document_title: Wonder Woman (2017 film)

question_text: who played ares in the wonder woman movie

text: Wonder Woman (2017 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In present-day Paris, Diana Prince receives a photographic plate of her during World War I, which prompts her to recall her past. The daughter of Queen Hippolyta, Diana was raised on the hidden island of Themyscira, home to the Amazonian race of warrior women created by Zeus to protect mankind. Hippolyta shares the Amazonian history with Diana, including how Ares became jealous of humanity and worked to orchestrate its destruction. When the rest of the gods of Mount Olympus attempted to stop him, Ares killed all but Zeus, who managed to hurt Ares enough to force a retreat. Zeus left the Amazons a weapon, the "Godkiller", to prepare them for Ares' return.

text: Initially forbidding Diana to train, Hippolyta agrees to allow her sister Antiope to train Diana, so long as she trains her harder than any other warrior in the army. As a young woman in 1918, Diana rescues American pilot Captain Steve Trevor after his plane crashes off Themyscira's coast. The island is soon invaded by a German cruiser pursuing Steve. The Amazons engage and kill all of the German sailors, but Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana. Interrogated with the Lasso of Hestia, Steve reveals that a war is consuming the outside world, and that he is an Allied spy. He has stolen a notebook with valuable information from the Spanish chief chemist Isabel Maru, who is attempting to engineer a deadlier form of mustard gas under the orders of General Erich Ludendorff. Believing Ares is responsible for the war, Diana arms herself with the "Godkiller" sword, the lasso and her armor before leaving Themyscira with Steve to find and destroy Ares.

text: Arriving in London, the two deliver Maru's notebook to the Supreme War Council, including Sir Patrick Morgan, who is trying to negotiate an armistice with Germany. Diana translates Maru's notes and reveals that the Germans plan to release the deadly gas at the warfront. Although forbidden by his commanders to act, Steve, with secret funding from Sir Patrick, recruits spy Sameer, marksman Charlie, and smuggler Chief to help prevent the gas from being released. When the team reaches the Western Front in Belgium, they are halted by the enemy lines. Diana pushes alone through No Man's Land and captures the enemy trench, allowing the Allied forces to help her liberate the village of Veld. The team briefly celebrates, while Diana and Steve grow closer romantically and spend the night together.

text: The team learns a gala will be held at the nearby German High Command. Steve and Diana each infiltrate the party, he intending to locate the gas and destroy it, she intending to kill Ludendorff, believing he is Ares and that killing him will end the war. Steve stops her to avoid jeopardizing the mission; Ludendorff then unleashes the gas on Veld, killing its inhabitants. Outraged, and blaming Steve for intervening, Diana pursues Ludendorff to a base where the gas is being loaded into a bomber aircraft bound for London. Diana fights and kills Ludendorff but is confused when his death does not stop the war.

text: Sir Patrick then appears and reveals himself as Ares. He tells Diana that although he has subtly given humans ideas and inspirations, it is ultimately their decision to cause violence as they are inherently corrupt. When she tries to kill him with the Godkiller sword, he destroys it, revealing Diana is the true "Godkiller", as Zeus' daughter, but fails to persuade Diana to help him destroy humankind to restore paradise on Earth. While the two battle, the rest of Steve's team destroy Maru's laboratory. Steve pilots the bomber carrying the gas to a safe altitude and detonates it, sacrificing himself in the process. Ares attempts to harness Diana's rage and grief at Steve's death by convincing her to kill Maru, but memories of her experience with Steve cause her to decide that humans have good within them. She spares Maru and redirects Ares' lightning on him, killing him. Later, the team celebrates the end of the war. In the present day, Diana sends an email to Bruce Wayne thanking him for the photographic plate of her and Steve, and reaffirms her mission to protect the world.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Gal Gadot as Diana Prince / Wonder Woman:

text: Chris Pine as Steve Trevor:

text: Robin Wright as Antiope:

text: Danny Huston as General Erich Ludendorff:

text: David Thewlis as Sir Patrick / Ares:

text: Connie Nielsen as Hippolyta:

text: Elena Anaya as Isabel Maru / Doctor Poison:

text: Lucy Davis as Etta Candy:

text: Saïd Taghmaoui as Sameer:

text: Ewen Bremner as Charlie:

text: Eugene Brave Rock as Chief Napi:

text: Lisa Loven Kongsli as Menalippe:

text: Additionally, James Cosmo appears as Field Marshal Haig, Mayling Ng as Orana, Florence Kasumba as Acantha, Madeleine Vall Beijner as Egeria, Hayley Jane Warnes as Aella and Ann Wolfe as Artemis, all of whom are Amazons.[61][62][63][64] Dutch model Doutzen Kroes portrays the Amazon Venelia.[63] Samantha Jo was cast as Amazonian Euboea, and previously played the Kryptonina, Car-Vex, in Man of Steel.[65] Zack Snyder also makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as an unnamed soldier.[66]

text: Production[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: Development for a live action Wonder Woman feature film began in 1996, with Ivan Reitman attached as producer and possible director.[67] In 1999 the project became attached to Jon Cohen, who adapted Wonder Woman for producer Joel Silver, with the hope that Sandra Bullock would star.[68] By 2001, Todd Alcott was hired to write the screenplay, with Silver Pictures backing the project.[69] At that time, performers such as Mariah Carey and Catherine Zeta-Jones were also rumored to be possible candidates for the role of Wonder Woman.[70] Leonard Goldberg, however, focused on Bullock[71] who said that she was approached for the role. In addition, wrestler Chyna also expressed interest. Lucy Lawless, the star of Xena: Warrior Princess, was also under consideration, though she stated that she would have been more interested if Wonder Woman was portrayed as a "flawed hero."[72] The screenplay went through various drafts written by Alcott, Cohen, Becky Johnston, and Philip Levens,[73] and by August 2003, Levens had been replaced by screenwriter Laeta Kalogridis.[74]

