document_title: Painted turtle

question_text: how long does it take for painted turtles to hatch

question_tokens: how long does it take for painted turtles to hatch

text: Painted turtle

text: Description[edit]

text: The painted turtle's shell is 10–25 cm (4–10 in) long, oval, smooth with little grooves where the large scale-like plates overlap, and flat-bottomed.[7][nb 2][8][9] The color of the top shell (carapace) varies from olive to black. Darker specimens are more common where the bottom of the water body is darker. The bottom shell (plastron) is yellow, sometimes red, sometimes with dark markings in the center. Similar to the top shell, the turtle's skin is olive to black, but with red and yellow stripes on its neck, legs, and tail.[10][11] As with other pond turtles, such as the bog turtle, the painted turtle's feet are webbed to aid swimming.[12][13][14]

text: The head of the turtle is distinctive. The face has only yellow stripes, with a large yellow spot and streak behind each eye, and on the chin two wide yellow stripes that meet at the tip of the jaw.[7][9][10] The turtle's upper jaw is shaped into an inverted "V" (philtrum), with a downward-facing, tooth-like projection on each side.[15]

text: The hatchling has a proportionally larger head, eyes, and tail, and a more circular shell than the adult.[16][17] The adult female is generally longer than the male, 10–25 cm (4–10 in) versus 7–15 cm (3–6 in).[10][18] For a given length, the female has a higher (more rounded, less flat) top shell.[19] The female weighs around 500 g (18 oz) on average, against the males' average adult weight of roughly 300 g (11 oz).[20] The female's greater body volume supports her egg-production.[21] The male has longer foreclaws and a longer, thicker tail, with the anus (cloaca) located further out on the tail.[7][8][9][22]

text: Subspecies[edit]

text: Although the subspecies of painted turtle intergrade (blend together) at range boundaries[23] they are distinct within the hearts of their ranges.[24]

text:
The male eastern painted turtle (C. p. picta) is 13–17 cm (5–7 in) long, while the female is 14–17 cm (6–7 in). The upper shell is olive green to black and may possess a pale stripe down the middle and red markings on the periphery. The segments (scutes) of the top shell have pale leading edges and occur in straight rows across the back, unlike all other North American turtles, including the other three subspecies of painted turtle, which have alternating segments.[24] The bottom shell is plain yellow or lightly spotted. Sometimes as few as one dark grey spot near the lower center of the shell.[25]
The midland painted turtle (C. p. marginata) is 10–25 cm (4–10 in) long.[26] The centrally located midland is the hardest to distinguish from the other three subspecies.[24] Its bottom shell has a characteristic symmetrical dark shadow in the center which varies in size and prominence.[27]
The southern painted turtle (C. p. dorsalis), the smallest subspecies, is 10–14 cm (4–6 in) long.[28] Its top stripe is a prominent red,[24] and its bottom shell is tan and spotless or nearly so.[29]
The largest subspecies is the western painted turtle (C. p. bellii), which grows up to 26.6 cm (10 in) long.[30][31] Its top shell has a mesh-like pattern of light lines,[32] and the top stripe present in other subspecies is missing or faint. Its bottom shell has a large colored splotch that spreads to the edges (further than the midland) and often has red hues.[32]

text:
Eastern painted turtle
C. p. picta
Midland painted turtle
C. p. marginata
Southern painted turtle
C. p. dorsalis
Western painted turtle
C. p. bellii

text: Similar species[edit]

text: The painted turtle has a very similar appearance to the red-eared slider (the most common pet turtle) and the two are often confused. The painted turtle can be distinguished because it is flatter than the slider. Also, the slider has a prominent red marking on the side of its head (the "ear") and a spotted bottom shell, both features missing in the painted turtle.[33]

text:
Painted turtle
Red-eared slider

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Diet[edit]

text: The painted turtle hunts along water bottoms. It quickly juts its head into and out of vegetation to stir potential victims out into the open water, where they are pursued.[34] The turtle holds large prey in its mouth and tears the prey apart with its forefeet. It also consumes plants and skims the surface of the water with its mouth open to catch small particles of food.[34]

text: Although all subspecies of painted turtle eat both plants and animals, their specific diets vary.[34][35]

text:
The eastern painted turtle's diet is the least studied. It prefers to eat in the water, but has been observed eating on land. The fish it consumes are typically dead or injured.[35]
The midland painted turtle eats mostly aquatic insects and both vascular and non-vascular plants.[36]
The southern painted turtle's diet changes with age. Juveniles' diet consists of 13% vegetation, while the adults eat 88% vegetation. This perhaps shows that the turtle prefers small larvae and other prey, but can only obtain significant amounts while young.[37] The reversal of feeding habits with age has also been seen in the false map turtle, which inhabits some of the same range. The most common plants eaten by adult southern painted turtles are duckweed and algae, and the most common prey items are dragonfly larvae and crayfish.[38]
The western painted turtle's consumption of plants and animals changes seasonally. In early summer, 60% of its diet comprises insects. In late summer, 55% includes plants.[39] Of note, the western painted turtle aids in the dispersal of white water-lily seeds. The turtle consumes the hard-coated seeds, which remain viable after passing through the turtle, and disperses them through its feces.[39]

text:
Common foods of the painted turtle

Crayfish

Dragonfly larva

American water lily

Duckweed (water surface)

text: Predators[edit]

text: Painted turtles are most vulnerable to predators when young.[40] Nests are frequently ransacked and the eggs eaten by garter snakes, crows, chipmunks, thirteen-lined ground and gray squirrels, skunks, groundhogs, raccoons, badgers, gray and red fox, and humans.[40] The small and sometimes bite-size, numerous hatchlings fall prey to water bugs, bass, catfish, bullfrogs, snapping turtles, three types of snakes (copperheads, racers and water snakes), herons, rice rats, weasels, muskrats, minks, and raccoons. As adults, the turtles' armored shells protect them from many potential predators, but they still occasionally fall prey to alligators, ospreys, crows, red-shouldered hawks, bald eagles, and especially raccoons.[40]

text: Painted turtles defend themselves by kicking, scratching, biting, or urinating.[40] In contrast to land tortoises, painted turtles can right themselves if they are flipped upside down.[41]

text:
Important predators of the painted turtle

Of eggs:

Red Fox

Plains Garter Snake

Crows
Of hatchlings:

Common Snapping Turtle

Water Bugs
Of adults:

Raccoon

text: Life cycle[edit]

text: Mating[edit]

text: The painted turtles mate in spring and fall in waters of 10–25 °C (50–77 °F).[42] Males start producing sperm in early spring, when they can bask to an internal temperature of 17 °C (63 °F).[43][44] Females begin their reproductive cycles in mid-summer, and ovulate the following spring.[45]

text: Courtship begins when a male follows a female until he meets her face-to-face.[46] He then strokes her face and neck with his elongated front claws, a gesture returned by a receptive female. The pair repeat the process several times, with the male retreating from and then returning to the female until she swims to the bottom, where they copulate.[45][46] As the male is smaller than the female, he is not dominant.[46] The female stores sperm, to be used for up to three clutches, in her oviducts; the sperm may remain viable for up to three years.[47] A single clutch may have multiple fathers.[47]

text: Egg-laying[edit]

text: Nesting is done, by the females only, between late May and mid-July.[45] The nests are vase-shaped and are usually dug in sandy soil, often at sites with southern exposures.[48] Nests are often within 200 m (220 yd) of water, but may be as far away as 600 m (660 yd), with older females tending to nest further inland. Nest sizes vary depending on female sizes and locations but are about 5–11 cm (2–4 in) deep.[48] Females may return to the same sites several consecutive years, but if several females make their nests close together, the eggs become more vulnerable to predators.[48]

text: The female's optimal body temperature while digging her nest is 29–30 °C (84–86 °F).[48] If the weather is unsuitable, for instance a too hot night in the Southeast, she delays the process until later at night.[48] Painted turtles in Virginia have been observed waiting three weeks to nest because of a hot drought.[49]

