document_title: The Secret Life of Pets

question_text: who plays max on the secret life of pets

text: The Secret Life of Pets

text: Plot[edit]

text: A Jack Russell Terrier named Max lives with his owner Katie in a Manhattan apartment. While she is at work during the day, he hangs out with other pets in the building: tabby cat Chloe, pug Mel, dachshund Buddy, and budgerigar Sweet Pea. One day, Katie adopts Duke, a large mongrel from the pound, leaving Max jealous because of her divided focus on Duke. Enraged by Max's attitude towards him, Duke tries to abandon Max in an alley, but they are both attacked by cats led by Sphynx cat Ozone who removes both dogs' collars and leaves them to be caught by Animal Control. Duke fears that he will be put down if he goes back to the pound. When Gidget, a white Pomeranian discovers that Max is missing, she has to find him.

text: Max and Duke are rescued by a white rabbit named Snowball, the leader of "The Flushed Pets" – a gang of sewer-dwelling animals who hate humans because their owners mistreated them. After Max and Duke pretend to despise humans as much as they do by saying they killed their owners, the Flushed Pets invite them to join. Before they can prove their loyalty, by allowing a one-fanged viper to bite them, Snowball learns from the cats that Max and Duke are domesticated. The two dogs escape the sewers and board a ferry to Brooklyn, inadvertently killing the viper in the process. Snowball vows to kill them and leads the Flushed Pets after them.

text: Meanwhile, Gidget recruits a red-tailed hawk named Tiberius to find Max, but he mistakenly returns carrying Ozone, whom Gidget coerces into telling what he knows about the dogs. They then enlist Mel, Buddy, Chloe, guinea pig Norman and Sweet Pea. On the way, they meet Pops, an old Basset Hound, who helps Gidget and the pets find Max. Meanwhile, Max and Duke raid a sausage factory for food. Then, Gidget and her team encounter Snowball, who vows to kill them as well, and Norman is captured as the rest of Gidget's team flees.

text: In the meantime, Duke tells Max about his previous owner, Fred, an elderly man who adopted him as a puppy and loved spending time with him. One day, Duke got lost while chasing a butterfly and was caught by Animal Control, but Fred never came to claim him. Max convinces him to visit Fred's house in a nearby neighborhood, confident Fred will still love him and take him back. When they arrive at Fred's house, they learn from the resident cat Reginald that Fred has died. Heartbroken, Duke accuses Max of attempting to get rid of him and barks at the new homeowners who have just returned to the house and called Animal Control. The handlers catch Max, but Duke interferes long enough for Max to escape and ends up being captured instead.

text: While trying to rescue Duke as he follows the Animal Control van, Max is attacked by Snowball who tries to kill him. However, when his gang is captured, Snowball realizes that he and Max must work together to rescue them. They drive a city bus into the van on the Brooklyn Bridge, stopping traffic. The Flushed Pets encircle Max, unaware of his partnership with Snowball, but Gidget and her team save him. Gidget uses her kung-fu fighting skills, and Max starts to fall in love with her. The van gets stuck in scaffolding and the Flushed Pets escape. As soon as Max gets the keys to Duke's cage, the van plummets into the East River with him inside. Max is unable to free Duke, so Snowball jumps into the river to retrieve the keys, allowing them to escape the sinking van. Once out of the river, Snowball realizes how good being heroic feels.

text: The entire group returns to the apartment block by pig-driven taxi. Max expresses his love for Gidget, who returns his affection. Snowball and the Flushed Pets then come up with a new plan to annihilate all humans, but a little girl named Molly arrives to adopt Snowball and the remaining Flushed Pets return to the sewers. At first, Snowball resists, but gives in and lets himself become a domesticated pet. The other pets return to their homes and embrace their owners, and Max and Duke finally reunite with Katie, sparking a true friendship.

text: In a mid-credits scene, Buddy and Mel show up in costume at a party in poodle Leonard's apartment. Leonard's owner returns and Tattoo crashes to the floor on the chandelier.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Louis C.K. as Max, a Jack Russell Terrier.[8]
Eric Stonestreet as Duke, a large, brown, shaggy mongrel.[8]
Kevin Hart as Snowball, a white rabbit.[8]
Jenny Slate as Gidget, a white Pomeranian and Max's love interest.
Ellie Kemper as Katie, Max and Duke's friendly owner.[1][9]
Lake Bell as Chloe, an obese and apathetic grey tabby cat[9] who is one of Max's friends.
Dana Carvey as Pops, an elderly Basset Hound,[10] who is paralyzed in his back legs.
Hannibal Buress as Buddy, a laid-back dachshund[9][11] and one of Max's friends.
Bobby Moynihan as Mel, an hyperactive pug and one of Max's friends.
Steve Coogan as Ozone, a Cockney-accented Sphynx cat.

Steve Coogan also voices Reginald, a malevolent Himalayan cat.

Albert Brooks as Tiberius, a curmudgeonly red-tailed hawk.[9][11]
Chris Renaud as Norman, a guinea pig who keeps getting lost trying to find his apartment.
Michael Beattie as Tattoo, a slow-witted tattooed pig who is one of the Flushed Pets.
Sandra Echeverría as Maria, a character from the La Pasión de la Pasión telenovela that Gidget watches.
Jaime Camil as Fernando, a character from the La Pasión de la Pasión telenovela that Gidget watches.
Kiely Renaud as Molly, a little girl who adopts Snowball.

text: Production[edit]

text: In January 2014, it was announced that Louis C.K., Eric Stonestreet, and Kevin Hart had joined the cast of the film, with Chris Renaud set to direct from a screenplay written by Brian Lynch, Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio, while Illumination Entertainment would produce, and Universal Pictures would distribute the film and was originally titled Max.[12][8] In June 2014, Albert Brooks, Hannibal Buress, Bobby Moynihan, Lake Bell and Ellie Kemper joined the cast.[9] The animation was created entirely in France by Illumination MacGuff.[13]

text: Music and soundtrack[edit]

text:
The Secret Life of Pets (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)

Soundtrack album by Alexandre Desplat

Released
July 1, 2016 (2016-07-01)

Recorded
2016

Genre

Film score
Jazz
Classical

Length
51:31

Label
Back Lot Music

Producer
Dominique Lemonnier

Alexandre Desplat soundtrack chronology

Florence Foster Jenkins
(2016)Florence Foster Jenkins2016
The Secret Life of Pets
(2016)
The Light Between Oceans
(2016)The Light Between Oceans2016

text: The original score for the film was composed by Alexandre Desplat.[14] The soundtrack was released on July 1, 2016 by Back Lot Music.[15]

text: All music composed by Alexandre Desplat, except "We Go Together" by The Sausage Factory Singers.

text:
[show]Track listing

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Meet the Pets"
2:37

2.
"Katie's Leaving"
0:55

3.
"Meet Duke"
3:36

4.
"Fetch Me a Stick"
3:09

5.
"Telenovela Squirrels"
1:24

6.
"Hijack!"
2:00

7.
"Gidget Meets Tiberius"
4:56

8.
"Initiation Time"
1:01

9.
"Rooftop Route"
1:27

10.
"The Viper"
1:49

11.
"You Have an Owner?"
3:04

12.
"Good Morning Max"
1:21

13.
"Sewer Chase"
1:09

14.
"Who's With Me?"
1:21

15.
"Me Like What Me See"
0:54

16.
"Traveling Bossa"
1:56

17.
"Flushed Out To Brooklyn"
2:47

18.
"Sausages!"
1:13

19.
"Duke's Old House / Captured"
3:03

20.
"Brooklyn Bridge Showdown"
2:34

21.
"Rescuing Duke"
2:46

22.
"Wet But Handsome / Blue Taxi"
1:24

23.
"Max and Gidget"
1:36

24.
"Welcome Home"
1:57

25.
"We Go Together" (originally from Grease)
1:24

Total length:
51:31

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was originally scheduled to be released on February 12, 2016, but was pushed back to July 8, 2016.[2] It was released in 2D, 3D, and IMAX 3D using DMR.[16][better source needed] The Secret Life of Pets premiered at the 2016 Annecy International Animated Film Festival on June 16, 2016, and was screened at VidCon.[17] The film is accompanied by a Despicable Me short film entitled Mower Minions.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Secret Life of Pets was released on Digital HD on November 22, 2016, and on Blu-ray, Blu-ray 3D, Ultra HD Blu-ray, and DVD on December 6, 2016. In addition to the short film Mower Minions, which was released theatrically with the feature film, the releases also include two short films: Norman Television and Weenie.[18]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Secret Life of Pets grossed $368.4 million in Canada and the U.S., and $507.1 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $875.5 million, against a production budget of $75 million.[4] Its international takings helped push Universal Pictures [International] past $1 billion for the tenth consecutive year,[19] and aided Illumination Entertainment to pass the $4 billion mark for the first time since 2010.[20]

text: It is the fifth highest-grossing original worldwide film of all time (behind Avatar, Zootopia, The Lion King, and Finding Nemo),[21] the sixth highest-grossing film of 2016,[22] the 12th highest-grossing animated film of all time, and the 50th highest-grossing film of all time. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $374.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the most profitable release of 2016.[23]

text: North America[edit]

text: In Canada and the United States, the film was projected to gross around $70 million in its opening weekend, with some predictions going as high as $100 million.[24][25][26] It received the widest release for an animated film as well as for a PG-rated film (breaking Shrek Forever After's record) and the seventh widest of all time overall, across 4,370 theaters, the widest release since The Dark Knight Rises.[25][27][28][29] It made $5.3 million from Thursday night previews in 3,009 theaters, which is the second biggest of all time for Illumination, behind only Minions ($6.2 million), and the third biggest of all time for an animated film, behind Finding Dory ($9.2 million) and Minions.[26][30] This was followed by a record-breaking $38.5 million opening day gross (including previews), the biggest for an original film.[31][32] In its opening weekend, it exceeded expectations and grossed $104.4 million, finishing first at the box office.[33] Its debut is the sixth biggest for an animated film, the sixth highest weekend debut in July, and the fourth biggest opening weekend for Universal Pictures.[34] It also set the record for largest opening for an original film, eclipsing the $90.4 million debut of Inside Out.[35][36]

