document_title: Metabolism

question_text: the process of changing fatty acids to several molecules of acetyl coa is called

text: Metabolism

text: Key biochemicals[edit]

text: Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from three basic classes of molecule: amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or by breaking them down and using them as a source of energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined together to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.

text:
Type of molecule

Name of monomer forms

Name of polymer forms

Examples of polymer forms

Amino acids

Amino acids

Proteins (made of polypeptides)

Fibrous proteins and globular proteins

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Polysaccharides

Starch, glycogen and cellulose

Nucleic acids

Nucleotides

Polynucleotides

DNA and RNA

text: Amino acids and proteins[edit]

text: Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape.[6] Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle.[7] Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle),[8] especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.[9]

text: Lipids[edit]

text: Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy.[7] Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform.[10] The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride.[11] Several variations on this basic structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids.[12]

text: Carbohydrates[edit]

text: Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals).[7] The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.[13]

text: Nucleotides[edit]

text: The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis.[7] This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome.[14] RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions.[15]

text: Coenzymes[edit]

text: Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules.[16] This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions.[15] These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.[17]

text: One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the universal energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day.[17] ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions.

text: A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells.[18] Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates.[19] Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.

text: Minerals and cofactors[edit]

text: Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a mammal's mass is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur.[20] Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.[20]

text: The abundant inorganic elements act as ionic electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH.[21] Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol.[22] Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules.[23]

text: Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those.[24][25] These metals are used in some proteins as cofactors and are essential for the activity of enzymes such as catalase and oxygen-carrier proteins such as hemoglobin.[26] Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use.[27][28]

text: Catabolism[edit]

text: Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules. The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of energy by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates, and phototrophs capture sunlight as chemical energy. However, all these different forms of metabolism depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, water, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to acceptor molecules such as oxygen, nitrate or sulfate.[29] In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. In photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, these electron-transfer reactions do not release energy but are used as a way of storing energy absorbed from sunlight.[30]

text:
Classification of organisms based on their metabolism

Energy source
sunlight
photo-

-troph

Preformed molecules
chemo-

Electron donor
organic compound

organo-

inorganic compound
litho-

Carbon source
organic compound

hetero-

inorganic compound
auto-

text: The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on the CoA is oxidised to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing the energy that is stored by reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH.

text: Digestion[edit]

text: Macromolecules such as starch, cellulose or proteins cannot be rapidly taken up by cells and must be broken into their smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Several common classes of enzymes digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides.

text: Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings,[31][32] while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and salivary glands.[33] The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.[34][35]

text: Energy from organic compounds[edit]

text: Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells once they have been digested into monosaccharides.[36] Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, where sugars such as glucose and fructose are converted into pyruvate and some ATP is generated.[37] Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA through aerobic (with oxygen) glycolysis and fed into the citric acid cycle. Although some more ATP is generated in the citric acid cycle, the most important product is NADH, which is made from NAD+ as the acetyl-CoA is oxidized. This oxidation releases carbon dioxide as a waste product. In anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces lactate, through the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase re-oxidizing NADH to NAD+ for re-use in glycolysis. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which reduces the coenzyme NADPH and produces pentose sugars such as ribose, the sugar component of nucleic acids.

text: Fats are catabolised by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates because carbohydrates contain more oxygen in their structures. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis.[38]

text: Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy.[39] The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example the deamination of glutamate forms α-ketoglutarate.[40] The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis (discussed below).[41]

text: Energy transformations[edit]

text: Oxidative phosphorylation[edit]

text: In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the protagon acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane.[42] These proteins use the energy released from passing electrons from reduced molecules like NADH onto oxygen to pump protons across a membrane.[43]

text: Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient.[44] This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate – turning it into ATP.[17]

text: Energy from inorganic compounds[edit]

text: Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen,[45] reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate),[1] ferrous iron (FeII)[46] or ammonia[47] as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds with electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite.[48] These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.[49][50]

text: Energy from light[edit]

text: The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can however operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds.[51][52]

text: In many organisms the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis.[17] The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres or rhodopsins. Reaction centers are classed into two types depending on the type of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.[53]

text: In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast.[30] These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then either be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+, for use in the Calvin cycle, which is discussed below, or recycled for further ATP generation.[54]

text: Anabolism[edit]

text: Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from small and simple precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.

text: Organisms differ according to the number of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from inorganic oxidation reactions.

text: Carbon fixation[edit]

text: Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin – Benson cycle.[55] Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.[56]

text: In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin – Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle,[57] or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA.[58][59] Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin – Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.[60]

text: Carbohydrates and glycans[edit]

text: In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis.[37] However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.[61][62]

text: Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery.[63] As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids.[64] In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose.[63][65]

text: Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-glucose) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures.[66] The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by enzymes called oligosaccharyltransferases.[67][68]

text: Fatty acids, isoprenoids and steroids[edit]

text: Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein,[69] while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.[70][71]

text: Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products.[72] These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.[73] These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA,[74] while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates.[73][75] One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol.[76] Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol.[76][77]

text: Proteins[edit]

text: Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food.[7] Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts.[78] All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.[79]

text: Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined together in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.[80] This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA.[81]