text: While preparing to dig her nest, the female sometimes exhibits a mysterious preliminary behavior. She presses her throat against the ground of different potential sites, perhaps sensing moisture, warmth, texture, or smell, although her exact motivation is unknown. She may further temporize by excavating several false nests[48] as the wood turtles also do.[50]

text: The female relies on her hind feet for digging. She may accumulate so much sand and mud on her feet that her mobility is reduced, making her vulnerable to predators. To lighten her labors, she lubricates the area with her bladder water.[48] Once the nest is complete, the female deposits into the hole. The freshly laid eggs are white, elliptical, porous, and flexible.[51] From start to finish, the female's work may take four hours. Sometimes she remains on land overnight afterwards, before returning to her home water.[48]

text: Females can lay five clutches per year, but two is a normal average after including the 30–50% of a population's females that do not produce any clutches in a given year.[48] In some northern populations, no females lay more than one clutch per year.[48] Bigger females tend to lay bigger eggs and more eggs per clutch.[52] Clutch sizes of the subspecies vary, although the differences may reflect different environments, rather than different genetics. The two more northerly subspecies, western and midland, are larger and have more eggs per clutch—11.9 and 7.6, respectively—than the two more southerly subspecies, southern (4.2) and eastern (4.9). Within subspecies, also, the more northerly females lay larger clutches.[48]

text: Growth[edit]

text: Incubation lasts 72–80 days in the wild[45] and for a similar period in artificial conditions.[49] In August and September, the young turtle breaks out from its egg, using a special projection of its jaw called the egg tooth.[53] Not all offspring leave the nest immediately, though.[45] Hatchlings north of a line from Nebraska to northern Illinois to New Jersey[54] typically arrange themselves symmetrically[55] in the nest and overwinter to emerge the following spring.[45]

text: The hatchling's ability to survive winter in the nest has allowed the painted turtle to extend its range further north than any other American turtle. The painted turtle is genetically adapted to survive extended periods of subfreezing temperatures with blood that can remain supercooled and skin that resists penetration from ice crystals in the surrounding ground.[54] The hardest freezes nevertheless kill many hatchlings.[45]

text: Immediately after hatching, turtles are dependent on egg yolk material for sustenance.[55] About a week to a week and a half after emerging from their eggs (or the following spring if emergence is delayed), hatchlings begin feeding to support growth. The young turtles grow rapidly at first, sometimes doubling their size in the first year. Growth slows sharply at sexual maturity and may stop completely.[56] Likely owing to differences of habitat and food by water body, growth rates often differ from population to population in the same area. Among the subspecies, the western painted turtles are the quickest growers.[57]

text: Females grow faster than males overall, and must be larger to mature sexually.[56] In most populations males reach sexual maturity at 2–4 years old, and females at 6–10.[44] Size and age at maturity increase with latitude;[18] at the northern edge of their range, males reach sexual maturity at 7–9 years of age and females at 11–16.[46]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Daily routine and basking[edit]

text: A cold-blooded reptile, the painted turtle regulates its temperature through its environment, notably by basking. All ages bask for warmth, often alongside other species of turtle. Sometimes more than 50 individuals are seen on one log together.[58] Turtles bask on a variety of objects, often logs, but have even been seen basking on top of common loons that were covering eggs.[59]

text: The turtle starts its day at sunrise, emerging from the water to bask for several hours. Warmed for activity, it returns to the water to forage.[60] After becoming chilled, the turtle re-emerges for one to two more cycles of basking and feeding.[61] At night, the turtle drops to the bottom of its water body or perches on an underwater object and sleeps.[60]

text: To be active, the turtle must maintain an internal body temperature between 17–23 °C (63–73 °F). When fighting infection, it manipulates its temperature up to 5 °C (8 °F) higher than normal.[58]

text: Seasonal routine and hibernation[edit]

text: In the spring, when the water reaches 15–18 °C (59–64 °F), the turtle begins actively foraging. However, if the water temperature exceeds 30 °C (86 °F), the turtle will not feed. In fall, the turtle stops foraging when temperatures drop below the spring set-point.[34]

text: During the winter, the turtle hibernates. In the north, the inactive season may be as long as from October to March, while the southernmost populations may not hibernate at all.[62] While hibernating, the body temperature of the painted turtle averages 6 °C (43 °F).[63] Periods of warm weather bring the turtle out of hibernation, and even in the north, individuals have been seen basking in February.[64]

text: The painted turtle hibernates by burying itself, either on the bottom of a body of water, near water in the shore-bank or the burrow of a muskrat, or in woods or pastures. When hibernating underwater, the turtle prefers shallow depths, no more than 2 m (7 ft). Within the mud, it may dig down an additional 1 m (3 ft).[63] In this state, the turtle does not breathe, although if surroundings allow, it may get some oxygen through its skin.[65] The species is one of the best-studied vertebrates able to survive long periods without oxygen. Adaptations of its blood chemistry, brain, heart, and particularly its shell allow the turtle to survive extreme lactic acid buildup while oxygen-deprived.[66]

text: Movement[edit]

text: Searching for water, food, or mates, the painted turtles travel up to several kilometers at a time.[67] During summer, in response to heat and water-clogging vegetation, the turtles may vacate shallow marshes for more permanent waters.[67] Short overland migrations may involve hundreds of turtles together.[62] If heat and drought are prolonged, the turtles will bury themselves and, in extreme cases, die.[68]

text: Foraging turtles frequently cross lakes or travel linearly down creeks.[69] Daily crossings of large ponds have been observed.[68] Tag and release studies show that sex also drives turtle movement. Males travel the most, up to 26 km (16 mi), between captures; females the second most, up to 8 km (5 mi), between captures; and juveniles the least, less than 2 km (1.2 mi), between captures.[67] Males move the most and are most likely to change wetlands because they seek mates.[68]

text: The painted turtles, through visual recognition, have homing capabilities.[67] Many individuals can return to their collection points after being released elsewhere, trips that may require them to traverse land. One experiment placed 98 turtles varying several-kilometer distances from their home wetland; 41 returned. When living in a single large body of water, the painted turtles can home from up to 6 km (4 mi) away. Females may use homing to help locate suitable nesting sites.[67]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Range[edit]

text: The most widespread North American turtle,[70] the painted turtle is the only turtle whose native range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific.[nb 3] It is native to eight of Canada's ten provinces, forty-five of the fifty United States, and one of Mexico's thirty-one states. On the East Coast, it lives from the Canadian Maritimes to the U.S. state of Georgia. On the West Coast, it lives in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon and offshore on southeast Vancouver Island.[nb 4] The northernmost American turtle,[53] its range includes much of southern Canada. To the south, its range reaches the U.S. Gulf Coast in Louisiana and Alabama. In the southwestern United States there are only dispersed populations. It is found in one river in extreme northern Mexico. It is absent in a part of southwestern Virginia and the adjacent states as well as in north-central Alabama.[32][71][72]

text:
Native range of the painted turtle (C. picta)
Dark grey for national borders
White for state and province borders
Dark blue for rivers, only showing those in article

  Eastern (C. p. picta)
  Midland (C. p. marginata)
  Southern (C. p. dorsalis)
  Western (C. p. bellii)

Intergrade mixtures (large areas only)
  Mix of eastern and midland
  Mix of eastern and southern
  Mix of midland and western

text: The borders between the four subspecies are not sharp, because the subspecies interbreed. Many studies have been performed in the border regions to assess the intermediate turtles, usually by comparing the anatomical features of hybrids that result from intergradation of the classical subspecies.[nb 5] Despite the imprecision, the subspecies are assigned nominal ranges.