text: In its second weekend, the film made $50.8 million (-51.3%) while maintaining the top spot, despite facing stiff competition with newcomer Ghostbusters.[37] Although it slipped into second place when overtaken by Star Trek Beyond in its third weekend, it was still able to fend off the two other new releases—Lights Out and Ice Age: Collision Course—by earning another $29.6 million.[38] It passed $300 million on its twenty-sixth day—the same day it crossed $400 million worldwide[39]—becoming the seventh film of 2016,[40] the seventh Universal Pictures film (the first for the year),[41] and the twelfth animated film overall to reach the benchmark.[42]

text: Outside North America[edit]

text: Internationally, The Secret Life of Pets received a scattered release from June to September in a total of 69 markets, and faced competition from other animated films such as Finding Dory and Ice Age: Collision Course in the course of its release.[43][44][45] In total, it had number-one openings in 45 markets and recorded the biggest opening for an original animated film in 17 territories, and the No. 1 animated film of 2016 to date in 13 markets.[20][46] It topped the international box office in its ninth weekend after earning $43.8 million in 53 markets (dethroning Suicide Squad).[47] However, this wasn't the film's biggest single weekend gross. Its biggest weekend gross was actually in its seventh weekend when it grossed $69.3 million. It opened at No. 3 behind Suicide Squad ($133.3 million) and the Chinese film Time Raiders ($64.6 million) that weekend.[48]

text: It was released in the United Kingdom and Norway two weeks ahead of its U.S. release, where it grossed a combined total of $14.1 million in the two markets.[43] Prior to its official debut in the UK and Ireland on June 24, the film had two days worth of previews on June 18 and 19, from which it made £3.63 million ($5.2 million) in two days. This figure was later counted in the film's official opening weekend.[49] It went on to score the fourth biggest original animation opening weekend ever there, with £9.58 million ($13.4 million) from 592 theaters, trailing behind Inside Out, Monsters, Inc., and Up. Excluding previews, its total three-day opening was $8.1 million.[50][51] This was amidst Brexit and despite facing competition from Independence Day: Resurgence.[43][52] The film held off extremely well in its second and third weekend falling just 20% and 24%, earning £4.47 million ($6.1 million) and £3.62 million ($4.8 million) respectively despite facing some competitions.[53][54] It has topped the box office for three consecutive weekends and has grossed total of $41 million there.[55] In Norway, it took the number one spot as well, with $778,000.[43] It scored the biggest animation opening of 2016 and the second biggest of all time overall in both Taiwan ($2 million)—behind Madagascar, and Hong Kong ($1.9 million)—behind Inside Out.[44]

text: In Argentina, the film had a record-breaking number-one debut with $4 million from 195 screens — the biggest opening weekend ever for an animated film and the second biggest opening ever for any film (behind Furious 7). Similarly, Chile also recorded the second biggest animated opening ever with $1.7 million (behind Minions). Colombia also opened at No. 1 with a huge $1.5 million.[56] In Mexico, other than opening at No. 1, it posted the biggest original animated opening of all time with $7.6 million, surpassing the studio's own previous record holder Inside Out.[45] Also in Russia, it scored the biggest original animated opening and the second biggest ever for an animated film, behind Minions with $16.3 million, although this included $6.4 million five days worth of previews.[47] It went on to become the highest-grossing film of the summer that year.[57] In Japan, the film opened on August 11—the date of Japan's first Mountain Day national holiday—with Toho-Towa distributing, and earned $4.6 million on 370,000 admissions for its two-day opening weekend dethroning Shin Godzilla off the top spot. The cumulative total for the four-day holiday (August 11–14) was $9.7 million.[19][58] Similarly, it had number-one debuts in Germany ($7.1 million) and France ($5.9 million), Australia ($5.6 million), Italy ($5.1 million), Brazil ($4.4 million), Spain ($4.5 million), Poland ($1.7 million), Singapore ($1.3 million), Belgium ($1.2 million) and Denmark ($1.2 million), Indonesia ($1.1 million), the Philippines ($1 million), and South Africa ($463,000). In Germany, it scored the best animation opening since Minions.[45][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] It topped the box office in Israel for five straight weekends and in Australia, Russia and Spain for three weekends.[45][47][61][63] In Japan, the film was the highest-grossing foreign release of the weekend, holding the top spot for four consecutive weekends.[60]

text: In China—the world's second biggest film market—the film opened on a Tuesday, earning a modest $5.2 million on its opening day. To Sunday, it achieved a six-day opening of $29.3 million and $15.5 million for the weekend alone (Friday to Sunday), with per screen averages over $500 per screen per day. In both instances, it was behind the local film Time Raiders.[59][66][67] In South Korea, despite debuting in fifth place, it had an opening of $6.9 million.[59] Elsewhere, it grossed $2.7 million in the Netherlands, $1.2 million in Sweden and in Hungary it scored the biggest opening of the year with $738,000,[59] and also in Portugal ($965,000), Latvia ($224,000),[47] and South Africa.[64]

text: In terms of total earnings, its biggest markets are China ($58 million), United Kingdom and Ireland ($47.2 million), Japan ($41.6 million) and Russia ($34.2 million).[19][47][68] It became the third highest-grossing film of all time in Russia (behind Avatar and Zootopia)[61] and the highest-grossing film of 2016 in Spain.[20][62]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 75% based on 204 reviews with an average rating of 6.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Fast-paced, funny, and blessed with a talented voice cast, The Secret Life of Pets offers a beautifully animated, cheerfully undemanding family-friendly diversion."[69] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 61 out of 100 based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[70] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[71]

text: Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three out of four stars and called it "an animated fluffball-a sort of Toy Story with pets does everything to drive you crazy and ends up being totally irresistible."[72] Scott Tobias, writing for NPR, characterized the film's concept as "Toy Story but with house pets," highlighting the film's "thinly distinguished characters" and "gloppy sentimentality."[73] Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three out of four stars and said "In much the same way that the smash Zootopia demonstrated that creatures of different culture and class and species are better off when they come together, The Secret Life of Pets is a testament to teamwork and friendship and fixing the rifts that divide us. Let the fur – and the warm, fuzzy feelings – fly."[74]

text: However, some critics disliked the film's unexpected similarities with Pixar's Toy Story.[75] Matthew Parkinson of The Escapist compared the plots of both films and wrote that "The Secret Life of Pets feels like one of those hour-long ripoffs you'd see on a children's television network."[76] Ethan Anderton of the website /Film criticised the film's characterisation, and noted that the relationship between Max and Duke was akin to "Woody and Buzz Lightyear all over again."[77]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)

Annie Awards
February 4, 2017
Outstanding Achievement, Character Design in an Animated Feature Production
Eric Guillon
Nominated
[78]

Outstanding Achievement, Music in an Animated Feature Production
Alexandre Desplat

British Academy Children's Awards
November 20, 2016
BAFTA Kids' Vote
The Secret Life of Pets
[79][80]

Cinema Audio Society
February 18, 2017
Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Motion Picture – Animated
David Acord, Jason Butler, Gary A. Rizzo, Carlos Sotolongo and Frank Wolf
[81]

Hollywood Music in Media Awards
November 17, 2016
Best Original Score – Animated Film
Alexandre Desplat
Won
[82][83]

2017 Kids' Choice Awards
March 11, 2017
Favorite Animated Movie
The Secret Life of Pets
Nominated
[84]

Favorite Voice From an Animated Movie
Kevin Hart

Favorite Villain
Won

Most Wanted Pet

NAACP Image Awards
February 11, 2017
Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance
Nominated
[85]

People's Choice Awards
January 18, 2017
Favorite Family Movie
The Secret Life of Pets
[86]

Favorite Animated Movie Voice
Kevin Hart

Producers Guild of America
January 28, 2017
Best Animated Motion Picture
Janet Healy and Chris Meledandri
[87]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In August 2016, it was announced that there would be a sequel with director Chris Renaud, producers Chris Meledandri and Janet Healy, and writer Brian Lynch, with a release date of July 13, 2018.[88] On January 25, 2017, its release date was pushed back to July 3, 2019.[89] On August 15, 2017, its release date was moved forward to June 7, 2019.[7]


document_title: Chang (Star Trek)

question_text: who played general chang in star trek 6

question_tokens: who played general chang in star trek 6

root

text: Chang (Star Trek)

text:
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tag: p

text:
Chang

Star Trek character

Christopher Plummer as General Chang in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country

Portrayed by
Christopher Plummer

Information

Species
Klingon

Affiliation
Klingon Empire

Position
Chief of staff to Chancellor Gorkon

Rank
General

text: General Chang is a fictional character from the Star Trek fictional universe who was portrayed by Christopher Plummer in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.

text: Chang is Chancellor Gorkon's chief of staff, and subsequently serves Chancellor Azetbur. He is an avid fan of William Shakespeare, whom he frequently quotes, much to the chagrin of the Enterprise crew. He is almost completely bald, a trait not seen among Klingons prior to Star Trek VI's release. The Chang makeup originally included a wig appliance. However, Christopher Plummer felt removing the wig made the character more distinct; he also asked that Chang's Klingon makeup be made less severe. His costume is also unique in that an apparent eye injury is disguised with a metal eyepatch which is attached directly to his skull by bolts bearing the Klingon emblem; later depictions of Klingons with eye injuries, such as Deep Space Nine's Martok, had them flaunting their mutilations as battle scars.

text: Overview[edit]

text: Chang was a well-known Klingon general who believed that "in space all warriors are cold warriors." He was fierce, cunning and willing to participate in battles personally. Chang had a deep-seated hatred for the United Federation of Planets. He believed that a war with them was inevitable. As a result, he created a simulated campaign against the Federation and used it to train students at an Academy for future starship commanders. This hatred eventually led him to participate in a conspiracy to thwart plans for a lasting peace between his people and the Federation.