text: Nucleotide synthesis and salvage[edit]

text: Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy.[82] Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides.[82][83] Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose).[84] Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate.[85]

text: Xenobiotics and redox metabolism[edit]

text: All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics.[86] Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases,[87] UDP-glucuronosyltransferases,[88] and glutathione S-transferases.[89] This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills.[90] Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.[91]

text: A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress.[92] Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.[93] These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases.[94][95]

text: Thermodynamics of living organisms[edit]

text: Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any closed system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Thus living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments.[96] The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder.[97]

text: Regulation and control[edit]

text: As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis.[98][99] Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments.[100] Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway).[101] For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.[102]

text: There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate.[101] This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway.[103] Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface.[104] These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins.[105]

text: A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin.[106] Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen.[107] The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes.[108]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor.[3][109] This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.[110][111] The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps.[4][5] The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world.[112]

text: Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway.[113] The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway.[114] An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database)[115] These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic.[116] A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules.[117]

text: As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host.[118] Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms.[119]

text: Investigation and manipulation[edit]

text: Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products.[120] The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell.[121]

text: An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 45,000 genes.[122] However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior.[123] These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies.[124] Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research.[125] These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites.[126][127]

text: Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie[128][129][130] organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.

text: A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid.[131] These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.[132]

text: History[edit]

text: The term metabolism is derived from the Greek Μεταβολισμός – "Metabolismos" for "change", or "overthrow".[133]

text: Aristotle's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces.[134]

text:
Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."[135]
The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry.  The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina.[136] He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration".

text: In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue.[137] In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells."[138] This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea,[139] and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors. This proved that the organic compounds and chemical reactions found in cells were no different in principle than any other part of chemistry.

text: It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry.[140] The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism.[141] He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle.[142][65] Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, X-ray diffraction, NMR spectroscopy, radioisotopic labelling, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells.


document_title: Look What You Made Me Do

question_text: when will look what you made me do video come out

root

text: Look What You Made Me Do

text: Release and promotion[edit]

text: On August 23, 2017, Swift announced that the first single of her upcoming sixth album, titled Reputation, would come out the following night.[2] The song was released to streaming services on August 24,[3] and earned over eight million streams within twenty-four hours of its Spotify release, breaking the record for the highest first-day streaming for a single track.[4] "Look What You Made Me Do" was then released the next day onto iTunes for digital download[5] and onto Italian contemporary hit radio[6] before a United Kingdom radio release on August 26, 2017.[7] It impacted American contemporary hit radio three days afterwards through Big Machine Records.[8] A CD single release will follow in Germany on October 27, 2017.[9]

tag: p

text: A lyric video heavily based on the Saul Bass imagery used in the film Vertigo was released through Swift's official Vevo account on August 25, 2017.[10] The video was produced by Swift and Joseph Kahn.[11] It gained more than 19 million views during its first 24 hours on YouTube, surpassing "Something Just like This" by The Chainsmokers and Coldplay as the most viewed lyric video within that time period.[12] As of October 2017, the lyric video on YouTube has amassed over 83 million views.

text: Composition[edit]

text: "Look What You Made Me Do" runs for 3 minutes and 31 seconds.[5] Music critics have described the track as a hybrid of electroclash and pop,[13] as well as a dance-pop[14] and an electro-pop song.[10] It emphasizes the blame that is placed on an enemy,[citation needed] in special in the line, "I've got a list of names, and yours is in red, underlined". The middle eight of the song features Swift saying, "I'm sorry, the old Taylor can't come to the phone right now / Why? / Oh, 'cause she's dead!"

text: "Look What You Made Me Do" is performed in the key of A minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute.[15] Swift's vocals span from G3 to F5.[15]

text: Critic Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone noted a "nightmarish aesthetic" present in the song, and believed it to be a continuation of the "antagonistic persona" from "Bad Blood".[14]

text: Richard Fairbrass, Fred Fairbrass and Rob Manzoli, the members of the British dance-pop group Right Said Fred, are credited as songwriters because the song interpolates the melody of their song "I'm Too Sexy".[16][17] According to Fred Fairbrass, he and his brother were contacted one week before the release of "Look What You Made Me Do" and were asked whether a "big, contemporary female artist who hasn't released anything for a while" – whose identity they were not told – would be able to use a portion of their song for her latest single.[18] Although the brothers agreed to a deal, they did not officially find out that the artist in question was Swift until the morning after the song was released, but had deduced that it was her based on the description they were given.[18] Both of the Fairbrass brothers said that they enjoyed "Look What You Made Me Do"; Fred Fairbrass told Rolling Stone, "I like the cynical aspect of the lyric, because 'I'm Too Sexy' is a cynical song, and I think she channeled that quite well."[18] A representative for Swift confirmed that the song interpolated the melody from "I'm Too Sexy", but did not include sampled audio from the earlier song.[19]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: "Look What You Made Me Do" received polarized reviews from critics.[20][21][22] USA Today said that the polarizing reaction to the song illustrated Swift's position as a "ubiquitous cultural force".[23] The Telegraph Randy Lewis praised the song, deeming Swift and Antonoff's work as "blow[ing] past the production clichés of clap tracks and hiccuped syllabic hooks that have proliferated across Top 40 fare in recent years with boldly inventive textures and fresh melodic, rhythmic and sonic accents". He also added how the track musically and sonically shifted alongside the lyrics.[24] Sarah Carson of the Los Angeles Times wrote a positive review of the song, saying: "The reverberating crescendo builds and ever more delicious is the wickedness of Swift's menacing protagonist", praising Swift for her successful embrace of the villain character the media has portrayed her as previous to the song's release.[25] Variety's Chris Willman also praised Swift's embrace of a darker-styled pop music and the stylistic conflict between the song's pre-chorus and chorus.[26] Mark Harris, in New York magazine's pop culture blog, thought of Swift's song as a pop art anthem for the Trump era in how she reappropriates her public feuds as empowering badges of honor without acknowledging her own responsibility or blame.[27]

