document_title: Timeline of psychology

question_text: who established the first psychology lab in america

text: Timeline of psychology

text: Ancient history – BCE[edit]

text:
c. 1550 BCE – The Ebers Papyrus briefly mentioned depression.
c. 600 BCE – Many cities in Greece had temples to Asklepios that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses.[1]
624–546 Thales[2]
560–480 Pythagoras[2] – Pythagoras is reputed to have proposed a mathematical description of the relations between notes of a musical scale.
540–475 Heraclitus[2]
c. 500 Alcmaeon[2]
500–428 Anaxagoras[2]
490–430 Empedocles[2]
490–421 Protagoras [2]
470–399 Socrates[2] – Socrates has been called the father of western philosophy, if only via his influence on Plato and Aristotle. Socrates made a major contribution to pedagogy via his dialectical method and to epistemology via his definition of true knowledge as true belief buttressed by some rational justification.
470–370 Democritus[2] – Democritus distinguished between insufficient knowledge gained through the senses and legitimate knowledge gained through the intellect—an early stance on epistemology.
460 BC – 370 BCE – Hippocrates introduced principles of scientific medicine based upon naturalistic observation and logic, and denied the influence of spirits and demons in diseases.[3][4]
387 BCE – Plato suggested that the brain is the seat of mental processes. Plato's view of the "soul" (self) is that the body exists to serve the soul: "God created the soul before the body and gave it precedence both in time and value, and made it the dominating and controlling partner." from Timaeus[5]
c. 350 BCE – Aristotle wrote on the psuchê (soul) in De Anima, first mentioning the tabula rasa concept of the mind.
c. 340 BCE – Praxagoras
371–288 Theophrastus[2]
341–270 Epicurus[2]
c. 320 Herophilus[2]
c. 300–30 Zeno of Citium taught the philosophy of Stoicism, involving logic and ethics. In logic, he distinguished between imperfect knowledge offered by the senses and superior knowledge offered by reason. In ethics, he taught that virtue lay in reason and vice in rejection of reason. Stoicism inspired Aaron Beck to introduce cognitive behavior therapy in the 1970s.[6]
304–250 Erasistratus[2]
123–43 BCE – Themison of Laodicea was a pupil of Asclepiades of Bithynia and founded a school of medical thought known as "methodism." He was criticized by Soranus for his cruel handling of mental patients. Among his prescriptions were darkness, restraint by chains, and deprivation of food and drink. Juvenal satirized him and suggested that he killed more patients than he cured.[3]
c. 100 BCE – The Dead Sea Scrolls noted the division of human nature into two temperaments.[citation needed]

text: Ancient history – CE[edit]

text: Indian six branches of philosophy and their contribution to psychology. 1. Charvaka 2. Gautama Buddha 3. Lord Mahavir 4. Pantajali 5. Adi Shankara 6. Chanakya 7. Nagarjuna etc.

text: First century[edit]

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c. 50 – Aulus Cornelius Celsus died, leaving De Medicina, a medical encyclopedia; Book 3 covers mental diseases. The term insania, insanity, was first used by him. The methods of treatment included bleeding, frightening the patient, emetics, enemas, total darkness, and decoctions of poppy or henbane, and pleasant ones such as music therapy, travel, sport, reading aloud, and massage. He was aware of the importance of the doctor-patient relationship.[7]
c. 100 – Rufus of Ephesus believed that the nervous system was instrumental in voluntary movement and sensation. He discovered the optic chiasma by anatomical studies of the brain. He stressed taking a history of both physical and mental disorders. He gave a detailed account of melancholia, and was quoted by Galen.[3]
93-138 – Soranus of Ephesus advised kind treatment in healthy and comfortable conditions, including light, warm rooms.[3]

text: Second century[edit]

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c. 130–200 – Galen "was schooled in all the psychological systems of the day: Platonic, Aristotelian, Stoic, and Epicurean"[4] He advanced medicine and was a skilled physician. Galen proposed that people's moods were determined by the balance among four bodily substances. He also distinguished sensory from motor nerves and showed that the brain controls the muscles.
c. 150–200 – Aretaeus of Cappadocia[4]

text: Third century[edit]

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155–220 Tertullian[2]
205–270 Plotinus wrote Enneads a systematic account of Neoplatonist philosophy, also nature of visual perception and how memory might work.[5]

text: Fourth century[edit]

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c. 323–403 – Oribasius compiled medical writings based on the works of Aristotle, Asclepiades, and Soranus of Ephesus, and wrote on melancholia in Galenic terms.[3]
c. 390 – Nemesius wrote De Natura Hominis (On Human Nature); large sections were incorporated in Saint John Damascene's De Fide Orthodoxia in the eighth century. Nemesius' book De Placitis Hippocratis et Platonis (On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato) contains many passages concerning Galen's anatomy and physiology, believing that different cavities of the brain were responsible for different functions.[3][5]
397–398 – St. Augustine of Hippo published Confessions, which anticipated Freud by near-discovery of the subconscious.[8] Augustine's most complete account of the soul is in De Quantitate Animae (The Greatness of the Soul). The work assumes a Platonic model of the soul.[5]

text: Fifth century[edit]

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5th century – Caelius Aurelianus opposed harsh methods of handling the insane, and advocated humane treatment.[3]
c. 423–529 – Theodosius the Cenobiarch founded a monastery at Kathismus, near Bethlehem. Three hospitals were built by the side of the monastery: one for the sick, one for the aged, and one for the insane.[3]
c. 451 – Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople: his followers dedicated themselves to the sick and became physicians of great repute. They brought the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen, and influenced the approach to physical and mental disorders in Persia and Arabia[3]

text: Seventh century[edit]

text: 625–690 – Paul of Aegina suggested that hysteria should be treated by ligature of the limbs, and mania by tying the patient to a mattress placed inside a wicker basket and suspended from the ceiling. He also recommended baths, wine, special diets, and sedatives for the mentally ill. He described the following mental disorders: phrenitis, delirium, lethargus, melancholia, mania, incubus, lycanthropy, and epilepsy

text: Eighth century[edit]

text: 705 – The first psychiatric hospital was built by Muslims in Baghdad, followed by Cairo in 800, and Damascus in 1270.[9]

text: Ninth century[edit]

text: c. 850 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari developed the idea of using clinical psychiatry to treat mentally ill patients.

text: Tenth century[edit]

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c. 900 – The concept of mental health (mental hygiene) was introduced by Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi. He also recognized that illnesses can have both psychological and/or physiological causes.[10]
c. 900 – al-Razi (Rhazes) recognized the concept of "psychotherapy" and referred to it as al-‘ilaj al-nafs.[11]

text: Eleventh century[edit]

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1021 – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) began to carry out experiments in areas related to body and the nafs. In his Book of Optics, for example, he examined visual perception and what we now call sensation, including variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colors, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision.
1025 – In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna described a number of conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.[12]
c. 1030 – Al-Biruni employed an experimental method in examining the concept of reaction time.[13]

text: Twelfth century[edit]

text: c. 1200 – Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders, and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.

text: Thirteenth century[edit]

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c. 1180 – 1245 Alexander of Hales
c. 1190 – 1249 William of Auvergne
1215–1277 Peter Juliani taught in the medical faculty of the University of Siena, and wrote on medical, philosophical and psychological topics. He was personal physician to Pope Gregory X and later became archbishop and cardinal. He was elected pope under the name John XXI in 1276.[5][14]
c. 1214 – 1294 Roger Bacon advocated for empirical methods and wrote on optics, visual perception, and linguistics.
1221–1274 Bonaventure
1193–1280 Albertus Magnus
1225 – Thomas Aquinas
1240 – Bartholomeus Anglicus published De Proprietatibus Rerum, which included a dissertation on the brain, recognizing that mental disorders can have a physical or psychological cause.
1247 – Bethlehem Royal Hospital in Bishopsgate outside the wall of London, one of the most famous old psychiatric hospitals was founded as a priory of the Order of St. Mary of Bethlem to collect alms for Crusaders; after the English government secularized it, it started admitting mental patients by 1377 (c. 1403), becoming known as Bedlam Hospital; in 1547 it was acquired by the City of London, operating until 1948; it is now part of the British NHS Foundation Trust.[15]
1266–1308 Duns Scotus
c. 1270 – Witelo wrote Perspectiva, a work on optics containing speculations on psychology, nearly discovering the subconscious.
1295 Lanfranc writes Science of Cirurgie[5]

text: Fourteenth century[edit]

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1317–40 – William of Ockham, an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher and theologian, is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that the simplest explanation is to be preferred. He also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology, advancing his thoughts about intuitive and abstracted knowledge.
1347-50 – The Black Death devastated Europe.
c. 1375 – English authorities regarded mental illness as demonic possession, treating it with exorcism and torture.[16]

text: Fifteenth century[edit]

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c. 1400 – Renaissance Humanism caused a reawakening of ancient knowledge of science and medicine.
1433–1499 Marsilio Ficino was a renowned figure of the Italian Renaissance, a Neoplatonist humanist, a translator of Greek philosophical writing, and the most influential exponent of Platonism in Italy in the fifteenth century.[4]
c. 1450 – The pendulum in Europe swings, bringing witch mania, causing thousands of women to be executed for witchcraft until the late 17th century.

text: Sixteenth century[edit]

text: 1590 – Scholastic philosopher Rudolph Goclenius coined the term "psychology"; though usually regarded as the origin of the term, there is evidence that it was used at least six decades earlier by Marko Marulić.

text: Seventeenth century[edit]

text:
c. 1600–1625 – Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author, and pioneer of the scientific method. His writings on psychological topics included the nature of knowledge and memory.
1650 – René Descartes died, leaving Treatise of the World, containing his dualistic theory of reality, mind vs. matter.
1672 – Thomas Willis published the anatomical treatise De Anima Brutorum, describing psychology in terms of brain function.
1677 – Baruch Spinoza died, leaving Ethics, Demonstrated in Geometrical Order, Pt. 2 focusing on the human mind and body, disputing Descartes and arguing that they are one, and Pt. 3 attempting to show that moral concepts such as good and evil, virtue, and perfection have a basis in human psychology.
1689 – John Locke published An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which claims that the human mind is a Tabula Rasa at birth.