text: Between the years of 2291 and 2293, the general played a key role in two violent Klingon power struggles. The first was when a Klingon named Kalnor led an unsuccessful coup to depose the current Chancellor. Chang attacked and crippled Kalnor's ship, but he did not destroy it. Instead, he beamed himself aboard the enemy vessel and challenged Kalnor to single combat in front of his men. Chang killed Kalnor but lost his left eye in the fight. This resulted in the eye patch that he wore for the rest of his life.

text: The second conflict broke out after the Chancellor died. Kalnor's brother, Melkor, blocked the accession of Gorkon, the former chief of staff who was the legitimate successor. Melkor declared himself emperor and touched off a brutal civil war that had devastating consequences for the Klingon Empire, largely due to the usurper's treacherous and cowardly tactics. At one point, Melkor had a whole star system destroyed, rather than surrender it. He also had help from the Romulan Empire, another major power.

text: Chang fought Melkor, but he did not support Gorkon. The two men were friends, but the general was wary of Gorkon's desire for a lasting peace with the Federation. As a result, Chang hoped to keep Gorkon from becoming the next leader of the Klingon Empire. However, Chang was eventually forced to accept help from Gorkon's forces. This led to a key victory against Melkor and his Romulan allies. It also meant that Chang was honor-bound to accept Gorkon as the new Klingon leader.

text: Melkor was not finished. His supporters tried to trick Chang into thinking the Federation were invading. When the ruse was discovered, Chang had to make a choice: fight the fight he had waited for his whole life, or defend his people against the threat Melkor posed. He chose the latter, and Melkor was finally killed.

text: In the year 2293, the Klingon Empire faced a momentous ecological disaster when its key energy facility exploded and polluted the homeworld's atmosphere. This crisis had the potential to put an end to the Klingon Empire. Chang's worst fears came to life when Gorkon turned to the Federation for help. The Klingon Chancellor proposed putting an end to the cold war between them and dismantling several outposts amongst the neutral zone between both powers. Rather than see this happen, Chang joined a secret conspiracy (which would be known as the Khitomer conspiracy) of Klingon, Federation, and Romulan officials to stop the peace process by any means necessary.

text: The first step involved the creation of a secret warship (a Bird of Prey) with a unique ability; unlike other Klingon warships, it could fire its weapons while its cloaking device was enabled. As the new chief of staff, Chang accompanied Gorkon and his daughter, Azetbur, to meet with the Federation President. They were escorted through Federation space by the USS Enterprise, under the command of Captain James T. Kirk. An admirer of Kirk, Chang met him when Chang and his entourage were invited aboard the Enterprise for dinner. The Klingon general greeted Kirk as a "fellow warrior." During the dinner, Chang inadvertently paraphrased Adolf Hitler with a comment about "breathing room," which Kirk noted.

text: After the Klingons returned to their ship, the conspirators struck. The modified Bird of Prey, invisible and near the Enterprise, attacked Gorkon's ship and made it look like the Federation ship was responsible. Then, two Starfleet conspirators beamed aboard Gorkon's ship, mortally wounded the Chancellor and killed several other Klingons.

text: Chang accused Kirk of attacking them and then tried to launch a "counterattack" with Gorkon's ship. But instead, Kirk surrendered, and both he and the ship's doctor Leonard McCoy beamed aboard Gorkon's ship. Despite McCoy's efforts, Gorkon died and Chang arrested them both. (Despite his role in orchestrating Gorkon's death, Chang seemed genuinely affected by the death of his former comrade.)

text: Gorkon's assassination was not enough to derail the peace process. The Federation President and Azetbur (who was the new Klingon Chancellor) were both determined to continue with it. The next meeting was set to take place at a neutral site, Camp Khitomer. The conspirators started to make plans to kill their next target: the Federation President.

text: Meanwhile, Kirk and McCoy stood trial for Gorkon's murder. Chang prosecuted them both and succeeded in having them both found guilty. However, the judge commuted a death sentence and sent them both to the penal asteroid Rura Penthe.

text: Not satisfied with this, Chang ordered the commandant of Rura Penthe to make sure Kirk and McCoy were killed during an escape attempt. However, Kirk and McCoy's escape succeeded. Kirk and McCoy were rescued by Enterprise. Knowing that his enemy would find out where the peace conference was, Chang took the modified Bird of Prey to Khitomer to wait for him.

text: As Chang predicted, the Enterprise arrived and tried to achieve an orbit of Khitomer. Safe from enemy fire in his invisible ship, Chang taunted Kirk and his crew with Shakespearean quotes. The Bird of Prey fired one torpedo after another, causing massive damage to the Enterprise. Another Federation ship, the Excelsior, arrived to help, but Chang only fired at it as well. For Chang, victory seemed very near. The Enterprise was very close to being destroyed, followed by its companion ship.

text: Suddenly, the Enterprise fired a torpedo. To Chang's surprise, the torpedo had been properly aimed at his supposedly invisible warship. The Enterprise had found a way to locate Chang's ship, by tracing its exhaust. Chang and his bridge crew were killed when a reconfigured gas-sampling torpedo hit. The Enterprise and Excelsior destroyed the Bird of Prey. Chang, realizing he was beaten, uttered his last Shakespeare quote: "To be, or not to be." Members of the Enterprise crew were then able to transport to Khitomer and stop the conspirators from killing the Federation President. The resulting conference led to a peace that lasted almost a century — exactly the thing that Chang was trying to prevent.


document_title: Nectar loyalty card

question_text: how many nectar points do you get per pound

text: Nectar loyalty card

text: History[edit]

text: The Nectar scheme was launched in 2002, merging the existing loyalty programmes of Sainsbury's, BP and Barclaycard, and including Debenhams which did not have an existing scheme. It was run by Loyalty Management Group, then chaired by Sir Keith Mills, the founder of Air Miles.[2] At the time of launch, Nectar confirmed it would be open to more companies to join, excluding rivals of existing members.[3]

text: By 2010, Nectar claimed that 16.8 million people were part of the scheme, and that it had 14 member companies and over 400 online retailers.[4]

text: Collection[edit]

text: Cardholders receive points on purchases made at participating retailers both instore and online, generally beginning at one point per whole pound spent. Points for fuel at BP and Sainsbury's are awarded for each litre purchased. Extra points may be earned when buying certain products or during particular promotions. A number of other online retailers award points when purchases are made on their websites accessed through the main Nectar website.[1]

text: Nectar receives a payment from each retailer for each point paid to a customer. It then reimburses the retailer when the points are redeemed.[5]

text: Redemption[edit]

text: A number of retailers allow cardholders to redeem points in store for money off their shopping, including Argos and Sainsbury's. In the case of Sainsbury's, a cardholder must have shopped at a particular store within the last 12 months in order to spend points there.[6]

text: Points can also be redeemed with a number of partners through evouchers, including Eurostar, PizzaExpress and Hertz. Points are lost if a Nectar account is closed. For example, an account may be closed if no points have been earned or redeemed for a continuous period of 12 months.[7] As Nectar points do not normally "expire", it is possible for cardholders to save towards more expensive rewards, such as train tickets and holidays.

text: Members[edit]

text: Current[edit]

text:
Launch members:

Sainsbury's
BP

Other members:

The Hut Group (runs a "Nectar Exclusives" webstore - includes a variety of products to redeem points on.)
Expedia
Hertz
American Express (co-branded credit card)
The AA
Argos (in store: redemption only; online: collect only)
DHL Express
eBay
Oxfam
Great Western Railway
TransPennine Express
Hull Trains
Virgin Trains East Coast[8]
VitalityHealth
The Daily Mail newspaper[9]
South Western Railway

Points can also be collected for purchases from a number of retailers via the Nectar online store, including:

ASOS.com
Apple Inc.
Currys
Dell
Zavvi
F. Hinds
Next
Sky
viagogo Ticket Exchange
Virgin Media
Vodafone (joined 2003, left 2005, rejoined 2009)

text: Former[edit]

text:
Homebase (membership ended 31 December 2016)[10]
Vision Express (removed from 1 January 2015)[11]
Amazon (removed on 1 February 2013)[12]
Barclaycard (was a launch member, however membership ended on 31 August 2005)
EDF Energy (stopped issuing Nectar points as of 31 December 2010)
Debenhams (was a launch member, however membership ended on 15 February 2008)
ebookers (membership ended on 1 June 2009)
Ford
Gala Bingo (membership ended on 1 June 2010)
Magnet
TalkTalk (membership ended on 31 August 2009)
Threshers
Winemark (Northern Ireland only)
Dollond & Aitchison
Brewers Fayre (membership ended on 1 Feb 2011)
Beefeater (membership ended on 31 January 2011)
Table Table (left scheme on 31 January 2011)
British Gas (left scheme on 30 June 2017)[13]

tag: ul

text: International schemes[edit]

text: Aimia launched Nectar in Italy in 2010, with retailers including Auchan and UniEuro.[14] The Italian scheme ended in February 2016.[15]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In August 2017, Nectar announced it was partnering with The Daily Mail. This association with a daily newspaper accused of racism, homophobia and sexism upset many customers, who cancelled their accounts and posted photos of their cut-up loyalty cards online.[16] The company responded, "we know that not all of you will support every partner".


document_title: Seven Mile Bridge

question_text: how long did it take to build the 7 mile bridge in the keys

text: Seven Mile Bridge

text: History[edit]

text: After the railroad was damaged by the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935, the line was sold to the United States government, which refurbished Seven Mile Bridge for automobile use. Unsupported sections were added in 1935 to widen it for vehicular traffic. Dismantled trackage was recycled, painted white, and used as guardrails. It had a swing span to allow passage of boats in the Moser Channel of the Intracoastal Waterway, near where the bridge crosses Pigeon Key, a small island that held a work camp for Flagler's railroad. Hurricane Donna in 1960 caused further damage.

text: The current road bridge was constructed from 1978 to 1982.

text: The vast majority of the original bridge still exists, although the swing span has been removed. The 2.2-mile section to Pigeon Key, used as a fishing pier and long open to motorized vehicles to give access to the key, was closed to motorized traffic in 2008 after the unsupported sections began to sag. As of 2015[update], the section remains open to pedestrians and bicyclists.[2][3] In 2014, Florida Department of Transportation approved a $77 million plan to restore the old bridge.[4]

text: Engineering[edit]

text: The new bridge is a box-girder structure built from precast, prestressed concrete sections, comprising 440 spans. Near the center, the bridge rises in an arc to provide 65-foot (20 m)-high clearance for boat passage. The remainder of the bridge is considerably closer to the water surface. The new bridge does not cross Pigeon Key.

text: The total length of the new bridge is actually 35,862 ft (10,931 m) or 6.79 miles (10.93 km), and is shorter than the original. Each April the bridge is closed for approximately 2.5 hours on a Saturday and a "fun run," known as the Seven Mile Bridge Run, of 1,500 runners is held commemorating the Florida Keys bridge rebuilding project. The event began in 1982 to commemorate the completion of a federally funded bridge building program that replaced spans that oil tycoon Henry Flagler constructed in the early 1900s to serve as a foundation for his Overseas Railroad.

text: The Seven Mile Bridge was engineered by Figg & Muller Engineers (who also engineered the much taller Sunshine Skyway Bridge). The structure was completed six months ahead of schedule and has earned eight awards, including an Exceptional Award for Cost Savings Innovation from the Federal Highway Administration.[5]

text: In fiction[edit]

text:
[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2016)

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

(Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The bridge has been featured in the films and television series Licence to Kill, True Lies, The Haunted Mansion, 2 Fast 2 Furious, Mission Impossible III, Burn Notice, I Am Number Four and Leverage.


document_title: Fire and Fury

question_text: fire and fury inside the trump white house publisher

text: Fire and Fury

text: Background[edit]

text: According to Michael Wolff, when he approached Donald Trump about writing a book on his presidency, Trump agreed to give him access to the White House because he liked an article Wolff wrote about him in June 2016 for The Hollywood Reporter.[2] However, Trump later claimed that he had never authorized access for Wolff and never spoke to him for the book.[3]

text: Starting in mid-2016, Wolff interviewed campaign and transition staff. After Trump's inauguration and continuing through most of the first year of his presidency, Wolff was allowed access to the West Wing of the White House, conducting research for his book through interviews and as a "fly on the wall" observer. He said he conducted over 200 interviews with Trump and his associates including the senior staff[4] and was allowed to witness events at the White House without his presence being managed. This allowed Wolff to be present the day of the dismissal of James Comey.[5] Wolff reportedly audiotaped some of the conversations mentioned in the book.[6] The working title for Wolff's book was The Great Transition: The First 100 Days of the Trump Administration, leading many in the White House to believe the book he was writing would be favorable of the Trump administration.[7]

text: Content[edit]

text: Wolff chose the title after hearing Trump refer to "fire and fury" when discussing the conflict with North Korea.[8] According to the book, nobody in the presidential campaign team expected to win the 2016 presidential election,[9] including Donald Trump (who reportedly did not want to win) and his wife. Donald Trump Jr. said his father "looked as if he had seen a ghost" when he realized he had won, and Melania Trump was "in tears – and not of joy."[10]

text: Many of the most controversial quotes in the book came from Steve Bannon, the chief executive of the Trump campaign in its final months and White House Chief Strategist from January to August 2017. Bannon referred to the meeting during the presidential campaign of Donald Trump Jr. and Jared Kushner with Russian officials as "treasonous" and "unpatriotic," described Ivanka Trump as "dumb as a brick",[11] and – referencing the Special Counsel investigation being led by Robert Mueller – said, "they're going to crack Don Junior like an egg on national TV."[12] Bannon also said that Mueller's investigation would likely uncover money laundering involving Kushner from loans received by his family business from Deutsche Bank.[13] Another quote from Bannon was that lawyer Marc Kasowitz had gotten Trump "out of all kinds of jams [...] on the campaign – what did we have, a hundred women? Kasowitz took care of all of them."[14]

text: Wolff said Trump himself was characterized by "wide-ranging ignorance."[15] For example, Sam Nunberg, a campaign advisor, reportedly tried to explain the United States Constitution to Trump but could not get past the Fourth Amendment.[16] Wolff also claims that Kushner and Ivanka Trump discussed having Ivanka run in a future presidential campaign.[10]

text: After the book's publication, Wolff invited notice to passages toward the book's end cryptically insinuating that Trump and his administration's ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, as currently involved in an exta-marital affair.[17][18]

text: Release[edit]

text: The book was originally scheduled to go on sale on January 9, 2018, but the publisher, Henry Holt and Company, moved up the release date to January 5 due to "unprecedented demand."[19][20][8] An excerpt of the book was released by New York magazine on January 3, 2018.[21] The same day, other media outlets reported on further content of the book; for example, The Guardian reported "explosive" highlights, stating they were based on the full book.[9] That day, preorders of the book made it the number 1 bestseller in the country.[22] Fire and Fury debuted at number one on The New York Times Best Seller list,[23] and within a week had become the fastest selling book in the publisher's history, with over 700,000 orders shipped and 1.4 million orders placed.[24]

text: Reception[edit]

text: White House reaction and fallout[edit]

text: At her daily press briefing on January 3, Sarah Huckabee Sanders, the White House Press Secretary, called the book "trashy tabloid fiction" and "filled with false and misleading accounts."[25] The White House released a statement saying that Bannon had "lost his mind" and Charles Harder, a lawyer for Trump, sent a cease-and-desist letter to Bannon, allegedly for violating a non-disclosure agreement.[26][27] On January 4, Harder sought to stop the release of the book, sending a cease-and-desist letter to the author and publisher with the threat of a lawsuit for libel.[28]

text: His lawyers also said that the book "appears to cite no sources for many of its most damaging statements about Mr. Trump."[29] Henry Holt's attorney, Elizabeth McNamara, later responded to Harder's allegations with an assurance that no apology or retraction would be forthcoming. McNamara also noted that Harder's complaint cited no specific errors in Wolff's text.[30] Some legal experts and historians said that Trump's threats of imminent legal action against the author and publisher were unprecedented for a sitting president attempting to silence criticism.[31][32]

text: On January 5, the day of the book's publication, Trump tweeted:

text:
Donald J. Trump✓
via Twitter
v · t · e

@realDonaldTrump

text: I authorized Zero access to White House (actually turned him down many times) for author of phony book! I never spoke to him for book. Full of lies, misrepresentations and sources that don't exist. Look at this guy's past and watch what happens to him and Sloppy Steve [Bannon]!

text: Jan 5 2018[3]

text: In response, Wolff stated in an interview later that day: "One of the things we have to count on is that Donald Trump will attack. [...] My credibility is being questioned by a man who has less credibility than perhaps anyone who has ever walked on Earth at this point."[33] According to Wolff, Trump himself encouraged Wolff to write a "fly-on-the-wall account of Trump's first hundred days."[34] Wolff has also stated that he has "dozens of hours" of taped interviews which back up the claims made in the book.[35]

text: On January 6, Trump continued to attack the book, calling it "a complete work of fiction" and "a disgrace", and labeling Wolff a "fraud." Also that day, in a move interpreted as a response to the book's raising questions about Trump's competence for office, Trump tweeted that his "two greatest assets have been mental stability and being, like, really smart." From his successes in business, television, and politics, Trump concluded that he was in fact "a very stable genius."[36][37][38]

text: On January 7, Bannon issued a statement calling Trump Jr. a "patriot and a good man," saying that his comments were directed at Paul Manafort, not Trump Jr.[39] The next day, on MSNBC's Morning Joe, Wolff denied that Bannon had been talking about Manafort.[40]

text: Also on January 7, White House senior policy adviser Stephen Miller, speaking on CNN's State of the Union, said: "The book is best understood as a work of very poorly written fiction, and I also will say that the author is a garbage author of a garbage book."[41] In a January 8 interview with Dana Loesch, Vice President Mike Pence described Fire and Fury as a "book of fiction." He stated that he had not read it, and would not read it, but that reports concerning its contents did not accord with his experience of working with President Trump.[42] Over the weekend of January 6–7, Rebekah Mercer, a conservative donor who worked with Bannon on Trump's 2016 campaign and as a part-owner of Breitbart News, distanced herself from Bannon, saying she would no longer provide him with financial backing.[43] On January 9, Bannon announced that he would leave Breitbart News.[44]

text: On January 8, the lawyer representing Wolff and his publisher issued a legal letter defying the cease and desist order and defamation claim, stating that "my clients do not intend to cease publication, no such retraction will occur, and no apology is warranted."[45]

text: Reviews[edit]

text: Reviewing the book for CNN, Trump biographer Michael D'Antonio attested that Wolff's overall portrait of Trump accorded with his own understanding and that of others, specifically drawing attention to details concerning Trump's short attention span, issues of misogyny and white supremacism, as well as Trump's opinion that "'expertise' is 'overrated.'"[46] He added that Wolff's descriptions of the people around Trump present "a credible picture."[46] D'Antonio criticized Wolff's "tabloidy prose" and reminded the reader to treat the book with a degree of skepticism, but concluded that it was "essential reading" that will provide a framework on which future writers may build.[46] D'Antonio also stated: "Some of what Wolff presents is so speculative that his critics, and the President's most ardent defenders, will be able to pick his work apart. These excesses will diminish the book's impact and, ultimately, do a disservice to the historical record."[46]

text: Speaking on the PBS NewsHour, David Brooks said that because in the past Wolff has been known to not check facts he is "very dubious about accepting everything" in the book. "Nonetheless, the general picture confirms what we already knew. And I think there is a general sense the president is unfit. They treat — they do treat him like a child." Mark Shields agreed and expressed deep concerns that other than Katie Walsh, who briefly worked as deputy chief of staff to Reince Priebus, there did not appear to be any "counteroffensive" in the White House which Shields described as "the political equivalent of the dog not barking in the night," i.e., conspicuously absent.[47]

text: Jake Tapper of CNN said that Fire and Fury "should be met with skepticism" as it was "riddled with errors and rumors",[48] while Isaac Chotiner in Slate wrote that "Wolff is not merely out of his depth—he frequently seems confused by even basic matters of political ideology."[49]

text: Reviewing for The Guardian, Matthew d'Ancona, a former commissioner and editor of Wolff's work, stated that the fact that Wolff was admitted to the White House at all indicated significant incompetence within the Trump administration. D'Ancona described Wolff's version of President Trump and his daughter Ivanka as "the world's stupidest King Lear" and a "clueless Cordelia." Warning the reader against distraction by those searching for "minor errors," d'Ancona described Wolff as a "brilliant journalist," who has a "terrier-like pursuit of the truth." He concluded that Wolff had "nailed it," and had "scotched once and for all the nonsensical claim that we should take Trump seriously but not literally."[50]

text: In a Wall Street Journal review, Barton Swaim sees the book as an unverifiable "gossipy" collection of "every unseemly tidbit he could extract from murmuring White House staffers" written as though he "were the omniscient narrator of a novel." Swaim asserts that the reaction to the book, rather than the book itself, will give reason for it to be historically notable.[51] Axios reporters Jim VandeHei and Mike Allen wrote that parts of the book were "wrong, sloppy, or betray[ed] off-the-record confidence. But there are two things he gets absolutely right." They wrote that Wolff's depiction "of Trump as an emotionally erratic president" was accurate as well as his writing of some White House officials having a "low opinion" of Trump.[52] Andrew Prokop wrote in Vox that "we should interpret the book as a compendium of gossip Wolff heard. A fair amount of it does clearly seem to be accurate."[53] Aaron Blake of The Washington Post wrote that "Wolff seems to have arrived at a stunning amount of incredible conclusions that hundreds of dogged reporters from major newspapers haven't. [...] [I]t's worth evaluating each claim individually and not just taking every scandalous thing said about the White House as gospel."[54]

text: A review by Mick Brown in The Telegraph described the book as "overheated, sensationalist – and completely true to its subject."[55] David Sexton of the London Evening Standard said the book is a political exposé worth reading and is "destined to become the primary account of the first nine months of the Trump presidency."[56]

text: Nikki Haley controversy[edit]

text: While being interviewed during Fire and Fury's publicity tour Wolff told Bill Maher that he was "absolutely sure" President Trump was having an affair and suggested on two occasions that his partner was Nikki Haley, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations.[57][58] Haley denied Wolff's allegations, calling it "disgusting" and "absolutely not true". Erik Wemple of the Washington Post said that Wolff was engaging in a "remarkable multimedia slime job".[59] The New York Post editorial board called Wolff's claim an "ugly, sexist rumor".[60] Bari Weiss in The New York Times said that Wolff was "gleefully" spreading "evidence-free detail".[61] After several interviewers pressed him about the rumor, Wolff later said that "I do not know if the president is having an affair."[62][63]

text: Television adaptation[edit]

text: Endeavor Content, in association with Chernin Entertainment, purchased the film and television rights the same month of the book's publication, with author Michael Wolff as an executive producer. Former BBC and Channel 4 executive Michael Jackson is producer of the series. As of January 2018, the project is being shopped around and has yet to find a studio or network.[24][64]


document_title: List of best-selling albums

question_text: what is the beatles best selling album of all time

text: List of best-selling albums

text: Legend

text:
Colors

Studio albums

Greatest hits and compilations

Soundtracks

Live albums

text: 40 million copies or more

text: *All sales figures are shown in millions

text:
Artist
Album
Released
Genre
Total certified copies
(from available markets)*
Claimed sales*
Ref(s)

Michael Jackson
Thriller
1982
Pop, rock, R&B
7001463190000000000♠
show
47.3

US: 33 million[4]
JPN: 100,000[5]
UK: 4.2 million[6]
GER: 1.5 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 1.12 million[10]
MEX: 1.6 million[11]
NLD: 800,000[12]
ITA: 100,000[13]
SWE: 400,000[14]
ARG: 500,000[15]
SWI: 300,000[16]
AUT: 400,000[17]
FIN: 119,061[18]
NZ: 180,000[19][20]
HKG: 15,000[21]

66
[1]

AC/DC
Back in Black
1980
Hard rock
7001259000000000000♠
show
26.1

US: 22 million[4]
UK: 300,000[6]
GER: 1 million[7]
FRA: 600,000[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 840,000[10]
ITA: 50,000[13]
ARG: 160,000[22]
SWI: 100,000[16]
AUT: 50,000[17]

50
[23]

Pink Floyd
The Dark Side of the Moon
1973
Progressive rock
7001242100000000000♠
show
24.2

US: 15 million[4]
UK: 4.2 million[6]
GER: 1 million[7]
FRA: 400,000[8]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 980,000[10]
ITA: 100,000[13]
ARG: 120,000[22]
POL: 70,000[24]
AUT: 100,000[17]
NZ: 240,000[25]

45
[26]

Meat Loaf
Bat Out of Hell
1977
Hard rock, progressive rock
7001215050000000000♠
show
21.5

US: 14 million[4]
UK: 3 million[6]
GER: 500,000[7]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 1.68 million[10]
NZ: 255,000[25]

43
[27]

Whitney Houston / Various artists
The Bodyguard
1992
R&B, soul, pop, soundtrack
7001273460000000000♠
show
28.4

US: 18 million[4]
JPN: 2 million[28]
UK: 2.1 million[6]
GER: 1.5 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 350,000[10]
BRA: 750,000[29]
NLD: 100,000[12]
SWE 100,000[14]
SPA: 500,000[30]
ARG: 240,000[22]
SWI: 250,000[16]
AUT: 200,000[17]
NOR: 200,000[31]
FIN: 92,500[18]

42
[32]

Eagles
Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)
1976
Country rock, soft rock, folk rock
7001321800000000000♠
show
32.2

US: 29 million[4]
UK: 600,000[6]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 560,000[10]
IFPI HKG: 15,000[21]

42
[33][34]

Bee Gees / Various artists
Saturday Night Fever
1977
Disco
7001215700000000000♠
show
21.6

US: 16 million[4]
UK: 2.1 million[6]
GER: 1.5 million[7]
FRA: 200,000[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 770,000[35]
HKG: 15,000[21]

40
[36][37]

Fleetwood Mac
Rumours
1977
Soft rock
7001279300000000000♠
show
27.9

US: 20 million[4]
UK: 3.3 million[6]
GER: 1.25 million[7]
FRA: 300,000[38]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 910,000[10]
NZ: 150,000[39]
HKG: 15,000[21]

40
[40][41]

text: 30–39 million copies

text:
Artist
Album
Released
Genre
Total certified copies
(from available markets)*
Claimed sales*
Ref(s)

Various artists
Grease: The Original Soundtrack from the Motion Picture
1978
Soundtrack
7001143900000000000♠
show
14.4

US: 8 million[4]
UK: 2.4 million[6]
GER: 1.25 million[7]
FRA: 400,000[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 980,000[10]
SPA: 300,000[30]
SWI: 25,000[16]
NZ: 15,000[19]
HKG: 15,000[21]

38
[42]

Led Zeppelin
Led Zeppelin IV
1971
Hard rock, heavy metal, folk rock
7001290200000000000♠
show
29.0

US: 23 million[4]
UK: 1.8 million[6]
GER: 750,000[7]
FRA: 600,000[38]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 630,000[10]
BRA: 100,000[29]
NLD: 100,000[12]
ARG: 60,000[22]
SWI: 50,000[16]

37
[43]

Michael Jackson
Bad
1987
Pop, funk, rock
7001192560000000000♠
show
19.3

US: 10 million[4]
UK: 3.9 million[6]
GER: 2 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 700,000[9]
AUS: 420,000[10]
MEX: 350,000[11]
SWE 200,000[14]
SPA: 300,000[30]
AUT: 200,000[17]
FIN: 51,287[18]
NZ: 135,000[44]
IFPI HKG: 15,000[21]

35
[45][46]

Alanis Morissette
Jagged Little Pill
1995
Alternative rock
7001247559000000000♠
show
24.4

US: 16 million[4]
UK: 3 million[6]
GER: 1 million[7]
FRA: 300,000[38]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 980,000[10]
NLD: 400,000[12]
SWE 200,000[14]
BRA: 100,000[29]
ARG: 60,000[22]
POL: 50,000[24]
SWI: 50,000[16]
NOR: 50,000[31]
AUT: 100,000[17]
FIN: 65,860[18]

33
[47]

Shania Twain
Come On Over
1997
Country, pop
7001295790000000000♠
show
29.6

US: 20 million[4]
JPN: 100,000 [5]
UK: 3.3 million[6]
GER: 750,000[7]
FRA: 300,000[38]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 1.05 million[10]
BRA: 100,000[29]
MEX: 100,000[11]
NLD: 400,000[12]
ITA: 50,000[13]
SWE 180,000[14]
SPA: 100,000[30]
BEL: 100,000[48][49]
ARG: 120,000[22]
SWI: 150,000[16]
AUT: 25,000[17]
NOR: 300,000[31]
DEN: 100,000[50]
FIN: 38,958[18]
NZ: 315,000[20]

33
[51]

Celine Dion
Falling into You
1996
Pop, soft rock
7001201770000000000♠
show
20.2

US: 11 million[4]
JPN: 800,000[5]
UK: 2.1 million[6]
GER: 1.25 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 910,000[10]
BRA: 100,000[29]
NLD: 600,000[12]
SWE: 200,000[14]
SPA: 200,000[30]
BEL: 200,000[48]
ARG: 60,000[22]
POL: 100,000[24]
SWI: 150,000[16]
NOR: 150,000[31]
AUT: 100,000[17]
FIN: 51,952[18]
NZ: 180,000[19]
HUN: 25,000[52]

32
[53]

The Beatles
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
1967
Rock
7001181700000000000♠
show
18.2

US: 11 million[4]
UK: 5.1 million[6]
GER: 500,000[7]
CAN: 800,000[9]
AUS: 280,000[10]
BRA: 100,000[29]
ARG: 300,000[22]
NZ: 90,000[20]

32
[54]

Eagles
Hotel California
1976
Soft rock
7001214810000000000♠
show
21.5

US: 16 million[4]
UK: 1.8 million[6]
GER: 500,000[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 560,000[10]
SPA: 400,000[30]
SWI: 100,000[16]
AUT: 25,000[17]
FIN: 30,933[18]
NZ: 135,000[19]
HKG: 15,000[21]

32
[55]

Various artists
Dirty Dancing
1987
Pop, rock, R&B
7001178775000000000♠
show
17.9

US: 11 million[4]
UK: 1.5 million[6]
GER: 2 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 770,000[10]
BRA: 100,000[29]
NLD: 100,000[12]
SWE 100,000[14]
POL: 50,000[24]
SWI: 250,000[16]
HKG: 7,500[21]

32
[56]

Adele
21
2011
Pop, soul
7001252610000000000♠
show
25.3

US: 14 million[4]
JPN: 100,000[57]
UK: 4.8 million[6]
GER: 1.6 million[7]
CAN: 800,000[9]
AUS: 980,000[10]
MEX: 300,000[11]
NLD: 450,000[58]
ITA: 480,000[13]
SWE: 120,000[59]
SPA: 300,000[30]
ARG: 80,000[60]
BEL: 180,000[49]
POL: 200,000[24]
SWI: 40,000[16]
NOR: 30,000[61]
AUT: 20,000[17]
RUS: 10,000[62]
DEN: 150,000[63]
POR: 40,000[64]
FIN: 83,234[18]
IRE: 270,000[65]
GRE: 6,000[66]
HUN: 12,000[67]
NZ: 180,000[68]
CHI: 20,000[69]
VEN: 10,000[70]

31
[71]

Celine Dion
Let's Talk About Love
1997
Pop, soft rock
7001192560000000000♠
show
19.3

US: 10 million[4]
JPN: 1 million[5]
UK: 1.8 million[6]
GER: 1.5 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 420,000[10]
NLD: 500,000[12]
SWE: 240,000[14]
SPA: 400,000[30]
BEL: 200,000[48]
ARG: 120,000[22]
POL: 200,000[24]
SWI: 300,000[16]
NOR: 200,000[31]
AUT: 100,000[17]
FIN: 97,744[18]
NZ: 135,000[72]
HKG: 40,000[21]
URY: 3,000[73]

31
[74]

The Beatles
1
2000
Rock
7001234020000000000♠
show
23.4

US: 12 million[4]
JPN: 2 million[5]
UK: 3.3 million[6]
GER: 1.65 million[7]
FRA: 600,000[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 700,000[10]
BRA: 250,000[29]
ITA: 50,000[13]
SWE 160,000[14]
SPA: 500,000[30]
ARG: 120,000[22]
POL: 100,000[24]
SWI: 150,000[16]
NOR: 150,000[31]
AUT: 150,000[17]
DEN: 200,000[75]
POR: 120,000[76]
FIN: 77,466[18]
NZ: 225,000[19]

31
[77]

ABBA
Gold: Greatest Hits
1992
Pop, disco
7001227100000000000♠
show
22.7

US: 6 million[4]
JPN: 600,000[78]
UK: 5.1 million[6]
GER: 2.5 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[38]
RUS: 10,000[79]
MEX: 250,000[11]
CAN: 1 million[9]
BRA: 100,000[29]
AUS: 1.19 million[10]
IND: 20,000[80]
ITA: 270,000[80][13]
SPA: 500,000[30]
NLD: 300,000[80]
SAF: 50,000[80]
SWE 500,000[14]
SWI: 500,000[16]
ARG: 240,000[22]
BEL: 350,000[48]
THL: 20,000[80]
NOR: 150,000[80]
AUT: 150,000[17]
DEN: 300,000[80]
KOR: 100,000[80]
TWN: 210,000[80]
POL: 100,000[24]
IRE: 90,000[80]
FIN: 145,962[18]
POR: 100,000[80][76]
NZ: 240,000[19]
HKG: 120,000[80]
SGP: 165,000[80]
HUN: 100,000[80]
CHI: 60,000[80]
ISR: 40,000[80]
CZE: 30,000[80]
MAL: 100,000[80]
VEN: 5,000[80]
ICL: 5,000[80]

30
[81]

Michael Jackson
Dangerous
1991
Rock, funk, pop
7001163020000000000♠
show
16.3

US: 7 million[4]
JPN: 400,000[5]
UK: 1.8 million[6]
GER: 2 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[38]
CAN: 600,000[9]
AUS: 700,000[10]
BRA: 100,000[29]
MEX: 600,000[11]
NLD: 300,000[12]
SWE 300,000[14]
SPA: 600,000[30]
SWI: 250,000[16]
AUT: 200,000[17]
FIN: 61,896[18]
NZ: 90,000[20]
CHI: 125,000[82]
MAL: 175,000[83]

30
[84]

Madonna
The Immaculate Collection
1990
Pop, dance
7001203000000000000♠
show
19.4

US: 10 million[4]
JPN: 800,000[5]
UK: 3.6 million[6]
GER: 750,000[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 700,000[9]
AUS: 840,000[85]
BRA: 500,000[29]
NLD: 300,000[12]
SWE 50,000[14]
SPA: 300,000[30]
ARG: 180,000[22]
SWI: 50,000[16]
AUT: 50,000[17]
DEN: 50,000[86]
FIN: 92,500[18]
NZ: 105,000[19]

30
[87]

The Beatles
Abbey Road
1969
Rock
7001144350000000000♠
show
14.4

US: 12 million[4]
GER: 500,000[7]
FRA: 150,000[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 210,000[10]
ARG: 500,000[15]
NZ: 75,000[20]

30
[88]

Bruce Springsteen
Born in the U.S.A.
1984
Heartland rock
7001195580000000000♠
show
19.6

US: 15 million[4]
UK: 900,000[6]
GER: 1 million[7]
FRA: 400,000[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 910,000[10]
FIN: 108,913[18]
NZ: 240,000[19]

30
[89]

Dire Straits
Brothers in Arms
1985
Roots rock, blues rock, soft rock
7001176610000000000♠
show
17.7

US: 9 million[4]
UK: 4.1 million[6]
GER: 500,000[7]
FRA: 1 million[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 1.19 million[10]
ARG: 30,000[22]
SWI: 350,000[16]
FIN: 116,784[18]
NZ: 360,000[25]
HKG: 15,000[21]

30
[90][91]

James Horner
Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture
1997
Soundtrack
7001181385000000000♠
show
18.1

US: 11 million[4]
JPN: 1 million[92]
UK: 900,000[6]
GER: 1.25 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 350,000[10]
NLD: 175,000[12]
SWE 160,000[14]
SPA: 400,000[30]
BEL: 150,000[48]
POL: 140,000[24]
ARG: 60,000[22]
SWI: 200,000[16]
AUT: 100,000[17]
NOR: 100,000[31]
FIN: 73,509[18]
NZ: 60,000[93]
HKG: 20,000[21]

30
[94]

Metallica
Metallica
1991
Heavy metal
7001204800000000000♠
show
21.2

US: 16 million[4]
UK: 600,000[6]
GER: 500,000[7]
FRA: 300,000[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 840,000[10]
MEX: 600,000[11]
NLD: 200,000[12]
ITA: 100,000[13]
SWE 100,000[14]
ARG: 300,000[22]
POL: 100,000[24]
SWI: 100,000[16]
NOR: 50,000[31]
AUT: 100,000[17]
FIN: 112,856[18]
NZ: 150,000[20]

30
[95]

Nirvana
Nevermind
1991
Grunge, alternative rock
7001167020000000000♠
show
16.7

US: 10 million[4]
JPN: 600,000[78]
UK: 1.2 million[6]
GER: 1 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 350,000[10]
BRA: 250,000[29]
MEX: 200,000[11]
ITA: 100,000[13]
SWE 200,000[14]
ARG: 300,000[22]
BEL: 150,000[49]
POL: 100,000[24]
SWI: 50,000[16]
AUT: 50,000[17]
FIN: 46,830[18]
NZ: 105,000[19]

30
[96]

Pink Floyd
The Wall
1979
Progressive rock
7001175650000000000♠
show
18.6

US: 11.5 million[4]
UK: 600,000[6]
GER: 2 million[7]
FRA: 1 million[8]
CAN: 2 million[9]
AUS: 770,000[10]
ITA: 100,000[13]
ARG: 200,000[97]
POL: 70,000[24]
SWI: 100,000[16]
NZ: 210,000[19]
HKG: 15,000[21]

30
[98]

Santana
Supernatural
1999
Latin rock
7001205400000000000♠
show
20.5

US: 15 million[4]
JPN: 200,000 [5]
UK: 600,000[6]
GER: 1 million[7]
FRA: 600,000[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
AUS: 280,000[10]
BRA: 250,000[29]
MEX: 300,000[11]
NLD: 200,000[12]
SWE 80,000[14]
SPA: 300,000[30]
BEL: 100,000[48]
ARG: 120,000[22]
POL: 100,000[24]
SWI: 200,000[16]
AUT: 100,000[17]
FIN: 50,291[18]
NZ: 60,000[19]

30
[99]

Guns N' Roses
Appetite for Destruction
1987
Hard rock
7001215550000000000♠
show
21.6

US: 18 million[4]
JPN: 200,000[5]
UK: 900,000[6]
GER: 500,000[7]
FRA: 200,000[38]
CAN: 1 million[9]
BRA: 250,000[29]
MEX: 100,000[11]
ITA: 50,000[13]
SWE 50,000[14]
ARG: 180,000[22]
SWI: 50,000[16]
AUT: 50,000[17]
FIN: 25,000[18]

30
[100][101]

text: 20–29 million copies

text:
Artist
Album
Released
Genre
Claimed sales*
Ref(s)