text: Eastern painted turtle[edit]

text: The eastern painted turtle ranges from southeastern Canada to Georgia with a western boundary at approximately the Appalachians. At its northern extremes, the turtle tends to be restricted to the warmer areas closer to the Atlantic Ocean. It is uncommon in far north New Hampshire and in Maine is common only in a strip about 50 miles from the coast.[77][78] In Canada, it lives in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia but not in Quebec or Prince Edward Island. To the south it is not found in the coastal lowlands of southern North Carolina, South Carolina, or Georgia, or in southern Georgia in general or at all in Florida. [32][71][79][80]

text: The eastern subspecies's range extends slightly into east central Alabama, where it intergrades with the southern subspecies.[71] In the northeast, there is extensive mixing with the midland subspecies, and some writers have called these turtles a "hybrid swarm".[81][82][83] In the southeast, the border between the eastern and midland is more sharp as mountain chains separate the subspecies to different drainage basins.[71][84]

text: Midland painted turtle[edit]

text: The midland painted turtle lives from southern Ontario and Quebec, through the eastern U.S. Midwest states, to Kentucky, Tennessee and northwestern Alabama, where it intergrades with the southern painted turtle.[85] It also is found eastward through West Virginia, western Maryland and Pennsylvania. The midland painted turtle appears to be moving east, especially in Pennsylvania.[86] To the northeast it is found in western New York and much of Vermont, and it intergrades extensively with the eastern subspecies.[29][71]

text: Southern painted turtle[edit]

text: The southern painted turtle ranges from extreme southern Illinois and Missouri, roughly along the Mississippi River Valley, to the south. In Arkansas, it branches out to the west towards Texas, where it is found in the far northeast part of that state (Caddo Lake region)[87] as well as extreme southeastern Oklahoma (McCurtain County).[88] It is found in much of Louisiana, where it reaches the Gulf of Mexico (in fresh water). Eastward it is found in western Tennessee, northern Mississippi and much of Alabama, including the Gulf Coast city of Mobile[32][71][80] An isolated population in central Texas has been reported but is now believed to be non-native.[89]

text: Western painted turtle[edit]

text: The western painted turtle's northern range includes southern parts of western Canada from Ontario through Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia. In Ontario, the western subspecies is found north of Minnesota and directly north of Lake Superior, but there is a 130 km (80 mi) gap to the east of Lake Superior (in the area of harshest winter climate) where no painted turtles of any subspecies occur. Thus Ontario's western subspecies does not intergrade with the midland painted turtle of southeastern Ontario.[74] In Manitoba, the turtle is numerous and ranges north to Lake Manitoba and the lower part of Lake Winnipeg. The turtle is also common in south Saskatchewan,[90] but in Alberta, there may only be 100 individuals, all found very near the U.S. border, mostly in the southeast.[32][71][91][92]

text: In British Columbia, populations exist in the interior in the vicinity of the Kootenai, Columbia, Okanagan, and Thompson river valleys. At the coast, turtles occur near the mouth of the Fraser and a bit further north, as well as the bottom of Vancouver Island, and some other nearby islands. Within British Columbia, the turtle's range is not continuous and can better be understood as northward extensions of the range from the United States. High mountains present barriers to east-west movement of the turtles within the province or from Alberta. Some literature has shown isolated populations much further north in British Columbia and Alberta, but these were probably pet-releases.[32][71][91][92]

text: In the United States, the western subspecies forms a wide intergrade area with the midland subspecies covering much of Illinois as well as a strip of Wisconsin along Lake Michigan and part of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan (UP). Further west, the rest of Illinois, Wisconsin and the UP are part of the range proper, as are all of Minnesota and Iowa, as well as all of Missouri except a narrow strip in the south. All of North Dakota is within range, all of South Dakota except a very small area in the west, and all of Nebraska. Almost all of Kansas is in range; the border of that state with Oklahoma is roughly the species range border, but the turtle is found in three counties of north central Oklahoma.[32][71][88][91]

text: To the northwest, almost all of Montana is in range. Only a narrow strip in the west, along most of the Idaho border (which is at the Continental Divide) lacks turtles.[93] Wyoming is almost entirely out of range; only the lower elevation areas near the eastern and northern borders have painted turtles.[94] In Idaho, the turtles are found throughout the far north (upper half of the Idaho Panhandle). Recently, separate Idaho populations have been observed in the southwest (near the Payette and Boise rivers) and the southeast (near St. Anthony).[95] In Washington state, turtles are common throughout the state within lower elevation river valleys.[96] In Oregon, the turtle is native to the northern part of the state throughout the Columbia River Valley as well as the Willamette River Valley north of Salem.[32][91][97]

text: To the southwest, the painted turtle's range is fragmented. In Colorado, while range is continuous in the eastern, prairie, half of the state, it is absent in most of the western, mountainous, part of the state. However, the turtle is confirmed present in the lower elevation southwest part of the state (Archuleta and La Plata counties), where a population ranges into northern New Mexico in the San Juan River basin.[98] In New Mexico, the main distribution follows the Rio Grande and the Pecos River, two waterways that run in a north-south direction through the state.[99] Within the aforementioned rivers, it is also found in the northern part of Far West Texas.[87] In Utah, the painted turtle lives in an area to the south (Kane County) in streams draining into the Colorado River, although it is disputed if they are native.[91][100][101] In Arizona, the painted turtle is native to an area in the east, Lyman Lake.[102][103] The painted turtle is not native to Nevada or California.[32][91]

text: In Mexico,[99] painted turtles have been found about 50 miles south of New Mexico near Galeana in the state of Chihuahua. There, two expeditions[104][105] found the turtles in the Rio Santa Maria which is in a closed basin.[32][91]

text: Human-introduced range[edit]

text: Pet releases are starting to establish the painted turtle outside its native range. It has been introduced into waterways near Phoenix, Arizona,[102] and to Germany, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Spain.[3]

text: Habitat[edit]

text: To thrive, painted turtles need fresh waters with soft bottoms, basking sites, and aquatic vegetation. They find their homes in shallow waters with slow-moving currents, such as creeks, marshes, ponds, and the shores of lakes. The subspecies have evolved different habitat preferences.[42]

text:
The eastern painted turtle is very aquatic, leaving the immediate vicinity of its water body only when forced by drought to migrate.[62] Along the Atlantic, painted turtles have appeared in brackish waters.[42]
The midland and southern painted turtles seek especially quiet waters, usually shores and coves. They favor shallows that contain dense vegetation and have an unusual toleration of pollution.[28][106]
The western painted turtle lives in streams and lakes, similar to the other painted turtles, but also inhabits pasture ponds and roadside pools. It is found as high as 1,800 m (5,900 ft).[30]

text: Population features[edit]

text: Within much of its range, the painted turtle is the most abundant turtle species. Population densities range from 10 to 840 turtles per hectare (2.5 acres) of water surface. Warmer climates produce higher relative densities among populations, and habitat desirability also influences density. Rivers and large lakes have lower densities because only the shore is desirable habitat; the central, deep waters skew the surface-based estimates. Also, lake and river turtles have to make longer linear trips to access equivalent amounts of foraging space.[40]

text: Adults outnumber juveniles in most populations, but gauging the ratios is difficult because juveniles are harder to catch; with current sampling methods, estimates of age distribution vary widely.[107] Annual survival rate of painted turtles increases with age. The probability of a painted turtle surviving from the egg to its first birthday is only 19%. For females, the annual survival rate rises to 45% for juveniles and 95% for adults. The male survival rates follow a similar pattern, but are lower overall than females, creating an average male age lower than that of the female.[108] Natural disasters can confound age distributions. For instance, a hurricane can destroy many nests in a region, resulting in fewer hatchlings the next year.[108] Age distributions may also be skewed by migrations of adults.[107]

text: To understand painted turtle adult age distributions, researchers require reliable methods.[109] Turtles younger than four years (up to 12 years in some populations) can be aged based on "growth rings" in their shells.[110] For older turtles, some attempts have been made to determine age based on size and shape of their shells or legs using mathematical models, but this method is more uncertain.[110][111] The most reliable method to study the long-lived turtles is to capture them, permanently mark their shells by notching with a drill, release the turtles, and then recapture them in later years.[112][113] The longest-running study, in Michigan, has shown that painted turtles can live more than 55 years.[110][114]