text: However, Maura Johnston of The Guardian wrote a negative review of the song, faulting the "sloppy" lyrics and blaming Swift for not giving a clear context in the lyrics.[10] Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone believed that the song marked a continuation of the feud between Swift and rapper Kanye West; the latter had previously name-dropped Swift in his song "Famous" by using the line, "I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex / Why? / I made that bitch famous". The single was noted as being a darker, angrier work than what Swift had done before.[14][28] Hugh McIntye of Forbes was critical of the change in style, saying that it "didn't sound like [Swift]" and that it "may have some kinks to work out".[13] Meaghan Garvey from Pitchfork referred to it in a review as "a hardcore self-own" track.[29]

text: Chart performance[edit]

text: In the United States, "Look What You Made Me Do" debuted at number seventy-seven on the Billboard Hot 100, powered by its first three days of airplay.[30] It also sold slightly under 200,000 digital copies within its first day of sales in the country, where it became the fastest selling download since Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You".[31] One week later, the song ascended from 77 to one on the Hot 100 after its first full week of tracking, becoming the fifth largest rise to the top position and Swift's fifth number-one single in the United States. It also topped the nation's Streaming Songs chart with 84.4 million streams, becoming its most streamed song within a week by a female artist and second overall behind the 103 million that Baauer's "Harlem Shake" gained in 2013. The track also had more weekly streams in the US than any other song in 2017. With 353,000 copies sold in its first week, "Look What You Made Me Do" opened atop the US Digital Songs chart and had the country's biggest sales opening since Justin Timberlake's "Can't Stop the Feeling!" in 2016 as well as the best weekly sales for a song by a female artist since Adele's "Hello" in 2015. The track also became the country's first number-one song with a female artist since Halsey was featured on "Closer" by The Chainsmokers and the first song with a female lead artist since Sia's "Cheap Thrills" with Sean Paul (both in 2016). It additionally was the first solo song by a female to top the US charts since Adele's "Hello".[32] It remained atop the Hot 100 and Streaming Songs charts for a second week with 114,000 copies sold and 61.2 million streams, though descended to number two on the Digital Songs chart when another Reputation track titled "...Ready for It?" debuted at number one with 135,000 digital copies sold and opened at number four on the Hot 100. As a result, Swift became the first artist to have two tracks sell over 100,000 digital copies in the nation within a week since Sheeran with "Shape of You" and "Castle on the Hill". It also became the first time a female had two songs within the top five of the Hot 100 since 2015 when Swift's previous tracks "Shake It Off" and "Blank Space" respectively were at numbers four and five on the chart.[33] The single also topped the Mainstream Top 40 chart, becoming Swift's eighth single to do so.[34]

text: In the United Kingdom, "Look What You Made Me Do" sold 20,000 copies and was streamed 2.4 million times in less than a week.[35] The song debuted at the top the UK Singles Chart on September 1, 2017 - for the week ending date September 7, 2017 - with opening sales of 30,000 copies and 5.3 million streams within the week and becoming Swift's first chart-topping song in Britain.[36] After two weeks at the top spot, it was displaced by Sam Smith's "Too Good at Goodbyes".[37]

text: "Look What You Made Me Do" also debuted at number one in the Republic of Ireland on September 1, 2017 and became Swift's first song to top the Irish Singles Chart. In doing so, it surpassed the number three peaks of her singles "Love Story" (in 2009) and "Shake It Off" (in 2014).

text: "Look What You Made Me Do" opened at number one in Australia on September 2, 2017, becoming her fifth track to top the ARIA Charts.[38] It spent another week at the nation's summit[39] before "Too Good at Goodbyes" took the top position there as well.[40] The song has been certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 units.[41] After debuting at number one on the Canadian Hot 100,[42] "Look What You Made Me Do" was also certified Platinum by Music Canada for shipments of 80,000 units on September 14, 2017.[43]

text: In New Zealand, "Look What You Made Me Do" entered at the number one spot on September 1, 2017, becoming Swift's fourth chart-topping single there.

text: In the Philippines, "Look What You Made Me Do" debuted at number 7 spot on the BillboardPH Hot 100 on its first week. A week later, it soared to the number 1 spot, ending the 10-week reign of "Despacito" by Luis Fonsi & Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber. It descended to the runner-up position the following week, as the latter song reclaimed the top spot for an 11th week.