Bon Jovi
Slippery When Wet
1986
Hard rock, glam metal
28
[102]

Mariah Carey
Music Box
1993
Pop, R&B
28
[103]

Eminem
The Eminem Show
2002
Hip Hop
27
[104][105]

Linkin Park
Hybrid Theory
2000
Nu metal, rap metal, alternative metal
27
[106]

Norah Jones
Come Away with Me
2002
Jazz
27
[107]

Eric Clapton
Unplugged
1992
Acoustic rock, acoustic blues
26
[108]

Madonna
True Blue
1986
Pop
25
[109]

Bob Marley & The Wailers
Legend: The Best of Bob Marley & The Wailers
1984
Reggae
25
[110]

Carole King
Tapestry
1971
Pop
25
[111]

Phil Collins
No Jacket Required
1985
Pop rock
25
[112]

Queen
Greatest Hits
1981
Rock
25
[113]

Simon & Garfunkel
Bridge over Troubled Water
1970
Folk rock
25
[114]

U2
The Joshua Tree
1987
Rock
25
[115]

Britney Spears
...Baby One More Time
1999
Pop
25
[116]

Elton John
Greatest Hits
1974
Pop
24
[117]

Backstreet Boys
Backstreet's Back / Backstreet Boys
1997
Pop
24
[118]

Backstreet Boys
Millennium
1999
Pop
24
[118]

Spice Girls
Spice
1996
Pop
23
[119][120]

Ace of Base
Happy Nation/The Sign
1993
Pop
23
[121]

Whitney Houston
Whitney Houston
1985
Pop, R&B
22
[122]

Oasis
(What's the Story) Morning Glory?
1995
Britpop, rock
22
[123]

Eminem
The Marshall Mathers LP
2000
Rap, hip-hop
21
[124]

Madonna
Like a Virgin
1984
Pop, dance
21
[125]

Bon Jovi
Cross Road
1994
Hard rock, glam metal
21
[126]

Adele
25
2015
Soul, pop, R&B
20
[127]

Boston
Boston
1976
Hard rock
20
[128]

Britney Spears
Oops!... I Did It Again
2000
Pop
20
[129]

Celine Dion
The Colour of My Love
1993
Pop
20
[130]

Def Leppard
Hysteria
1987
Hard rock, glam metal
20
[131]

George Michael
Faith
1987
Pop, R&B, funk, soul
20
[132]

Green Day
Dookie
1994
Pop punk, punk rock, alternative rock
20
[133]

Lionel Richie
Can't Slow Down
1983
Pop, R&B, soul
20
[134]

Mariah Carey
Daydream
1995
Pop, R&B
20
[135]

Michael Jackson
HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I
1995
Pop, pop rock, funk, R&B, new jack swing
20
[136]

Michael Jackson
Off the Wall
1979
Soul, disco, R&B
20
[137]

Shania Twain
The Woman in Me
1995
Country, pop
20
[138]

Supertramp
Breakfast in America
1979
Progressive rock, art rock
20
[139]

Tracy Chapman
Tracy Chapman
1988
Folk rock
20
[140]

Various artists
Flashdance: Original Soundtrack from the Motion Picture
1983
Soundtrack
20
[141]

Whitney Houston
Whitney
1987
Pop, R&B
20
[142]

text: Timeline of the highest selling albums

text: The inclusion or exclusion of items from this list, or length of this list, is disputed. Please discuss this issue on the talk page. (July 2013)

text:
Timeline of the highest-selling album record

Year record set
Artist
Album
Record setting sales (millions)
Total sales (millions)
Ref(s)

1945
Various Artists
Oklahoma! (78 rpm album)
0.5
1.0
[143][144]

1956
Various Artists
Oklahoma! (LP album)
1.75
2.5
[145]

1956/1957
Various Artists
My Fair Lady
2
5
[146][147][148]

1960
Various Artists
South Pacific
2.25
3
[149]

1963
Vaughn Meader
The First Family
4
7.5
[150][151]

1968
Various Artists
The Sound of Music
8WW

[152]

1973
Carole King
Tapestry
10+

[153]

1975/1976
Various Artists
The Sound of Music
10–15SM-T

[154][155]

1976
Carole King
Tapestry
13.5SM-T
25
[156]

1979
Bee Gees/Various Artists
Saturday Night Fever
25–27
40
[157][158]

1984
Michael Jackson
Thriller
35
66
[159][1]

text:
WWIt is unclear whether this sales figure refers to worldwide sales or US sales.
SM-TThe exact year in which Tapestry regained the title of "best-selling album of all-time", if it ever regained it at all, is unclear. The album's 1976 sales claim is therefore only listed to be inclusive, as it is plausible that Tapestry had overtaken The Sound of Music in sales during this time period.

text: Best-selling album by year worldwide

text: The charts of the best-selling albums by year in the world are compiled by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry annually since 2001. These charts are published in their two annual reports, the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers. Both the Digital Music Report and the Recording Industry in Numbers were replaced in 2016 by the Global Music Report.[160]

text: Units sold include physical copies and digital downloads.

text:
Year
Album
Artist(s)
Sales
(millions)
Ref(s)

2001
Hybrid Theory
Linkin Park
8.5
[161]

2002
The Eminem Show
Eminem
13.9
[162]

2003
Come Away with Me
Norah Jones
18.0
[163][164]

2004
Confessions
Usher
12.0
[165]

2005
X&Y
Coldplay
8.3
[166]

2006
High School Musical
Various Artists
7.0
[167]

2007
High School Musical 2
6.0
[168]

2008
Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends
Coldplay
6.8
[169]

2009
I Dreamed a Dream
Susan Boyle
8.3
[170]

2010
Recovery
Eminem
5.7
[171]

2011
21
Adele
18.1
[162]

2012
8.3
[172]

2013
Midnight Memories
One Direction
4.0
[173]

2014
Frozen
Various Artists
9.0
[174]

2015
25
Adele
17.4
[175]

2016
Lemonade
Beyoncé
2.5
[176]

2017
÷
Ed Sheeran
6.1
[177]


document_title: History of road transport

question_text: who built some of the first roads in america

text: History of road transport

text: Early roads[edit]

text: The first forms of road transport were horses, oxen carrying goods over tracks that often followed game trails, such as the Natchez Trace.[1] In the Paleolithic Age, humans did not need constructed tracks in open country. The first improved trails would have been at fords, mountain passes and through swamps.[2] The first improvements would have consisted largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path. As commerce increased, the tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate human and animal traffic. Some of these dirt tracks were developed into fairly extensive networks, allowing communications, trade and governance over wide areas. The Incan Empire in South America and the Iroquois Confederation in North America, neither of which had the wheel, are examples of effective use of such paths.

text: The first goods transport was on human backs and heads, but the use of pack animals, including donkeys and horses, developed during the Neolithic Age. The first vehicle is believed to have been the travois, a frame used to drag loads, which probably developed in Eurasia after the first use of bullocks (castrated cattle) for pulling ploughs. In about 5000 BC, sleds developed, which are more difficult to build than travois, but are easier to propel over smooth surfaces. Pack animals, ridden horses and bullocks dragging travois or sleds require wider paths and higher clearances than people on foot and improved tracks were required.[3] As a result, by about 5000 BC roads, including the Ridgeway, developed along ridges in England to avoid crossing rivers and bogging.[4] In central Germany, such ridgeways remained the predominant form of long-distance road till the mid 18th century.[5]

text: Harappan roads[edit]

text: Street paving has been found from the first human settlements around 4000 BC in cities of the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent in modern day Pakistan, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Roads in the towns were straight and long, intersecting one another at right angles.

text: Wheeled transport[edit]

text: Wheels appear to have been developed in ancient Sumer in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, perhaps originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as attachments to travois or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds prior to the development of wheels, but there is no archeological evidence for this.[6] Most early wheels appear to have been attached to fixed axles, which would have required regular lubrication by animal fats or vegetable oils or separation by leather to be effective.[7] The first simple two-wheel carts, apparently developed from travois, appear to have been used in Mesopotamia and northern Iran in about 3000 BC and two-wheel chariots appeared in about 2800 BC. They were hauled by onagers, related to donkeys.[7]

text: Heavy four-wheeled wagons developed about 2500 BC, which were only suitable for oxen-haulage, and therefore were only used where crops were cultivated, particularly Mesopotamia.[7] Two-wheeled chariots with spoked wheels appear to have been developed around 2000 BC by the Andronovo culture in southern Siberia and Central Asia. At much the same time the first primitive harness enabling horse-haulage was invented.[7]

text: Wheeled-transport created the need for better roads. Generally natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BC. Corduroy roads were built in Glastonbury, England in 3300 BC[8] and brick-paved roads were built in the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent from around the same time. Improvements in metallurgy meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and Greece allowing local streets to be paved.[9] Notably, in about 2000 BC, the Minoans built a 50 km paved road from Knossos in north Crete through the mountains to Gortyn and Lebena, a port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of sandstone blocks bound with clay-gypsum mortar, covered by a layer of basaltic flagstones and had separate shoulders. This road could be considered superior to any Roman road.[10]

text: In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia (Iran), including the famous Royal Road which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road was used even after the Roman times. Because of the road's superior quality, mail couriers could travel 2,699 kilometres (1,677 mi) in seven days.

text: From 268 BCE to 22 BCE, Ashoka built roads, edicts, water wells, education centres, rest houses and hospitals for human and animals along the highways across Indian subcontinent and planted trees like banyan and mango groves for the benefit of travelers.[11][12][13]

text: Roman roads[edit]

text: With the advent of the Roman Empire, there was a need for armies to be able to travel quickly from one area to another, and the roads that existed were often muddy, which greatly delayed the movement of large masses of troops. To solve this problem, the Romans built great roads. These 'Roman roads' used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The legions made good time on these roads and some are still used millennia later.