text: In March 2005, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures announced that Joss Whedon would write and direct the film,[75] with a reported salary was of $2 to $3 million.[76] Since Whedon was directing Serenity at the time, and required time to research Wonder Woman's background, he did not begin the screenplay until late 2005.[77][78][79] Early drafts of his screenplay included Steve Trevor as the narrator, a fierce battle between Diana and her mother over Trevor's welfare, and after leaving Themyscira, his need to frequently rescue a Diana rendered helpless by the modern world.[80] Whedon was not able to complete a final version of his screenplay however, and left the project in 2007.[81][82]

text: Although Whedon stated in May 2005 that he would not cast the part of Wonder Woman until he finished the script,[83] actors such as Kate Beckinsale were linked to the part.[84] A few years later in 2010 however, Whedon admitted that he did have an actress in mind for the part, stating that "Wonder Woman was basically Angelina Jolie."[80][85] A few years later in May 2017, Indie Ground Films leaked a version of Whedon's script in-progress online.[86] Some reacted negatively to it on social media in June 2017, shortly after the release of Patty Jenkins version of the film.[87][88][89][90][91] When asked about this response to his script, Jenkins said in a June 2017 interview that she has not read it and that Whedon is "in the DC universe now, and I don't think there's any reason to go there [...] It was what it was. I'm lucky that I'm the person who got to do it. But I don't see what would be beneficial about comparing what he would've done versus what I would have done."[92][93]

text: A day before Whedon's departure from Wonder Woman, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures purchased a spec script for the film written by Matthew Jennison and Brent Strickland. Set during World War II, the script impressed executives at Silver Pictures.[82] However, Silver stated that he had purchased the script because he did not want the rights reverting; while stating the script had good ideas, Silver did not want the film to be a period piece.[94] By April 2008, Silver hired Jennison and Strickland to write a new script set in contemporary times that would not depict Wonder Woman's origin, but explore Paradise Island's history.[95] In November 2008, Beyoncé met with representatives from DC Comics and Warner Bros., to discuss her interest in portraying Wonder Woman.[96]

text: In 2010, Warner Bros. stated that a film was in development, along with films based on DC Comics superheroes the Flash and Aquaman.[97] Both Wonder Woman and Aquaman were still under consideration for solo film subjects as of June 2013.[98] DC Chief Diane Nelson said Wonder Woman "has been, since I started, one of the top three priorities for DC and for Warner Bros. We are still trying right now, but she's tricky."[99] On October 5, 2013, WB chairman Kevin Tsujihara said he wanted to get Wonder Woman in a film or on TV.[100] Shortly afterward, Paul Feig said he had pitched the studio an idea for Wonder Woman as an action-comedy film.[101][102] The studio then began to search for female directors to direct the film.[103] While Michelle MacLaren was the studio's initial choice to direct (and while she initially indicated interest),[104][105][106] she eventually left the project due to creative differences.[107]

text: Development[edit]

text: In 2015, Patty Jenkins accepted an offer to direct Wonder Woman,[108] based on a screenplay by Allan Heinberg and a story co-written by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, Geoff Johns and Jason Fuchs.[109] Of this version, Gadot stated that,

text: for a long time, people didn't know how to approach the story. When Patty and I had our creative conversations about the character, we realized that Diana can still be a normal woman, one with very high values, but still a woman. She can be sensitive. She is smart and independent and emotional. She can be confused. She can lose her confidence. She can have confidence. She is everything. She has a human heart.[5]

text: This version was conceived of as a prequel to the first live-action, theatrical appearance of Wonder Woman, in the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice,[110] placing Wonder Woman in the 1910s and World War I (a decision which differs from her comic book origins as a supporter of the Allies during World War II).[111] As for story development, Jenkins credits the stories by the character's creator William Moulton Marston in the 1940s and George Perez's seminal stories in the 1980s in which he modernized the character.[112] In addition, it follows some aspects of DC Comics' origin changes in The New 52 reboot, where Diana is the daughter of Zeus.[10][113] Jenkins cited Richard Donner's Superman as an inspiration.[114]

text: Casting[edit]

text:
"I remember when I read in the news that Wonder Woman had been cast and my heart sank [...] I'm sure we wouldn't have made the same choice. And then I started paying attention to her, and watching her and looking at her and it was just unbelievable. Frankly, I think they did a better job than I could have because I don't know that I would have scoured the earth as hard to find her [...] They were looking for all the same things I would have looked for—all the values that Wonder Woman stands for exuding from someone in an honest way, and boy did they find it [...] She shares every quality with Wonder Woman and that's no joke. It's one of those rare things. You need someone who can appear to be Wonder Woman on screen [...] Every once in a while, there's superhero casting that transcends, because that person is so authentic to the character that it becomes identified with them, like Lynda Carter or Christopher Reeve."

– Director Patty Jenkins[115] in response to the interview questions: "Let’s talk a bit about Gal. You inherited her from Zack Snyder. Was it difficult to not get to choose your own Wonder Woman?" and "What is it about Gal that makes her such a good fit?"

text: In late 2013, Zack Snyder cast Gal Gadot in the role of Wonder Woman for the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice over Élodie Yung and Olga Kurylenko.[116][117][118][119] Some fans initially reacted to this choice by criticizing Gadot's appearance.[120] Snyder would later comment on his decision to cast Gadot, stating that he

text: tested a bunch of actresses, as you can imagine. But the thing with Gal is that she's strong, she's beautiful, and she's a kind person, which is interesting, but fierce at the same time. It's that combination of being fierce but kind at the same time that we were looking for.[121]

text: Gadot described Diana as having "the heart of a human so she can be emotional, she's curious, she's compassionate, she loves people. And then she has the powers of a goddess. She's all for good, she fights for good."[5] She also said that Diana has "many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence".[122] As to how her character is different from her appearance in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Gadot said "We go back 100 years to when she's more naive", further explaining, "She's this young idealist. She's pure. Very different to the experienced, super-confident, grown-up woman you've seen".[123] Gadot underwent a diet and training regimen, practiced different martial arts and gained 17 pounds of muscle for the role.[124][125] Gadot was previously offered a different role (as a villain) in Man of Steel, which she declined because she was pregnant at the time; this allowed her to later be cast as Wonder Woman in the film's follow-up.[126] Gadot signed a three-picture deal.[118] She was only paid a base salary of $300,000 for the film itself.[127]