text: Adult sex ratios of painted turtle populations average around 1:1.[115] Many populations are slightly male-heavy, but some are strongly female-imbalanced; one population in Ontario has a female to male ratio of 4:1.[46] Hatchling sex ratio varies based on egg temperature. During the middle third of incubation, temperatures of 23–27 °C (73–81 °F) produce males, and anything above or below that, females.[45] It does not appear that females choose nesting sites to influence the sex of the hatchlings;[16] within a population, nests will vary sufficiently to give both male and female-heavy broods.[107]

text: Taxonomy and evolution[edit]

text: The painted turtle (C. picta) is the only species in the genus Chrysemys.[5] The parent family for Chrysemys is Emydidae: the pond turtles. Emydidae is split into two sub families; Chrysemys is part of the Deirochelyinae (Western Hemisphere) branch.[116] The four subspecies of the painted turtle are the eastern (C. p. picta), midland (C. p. marginata), southern (C. p. dorsalis), and western (C. p. bellii).[117]

text: The painted turtle's generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words for "gold" (chryso) and "freshwater tortoise" (emys); the species name originates from the Latin for "colored" (pictus).[118] The subspecies name, marginata, derives from the Latin for "border" and refers to the red markings on the outer (marginal) part of the upper shell; dorsalis is from the Latin for "back", referring to the prominent dorsal stripe; and bellii honors English zoologist Thomas Bell, a collaborator of Charles Darwin.[119][120] An alternate East Coast common name for the painted turtle is "skilpot", from the Dutch for turtle, schildpad.[121]

text: Classification[edit]

text: Originally described in 1783 by Johann Gottlob Schneider as Testudo picta,[5][122] the painted turtle was called Chrysemys picta first by John Edward Gray in 1855. The four subspecies were then recognized: the eastern by Schneider in 1783,[122][123] the western by Gray in 1831,[123][124] and the midland and southern by Louis Agassiz in 1857.[125][126]

text: Until the 1930s many of the subspecies of the painted turtle were labeled by biologists as full species within Chrysemys, but this varied by the researcher. The painted turtles in the border region between the western and midland subspecies were sometimes considered a full species, treleasei. In 1931, Bishop and Schmidt defined the current "four in one" taxonomy of species and subspecies. Based on comparative measurements of turtles from throughout the range, they subordinated species to subspecies and eliminated treleasei.[127]

text: Since at least 1958,[81][nb 6] the subspecies were thought to have evolved in response to geographic isolation during the last ice age, 100,000 to 11,000 years ago.[32] At that time painted turtles were divided into three different populations: eastern painted turtles along the southeastern Atlantic coast; southern painted turtles around the southern Mississippi River; and western painted turtles in the southwestern United States.[27] The populations were not completely isolated for sufficiently long, hence wholly different species never evolved. When the glaciers retreated, about 11,000 years ago, all three subspecies moved north. The western and southern subspecies met in Missouri and hybridized to produce the midland painted turtle, which then moved east and north through the Ohio and Tennessee river basins.[81][27]

text: Biologists have long debated the genera of closely related subfamily-mates Chrysemys, Pseudemys (cooters), and Trachemys (sliders). After 1952, some combined Pseudemys and Chrysemys because of similar appearance.[128] In 1964, based on measurements of the skull and feet, Samuel B. McDowell proposed all three genera be merged into one. However, further measurements, in 1967, contradicted this taxonomic arrangement. Also in 1967, J. Alan Holman,[129] a paleontologist and herpetologist, pointed out that, although the three turtles were often found together in nature and had similar mating patterns, they did not crossbreed. In the 1980s, studies of turtles' cell structures, biochemistries, and parasites further indicated that Chrysemys, Pseudemys, and Trachemys should remain in separate genera.[130]

text: David E. Starkey and collaborators advanced a new view of the subspecies in 2003. Based on a study of the mitochondrial DNA, they rejected the glacial development theory and argued that the southern painted turtle should be elevated to a separate species, C. dorsalis, while the other subspecies should be collapsed into one and not differentiated.[131] However, this proposition was largely unrecognized because successful breeding between all subspecies was documented wherever they overlapped.[123][132] Nevertheless, in 2010, the IUCN recognized both C. dorsalis and C. p. dorsalis as valid names for the southern painted turtle.[3]

text: Fossils[edit]

text: Although its evolutionary history—what the forerunner to the species was and how the close relatives branched off—is not well understood, the painted turtle is common in the fossil record.[134] The oldest samples, found in Nebraska, date to about 15 million years ago. Fossils from 15 million to about 5 million years ago are restricted to the Nebraska-Kansas area, but more recent fossils are gradually more widely distributed. Fossils newer than 300,000 years old are found in almost all the United States and southern Canada.[1]

text: DNA[edit]

text: The turtle's karyotype (nuclear DNA, rather than mitochondrial DNA) consists of 50 chromosomes, the same number as the rest of its subfamily-mates and the most common number for Emydidae turtles in general.[9][135][136] Less well-related turtles have from 26 to 66 chromosomes.[137] Little systematic study of variations of the painted turtle's karotype among populations has been done.[138] (However, in 1967, research on protein structure of offshore island populations in New England, showed differences from mainland turtles.[139])

text: Comparison of subspecies chromosomal DNA has been discussed, to help address the debate over Starkey's proposed taxonomy, but as of 2009 had not been reported.[138][140] Interestingly, the complete sequencing of the genetic code for the painted turtle was at a "draft assembled" state in 2010. The turtle was one of two reptiles chosen to be first sequenced.[141]

text: Interaction with humans[edit]

text: Conservation[edit]

text: The decline in painted turtle populations is not a simple matter of dramatic range reduction, like that of the American bison. Instead the turtle is classified as G5 (demonstrably widespread) in its Natural Heritage Global Rank,[70] and the IUCN rates it as a species of least concern.[3] The painted turtle's high reproduction rate and its ability to survive in polluted wetlands and artificially made ponds have allowed it to maintain its range,[7][142] but the post-Columbus settlement of North America has reduced its numbers.[37][143]

text: Only within the Pacific Northwest is the turtle's range eroding. Even there, in Washington, the painted turtle is designated S5 (demonstrably widespread). However, in Oregon, the painted turtle is designated S2 (imperiled),[144] and in British Columbia, the turtle's populations in the Coast and Interior regions are labeled "endangered"[145] and "of special concern", respectively.[146][nb 7]

text: Much is written about the different factors that threaten the painted turtle, but they are unquantified, with only inferences of relative importance.[40][108][37] A primary threat category is habitat loss in various forms. Related to water habitat, there is drying of wetlands, clearing of aquatic logs or rocks (basking sites), and clearing of shoreline vegetation, which allows more predator access[151] or increased human foot traffic.[152][153] Related to nesting habitat, urbanization or planting can remove needed sunny soils.[154]

text: Another significant human impact is roadkill—dead turtles, especially females, are commonly seen on summer roads.[155] In addition to direct killing, roads genetically isolate some populations.[155] Localities have tried to limit roadkill by constructing underpasses,[156] highway barriers,[41] and crossing signs.[157] Oregon has introduced public education on turtle awareness, safe swerving, and safely assisting turtles across the road.[158]

text: In the West, human-introduced bass, bullfrogs, and especially snapping turtles, have increased the predation of hatchlings.[41][159] Outside the Southeast, where sliders are native, released pet red-eared slider turtles increasingly compete with painted turtles.[160] In cities, increased urban predators (raccoons, canines, and felines) may impact painted turtles by eating their eggs.[151]

text: Other factors of concern for the painted turtles include over-collection from the wild,[161] released pets introducing diseases[162] or reducing genetic variability,[160] pollution,[163] boating traffic, angler's hooks (the turtles are noteworthy bait-thieves), wanton shooting, and crushing by agricultural machines or golf course lawnmowers or all-terrain vehicles.[164][165][166] Gervais and colleagues note that research itself impacts the populations and that much funded turtle trapping work has not been published. They advocate discriminating more on what studies are done, thereby putting fewer turtles into scientists' traps.[167] Global warming represents an uncharacterized future threat.[143][168]

text: Pets and other uses[edit]

text:
"... we do not necessarily encourage people to
collect these turtles. Turtles kept as pets usually soon become ill ... The best way to enjoy our native turtles is to observe them in the wild ... it would be better to take a picture
than a 'picta'!"

Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission[86]

tag: div

text: According to a trade data study, painted turtles were the second most popular pet turtles after red-eared sliders in the early 1990s.[171] As of 2010, most U.S. states allow, but discourage, painted turtle pets, although Oregon forbids keeping them as pets,[172] and Indiana prohibits their sale.[162] U.S. federal law prohibits sale or transport of any turtle less than 10 cm (4 in), to limit human contact to salmonella.[173] However, a loophole for scientific samples allows some small turtles to be sold, and illegal trafficking also occurs.[159][174]

text: Painted turtle pet-keeping requirements are similar to those of the red-eared slider. Keepers are urged to provide them with adequate space and a basking site, and water that is regularly filtered and changed. According to Petco, the animals are described as being somewhat unsuitable for children as they do not enjoy being held. Hobbyists have kept turtles alive for decades.[175][176][177]

text: The painted turtle is sometimes eaten but is not highly regarded as food,[37][178][179] as even the largest subspecies, the western painted turtle, is inconveniently small and larger turtles are available.[180] Schools frequently dissect painted turtles, which are sold by biological supply companies;[181] specimens often come from the wild but may be captive-bred.[182] In the Midwest, turtle racing is popular at summer fairs.[181][183][184]

text: Capture[edit]

text: Commercial harvesting of painted turtles in the wild is controversial and, increasingly, restricted.[185][186] Wisconsin formerly had virtually unrestricted trapping of painted turtles but based on qualitative observations forbade all commercial harvesting in 1997.[187] Neighboring Minnesota, where trappers collected more than 300,000 painted turtles during the 1990s,[155] commissioned a study of painted turtle harvesting.[181] Scientists found that harvested lakes averaged half the painted turtle density of off-limit lakes, and population modeling suggested that unrestricted harvests could produce a large decline in turtle populations.[161] In response, Minnesota forbade new harvesters in 2002 and limited trap numbers. Although harvesting continued,[161] subsequent takes averaged half those of the 1990s.[188] As of 2009, painted turtles faced virtually unlimited harvesting in Arkansas, Iowa, Missouri, Ohio, and Oklahoma;[189] since then, Missouri has prohibited their harvesting.[190]

text: Individuals who trap painted turtles typically do so to earn additional income,[161][185] selling a few thousand a year at $1–2 each.[181] Many trappers have been involved in the trade for generations, and value it as a family activity.[187] Some harvesters disagree with limiting the catch, saying the populations are not dropping.[187]

text: Many U.S. state fish and game departments allow non-commercial taking of painted turtles under a creel limit, and require a fishing (sometimes hunting) license;[nb 8] others completely forbid the recreational capture of painted turtles. Trapping is not allowed in Oregon, where western painted turtle populations are in decline,[195] and in Missouri, where there are populations of both southern and western subspecies.[190] In Canada, Ontario protects both subspecies present, the midland and western,[196] and British Columbia protects its dwindling western painted turtles.[53]

text: Capture methods are also regulated by locality. Typically trappers use either floating "basking traps" or partially submerged, baited "hoop traps".[197] Trapper opinions,[197] commercial records,[188] and scientific studies[197][198][199] show that basking traps are more effective for collecting painted turtles, while the hoop traps work better for collecting "meat turtles" (snapping turtles and soft-shell turtles). Nets, hand capture, and fishing with set lines are generally legal, but shooting, chemicals, and explosives are forbidden.[nb 9]

text: Culture[edit]

text:
"Whereas, the Painted Turtle is a hard worker and can withstand cold temperatures like the citizens of Vermont, and Whereas, the colors of the Painted Turtle represent the beauty of our state in autumn... the General Assembly hereby recognizes the Painted Turtle as the official state reptile... "

Vermont J.R.S. 57[200]

text: Indian tribes were familiar with the painted turtle—young braves were trained to recognize its splashing into water as an alarm—and incorporated it in folklore.[201] A Potawatomi myth describes how the talking turtles, "Painted Turtle" and allies "Snapping Turtle" and "Box Turtle", outwit the village women. Painted Turtle is the star of the legend and uses his distinctive markings to trick a woman into holding him so he can bite her.[202] An Illini myth recounts how Painted Turtle put his paint on to entice a chief's daughter into the water.[203]

text: As of 2010, four U.S. states designated the painted turtle as official reptile. Vermont honored the reptile in 1994, following the suggestion of Cornwall Elementary School students.[200] In 1995, Michigan followed, based on the recommendation of Niles fifth graders, who discovered the state lacked an official reptile.[204] Illinois citizens, in 2004, voted to select the painted turtle as their state reptile and the legislature made it official in 2005.[205] Colorado chose the western painted turtle in 2008, following the efforts of two succeeding years of Jay Biachi's fourth grade classes.[206] In New York, the painted turtle narrowly lost (5,048 to 5,005, versus the common snapping turtle) a 2006 statewide student election for state reptile.[207]

text: In the border town of Boissevain, Manitoba, a 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) western painted turtle, Tommy the Turtle, is a roadside attraction. The statue was built in 1974 to celebrate the Canadian Turtle Derby, a festival including turtle races that ran from 1972–2001.[208]

text: Another Canadian admirer of the painted turtle is Jon Montgomery, who won the 2010 Olympic gold medal in skeleton (a form of sled) racing, while wearing a painted turtle painting on the crown of his helmet, prominently visible when he slid downhill. Montgomery, who also iconically tattoed his chest with a maple-leaf,[209] explained his visual promotion of the turtle, saying that he had assisted one to cross the road. BC Hydro referred to Montgomery's action when describing its own sponsorship of conservation research for the turtle in British Columbia.[210]

text: Several private entities use the painted turtle as a symbol. Wayne State University Press operates an imprint "named after the Michigan state reptile" that "publishes books on regional topics of cultural and historical interest".[211] In California, The Painted Turtle is a camp for ill children, founded by Paul Newman. Painted Turtle Winery of British Columbia trades on the "laid back and casual lifestyle" of the turtle with a "job description to bask in the sun".[212] Also, there is an Internet company in Michigan,[213] a guesthouse in British Columbia,[214] and a café in Maine that use the painted turtle commercially.[215]

text: In children's books, the painted turtle is a popular subject, with at least seven books published between 2000 and 2010.[nb 10]


document_title: Tourism in Australia

question_text: where do most of australia's tourists come from

question_tokens: where do most of australia 's tourists come from

root

text: Tourism in Australia

text: Trends[edit]

text: Despite the global economic challenges and natural disasters in 2010-2011, Australia's tourism growth was supported by increased consumption (up 4.4% over the previous year, largely due to an increase in the number of visitors from overseas). On the back of a strong Australian dollar, 2010-11 also saw a record 7.4 million short-term resident departures from Australia, an increase of 9.9% from 2009-10. Domestic tourism consumption grew at less than half the pace of international consumption in 2010-11 (up 2.1% compared to 4.4%).[4]

tag: p

text: The Australian Government released the 2020 Tourism Industry Potential on 15 November 2010, and estimates the Australian tourism industry to be worth up to $140 billion in overnight expenditure. This growth will largely be due to key emerging markets, including the China market, which is estimated to be the largest economic contributor to the Australian tourism industry by 2020.[5] The number of Chinese visitors has more than doubled from 2006 to 2012 reaching a peak of 626,400 in 2012 and surpassing for the first time the number of arrivals from the United Kingdom.[6] In 2013, China was Australia's fastest growing tourist market.[7] According to Tourism Australia Managing Director Andrew McEvoy, the Chinese are the highest spending visitors to the country.[8]

text:
Monthly short term visitor arrivals into Australia since 1976

Monthly long term visitor arrivals into Australia since 1976

tag: ul

text: Visas[edit]

text: All visitors to Australia, apart from New Zealanders, require advance permission to enter the country. For most countries, a full visa is required. Holders of passports of all European Union countries as well as all Schengen Area countries and European microstates only need to apply online for an eVisitor authorisation. Citizens of some OECD and some East Asian countries are able to apply for the similar Electronic Travel Authority authorisation.[9]