text: On the more heavily traveled routes, there were additional layers that included six sided capstones, or pavers, that reduced the dust and reduced the drag from wheels. The pavers allowed the Roman chariots to travel very quickly, ensuring good communication with the Roman provinces. Farm roads were often paved first on the way into town, to keep produce clean. Early forms of springs and shocks to reduce the bumps were incorporated in horse-drawn transport, as the original pavers were sometimes not perfectly aligned.

text: Roman roads deteriorated in medieval Europe because of lack of resources and skills to maintain them, but many continued to be used. The alignments are still partially used today, for instance, parts of England's A1.

text: Early tar-paved roads[edit]

text: In the medieval Islamic world, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated roads were those of Baghdad, Iraq, which were paved with tar in the 8th century. Tar was derived from petroleum, accessed from oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.[14]

text: New road networks[edit]

text: In medieval Europe, before the 1200s, there were no organized networks of streets inside cities, merely shifting footpaths. With the invention of the horse harness and wagons with swivelled front axles that could make tight turns, urban street networks stabilized.[15]

text: As states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century.

text: Between 1725 and 1737 General George Wade constructed 250 miles (400 km) of road and 40 bridges to improve Britain's control of the Scottish Highlands, using Roman road designs with large stones at the bottom and gravel on top, with a typical overall depth of two metres. They were so poorly aligned and steep, according to Thomas Telford, "as to be unfit for the purposes of civil life" and also rough and poorly drained.[16]

text: Toll roads[edit]

text: Responsibility for the state of the roads lay with the local parish since Tudor times. In 1656 the parish of Radwell, Hertfordshire petitioned Parliament for help to maintain their section of the Great North Road.[17] Parliament passed an act that gave the local justices powers to erect toll-gates on a section of the Great North Road, between Wadesmill, Hertfordshire; Caxton, Cambridgeshire; and Stilton, Huntingdonshire for a period of eleven years and the revenues so raised should be used for the maintenance of the Great North Road in their jurisdictions.[17][18] The toll-gate erected at Wadesmill became the first effective toll-gate in England.

text: The first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Fornhill and Stony Stratford. The basic principle was that the trustees would manage resources from the several parishes through which the highway passed, augment this with tolls from users from outside the parishes and apply the whole to the maintenance of the main highway. This became the pattern for the turnpiking of a growing number of highways, sought by those who wished to improve flow of commerce through their part of a county.[17]

text: During the first three decades of the 18th century, sections of the main radial roads into London were put under the control of individual turnpike trusts. The pace at which new turnpikes were created picked up in the 1750s as trusts were formed to maintain the cross-routes between the Great Roads radiating from London. Roads leading into some provincial towns, particularly in Western England, were put under single trusts and key roads in Wales were turnpiked. In South Wales, the roads of complete counties were put under single turnpike trusts in the 1760s. A further surge of trust formation occurred in the 1770s, with the turnpiking of subsidiary connecting roads, routes over new bridges, new routes in the growing industrial areas and roads in Scotland. About 150 trusts were established by 1750; by 1772 a further 400 were established and, in 1800, there were over 700 trusts.[19] In 1825 about 1,000 trusts controlled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) of road in England and Wales.[20]

text: The Acts for these new trusts and the renewal Acts for the earlier trusts incorporated a growing list of powers and responsibilities. From the 1750s, Acts required trusts to erect milestones indicating the distance between the main towns on the road. Users of the road were obliged to follow what were to become rules of the road, such as driving on the left and not damaging the road surface. Trusts could take additional tolls during the summer to pay for watering the road in order to lay the dust thrown up by fast-moving vehicles. Parliament also passed a few general Turnpike Acts dealing with the administration of the trusts and restrictions on the width of wheels - narrow wheels were said to cause a disproportionate amount of damage to the road.

text: The quality of early turnpike roads was varied.[21] Although turnpiking did result in some improvement to each highway, the technologies used to deal with geological features, drainage, and the effects of weather, were all in their infancy. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s.[22] British turnpike builders began to realise the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing, and excluding vegetable material and clay to make better lasting roads.[16][23]

text: Turnpikes were also later built in the United States. They were usually built by private companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced routes already with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make the enterprise profitable. Plank roads were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement, better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads.

text: Industrial civil engineering[edit]

text: Metcalf[edit]

text: By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam, and by the French road engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet.

text: The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf, who constructed about 180 miles (290 km) of turnpike road, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when Parliament passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build new toll funded roads in the Knaresborough area. Metcalf won a contract to build a three-mile (5 km) section of road between Minskip and Ferrensby on a new road from Harrogate to Boroughbridge. He explored the section of countryside alone and worked out the most practical route.

text: He believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads. He worked out a way to build a road across a bog using a series of rafts made from ling (a type of heather) and furze (gorse) tied in bundles as foundations. This established his reputation as a road builder since other engineers had believed it could not be done. He acquired a mastery of his trade with his own method of calculating costs and materials, which he could never successfully explain to others.

text: Trésaguet[edit]

text: Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. The lower layer improved on Roman practice in that it was based on the understanding that the purpose of this layer (the sub-base or base course) is to transfer the weight of the road and its traffic to the ground, while protecting the ground from deformation by spreading the weight evenly. Therefore, the sub-base did not have to be a self-supporting structure. The upper running surface provided a smooth surface for vehicles, while protecting the large stones of the sub-base.

text: Trésaguet understood the importance of drainage by providing deep side ditches, but he insisted on building his roads in trenches, so that they could be accessed from the sides, which undermined this principle. Well-maintained surfaces and drains protect the integrity of the sub-base and Trésaguet introduced a system of continuous maintenance, where a roadman was allocated a section of road to be kept up to a standard.[24]

text: Telford[edit]

text: The surveyor and engineer Thomas Telford also made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges. His method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He also designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. He also improved on methods for the building of roads by improving the selection of stone based on thickness, taking into account traffic, alignment and slopes. During his later years, Telford was responsible for rebuilding sections of the London to Holyhead road, a task completed by his assistant of ten years, John MacNeill.

text: His engineering work on the Holyhead Road (now the A5) in the 1820s reduced the journey time of the London mail coach from 45 hours to just 27 hours, and the best mail coach speeds rose from 5-6 mph (8–10 km/h) to 9-10 mph (14–16 km/h). Between London and Shrewsbury, most of his work on the road amounted to improvements. Beyond Shrewsbury, and especially beyond Llangollen, the work often involved building a highway from scratch. Notable features of this section of the route include the Waterloo Bridge across the River Conwy at Betws-y-Coed, the ascent from there to Capel Curig and then the descent from the pass of Nant Ffrancon towards Bangor. Between Capel Curig and Bethesda, in the Ogwen Valley, Telford deviated from the original road, built by Romans during their occupation of this area.[25]

text: Macadam roads[edit]

text: It was another Scottish engineer, John Loudon McAdam, who designed the first modern roads. He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear.[26]

text: Also unlike Telford and other road builders, McAdam laid his roads as level as possible. His 30-foot-wide (9.1 m) road required only a rise of three inches from the edges to the center. Cambering and elevation of the road above the water table enabled rain water to run off into ditches on either side.[28]

text: Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). The upper 50-millimetre (2.0 in) layer of stones was limited to 20 millimetres (0.79 in) size and stones were checked by supervisors who carried scales. A workman could check the stone size himself by seeing if the stone would fit into his mouth. The importance of the 20 mm stone size was that the stones needed to be much smaller than the 100 mm width of the iron carriage tyres that traveled on the road.

text: McAdam believed that the "proper method" of breaking stones for utility and rapidity was accomplished by people sitting down and using small hammers, breaking the stones so that none of them was larger than six ounces in weight. He also wrote that the quality of the road would depend on how carefully the stones were spread on the surface over a sizeable space, one shovelful at a time.[29]

text: McAdam directed that no substance that would absorb water and affect the road by frost should be incorporated into the road. Neither was anything to be laid on the clean stone to bind the road. The action of the road traffic would cause the broken stone to combine with its own angles, merging into a level, solid surface that would withstand weather or traffic.[30]

text: Through his road-building experience McAdam had learned that a layer of broken angular stones would act as a solid mass and would not require the large stone layer previously used to build roads. By keeping the surface stones smaller than the tyre width, a good running surface could be created for traffic. The small surface stones also provided low stress on the road, so long as it could be kept reasonably dry.[31] In practice, his roads proved to be twice as strong as Telford's roads.[32]

text: Although McAdam had been adamantly opposed to the filling of the voids between his small cut stones with smaller material, in practice road builders began to introduce filler materials such as smaller stones, sand and clay, and it was observed that these roads were stronger as a result. Macadam roads were being built widely in the United States and Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s.[33]

text: Modern roads[edit]

text: Macadam roads were adequate for use by horses and carriages or coaches, but they were very dusty and subject to erosion with heavy rain.

text: The Good Roads Movement occurred in the United States between the late 1870s and the 1920s. Advocates for improved roads led by bicyclists such as the League of American Bicyclists turned local agitation into a national political movement.

text: Outside cities, roads were dirt or gravel; mud in the winter and dust in the summer. Early organizers cited Europe where road construction and maintenance was supported by national and local governments. In its early years, the main goal of the movement was education for road building in rural areas between cities and to help rural populations gain the social and economic benefits enjoyed by cities where citizens benefited from railroads, trolleys and paved streets. Even more than traditional vehicles, the newly invented bicycles could benefit from good country roads.

text: Later on, they did not hold up to higher-speed motor vehicle use. Methods to stabilise macadam roads with tar date back to at least 1834 when John Henry Cassell, operating from Cassell's Patent Lava Stone Works in Millwall, patented "Pitch Macadam".[34] This method involved spreading tar on the subgrade, placing a typical macadam layer, and finally sealing the macadam with a mixture of tar and sand. Tar-grouted macadam was in use well before 1900, and involved scarifying the surface of an existing macadam pavement, spreading tar, and re-compacting. Although the use of tar in road construction was known in the 19th century, it was little used and was not introduced on a large scale until the motorcar arrived on the scene in the early 20th century.

text: Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface.[35] He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac.[36]

text: Hooley's 1901 patent for Tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement, resin, and pitch.[37]