text: Chris Pine was cast as Steve Trevor,[19][128] a character he described as a "rogue-ish, cynical realist who's seen the awful brutish nature of modern civilization" and added that he is a "worldly guy, a charming guy".[129] He signed a multi-picture deal.[19] Lucy Davis' performance as Etta Candy is the first live-action cinematic portrayal of the character.[130] As well, Elena Anaya's performance as Doctor Poison is the cinematic debut of that character. Nicole Kidman was in negotiations for the role of Queen Hippolyta, but was forced to drop out due to scheduling conflicts with Big Little Lies.[131][132]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Production began on November 21, 2015,[133][134] under the working title Nightingale.[135][136] Among the film sets were Lower Halstow, Kent,[137] Australia House,[138] and the Sassi di Matera,[139] Castel del Monte[139] and Camerota[140] in Southern Italy. Matthew Jensen was the director of photography,[141] filming in the United Kingdom, France and Italy.[142] Production in London ended on March 13, 2016.[143] On March 20, 2016, filming was underway in Italy. In late April, filming took place at a museum in France, where a Wayne Enterprises truck was spotted alongside Gadot.[144] Production ended on May 9, 2016.[145] Patty Jenkins and director of photography Matt Jensen revealed that the film's look was inspired by painter John Singer Sargent.[146] Reshoots took place in November 2016, while Gadot was five months pregnant. A green cloth was placed over her stomach to edit out her pregnancy during post-production.[147]

text: To find the perfect location to shoot the Amazon island of Themyscira, the birthplace of Wonder Woman herself, the film's producers searched all over the world, finally settling on the Amalfi Coast: a stretch of coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, located in the Province of Salerno in Southern Italy.[148] It was chosen because most beaches in the world that sit below big cliffs disappear beneath the tide for part of every day. Production designer Aline Bonetto and her location manager Charles Somers considered 47 countries and visited several of them before they found what they were looking for. Bonetto explained that, "Italy had beautiful weather, a beautiful blue-green sea, not too much tide, not too much wave. Our effects team added some cliffs in post-production, and it was the perfect way to go".[149]

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Bill Westenhofer served as the visual effects supervisor for the film[150] and Martin Walsh served as editor.[141]

text: Music[edit]

text: On November 3, 2016, Rupert Gregson-Williams was hired to write and compose the film's music.[151] He was joined by Evan Jolly, Tom Howe,[152] Paul Mounsey,[153] and Andrew Kawczynski,[154] who provided additional music. The soundtrack was released on CD, digital, and vinyl the same day as the film.[155]

text: Australian musician Sia sang a song for the film, titled "To Be Human", featuring English musician Labrinth. Written by Florence Welch and Rick Nowels, the track is also featured on the soundtrack.[156]

text: Additional music featured in the film are: "Another Little Drink Wouldn't Do Us Any Harm" by Clifford Grey and Nat Ayer and performed by Edgar Trevor and Cecil Cooper; "Molly O'Morgan" written by Fred Godfrey and Will Letters and performed by Ella Retford; "It's a Long Way to Tipperary" written by Jack Judge and Harry Williams; "Sous les ponts de Paris" written by Jean Rodor and Vincent Scotto and performed by Lucienne Delyle; "I'll Walk Beside You" written by Edward Lockton and Alan Murray and performed by Ewen Bremner; "Green Grow the Rushes, O" written by Robert Burns and performed by Ewen Bremner; and "Schatzwalzer Op. 4" written by Johann Strauss II and performed by the Berlin String Quartet.[157] Also features samples from the movie's soundtrack "Is She with You" from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice composed by Hans Zimmer and Junkie XL.

text: Release[edit]

text: Wonder Woman had its world premiere on May 25, in Los Angeles.[158] The film's London premiere, which was scheduled to take place on May 31, 2017 at the Odeon Leicester Square, was cancelled due to the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.[159] The film had its Latin America premiere in Mexico City on May 27. It was released in most of the world, including in IMAX,[160] on June 2, 2017, after originally being scheduled for June 23.[161][162] Belgium, Singapore and South Korea received the film first, with May 31 openings.[163][164][165] On April 17, it was announced that Wonder Woman would be released in China on June 2, the same day as its North American release.[166]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The success of the superhero television series Supergirl informed the marketing and promotion strategy used for Wonder Woman.[167] According to Time Warner chief marketing officer Kristen O'Hara, they wanted to approach the Wonder Woman marketing campaign in a light manner, similar to how they did with Supergirl. O'Hara elaborated that the modest campaign route they took for Supergirl aided in establishing a large central fanbase among women well in advance of the series, which reportedly generated 5 million female superhero fans in one week.[167] They were then able to model over time, and grow that audience leading up to the 15 months later release of Wonder Woman.[167] Though neither the film nor the series are aimed exclusively at women, the latter's campaign gave them their first opportunity to begin collecting data about female superhero fans.[167] In May 2017, a promo for Wonder Woman was released during the season finale of Supergirl, featuring a remix of the song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" and Supergirl (Melissa Benoist) wearing Wonder Woman's boots.[168] The promo included an appearance by Lynda Carter, star of the 1970s Wonder Woman, who plays the American president on Supergirl.[168]

text: The costs for television advertisements for Wonder Woman are higher in comparison to that of previous DCEU film Suicide Squad. Warner Bros. has spent over $3 million on advertisements for Wonder Woman, whereas they spent $2.6 million on advertisements for Suicide Squad.[169]

text: Ticket selling site Fandango reported that Wonder Woman rounded the final leg of its marketing campaign as the most anticipated blockbuster of summer 2017, according to a poll conducted by 10,000 voters, the biggest survey in company history.[170] Separately, Fandango also found that 92% of people surveyed said that they are looking forward to seeing a film that features a standalone woman superhero, and 87% wished Hollywood would make more women-led superhero films.[171]

text: In May 2017, NASCAR driver Danica Patrick drove her No. 10 car with a Wonder Woman paint scheme at the Go Bowling 400 in Kansas and at the Monster Energy Open in Charlotte.[172]