text: Music video[edit]

text: Production and release[edit]

text: The official music video premiered on August 27, 2017 at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards.[44] The song's music video broke the record for most-watched video within 24 hours by achieving 43.2 million views on YouTube in its first day. It topped the 27.7 million Vevo views Adele's "Hello" attracted in that timeframe, as well as the 36 million YouTube views of Psy's "Gentleman" video.[45][46][47] It was viewed at an average 30,000 times per minute in its first 24 hours, with views reaching over 3 million views per hour.[48]

text: Preparation for the music video began in January, while the shooting took place in May.[49][50] The dance was choreographed by Tyce Diorio, who had worked with Swift on "Shake It Off" before.[49] Swift's make-up as a zombie was done by Bill Corso.[50] Post-production of the video lasted until the morning of its release.[50] A 20-second music video teaser was released on Good Morning America on August 25.[51] The teaser, upon release, was criticized on Twitter due to similarities to Beyoncé's "Formation" video.[52] Kahn turned to Twitter to dismiss the claims, stated that he had "worked with Beyoncé a few times", and that the music video is not in the way of her "art space".[53] Kahn also remarked that the video is derived from "[an] obscene K Pop video made in [a] North Korean prison in 2006", referencing to when he was accused for plagiarizing 2NE1's "Come Back Home" video with "Bad Blood" in 2015.[54][55]

text: It was also revealed that the diamonds used in a scene were authentic. The diamonds, loaned from celebrity jeweler Neil Lane, were said to be worth over $10 million, hence triggering tight security measures.[56] As of October 26, 2017, the video has over 626 million views and broke the record for the fastest video to reach 200, 300 and 400 million views on YouTube.[57] It is the 24th most liked video on YouTube with over 6.22 million likes.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: The video begins with a zombie Swift crawling out of a grave, where the headstone reads "Here Lies Taylor Swift's reputation", and digging another grave for her Met Gala 2014 self. The next scene shows Swift in a bathtub filled with diamonds. She is then seen seated on a throne while snakes surround her and serve tea. Swift later crashes her car on a post and sings the song's chorus holding a Grammy as the paparazzi take photos. She is also seen swinging inside a cage, robbing a streaming company in a cat mask, and leading a motorcycle gang. Afterwards, she gathers a group of women at "Squad U" and dances with a group of men in another room. At the end of the video, various iterations of Swift's public image bicker with one another, describing each other as "so fake" and "playing the victim", ending with one saying "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative" after which the other iterations yell at her to "shut up!" in unison, while the version of Swift in the background watches in silence.[54][58]

text: Analysis[edit]

text: The video contains numerous hidden meanings and references. In the opening scene, there is a subtle "Nils Sjöberg" tombstone shown when Swift is digging up a grave, referencing the pseudonym she used for a songwriting credit on Calvin Harris' 2016 single "This Is What You Came For".[59] Similarly, Swift—masked as a cadaveric version of herself in the "Out of the Woods" music video—was shown digging a grave for herself in a 2014 Met Gala gown, an event that characterized her first public appearance with short hair. A single dollar bill in the bathtub full of diamonds that she bathes in was also speculated to symbolize the dollar she was awarded for winning a sexual assault trial.[59] Interpretations for the bathtub scene were contrasting. Some believe that it is a response to media statement teasing that she "cries in a marble bathtub surrounded by pearls", while others viewed it as a mockery to Kim Kardashian's 2016 gunpoint robbery.[60]

text: In a separate scene, Swift is shown sitting atop a golden throne, where a carving of a phrase "Et tu, Brute?" could be seen on the armrest, a reference to Shakespeare's drama Julius Caesar.[59] Swift's infamous title as a "snake" during her hiatus[61] was also represented when a snake slithers onto the throne to serve Swift some tea. When Swift's car crashes, some speculated that it may be a jab at Katy Perry as Swift's hairdo is similar to Perry's in the scene. The sports car is also reminiscent of a car in Perry's "Waking Up in Vegas" video. She is also holding a Grammy Award in the scene, a possible reference to the fact that Perry has never won any Grammys despite multiple nominations.[62] Swift's withdrawal of her entire music catalog from streaming services were hinted when Swift and her crew walked out of a streaming company in the video.[63][64]

text: Swift gathering at "Squad U" was also said to be a reply to the media dubbing her close friends as a "squad".[59] During the second chorus, Swift can be seen with eight men, each of which revealed an "I Heart TS" crop top after unbuttoning a jacket. This scene is an apparent tribute to her ex-boyfriend Tom Hiddleston, who was seen wearing an "I Heart TS" tank top when they were a couple. The eight backup dancers may also have been a possible reference to the idea that Swift has had eight ex-boyfriends during her career. Swift was also seen standing on a pile of her other iterations, reiterating the idea that she is leaving her past self behind. The shirt that an iteration of Swift wore in the "You Belong with Me" video was also different, with her close friends' names scribbled on it this time.[63][64]

text: In June 2016, discussing the relationship between her and Kanye West after West's song "Famous", Swift wrote on Instagram, "I would very much like to be excluded from this narrative."[65] The same line is spoken by one of Swift's iterations at the end of the video.[66][67] She is wearing the same outfit Swift had worn during the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, when West interrupted her award-winning speech for Best Female Video.[68]

text: Usage in media[edit]

text: ABC used the song in a promotional video for its Shonda Rhimes' Thursday line-up an hour after its release.[69] Sister network ESPN used it in its college football telecast advertisements for the season opening game between Alabama and Florida State, which was aired on ABC on September 2.[70]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017)
Peak
position