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: From colonial days the idea of travel has been more natural to Australians than to people long established at one from their homes, were prone to continue their search for wealth or security for a while, or, having settled down, to return to the old countries to visit their kin and refresh old memories. The opening of new lands, the establishment of industries and towns and the consequent dispersal of people over Australia created a habit of mobility and enterprise which encouraged Australians to face the hardships of early travel by coach, on horseback or by ship. Even so, the slow and uncomfortable modes of travel and the vast distances separating Australian towns tended to restrict travel to essential journeys for purposes of trade, to pursue an occupation or to settle. This changed somewhat with the advent of rail travel.

text: The initial emphasis in tourism for purposes of pleasure was strongest on travel to resorts near the main population centres. These included the Blue Mountains in New South Wales and the hill and coast resorts close to Melbourne and other major Victorian cities. The existing railway services radiating from those cities, together with the 'feeder' horse-drawn, and later motor, coach transport connecting with the railways, rendered the State Government railway tourist bureaux the main means for selling intrastate, and even some interstate, travel.

text: After the 1914-18 War in the 1920s, and again after the easing of the effects of the Great Depression of the 1930s, travel for all purposes increased steadily. This period saw the establishment of the Australian National Travel Association with bureaux in the UK and USA.[10] The organisation received government funding on top of industry contributions and promoted the country 'vigorously' via a poster campaign and from 1934 via Walkabout magazine.

text: Traffic in tourism continued to be mainly by rail, but also by sea, although the family motor era began in the 1930s to participate in the shorterintrastate traffic. A considerable fleet of passenger ships provided frequent and popular services linking most ports between Fremantle and Cairns. Other services linked Sydney and Melbourne with Tasmanian ports. The winter cruise of those days to Queensland ports could be regarded as the equivalent of today's drive or flight north for a winter holiday at the Gold Coast or a Barrier Reef Island, or today's shorter South Pacific cruises. The first cruises from Australia to New Zealand were organised in the summer of 1934-35, and Australians were travelling to Britain for as low as $78 in tourist class in the years immediately preceding the 1939-45 War.

text: In the period following the 1939-45 War the advent of new and improved methods of transportation, combined with rising standards of living and the energetic publicising of foreign destinations, developed international travel into a mass-movement. New ocean liners shortened travelling time considerably, and travel by car and bus increased in many countries. Most of all, air travel became widely available, faster, safer, and cheaper. The beginning of the jet age in 1960, with larger aeroplanes carrying more than 100 passengers at speeds approximating 600 miles per hour, diminished the world by half in terms of time. Rising standards of living in the post-war period led to greater expenditure on tourism, thus making it more important to the national economy.

text: Australia has shared in this worldwide expansion of travel, particularly in respect of its domestic tourism. Because of the marked increase in incomes and private car ownership among large sections of the population, greater leisure time, three weeks paid annual holidays (introduced first in New South Wales in 1958) and the introduction of long-service leave, thousands of Australians now travel by road into almost every part of the Commonwealth. This has led to investment in the development of new and improved facilities, especially accommodation, of new resorts at dispersed points around Australia, and to modifications in organisation and methods of tourist administration, development and promotion. These activities in turn have had an important influence on matters such as the improvement of highways and the opening up of national parks and foreshores. A recent consequence is the first detailed study and survey of the entire Australian tourist industry, its development and its future potential.

text: A White Paper was produced analysing the tourist industry in Australia in 2003.[11]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Australia's international tourism campaigns have focused on Australia's laid back style, such as an 1980s advertising campaign featuring actor Paul Hogan telling American tourists "I'll slip an extra shrimp on the barbie for you", or its cheeky side, as in its controversial 2006 campaign in the United Kingdom using the Australian colloquialism slogan "So where the bloody hell are you?".[citation needed]

text: Tourism Australia's "No Leave No Life" campaign was launched in March 2009 by the Federal Minister for Tourism, the Hon. Martin Ferguson AM MP. This campaign was designed to remind employees of the personal and professional benefits of taking annual leave, and of taking that leave in Australia. At 30 June 2009 there were 126 million days of stockpiled annual leave in the Australian economy.[12] At the end of the June 2010 quarter, this number had decreased to 117 million days, following falls in the preceding three quarters.

text: Tourism Australia's latest consumer campaign "There's Nothing Like Australia" invites Australians to share their favourite Australian place or experience with the world.

text: The campaign is based on research conducted by Tourism Australia that showed Australians were eager to get involved in promoting their country. It was developed to involve Australians because they are the experts on what makes Australia unlike anywhere else. The core message, that "There's Nothing Like Australia" was designed for longevity through different mediums, audiences and activities.[13]

text: Types of tourists[edit]

text: International tourists[edit]

text:
Country
2000
2005
2013
2014
2015

 China
120,000
250,000
708,900
839,000
1,310,900

 New Zealand
817,000
1,098,900
1,100,000
1,241,400
1,309,000

 United Kingdom
580,400
708,800
657,600
652,100
688,400

 United States
488,100
446,300
501,100
553,000
609,900

 Singapore
285,700
266,100
339,800
372,100
395,800

 Japan
721,000
685,300
324,400
326,500
335,500

 Malaysia
152,100
166,000
278,100
324,500
338,800

 South Korea
157,400
250,500
197,500
204,100
230,100

 Hong Kong
154,100
159,500
183,500
201,600
219,700

 India
n/a
n/a
168,600
196,600
233,100

Total
4,931,400
5,499,100
6,382,000
6,868,000
7,428,600

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics[14][15][16]

text: New Zealand tourists make up a distinctive part of the Australian tourism market, usually taking short package tours which concentrate heavily on the iconic sights (typically Sydney, Uluru, Gold Coast and Cairns),[citation needed] and viewing Australian native animals (particularly the koala and kangaroo).[17]

text: Backpackers[edit]

text: Another major source of tourists to Australia include backpackers, mostly young people from Western European countries (particularly Britain)[citation needed] and North America. Spending more time in Australia, these travelers tend to explore considerably more of the country. Many backpackers participate in working holidays enabling them to stay longer in the country. Working holiday visas for Australia are available for those aged 18 to 30 for most Western European citizens, and also citizens of Canada and some developed East Asian nations such as Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and South Korea.[18]

text: Domestic tourism[edit]

text: The domestic tourism market is estimated at $63 billion.[19] In 2009, the Australian domestic market experienced a 10% slump in the number of visitor nights.[20] Domestic tourism in general and in particular free caravan and camping sites for overnight accommodation experienced strong demand in 2012.[21]

text: Australians are big domestic travellers, with a profusion of seaside resort towns in every state (many located on or near good surfing beaches), mountain retreats, plentiful national parks, rivers, fishing locations, wine growing regions, as well as domestic visitation of the major tourist spots.[citation needed] Domestic tourism peaks during the Australian school holidays.

text: In 2011, a leading Australian travel agent warned that low-cost carriers such as AirAsia and Jetstar who offered cheap packages to Asia threatened the domestic tourism market.[22]

text: Markets[edit]

text:
Country / Region
Description [23]

Australia (Domestic)
For the year ended 31 December 2009, the total economic value of domestic tourism measured $63.3 billion, with 66.1 million overnight trips taken in Australia by Australian residents aged 15 years and over.

United States of America
There was $2.126 billion in total expenditure from the United States in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that the United States market has the potential to grow to between $4.530 billion and $5.519 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Canada
Canada was Australia's twelfth largest inbound market for total expenditure in 2010, with $700 million spent on trips to Australia.

Argentina
Argentina is one of Tourism Australia's developing markets. Arrivals to Australia from Argentina continue to perform well, with visiting friends and relatives, holiday and education segments reporting good growth from a small base.