text: Home Media[edit]

text: The film was released digitally on August 29, 2017 and will be available on Blu-ray and DVD on September 19, 2017.[173]

text: Controversies[edit]

text: Bans[edit]

text: On May 31, Wonder Woman was banned in Lebanon after the Campaign to Boycott Supporters of Israel asked the Lebanese government's Ministry of Economy and Trade to block the film because its star, Gal Gadot, had served in the Israeli military.[174] The Lebanese government did not, however, ban Gadot's Fast & Furious films which did screen in Lebanon.[175][176] On June 7, Variety reported that a Tunisian court suspended the theatrical release of Wonder Woman after a lawsuit brought by the Al-Chaab party and the Tunisian Association of Young Lawyers to have the film blocked due to Gadot's Israeli citizenship, military service, and public comments in support of the Israeli military during the 2014 war in Gaza.[177] Jordan was reportedly also considering a ban of the film and suspended screenings pending a decision,[178] but on June 11, Al Bawaba reported that the government decided not to do so, as there was no legal precedent for it.[179]

text: Women-only screenings[edit]

text: Some men were unhappy with women-only screenings held at the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin, with some opponents of the gender-restricted screening stating on platforms such as Facebook that such screenings were discriminatory against men.[180][181][182]

text: A gay Albany Law School professor initiated a complaint with Austin's Equal Employment and Fair Housing Office claiming discrimination against male prospective customers and employees of the theater.[183] The chain responded with an online statement saying the event "may have created confusion—we want everybody to see this film" and announced a similar event at their Brooklyn location. Tickets sold out in less than an hour, prompting the chain to schedule additional screenings.[180] On July 18, Alamo Drafthouse proposed settlement offers of a Wonder Woman DVD to the complainants, stating "Respondent did not realize that advertising a 'women's only' screening was a violation of discrimination laws"[184]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of September 14, 2017[update], Wonder Woman has grossed $410.8 million in the United States and Canada and $406.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $817.7 million, against a production budget of $149 million.[4] Estimates for the number the film needed to surpass internationally in order to cover its production and promotional costs and break even ranged from $300 million[185] to $460 million.[186]

text: North America[edit]

text: In May 2017, early tracking had Wonder Woman opening with $65–75 million, and possibly as high as $105 million.[187][188][189][190][185] The film opened Friday, June 2, 2017, across 4,165 theaters and made $38.7 million on its opening day, including $3.7 million in IMAX. It was the biggest single-day gross for a woman-directed film, ahead of the $35.9 million opening Friday of Catherine Hardwicke's Twilight in 2008 and the biggest opening day for a woman-led comic book superhero film, ahead of Ghost in the Shell ($7 million).[191] This included $11 million it made from Thursday previews, also the best start for a film directed by a woman, surpassing Fifty Shades of Grey's $8.6 million which was directed by Sam Taylor-Johnson, and the third biggest of the year, behind Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Of that, $1.5 million came from IMAX screenings.[192][193]

text: Earning a total of $103.3 million on its opening weekend, the film recorded a number of records: the biggest domestic opening of all-time for a female director (surpassing previous record holder Fifty Shades of Grey by Sam Taylor-Johnson), the biggest DC Comics release without Batman or Superman (ahead of Constantine), the sixth-biggest non-sequel comic book superhero debut ever, as well as the sixth-biggest June debut weekend.[194] Its three-day opening alone made it the highest-grossing woman-led comic book superhero film ever (surpassing Ghost in the Shell).[195] It was also the 16th superhero film to cross $100 million in its domestic box office launch.[196] About 9% ($9 million) of the opening weekend came from IMAX screenings from 343 theaters.[197] In its second week the film grossed $58.5 million, again topping the box office. It marked a 43.3% drop for its second weekend at the box office, better than the average 50–60% decline superhero films tend to see, and was a better second weekend than Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($51.3 million) and Suicide Squad ($43.5 million).[198] In its third weekend it grossed $40.8 million, finishing second behind newcomer Cars 3 ($53.5 million). It was the second best third weekend ever for Warner Bros. and was nearly double what Batman v Superman ($23.3 million), Suicide Squad ($20.9 million) and Man of Steel ($20.7 million) made in their third weekends. It earned $24.9 million and $15.7 million in its fourth and fifth weekends respectively, dropping just 39% and 36% despite facing rough competition from opening films Transformers: The Last Knight and Despicable Me 3.[199] It eventually became the highest-grossing film directed by a woman, surpassing the previous records of Jennifer Yuh Nelson's Kung Fu Panda 2 and Phyllida Lloyd's Mamma Mia!.[8] By August 8, the film had garnered $400 million in ticket sales, becoming the second female-fueled film (after Disney's Beauty and the Beast), Warner Bros.' third-biggest movie (after Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises), holding the record of the highest origin superhero film; supplanting the previous record held by Spider-Man (2002) and also becoming the highest-earning film with a female director in terms of domestic earnings, surpassing Frozen (2013).[200][201]

text: International[edit]

text: Internationally, the film was released day-and-date with its North American debut in 55 markets (72% of its total release), and was projected to debut with anywhere between $92–118 million.[185] It ended up opening to $125 million, including $38 million in China, $8.5 million in Korea, $8.4 million in Mexico, $8.3 million in Brazil and $7.5 million in the UK.[202] In its second week of release, the film brought in another $60 million, including holding the top spot on France, the UK, Australia and Brazil.[203] As of June 25, 2017, the biggest markets of Wonder Woman outside North America are China (US$90 million) followed by Brazil (US$34 million), UK (US$28 million) and Australia (US$24 million). In the Philippines, it broke 2017 box office record for highest earning non-holiday opening day – earning $4.7 million and becoming the 6th most successful commercial film of all time as well overtaking the record set by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[204][205][206] The film opened in its last market, Japan, on August 25 and debuted to $3.4 million, helping the international gross cross the $400 million mark.[207]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Wonder Woman received largely positive reviews, with some critics calling it the best film in the DC Extended Universe, and praising Jenkins' direction and the performances and chemistry of Gadot and Pine.[7][211] On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92% based on 342 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Thrilling, earnest, and buoyed by Gal Gadot's charismatic performance, Wonder Woman succeeds in spectacular fashion."[212] It is the highest-rated superhero film on the site.[213][note 1] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[214] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[215]