text: Eighteenth century[edit]

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1701 – Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz published the Law of Continuity, which he applied to psychology, becoming the first to postulate an unconscious mind; he also introduced the concept of threshold.[17]
1710 – George Berkeley published Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, which claims that the outside world is composed solely of ideas.
1732 – Christian Wolff published Psychologia Empirica, followed in 1734 by Psychologia Rationalis, popularizing the term "psychology".
1739 – David Hume published A Treatise of Human Nature, claiming that all contents of mind are solely built from sense experiences.
1781 – Immanuel Kant published Critique of Pure Reason, rejecting Hume's extreme empiricism and proposing that there is more to knowledge than bare sense experience, distinguishing between "a posteriori" and "a priori" knowledge, the former being derived from perception, hence occurring after perception, and the latter being a property of thought, independent of experience and existing before experience.

text: Nineteenth century[edit]

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c. 1800 – Franz Joseph Gall developed cranioscopy, the measurement of the skull to determine psychological characteristics, which was later renamed phrenology; it is now discredited.
1807 – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel published Phenomenology of Spirit (Mind), which describes his thesis-antithesis-synthesis dialectical method, according to which knowledge pushes forwards to greater certainty, and ultimately towards knowledge of the noumenal world.
1808 – Johann Christian Reil coined the term "psychiatry".

text: 1812 – Benjamin Rush became one of the earliest advocates of humane treatment for the mentally ill with the publication of Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon Diseases of the Mind,[18] the first American textbook on psychiatry.[19]

text: 1829 – John Stuart Mill's father James Mill published Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (2 vols.).[20]

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1840 – Frederick Augustus Rauch (1806–1841) published Psychology, or a View of the Human Soul, including Anthropology
1843 – Forbes Benignus Winslow (1810–1874) published The Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases, helping establish the plea of insanity in criminal cases in Britain.
1844 – Søren Kierkegaard published The Concept of Anxiety, the first exposition on anxiety.
1848 – Vermont railroad worker Phineas Gage had a 3-foot rod driven through his brain and jaw in an explosives accident, permanently changing his personality, revolutionizing scientific opinion about brain functions being localizable.
1849 – Søren Kierkegaard published The Sickness Unto Death.

text:
1852 – Hermann Lotze published Medical Psychology or Physiology of the Soul.
1856 – Hermann Lotze began publishing his 3-volume magnum opus Mikrokosmos (1856–64), arguing that natural laws of inanimate objects apply to human minds and bodies but have the function of enabling us to aim for the values set by the deity, thus making room for aesthetics.
1859 – Josef Breuer published Traite Clinique et Therapeutique de L'Hysterie.

text:
1860s – Franciscus Donders first used human reaction time to infer differences in cognitive processing.
1860 – Gustav Theodor Fechner published Elements of Psychophysics, founding the subject of psychophysics.
1861 – Paul Broca discovered an area in the left cerebral hemisphere that is important for speech production, now known as Broca's area, founding neuropsychology.
1869 – Francis Galton published Hereditary Genius, arguing for eugenics. He went on to found psychometrics, differential psychology, and the lexical hypothesis of personality.

text:
1872 – Douglas Spalding published his discovery of psychological imprinting.
1874 – Wilhelm Wundt published Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology), the first textbook of experimental psychology.
1878 – G. Stanley Hall was awarded the first PhD on a psychological topic from Harvard (in philosophy).
1879 – Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany.

text:
1882 – The Society for Psychical Research was founded in England.
1883 – G. Stanley Hall opened the first American experimental psychology research laboratory at Johns Hopkins University.
1883 – Emil Kraepelin published Compendium der Psychiatrie.
1884 – Ivan Pavlov began studying the digestive secretion of animals.
1884 – Tourette's Syndrome was first described.
1885 – Hermann Ebbinghaus published Über das Gedächtnis (On Memory), a groundbreaking work based on self-experiments, first describing the learning curve, forgetting curve, and spacing effect.
1886 – John Dewey published the first American textbook on psychology, titled Psychology.
1886 – Vladimir Bekhterev established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Russia at Kazan University.
1886 – Sigmund Freud began private practice in Vienna.
1887 – Georg Elias Müller opened the 2nd German experimental psychology research laboratory in Göttingen.
1887 – George Trumbull Ladd (Yale) published Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbook to include a substantial amount of information on the new experimental form of the discipline.
1887 – James McKeen Cattell founded an experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, the 3rd in the United States.
1887 – G. Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology with a $500 contribution supplied by Robert Pearsall Smith of the American Society for Psychical Research.
1888 – William Lowe Bryan founded the United States' 4th experimental psychology laboratory at Indiana University.
1888 – Joseph Jastrow founded the United States' 5th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
1888 – G. Stanley Hall left Johns Hopkins for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University in Worcester, Mass.
1889 – James Mark Baldwin published the first volume of his Handbook of Psychology, titled "Sense and Intellect".
1889 – Edmund Sanford, a former student of G. Stanley Hall founded the United States' 6th experimental psychology laboratory at Clark University.
1889 – William Noyes founded the United States' 7th experimental psychology laboratory at the McLean Asylum in Waverley, Mass.
1889 – Harry Kirke Wolfe founded the United States' 8th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Nebraska.

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1890 – Christian von Ehrenfels published On the Qualities of Form, founding Gestalt psychology.
1890 – William James published The Principles of Psychology.
1890 – James Hayden Tufts founded the United States' 9th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Michigan.
1890 – G. T. W. Patrick founded the United States' 10th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Iowa.
1890 – James McKeen Cattell left Pennsylvania for Columbia University where he founded the United States' 11th experimental psychology laboratory.
1890 – James Mark Baldwin founded the first permanent experimental psychology laboratory in the British Empire at the University of Toronto.
1891 – Frank Angell founded the United States' 12th experimental psychology laboratory at the Cornell University.
1891 – Edvard Westermarck described the Westermarck effect, where people raised early in life in close domestic proximity later become desensitized to close sexual attraction, raising theories about the incest taboo.
1892 – G. Stanley Hall et al. founded the American Psychological Association (APA).
1892 – Edward Bradford Titchener took a professorship at Cornell University, replacing Frank Angell who left for Stanford University.
1892 – Edward Wheeler Scripture founded the experimental psychology laboratory at Yale University, the 19th in United States.
1892–1893 – Charles A. Strong opened the experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Chicago, the 20th in the United States, at which James Rowland Angell conducted the first experiments of functionalism in 1896.
1894 – Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to be granted a Ph.D. in Psychology after she studied under E. B. Titchener at Cornell University.
1894 – James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin founded the Psychological Review to compete with Hall's American Journal of Psychology.
1895 – Gustave Le Bon published The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind.
1896 – John Dewey published the paper The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,[21] founding social behaviorism.
1896 – The first psychological clinic was opened at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer; although often celebrated as marking the birth of clinical psychology, it was focused primarily on educational matters.
1896 – Edward B. Titchener, student of Wilhelm Wundt and originator of the terms "structuralism" and "functionalism" published An Outline of Psychology.
1897 – Havelock Ellis published Sexual Inversion.
1898 – Boris Sidis published The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society.
1899 – On November 4 Sigmund Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams (Die Traumdeutung), marking the beginning of psychoanalysis, which attempts to deal with the Oedipal complex.

text: Twentieth century[edit]

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1901 – Sigmund Freud published The Psychopathology of Everyday Life.
1903 – John B. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago; his dissertation on rat behavior has been described as a "classic of developmental psychobiology" by historian of psychology Donald Dewsbury.
1903 – Helen Thompson Woolley published her doctoral dissertation, The Mental Traits of Sex, for which she had conducted the first experimental test of sex differences.[22]
1904 – Charles Spearman published the article General Intelligence in the American Journal of Psychology, introducing the g factor theory of intelligence.
1905 – Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon created the Binet-Simon scale to identify students needing extra help, marking the beginning of standardized psychological testing.
1905 – Edward Thorndike published the law of effect.
1905 – Sigmund Freud published Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.
1906 – The Journal of Abnormal Psychology was founded by Morton Prince, for which Boris Sidis was an associate editor and significant contributor.
1908 – Sigmund Freud published the paper On the Sexual Theories of Children, introducing the concept of penis envy; he also published the paper 'Civilized' Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness.
1908 – Wilfred Trotter published the first paper explaining the herd instinct.
1909 – Sigmund Freud lectured at Clark University, winning over the U.S. establishment.

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1910 – Sigmund Freud founded the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), with Carl Jung as the first president, and Otto Rank as the first secretary.
1910 – Grace Helen Kent and J. Rosanoff published the Kent-Rosanoff Free Association Test[23]
1910 – Boris Sidis opened the private Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, New Hampshire for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods.
1911 – Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.
1911 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) was founded.
1911 – William McDougall, founder of Hormic Psychology published Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism, claiming that there is an animating principle in Nature and that the mind guides evolution.
1912 – Max Wertheimer published Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement, helping found Gestalt Psychology
1913 – Carl Jung developed his own theories, which became known as Analytical Psychology.
1913 – Jacob L. Moreno pioneered group psychotherapy methods in Vienna, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction; they later became known as psychodrama and sociometry.
1913 – John B. Watson published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, sometimes known as "The Behaviorist Manifesto".
1913 – Hugo Münsterberg published Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, considered today as the first book on Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
1914 – Boris Sidis published The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology, where he provided the scientific foundation for the field of psychology, and detailed his theory of the moment consciousness.[24]
1917 – Sigmund Freud published Introduction to Psychoanalysis.