Brazil
46,400 tourists from Brazil visited Australia in 2014-2015, an increase in 19% from the year prior.[24]

China
There was $3.26 billion in total expenditure from the China market in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that China has the potential to grow to between $7.406 billion and $9.022 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

India
There was $0.826 billion in total expenditure from the India market in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that India has the potential to grow to between $1.854 billion and $2.258 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Hong Kong
Hong Kong was Australia's eleventh largest inbound market for total expenditure in 2010, with $0.808 billion spent on trips to Australia.

Indonesia
Indonesia was Australia's thirteenth largest inbound market for total expenditure in 2010, with $0.608 billion spent on trips to Australia.

South Korea
There was $1.279 billion in total expenditure from South Korea in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that the South Korea market has the potential to grow to between $2.792 billion and $3.401 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Malaysia
There was $1.047 billion in total expenditure from Malaysia in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that the Malaysia market has the potential to grow to between $2.046 billion and $2.492 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Taiwan
Tourists from Taiwan increased to 121,400 in the year ending April 2015, an increase of 9.1% from the previous year. The total inbound economic value of the Taiwan market increased by 21 per cent to $398 million.

Singapore
There was $1.199 billion in total expenditure from Singapore in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that the Singapore market has the potential to grow to between $2.266 billion and $2.760 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Thailand
Thailand is ranked 15th among Australia's source markets in terms of arrivals. Australia received a total of 77,500 visitors from Thailand in 2008/09, a decrease of 8 per cent compared to the previous year.

Vietnam
There were 37,246 arrivals from Vietnam in calendar year 2010, an increase of seven per cent on the previous year.

United Kingdom
There was $3.184 billion in total expenditure from the United Kingdom in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that the United Kingdom market has the potential to grow to between $5.479 billion and $6.675 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Netherlands
The total inbound economic value of the Netherlands market was $300 million in 2008/09 which was a three per cent increase on the previous year.

Germany
There was $0.910 billion in total expenditure from Germany in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that Germany has the potential to grow to between $1.902 billion and $2.316 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Switzerland
Australia received a total of 53,600 visitors from Switzerland in 2014/2015. The total inbound economic value was $270 million which was one per cent less than the previous year.

France
There was $0.561 billion in total expenditure from France in 2010. The tourism industry potential estimates that the France market has the potential to grow to between $1.153 billion and $1.405 billion in total expenditure by 2020.

Nordic
The total inbound economic value of the Nordic market increased by 5 per cent during 2008/2009 and was valued at $506 million. Australia received a total of 58,700 visitors from the Nordic region in 2008/09.

Ireland
Australia received a total of 64,420 visitors from Ireland in 2008/09, a decrease of 1 per cent compared to the previous year. The total inbound economic value increased 3 per cent to A$479 million in 2008/09.

Spain
Despite a strong increase in October visitor arrivals, total arrivals year to date (YTD) continue to be well below last year and Spain continues to be one of the hardest hit European markets.

Italy
There were 73,200 visitor arrivals from Italy in 2014-2015.

text: Major attractions[edit]

text: Destinations[edit]

text: Hervey Bay is a popular tourist town with ample opportunities for whale watching, although there are plenty of other places along the Australian coastline to see whales.

text: Fraser Island (K'gari) The island is considered to be the largest sand island in the world at 1840 km2. It is also Queensland's largest island. Fraser Island has been inhabited by humans for as much as 5,000 years.The island has rainforests, eucalyptus woodland, mangrove forests, wallum and peat swamps, sand dunes and coastal heaths. The island can be reached by a ferry from River Heads (South of Hervey Bay) to Kingfisher Bay and Wanggoolba Creek or Inskip Point to north of Rainbow Beach to Hook Point, or by chartered flight from Maroochydore Airport.

text: Great Barrier Reef[edit]

text: The Great Barrier Reef attracts up to two million visitors every year.[25] Careful management, which includes permits for camping and all commercial marine tourism within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, has so far ensured that tourists have a very minimal impact on the reef.[25] Uluru, Kakadu National Park and Fraser Island are major natural attractions. Uluru won the 2013 Qantas Australian Tourism Awards and was named Australia's best major tourist attraction.[26]

text: In December 2013, Greg Hunt, the Australian environment minister, approved a plan for dredging to create three shipping terminals as part of the construction of a coalport. According to corresponding approval documents, the process will create around 3 million cubic metres of dredged seabed that will be dumped within the Great Barrier Reef marine park area.[27]

text: Sydney Opera House[edit]

text: Another attraction that appeals to many tourists is the Sydney Opera House. Shopping and casinos are a major drawcard for wealthy Chinese visitors.[28] Wine, indigenous culture and nature tourism also generate travel in Australia.

text: Events[edit]

text: Major events attract a large number of tourists. The Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras is an annual event that attractions thousands of international tourists.[29]

text: The 2000 Sydney Olympics resulted in significant inbound and domestic tourism to Sydney. During the games, Sydney hosted 362,000 domestic and 110,000 international visitors. In addition, up to 4 billion people watched the games worldwide.[30] The 2003 Rugby World Cup attracted 65,000 international visitors to Australia.[30] Schoolies Week is an annual celebration of Year 12 school leavers in late November, many of whom travel to the Gold Coast, where in 2011 they were expected to boost the economy by $60 million.[31]

text: Australia's icons[edit]

text: Major Australian icons for tourists to visit include:

text:
Great Barrier Reef
Red Centre
Great Ocean Road
Barossa Valley
Kakadu
The Kimberley
Kangaroo Island
Byron Bay
Tasmanian Wilderness
Australian Alps
Ningaloo
Flinders Ranges
Fraser Island
Sydney Harbour Bridge
Freycinet
Gippsland
Uluru
Sydney Opera House
Phillip Island
Melbourne Cricket Ground
Blue Mountains
Namadgi National Park[32]


document_title: Fuel tank

question_text: where is gas tank located on a car

question_tokens: where is gas tank located on a car

text: Fuel tank

text: Uses[edit]

text: Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following:

text:
Storage of fuel: the system must contain a given quantity of fuel and must avoid leakage and limit evaporative emissions.
Filling: the fuel tank must be filled in a secure way, without sparks.
Provide a method for determining level of fuel in tank, gauging (the remaining quantity of fuel in the tank must be measured or evaluated).
Venting (if over-pressure is not allowed, the fuel vapors must be managed through valves).
Feeding of the engine (through a pump).
Anticipate potentials for damage and provide safe survival potential.

text: Plastic (high-density polyethylene HDPE) as a fuel tank material of construction, while functionally viable in the short term, has a long term potential to become saturated as fuels such as diesel and gasoline permeate the HDPE material.

text: Considering the inertia and kinetic energy of fuel in a plastic tank being transported by a vehicle, environmental stress cracking is a definite potential. The flammability of fuel makes stress cracking a possible cause of catastrophic failure. Emergencies aside, HDPE plastic is suitable for short term storage of diesel and gasoline. In the U.S., Underwriters Laboratories approved (UL 142) tanks would be a minimum design consideration.

