document_title: World Baseball Classic

question_text: who has won the most world baseball classic

text: World Baseball Classic

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2017)

tag: table

text: Modeled after the FIFA World Cup and organized in large part as a response to the International Olympic Committee's decision to remove baseball as an Olympic sport in 2005, the WBC has grown into a major sporting event worldwide, though to a lesser extent in the United States. In fact, the final series in 2006 and 2009 rank among the highest-rated sporting events in Japanese television history.[3]

text: The 16-team field for the inaugural 2006 tournament was pre-selected, featuring the countries judged to be the "best baseball-playing nations" in the world; no qualifying competition was held.[4] The tournament format featured round-robin group play in the first and second rounds, followed by single-elimination semifinals and finals. The first game in WBC history saw South Korea defeat Chinese Taipei 2-0 before a crowd of 5,193 at the Tokyo Dome on March 3, 2006. South Korea went on to advance to the semifinals with a 6–0 record but lost to Japan (a team South Korea had beaten twice in the earlier rounds) for a berth in the final game. Meanwhile, Cuba defeated the Dominican Republic in the other semifinal. Japan then defeated Cuba 10–6 to be crowned the first champion of the World Baseball Classic.

text: The 2009 tournament featured the same 16 teams as 2006, but the controversial round-robin format from 2006 was replaced by a modified double-elimination format for the first two rounds (the semifinals and final game remained single-elimination). The eight teams advancing from the first round were the same as in 2006, except for a "Cinderella" performance by the Netherlands, which twice defeated the Dominican Republic to reach the second round. In the semifinals, South Korea defeated Venezuela while Japan defeated the United States. Japan then emerged victorious for the second straight Classic, winning the final game over South Korea 5–3 in 10 innings.

text: The buildup to the 2013 tournament included a qualifying round for the first time, with the four lowest finishers from 2009 having to re-qualify against 12 additional teams. This resulted in two new nations making their first appearances in the WBC, as Brazil and Spain respectively replaced Panama and South Africa. The round-robin format was revived for the tournament's first-round, while the second-round remained double-elimination. Italy was the biggest surprise in the early stages of the tournament, making it to the second round with wins over Canada and Mexico. The tournament ended in an all-Caribbean championship game, with the Dominican Republic defeating Puerto Rico, which had upset two-time champion Japan in the semifinals. The Dominican Republic also became the first (and to date, only) team to go undefeated (8-0) through the tournament.

text: The 2017 tournament returned to the format used in 2006, where both the first and second rounds were round-robin, though with the addition of tiebreaker games if needed. Colombia and Israel qualified for the first time, with Israel, using a roster mostly of Jewish American players, able to reach the second round in its WBC debut. Defending champion Dominican Republic extended its WBC winning streak to 11 games, dating to the 2013 tournament, before also being eliminated in the second round. The United States won its first WBC championship, defeating Japan and Puerto Rico in the semifinals and finals, respectively. Puerto Rico had been undefeated in the tournament before losing in the final, its second straight runner-up finish.

text: Qualification[edit]

text: The first two iterations of the Classic featured the same 16 teams, chosen by invitation. A qualifying round was added leading into the 2013 tournament and takes place in the year before the WBC proper. The top 12 finishing teams from each WBC are automatically entered in the next edition, while the four lowest finishers (the teams that finish in last place in their first-round pools) are relegated to the qualifying round. Qualifying consists of four four-team modified double-elimination tournaments, with the winners earning the last four slots in the main tournament. The addition of qualifying has so far allowed four nations (Brazil, Colombia, Israel, and Spain) from outside the original 16 to compete in the WBC.

text: Results[edit]

text:
Year
Final Host

Final

Semifinalists

Number of teams

Champions
Score
Runners-up
3rd place
4th place

2006
Details

San Diego

Japan
10–6

Cuba

South Korea

Dominican Republic
16

2009
Details

Los Angeles

Japan
5–3
(F/10)

South Korea

Venezuela

United States
16

2013
Details

San Francisco

Dominican Republic
3−0

Puerto Rico

Japan

Netherlands
16

2017
Details

Los Angeles

United States
8−0

Puerto Rico

Japan

Netherlands
16

text: Medal table[edit]

text: After the conclusion of each WBC championship game, players from the losing team receive silver medals, followed by the winners receiving gold medals. The third-place team receives bronze medals at a separate date. The WBC does not hold a third-place playoff, so the ranking of the third- and fourth-placed teams is determined by the WBSC.

text:
Rank
Country
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Japan
2
0
2
4

2
 Dominican Republic
1
0
0
1

 United States
1
0
0
1

4
 Puerto Rico
0
2
0
2

5
 South Korea
0
1
1
2

6
 Cuba
0
1
0
1

7
 Venezuela
0
0
1
1

text: Performance of nations[edit]

text: A total of 20 nations have competed in the WBC proper, with 14 appearing in all four editions. Japan has been the most successful, as the only nation with multiple WBC titles (2006, 2009), the nation with the most wins in WBC play (23), and as the only nation to reach the championship round in all four WBCs. The Dominican Republic owns the best overall winning percentage in WBC games at .750 (18-6 record), bolstered by its 8-0 mark en route to the 2013 title. A surprising first-round elimination in 2009 stands out as the Dominican's only poor showing.

text: Along with Japan, three other nations have advanced to at least the second round in all four WBCs: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the United States. Despite having access to more MLB talent than any other nation, Team USA posted an underwhelming 10-10 overall record through the first three WBCs, with only one appearance in the semifinals. The Americans broke through in 2017, going 6-2 on their way to their first WBC title. Cuba lived up to its history of strong international play by reaching the finals of the inaugural WBC in 2006 before losing to Japan. However, subsequent Cuban teams have failed to make a significant mark on the tournament, making three straight second-round exits and going just 2-7 in second-round games since 2009. Meanwhile, Caribbean rival Puerto Rico made consecutive appearances in the WBC finals in 2013 and 2017, albeit losing both, and stood second to Japan for the most all-time WBC wins (20) after the 2017 tournament.

text: The Netherlands, South Korea, and Venezuela have been other countries to reach the championship round. Other teams to have reached the second round at least once are Chinese Taipei, Israel, Italy, and Mexico. Conversely, of the 14 teams to appear in all four tournaments, three have never made the second round: Australia, Canada, and China.

text: Honors[edit]

text: Most Valuable Player[edit]

text: The most significant award for individual performance during the tournament is the Most Valuable Player Award. Whichever player wins it receives a trophy after the final. The inaugural winner of the award in 2006 was Japan's Daisuke Matsuzaka, who pitched 13 innings and finished with a 3–0 record. Soon after this performance, Matsuzaka received a multi–million dollar contract to join the Boston Red Sox of America's Major League Baseball.[5] Again in the 2009 World Baseball Classic, Matsuzaka received the world classic MVP, finishing with a record of 3–0 and an ERA of 2.54. In 2013, Robinson Canó won MVP after hitting .469 with two home runs and six RBI over the course of the tournament.[6] Toronto Blue Jays pitcher Marcus Stroman took home the award in 2017 for the United States. Stroman posted a 2.35 ERA over three starts and no-hit Puerto Rico through six innings in an 8-0 win in the Finals.[7]

text:
Year
Player
Position
Nationality

2006
Matsuzaka, DaisukeDaisuke Matsuzaka
Starting pitcher
 Japan

2009
Matsuzaka, DaisukeDaisuke Matsuzaka
Starting pitcher
 Japan

2013
Canó, RobinsonRobinson Canó
Second baseman
 Dominican Republic

2017
Stroman, MarcusMarcus Stroman
Starting pitcher
 United States

text: All–WBC teams[edit]

text: At the end of each edition of the World Baseball Classic, an all-star team is selected based on their play in the tournament. Three pitchers, eight other position players (one each at each position, including three outfielders), and a designated hitter are named to the team. In the four editions of the Classic thus far, players representing 10 different countries have been named to an All-WBC team, with Japan and Puerto Rico leading the way with nine representatives each.

text:
2006 All–WBC Team
2009 All–WBC Team
2013 All–WBC Team
2017 All–WBC Team

tag: ul

text: Statistical leaders[edit]

text: All-time WBC individual leaders in various statistical categories through the end of the 2017 tournament, excluding qualifier games.[8]

text:
Batting

Statistic
Player
Total

Hits
 Frederich Cepeda
32

Home runs
 Alfredo Despaigne
7

Runs batted in
 Frederich Cepeda
23

Runs scored
 Frederich Cepeda
19

Doubles
 Frederich Cepeda
 Justin Morneau
8

Triples
 Yoenis Cespedes
3

Strikeouts
 Carlos Beltrán
20

Stolen bases
 Tsuyoshi Nishioka
 Jimmy Rollins
 Ichiro Suzuki
5

Games played
 Carlos Beltrán
28

At-bats
 Carlos Beltrán
95

Pitching

Statistic
Player
Total

Wins
 Daisuke Matsuzaka
6

Losses
 Hung-wen Chen
3

Games
 Fernando Rodney
15

Starts
 Daisuke Matsuzaka
 Edinson Volquez
6

Saves
 Fernando Rodney
8

Innings pitched
 Diegomar Markwell
28.0

Hits allowed
 Diegomar Markwell
30

Runs allowed
 Barry Armitage
14

Earned runs allowed
 Barry Armitage
 David Bergman
12

Walks
 Edinson Volquez
11

Strikeouts
 Daisuke Matsuzaka
23

text: Trophy[edit]

text: The winning team of each World Baseball Classic is rewarded a large silver trophy as its primary recognition. The two trophies earned by Japan during the inaugural and second classics have been on display at the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame.[citation needed]

text: Rules of play[edit]

text: In addition to the standard rules of baseball, the World Baseball Classic employs the following additional rules:

text: Pitch counts[edit]

text: A pitcher cannot pitch more than:

text:
85 pitches per game in the Qualifying Round (all tournaments since 2013, when this round was introduced)
65 pitches per game in the First Round (all tournaments except 2009, in which the limit was 70)
80 pitches per game in the Second Round (all tournaments except 2009, in which the limit was 85)
95 pitches per game in the Championship Round (all tournaments except 2009, in which the limit was 100)

text: A pitcher can still finish a batter's plate appearance even if the limit is reached, but must come out after completing the plate appearance.