text: Critics commented favorably on Gadot's performance and Chris Pine's Steve Trevor.[216][217][210] Andrew Barker of Variety found the film to be more lighthearted than recent DC Comics films: "Never prone to stewing in solitude, and taking more notes from Richard Donner than from Christopher Nolan, Patty Jenkins' Wonder Woman provides a welcome respite from DC's house style of grim darkness—boisterous, earnest, sometimes sloppy, yet consistently entertaining—with star Gal Gadot proving an inspired choice for this avatar of truth, justice, and the Amazonian way."[218] Vox stated "Trevor is the superhero girlfriend comic book movies need".[219] The San Francisco Chronicle's Mick LaSalle lauded the performances of Gadot, Pine, Huston, and Thewlis while commending the film's "different perspective" and humor.[220] Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times described Gadot's performance as inspirational, heroic, heartfelt and endearing and the most "real" Wonder Woman portrayal.[221]

text: A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that it "briskly shakes off blockbuster branding imperatives and allows itself to be something relatively rare in the modern superhero cosmos. It feels less like yet another installment in an endless sequence of apocalyptic merchandising opportunities than like ... what's the word I'm looking for? A movie. A pretty good one, too."[222] Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune compared the film to Captain America: The First Avenger, noting that as with "the first Captain America movie over in the Marvel Comics universe, DC's Wonder Woman offers the pleasures of period re-creation for a popular audience. Jenkins and her design team make 1918-era London; war-torn Belgium; the Ottoman Empire; and other locales look freshly realized, with a strong point of view. There are scenes here of dispossessed war refugees, witnessed by an astonished and heartbroken Diana, that carry unusual gravity for a comic book adaptation."[223] Katie Erbland of IndieWire commended its thematic depth, explaining that "Wonder Woman is a war movie. Patty Jenkins' first—and we hope not last—entry into the DC Expanded Universe is primarily set during World War I, but while the feature doesn't balk at war-time violence, it's the internal battles of its compelling heroine that are most vital."[224] Alonso Duralde of TheWrap similarly felt that, "Diana's scenes of action are thrilling precisely because they're meant to stop war, not to foment it; the idea of a demi-god using love to fight war might sound goofy in the abstract, but Jenkins makes the concept work."[225] Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised Gadot and Pine's performances as well the film's detailed plot and narrative while comparing of some slow-motion action sequences to The Matrix.[226] Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine hailed the film as a "cut above nearly all the superhero movies that have been trotted out over the past few summers" while praising Gadot's performance as "charming" and "marvelous" and commending Jenkins' direction of the film as a step forward for women directors in directing big-budget blockbuster films in Hollywood.[227]

text: Elise Jost of Moviepilot observed that "Gadot's take on Wonder Woman is one of those unique cases of an actor merging with their story, similar to Robert Downey Jr.'s Tony Stark. Gal Gadot is Wonder Woman, and Wonder Woman is Gal Gadot."[210] Jost praised Gadot's interpretation of Wonder Woman as the one in which Gadot "absolutely nails the character's unwaveringly positive outlook on life. She's a force of nature who believes in the greater good; her conviction that she's meant to save the world is stronger than her bullet-deflecting shield. She's genuine, she's fun, she's the warm source of energy at the heart of the movie."[210] The Federalist suggests that Wonder Woman is "a story of Jesus". "The movie is wrapped up in faux Greek mythology, true, but there's no mistaking the Christology here."[228] "Perhaps Christ in the form of a beautiful and kick-ass Amazon is all that our contemporary society can handle right now", stated M. Hudson, a Christian feminist.[228] On HuffPost cultural critic, G. Roger Denson, who regards the superhero genre as a source of contemporary "Mainstream Mythopoetics" ("the making of new yet vitally meaningful, if not symbolic, stories filled with imagery reflecting, yet also shaping and advancing, the political, legal, moral and social practices of today"), wrote that the "No Man's Land" scene "that people are crying over in theaters and raving about afterward happens to be among the most powerfully mythopoetic scenes ever filmed at the same time it is one of the oldest myths to have been utilized by artists and writers after it had been invented by early military strategists and leaders." Specifically "used by director Patty Jenkins", the scene raises "the esteem for powerful yet compassionate women as heroes and leaders to a level equal with that of men for having won over a huge and adoring popular audience around the world".[229]

text: Steve Rose in The Guardian criticized the film for failing to explore the material's potential for "patriarchy-upending subversion".[230] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the film's over-reliance on exposition: "Wonder Woman is hobbled by a slogging origin story and action that only comes in fits and starts. Just when Gadot and director Patty Jenkins...are ready to kick ass, we get backstory."[231]

text: "Gas was intended to win the war. On that much Wonder Woman is absolutely right." said David Hambling in Popular Mechanics.[232] Rachel Becker of The Verge stated that despite the scientific liberties of using a "hydrogen-based" chemical weapon as a plot device, the film succeeds in evoking real and horrifying history. "First off, mustard gas is such a horrible, terrifying weapon, it doesn't need to be made more potent. But if you were a chemist bent on raining destruction on the Allied forces, you wouldn't do it by replacing the sulfur atom in mustard gas with a hydrogen atom. You'd know that sulfur is the linchpin holding together this poisonous molecule."[233]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

Golden Trailer Awards
June 6, 2017
Best of Show
Wonder Woman
Won
[234]
[235]

Best Fantasy / Adventure

Best Summer 2017 Blockbuster Poster

Teen Choice Awards
August 13, 2017
Choice Action Movie
[236]
[237]
[238]

Choice Action Movie Actor
Chris Pine

Choice Action Movie Actress
Gal Gadot

Choice Movie Ship
Gal Gadot & Chris Pine
Nominated

Choice Liplock
Chris Pine & Gal Gadot

Choice Summer Movie
Wonder Woman

Choice Summer Movie Actor
Chris Pine

Choice Summer Movie Actress
Gal Gadot

Dragon Awards
September 3, 2017
Best Science Fiction or Fantasy Movie
Wonder Woman
Won
[239]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: Gadot's third appearance as Wonder Woman is to occur in the film Justice League which is scheduled to be released on November 17, 2017.[240] The film will get an IMAX release.[241]

text: While originally signed for three feature films, with Wonder Woman being her second, Gadot has extended her contract beyond that.[242] Jenkins, who was initially signed for only one film,[243] has expressed interest in returning to direct the sequel,[244] and in August 2017 Deadline.com reported she was nearing a "historic" deal to return.[245] In an interview with Variety, Geoff Johns revealed that he and Jenkins are writing the treatment for a Wonder Woman sequel and that he has a "cool idea for the second one". On July 22, 2017, at San Diego Comic Con, Warner Bros. officially announced a sequel would be released on December 13, 2019, and would be titled Wonder Woman 2.[9][246][247] On August 19, 2017, actress Geena Davis stated that she would like very much to play a role in Wonder Woman 2 and that she is in talks with Jenkins about that matter.[248] On September 11, 2017 it was reported that Jenkins officially signed the deal to return as director, with confirmation that Gadot will be returning as the titular role.[249] Days later, the studio hired Dave Callaham to co-write the film's script with Jenkins and Johns.[250]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ This is by an adjusted Tomatometer with at least 20 reviews each that, uses a weighted Bayesian based formula to account for the differences in ratings.

tag: ol


document_title: Friday Sports Panel

question_text: who hosts the friday sports panel on radio 5 live

root

text: Friday Sports Panel

text:
Friday Sports Panel

Genre
Panel show, Chat show

Running time
60 minutes (Friday 1300)

Country of origin
UK

Language(s)
English

Home station
BBC Radio 5 Live

Hosted by
Eleanor Oldroyd

Edited by
Andrew Douglas

Original release
October 2014 – present

Website
Website

Podcast
Podcasts

tag: table

text: The Friday Sports Panel is a weekly sporting chat show on BBC Radio 5 Live, hosted by Eleanor Oldroyd. The programme runs every Friday between 1300 & 1400. The show was created in 2015, as part of a revamped weekday lineup from the station and attracts some of the biggest names in sport to debate different sporting topics each week.

tag: p

text: Format[edit]

text: The show is a panel chat show, that takes three guests from different sports and sees them discuss the wider sporting topics that are making the headlines that week. The show is unique in that it sees sportspeople debate topics outside their own sports and encourages anecdotes and opinions and sees the panellists chat with each other and share their sporting opinions. The discussion is chaired by Eleanor Oldroyd.

text: Guests[edit]

text: A range of different guests from different sports have appeared on the show. In the show's opening sequence, each panellist is introduced with a highlight of their time in sport

text:
Name
Number of appearances
First appearance
Most recent appearance

England Rebecca Adlington
4
10 October 2014
21 August 2015

England Geoff Parling
1
10 October 2014
10 October 2014

England Matthew Hoggard
1
10 October 2014
10 October 2014

England Carl Froch
3
17 October 2014
7 August 2015

England Richard Whitehead
1
17 October 2014
17 October 2014

England Gail Emms
1
17 October 2014
17 October 2014

England Lizzy Yarnold
2
24 October 2014
6 November 2015

England Louise Hazel
2
24 October 2014
7 May 2015

Northern Ireland Michael O'Neill
2
24 October 2014
21 August 2015

England Martin Corry
1
31 October 2014
31 October 2014

England Barry Hearn
2
31 October 2014
21 August 2015

England Jenny Meadows
1
31 October 2014
31 October 2014

England Jonathan Trott
1
7 November 2014
7 November 2014

England Helen Glover
4
7 November 2014
30 October 2015

England Dame Sarah Storey
1
7 November 2014
7 November 2014

Australia Jason Gillespie
2
14 November 2014
2 January 2015

England Samantha Murray
2
14 November 2014
16 January 2015

England Graham Taylor
1
21 November 2014
21 November 2014

England Tamara Taylor
1
21 November 2014
21 November 2014

England Laura Massaro
3
21 November 2014
13 November 2015

England Ashley Giles
1
28 November 2014
28 November 2014

Scotland Euan Burton
1
28 November 2014
28 November 2014

England Jo Pavey
1
28 November 2014
28 November 2014

England Pamela Cookey
1
5 December 2014
5 December 2014

Scotland David Murdoch
1
5 December 2014
5 December 2014

Scotland Nathan Hines
2
5 December 2014
24 April 2015

England Martyn Rooney
2
5 December 2014
4 September 2015

Scotland Katherine Grainger
2
12 December 2014
2 October 2015

IRE Barry McGuigan
1
12 December 2014
12 December 2014

England Beth Tweddle
3
12 December 2014
20 November 2015

England Tony Pulis
1
19 December 2014
19 December 2014

England Jade Jones
1
19 December 2014
19 December 2014

England Kate Richardson-Walsh
3
19 December 2014
4 September 2015

Scotland Gary Anderson [1]
1
16 January 2014
16 January 2014

Australia Marcus North [1]
1
16 January 2014
16 January 2014

IRE Stephanie Roche
1
23 January 2015
23 January 2015

Scotland Bryan Redpath
1
23 January 2015
23 January 2015

England Alistair Brownlee
1
23 January 2015
23 January 2015

England Katie Summerhayes
1
30 January 2015
30 January 2015

England Stephanie Slater
1
30 January 2015
30 January 2015

England Katharine Merry
1
30 January 2015
30 January 2015

Scotland Chris Cusiter
2
6 February 2015
30 October 2015

England Jordanne Whiley
3
6 February 2015
27 November 2015

Wales Mark Sampson
1
6 February 2015
6 February 2015

England Paul Wellens
1
13 February 2015
13 February 2015

England Nick Matthew
1
13 February 2015
13 February 2015

Northern Ireland Kelly Gallagher
1
13 February 2015
13 February 2015

England Ben Morgan
1
20 February 2015
20 February 2015

England Harry Gurney
2
20 February 2015
20 February 2015

Wales Dame Tanni Grey-Thompson
1
20 February 2015
20 February 2015

Scotland Duncan Weir
1
27 February 2015
27 February 2015

England Alec Stewart
2
27 February 2015
31 July 2015

Wales Elinor Barker
2
27 February 2015
18 September 2015

Scotland Andy Turner
1
6 March 2015
6 March 2015

England Maggie Alphonsi
2
6 March 2015
16 October 2015

Scotland Kevin Gallagher
1
6 March 2015
6 March 2015

England Kate Cross
1
20 March 2015
20 March 2015

England Siobhan Chamberlain
1
20 March 2015
20 March 2015

Northern Ireland Andrew Trimble
1
20 March 2015
20 March 2015

IRE William Porterfield
1
27 March 2015
27 March 2015

England Tracey Neville
2
3 April 2015
30 October 2015

Wales Nigel Owens
1
3 April 2015
3 April 2015

England Ryan Sidebottom
2
10 April 2015
24 October 2015

England Shaun Murphy
1
10 April 2015
10 April 2015

England Chrissie Wellington
1
10 April 2015
10 April 2015

England Graeme Swann
2
17 April 2015
5 June 2015

England Leighton Aspell
1
17 April 2015
17 April 2015

England Keri-Anne Payne
1
17 April 2015
17 April 2015

England Liam Phillips
1
24 April 2015
24 April 2015

Wales Jazz Carlin
2
24 April 2015
14 August 2015

England Sarah Taylor
1
1 May 2015
1 May 2015

England Anthony Ogogo
1
1 May 2015
1 May 2015

Scotland Eve Muirhead
1
1 May 2015
1 May 2015

England Jill Scott
2
7 May 2015
24 July 2015

England Steve Harmison
1
7 May 2015
7 May 2015

England Chris Woakes
1
15 May 2015
15 May 2015

England Shaun Edwards
1
15 May 2015
15 May 2015

England Heather Knight
1
22 May 2015
22 May 2015

England Joanna Rowsell
1
22 May 2015
22 May 2015

England Zoe Smith
1
22 May 2015
16 October 2015

Wales Christian Malcolm
2
29 May 2015
20 November 2015

England James Taylor
1
29 May 2015
29 May 2015

England Lisa Mason
1
12 June 2015
12 June 2015

England Sascha Kindred
1
12 June 2015
12 June 2015

England Mel Reid
1
12 June 2015
12 June 2015

Scotland Libby Clegg
1
19 June 2015
19 June 2015

England Charley Hull
1
19 June 2015
19 June 2015

England Conor O'Shea
1
19 June 2015
19 June 2015

England Anne Keothavong
1
26 June 2015
26 June 2015

England Rachel Yankey
1
26 June 2015
26 June 2015

England Jeanette Kwakye
1
26 June 2015
26 June 2015

England Sam Robson
1
24 July 2015
24 July 2015

England Rebecca Grundy
1
31 July 2015
31 July 2015

Australia Neil Robertson
1
31 July 2015
31 July 2015

England Karen Carney
1
31 July 2015
31 July 2015

England Harry Redknapp
1
7 August 2015
7 August 2015

England Rebecca Gallantree
1
7 August 2015
7 August 2015

England Mark Footitt
1
14 August 2015
14 August 2015

England Sir Trevor Brooking
1
14 August 2015
14 August 2015

England Anya Shrubsole
1
4 September 2015
4 September 2015

England Sophie Carrigill
1
11 September 2015
11 September 2015

England Luke Campbell
1
11 September 2015
11 September 2015

England Charlotte Taylor
1
11 September 2015
11 September 2015

England Jack Green
1
18 September 2015
18 September 2015

Scotland Al Kellock
1
18 September 2015
18 September 2015

IRE Ed Joyce
1
18 September 2015
18 September 2015

Scotland Jim Hamilton
1
25 September 2015
25 September 2015

England Vicky Holland
1
25 September 2015
25 September 2015

Scotland Eilish McColgan
1
25 September 2015
25 September 2015

England Richard Cockerill
1
2 October 2015
2 October 2015

England Bradley Smith
1
2 October 2015
2 October 2015

England Fran Kirby
1
9 October 2015
9 October 2015

Scotland Allister Hogg
1
9 October 2015
9 October 2015

England Annabel Vernon
1
9 October 2015
9 October 2015

United States Richard Browne
1
16 October 2015
16 October 2015

Canada Tyler Ardron
1
23 October 2015
23 October 2015

IRE Stephen Ferris
1
23 October 2015
23 October 2015

England Maddie Hinch
1
6 November 2015
6 November 2015

England Rachel Atherton
1
6 November 2015
6 November 2015

England Jon Wilkin
1
13 November 2015
13 November 2015

Wales Aled Davies[2]
1
13 November 2015
13 November 2015

England Francesca Halsall
1
20 November 2015
20 November 2015

England Anthony Crolla
1
27 November 2015
27 November 2015

United Kingdom Miles MacLagan
1
27 November 2015
27 November 2015


document_title: Unit of alcohol

question_text: how many units of alcohol are in an alcopop uk

text: Unit of alcohol

text: Formula[edit]

text: The number of UK units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying the volume of the drink (in millilitres) by its percentage ABV, and dividing by 1000.

text: For example, one imperial pint (568 ml) of beer at 4% alcohol by volume (ABV) contains:

text: The formula uses ml ÷ 1000. This results in exactly one unit per percentage point per litre, of any alcoholic beverage.

text: The formula can be simplified for everyday use by expressing the serving size in centilitres and the alcohol content literally as a percentage:

text: Thus, a 750 ml bottle of wine at 12% ABV contains 75 cl × 12% = 9 units. Alternatively, the serving size in litres multiplied by the alcohol content as a number, the above example giving 0.75 × 12 = 9 units:

text: Both pieces of input data are usually mentioned in this form on the bottle, so is easy to retrieve.