text: Fuel tank construction[edit]

text: While most tanks are manufactured, some fuel tanks are still fabricated by metal craftsmen or hand-made in the case of bladder-style tanks. These include custom and restoration tanks for automotive, aircraft, motorcycles, and even tractors. Construction of fuel tanks follows a series of specific steps. The craftsman generally creates a mockup to determine the accurate size and shape of the tank, usually out of foam board. Next, design issues that affect the structure of the tank are addressed - such as where the outlet, drain, fluid level indicator, seams, and baffles go. Then the craftsmen must determine the thickness, temper and alloy of the sheet he will use to make the tank. After the sheet is cut to the shapes needed, various pieces are bent to create the basic shell and/or ends and baffles for the tank. Many fuel tanks' baffles (particularly in aircraft and racecars) contain lightening holes. These flanged holes serve two purposes, they reduce the weight of the tank while adding strength to the baffles. Toward the end of construction, openings are added for the filler neck, fuel pickup, drain, and fuel-level sending unit. Sometimes these holes are created on the flat shell, other times they are added at the end of the fabrication process. Baffles and ends can be riveted into place. The heads of the rivets are frequently brazed or soldered to prevent tank leaks. Ends can then be hemmed in and soldered, or flanged and brazed (and/or sealed with an epoxy-type sealant) or the ends can be flanged and then welded. Once the soldering, brazing or welding is complete, the fuel tank is leak-tested.[1]

text: Automotive fuel tanks[edit]

text: The maximum distance a combustion-engine powered car with a full tank can cover is the product of the tank capacity and its fuel efficiency (as in miles per gallon). While larger tanks increase the maximum distance, they also take up more space and (especially when full) add to the total weight, requiring higher fuel consumption for the same performance. Fuel-tank capacity is therefore the result of a trade-off in design considerations. For most compact cars, the capacity is in the range 45–65 litres (12–17 US gal); the original model Tata Nano is exceptional with its 15 litres (4 US gal) fuel tank. SUVs and trucks tend to have considerably larger fuel tanks.

text: For each new vehicle a specific fuel system is developed, to optimize the use of available space. Moreover, for one car model, different fuel system architectures are developed, depending on the type of the car, the type of fuel (gasoline or diesel), nozzle models, and region.

text: Two technologies are used to make fuel tanks for automobiles:

text:
Plastic high-density polyethylene (HDPE) fuel tanks made by blow molding. This technology is increasingly used as it now shows its capacity to obtain very low emissions of fuel (see Partial zero-emissions vehicle). HDPE can also take complex shapes, allowing the tank to be mounted directly over the rear axle, saving space and improving crash safety. Initially there were concerns over the low fracture toughness of HDPE, when compared to steel or aluminum. Concern for safety and long term ability to function should be considered and monitored.
Metal (steel or aluminum) fuel tanks welded from stamped sheets. Although this technology is very good in limiting fuel emissions, it tends to be less competitive and thus less on the market, although until recent times automotive fuel tanks were almost exclusively made from sheet metal.

text: Modern cars often feature remote opening of the fuel tank fuel filler flap using an electric motor or cable release. For both convenience and security, many modern fuel tanks cannot be opened by hand or otherwise from the outside of the car.

text: Reserve tank[edit]

text: Sometimes called the reserve tank is a secondary fuel tank (in many cars/bikes it contains around 15% of the capacity of the primary tank) these are more commonly found on bikes, older cars (some without a fuel gauge) and vehicles designed for long distance or special use. A light on the instrument panel indicates when the fuel level dips below a certain point in the tank. There is no current standard, although some efforts are made to collect this data for all automobiles.

text: In vehicles modified for endurance the primary tank (the one that comes with the car) is made into a reserve tank and a larger one installed. Some 4x4 vehicles can be fitted with a secondary (or sub-tank) by the dealership.

text: Racing fuel cell[edit]

text: A racing fuel cell has a rigid outer shell and flexible inner lining to minimize the potential for punctures in the event of a collision or other mishap resulting in serious damage to the vehicle. It is filled with an open-cell foam core to prevent explosion of vapor in the empty portion of the tank and to minimize sloshing of fuel during competition that may unbalance the vehicle or cause inadequate fuel delivery to the motor (fuel starvation). The designation "racing" is often omitted due to familiarity and because this type of gas tank is also used on street vehicles. The omission can lead to confusion with other types of fuel cells. See Fuel cell (disambiguation).

text: Placement and safety[edit]

text: For safety considerations, in modern cars the fuel tank is usually located ahead of the rear axle, out of the crumple zones of the car.

text: Automobiles such as the Ford Pinto or the models that still use the Ford Panther platform (Ford Crown Victoria, Lincoln Town Car, and Mercury Grand Marquis) are notorious for having the fuel tank behind the rear axle. Since 1980 new Ford models corrected this problem and had the fuel tank in front of the rear axle.[2]

text: General Motors 1973-1987 C/K pickup trucks have the fuel tank located outside the frame. According to the Center for Auto Safety this creates a fire hazard.[3] In automotive applications, improper placement of the fuel tank has led to increased probability of fire in collisions. Circa 1990, General Motors faced over a hundred product liability lawsuits related to fires allegedly caused by GM's decision to place the fuel tanks in its pickup trucks outside the protection of the vehicle's frame.[4] In 1993, reportage on this matter for NBC News created a scandal over vehicles rigged to catch fire for the television camera.

text: Ford's Pinto also sparked controversy for putting the fuel tank in a poorly reinforced area which can cause deadly fires and explosions if the car got into a rear-end collision, costing Ford US$125 million.

text: Condensation may occur in half-filled fuel tanks. Top off the fuel tanks after the engine is operated. Fuel tank should include some consideration for draining and sediment from the bottom of the tanks.

text: Likewise for safety reasons, the filler could no longer be in the middle back of the car in the crumple zone and thus had to be on the side of the car. Which side is a series of trade-offs: driver's side is easier to access, and mechanically simpler for gas cap locks; passenger side is safer (away from passing traffic in roadside fill-ups). Asymmetric sliding doors may also dictate placement and some minivan doors will collide with a fillup in progress.[5]

text: Aircraft[edit]

text: Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and bladder.

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Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed to allow fuel storage. An example of this type is the "wet wing" commonly used in larger aircraft. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure, they cannot be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must be provided to allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of the tank. Most large transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the wings, belly, and sometimes tail of the airplane.
Rigid removable tanks are installed in a compartment designed to accommodate the tank. They are typically of metal construction, and may be removed for inspection, replacement, or repair. The aircraft does not rely on the tank for structural integrity. These tanks are commonly found in smaller general aviation aircraft, such as the Cessna 172.
Bladder tanks, or fuel cells,[6] are reinforced rubberized bags installed in a section of aircraft structure designed to accommodate the weight of the fuel. The bladder is rolled up and installed into the compartment through the fuel filler neck or access panel, and is secured by means of metal buttons or snaps inside the compartment. Many high-performance light aircraft, helicopters and some smaller turboprops use bladder tanks. One major down-side to this type of tank is the tendency for materials to work harden through extensive use making them brittle causing cracks.[citation needed] One major plus side is the ability to use as much of the aircraft as possible to store fuel.
Combat aircraft and helicopters generally use self-sealing fuel tanks.

text: Fuel tanks have been implicated in aviation disasters, being the cause of the accident or worsening it (fuel tank explosion).[7][not in citation given] For example:

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The official "probable cause" for the explosion and subsequent crash of TWA Flight 800 is that an explosive fuel/air mixture existed in one of the aircraft's fuel tanks. Faulty wiring then provided an ignition source within the tank, destroying the airliner. While the accuracy of the official findings is still questioned in this case, similar explosions have occurred in other aircraft. It is possible to reduce the chance of fuel tank explosions by a fuel tank inerting system or fire-fighting foam in the tanks.[8]
Burning fuel can explode or set fire to the same airplane or adjacent objects and people. In the 1960 Munich Convair 340 crash, a transport crashed into a major street. Burning fuel set fire to a tramcar. All 20 people aboard the plane and 32 passengers of the tram died.[9]

text: In some areas, an aircraft's fuel tank is also referred to as an aircraft fuel cell.

text: Water supply[edit]

text: Water supply systems can have primary or backup power supplied by diesel-fueled generators fed by a small "day tank" and a much larger bulk storage fuel tank.[10][11]

text: Safety[edit]

text: Proper design and construction of a fuel tank play a major role in the safety of the system of which the tank is a part. In most cases intact fuel tanks are very safe, as the tank is full of fuel vapour/air mixture that is well above the flammability limits, and thus cannot burn even if an ignition source were present (which is rare).

text: Bunded oil tanks are used for safely storing domestic heating oil and other hazardous materials. Bunding is often required by insurance companies, rather than single skinned oil storage tanks.

text: Several systems, such as BattleJacket and rubber bladders, have been developed and deployed for use in protecting (from explosion caused by enemy fire) the fuel tanks of military vehicles in conflict zones.[12]