text: A pitcher cannot pitch until:

text:
a minimum of four days have passed since he last pitched, if he threw 50 or more pitches when he last pitched
a minimum of one day has passed since he last pitched, if he threw 30 or more pitches when he last pitched
a minimum of one day has passed since any second consecutive day on which the pitcher pitched

text: Mercy rules[edit]

text: Games are called if one team is ahead by:

text: -10 or more runs after any complete inning, beginning with the completion of the seventh inning, or;

text: -15 or more runs after any complete inning, beginning with the completion of the fifth inning[9]

text: Mercy rules do not apply during the championship round.

text: Designated hitter[edit]

text: The designated hitter rule applies for all games.[10]

text: Extra innings[edit]

text: Starting with the 11th inning, teams automatically start with runners on first and second base.[11] These are the players in the two batting order positions previous to the leadoff batter for the inning.

text: Video replay review[edit]

text: During the first and second rounds, video review is available only for "boundary" calls, such as determining whether a potential home run ball was fair or foul, did or did not clear the fence, or was interfered with by a fan. Such reviews can only be initiated by the umpires and cannot be requested by the teams. For the championship round, video review is available for all situations it would be during a Major League Baseball regular season game.

text: Run differential[edit]

text: Unlike regular season play, where the number of runs by which a team wins a game is not relevant, the number of runs by which a WBC team wins may be relevant if a tie later develops in the standings. This caused problems during the 2013 WBC, where one game spawned a bench-clearing brawl between the Canadian and Mexican teams (Canadian hitter Chris Robinson had bunted for a base hit after Canada had already taken a large lead, causing Mexican pitcher Arnold Leon to throw three consecutive pitches at the next hitter, Rene Tosoni).

text: Eligibility and participation[edit]

text: Eligibility[edit]

text: A player is eligible to participate on a World Baseball Classic team if any one of the following criteria is met:[12]

text:
The player is a citizen of the nation the team represents.
The player is qualified for citizenship or to hold a passport under the laws of a nation represented by a team, but has not been granted citizenship or been issued a passport; in this case, the player may be made eligible by WBCI[clarification needed] upon petition by the player or team.
The player is a permanent legal resident of the nation or territory the team represents.
The player was born in the nation or territory the team represents.
The player has one parent who is, or if deceased was, a citizen of the nation the team represents.
The player has one parent who was born in the nation or territory the team represents.[13]

text: Player participation[edit]

text: In 2006, many high caliber players from both Major League Baseball and in leagues around the world participated in the World Baseball Classic. Amongst the players that made the All–WBC team were Americans Derek Jeter and Ken Griffey Jr. From Japan, Daisuke Matsuzaka, Ichiro Suzuki and Tomoya Satozaki were on the team. Other internationals included players from Cuba—Yulieski Gourriel, Yoandy Garlobo and Yadel Martí; and from the Dominican Republic—Albert Pujols, Pedro Martínez and José Bautista. The 2009 Classic saw a similarly high-profile field, with a number of players such as Hall of Famers Pedro Martínez and Iván Rodríguez, plus potential future Hall of Famer Chipper Jones and the major international debuts of Cuba's Yoenis Céspedes and Aroldis Chapman.

text: For the 2013 tournament, many high-profile players decided not to participate, including key players from the 2009 Japanese team such as Yu Darvish, Ichiro, and Hisashi Iwakuma. However, other prominent players came, such as Miguel Cabrera, David Wright, R.A. Dickey, Joey Votto, Adrian Gonzalez, Robinson Canó, and José Reyes, among many others.

text: In 2017, former All-Stars such as Adam Jones, Chris Archer, Buster Posey, Paul Goldschmidt, Andrew McCutchen and others played for the United States. For the Dominican Republic, former All-Stars Adrián Beltré, Robinson Canó, Manny Machado, José Reyes, Edinson Vólquez, and more participated. Adrián González played once more for Mexico, and Yadier Molina and Carlos Beltrán represented Puerto Rico alongside up-and-coming stars such as Javier Báez, Carlos Correa, and Francisco Lindor. Venezuela's roster included José Altuve and Miguel Cabrera.

text: Involvement of professional leagues[edit]

text: The tournament was announced in May 2005 by Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig.[14] Major League Baseball had been attempting to create such a tournament for at least two years; negotiations with the players' union (MLBPA) and with the team owners had held the plan back. Owners, notably New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, had been concerned about their star players being injured in international play before the beginning of spring training, and the professional season. This was a concern for the MLBPA as well, but their primary objection was with drug testing. MLB wanted the stricter Olympic standards in place for the tournament, while the union wanted current MLB standards in place. Eventually, a deal was reached on insurance for player contracts and a fairly tough drug testing standard. MLB teams would not be able to directly block their players from participating.

text: Similarly, Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) and its players' association had a disagreement over participation in the tournament. While the owners initially agreed to the invitation, the players' union was concerned about the time of year the tournament was scheduled to take place, as well as their right to be better represented for the 2009 tournament. On September 16, 2005, after four months of negotiations, NPB officially notified the IBAF and MLB they had accepted the invitation. In September 2012, after having threatened to boycott the event despite its domestic popularity,[15] Japanese players agreed to take part after reaching a compromise with tournament organizers on sharing sponsorship and licensing revenue.[16]

text: Coverage[edit]

text: Though the first two World Baseball Classic finals were shown on ESPN in the United States, the entire 2013 tournament was shown exclusively on MLB Network domestically.[17] MLB Network also had the television rights for the 2017 Classic. Also at the moment, ESPN Deportes provides Spanish-language coverage and ESPN Radio has audio rights for the Classic.[18] Sportsnet is the current broadcaster in Canada while ESPN America covers the tournament for the United Kingdom, Ireland and other parts of Europe.

text: The first qualifier round of the 2017 World Baseball Classic aired in the United States and Puerto Rico on the MLB Network; and in Australia, New Zealand, and selected surrounding islands on ESPN.[19]

text: Attendance[edit]

text: Baseball portal

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to World Baseball Classic.

text: Excluding qualifier games.

text:
Year
Total Attendance
# Games
Avg Attendance

2006
737,112
39
18,900

2009
801,408
39
20,549

2013
781,438
39
20,037

2017
973,699
40
24,342

text: Venues[edit]

text: Unlike comparable tournaments the FIFA World Cup and FIBA Basketball World Cup where one country hosts the entire event, each WBC has used multiple hosts spread around different parts of the globe. Thus far, seven different nations have hosted at least one WBC pool, with each edition of the tournament featuring games played in Asia, Latin America, and the United States. The championship round is traditionally held at Major League Baseball stadiums in the US.

text: Host cities are listed with the number of WBC rounds they have hosted in parentheses. Each year is then listed along with the round hosted: 1st, 2nd, or Championship.

text:
Tokyo, Japan (5): 2006 1, 2009 1, 2013 2, 2017 1, 2017 2
San Juan, Puerto Rico (4): 2006 1, 2006 2, 2009 1, 2013 1
San Diego, California, United States (3): 2006 C, 2009 2, 2017 2
Miami, Florida, United States (3): 2009 2, 2013 2, 2017 1
Los Angeles, California, United States (2): 2009 C, 2017 C
Phoenix, Arizona, and Scottsdale, Arizona, United States (2): 2006 1, 2013 1
San Francisco, California, United States (1): 2013 C
Anaheim, California, United States (1): 2006 2
Lake Buena Vista, Florida, United States (1): 2006 1
Mexico City, Mexico (1): 2009 1
Toronto, Ontario, Canada (1): 2009 1
Fukuoka, Japan (1): 2013 1
Taichung, Taiwan (1): 2013 1
Seoul, South Korea (1): 2017 1
Guadalajara, Mexico (1): 2017 1


document_title: Odisha

question_text: when did orissa changed its name to odisha

root

text: Odisha

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term "Odisha" is derived from the ancient Prakrit word "Odda Visaya" (also "Udra Bibhasha" or "Odra Bibhasha") as in the Tirumalai inscription of Rajendra Chola I, which is dated to 1025.[18] Sarala Das, who translated the Mahabharata into the Odia language in the 15th century, calls the region Odra Rashtra and Odisha. The inscriptions of Kapilendra Deva of the Gajapati Kingdom (1435–67) on the walls of temples in Puri call the region Odisha or Odisha Rajya.[19]

tag: p

text: The name of the state was changed from Orissa to Odisha, and the name of its language from Oriya to Odia, in 2011, by the passage of the Orissa (Alteration of Name) Bill, 2010 and the Constitution (113th Amendment) Bill, 2010 in the Parliament. After a brief debate, the lower house, Lok Sabha, passed the bill and amendment on 9 November 2010.[20] On 24 March 2011, Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, also passed the bill and the amendment.[21]

text: History[edit]

text: Prehistoric Acheulian tools dating to Lower Paleolithic era have been discovered in various places in the region, implying an early settlement by humans.[22] Kalinga has been mentioned in ancient texts like Mahabharata, Vayu Purana and Mahagovinda Suttanta.[23][24] The Sabar people of Odisha have also been mentioned in the Mahabharata.[25][26] Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as not yet being influenced by Vedic traditions, implying it followed mostly tribal traditions.[27]

text: Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty conquered Kalinga in the bloody Kalinga War in 261 BCE,[28] which was the eighth year of his reign.[29] According to his own edicts, in that war about 100,000 people were killed, 150,000 were captured and several more were affected.[28] The resulting bloodshed and suffering of the war is said to have deeply affected Ashoka. He turned into a pacifist and converted to Buddhism.[29][30]

text: By c. 150 CE, emperor Kharavela, who was possibly a contemporary of Demetrius I of Bactria,[31] conquered a major part of the Indian sub-continent. Kharavela was a Jain ruler. He also built the monastery atop the Udayagiri hill.[32] Subsequently, the region was ruled by monarchs, such as Samudragupta[33] and Shashanka.[34] It was also a part of Harsha's empire.[35]

text: Later, the kings of the Somavamsi dynasty began to unite the region. By the reign of Yayati II, c. 1025 CE, they had integrated the region into a single kingdom. Yayati II is supposed to have built the Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneswar.[13] They were replaced by the Eastern Ganga dynasty. Notable rulers of the dynasty were Anantavarman Chodaganga, who began re-construction on the present-day Shri Jagannath Temple in Puri (c. 1135), and Narasimhadeva I, who constructed the Konark temple (c. 1250).[36][37]

text: The Eastern Ganga Dynasty was followed by the Gajapati Kingdom. The region resisted integration into the Mughal empire until 1568, when it was conquered by Sultanate of Bengal.[38] Mukunda Deva, who is considered the last independent king of Kalinga, was defeated and was killed in battle by a rebel Ramachandra Bhanja. Ramachandra Bhanja himself was killed by Bayazid Khan Karrani.[39] In 1591, Man Singh I, then governor of Bihar, led an army to take Odisha from the Karranis of Bengal. They agreed to treaty because their leader Qutlu Khan Lohani had recently died. But, they then broke the treaty by attacking the temple town of Puri. Man Singh returned in 1592 and pacified the region.[40]

text: Orissa was the first subah (imperial top-level province) added to Akbar's fifteen by Shah Jahan. It had Cuttack as seat and bordered Bihar, Bengal and Golconda subahs as well as the remaining independent and tributary chiefs. From 1717, the Orissa and Bijar governors were reduced to deputies of the Nawab (later Nizam) of the pseudo-autonomous Bengal Subah.

text: In 1751, the Nawab of Bengal Alivardi Khan ceded the region to the Maratha Empire.[13]

text: The British had occupied the Northern Circars, comprising the southern coast of Odisha, as a result of the 2nd Carnatic War by 1760, and incorporated them into the Madras Presidency gradually.[41] In 1803, the British ousted the Marathas from the Puri-Cuttack region of Odisha during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. The northern and western districts of Odisha were incorporated into the Bengal Presidency.[42]

text: The Orissa famine of 1866 caused an estimated 1 million deaths.[43] Following this, large-scale irrigation projects were undertaken.[44] In 1903, the Utkal Sammilani organisation was founded to demand the unification of Odia-speaking regions into one state.[45] On 1 April 1912, the Bihar and Orissa Province was formed.[46] On 1 April 1936, Bihar and Orissa were split into separate provinces.[47] The new province of Orissa came into existence on a linguistic basis during the British rule in India, with Sir John Austen Hubback as the first governor.[47][48] Following India's independence, on 15 August 1947, 27 princely states signed the document to join Orissa.[49]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Odisha lies between the latitudes 17.780N and 22.730N, and between longitudes 81.37E and 87.53E. The state has an area of 155,707 km2, which is 4.87% of total area of India, and a coastline of 450 km.[50] In the eastern part of the state lies the coastal plain. It extends from the Subarnarekha River in the north to the Rushikulya river in the south. The lake Chilika is part of the coastal plains. The plains are rich in fertile silt deposited by the six major rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal: Subarnarekha, Budhabalanga, Baitarani, Brahmani, Mahanadi and Rushikulya.[50] The Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), a Food and Agriculture Organization-recognised rice gene bank and research institute, is situated on the banks of Mahanadi in Cuttack.[51]

text: Three-quarters of the state is covered in mountain ranges. Deep and broad valleys have been made in them by rivers. These valleys have fertile soil and are densely populated. Odisha also has plateaus and rolling uplands, which have lower elevation than the plateaus.[50] The highest point in the state is Deomali at 1672 metres. The other high peaks are: Sinkaram (1620 m), Golikoda (1617 m), and Yendrika (1582 metres).[52]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The state experiences four meteorological seasons: winter (January to February), pre-monsoon season (March to May), south-west monsoon season (June to September) and north east monsoon season (October–December). However, locally the year is divided into six traditional seasons (or rutus): Basanta (spring), Grishma (summer), Barsha (rainy season), Sharad (autumn), Hemant (winter), and Sisira(cool season).[50]

text:
Mean Temperature and Precipitation of Selected Weather Stations[53]

Bhubaneswar
(1952–2000)
Balasore
(1901–2000)
Gopalpur
(1901–2000)
Sambalpur
(1901–2000)

Max (C)
Min (C)
Rainfall (mm)
Max (C)
Min (C)
Rainfall (mm)
Max (C)
Min (C)
Rainfall (mm)
Max (C)
Min (C)
Rainfall (mm)

January
28.5
15.5
13.1
27.0
13.9
17.0
27.2
16.9
11.0
27.6
12.6
14.2

February
31.6
18.6
25.5
29.5
16.7
36.3
28.9
19.5
23.6
30.1
15.1
28.0

March
35.1
22.3
25.2
33.7
21.0
39.4
30.7
22.6
18.1
35.0
19.0
20.9

April
37.2
25.1
30.8
36.0
24.4
54.8
31.2
25.0
20.3
39.3
23.5
14.2

May
37.5
26.5
68.2
36.1
26.0
108.6
32.4
26.7
53.8
41.4
27.0
22.7

June
35.2
26.1
204.9
34.2
26.2
233.4
32.3
26.8
138.1
36.9
26.7
218.9

July
32.0
25.2
326.2
31.8
25.8
297.9
31.0
26.1
174.6
31.1
24.9
459.0

August
31.6
25.1
366.8
31.4
25.8
318.3
31.2
25.9
195.9
30.7
24.8
487.5

September
31.9
24.8
256.3
31.7
25.5
275.8
31.7
25.7
192.0
31.7
24.6
243.5

October
31.7
23.0
190.7
31.3
23.0
184.0
31.4
23.8
237.8
31.7
21.8
56.6

November
30.2
18.8
41.7
29.2
17.8
41.6
29.5
19.7
95.3
29.4
16.2
17.6

December
28.3
15.2
4.9
26.9
13.7
6.5
27.4
16.4
11.4
27.2
12.1
4.8

text: Biodiversity[edit]

text: According to a Forest Survey of India report released in 2012, Odisha has 48,903 km2 of forests which cover 31.41% of the state's total area. The forests are classified into: dense forest (7,060 km2), medium dense forest (21,366 km2), open forest (forest without closed canopy; 20,477 km2) and scrub forest (4,734 km2). The state also has bamboo forests (10,518 km2) and mangroves (221 km2). The state is losing its forests to timber smuggling, mining, industrialisation and grazing. There have been attempts at conservation and reforestation.[55]

text: Due to the climate and good rainfall, Odisha's evergreen and moist forests are suitable habitats for wild orchids. Around 130 species have been reported from the state.[56] 97 of them are found in Mayurbhanj district alone. The Orchid House of Nandakanan Biological Park hosts some of these species.[57]

text: Simlipal National Park is a protected wildlife area and tiger reserve spread over 2750 km2 of the northern part of Mayurbhanj district. It has 1078 species of plants, including 94 orchids. The sal tree is the primary tree species there. The park has 55 mammals, including barking deer, Bengal tiger, common langur, four-horned antelope, Indian bison, Indian elephant, Indian giant squirrel, Indian leopard, jungle cat, sambar deer, and wild boar. There are 304 species of birds in the park, such as the common hill myna, grey hornbill, Indian pied hornbill and Malabar pied hornbill. It also has 60 species of reptiles, notable among which are the king cobra and tricarinate hill turtle. There is also a mugger crocodile breeding program in nearby Ramtirtha.[58] The Chandaka Elephant Sanctuary is a 190 km2 protected area near the capital city, Bhubaneswar. However, urban expansion and over-grazing have reduced the forests and are driving herds of elephants to migration. In 2002, there were about 80 elephants. But by 2012, their numbers had been reduced to 20. Many of the animals have migrated toward the Barbara reserve forest, Chilika, Nayagarh district, and Athagad. Some elephants have died in conflicts with villagers, while some have died during migration from being electrocuted by power lines or hit by trains. Outside the protected area, they are killed by poachers.[59][60] Besides elephants, the sanctuary also has Indian leopards, jungle cats and chitals.[61]

text: The Bhitarkanika National Park in Kendrapara District covers 650 km2, of which 150 km2 are mangroves. The Gahiramatha beach in Bhitarkanika is the world's largest nesting site for olive ridley sea turtles.[62] Other major nesting grounds for the turtle in the state are Rushikulya, in Ganjam district,[63] and the mouth of the Devi river.[64] The Bhitarkanika sanctuary is also noted for its large population of salt-water crocodiles.[65] In winter, the sanctuary is also visited by migratory birds. Among the species of birds spotted in the sanctuary are the black-crowned night heron, darter, grey heron, Indian cormorant, Oriental white ibis, purple heron, and sarus crane.[66] The possibly endangered horseshoe crab is also found in this region.[67]

text: Chilika Lake is a brackish water lagoon on the east coast of Odisha with an area of 1105 km2. It is connected to the Bay of Bengal by a 35-km-long narrow channel and is a part of the Mahanadi delta. In the dry season, the tides bring in salt water. In the rainy season, the rivers falling into the lagoon decrease its salinity.[68] Birds from places like the Caspian Sea, Lake Baikal, other parts of Russia, Central Asia, South-East Asia, Ladakh and the Himalayas migrate to the lagoon in winter.[69] Among the birds spotted there are Eurasian wigeon, pintail, bar-headed goose, greylag goose, flamingo, mallard and Goliath heron.[70][71] The lagoon also has a small population of the endangered Irrawaddy dolphins.[72] The state's coastal region has also had sightings of finless porpoise, bottlenose dolphin, humpback dolphin and spinner dolphin in its waters.[73]

text: Government and politics[edit]

text: All states in India are governed by a parliamentary system of government based on universal adult franchise.[74] India's parliament is bicameral.[75] The lower house is called the Lok Sabha. Odisha contributes 21 members to Lok Sabha. They are directly elected by the electorates. The upper house is called the Rajya Sabha. Odisha contributes 10 members to Rajya Sabha. They are elected by the state's legislature.[2][76]

text: The main parties active in the politics of Odisha are the Biju Janata Dal, the Indian National Congress and Bhartiya Janata Party. Following the Odisha State Assembly Election in 2014, the Naveen Patnaik-led Biju Janata Dal stayed in power for the fourth consecutive term.[77]

text: Legislative assembly[edit]

text: The Odisha state has a unicameral legislature.[75] The Odisha Legislative Assembly consists of 147 elected members,[77] and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker, who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker, or by the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence.[78] Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor of Odisha. The Governor is appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly.[79] The 147 elected representatives are called Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLAs. One MLA may be nominated from the Anglo-Indian community by the Governor.[80] The term of the office is for 5 years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term.[78]

text: Administrative units[edit]

text: There are 30 districts in Odisha — Angul, Balangir, Balasore, Bargarh, Bhadrak, Boudh, Cuttack, Deogarh, Dhenkanal, Gajapati, Ganjam, Jagatsinghpur, Jajpur, Jharsuguda, Kandhamal, Kalahandi, Kendrapara, Keonjhar, Khordha, Koraput, Malkangiri, Mayurbhanj, Nabarangpur, Nayagarh, Nuapada, Puri, Rayagada, Sambalpur, Subarnapur, Sundargarh.[81]

text: These 30 districts have been placed under three different revenue divisions to streamline their governance. The divisions are North, South and Central, with their headquarters at Sambalpur, Berhampur and Cuttack respectively. Each division consists of 10 districts, and has as its administrative head a Revenue Divisional Commissioner (RDC).[82] The position of the RDC in the administrative hierarchy is that between that of the district administration and the state secretariat.[83] The RDCs report to the Board of Revenue, which is headed by a senior officer of the Indian Administrative Service.[82]

text:
Division-wise list of districts[81]

Northern Division (HQ- Sambalpur)
Central Division (HQ- Cuttack)
Southern Division (HQ- Berhampur)

Angul
Balangir
Bargarh
Deogarh
Dhenkanal
Jharsuguda
Kendujhar
Sambalpur
Subarnapur
Sundargarh

Balasore
Bhadrak
Cuttack
Jagatsinghpur
Jajpur
Kendrapada
Khordha
Mayurbhanj
Nayagarh
Puri

Boudh
Gajapati
Ganjam
Kalahandi
Kandhamal
Koraput
Malkangiri
Nabrangpur
Nuapada
Rayagada

text: Each district is governed by a Collector & District Magistrate, who is appointed from the Indian Administrative Service.[84][85] The Collector & District Magistrate is responsible for collecting the revenue and maintaining law and order in the district. Each District is separated into Sub-Divisions, each governed by a Sub-Collector and Sub-Divisional Magistrate. The Sub-Divisions are further divided into Tahasils. The Tahasils are headed by Tahasildar. Odisha has 58 Sub-Divisions, 317 Tahasils and 314 Blocks.[81]. Blocks consists of Panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities.

text: The capital and largest city of the state is Bhubaneswar. The other major cities are Cuttack, Rourkela, Berhampur and Sambalpur. Municipal Corporations in Odisha include Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Berhampur, Sambalpur and Rourkela.

text: Other municipalities of Odisha include Angul, Balangir, Balasore, Barbil, Bargarh, Baripada, Belpahar, Bhadrak, Bhawanipatna, Biramitrapur, Boudh, Byasanagar, Chhatrapur, Deogarh, Dhenkanal, Gopalpur, Gunupur, Jagatsinghpur, Jajpur, Jeypore, Jharsuguda, Kendrapara, Kendujhar, Khordha, Konark, Koraput, Malkangiri, Nabarangpur, Nayagarh, Nuapada, Paradeep, Paralakhemundi, Puri, Phulbani, Rajgangpur, Rayagada, Sonepur, Sundargarh and Talcher.

text: Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.

text: The judiciary is composed of the Odisha High Court, located at Cuttack, and a system of lower courts.

text: Economy[edit]

text: Macro-economic trend[edit]

text: Odisha is experiencing steady economic growth. The impressive growth in gross domestic product of the state has been reported by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. Odisha's growth rate is above the national average.[86] The central Government's Urban Development Ministry has recently announced the names of 20 cities selected to be developed as smart cities. The state capital Bhubaneswar is the first city in the list of smart Cities released in January 2016, a pet project of Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The announcement also marked with sanction of Rs 50,802 crore over the five years for development.[87]

text: Industrial development[edit]

text: Odisha has abundant natural resources and a large coastline. Odisha has emerged as the most preferred destination for overseas investors with investment proposals.[88] It contains a fifth of India's coal, a quarter of its iron ore, a third of its bauxite reserves and most of the chromite. Rourkela Steel Plant[89] was the first integrated steel plant in the public sector in India, built with collaboration of Germany.

text: Arcelor-Mittal has also announced plans to invest in another mega steel project amounting to $10 billion. Russian major Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Company (MMK) plans to set up a 10 MT steel plant in Odisha, too. Bandhabahal is a major area of open cast coal mines in Odisha. The state is attracting an unprecedented amount of investment in aluminium, coal-based power plants, petrochemicals, and information technology as well. In power generation, Reliance Power (Anil Ambani Group) is putting up the world's largest power plant with an investment of US $13 billion at Hirma in Jharsuguda district.[90]

text: In the year 2009 Odisha was the second top domestic investment destination with Gujarat first and Andhra Pradesh in third place according to an analysis of ASSOCHAM Investment Meter (AIM) study on corporate investments. Odisha's share was 12.6 percent in total investment in the country. It received investment proposal worth ₹. 2,00,846 crore during the last year. Steel and power were among the sectors which attracted maximum investments in the state.[91] Flood and cyclone are the major hurdles in Odisha's development as the important districts are situated near to the Bay of Bengal. In the five-year period between 2004 and 2005 and 2008–09, Odisha's GDP has grown by a stunning 8.74% way beyond the definition of 7% growth. It should be noted that the all-India growth during this period was 8.49%. In this period, Odisha was the fourth fastest growing state, just behind Gujarat, Bihar, Uttarakhand.

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Odisha has a network of roads, railways, airports and seaports. Bhubaneswar is well connected by air, rail and road with the rest of India. Some highways are getting expanded to four lanes.[92] Plans for metro rail connecting Bhubaneshwar and Cuttack, a journey of 30 km, have also started.[93]

text: Air[edit]

text: Odisha has a total of 17 airstrips and 16 helipads.[94][95][96] The Government of Odisha have announced to develop an airport at Jharsuguda, making it a full-fledged domestic airport. Five greenfield airports were also to be upgraded at Angul, Dhamra, Kalinganagar, Paradip and Rayagada in an effort to boost intra-State and inter-State civil aviation. Existing aerodromes at Barbil, Gopalpur, Jharsuguda and Rourkela were also to be upgraded.[97] Air Odisha, is Odisha's sole air charter company based in Bhubaneswar.

text:
Angul - Savitri Jindal Airport
Bhawanipatna - Utkela Airstrip
Bhubaneswar - Biju Patnaik International Airport
Brahmapur - Berhampur Airport
Cuttack - Charbatia Air Base
Jeypore - Jeypore Airport
Jharsuguda - Jharsuguda Airport
Rourkela - Rourkela Airport
Sambalpur - Hirakud Airstrip

text: Seaports[edit]

text: There are many sea ports in the long seacoast of odisha. some of them are:

text:
Port of Dhamara
Port of Gopalpur
Port of Paradip
Port of Subarnarekha
Port of Astarang
Port of Chandipur

text: Railways[edit]

text: Major cities of Odisha are well connected to all the major cities of India by direct daily trains and weekly trains. Most of the railway network in Odisha lies under the jurisdiction of the East Coast Railway (ECoR) with headquarters at Bhubaneswar and some parts under South Eastern Railway and South East Central Railway.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: According to the 2011 census of India, the total population of Odisha is 41,947,358, of which 21,201,678 (50.54%) are male and 20,745,680 (49.46%) are female, or 978 females per 1000 males. This represents a 13.97% increase over the population in 2001. The population density is 269 per km2.

text: The dominant ethnic group is the Odia people, and Odia is the official language; it is spoken as a native language by 81.8% of the population.[98] Linguistic minorities in the state are Bengali, Hindi, Urdu, Telugu, Ho, Santali , Chhattisgarhi.Some of the important tribes are Ho, Santhal, Bonda, Munda, Oraon, Kandha, Mahali and Kora.

text: The literacy rate is 73%, with 82% of males and 64% of females being literate, according to the 2011 census.

text: The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 1999–2000 was 47.15% which is nearly double the Indian average of 26.10%.

text: Data of 1996–2001 showed the life expectancy in the state was 61.64 years, higher than the national value of years. The state has a birth rate of 23.2 per 1,000 people per year, a death rate of 9.1 per 1,000 people per year, an infant mortality rate of 65 per 1000 live birth and a maternal mortality rate of 358 per 1,000,000 live births. Odisha has a Human Development Index of 0.442 as of 2011.

text:
District
Headquarters
Population
(2011)
Males
Females
Percentage
decadal
growth
2001–2011
Sex ratio
Density
(persons
per
km2)
Child
population
0–6 years
Child
sex
ratio
Literacy rate

1
Angul
Angul
7006127170300000000♠1,271,703
7005654898000000000♠654,898
7005616805000000000♠616,805
7001115500000000000♠11.55
7002942000000000000♠942
7002199000000000000♠199
7005145690000000000♠145,690
7002884000000000000♠884
7001789609999999999♠78.96

2
Balangir
Balangir
7006164857400000000♠1,648,574
7005831349000000000♠831,349
7005817225000000000♠817,225
7001232900000000000♠23.29
7002983000000000000♠983
7002251000000000000♠251
7005206964000000000♠206,964
7002951000000000000♠951
7001655000000000000♠65.50

3
Balasore
Baleswar
7006231741900000000♠2,317,419
7006118437100000000♠1,184,371
7006113304800000000♠1,133,048
7001144700000000000♠14.47
7002957000000000000♠957
7002609000000000000♠609
7005274432000000000♠274,432
7002941000000000000♠941
7001806600000000000♠80.66

4
Bargarh
Bargarh
7006147883300000000♠1,478,833
7005748332000000000♠748,332
7005730501000000000♠730,501
7000984000000000000♠9.84
7002976000000000000♠976
7002253000000000000♠253
7005156185000000000♠156,185
7002946000000000000♠946
7001751600000000000♠75.16

5
Bhadrak
Bhadrak
7006150652200000000♠1,506,522
7005760591000000000♠760,591
7005745931000000000♠745,931
7001129500000000000♠12.95
7002981000000000000♠981
7002601000000000000♠601
7005176793000000000♠176,793
7002931000000000000♠931
7001832500000000000♠83.25

6
Boudh
Boudh
7005439917000000000♠439,917
7005220993000000000♠220,993
7005218924000000000♠218,924
7001178200000000000♠17.82
7002991000000000000♠991
7002142000000000000♠142
7004590940000000000♠59,094
7002975000000000000♠975
7001725100000000000♠72.51

7
Cuttack
Cuttack
7006261870800000000♠2,618,708
7006133915300000000♠1,339,153
7006127955500000000♠1,279,555
7001118700000099999♠11.87
7002955000000000000♠955
7002666000000000000♠666
7005251152000000000♠251,152
7002913000000000000♠913
7001842000000000000♠84.20

8
Debagarh
Debagarh
7005312164000000000♠312,164
7005158017000000000♠158,017
7005154147000000000♠154,147
7001138800000000000♠13.88
7002976000000000000♠976
7002106000000000000♠106
7004386210000000000♠38,621
7002917000000000000♠917
7001730709999999999♠73.07

9
Dhenkanal
Dhenkanal
7006119294800000000♠1,192,948
7005612597000000000♠612,597
7005580351000000000♠580,351
7001118200000000000♠11.82
7002947000000000000♠947
7002268000000000000♠268
7005132647000000000♠132,647
7002870000000000000♠870
7001794100000000000♠79.41

10
Gajapati
Paralakhemundi
7005575880000000000♠575,880
7005282041000000000♠282,041
7005293839000000000♠293,839
7001109900000000000♠10.99
7003104200000000000♠1,042
7002133000000000000♠133
7004827770000000000♠82,777
7002964000000000000♠964
7001542900000000000♠54.29

11
Ganjam
Chhatrapur
7006352015100000000♠3,520,151
7006177732400000000♠1,777,324
7006174282700000000♠1,742,827
7001113700000099999♠11.37
7002981000000000000♠981
7002429000000000000♠429
7005397920000000000♠397,920
7002899000000000000♠899
7001718800000000000♠71.88

12
Jagatsinghpur
Jagatsinghpur
7006113660400000000♠1,136,604
7005577699000000000♠577,699
7005558905000000000♠558,905
7000744000000000000♠7.44
7002967000000000000♠967
7002681000000000000♠681
7005103517000000000♠103,517
7002929000000000000♠929
7001871300000000000♠87.13

13
Jajpur
Jajpur
7006182627500000000♠1,826,275
7005926058000000000♠926,058
7005900217000000000♠900,217
7001124300000000000♠12.43
7002972000000000000♠972
7002630000000000000♠630
7005207310000000000♠207,310
7002921000000000000♠921
7001804400000000000♠80.44

14
Jharsuguda
Jharsuguda
7005579499000000000♠579,499
7005297014000000000♠297,014
7005282485000000000♠282,485
7001125600000000000♠12.56
7002951000000000000♠951
7002274000000000000♠274
7004618230000000000♠61,823
7002938000000000000♠938
7001783600000000000♠78.36

15
Kalahandi
Bhawanipatna
7006157305400000000♠1,573,054
7005785179000000000♠785,179
7005787875000000000♠787,875
7001177900000000000♠17.79
7003100300000000000♠1,003
7002199000000000000♠199
7005214111000000000♠214,111
7002947000000000000♠947
7001602200000000000♠60.22

16
Kandhamal
Phulbani
7005731952000000000♠731,952
7005359401000000000♠359,401
7005372551000000000♠372,551
7001129200000000000♠12.92
7003103700000000000♠1,037
7001910000000000000♠91
7005106379000000000♠106,379
7002960000000000000♠960
7001651200000000000♠65.12

17
Kendrapara
Kendrapara
7006143989100000000♠1,439,891
7005717695000000000♠717,695
7005722196000000000♠722,196
7001105900000000000♠10.59
7003100600000000000♠1,006
7002545000000000000♠545
7005153443000000000♠153,443
7002921000000000000♠921
7001859300000000000♠85.93

18
Kendujhar
Kendujhar
7006180277700000000♠1,802,777
7005907135000000000♠907,135
7005895642000000000♠895,642
7001154200000000000♠15.42
7002987000000000000♠987
7002217000000000000♠217
7005253418000000000♠253,418
7002957000000000000♠957
7001690000000000000♠69.00

19
Khordha
Khordha
7006224634100000000♠2,246,341
7006116694900000000♠1,166,949
7006107939200000000♠1,079,392
7001196509999900000♠19.65
7002925000000000000♠925
7002799000000000000♠799
7005222275000000000♠222,275
7002910000000000000♠910
7001875100000000000♠87.51

20
Koraput
Koraput
7006137693400000000♠1,376,934
7005677864000000000♠677,864
7005699070000000000♠699,070
7001166300000000000♠16.63
7003103100000000000♠1,031
7002156000000000000♠156
7005215518000000000♠215,518
7002970000000000000♠970
7001498700000000000♠49.87

21
Malkangiri
Malkangiri
7005612727000000000♠612,727
7005303913000000000♠303,913
7005308814000000000♠308,814
7001215300000000000♠21.53
7003101600000000000♠1,016
7002106000000000000♠106
7005105636000000000♠105,636
7002979000000000000♠979
7001494900000000000♠49.49

22
Mayurbhanj
Baripada
7006251389500000000♠2,513,895
7006125363300000000♠1,253,633
7006126026200000000♠1,260,262
7001130600000000000♠13.06
7003100500000000000♠1,005
7002241000000000000♠241
7005337757000000000♠337,757
7002952000000000000♠952
7001639800000000000♠63.98

23
Nabarangapur
Nabarangpur
7006121876200000000♠1,218,762
7005604046000000000♠604,046
7005614716000000000♠614,716
7001188109999900000♠18.81
7003101800000000000♠1,018
7002230000000000000♠230
7005201901000000000♠201,901
7002988000000000000♠988
7001482000000000000♠48.20

24
Nayagarh
Nayagarh
7005962215000000000♠962,215
7005502194000000000♠502,194
7005460021000000000♠460,021
7001113000000000000♠11.30
7002916000000000000♠916
7002247000000000000♠247
7005101337000000000♠101,337
7002851000000000000♠851
7001791700000000000♠79.17

25
Nuapada
Nuapada
7005606490000000000♠606,490
7005300307000000000♠300,307
7005306183000000000♠306,183
7001142800000000000♠14.28
7003102000000000000♠1,020
7002157000000000000♠157
7004848930000000000♠84,893
7002971000000000000♠971
7001582000000000000♠58.20

26
Puri
Puri
7006169798300000000♠1,697,983
7005865209000000000♠865,209
7005832774000000000♠832,774
7001130000000000000♠13.00
7002963000000000000♠963
7002488000000000000♠488
7005164388000000000♠164,388
7002924000000000000♠924
7001853700000000000♠85.37

27
Rayagada
Rayagada
7005961959000000000♠961,959
7005469672000000000♠469,672
7005492287000000000♠492,287
7001157400000000000♠15.74
7003104800000000000♠1,048
7002136000000000000♠136
7005141167000000000♠141,167
7002955000000000000♠955
7001508800000000000♠50.88

28
Sambalpur
Sambalpur
7006104441000000000♠1,044,410
7005529424000000000♠529,424
7005514986000000000♠514,986
7001122400000000000♠12.24
7002973000000000000♠973
7002158000000000000♠158
7005112946000000000♠112,946
7002931000000000000♠931
7001769100000000000♠76.91

29
Subarnapur
Sonepur
7005652107000000000♠652,107
7005332897000000000♠332,897
7005319210000000000♠319,210
7001203500000000000♠20.35
7002959000000000000♠959
7002279000000000000♠279
7004765360000000000♠76,536
7002947000000000000♠947
7001744200000000000♠74.42

30
Sundergarh
Sundergarh
7006208066400000000♠2,080,664
7006105572300000000♠1,055,723
7006102494100000000♠1,024,941
7001136600000000000♠13.66
7002971000000000000♠971
7002214000000000000♠214
7005249020000000000♠249,020
7002937000000000000♠937
7001741300000000000♠74.13

text: Religion[edit]

text: Religion in Odisha (2011)[99]

text: The majority (over 94%[100]) of people in the state of Odisha are Hindu and there is also a rich cultural heritage in the state. For example, Odisha is home to several Hindu figures. Sant Bhima Bhoi was a leader of the Mahima sect movement. Sarala Das, a Hindu Khandayat, was the translator of the epic Mahabharata in Odia. Chaitanya Das was a Buddhistic-Vaishnava and writer of the Nirguna Mahatmya. Jayadeva was the author of the Gita Govinda.

text: The Odisha Temple Authorisation Act of 1948 empowered the Government of Odisha to have Hindu temples open for all Hindus including the Harijans.[101]

text: Perhaps the oldest scripture of Odisha is the Madala Panji from the Puri Temple believed from 1042 AD. Famous Hindu Odia scripture includes the 16th-century Bhagabata of Jagannatha Dasa.[102] In the modern times Madhusudan Rao was a major Odia writer, who was a Brahmo Samajist and shaped modern Odia literature at the start of the 20th century.[103]

text: Christians in Odisha account for about 2.8% of the population while Odia Muslims account for 2.2% as per census figures of 2001. The Sikh, Buddhist and Jain communities together account for 0.1% of the population[100] Large sections of the indigenous tribes follow Sarnaism, their indigenous natural religion.

text: Education[edit]

text:
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) at Bhubaneswar
National Institute of Technology Rourkela (NIT) at Rourkela
Indian Institute of Management (IIM-SB) at Sambalpur
Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISER) at Brahmapur
National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER) at Bhubaneswar
All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) at Bhubaneswar
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology (VSSUT) at Burla
National Law University at Cuttack
International Institute of Information Technology (IIIT) at Bhubaneswar
Berhampur University at Brahmapur
Biju Patnaik University of Technology at Rourkela
Buxi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar College at Bhubaneswar
Central University of Orissa at Koraput
College of Agriculture, Bhawanipatna
College of Engineering and Technology at Bhubaneswar
Dharanidhar College at Keonjhar
Fakir Mohan University at Balasore
Gangadhar Meher University at Sambalpur
Government College of Engineering, Kalahandi at Bhawanipatna
Hi-Tech Medical College & Hospital, Bhubaneswar at Bhubaneswar
Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology at Sarang
KIIT University at Bhubaneswar
Khallikote University at Brahmapur
Maharaja Krishna Chandra Gajapati Medical College and Hospital at Brahmapur
National Institute of Science and Technology at Brahmapur
North Orissa University at Baripada
Odisha State Open University at Sambalpur
Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology at Bhubaneswar
Parala Maharaja Engineering College at Brahmapur
Rama Devi Women's University at Bhubaneswar
Ravenshaw University at Cuttack
Sambalpur University at Sambalpur
Shri Ramachandra Bhanj Medical College at Cuttack
Siksha O Anusandhan University at Bhubaneswar
Utkal University at Bhubaneswar
Utkal University of Culture at Bhubaneswar
Veer Surendra Sai Medical College at Burla
Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar
Xavier University, Bhubaneswar
Institute of Mathematics and Applications, Bhubaneswar
Sri Sri University at Cuttack
Centurion University at Jatni, Bhubaneswar
National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research at Cuttack
National Institute of Social Work and Social Science, Bhubaneswar (NISWASS)
Pandit Raghunath Murmu Medical College & Hospital, Baripada [104]
Saheed Laxman Naik Medical College & Hospital, Koraput [105]

tag: ol

text: Entry to various institutes of higher education especially into engineering degrees is through a centralised Odisha Joint Entrance Examination, conducted by the Biju Patnaik University of Technology (BPUT), Rourkela, since 2003, where seats are provided according to order of merit.[106] Few of the engineering institutes enroll students by through Joint Entrance Examination. For medical courses, there is a corresponding All India Pre Medical Test.

text: Kalinga Prize[edit]

text: The people of Odisha have been very appreciative of science and technology. The Kalinga Prize was instituted in 1952 by the visionary leadership of Biju Patnaik.[107] Kalinga Foundation Trust is currently handling the award. The award is given under the aegis of UNESCO to popularize science and technology among the common people. It is observed that approximately 25 people who got the Kalinga Prize later won the Nobel Prize.

text: Culture[edit]

text: Cuisine[edit]

text: Odisha has a culinary tradition spanning centuries. The kitchen of the Shri Jagannath Temple, Puri is reputed to be the largest in the world, with 1,000 chefs, working around 752 wood-burning clay hearths called chulas, to feed over 10,000 people each day.[108][109]

text: The syrupy dessert Pahala rasgulla made in Odisha is known throughout the world.[110] Chhenapoda is another major Odisha sweet cuisine, which originated in Nayagarh.[111]

text: Except these Pakhala is considered as traditional food of every Odia family . Chhena jhilli of Nimapada , Mudhi mansa of Balesore , Aloodum dahibara of Cuttack , various pancakes prepared during festivals are some important cuisine of the state. With this Santula and dalmaa are some of the cuisine of the state .

text: Dance[edit]

text: Odissi (Orissi) dance and music are classical art forms. Odissi is the oldest surviving dance form in India on the basis of archaeological evidence.[112] Odissi has a long, unbroken tradition of 2,000 years, and finds mention in the Natyashastra of Bharatamuni, possibly written c. 200 BC. However, the dance form nearly became extinct during the British period, only to be revived after India's independence by a few gurus.

text: The variety of dances includes Ghumura Dance, Chhau dance, Mahari dance, and Gotipua.

text: Tourism[edit]

text: The Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar has a 150-foot (46 m) high deula while the Jagannath Temple, Puri is about 200 feet (61 m) high and dominates the skyline. Only a portion of the Konark Sun Temple, the largest of the temples of the "Holy Golden Triangle" exists today, and it is still staggering in size. It stands out as a masterpiece in Odisha architecture. Sarala Temple, regarded as one of the most spiritually elevated expressions of Shaktism is in Jagatsinghpur district. It is also one of the holiest places in Odisha & a major tourist attraction. Maa tarini temple situated in Kendujhar district is also a famous pilgrimage destination. Every day thousands of coconuts are given to Maa Tarini by devotees for fulfilling their wishes.[113]

text: Odisha's varying topography – from the wooded Eastern Ghats to the fertile river basin – has proven ideal for evolution of compact and unique ecosystems. This creates treasure troves of flora and fauna that are inviting to many migratory species of birds and reptiles. Bhitarkanika National Park is famous for its second largest mangrove ecosystem. The bird sanctuary in Chilika Lake (Asia's largest brackish water lake) and the tiger reserve and waterfalls in Simlipal National Park are integral parts eco-tourism in Odisha, arranged by Odisha Tourism.[114] Daringbadi, known as "Kashmir of Odisha," is a hill station in the Kandhamal district of Odisha. Chandipur, a calm and serene site, is mostly unexplored by tourists. The unique specialty of this beach is the ebb tides that recede up to 4 km and tend to disappear rhythmically.

text: The share of foreign tourists’ arrival in the State is below one percent of total foreign tourist arrivals at all India level.[115]


document_title: Sedimentary rock

question_text: who formulated the principles describing the layers of sedimentary rocks

question_tokens: who formulated the principles describing the layers of sedimentary rocks

text: Sedimentary rock

text: Classification based on origin

text: Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups based on the processes responsible for their formation: clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks, and a fourth category for "other" sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes.

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of other rock fragments that were cemented by silicate minerals. Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, rock (lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and mica; any type of mineral may be present, but they in general represent the minerals that exist locally.

text: Clastic sedimentary rocks, are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. Most geologists use the Udden-Wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions: gravel (>2 mm diameter), sand (1/16 to 2 mm diameter), and mud (clay is <1/256 mm and silt is between 1/16 and 1/256 mm). The classification of clastic sedimentary rocks parallels this scheme; conglomerates and breccias are made mostly of gravel, sandstones are made mostly of sand, and mudrocks are made mostly of the finest material. This tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature.

text: The subdivision of these three broad categories is based on differences in clast shape (conglomerates and breccias), composition (sandstones), grain size or texture (mudrocks).

text: Conglomerates and breccias

text: Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel.

text: Sandstones

text: Sandstone classification schemes vary widely, but most geologists have adopted the Dott scheme,[3] which uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains.

text:
Quartz sandstones have >90% quartz grains
Feldspathic sandstones have <90% quartz grains and more feldspar grains than lithic grains
Lithic sandstones have <90% quartz grains and more lithic grains than feldspar grains

text:
"Clean" sandstones with open pore space (that may later be filled with matrix material) are called arenites.
Muddy sandstones with abundant (>10%) muddy matrix are called wackes.

text: Six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition (quartz-, feldspathic-, and lithic-) and the amount of matrix (wacke or arenite). For example, a quartz arenite would be composed of mostly (>90%) quartz grains and have little or no clayey matrix between the grains, a lithic wacke would have abundant lithic grains and abundant muddy matrix, etc.

text: Although the Dott classification scheme[3] is widely used by sedimentologists, common names like greywacke, arkose, and quartz sandstone are still widely used by non-specialists and in popular literature.

text: Mudrocks

text: Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles. These relatively fine-grained particles are commonly transported by turbulent flow in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension.

text: Most authors presently use the term "mudrock" to refer to all rocks composed dominantly of mud.[4][5][6][7] Mudrocks can be divided into siltstones, composed dominantly of silt-sized particles; mudstones with subequal mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles; and claystones, composed mostly of clay-sized particles.[4][5] Most authors use "shale" as a term for a fissile mudrock (regardless of grain size) although some older literature uses the term "shale" as a synonym for mudrock.

text: Biochemical sedimentary rocks

text: Biochemical sedimentary rocks are created when organisms use materials dissolved in air or water to build their tissue. Examples include:

text:
Most types of limestone are formed from the calcareous skeletons of organisms such as corals, mollusks, and foraminifera.
Coal, formed from plants that have removed carbon from the atmosphere and combined it with other elements to build their tissue.
Deposits of chert formed from the accumulation of siliceous skeletons of microscopic organisms such as radiolaria and diatoms.

text: Chemical sedimentary rocks

text: Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral constituents in solution become supersaturated and inorganically precipitate. Common chemical sedimentary rocks include oolitic limestone and rocks composed of evaporite minerals, such as halite (rock salt), sylvite, barite and gypsum.

text: "Other" sedimentary rocks

text: This fourth miscellaneous category includes rocks formed by Pyroclastic flows, impact breccias, volcanic breccias, and other relatively uncommon processes.

text: Compositional classification schemes

text: Alternatively, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into compositional groups based on their mineralogy:

text:
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, are dominantly composed of silicate minerals. The sediment that makes up these rocks was transported as bed load, suspended load, or by sediment gravity flows. Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are subdivided into conglomerates and breccias, sandstone, and mudrocks.
Carbonate sedimentary rocks are composed of calcite (rhombohedral CaCO
3), aragonite (orthorhombic CaCO
3), dolomite (CaMg(CO
3)
2), and other carbonate minerals based on the CO2−
3 ion. Common examples include limestone and dolostone.
Evaporite sedimentary rocks are composed of minerals formed from the evaporation of water. The most common evaporite minerals are carbonates (calcite and others based on CO2−
3), chlorides (halite and others built on Cl−), and sulfates (gypsum and others built on SO2−
4). Evaporite rocks commonly include abundant halite (rock salt), gypsum, and anhydrite.
Organic-rich sedimentary rocks have significant amounts of organic material, generally in excess of 3% total organic carbon. Common examples include coal, oil shale as well as source rocks for oil and natural gas.
Siliceous sedimentary rocks are almost entirely composed of silica (SiO
2), typically as chert, opal, chalcedony or other microcrystalline forms.
Iron-rich sedimentary rocks are composed of >15% iron; the most common forms are banded iron formations and ironstones.[5]
Phosphatic sedimentary rocks are composed of phosphate minerals and contain more than 6.5% phosphorus; examples include deposits of phosphate nodules, bone beds, and phosphatic mudrocks.[6]

text: Deposition and transformation

text: Sediment transport and deposition

text: Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.

text: Transformation (Diagenesis)

text: The term diagenesis is used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, exclusive of surface weathering, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition. Some of those processes cause the sediment to consolidate into a compact, solid substance from the originally loose material. Young sedimentary rocks, especially those of Quaternary age (the most recent period of the geologic time scale) are often still unconsolidated. As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (lithostatic) pressure rises, and a process known as lithification takes place.