Argentina Anglo (Monitor Latino)[71]
4

Australia (ARIA)[72]
1

Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[73]
2

Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[74]
8

Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[75]
39

Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[76]
1

Canada AC (Billboard)[77]
33

Canada CHR/Top 40 (Billboard)[78]
10

Canada Hot AC (Billboard)[79]
10

Croatia (HRT)[80]
1

Czech Republic (Rádio Top 100)[81]
39

Czech Republic (Singles Digitál Top 100)[82]
1

Denmark (Tracklisten)[83]
12

Euro Digital Songs (Billboard)[84]
1

Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[85]
8

France (SNEP)[86]
4

Germany (Official German Charts)[87]
3

Greece Digital Songs (Billboard)[88]
1

Hungary (Single Top 40)[89]
3

Ireland (IRMA)[90]
1

Israel (Media Forest)[91]
1

Italy (FIMI)[92]
10

Japan (Japan Hot 100)[93]
7

Japan Hot Overseas (Billboard)[94]
1

Latvia (Latvijas Top 40)[95]
2

Lebanon (Lebanese Top 20)[96]
1

Luxembourg Digital Songs (Billboard)[97]
7

Malaysia (RIM)[98]
1

Mexico Anglo (Monitor Latino)[99]
1

Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[100]
7

Netherlands (Single Top 100)[101]
13

New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[102]
1

Norway (VG-lista)[103]
6

Philippines (Philippine Hot 100)[104]
1

Portugal (AFP)[105]
4

Russia Airplay (Tophit)[106]
46

Scotland (Official Charts Company)[107]
1

Slovakia (Singles Digitál Top 100)[108]
1

South Korea International Chart (Gaon)[109]
6

Spain (PROMUSICAE)[110]
1

Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[111]
7

Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[112]
6

UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[113]
1

US Billboard Hot 100[114]
1

US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[115]
19

US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[116]
7

US Dance Club Songs (Billboard)[117]
9

US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[118]
1

US Rhythmic (Billboard)[119]
20

Venezuela Anglo (Monitor Latino)[120]
5

tag: table

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Australia (ARIA)[41]
Platinum
70,000^

Canada (Music Canada)[43]
2× Platinum
160,000^

Italy (FIMI)[121]
Gold
25,000

New Zealand (RMNZ)[122]
Gold
15,000*

Spain (PROMUSICAE)[123]
Gold
20,000^

United Kingdom (BPI)[124]
Silver
200,000

United States (RIAA)[125]
Platinum
707,626[126]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone

text: Release history[edit]

text:
Region
Date
Format
Label
Ref.

Worldwide
August 24, 2017
Streaming
Big Machine
[3]

August 25, 2017
Digital download
[5]

Italy
Contemporary hit radio
Universal Music
[6]

United Kingdom
August 26, 2017
Virgin EMI
[7]

United States
August 29, 2017
Big Machine
[8]

Germany
October 27, 2017
CD single
Universal Music
[9]


document_title: Branches of science

question_text: branch of science that involves the classification of living things

text: Branches of science

text: Natural/Pure Science[edit]

text: Natural science is a branch of science that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world by applying an empirical and scientific method to the study of the universe. The term natural sciences is used to distinguish it from the social sciences, which apply the scientific method to study human behavior and social patterns; the humanities, which use a critical, or analytical approach to the study of the human condition; and the formal sciences.

text: Physical science[edit]

text: Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.

text: Physics[edit]

text: Physics(from Ancient Greek: φύσις physis "nature") is a natural science that involves the study of matter[3] and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[4] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[5][6][7]

text: Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[8] Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right.[9] Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed)[10] is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[11] It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based); biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).

text: Earth science[edit]

text: Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[12] It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house"; -λογία, "study of") is the scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment. Topics of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount (biomass), number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems.

text: Oceanography[edit]

text: Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography.

text: Geology[edit]

text: Geology (from the Greek γῆ, gê, "earth" and λόγος, logos, "study") is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any celestial body (such as the geology of the Moon or geology of Mars).

text: Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. In modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation and for evaluating water resources. It is publicly important for the prediction and understanding of natural hazards, the remediation of environmental problems, and for providing insights into past climate change. Geology plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic discipline.

text: Meteorology[edit]

text: Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere<especially>. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.

text: Space Science or Astronomy[edit]

text: Space science or Astronomy is the study of everything in outer space.[13] This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields,[14] such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology[15] and science performed in outer space (see space research).

text: Life science[edit]

text: Life science comprises the branches of science[16] that involve the scientific study of living organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings. However, the study of behavior of organisms, such as practiced in ethology and psychology, is only included in as much as it involves a clearly biological aspect. While biology remains the centerpiece of life science, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and new, often interdisciplinary, fields.

text: Biology[edit]

text: Biology is the branch of natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.[17] Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines.

