tooth by the primary EA. This fused tissue, which remains near the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) after the tooth erupts, serves as the initial JE of the tooth, creating the first tissue attached to the tooth surface. This tissue is later replaced by a definitive JE as the root is formed.[3]

text: Structure[edit]

text: Cells in the junctional epithelium tend to have wide intercellular spaces and fewer desmosomal junctions, to allow the transmission of white blood cells (WBCs) from lamina propria's blood vessels to the bottom of the gingival sulcus, to help prevent disease. In addition, the JE is also thinner than the sulcular epithelium, ranging coronally from only 15 to 30 cells thick at the floor of the gingival sulcus, and then tapering to a final thickness of 3 to 4 cells at its apical part. The superficial, or suprabasal, cells of the JE serve as part of the EA of the gingiva to the tooth surface. These superficial, or suprabasal, epithelial cells of the JE provide the hemidesmosomes and an internal basal lamina that create the EA, because this is a cell-to-noncellular type of intercellular junction. The structure of the EA is similar to that of the junction between the epithelium and subadjacent connective tissue; the internal basal lamina consists of a lamina lucida and lamina densa.[5]

text: This internal basal lamina of the EA is continuous with the external basal lamina between the junctional epithelium and the lamina propria at the apical extent of the JE. The EA is very strong in a healthy state, acting as a type of seal between the soft gingival tissue and the hard tooth surface. The deepest layer of the JE, or basal layer, undergoes constant and rapid cell division, or mitosis. This process allows a constant coronal migration as the cells die and are shed into the gingival sulcus. The few layers present in the JE — from its basal layer to the suprabasal, or superficial, layer — does not show any change in cellular appearance related to maturation, unlike other types of gingival tissue. Thus, the JE does not mature like keratinized tissue, such as the marginal gingiva or attached gingiva, which fills its matured superficial cells with keratin.

text: Nor does JE mature on a lesser level like nonkeratinized tissue of the sulcular gingiva and throughout the rest of the oral cavity, which enlarges its cells as they mature and migrate superficially. The JE cells do not mature and form into a granular layer or intermediate layer. Without a keratinizing superficial layer at the free surface of the JE, there is no physical barrier to microbial attack. Other structural and functional characteristics of the JE must compensate for the absence of this barrier. The JE fulfills this difficult task with its special structural framework and the collaboration of its epithelial and nonepithelial cells that provide very potent antimicrobial mechanisms, such as the white blood cells. However, these defense mechanisms do not preclude the development of extensive inflammatory lesions in the gingival tissue, and, occasionally, the inflammatory lesion may eventually progress to the loss of bone and the connective tissue attachment to the tooth.[6]

text: The JE cells have many organelles in their cytoplasm, such as rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, and mitochondria, indicating a high metabolic activity. However, the JE cells remain immature or undifferentiated until they die and are shed or lost in the gingival sulcus. Lysosomes are also found in large numbers in JE epithelial cells; enzymes contained within these lysosomes participate in the destruction of bacteria contained in dental biofilm.[3]

text: Pathology[edit]

text: The increased permeability of the JE that allows emigration of the PMN type of WBC also allows microorganisms from the dental biofilm (especially noted is P. gingivalis, and associated toxins from the exposed tooth surface, to enter this tissue from the deeper lamina propria, setting up the possibility of infection to occur.[7] Damage to the junctional epithelium results in it being irregular in texture, rather than smooth, at its surface. Most importantly is the formation of pocket epithelium within the periodontal pocket, which is a histopathological characteristic of periodontal disease, having the true apical migration of the EA.[8][9] In addition, there is the presence of ulceration with gingival hyperplasia, including the formation of rete ridges and connective tissue papillae at the one smooth interface of the JE with the lamina propria. Further, there is increased levels of exfoliation of epithelial cells, WBC migration, and bacterial internalization, as well as internalization-induced programmed epithelial cell death.[10]