text: Sedimentary rocks are often saturated with seawater or groundwater, in which minerals can dissolve, or from which minerals can precipitate. Precipitating minerals reduce the pore space in a rock, a process called cementation. Due to the decrease in pore space, the original connate fluids are expelled. The precipitated minerals form a cement and make the rock more compact and competent. In this way, loose clasts in a sedimentary rock can become "glued" together.

text: When sedimentation continues, an older rock layer becomes buried deeper as a result. The lithostatic pressure in the rock increases due to the weight of the overlying sediment. This causes compaction, a process in which grains mechanically reorganize. Compaction is, for example, an important diagenetic process in clay, which can initially consist of 60% water. During compaction, this interstitial water is pressed out of pore spaces. Compaction can also be the result of dissolution of grains by pressure solution. The dissolved material precipitates again in open pore spaces, which means there is a net flow of material into the pores. However, in some cases, a certain mineral dissolves and does not precipitate again. This process, called leaching, increases pore space in the rock.

text: Some biochemical processes, like the activity of bacteria, can affect minerals in a rock and are therefore seen as part of diagenesis. Fungi and plants (by their roots) and various other organisms that live beneath the surface can also influence diagenesis.

text: Burial of rocks due to ongoing sedimentation leads to increased pressure and temperature, which stimulates certain chemical reactions. An example is the reactions by which organic material becomes lignite or coal. When temperature and pressure increase still further, the realm of diagenesis makes way for metamorphism, the process that forms metamorphic rock.

text: Properties

text: Color

text: The color of a sedimentary rock is often mostly determined by iron, an element with two major oxides: iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide. Iron(II) oxide (FeO) only forms under low oxygen (anoxic) circumstances and gives the rock a grey or greenish colour. Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) in a richer iron environment is often found in the form of the mineral hematite and gives the rock a reddish to brownish colour. In arid continental climates rocks are in direct contact with the atmosphere, and oxidation is an important process, giving the rock a red or orange colour. Thick sequences of red sedimentary rocks formed in arid climates are called red beds. However, a red colour does not necessarily mean the rock formed in a continental environment or arid climate.[8]

text: The presence of organic material can colour a rock black or grey. Organic material is formed from dead organisms, mostly plants. Normally, such material eventually decays by oxidation or bacterial activity. Under anoxic circumstances, however, organic material cannot decay and leaves a dark sediment, rich in organic material. This can, for example, occur at the bottom of deep seas and lakes. There is little water mixing in such environments, as a result oxygen from surface water is not brought down, and the deposited sediment is normally a fine dark clay. Dark rocks, rich in organic material, are therefore often shales.[8][9]

text: Texture

text: The size, form and orientation of clasts (the original pieces of rock) in a sediment is called its texture. The texture is a small-scale property of a rock, but determines many of its large-scale properties, such as the density, porosity or permeability.[10]

text: The 3D orientation of the clasts is called the fabric of the rock. Between the clasts, the rock can be composed of a matrix (a cement) that consists of crystals of one or more precipitated minerals. The size and form of clasts can be used to determine the velocity and direction of current in the sedimentary environment that moved the clasts from their origin; fine, calcareous mud only settles in quiet water while gravel and larger clasts are moved only by rapidly moving water.[11][12] The grain size of a rock is usually expressed with the Wentworth scale, though alternative scales are sometimes used. The grain size can be expressed as a diameter or a volume, and is always an average value – a rock is composed of clasts with different sizes. The statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock. When all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called 'well-sorted', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called 'poorly sorted'.[13][14]

text: The form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock.

text: Coquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters:[15][16]

text:
Surface texture describes the amount of small-scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape.
rounding describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain.
'Sphericity' describes the degree to which the grain approaches a sphere.
'Grain form' describes the three dimensional shape of the grain.

text: Chemical sedimentary rocks have a non-clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. To describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary.

text: Mineralogy

text: Most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz (especially siliciclastic rocks) or calcite (especially carbonate rocks). In contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. However, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. Minerals in a sedimentary rock can have formed by precipitation during sedimentation or by diagenesis. In the second case, the mineral precipitate can have grown over an older generation of cement.[17] A complex diagenetic history can be studied by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope.

text: Carbonate rocks dominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. Both the cement and the clasts (including fossils and ooids) of a carbonate sedimentary rock can consist of carbonate minerals. The mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. The resistance of rock forming minerals to weathering is expressed by Bowen's reaction series. In this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and finally other less stable minerals that are only present when little weathering has occurred.[18] The amount of weathering depends mainly on the distance to the source area, the local climate and the time it took for the sediment to be transported to the point where it is deposited. In most sedimentary rocks, mica, feldspar and less stable minerals have been reduced to clay minerals like kaolinite, illite or smectite.[clarification needed]

text: Fossils

text: Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification.

text: Dead organisms in nature are usually quickly removed by scavengers, bacteria, rotting and erosion, but sedimentation can contribute to exceptional circumstances where these natural processes are unable to work, causing fossilisation. The chance of fossilisation is higher when the sedimentation rate is high (so that a carcass is quickly buried), in anoxic environments (where little bacterial activity occurs) or when the organism had a particularly hard skeleton. Larger, well-preserved fossils are relatively rare.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare.[19] Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.

text: As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization.[20][21] The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates (especially calcite), forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite. In the case of silica cements, the process is called lithification.

text: At high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form, graphite. This form of fossilisation is called carbonisation. It is particularly important for plant fossils.[22] The same process is responsible for the formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal.

text: Primary sedimentary structures

text: Structures in sedimentary rocks can be divided into 'primary' structures (formed during deposition) and 'secondary' structures (formed after deposition). Unlike textures, structures are always large-scale features that can easily be studied in the field. Sedimentary structures can indicate something about the sedimentary environment or can serve to tell which side originally faced up where tectonics have tilted or overturned sedimentary layers.

text: Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. A bed is defined as a layer of rock that has a uniform lithology and texture. Beds form by the deposition of layers of sediment on top of each other. The sequence of beds that characterizes sedimentary rocks is called bedding.[23][24] Single beds can be a couple of centimetres to several meters thick. Finer, less pronounced layers are called laminae, and the structure it forms in a rock is called lamination. Laminae are usually less than a few centimetres thick.[25] Though bedding and lamination are often originally horizontal in nature, this is not always the case. In some environments, beds are deposited at a (usually small) angle. Sometimes multiple sets of layers with different orientations exist in the same rock, a structure called cross-bedding.[26] Cross-bedding forms when small-scale erosion occurs during deposition, cutting off part of the beds. Newer beds then form at an angle to older ones.

text: The opposite of cross-bedding is parallel lamination, where all sedimentary layering is parallel.[27] Differences in laminations are generally caused by cyclic changes in the sediment supply, caused, for example, by seasonal changes in rainfall, temperature or biochemical activity. Laminae that represent seasonal changes (similar to tree rings) are called varves. Any sedimentary rock composed of millimeter or finer scale layers can be named with the general term laminite. When sedimentary rocks have no lamination at all, their structural character is called massive bedding.

text: Graded bedding is a structure where beds with a smaller grain size occur on top of beds with larger grains. This structure forms when fast flowing water stops flowing. Larger, heavier clasts in suspension settle first, then smaller clasts. Although graded bedding can form in many different environments, it is a characteristic of turbidity currents.[28]

text: The surface of a particular bed, called the bedform, can be indicative of a particular sedimentary environment, too. Examples of bed forms include dunes and ripple marks. Sole markings, such as tool marks and flute casts, are groves dug into a sedimentary layer that are preserved. These are often elongated structures and can be used to establish the direction of the flow during deposition.[29][30]

text: Ripple marks also form in flowing water. There are two types of ripples: symmetric and asymmetric. Environments where the current is in one direction, such as rivers, produce asymmetric ripples. The longer flank of such ripples is on the upstream side of the current.[31][32][33] Symmetric wave ripples occur in environments where currents reverse directions, such as tidal flats.

text: Mudcracks are a bed form caused by the dehydration of sediment that occasionally comes above the water surface. Such structures are commonly found at tidal flats or point bars along rivers.

text: Secondary sedimentary structures

text: Secondary sedimentary structures are those which formed after deposition. Such structures form by chemical, physical and biological processes within the sediment. They can be indicators of circumstances after deposition. Some can be used as way up criteria.

text: Organic materials in a sediment can leave more traces than just fossils. Preserved tracks and burrows are examples of trace fossils (also called ichnofossils).[34] Such traces are relatively rare. Most trace fossils are burrows of molluscs or arthropods. This burrowing is called bioturbation by sedimentologists. It can be a valuable indicator of the biological and ecological environment that existed after the sediment was deposited. On the other hand, the burrowing activity of organisms can destroy other (primary) structures in the sediment, making a reconstruction more difficult.

text: Secondary structures can also form by diagenesis or the formation of a soil (pedogenesis) when a sediment is exposed above the water level. An example of a diagenetic structure common in carbonate rocks is a stylolite.[35] Stylolites are irregular planes where material was dissolved into the pore fluids in the rock. This can result in the precipitation of a certain chemical species producing colouring and staining of the rock, or the formation of concretions. Concretions are roughly concentric bodies with a different composition from the host rock. Their formation can be the result of localized precipitation due to small differences in composition or porosity of the host rock, such as around fossils, inside burrows or around plant roots.[36] In carbonate based rocks such as limestone or chalk, chert or flint concretions are common, while terrestrial sandstones can have iron concretions. Calcite concretions in clay are called septarian concretions.

text: After deposition, physical processes can deform the sediment, producing a third class of secondary structures. Density contrasts between different sedimentary layers, such as between sand and clay, can result in flame structures or load casts, formed by inverted diapirism.[37] While the clastic bed is still fluid, diapirism can cause a denser upper layer to sink into a lower layer. Sometimes, density contrasts can result or grow when one of the lithologies dehydrates. Clay can be easily compressed as a result of dehydration, while sand retains the same volume and becomes relatively less dense. On the other hand, when the pore fluid pressure in a sand layer surpasses a critical point, the sand can break through overlying clay layers and flow through, forming discordant bodies of sedimentary rock called sedimentary dykes. The same process can form mud volcanoes on the surface where they broke through upper layers.

text: Sedimentary dykes can also be formed in a cold climate where the soil is permanently frozen during a large part of the year. Frost weathering can form cracks in the soil that fill with rubble from above. Such structures can be used as climate indicators as well as way up structures.[38]

text: Density contrasts can also cause small-scale faulting, even while sedimentation progresses (synchronous-sedimentary faulting).[39] Such faulting can also occur when large masses of non-lithified sediment are deposited on a slope, such as at the front side of a delta or the continental slope. Instabilities in such sediments can result in the deposited material to slump, producing fissures and folding. The resulting structures in the rock are syn-sedimentary folds and faults, which can be difficult to distinguish from folds and faults formed by tectonic forces acting on lithified rocks.

text: Sedimentary environments

text: The setting in which a sedimentary rock forms is called the sedimentary environment. Every environment has a characteristic combination of geologic processes and circumstances. The type of sediment that is deposited is not only dependent on the sediment that is transported to a place, but also on the environment itself.[40]

text: A marine environment means that the rock was formed in a sea or ocean. Often, a distinction is made between deep and shallow marine environments. Deep marine usually refers to environments more than 200 m below the water surface. Shallow marine environments exist adjacent to coastlines and can extend to the boundaries of the continental shelf. The water movements in such environments have a generally higher energy than that in deep environments, as wave activity diminishes with depth. This means that coarser sediment particles can be transported and the deposited sediment can be coarser than in deeper environments. When the sediment is transported from the continent, an alternation of sand, clay and silt is deposited. When the continent is far away, the amount of such sediment deposited may be small, and biochemical processes dominate the type of rock that forms. Especially in warm climates, shallow marine environments far offshore mainly see deposition of carbonate rocks. The shallow, warm water is an ideal habitat for many small organisms that build carbonate skeletons. When these organisms die, their skeletons sink to the bottom, forming a thick layer of calcareous mud that may lithify into limestone. Warm shallow marine environments also are ideal environments for coral reefs, where the sediment consists mainly of the calcareous skeletons of larger organisms.[41]

text: In deep marine environments, the water current working the sea bottom is small. Only fine particles can be transported to such places. Typically sediments depositing on the ocean floor are fine clay or small skeletons of micro-organisms. At 4 km depth, the solubility of carbonates increases dramatically (the depth zone where this happens is called the lysocline). Calcareous sediment that sinks below the lysocline dissolves, as a result no limestone can be formed below this depth. Skeletons of micro-organisms formed of silica (such as radiolarians) are not as soluble and still deposit. An example of a rock formed of silica skeletons is radiolarite. When the bottom of the sea has a small inclination, for example at the continental slopes, the sedimentary cover can become unstable, causing turbidity currents. Turbidity currents are sudden disturbances of the normally quite deep marine environment and can cause the geologically speaking instantaneous deposition of large amounts of sediment, such as sand and silt. The rock sequence formed by a turbidity current is called a turbidite.[42]

text: The coast is an environment dominated by wave action. At a beach, dominantly denser sediment such as sand or gravel, often mingled with shell fragments, is deposited, while the silt and clay sized material is kept in mechanical suspension. Tidal flats and shoals are places that sometimes dry because of the tide. They are often cross-cut by gullies, where the current is strong and the grain size of the deposited sediment is larger. Where rivers enter the body of water, either on a sea or lake coast, deltas can form. These are large accumulations of sediment transported from the continent to places in front of the mouth of the river. Deltas are dominantly composed of clastic sediment (in contrast to chemical).

text: A sedimentary rock formed on land has a continental sedimentary environment. Examples of continental environments are lagoons, lakes, swamps, floodplains and alluvial fans. In the quiet water of swamps, lakes and lagoons, fine sediment is deposited, mingled with organic material from dead plants and animals. In rivers, the energy of the water is much greater and can transport heavier clastic material. Besides transport by water, sediment can in continental environments also be transported by wind or glaciers. Sediment transported by wind is called aeolian and is always very well sorted, while sediment transported by a glacier is called glacial till and is characterized by very poor sorting.[43]

text: Aeolian deposits can be quite striking. The depositional environment of the Touchet Formation, located in the Northwestern United States, had intervening periods of aridity which resulted in a series of rhythmite layers. Erosional cracks were later infilled with layers of soil material, especially from aeolian processes. The infilled sections formed vertical inclusions in the horizontally deposited layers of the Touchet Formation, and thus provided evidence of the events that intervened over time among the forty-one layers that were deposited.[44]

text: Sedimentary facies

text: Sedimentary environments usually exist alongside each other in certain natural successions. A beach, where sand and gravel is deposited, is usually bounded by a deeper marine environment a little offshore, where finer sediments are deposited at the same time. Behind the beach, there can be dunes (where the dominant deposition is well sorted sand) or a lagoon (where fine clay and organic material is deposited). Every sedimentary environment has its own characteristic deposits. The typical rock formed in a certain environment is called its sedimentary facies. When sedimentary strata accumulate through time, the environment can shift, forming a change in facies in the subsurface at one location. On the other hand, when a rock layer with a certain age is followed laterally, the lithology (the type of rock) and facies eventually change.[45]

text: Facies can be distinguished in a number of ways: the most common are by the lithology (for example: limestone, siltstone or sandstone) or by fossil content. Coral for example only lives in warm and shallow marine environments and fossils of coral are thus typical for shallow marine facies. Facies determined by lithology are called lithofacies; facies determined by fossils are biofacies.[46]

text: Sedimentary environments can shift their geographical positions through time. Coastlines can shift in the direction of the sea when the sea level drops, when the surface rises due to tectonic forces in the Earth's crust or when a river forms a large delta. In the subsurface, such geographic shifts of sedimentary environments of the past are recorded in shifts in sedimentary facies. This means that sedimentary facies can change either parallel or perpendicular to an imaginary layer of rock with a fixed age, a phenomenon described by Walther's Law.[47]

text: The situation in which coastlines move in the direction of the continent is called transgression. In the case of transgression, deeper marine facies are deposited over shallower facies, a succession called onlap. Regression is the situation in which a coastline moves in the direction of the sea. With regression, shallower facies are deposited on top of deeper facies, a situation called offlap.[48]

text: The facies of all rocks of a certain age can be plotted on a map to give an overview of the palaeogeography. A sequence of maps for different ages can give an insight in the development of the regional geography.

text: Sedimentary basins

text: Places where large-scale sedimentation takes place are called sedimentary basins. The amount of sediment that can be deposited in a basin depends on the depth of the basin, the so-called accommodation space. The depth, shape and size of a basin depend on tectonics, movements within the Earth's lithosphere. Where the lithosphere moves upward (tectonic uplift), land eventually rises above sea level, so that and erosion removes material, and the area becomes a source for new sediment. Where the lithosphere moves downward (tectonic subsidence), a basin forms and sedimentation can take place. When the lithosphere keeps subsiding, new accommodation space keeps being created.

text: A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a rift basin. Rift basins are elongated, narrow and deep basins. Due to divergent movement, the lithosphere is stretched and thinned, so that the hot asthenosphere rises and heats the overlying rift basin. Apart from continental sediments, rift basins normally also have part of their infill consisting of volcanic deposits. When the basin grows due to continued stretching of the lithosphere, the rift grows and the sea can enter, forming marine deposits.

text: When a piece of lithosphere that was heated and stretched cools again, its density rises, causing isostatic subsidence. If this subsidence continues long enough, the basin is called a sag basin. Examples of sag basins are the regions along passive continental margins, but sag basins can also be found in the interior of continents. In sag basins, the extra weight of the newly deposited sediments is enough to keep the subsidence going in a vicious circle. The total thickness of the sedimentary infill in a sag basins can thus exceed 10 km.

text: A third type of basin exists along convergent plate boundaries – places where one tectonic plate moves under another into the asthenosphere. The subducting plate bends and forms a fore-arc basin in front of the overriding plate—an elongated, deep asymmetric basin. Fore-arc basins are filled with deep marine deposits and thick sequences of turbidites. Such infill is called flysch. When the convergent movement of the two plates results in continental collision, the basin becomes shallower and develops into a foreland basin. At the same time, tectonic uplift forms a mountain belt in the overriding plate, from which large amounts of material are eroded and transported to the basin. Such erosional material of a growing mountain chain is called molasse and has either a shallow marine or a continental facies.

text: At the same time, the growing weight of the mountain belt can cause isostatic subsidence in the area of the overriding plate on the other side to the mountain belt. The basin type resulting from this subsidence is called a back-arc basin and is usually filled by shallow marine deposits and molasse.[49]

text: Influence of astronomical cycles

text: In many cases facies changes and other lithological features in sequences of sedimentary rock have a cyclic nature. This cyclic nature was caused by cyclic changes in sediment supply and the sedimentary environment. Most of these cyclic changes are caused by astronomic cycles. Short astronomic cycles can be the difference between the tides or the spring tide every two weeks. On a larger time-scale, cyclic changes in climate and sea level are caused by Milankovitch cycles: cyclic changes in the orientation and/or position of the Earth's rotational axis and orbit around the Sun. There are a number of Milankovitch cycles known, lasting between 10,000 and 200,000 years.[50]

text: Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth's climate. An example are the ice ages of the past 2.6 million years (the Quaternary period), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles.[51][52] Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation.

text: Sedimentation rates

text: The rate at which sediment is deposited differs depending on the location. A channel in a tidal flat can see the deposition of a few metres of sediment in one day, while on the deep ocean floor each year only a few millimetres of sediment accumulate. A distinction can be made between normal sedimentation and sedimentation caused by catastrophic processes. The latter category includes all kinds of sudden exceptional processes like mass movements, rock slides or flooding. Catastrophic processes can see the sudden deposition of a large amount of sediment at once. In some sedimentary environments, most of the total column of sedimentary rock was formed by catastrophic processes, even though the environment is usually a quiet place. Other sedimentary environments are dominated by normal, ongoing sedimentation.[53]

text: In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a desert, for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a wadi may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition.[53]

text: Stratigraphy

text: That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition. There are usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away.

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.