text: Zoology[edit]

text: Zoology /zoʊˈɒlədʒi/, occasionally spelled zoölogy, is the branch of science that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōon, "animal") + λόγος (logos, "knowledge").

text: Human biology[edit]

text: Human biology is an interdisciplinary academic field of biology, biological anthropology, nutrition and medicine which focuses on humans; it is closely related to primate biology, and a number of other fields.

text: Some branches of biology include: microbiology, anatomy, neurology and neuroscience, immunology, genetics, physiology, pathology, biophysics, biolinguistics, and ophthalmology.

text: Botany[edit]

text: Botany, plant science, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific study of plant life. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines including structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties, and evolutionary relationships among taxonomic groups. Botany began with early human efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest sciences. Today botanists study over 550,000 species of living organisms. The term "botany" comes from Greek βοτάνη, meaning "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat.

text: Social sciences[edit]

text: The social sciences are the fields of scholarship that study society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences. These include: anthropology, archaeology, business administration, communication, criminology, economics, education, government, linguistics, international relations, political science, psychology (especially social psychology), theology, sociology and, in some contexts, geography, history and law.[18][19]

text: Formal sciences[edit]

text: The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics, and theoretical linguistics.

text: Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality,[20] and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.

text: Decision theory[edit]

text: Decision theory in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the field of game law.

text: Logic[edit]

text: Logic (from the Greek λογική logikē)[21] is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. In philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas: epistemology, ethics, metaphysics. In mathematics and computer science, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal language.[22] Logic is also studied in argumentation theory.[23]

text: Mathematics[edit]

text: Mathematics, first of all known as The Science of numbers which is classified in Arithmetic and Algebra, is classified as a formal science,[24][25] has both similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods.[26]

text: Statistics[edit]

text: Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data.[27][28] It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.[27]

text: A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.

text: The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art."[29] This should not be confused with the word statistic, referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data,[30] whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").

text: Systems theory[edit]

text: Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.

text: In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and in climate.

text: Theoretical computer science[edit]

text: Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a division or subset of general computer science and focuses on more abstract or mathematical aspects of computing.

text: These divisions and subsets include analysis of algorithms and formal semantics of programming languages. Technically, there are hundreds of divisions and subsets besides these two. Each of the multiple parts have their own individual personal leaders (of popularity) and there are many associations and professional social groups and publications of distinction.

text: Applied sciences[edit]

text: Applied science is the application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. Examples include testing a theoretical model through the use of formal science or solving a practical problem through the use of natural science.

text: Applied science differs from fundamental science, which seeks to describe the most basic objects and forces, having less emphasis on practical applications. Applied science can be like biological science and physical science.

text: Example fields of applied science include

text:
Engineering
Applied mathematics
Applied physics
Medicine
Computer science

tag: ul

text: Fields of engineering are closely related to applied sciences. Applied science is important for technology development. Its use in industrial settings is usually referred to as research and development (R&D).


document_title: MS Anthem of the Seas

question_text: where does anthem of the seas sail from

question_tokens: where does anthem of the seas sail from

text: MS Anthem of the Seas

text: Concept and construction[edit]

text: On February 11, 2011, Royal Caribbean announced that they had ordered a new class of ships from the Meyer Werft shipyard in Papenburg, Germany, the first of which was scheduled to be delivered by Fall 2014. At the time, the project was code-named "Project Sunshine".[8] Later that year, two 20.5-megawatt ABB Azipod XO propulsion units were ordered for that ship.[6]

text: On February 29, 2012 the company announced that a second "Project Sunshine" ship had been ordered and would be delivered by Spring 2015,[9] and ordered identical Azipod propulsion units shortly thereafter.[6] Just under a year later, on January 31, 2013, Royal Caribbean announced the official name of the new class of ships, Quantum Class, as well as the names of the first two ships in the class, Quantum of the Seas and Anthem of the Seas.[1][10]

text: Service history[edit]

text: Anthem of the Seas was delivered to Royal Caribbean on April 10, 2015.[11] She arrived at her first homeport, Southampton, England, on April 15, 2015, to prepare for her maiden European summer season.[12] At a ceremony held in Southampton on April 20, 2015, she was christened by Emma Wilby, a British travel agent chosen after a search for a travel agent who could sing, and also because she exemplified "grace, beauty, a social conscious (sic) and a sense of adventure."[13] In addition to being a travel agent, Ms Wilby is a military wife who sings in the Military Wives Choir in Kinloss, Scotland.[14]

text: The christening ceremony took place in the vessel’s Royal Theatre in front of 1,300 guests. It began with a procession, followed by performances by the Reading Scottish Pipe Band, and Only Boys Aloud, a boys’ choir from Wales. Ms Wilby then sang Katy Perry's hit song "Firework", after which she pushed a button to send a very large bottle of Perrier-Jouët champagne down a zipline on the ship's top deck, from the North Star gondola thrill ride into a wall bearing the ship's name.[13][14]