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1920 – John B. Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the Little Albert experiment, using classical conditioning to make a young boy afraid of white rats.
1921 – Sigmund Freud published Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego.
1921 – Jacob L. Moreno conducted the first large scale public psychodrama session at the Komedienhaus in Vienna; he moved to New York in 1925.
1921 – Melanie Klein began to develop her technique of analyzing children.[25]
1922 – Karen Horney began publishing a series of 14 papers (last in 1937) questioning Freud's theories on women, founding feminist psychology.
1922 – Boris Sidis published Nervous Ills: Their Cause and a Cure, a popularization of his work concerning the subconscious and the treatment of psychopathic disease.
1923 – Sigmund Freud published The Ego and the Id.
1924 – Jacob Robert Kantor founded interbehavioral psychology based on John Dewey's psychology and Albert Einstein's relativity theory.
1924 – Otto Rank published The Trauma of Birth, coining the term "pre-Oedipal", causing Freud to break with him.
1926 – Otto Rank gave the lecture "The Genesis of the Object Relation", founding object relations theory.
1927 – Ivan Pavlov published Conditioned Reflexes, containing his theory of classical conditioning.
1928 – Jean Piaget published Judgment and Reasoning in the Child.
1928 – [Shoma Morita] published Morita Therapy: The True Nature of Shinkeishitsu (Anxiety-based Disorders), which contains his peripheral theory of consciousness, while noting Freud's theory of the unconscious. (Translation by A. Kondo, Edited by P. LeVine in 1998, SUNY Press)
1929 – Edwin Boring published A History of Experimental Psychology, pioneering the history of psychology.
1929 – Lev Vygotsky founded cultural-historical psychology.

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1930 – Edwin Boring discussed the Boring figure.
1931 – Gordon Allport et al. published the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values, which defines six major value types.
1933 – Pyotr Gannushkin published Manifestations of Psychopathies.[26]
1933 – Clark L. Hull published Hypnosis and Suggestibility, proving that hypnosis is not sleep and founding the modern study of hypnosis.
1933 – Wilhelm Reich published Character Analysis and The Mass Psychology of Fascism.
1934 – Lev Vygotsky published Thought and Language (Thinking and Speech).
1934 – Ruth Winifred Howard became the first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology.[27]
1935 – John Ridley Stroop developed a color-word task to demonstrate the interference of attention, the Stroop effect[28]
1935 – Helen Flanders Dunbar published Emotions and Bodily Changes: A Survey of Literature on Psychosomatic Interrelationships;[29] in 1942 she founded the American Psychosomatic Society (American Society for Research in Psychosomatic Problems),[30] and was the first editor of the society's journal Psychosomatic Medicine: Experimental and Clinical Studies, founded in 1939.[31]
1935 – Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan of Harvard University published the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
1935 – Theodore Newcomb began the Bennington College Study,[32] which ended in 1939, documenting liberalization of women students' political beliefs, along with the effects of proximity on acquaintance and attraction.
1936 – Kurt Lewin published Principles of Topological Psychology,[33] containing Lewin's Equation B = f (P, E), meaning that behavior is a function of a person in their environment.
1936 – Wilhelm Reich published The Sexual Revolution.
1936 – Kenneth Spence published an analysis of discrimination learning in terms of gradients of excitation and inhibition, showing that mathematical deductions from a quantitative theory could generate interesting and empirically testable predictions.
1936 – The Psychometric Society was founded by Louis Leon Thurstone, who proposed dividing general intelligence into seven primary mental abilities (PMAs).
1938 – B.F. Skinner published his first major work The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, introducing behavior analysis.
1939 – Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley published a classic report in the journal Nature of the first recording of an action potential.
1939 – Neal E. Miller et al. published the frustration-aggression theory, which claims that aggression is the result of frustration of efforts to attain a goal.
1939 – David Wechsler developed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale.
1939 – On Sept. 1 World War II began with the German invasion of Poland; on Sept. 20 Adolf Hitler signed the Euthanasia Decree,[34] written by psychologist Max de Crinis, resulting in the Aktion T4 euthanasia program; on Sept. 23 Sigmund Freud committed physician-assisted suicide in London on the Jewish Day of Atonement; on Oct. 31 his archrival Otto Rank died of a kidney infection in New York City after uttering the word "comical"; Wilhelm Reich fled to New York, coining the word orgone and building "orgone accumulators", which got him in trouble with the psychiatric establishment and the federal government.

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1940 – Edwin Boring discussed the moon illusion.
1941 – Erich Fromm published Escape from Freedom, founding political psychology.
1941 – B.F. Skinner and William Kaye Estes introduced the conditioned emotional response (CER)/conditioned fear response (CFR) paradigm via electric shocks given to rats.
1942 – Ludwig Binswanger founded existential therapy.
1942 – Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy, suggesting that respect and a nonjudgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.
1943 – J. P. Guilford developed the Stanine (Standard Nine) test for the U.S. Air Force to evaluate pilots.
1943 – Clark L. Hull published Principles of Behavior, establishing animal-based learning and conditioning as the dominant learning theory.
1943 – Leo Kanner published Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact, the first systematic description of autistic children.
1943 – Abraham Maslow published the paper A Theory of Human Motivation, describing Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
1944 – Zach Andrew and Cameron Peter published Myer's Psychology Second Edition where they revolutionized the approach of learned Psychology
1945 – The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.
1946 – Kurt Lewin founded action research.
1946 – Stanley Smith Stevens published his levels of measurement theory.
1947 – Jerome Bruner published Value and Need as Organizing Factors in Perception, founding New Look Psychology, which challenges psychologists to study not just an organism's response to a stimulus but also its internal interpretation.
1947 – Kurt Lewin coined the term "group dynamics".
1948 – Alfred Kinsey of Indiana University published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male.
1949 – The Boulder Conference outlined the scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology.
1949 – Donald Hebb published The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory, in which he provided a detailed, testable theory of how the brain could support cognitive processes, revolutionizing neuropsychology and making McGill University a center of research.
1949 – David Wechsler published the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

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1950 – Karen Horney summarized her ideas in her magnum opus Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization.[35]
1950 – Erik Erikson published Childhood and Society, in which he introduced his theory on the stages of psycho-social development and the concept of an identity crisis.
1950 – Rollo May published The Meaning of Anxiety.
1951 – Solomon Asch published the Asch conformity experiments, demonstrating the power of conformity in groups.
1951 – Morton Deutsch published Interracial Housing: A Psychological Evaluation of a Social Experiment, producing scientific evidence of the bad effects of segregated housing, helping to end it in the U.S.
1951 – Carl Rogers published his magnum opus Client-Centered Therapy.
1951 – Lee Cronbach published his measure of reliability, now known as Cronbach's alpha.
1952 – The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification; it was revised in 1968, 1980/7, 1994, 2000 and 2013.
1952 – Hans Eysenck started a debate on psychotherapy with his critical review,[36] claiming that psychotherapy had no documented effect, and psychoanalysis had negative effects.[37]
1953 – Alfred Kinsey published Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.
1953 – Nathaniel Kleitman of the U. of Chicago discovered rapid eye movement sleep (REM), founding modern sleep research.
1953 – David McClelland proposed need theory.
1953 – B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature.
1953 – The Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association (APA).[38]
1953 – Harry Stack Sullivan published The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, which holds that an individual's personality is formed by relationships.
1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found humanistic psychology, later developing Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
1954 – Paul E. Meehl published a paper claiming that mechanical (formal algorithmic) methods of data combination outperform clinical (subjective informal) methods when used to arrive at a prediction of behavior.
1954 – James Olds and Peter Milner of McGill University discovered the brain reward system, involving the brain's pleasure center.
1954 – Julian Rotter published Social Learning and Clinical Psychology, founding social learning theory.
1954 – Herman Witkin published Personality Through Perception, which claims that personality can be revealed through differences in how people perceive their environment; he went on to develop the Rod and Frame Test (RFT).
1955 – Lee Cronbach published Construct Validity in Psychological Tests, popularizing the concept of construct validity.
1955 – J. P. Guilford developed the Structure of Intellect (SOI) theory, which divides human intelligence into 150 abilities along three dimensions, operations, content, and products; it is discredited by the 1990s.
1955 – George Kelly founded personal construct psychology.
1956 – George Armitage Miller published the paper The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two, in which he showed that there is a limit on the amount of information that can be memorized at one time.
1956 – Rollo May published Existence, promoting existential psychology.
1957 – Leon Festinger published his theory of cognitive dissonance.
1957 – Stanley Smith Stevens published Stevens' power law.
1958 – John Cohen published Humanistic Psychology,[39] the first book on the subject.
1958 – Harry Harlow gave the speech The Nature of Love, summarizing his isolation studies on infant monkeys and rejecting behavioristic and psychoanalytic theories of attachment.
1958 – Joseph Wolpe published his theory of reciprocal inhibition, leading to his theory of systematic desensitization for anxieties and phobias.
1959 – Viktor Frankl published the first English edition of Man's Search for Meaning [with a preface by Gordon Allport], which provided an existential account of his Holocaust experience and an overview of his system of existential analysis called Logotherapy.
1959 – Noam Chomsky published his review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, an event seen as by many as the start of the cognitive revolution.
1959 – George Mandler and William Kessen published The Language of Psychology.
1959 – Lawrence Kohlberg wrote his doctoral dissertation, outlining Kohlberg's stages of moral development.