text: Labelling[edit]

text: UK alcohol companies pledged in March 2011 to implement an innovative health labelling scheme to provide more information about responsible drinking on alcohol labels and containers. This voluntary scheme is the first of its kind in Europe and has been developed in conjunction with the UK Department of Health. The pledge stated:[5]

text: At the end of 2014, 101 companies had committed to the pledge labelling scheme.[5]

text: There are five elements included within the overall labelling scheme, the first three being mandatory, and the last two optional:

text:
Unit alcohol content per container (mandatory), and per serving (optional)
Chief Medical Officers' daily guidelines for lower-risk consumption
Pregnancy warning (in text or as a graphic)
Mention of "drinkaware.co.uk" (optional)
Responsibility statement (e.g., "please drink responsibly") (optional)

text: Drinks companies had pledged to display the three mandatory items on 80% of drinks containers on shelves in the UK off-trade by the end of December 2013.[6]  A report published in Nov 2014, confirmed that UK drinks producers had delivered on that pledge with a 79.3% compliance with the pledge elements as measured by products on shelf. Compared with labels from 2008 on a like-for-like basis, information on Unit alcohol content had increased by 46%; 91% of products displayed alcohol and pregnancy warnings (18% in 2008); and 75% showed the Chief Medical Officers’ lower risk daily guidelines (6% in 2008).[7]

text: Quantities[edit]

text: It is sometimes misleadingly stated that there is one unit per half-pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits. However, such statements do not take into account the various strengths and volumes supplied in practice.[8][9][10][11]

text: For example, the ABV of beer typically varies from 3.5% to 5.5%. A typical "medium" glass of wine with 175 ml at 12% ABV has 2.1 units. And spirits, although typically 35–40% ABV, have single measures of 25 ml or 35 ml (so 1 or 1.4 units) depending on location.[8][9][10][11]

text: The misleading nature of "one unit per half-pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits" can lead to people underestimating their alcohol intake.[8][9][10][11]

text: Beers[edit]

text:
Half an imperial pint (284 ml) of beer with 3.5% ABV contains almost exactly one unit; however, most beers are stronger. In pubs in the United Kingdom, beers generally range from 3.5–5.5% ABV, and continental lagers start at around 4% ABV. An imperial pint of such lager (e.g., 568 ml at 5.2%) contains almost 3 units of alcohol[12] rather than the oft-quoted 2 units.
Stronger beer (6–12%) may contain 2 units or more per half pint (imperial).
A half litre (500 ml) of standard lager or ale (5%) contains 2.5 units.
One litre (1000 ml) of typical Oktoberfest beer (5.5–6%) contains 5.5–6 units of alcohol.

tag: ul

text: Wines[edit]

text:
A medium glass (175 ml) of 12% ABV wine contains around two units of alcohol. However, British pubs and restaurants often supply larger quantities (large glass ≈ 250 ml), which contain 3 units. Red wines often have a higher alcohol content (on average 12.5%, sometimes up to 16%).
Wine sold by the glass is often served in nearly full glasses. Wine served at home, or when bought by the bottle in, say, a restaurant, is usually served in glasses less than half filled; the capacity of a wine glass is not the only criterion for judging quantity.
A 750 ml bottle of 12% ABV wine contains 9 units; 16% ABV wine contains 12 units; a fortified wine such as port at 20% ABV contains 15 units.

text: Fortified wines[edit]

text: A small glass (50 ml) of sherry, fortified wine, or cream liqueur (≈20% ABV) contains about one unit.

text: Spirits[edit]

text: Most spirits sold in the United Kingdom have 40% ABV or slightly less. In England, a single pub measure (25 ml) of a spirit contains one unit. However, a larger 35 ml measure is increasingly used (and in particular is standard in Northern Ireland [13]), which contains 1.4 units of alcohol at 40% ABV. Sellers of spirits by the glass must state the capacity of their standard measure in ml.

text: Alcopops[edit]

text: According to Alcohol and You Northern Ireland resource website, "Most alcopops contain 1.1–1.5 units per bottle. For example, a normal 275 ml bottle of WKD contains 1.1 units, whereas Bacardi Breezer and Smirnoff Ice both contain 1.5 units of alcohol."[14]

text: Time to metabolise[edit]

text: On average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one unit of alcohol. However, this will vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.[15]

text: Recommended maximum[edit]

text: From 1992 to 1995, the UK government advised that men should drink no more than 21 units per week, and women no more than 14.[16] (The difference between the sexes was due to the typically lower weight and water-to-body-mass ratio of women[citation needed].)  The Times reported in October 2007 that these limits had been "plucked out of the air" and had no scientific basis.[17][18]

text: This was changed after a government study showed that many people were in effect "saving up" their units and using them at the end of the week, a phenomenon referred to as binge drinking.[citation needed] Since 1995 the advice was that regular consumption of 3–4 units a day for men, or 2–3 units a day for women, would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men), or three or more units a day (women), is not advisable.[19]

text: An international study[20] of about 6,000 men and 11,000 women for a total of 75,000 person-years found that people who reported that they drank more than a threshold value of 2 units of alcohol a day had a higher risk of fractures than non-drinkers. For example, those who drank over 3 units a day had nearly twice the risk of a hip fracture.


document_title: Cell theory

question_text: where does the cell theory state that cells come from

text: Cell theory

text: Microscopes[edit]

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[2] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[3][4] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[5]

text: Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[6]

text: Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[6]

text: Discovery of cells[edit]

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[5] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[7] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[8] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[5]

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[8] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[6] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[5]

text: The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[9] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[10] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.

text: In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[11] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.

text: Cell theory[edit]

text: Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[12] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[13] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[14] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[9]

text: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

text: 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

text: Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[6] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[9] This translated to:

text: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

text: However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[15] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.

text: Modern interpretation[edit]

text: The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

text:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[16]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[17]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[18]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]

text: The modern version of the cell theory[edit]

text: The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:

text:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]

text: Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background[edit]

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories[edit]

text: Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[20] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[21] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl-, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl- as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg++. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph The Permeability of Living Cells, which rejects the bulk phase theories.

text: The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept[edit]

text: With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.

text: The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]

text: The reemergence of the bulk phase theories[edit]

text: In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.

text: In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.

text: Types of cells[edit]

text: Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:

text:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[22] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[22] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[23] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]

text: Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[24]