text: Anthem of the Seas departed from Southampton on her maiden voyage, an eight-night cruise to France and Spain, on April 22, 2015.[15] She has spent her maiden European season cruising from Southampton to the Mediterranean, Northern Europe, and the Canary Islands.[16] Beginning in November 2015, she will operate seven- to twelve-night itineraries to the Caribbean and Bahamas from Cape Liberty in Bayonne, New Jersey, United States.[17] In 2016, Anthem of the Seas will sail year-round out of New Jersey, sailing to the Caribbean, Bermuda, and Canada/New England.[18] Anthem of the Seas will become the largest ship ever to cruise Canadian waters.[citation needed]

text: Design[edit]

text: Staterooms[edit]

text: Anthem of the Seas has 16 passenger-accessible decks, 8 of which feature balcony staterooms overlooking the ocean. Like the Celebrity Solstice class, those staterooms above the life boats are recessed into the superstructure and don't look down directly at the ocean. There are a total of 2,090 staterooms: 1,570 balcony staterooms, 147 ocean-view staterooms, and 373 inside staterooms. Of those staterooms, 34 are wheelchair accessible and 28 are studio staterooms for single travelers (including 12 studio staterooms with balconies). All aft-facing staterooms are a 2-story "loft" suites. Expanding on the "Virtual Porthole" concept introduced by Disney Cruise Line on the Disney Dream, all the interior staterooms feature a floor-to-ceiling 80-inch high-definition TV screen showing live views from the outside of the ship, which Royal Caribbean calls a "Virtual Balcony". On average, staterooms on the Quantum class are 9 percent larger than those on the preceding Oasis class.[5][19][20][21]

text: Activities and entertainment[edit]

text: Like the earlier Freedom and Oasis-class ships, the "Sports Court" on deck 15 aft features a Wave Loch Flowrider surf simulator and a rock-climbing wall.[22] A new feature on the Quantum class is "RipCord by iFLY", a skydiving simulator set in a recirculating indoor recreational vertical wind tunnel.[23] Reservations for RipCord are able to be made online in advance of the cruise. All the features of the Sports deck are complimentary, although Royal Caribbean charges for pictures and videos taken of RipCord participants taken by a crew photographer.[21] Guests are free to take their own pictures or have other guests take pictures of videos of them.

text: The "NorthStar" observation tower, located at the forward end of the top deck, uses a 7.1-tonne (7.8-short-ton) glass-walled capsule on the end of a 41-meter-long (135 ft) crane arm to lift groups of up to 14 guests up and over the edge of the ship, reaching heights of up to 300 feet above sea level. Rides on the NorthStar are complimentary, with the exception of sunrise, sunset, and private trips which have a charge, and can be reserved online in advance.[21][24][25]

text: Anthem of the Seas is the first cruise ship to offer an on-board live room escape game, Puzzle Break's "Escape from the Future."[26]

text: Deck 14 features an outdoor pool with a large video screen, an indoor pool with a retractable roof, an indoor "Solarium" with an adults-only pool, the "H2O Zone" kids' water park featuring the first wave pool on a cruise ship,[27] and at least 4 whirlpools.[20][28] Other included features that have become standard on recent Royal Caribbean ships include a Spa and Fitness Center on decks 15 and 16, the "Adventure Ocean" kids club on decks 11 and 12, a Broadway-style "The Royal Theater" on decks 3-5, and a Casino on deck 3. Unlike the earlier Voyager, Freedom, and Oasis class, Quantum-class ships do not feature a Viking Crown Lounge or ice skating rink, and the Royal Promenade mall down the center of the ship is replaced with the two-story "Royal Esplanade".[20][21][29]

text: The ship also features a number of multi-purpose venues:[28]

text: The Royal Theater[edit]

text: The Royal Theater is a Broadway-style theater on decks 3–5.[20] It is home to the ship's fully licensed production of the Broadway musical We Will Rock You,[30] the original stage production The Gift,[31] headliner acts, 3D movies, and other entertainment.[20]

text: Two70° is a lounge on decks 5–7 at the stern of the ship, which features three-story-high 270-degree panoramic ocean views, a café, and an ice bar. Automatic window shades can cover the windows to limit the amount of sunlight entering, and a 13-projector projection mapping system can project live views from outside the ship and other imagery onto those shades.[32] At night, movable furniture and retractable dividers and chandeliers allow the space to be reconfigured to be used as a performance venue for a cabaret-style show or as a disco.[31][33] Both nighttime uses will take advantage of the projection system and 6 robotically controlled 100-inch LCD television screens to provide digital backdrops.[20][34]

text: As of 2016, the venue features the show "Spectra Cabaret" starring Raven O and the Harmony Sisters.[35]

text: SeaPlex[edit]

text: Located at the middle of deck 15, the SeaPlex is a large indoor gym with a full-size basketball court that can be converted into a dance floor, a flying trapeze school, a roller-skating arena, or a bumper cars ride.[22] The "SeaPlex" also features the SeaPlex Dog House food truck, and has video games, table tennis, air hockey, and foosball tables on a second-level mezzanine.[21]

text: The Music Hall[edit]

text: The Music Hall is a 2-story lounge on decks 3 and 4 that also serves as a nightclub and small music performance venue.[28] The Music Hall features the self-leveling pool tables first seen on the Radiance-class ships.[36]

text: Dining[edit]