text:
1960 – John L. Fuller and W. Robert Thompson published the seminal text Behavior Genetics.[40]
1960 – Thomas Szasz inaugurated the anti-psychiatry movement with the publication of his book, The Myth of Mental Illness.
1961 – Albert Bandura published the Bobo doll experiment, a study of behavioral patterns of aggression.
1961 – Neal E. Miller proposed the use of biofeedback to control involuntary functions.
1962 – Wilfred Bion presented his unconventional theory of thinking.[41]
1962 – Albert Ellis published Reason and Emotion In Psychotherapy, describing the theoretical foundations of his therapeutic system known as Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy.
1962 – George Armitage Miller published Psychology, the Science of Mental Life, rejecting the idea that psychology should study only behavior.
1962 – Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, presenting his ideas of self-actualization and the hierarchy of human needs.
1962 – Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed the two-factor theory of emotion, which considers emotion to be a function of both cognitive factors and physiological arousal; "People search the immediate environment for emotionally relevant cues to label and interpret unexplained physiological arousal."
1962 – Silvan Tomkins published volume one (of two) of Affect Imagery Consciousness, presenting his affect theory[42]
1963 – Stanley Milgram published his study of obedience to authority, now known as the Milgram experiment.
1964 – Jean M. Mandler and George Mandler published Thinking: From Association to Gestalt.
1964 – Virginia Satir published Conjoint Family Therapy, the first of several books on family therapy, causing her to become known as the "Mother of Family Therapy"[43][44]
1965 – Anna Freud published Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assessments of Development, presenting the concept of developmental lines.
1965 – William Glasser published Reality Therapy, describing his psycho-therapeutic model and introducing his concept of control theory [later renamed to Choice Theory].
1965 – Donald Winnicott published The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment, which became a main text in clinical psychodynamic developmental psychology.
1966 – Nancy Bayley became the first woman to receive the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award for her contribution in developmental psychology.[45]
1966 – Konrad Lorenz published On Aggression, which discusses his hydraulic model of instinctive pressures.
1966 – Masters and Johnson published Human Sexual Response.
1966 – Julian Rotter published a paper proposing the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E Scale).
1967 – Aaron Beck published a psychological model of clinical depression, suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.
1967 – Edward E. Jones and Victor Harris published a paper defining fundamental attribution error, underestimating the effect of the situation in explaining social behavior.
1967 – Ulric Neisser founded cognitive psychology.
1968 – George Cotzias developed the L-Dopa treatment for Parkinson's disease.
1968 – Mary Main published her hypothesis of a fourth attachment style in children, the insecure disorganized attachment style.[46]
1968 – Walter Mischel published the paper "Personality and Assessment", criticizing Gordon Allport's works on trait assessment with the observation that a patient's behavior is not consistent across diverse situations but dependent on situational cues.
1968 – DSM-II was published by the American Psychiatric Association.
1968 – The first Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D.) professional degree program in Clinical Psychology was established in the Department of Psychology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
1969 – The California School of Professional Psychology was established as the first freestanding school of professional psychology.
1969 – The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology was founded by Abraham Maslow, Stanislav Grof, and Anthony Sutich.
1969 – John Bowlby published his attachment theory in the classic book Attachment and Loss (vol. 1 of 3).
1969 – Harry Harlow published his experiment on affection development in rhesus monkeys.
1969 – Joseph Wolpe published the Subjective Units of Distress (Disturbance) Scale (SUDS).
1969 – Elisabeth Kübler-Ross published On Death and Dying, presenting the Kübler-Ross model, commonly referred to as the five stages of grief.
1969 – The Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) was founded, with Joann Evansgardner as the first (temporary) president.[45]

text:
1970 – At an APA Town Hall Meeting, with the support of the Association for Women in Psychology, Phyllis Chesler and Nancy Henley prepared a statement on APA's obligations to women and demanded one million dollars in reparation for the damage psychology had perpetrated against women's minds and bodies.[45]
1970 – Masters and Johnson published Human Sexual Inadequacy.
1971 – The Stanford prison experiment, conducted by Philip Zimbardo et al. at Stanford University, studied the human response to captivity; the experiment quickly got out of hand and was ended early.
1971 – Martin Shubik performed the dollar auction, illustrating irrational choices.
1971 – In Nov. John O'Keefe and Jonathan O. Dostrovsky announced their discovery of place cells in the hippocampus.
1971 – The Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information at the University of Trier was founded to publish the PSYNDEX database of references to psychology in the German-speaking world.
1972 – The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study commenced, a longitudinal study began, with 96% retention rate as of 2006, unprecedented for a longitudinal study, comparing to 20–40% dropout rates for other studies.
1972 – Robert E. Ornstein published The Psychology of Consciousness, about the use of biofeedback et al. to shift mood and awareness.
1972 – Endel Tulving first made the distinction between episodic and semantic memory.
1973 – Ernest Becker published The Denial of Death, siding with Otto Rank against Sigmund Freud, claiming that knowledge of one's mortality not sexuality is the basis of character.
1973 – Morton Deutsch published The Resolution of Conflict.
1973 – Vygotsky Circle neuropsychologist Alexander Luria published The Working Brain, a detailed description with great emphasis on rehabilitation of damage.
1973 – The Vail Conference of Graduate Educators in Psychology endorsed the scholar-practitioner training model, and approved the Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D) degree.
1973 – Division 35, later the Society for the Psychology of Women of the APA, was formed, with Elizabeth Douvan as the first president.[45]
1973 – The Committee on Women in Psychology of the APA was formed, with Martha Mednick as its first chair.[45]
1973 – The American Psychiatric Association declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder.[47]
1973 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association was officially founded to advocate to the APA on LGBT mental health issues; in 1985 it changed its name to the Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists.[48]
1973 – Nancy Friday published My Secret Garden: Women’s Sexual Fantasies
1973 – Timothy Leary published Neurologic,[49] describing the eight-circuit model of consciousness.
1974 – Sandra Bem created the Bem Sex-Role Inventory.
1974 – Robert Hinde published Biological Bases of Human Social Behavior, a main text in etological-oriented developmental psychology.
1974 – Arnold Sameroff published Reproductive Risk and the Continuum of Caretaking Causality, introducing the transactional model of psychology, which became influential.
1974 – Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch of the Univ. of York proposed Baddeley's model of working memory.
1974 – Elizabeth Loftus began publishing papers on the malleability of human memory, the misinformation effect, and false memory syndrome and its relation to recovered memory therapy.
1974 – The APA Task Force on Sex Bias and Sex-Role Stereotyping in Psychotherapeutic Practice was appointed.[45]
1975 – Georgia Babladelis became the first editor of the Psychology of Women Quarterly.[45]
1975 – George Mandler published Mind and Emotion.
1975 – Mary Wright became the first chair of the new Task Force on the Status of Women in Canadian Psychology.[45]
1975 – Robert Zajonc published the confluence model, showing how birth order and family size affect IQ.
1975 – The first APA-sponsored Psychology of Women Conference was held.[45]
1975 – The journal Sex Roles was founded.[45]
1975 – The first review article on the psychology of women appeared in the women's studies journal Signs, by Mary Parlee.[50]
1975 – The first article on the psychology of women was published in the Annual Review of Psychology.[45]
1975 – The council of representatives of the American Psychological Association (APA) declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder.[47]
1976 – Stanislav Grof founded the International Transpersonal Association to promote his transpersonal psychology.
1976 – Julian Jaynes published The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, which coins the term bicameral mind for the brain of humans who lived before about 1,000 B.C.E., whose right side "speaks" in the name of a chieftain or god, and whose left side "listens" and takes orders.
1976 – Quantum psychology was founded by Eddie Oshins.[51]
1976 – Michael Posner published Chronometric Explorations of Mind, using the subtractive method of Franciscus Donders to study attention and memory.
1976 – The Psychology of Women Quarterly was founded.[45]
1977 – Ernest Hilgard proposed the divided consciousness theory of hypnosis.
1977 – Alexander Thomas published Temperament and Development, a longitudinal study on the importance of temperament for the development of personality and behavioral problems.
1977 – Albert Bandura published the book Social Learning Theory and an article on the concept of self-efficacy, A Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.[52]
1977 – Susan Folstein and Michael Rutter published a study of 21 British twins in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry that reveals a high genetic component in autism.[53]
1977 – Robert Plomin et al. proposed three major ways in which genes and environments act together to shape human behavior, coining the terms passive, active, and evocative gene-environment correlation.[54]
1977 – Andrey Lichko published Psychopathies and Accentuations of Character of Teenagers.[55]
1978 – Child psychologist Mary Ainsworth published her book Patterns of Attachment about her work on attachment theory and the Strange Situation Experiment (Protocol).
1978 – Paul Ekman published the Facial Action Coding System.
1978 – David Premack published the book Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind?, about his research on mental abilities of monkeys, introducing the term theory of mind.
1978 – The term cognitive neuroscience was coined by Michael Gazzaniga and George Armitage Miller for the effort to understand how the brain represents mental events.
1978 – John O'Keefe and Lynn Nadel published The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map.
1978 – E.O. Wilson published On Human Nature, considered the first landmark text to deal with what would become evolutionary psychology.
1978 – The first Canadian Institute on Women and Psychology pre-convention conference was hosted at the Canadian Psychological Association by IGWAP (Interest Group on Women and Psychology).
1978 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association, (now known as the Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists) successfully petitioned the American Psychiatric Association (APA) to create a task force on lesbian and gay issues; it was elevated to a full standing committee in the APA in 1988.[48]
1979 – Alice Miller published The Drama of the Gifted Child, the first of a series of books criticizing Freud and Jung for blaming the child for the sexual abuse of the parents, which she calls the "poisonous pedagogies".
1979 – Urie Bronfenbrenner published The Ecology of Human Development, founding ecological systems theory.

text:
1980 – Transgender people were officially classified by the American Psychiatric Association as having "gender identity disorder."[56]
1980 – DSM-III was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).
1980 – George Mandler published Recognizing: The Judgment of Previous Occurrence,[57] claiming a dual process basis of recognition, prior occurrence and identification.
1980 – Robert Zajonc published the paper "Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences", arguing that affective and cognitive systems are largely independent, and that affect is more powerful and important, reviving the study of emotion and affective processes.
1981 – Alan P. Bell, Martin S. Weinberg, and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith's Sexual Preference is published. The work later becomes one of the most frequently cited retrospective studies relating to sexual orientation.[58]
1982 – Carol Gilligan published In a Different Voice, a work on feminist psychology.
1982 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) was recognized as a representative in the APA assembly, speaking directly on matters of special concern to lesbian and gay members.[48]
1983 – Howard Gardner published Frames of Mind, introducing his theory of multiple intelligences.
1983 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) successfully petitioned the APA to create a task force on psychiatric aspects of AIDS, which ultimately led to the 1984 publication of two important APA volumes Innovations in Psychotherapy with Homosexuals and Psychiatric Implications of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.[48]
1983 – W. David Pierce et al. published a paper about activity-based anorexia.
1984 – Jerome Kagan published The Nature of the Child, a biological and socially oriented description of the role of temperament in human development.
1984 – Peter Saville published the OPQ Pentagon questionnaire, a psychological personality inventory measuring the five factor nodel.
1984 – Florence Denmark, Carolyn R. Payton, and Laurie Eyde received the first American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Women in Psychology Leadership Awards.[45]
1985 – Daniel Stern published The Interpersonal World of the Infant, proposing an extensive mental life in early infancy.
1985 – Robert Sternberg proposed his triarchic theory of intelligence
1985 – Reuben Baron and David A. Kenny published the article The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology proposing a distinction of moderating in mediating variables in psychological research.
1985 – Simon Baron-Cohen published Does the Autistic Child Have a 'Theory of Mind'? with Uta Frith and Alan Leslie, proposing that children with autism show social and communication difficulties as a result of a delay in the development of a theory of mind.
1985 – Costa & McRae published the NEO PI_R Five-Factor Personality Inventory, a 240-question measure of the five factor model[59]
1986 – Albert Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.
1986 – David Rumelhart and James McClelland published Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition.
1987 – Erik Erikson published The Life Cycle Completed, expanding on Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.
1987 – Roger Shepard published the universal law of generalization for psychological science.
1987 – The diagnostic category of "ego-dystonic homosexuality" was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's DSM with the publication of the DSM-III-R, though it still potentially remains in the DSM-IV under the category of "sexual disorder not otherwise specified" including "persistent and marked distress about one’s sexual orientation”.[60]
1988 – Michael M. Merzenich et al. showed that sensory and motor maps in the cortex can be modified with experience, a process called neural plasticity.[61]
1988 – Claude Steele proposed the theory of self-affirmation.

text:
1990 – On May 17 the World Health Organization (WHO) declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder,[62] launching the International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia.
1990 – Leonard Berkowitz published the cognitive neoassociation model of aggressive behavior to cover the cases missed by the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
1991 – Steven Pinker proposed his theory on how children acquire language in Science,[63] later popularized in the book The Language Instinct.
1991 – The first issue of Feminism & Psychology was published.[45]
1991- The American Psychoanalytic Association (APA) passed a resolution opposing "public or private discrimination" against homosexuals. It stopped short, however, of agreeing to open its training institutes to these individuals.[64]
1992 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APA) extended the provisions of its 1991 resolution (see above) to training candidates at its affiliated institutes.[64]
1992 – Jaak Panksepp coined the term affective neuroscience for the name of the field that studies neural mechanisms of emotion,[65] and in 1998 published the book Affective Neuroscience – The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions[66]
1992 – Sandra Scarr published Developmental Theories of the 1990s, proposing that genes control experiences, and search and create environments.
1992 – Joseph LeDoux summarized and published his research on brain mechanisms of emotion and emotional learning.[67]
1992 – The American Psychological Association (APA) selected behavioral genetics as one of two themes that best represented the past, present, and future of psychology.[68]
1994 – DSM-IV was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).
1994 – Antonio Damasio published Descartes' Error, presenting the somatic marker hypothesis (SMH) by which emotional processes can guide (or bias) behavior, particularly decision-making.
1994 – Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray published The Bell Curve.
1994 – Michael Posner and Marcus Raichle published Images of the Mind, using positron emission tomography (PET) to localize brain cognitive functions.
1994 – Esther Thelen and Linda B. Smith published A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action, a book on the use of developmental models based on dynamic systems.
1995 – Simon Baron-Cohen coined the term mental blindness to reflect the inability of children with autism to properly represent the mental states of others.[69]
1996 – Giacomo Rizzolatti published his discovery of mirror neurons.[70]
1996 – Amos Tversky defined ambiguity aversion, the idea that people do not like ambiguous choices, relating it to comparative ignorance.
1997 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) became the first U.S. national mental health organization to support same-sex marriage.[71]
1998 - Martin Seligman established Positive Psychology as his main theme when he became President of the American Psychological Association (APA).[72]
1999 – George Botterill published The Philosophy of Psychology,[73] about how modern cognitive science challenges our common sense self-image.

text: Twenty-first century[edit]

text:
2000 – Alan Baddeley updated his model of working memory from 1974 to include the episodic buffer as a third slave system alongside the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad[74]
2000 – Max Velmans published Understanding Consciousness, arguing for reflexive monism.
2002 – Avshalom Caspi et al. presented a study that was the first to provide epidemiological evidence that a specific genotype moderates children's sensitivity to environmental insults.[75][76]
2002 – Steven Pinker published The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, arguing against tabula rasa models of the social sciences.[77][78]
2002 – Daniel Kahneman won Nobel Prize[79]
2007 – George Mandler published A History of Modern Experimental Psychology[80]

text:
2010 – The draft of DSM-5 by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) was distributed for comment and critique.
2010 – Simon LeVay published Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why, which in 2012 received the Bullough Book Award for the most distinguished book written for the professional sexological community published in a given year.[81]
2012 – In 2009 America's professional association of endocrinologists established best practices for transgender children that included prescribing puberty-suppressing drugs to preteens followed by hormone therapy beginning at about age 16, and in 2012 the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry echoed these recommendations.[82]
2012 – The American Psychiatric Association issued official position statements supporting the care and civil rights of transgender and gender non-conforming individuals.[83]
2013 – On April 2 U.S. President Barack Obama announced the 10-year BRAIN Initiative to map the activity of every neuron in the human brain.
2013 – DSM-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Among other things, it eliminated the term "gender identity disorder," which was considered stigmatizing, instead referring to "gender dysphoria," which focuses attention only on those who feel distressed by their gender identity.[84]
2014 – Stanislas Dehaene, Giacomo Rizzolatti, and Trevor Robbins, were awarded the Brain Prize for their research on higher brain mechanisms underpinning literacy, numeracy, motivated behaviour, social cognition, and their disorders.[85]
2014 – Brenda Milner, Marcus Raichle, and John O'Keefe received the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience for the discovery of specialized brain networks for memory and cognition[86]
2014 – John O'Keefe shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain.[87]
2015 – The journal Psychology Today announced that it will no longer accept ads for gay conversion therapy, and is deleting medical practitioners who list such therapy in their professional profiles.[88]°
August 7, 2015 – The American Psychological Association barred psychologists from participating in national security interrogations at sites violating international law.[89]
August 27, 2015 – A team led by Brian Nosek of the University of Virginia published an article in Science that revealed that only 39 of 100 studies published in major psychology journals could be replicated.[90]


document_title: The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (original soundtrack)

question_text: who wrote the music for zelda ocarina of time

root

text:
The Legend of Zelda: Original Sound Track

Japanese cover

Soundtrack album by Koji Kondo

Released
November 1998 (1998-11)[1]

Genre
Video game music

Length
77:16[2]

Label
Pony Canyon

Producer
Koji Kondo

Koji Kondo chronology

Super Mario 64: Original Sound Track
(1996)Super Mario 64: Original Sound Track1996
The Legend of Zelda: Original Sound Track
(1998)
The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask
(2000)The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask2000

Alternative cover

United States cover

2011 3DS cover

tag: table

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[3]

text: The Legend of Zelda: Original Sound Track is a soundtrack album by composer Koji Kondo, featuring the complete score to the 1998 Nintendo 64 video game The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. It was released in November 1998 through Nintendo of America (United States)[1] and on December 18, 1998 through Pony Canyon (Japan).[4] The 35-track U.S. edition, made available through Nintendo Power magazine, does not contain all of the tracks that are included on the 82-track Japanese release, but includes six hidden tracks not listed on the album's back cover. Furthermore, the U.S. edition omits most of the rudimentary sound effect/minor theme tracks, whilst many area-specific pieces are extended from their Japanese edition running times.

tag: p

text: A remake of the score was released by a group of transcribers known as the Zelda Reorchestrated (ZREO) Team in 2009, with every track from the game being remade using high-end orchestral samples. Another version of the score, featuring 51 tracks, was released in 2011 by Nintendo. It was made freely available worldwide through Club Nintendo via a mailing offer to coincide with the release of both the 3DS edition of Ocarina of Time, as well as the 25th anniversary of the original 1986 The Legend of Zelda game. The offer required the user to register their 3DS version of the game online, and was only available in each region for several months following the game's release. It included all the tracks of the original U.S. edition, several more (but not all) tracks from the Japanese edition as well as a bonus orchestral track.[5]

text: Despite taking the lead on the subsequent score for The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask (2000), this would be the last one to date on which Kondo worked alone as a composer.

text: Rock band My Morning Jacket covered the Legend of Zelda theme as a demo for their 2004 sophomore album, At Dawn, which was released in 2007 as part of the At Dawn/Tennessee Fire Demos Package.

text: Track listing[edit]

text: All music composed by Koji Kondo.

text:
[show]Japanese edition

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Title Theme"
1:20

2.
"Enter Ganondorf"
0:13

3.
"Deku Tree"
0:36

4.
"Fairy Flying"
0:23

5.
"House"
0:36

6.
"Kokiri Forest"
1:01

7.
"Open Treasure Box"
0:10

8.
"Item Catch"
0:04

9.
"Small Item Catch"
0:05

10.
"Shop"
1:08

11.
"Battle"
1:07

12.
"Inside the Deku Tree"
1:27

13.
"Boss Battle"
1:19

14.
"Boss Clear"
0:13

15.
"Heart Container Get"
0:05

16.
"Legend of Hyrule"
1:58

17.
"Spiritual Stone Get"
0:16

18.
"Fairy Ocarina Get"
0:11

19.
"Hyrule Field Main Theme"
4:43

20.
"Kepora Gebora's Theme"
1:00

21.
"Market"
0:59

22.
"Shooting Gallery"
0:39

23.
"Hyrule Castle Courtyard"
0:53

24.
"Enter Zelda"
0:06

25.
"Ocarina "Zelda's Lullaby""
0:12

26.
"Zelda's Theme"
0:49

27.
"Ocarina "Epona's Song""
0:09

28.
"LonLon Ranch"
2:08

29.
"Mini Game"
0:32

30.
"Kakariko Village"
1:44

31.
"Ocarina "Sun's Song""
0:07

32.
"Hyrule Field Morning Theme"
0:37

33.
"Goron City"
1:38

34.
"Ocarina "Saria's Song""
0:09

35.
"Lost Woods"
0:39

36.
"Dodongo's Cavern"
0:46

37.
"Middle Boss Battle"
1:07

38.
"Dinosaur Boss Battle"
1:08

39.
"Zora's Domain"
1:30

40.
"Great Fairy's Fountain"
0:35

41.
"Potion Shop"
0:52

42.
"Inside Jabu-Jabu's Belly"
0:34

43.
"Ocarina "Song of Time""
0:12

44.
"Temple of Time"
1:19

45.
"Open Door of Temple of Time"
0:15

46.
"Master Sword"
0:13

47.
"Ganondorf's Theme"
0:41

48.
"Chamber of the Sages"
1:43

49.
"Medal Get Fanfare"
0:14

50.
"Sheik's Theme"
0:30

51.
"Horse Race"
0:46

52.
"Horse Race Goal"
0:05

53.
"Ingo's Theme"
0:39

54.
"Escape from LonLon Ranch"
0:09

55.
"Kakariko Village Orchestra Ver."
1:44

56.
"Ocarina "Song of Storms""
0:07

57.
"Windmill Hut"
0:52

58.
"Minuet of Woods"
0:17

59.
"Forest Temple"
1:52

60.
"Bolero of Fire"
0:20

61.
"Fire Temple"
0:42

62.
"Ice Cavern"
0:45

63.
"Serenade of Water"
0:19

64.
"Water Temple"
1:44

65.
"Nocturne of Shadow"
0:23

66.
"Prelude of Light"
0:18

67.
"Shadow Temple"
1:45

68.
"Gerudo Valley"
1:34

69.
"Spirit Temple"
2:57

70.
"Requiem of Spirit"
0:24

71.
"Kotake & Koume's Theme"
0:52

72.
"Meet Again Zelda"
0:51

73.
"Game Over"
0:09

74.
"Ganon's Castle Bridge"
0:22

75.
"Ganon's Castle Under Ground"
0:53

76.
"Inside Ganon's Castle"
3:26

77.
"Ganondorf's Battle"
1:12

78.
"Escape from Ganon's Castle"
0:33

79.
"Last Battle"
2:10

80.
"Seal of Six Sages"
0:29

81.
"Ocarina of Time"
0:32

82.
"End Credits"
7:10

Total length:
77:16

text:
[show]United States edition

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Title Theme"
2:50

2.
"Deku Tree"
1:20

3.
"Fairy Flying"
0:46

4.
"House"
1:11

5.
"Kokiri Forest"
1:52

6.
"Shop"
2:13

7.
"Battle"
2:14

8.
"Inside the Deku Tree"
2:44

9.
"Boss Battle"
2:33

10.
"Hyrule Field Main Theme"
5:27

11.
"Market"
1:43

12.
"Hyrule Castle Courtyard"
1:30

13.
"Ocarina Songs"
1:02

14.
"Ocarina of Time"
1:41

15.
"LonLon Ranch"
4:31

16.
"Kakariko Village"
3:24

17.
"Lost Woods"
1:15

18.
"Zora's Domain"
2:51

19.
"Great Fairy's Fountain"
1:12

20.
"Temple of Time"
2:39

21.
"Chamber of the Sages"
2:04

22.
"Horse Race"
1:38

23.
"Kakariko Village Orchestra"
3:13

24.
"Windmill Hut"
1:39

25.
"Gerudo Valley"
2:52

26.
"Ganondorf Battle"
2:27

27.
"Last Battle"
3:11

28.
"Zelda's Ocarina"
0:34

29.
"Staff Credits Theme"
7:13

30.
"Minuet of Forest*"
0:18

31.
"Bolero of Fire*"
0:24

32.
"Serenade of Water*"
0:24

33.
"Nocturne of Shadow*"
0:25

34.
"Prelude of Light*"
0:23

35.
"Requiem of Spirit*"
0:27

Total length:
71:41

text:
[show]2011 3DS edition

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Title Theme"
1:30

2.
"Deku Tree"
0:56

3.
"Fairy Flying"
0:34

4.
"House"
0:42

5.
"Kokiri Forest"
1:02

6.
"Shop"
1:11

7.
"Battle"
1:14

8.
"Inside the Deku Tree"
1:46

9.
"Boss Battle"
1:26

10.
"Hyrule Field Main Theme"
3:59

11.
"Kaepora Gaebora's Theme"
1:08

12.
"Market"
0:56

13.
"Hyrule Castle Courtyard"
0:39

14.
"Zelda's Theme"
0:58

15.
"LonLon Ranch"
4:05

16.
"Kakariko Village"
1:49

17.
"Goron City"
1:43

18.
"Lost Woods"
0:50

19.
"Middle Boss Battle"
1:16

20.
"Dinosaur Boss Battle"
1:21

21.
"Zora's Domain"
1:43

22.
"Great Fairy's Fountain"
0:56

23.
"Potion Shop"
1:08

24.
"Temple of Time"
1:32

25.
"Master Sword"
0:16

26.
"Ganondorf's Theme"
0:51

27.
"Chamber of the Sages"
2:00

28.
"Sheik's Theme"
0:42

29.
"Horse Race"
1:34

30.
"Kakariko Village Orchestra"
2:07

31.
"Windmill Hut"
1:10

32.
"Minuet of Forest"
0:20

33.
"Forest Temple"
2:03

34.
"Bolero of Fire"
0:22

35.
"Fire Temple"
2:05

36.
"Ice Cavern"
0:53

37.
"Serenade of Water"
0:21

38.
"Water Temple"
3:05

39.
"Nocturne of Shadow"
0:24

40.
"Prelude of Light"
0:19

41.
"Shadow Temple"
1:51

42.
"Gerudo Valley"
1:45

43.
"Spirit Temple"
3:06

44.
"Requiem of Spirit"
0:26

45.
"Kotake & Koume's Theme"
1:08

46.
"Ganondorf Battle"
1:30

47.
"Last Battle"
2:04

48.
"Ocarina of Time"
0:34

49.
"Ocarina Songs"
0:59

50.
"End Credits"
7:08

51.
"End Credits 2"
2:36

text: The * indicates the hidden tracks not listed on the album case.

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Koji Kondo – all instrumentation, production

tag: ul


document_title: The Space Between Us (film)

question_text: who played gardner in the space between us

text: The Space Between Us (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In the near future, Nathaniel Shepard, CEO of Genesis, launches the first ever mission to colonize Mars. During the journey, the lead astronaut, Sarah Elliot, discovers that she is pregnant. Shortly after landing, she dies from eclampsia while giving birth to the first human born on Mars. The father of the child is unknown. In a dilemma, Nathaniel eventually decides to keep the child on Mars as a secret, to avoid a PR disaster for his company and also keep the child safe.

text: Sixteen years later, Sarah's son, Gardner Elliot, has grown up into an inquisitive, highly intelligent boy who has only ever met 14 people in his very unconventional upbringing. One day, in order to find out more about his mother, he hacks into Centaur, a robot he helped build, to gain access to the ship's storage. There, he retrieves his mother's items. Among them are a wedding ring and a USB drive, from which he plays a video of her and a man in a beach house. Convinced that the man is his father, he becomes determined to find him.

text: Gardner logs on to an Internet chatroom, where he has struck up an online relationship with Tulsa, a street smart girl from Colorado who is constantly being shuffled from one foster home to the next. Under the guise of being confined to a penthouse due to osteogenesis imperfecta, they discuss their plans for the future. Gardner promises to come see her someday. He then watches the German language film, Wings of Desire, where an angel falls to Earth.

text: His mother figure, astronaut Kendra Wyndham, video calls Nathaniel and Genesis director Tom Chen to inform them of Gardner's extraordinary intelligence and to beg them to allow him to go to Earth. Nathaniel refuses, as Gardner would have to undergo a highly risky surgery to increase his bone density and then train to adapt to Earth's atmospheric pressure. Gardner undergoes the surgery anyway and after training, he, Kendra and some other astronauts board a space shuttle for Earth.

text: On the day of the space shuttle's arrival, Nathaniel discovers that Gardner is on board. He angrily confronts Tom, who hid this from him. Despite his anger, Nathaniel visits Gardner, who is being quarantined in NASA while undergoing medical tests to determine whether he is fit for life on Earth. After a visit from Kendra, Gardner manages to discover that he is not fit for life on Earth. Upset, he stages a daring escape and hitches a ride to find Tulsa. Upon seeing him, Tulsa hits him as she is upset at Gardner for "ghosting" her for 7 months. However, she forgives him and he convinces her to help him find his father. They stop by her house to get supplies for the journey, but are found by Nathaniel and Kendra. While trying to convince him to return to NASA, Gardner angrily confronts Kendra with her own admission of not wanting children and escapes with Tulsa on an old plane which her foster father was working on. The plane abruptly loses oil pressure while still in the sky. Tulsa manages to crash-land the plane into an old, abandoned barn, causing a fiery explosion. They escape safely to a diner where they determine the location of the shaman who married Gardner's parents, Shaman Neka.

text: Believing that Gardner has died, a grieving Nathaniel and Kendra let out their rage at one another. After discovering that no bodies were found in the wreckage, they receive some devastating news - Gardner's body contains dangerously high levels of troponin, meaning that he has an enlarged heart. His heart is unable to stand Earth's atmospheric pressure and so Gardner must be returned to Mars immediately if he is to survive. The search is resumed with renewed fervor and they discover CCTV footage of Gardner and Tulsa in a supermarket parking lot, where they have bought clothes and supplies for the journey. During the journey, Gardner tells Tulsa the truth - that he was born and raised on Mars. Unwilling to accept the truth, she forces him out of the car but forgives him once he promises never to lie to her again, although she still does not believe him.

text: At night, they camp out under the stars, where they make love. In the morning, they are discovered by a follower of Shaman Neka and are brought to him. He agrees to help them. Gardner's nose starts bleeding, a fact he conceals while Tulsa accesses the records to get the location of the beach house, which is in Summerland, California.

text: Before they begin their journey, they make a detour to Las Vegas. Gardner's nose starts to bleed again and he collapses and is taken to a hospital. After seeing the carbon tubes in his bones on the results of an X-ray at the hospital, Tulsa tells Gardner she now believes he was born on Mars, but plans to leave him in the hospital, before foster care can come, as he is too sick to continue their journey. Gardner reveals that he knows he won't last on Earth anymore and all he wants is to meet his father before he dies. Tulsa gives in and helps him escape. They steal a car and drive to the beach house. There, they meet the man from the video, who reveals that he is not Sarah Elliot's husband, but her own brother. However, he thinks that the two are lying to him. Gardner runs down to the sea, where he tells Tulsa that this is where he wants to die. He collapses. Tulsa tries frantically to drag him to the shore, but he is too heavy for her. Nathaniel and Kendra arrive just in time to save him. After Nathaniel performs CPR on him, Gardner asks him about his mother Sarah and reveals that he knows that Nathaniel is his real father. Nathaniel, Kendra and Tulsa rush Gardner to a Dream Chaser. They plan to launch into the stratosphere to stabilize him. When that proves to not be enough, a desperate Nathaniel takes control and launches into outer space. Free of Earth's gravity, Gardner is revived.

text: Soon, Gardner boards a space shuttle to Mars. Tulsa and Gardner have an emotional parting. Kendra, who is staying on Earth because she is retiring from NASA, adopts Tulsa. Determined to join Gardner on Mars, Tulsa joins Kendra's training program. Back on Mars, with his father Nathaniel, Gardner is glad to be home.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Gary Oldman[2] as Nathaniel Shepherd, Sarah’s love interest and Gardner’s father
Asa Butterfield[3] as Gardner Elliot, Nathaniel and Sarah’s son / The Narrator
Carla Gugino[2] as Kendra Wyndham
Britt Robertson[2] as Tulsa Gardners' love interest
B. D. Wong[4] as Genesis Director Tom Chen
Janet Montgomery[4] as Sarah Elliot, Gardner’s mother and Nathaniel’s love interest
Trey Tucker[5] as Harrison Lane
Scott Takeda[6] as Dr. Gary Loh
Adande Thorne as Scott Hubbard
Colin Egglesfield as Sarah's brother
Gil Birmingham as Shaman Neka
Logan Paul as Roger[7]
Saarh Minnich as reporter
Ryan Jason Cook as Control Room technician
Lauren Myers as Alice Myers
Morse Bicknell as NASA executive
Beth Bailey as NASA Chief Director
Chuck Woodruff as Tim Janis
Christen Rakes as maid
Bruce Macintosh as NASA scientist
David House as Roland
Esodie Geiger as Mrs. Tupelo
Charles Arnone as mechanic
Jacob Browne as New Mexico State policeman
Jenny Gabrille as Havasupai woman
Bernardo Saracino as pilot
Eli Goodman as ER doctor
Ramona King as reception nurse
Eb Lottitmer as Air Force Colonel
Ramsey Scotte as foster care worker

text: Production[edit]

text: In 1999, Universal Pictures and Mike Lobell Productions acquired a screenplay, then titled Mainland, about a rebellious teen born on the moon who desired to come to the earth but whose physiology, it was feared, would not be able to take the translation. After failed rewrites by Allison Burnett (Autumn in New York), the project was placed in turnaround, as Lobell left Universal for a deal at Castle Rock Entertainment. The project remained unproduced for over a decade.[citation needed]

text: On March 13, 2014, Hollywood industry website The Tracking Board revealed that a science fiction-adventure film titled Out of This World was in development at Relativity Media, scripted by Allan Loeb.[8] Later in August 2014, it was reported that Peter Chelsom, who had previously directed Hector and the Search for Happiness for Relativity, was hired to direct the film, while Relativity would produce and distribute.[9] Southpaw Entertainment's Richard B. Lewis was attached to produce the film, and also received a "story by" credit.[9]

text: On February 2, 2015, Asa Butterfield was tapped to play the lead character in the film, a teen who was raised on Mars, and who falls in love with a girl on Earth he has been communicating with. Chelsom and Tinker Lindsay rewrote the screenplay.[3] On July 13, 2015, it was announced that Relativity was selling the project to STX Entertainment, in order to reach an agreement with its creditors and avoid having to file for bankruptcy.[10] STX produced and distributed the film.[10] On July 31, 2015, Gary Oldman, Carla Gugino, and Britt Robertson joined the cast of the then-untitled film.[2] Robertson would play the female lead, a teen girl from Colorado.[2] On September 8, 2015, it was announced that the title of the film would be The Space Between Us, and B. D. Wong and Janet Montgomery were added to the cast.[4] On September 30, 2015, Trey Tucker joined the film to play an astronaut,[5] and on October 23, 2015, Scott Takeda was cast to play a doctor in the film.[6]

text: Asa Butterfield and Britt Robertson have a seven-year age gap between them, which caused controversy, but in an interview Robertson explains that the age difference helped with the dynamic of the relationship between Tulsa and Gardner. "I don’t think Tulsa is really a teenager. She’s had to be an adult for a really long time. She’s had to take care of herself. She’s had to figure out where she’s going to live, and pay her mortgage or gas. She thinks like an adult. There’s this dynamic where she’s almost parenting him in some ways. There’s this very specific kind of thing where she’s teaching him about the world (saying), “Get it together, these are people. Why are you doing it this way? Why aren’t you being human? (Our age difference) I think really helps the dynamic. It’s not something I really pay attention to."[11]

text: Principal photography on the film began on September 14, 2015, in Albuquerque, New Mexico.[12][6]

text: Andrew Lockington composed the film's score, which was released through Sony Music Entertainment.

text: Release[edit]

text: In August 2015, STX Entertainment scheduled the film to be released on July 29, 2016.[13] The release date was later switched with STX's other release, Bad Moms, and was moved its release date later to August 19, 2016.[14] However, Kubo and the Two Strings, Ben-Hur, and War Dogs were all slated for August 19, 2016 and STX Entertainment moved its release date later to December 21, 2016, allowing more time for work on the visual effects.[15] The film's release date was later moved to December 16, 2016,[16] and finally STX Entertainment moved its release date later to February 3, 2017.[17]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Space Between Us grossed $7.9 million in the United States and Canada and $6.9 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $14.8 million, against a production budget of $30 million.[1]

text: In North America, The Space Between Us was released alongside Rings and The Comedian, and was projected to gross $8–10 million from 2,812 theaters during its opening weekend.[18] The film ended up grossing $1.4 million on its first day and $3.8 million in its opening weekend, finishing well below expectations, and 7th at the box office.[19] In its third weekend the film grossed $260,000 after being pulled from 2,441 theaters (dropping 84.6% to 331), marking the 6th biggest theater drop in history.[20][21]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 16% based on 118 reviews, with an average rating of 4.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Space Between Us strands its star-crossed young lovers in a mind-numbingly vast expanse of shameless cheese that will send all but the most forgiving viewers eye-rolling for the exits."[22] On Metacritic, the film holds a score 33 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[23] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.[24]

text: Writing for IndieWire, David Ehrlich gave the film a grade of "C," calling it a "guileless and good-natured sci-fi love story".[25] Kevin Maher gave a scathing review in The Times, writing that the film is "notable only for some horrendously bad science and a career-low performance from Gary Oldman".[26]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Nominee
Result
Ref.

Teen Choice Awards
July 31, 2016
Choice Movie Actress: AnTEENcipated
Britt Robertson
Nominated
[27]

August 13, 2017
Choice Movie: Sci-Fi
The Space Between Us
Nominated
[28]

Choice Movie Actor: Sci-Fi
Asa Butterfield
Nominated


document_title: Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster

question_text: when was the tesla roadster launched into space

text: Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster

text: Background[edit]

text: In March 2017, Musk stated that the launch of the new Falcon Heavy vehicle was risky, so it would carry the "silliest thing we can imagine".[6] On December 1, 2017 he said that the payload would be his personal Roadster,[7][8] subsequently verifying that he was not joking.[9] On December 22, Musk published pictures of the car taken before payload encapsulation.

text: Traditionally, concrete or steel blocks are used as ballast in risky test flights. SpaceX wanted to demonstrate that their new rocket could carry a payload as far as the orbit of Mars. They reportedly had offered NASA to carry a scientific payload, but these plans did not come to fruition.[10]

text: This Roadster became the first consumer car sent into space.[11] Three manned rovers were sent to space on the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions in the 1970s and these vehicles were left on the Moon.[12]

text: Roadster payload[edit]

text: The first-generation Tesla Roadster is an all-electric sports car. The red Roadster launched into space is one of Elon Musk's privately owned vehicles.[13][14] Musk said in a 2012 interview that the Roadster was "the one I drive to work".[15] The car was installed in the Falcon Heavy rocket at an inclined position above the payload adapter in order to account for the mass distribution.[16]

text: A number of whimsical objects were included in the Roadster. Positioned in the driver's seat is "Starman", a full-scale human mannequin named after the David Bowie song "Starman"[17] and clad in SpaceX's pressure spacesuit.[18] The mannequin has its right hand on the steering wheel and left elbow resting on the open window sill. The car's sound system was looping the Bowie song "Space Oddity"[19][20] as a symbolic gesture[21] even though the car's speakers cannot emit sound in space.[22]

text: There is a copy of Douglas Adams' 1979 novel The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy in the glovebox, along with references to the book in the form of a towel and a sign on the dashboard that reads "Don't Panic!".[23][24][25] A Hot Wheels miniature Roadster with a miniature Starman is mounted on the dashboard. A plaque bearing the names of the employees who worked on the project is underneath the car, and a message on the vehicle's circuit board reads "Made on Earth by humans".[26] A copy of Isaac Asimov's Foundation trilogy on a 5D optical data storage disc was included – the disk holds 360 terabytes but the books only comprised 3 megabytes. It was created by the Arch Mission Foundation and added at the last minute after Musk was informed that the disk, previously created as a proof of concept and never intended to be launched into space, was available – Musk was a fan of the trilogy.[27][28][29]

text: The Roadster is attached to a Merlin 1D Vacuum second stage with extended nozzle by a payload attachment fitting.[30]

text: Trajectory[edit]

text: A license for the launch was issued by the US Office of Commercial Space Transportation on February 2, 2018.[31] The rocket lifted off from Launch Complex 39A at Kennedy Space Center[31] at 15:45 EST (20:45 UTC) on February 6, 2018,[32] and was initially placed in Earth parking orbit while remaining attached to the Falcon Heavy second stage.[4] After a longer-than-usual six-hour coast phase through the Van Allen radiation belts, thereby demonstrating a new capability requested by the U.S. Air Force for direct geostationary orbit (GEO) insertion of heavy intelligence satellites, the second stage reignited for the Earth-escape trajectory.[33][34][35]

text: Like all its previous launches, SpaceX live streamed a video feed. It started at the rocket's launch, and once in space showed the Roadster at different angles from cameras mounted inside and outside the car.

text: SpaceX did not say how long the feed was to run, and Musk had said the car's battery would last for about twelve hours, but the live stream actually ran for just over four hours, thus ending before the final boost out of Earth orbit.[5][36][37][38] The images were released by SpaceX into the public domain on its Flickr account.[39][40]

text: Following the launch, the car and rocket booster were given the Satellite Catalog Number 43205, named "TESLA ROADSTER/FALCON 9H", along with the COSPAR designation 2018-017A.[41] The JPL Horizons system publishes solutions for the trajectory as target body "-143205".[1] The Roadster remains attached to the Falcon second stage.[42]

text: The car was launched into an heliocentric orbit that will cross the orbit of Mars and reach a distance of 1.66 au from the Sun.[4] With an inclination of roughly 1 degree to the ecliptic plane, compared to Mars' 1.85° inclination, the trajectory by design cannot intercept Mars, so the car will not fly by Mars nor enter an orbit around Mars.[43] This was the second object launched by SpaceX to leave Earth orbit (after the DSCOVR mission to Sun–Earth L1).

text: Even if the launch had targeted an actual Mars transfer orbit, the Falcon Heavy upper stage, which is still attached to the car, lacks the propellant, maneuvering, and communications capabilities required to enter Mars orbit. Launching the Roadster into this orbit has demonstrated that Falcon Heavy can launch payloads that could reach Mars.[43] The car and second stage combination is moving away from Earth at a speed of 12,908 km/h (8,021 mph).[44] The maximum speed of the car relative to the Sun will be close to 121,600 km/h (75,600 mph) at perihelion.

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: The car in space quickly became a topic for Internet memes.[45][46] Western Australia Police distributed a picture of a Radar gun aimed at the Roadster whilst above Australia.[47][48] Škoda produced a parody video of a Škoda Superb being driven to Mars (a village in central France).[49][50] An attempt was made by Donut Media to launch a Hot Wheels-sized Tesla Model X to the stratosphere using a weather balloon.[51][52]

text: Some news reports observed a similarity between the real pictures of a car orbiting the Earth and the title sequence of the 1981 animation film Heavy Metal, where a space traveler lands on Earth in a two-seater Chevrolet Corvette convertible.[53][54]

text: The SpaceX launch live stream reached over 2.3 million concurrent viewers on YouTube, which makes it the second most watched live event on the platform as of 2018, being surpassed only by the Red Bull Stratos jump in 2012.[55]

text: Reactions[edit]

text: The choice of this car as a dummy payload was variously interpreted as a shrewd marketing move for Tesla, a work of art, or a contribution to space debris.

text: Marketing move[edit]

text: Musk was lauded as a visionary marketer and brand manager by controlling both the timing and the content of his corporate public relations.[56][57][58][59] After the launch, Scientific American said using a car was not entirely pointless, in the sense that something of that size and weight was necessary for a meaningful test. "Thematically, it was a perfect fit" to use the Tesla car, and there was no reason not to take the opportunity to remind the auto industry that Musk was challenging the status quo in that arena, as well as in space.[56] Advertising Age agreed with Business Insider that the Roadster space launch was the "greatest ever car commercial without a dime spent on advertising", demonstrating that Musk is "miles ahead of the rest" in reaching young consumers, where "mere mortals scrabble about spending millions to fight each other over seconds of air time", Musk "just executes his vision."[57][58] Alex Hern, technology reporter for The Guardian, said the choice to launch a car was a "hybrid of genuine breakthrough and nerd-baiting publicity stunt" without "any real point beyond generating good press pics", which should not detract from the much more important technological milestone represented by the launch of the rocket itself.[60]

text: Lori Garver, a former NASA deputy director initially said the choice of payload for the Falcon Heavy maiden flight is a gimmick and a loss of opportunity to further advance science—but later clarified that "I was told by a SpaceX VP (vice president) at the launch that they offered free launches to NASA, Air Force etc. but got no takers."[61]

text: Work of art[edit]

text: Alice Gorman, a lecturer in archaeology and space studies at Flinders University, Australia, said that its primary purpose is symbolic communication, that "the red sports car symbolises masculinity – power, wealth and speed[62] – but also how fragile masculinity is". Drawing on anthropological theories of symbols, she argues that "The car is also an armour against dying, a talisman that quells a profound fear of mortality."[63] Gorman wrote that "the spacesuit is also about death. […] The Starman was never alive, but now he's haunting space."[63]

text: The Verge likened the Roadster to a "Readymade" work of art, such as Marcel Duchamp's 1917 piece Fountain, created by placing an everyday object in an unusual position, context and orientation.[64]

text: Space debris[edit]

text: Orbital-debris expert Darren McKnight said that since the car is out of Earth orbit, he sees no risk here, and added: "The enthusiasm and interest that [Musk] generates more than offsets the infinitesimally small 'littering' of the cosmos."[65] Tommy Sanford, director of the Commercial Spaceflight Federation, opined that the car and its rocket stage are no more "space junk" than the mundane material usually launched on other test flights. Mass simulators are often deliberately placed in a graveyard orbit or sent on a deep space trajectory, where they are not a hazard.[66] Hugh Lewis, an expert in space debris at the University of Southampton, tweeted "Intentionally launching a car to a long-lived orbit is not what you want to hear from a company planning to fly 1000s satellites in LEO."[67]

text: The Planetary Society was concerned that launching a non-sterile object to interplanetary space may risk biological contamination of a planetary object.[68] Scientists at Purdue University thought it was the "dirtiest" man-made object ever sent into space, in terms of bacteria amount, noting the car had previously driven on Los Angeles freeways. Although the vehicle will be sterilized by solar radiation over time, they are concerned some bacteria might live on in pieces of plastic which could contaminate Mars in the distant future.[69][70]

text: Orbit tracking[edit]

text: The car and second stage were passivated by intentionally removing remaining chemical and electrical energy, at which point the car and rocket booster ceased transmitting telemetry. Based on optical observations made using a robotic telescope at the Warrumbungle Observatory, Dubbo, Australia and refinement of the orbit, a close re-encounter with Earth (originally predicted for 2073) is not possible.[71] In 2020, the car will pass about 6.9 million kilometers (4.3 million miles) from Mars, well outside Mars' gravitational sphere of influence.[72]

text: The Virtual Telescope Project observed the Tesla two days after its launch, where it had a magnitude of 15.5,[73] comparable to Pluto's moon Charon. The Roadster was automatically spotted and logged by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) telescope operated by the University of Hawaii.[74] The car was observed by the Deimos Sky Survey (DeSS) at a distance of 720,000 kilometres (450,000 mi) with a flashing effect suggesting spinning.[75]

text: Through measuring changes in apparent brightness of the object, astronomers have determined that the Roadster is rotating with a period of 4.7589 +/- 0.0060 minutes.[76] By February 11, 2018, astrometry measurements from 241 independent observations had been collated, refining the positions to within one-tenth of an arcsecond[77]—more accurate than for most observations of objects in space.[77]

text: Future predictions[edit]

text: Simulations over a 3-million-year timespan found a probability of the Roadster colliding with Earth at approximately 6%, or with Venus at approximately 2.5%.[78] These probabilities of collision are similar to those of other near-Earth objects.[78] The half-life for the tested orbits was calculated as approximately 20 million years, but with trajectories varying significantly following a close approach to the Earth–Moon system in 2091.[78]

text: Musk had originally speculated that the car could drift in space for a billion years.[14] According to chemist William Carroll, solar radiation, cosmic radiation, and micrometeoroid impacts will structurally damage the car over time.[79] Radiation will eventually break down any material with carbon–carbon bonds, including carbon fiber parts. Tires, paint, plastic and leather might last only about a year, while carbon fiber parts will last considerably longer. Eventually, only the aluminum frame, inert metals, and glass not shattered by meteoroids will remain.[79]