text: Unlike previous Royal Caribbean ships, Anthem of the Seas does not have a main dining room.[37] Instead, the ship uses a Dynamic Dining concept similar to the Freestyle concept used on Norwegian Cruise Line, with guests being required to make reservations for their choice of restaurant for each night in advance,[38] and each venue will maintain the same menu throughout the cruise.[39] A "classic" dining option will be offered, similar to the rotational dining on Disney Cruise Line, that allows guests to keep the same servers, table-mates, and dining time each night as they rotate between the four largest restaurants.[40] On 27 November 2016 "Dynamic Dining Classic" was discontinued and replaced with "My Time Dining". The Grande and Chic restaurants serve Traditional Dining and the Silk and American Icon restaurants serve Flexible Dining. Traditional dining includes a fixed dining time (6 or 8:30pm), same table assignment and same table companions each evening. Guests in Flexible Dining are seated on a first come, first served basis.[41]

text: Complimentary[edit]

text: There are five complimentary main restaurants (four of which are available to all passengers):[5][37]

text:
American Icon Grill — American comfort food (Smart Casual, open for breakfast, lunch, and dinner).
Chic — Contemporary cuisine (Smart Casual, dinner only).
Coastal Kitchen* — California Mediterranean fusion (Smart Casual, open for breakfast, lunch and dinner). *Restaurant available only to guests staying in junior-suite-level staterooms and above.
The Grande Restaurant — Continental cuisine (Formal, dinner only).
Silk — Pan-Asian fusion, served family style (Smart Casual, open for breakfast, lunch, and dinner).

text: Other smaller complimentary dining venues include:[5][37]

text:
The Café @ Two70° — Made-to-order sandwiches and salads, similar to the Park Café on other Royal Caribbean ships (breakfast, lunch, and dinner).
Café Promenade — Sandwiches and pastries (breakfast, lunch, and dinner).
SeaPlex Dog House — Hot dogs and sausages, similar to the Boardwalk Dog House on other Royal Caribbean ships (lunch and dinner).
Devinly Decadence at Solarium Bistro — Spa cuisine by Devin Alexander (breakfast, lunch and dinner).[42]
Sorrentos Pizza (lunch and dinner)
Windjammer Marketplace — Complimentary buffet (breakfast, lunch, and dinner). Includes a new The Grill area, and features all-day breakfast, cheese steak sandwiches, rotisserie chicken, and other food items.

text: Additional fee[edit]

text: There are several smaller dining concepts that are available to passengers for an additional fee:[5][37]

text:
Jamie’s Italian by Jamie Oliver (lunch and dinner).
Michael's Genuine Pub — À la carte gastropub from chef Michael Schwartz (lunch and dinner).
Wonderland Imaginative Cuisine (dinner only)
Prime Table @ Chop’s Grille (dinner only)[43]
Chops Grille — Steakhouse (dinner only).
Izumi Japanese Cuisine — À la carte sushi and Japanese food (lunch and dinner).
Johnny Rockets — À la carte location of the restaurant chain (lunch and dinner).

text: Bars and lounges[edit]

text: Anthem of the Seas includes numerous bars and lounges, including the Royal Caribbean signatures Schooner Bar and Boleros, the Ice Bar located in Two70°, Michael's Genuine Pub, and the Bionic Bar which features robotic bartenders from Makr Shakr.[44][45]

text: Incidents[edit]

text: On 7 February 2016, the ship was struck by "extreme wind and sea conditions" off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina while sailing south from Bayonne, New Jersey to Port Canaveral, Florida. The ship was caught in 30-foot (9.1 m) waves and a 125 miles per hour (201 km/h) apparent wind. Passengers were advised to stay in their cabins, as the rocking of the ship overturned furniture and caused damage in public areas and cabins, including collapsing part of a suspended ceiling and rendering one of the ship's two azipod propulsion units inoperable.[46] Royal Caribbean reported that only four passengers suffered minor injuries, but many aboard the ship told a different story. One man described the storm as "The scariest, most horrible experience of my life." The ship resumed sailing on the 8 February, returning to port in the New York area to avoid further bad weather that had been forecast. Passengers were refunded their full cruise fare, and received a credit for 50% of their fare toward a future cruise within the next year.[47][48]

text: On 30 June 2016, as the ship sailed from Bayonne, New Jersey, 8-year-old Prince Adepoju of Maryland was found unresponsive in the ship's pool. As CPR was performed, the ship returned to port and was met by NYPD and FDNY boats and an NYPD helicopter which eventually flew him to Staten Island University Hospital. After two days in pediatric intensive care, Adepoju died on 2 July 2016. The medical examiner deemed his death to be an accident.[49]

text: On September 4, 2016, the Anthem of the Seas was again confronted with stormy conditions generated from the nearby Hurricane Hermine, which was a post tropical cyclone at the time. The ship experienced gusts of up to 90 mph. Again, passengers were confined to their staterooms to ride out the storm. However, this one caused less damage than the previous incident.[50]

text: On December 1, 2016, as Anthem of the Seas docked in San Juan, Puerto Rico, two American passengers were found dead. Authorities said the bodies showed no signs of violence and seemingly had died from natural causes.[51]

text: On February 18, 2017 at approximately 9:55am, a 75 year old woman experiencing diabetic shock was airlifted by the US Coast Guard from the vessel located approximately 100 miles east of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina.