document_title: Unit of analysis

question_text: in most social science research including criminological studies the units of analysis are

text: Unit of analysis

text: The unit of analysis is the major entity that is being analyzed in a study. It is the 'what' or 'who' that is being studied. In social science research, typical units of analysis include individuals (most common), groups, social organizations and social artifacts.

text: The literature of international relations provides a good example of units of analysis. In "Man, the State and War", Kenneth N. Waltz creates a tripartite analysis with three different units of analysis: the man (individual), the state (a group), and the international system (the system in which groups interact).

text: This is not to be confused with the unit of observation, which is the unit described by one's data (neighborhoods using the U.S. Census, individuals using surveys, etc.). For example, a study may have a unit of observation at the individual level but may have the unit of analysis at the neighborhood level, drawing conclusions on neighborhood characteristics from data collected from individuals.


document_title: Boom Boom (John Lee Hooker song)

question_text: who does the theme song to ncis new orleans

root

text: Boom Boom (John Lee Hooker song)

text: Recording and composition[edit]

text: Prior to recording for Vee-Jay Records, John Lee Hooker was primarily a solo performer or accompanied by a second guitarist, such as early collaborators Eddie Burns or Eddie Kirkland.[4] However, with Vee-Jay, he usually recorded with a small backing band, as heard on the singles "Dimples", "I Love You Honey", and "No Shoes". Detroit pianist Joe Hunter, who had previously worked with Hooker, was again enlisted for the recording session.[1] Hunter brought with him "the cream of the Motown label's session men, later known as the Funk Brothers":[4] bassist James Jamerson, drummer Benny Benjamin, plus guitarist Larry Veeder, tenor saxophonist Hank Cosby, and baritone saxophonist Andrew "Mike" Terry.[1] They have been described as "just the right band" for "Boom Boom".[1] Hooker had a unique sense of timing, which demanded "big-eared sidemen".[5] The original "Boom Boom" is an uptempo (168 beats per minute) blues song, which has been notated in time in the key of F.[6] It has been described as "about the tightest musical structure of any Hooker composition: its verses sedulously adhere to the twelve-bar format over which Hooker generally rides so roughshod".[1] The song uses "a stop-time hook that opens up for one of the genre's most memorable guitar riffs"[7] and incorporates a middle instrumental section Hooker-style boogie.[1]

tag: p

text: According to Hooker, he wrote the song during an extended engagement at the Apex Bar in Detroit.

text: I would never be on time [for the gig]; I always would be late comin' in. And she [the bartender Willa] kept saying, 'Boom boom – you late again'. Every night: 'Boom, boom – you late again'. I said 'Hmm, that's a song!' ... I got it together, the lyrics, rehearsed it, and I played it at the place, and the people went wild".[8]

text: Hooker's lyrics include

text:
Boom, boom, boom, boom
I'm gonna shoot you right down
Right off your feet
Take you home with me
Put you in my house
Boom, boom, boom, boom

text: Also included are several wordless phrases, "how-how-how-how" and "hmm-hmm-hmm-hmm". "Boom Boom" became the Hooker song that is "the most memorable, the most instantly appealing, and the one which has proved the most adaptable to the needs of other performers".[1]

text: Releases and charts[edit]

text: When "Boom Boom" was released as a single in May 1962,[9] the song became a hit. It entered the Billboard R&B chart on June 16, 1962, where it spent eight weeks and reached number 16.[10] The song also entered the Billboard Hot 100, where it reached number 60, making it one of only two Hooker singles to enter the pop chart.[10] It was included on the 1962 Vee-Jay album Burnin' (SR 1043) as well as many Hooker compilations, including John Lee Hooker: The Ultimate Collection.

text: Thirty years later in the UK, after being featured in a Lee Jeans commercial in 1992, the song reached number 16 in the UK Singles Chart.[11] Hooker recorded several later versions. Following the success of the Animals' version, Hooker re-recorded the song in 1968 for Stateside Records as the B-side of "Cry Before I Go" under the longer title "Boom Boom Boom". He reworked the song as "Bang Bang Bang Bang" for his Live at Soledad Prison album, as a South Side Chicago street musician in the film The Blues Brothers (but the song itself is not included in the film soundtrack), and as the title track for his 1992 album Boom Boom with Jimmie Vaughan.[12]

text: The Animals version[edit]

text:
"Boom Boom"

Single by The Animals

from the album The Animals

B-side
"Blue Feeling"

Released
November 1964 (1964-11)

Format
7-inch 45 rpm record

Recorded
January 1964

Genre
Blues rock

Length
2:57

Label
MGM

Songwriter(s)
John Lee Hooker

Producer(s)
Mickie Most

The Animals singles chronology

"I'm Crying"
(1964)
"Boom Boom"
(1964)
"Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood"
(1965)

tag: table

text: English rock band the Animals recorded "Boom Boom" for their 1964 UK debut album The Animals. Their blues-rock[13] rendition generally follows John Lee Hooker's original, although they add "shake it baby" as a response to the "come on and shake" refrain in the middle section,[14]taken from Hooker's "Shake It Baby" (recorded during the 1962 American Folk Blues Festival tour in Europe, where it became a hit in 1963).[15]

text: The Animals' version was released as a single in North America in November 1964.[16] It reached number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100[17] and number 14 on the RPM Top 40&5 singles chart.[18] The song was also released in Australia and India and is included on the Animals' second American album The Animals on Tour as well as various compilation albums (sometimes with the twelve-bar guitar solo edited out).

text: Over the years, several versions of "Boom Boom" have been recorded by various Animals reunion lineups as well as by former members Eric Burdon and Alan Price. In 2012, the original 1964 version was used in the film Skyfall.

text: Recognition and legacy[edit]

text: In 1995, John Lee Hooker's "Boom Boom" was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's list of "The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll".[19] It was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in 2009 in the "Classics of Blues Recording" category.[4] A Detroit Free Press poll in 2016 ranked the song at number 37 in "Detroit's 100 Greatest Songs".[20]

text: A variety of artists have recorded the song, including: Rufus Thomas, Mae West, Shadows of Knight, CCS, Dr. Feelgood, Tony Joe White, Disco Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes,[21] Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, Big Head Todd and the Monsters (whose version was chosen in 2014 as the theme song for NCIS: New Orleans, and is played at Carolina Panthers home games when a touchdown is scored) and the Oak Ridge Boys. "Boom Boom" was the first studio recording by Eric Clapton, who recorded it as a demo with the Yardbirds in 1963, and which was released as a single in the Netherlands and Germany in 1966. ZZ Top later used similar lines ("how-how-how-how") to those found in "Boom Boom", on "La Grange".[7]


document_title: First Council of Nicaea

question_text: where did the council of nicea take place

question_tokens: where did the council of nicea take place

text: First Council of Nicaea

text: Overview[edit]

text: The First Council of Nicaea was the first ecumenical council of the Church.[9] Most significantly, it resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent local and regional councils of Bishops (Synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy—the intent being to define unity of beliefs for the whole of Christendom.[citation needed]

text: Derived from Greek (Ancient Greek: οἰκουμένη, translit. oikouménē, lit. 'the inhabited one'), "ecumenical" means "worldwide" but generally is assumed to be limited to the known inhabited Earth, (Danker 2000, pp. 699–670) and at this time in history is synonymous with the Roman Empire; the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' Life of Constantine 3.6[10] around 338, which states "he convoked an Ecumenical Council" (Ancient Greek: σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει, translit. sýnodon oikoumenikḕn synekrótei)[11] and the Letter in 382 to Pope Damasus I and the Latin bishops from the First Council of Constantinople.[12]

text: One purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements arising from within the Church of Alexandria over the nature of the Son in his relationship to the Father: in particular, whether the Son had been 'begotten' by the Father from his own being, and therefore having no beginning, or else created out of nothing, and therefore having a beginning.[13] St. Alexander of Alexandria and Athanasius took the first position; the popular presbyter Arius, from whom the term Arianism comes, took the second. The council decided against the Arians overwhelmingly (of the estimated 250–318 attendees, all but two agreed to sign the creed and these two, along with Arius, were banished to Illyria).[9][14]

text: Another result of the council was an agreement on when to celebrate Easter, the most important feast of the ecclesiastical calendar, decreed in an epistle to the Church of Alexandria in which is simply stated:

text: We also send you the good news of the settlement concerning the holy pasch, namely that in answer to your prayers this question also has been resolved. All the brethren in the East who have hitherto followed the Jewish practice will henceforth observe the custom of the Romans and of yourselves and of all of us who from ancient times have kept Easter together with you.[15]

text: Historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom,[16] the Council was the first occasion where the technical aspects of Christology were discussed.[16] Through it a precedent was set for subsequent general councils to adopt creeds and canons. This council is generally considered the beginning of the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils in the History of Christianity.[citation needed]

text: Character and purpose[edit]

text: The First Council of Nicaea was convened by Emperor Constantine the Great upon the recommendations of a synod led by Hosius of Córdoba in the Eastertide of 325. This synod had been charged with investigation of the trouble brought about by the Arian controversy in the Greek-speaking east.[17] To most bishops, the teachings of Arius were heretical and dangerous to the salvation of souls.[18] In the summer of 325, the bishops of all provinces were summoned to Nicaea, a place reasonably accessible to many delegates, particularly those of Asia Minor, Georgia, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Greece, and Thrace.

text: This was the first general council in the history of the Church summoned by emperor Constantine I. In the Council of Nicaea, "The Church had taken her first great step to define revealed doctrine more precisely in response to a challenge from a heretical theology."[19]

text: Attendees[edit]

text: Constantine had invited all 1,800 bishops of the Christian church within the Roman Empire (about 1,000 in the east and 800 in the west), but a smaller and unknown number attended. Eusebius of Caesarea counted more than 250,[20] Athanasius of Alexandria counted 318,[11] and Eustathius of Antioch estimated "about 270"[21] (all three were present at the council). Later, Socrates Scholasticus recorded more than 300,[22] and Evagrius,[23] Hilary of Poitiers,[24] Jerome,[25] Dionysius Exiguus,[26] and Rufinus[27] recorded 318. This number 318 is preserved in the liturgies of the Eastern Orthodox Church[28] and the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[citation needed]

text: Delegates came from every region of the Roman Empire, including Britain.[29] The participating bishops were given free travel to and from their episcopal sees to the council, as well as lodging. These bishops did not travel alone; each one had permission to bring with him two priests and three deacons, so the total number of attendees could have been above 1,800. Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of accompanying priests, deacons, and acolytes. A Syriac manuscript lists the names of the eastern bishops which included twenty two from Coele-Syria, nineteen from Palestine, ten from Phoenicia, six from Arabia, etc., but the distinction of bishops from presbyters had not yet formed.[30][31]

text: The Eastern bishops formed the great majority. Of these, the first rank was held by the patriarchs: Alexander of Alexandria and Eustathius of Antioch. Many of the assembled fathers—for instance, Paphnutius of Thebes, Potamon of Heraclea, and Paul of Neocaesarea—had stood forth as confessors of the faith and came to the council with the marks of persecution on their faces. This position is supported by patristic scholar Timothy Barnes in his book Constantine and Eusebius.[32] Historically, the influence of these marred confessors has been seen as substantial, but recent scholarship has called this into question.[27]

text: Other remarkable attendees were Eusebius of Nicomedia; Eusebius of Caesarea, the purported first church historian; circumstances suggest that Nicholas of Myra attended (his life was the seed of the Santa Claus legends); Macarius of Jerusalem, later a staunch defender of Athanasius; Aristaces of Armenia (son of Saint Gregory the Illuminator); Leontius of Caesarea; Jacob of Nisibis, a former hermit; Hypatius of Gangra; Protogenes of Sardica; Melitius of Sebastopolis; Achilleus of Larissa (considered the Athanasius of Thessaly)[33] and Spyridion of Trimythous, who even while a bishop made his living as a shepherd.[34] From foreign places came John, bishop of Persia and India, Theophilus, a Gothic bishop, and Stratophilus, bishop of Pitiunt in Georgia.

text: The Latin-speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: Marcus of Calabria from Italia, Cecilian of Carthage from Africa, Hosius of Córdoba from Hispania, Nicasius of Die from Gaul,[33] and Domnus of Stridon from the province of the Danube.

text: Athanasius of Alexandria, a young deacon and companion of Bishop Alexander of Alexandria, was among the assistants. Athanasius eventually spent most of his life battling against Arianism. Alexander of Constantinople, then a presbyter, was also present as representative of his aged bishop.[33]

text: The supporters of Arius included Secundus of Ptolemais, Theonus of Marmarica, Zephyrius (or Zopyrus), and Dathes, all of whom hailed from the Libyan Pentapolis. Other supporters included Eusebius of Nicomedia, Paulinus of Tyrus, Actius of Lydda, Menophantus of Ephesus, and Theognus of Nicaea.[33][35]

text: "Resplendent in purple and gold, Constantine made a ceremonial entrance at the opening of the council, probably in early June, but respectfully seated the bishops ahead of himself."[5] As Eusebius described, Constantine "himself proceeded through the midst of the assembly, like some heavenly messenger of God, clothed in raiment which glittered as it were with rays of light, reflecting the glowing radiance of a purple robe, and adorned with the brilliant splendor of gold and precious stones."[36] The emperor was present as an overseer and presider, but did not cast any official vote. Constantine organized the Council along the lines of the Roman Senate. Hosius of Cordoba may have presided over its deliberations; he was probably one of the Papal legates.[5] Eusebius of Nicomedia probably gave the welcoming address.[5][37]

text: Agenda and procedure[edit]

text: The agenda of the synod included:

text:
The Arian question regarding the relationship between God the Father and the Son (not only in his incarnate form as Jesus, but also in his nature before the creation of the world); i.e., are the Father and Son one in divine purpose only or also one in being?
The date of celebration of Pascha/Easter
The Meletian schism
Various matters of church discipline, which resulted in twenty canons

Organizational structure of the Church: focused on the ordering of the episcopacy
Dignity standards for the clergy: issues of ordination at all levels and of suitability of behavior and background for clergy
Reconciliation of the lapsed: establishing norms for public repentance and penance
Readmission to the Church of heretics and schismatics: including issues of when reordination and/or rebaptism were to be required
Liturgical practice: including the place of deacons, and the practice of standing at prayer during liturgy[38]

tag: ol

text: The council was formally opened 20 May, in the central structure of the imperial palace at Nicaea, with preliminary discussions of the Arian question. Emperor Constantine arrived nearly a month later on 14 June.[39] In these discussions, some dominant figures were Arius, with several adherents. "Some 22 of the bishops at the council, led by Eusebius of Nicomedia, came as supporters of Arius. But when some of the more shocking passages from his writings were read, they were almost universally seen as blasphemous."[5] Bishops Theognis of Nicaea and Maris of Chalcedon were among the initial supporters of Arius.

text: Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the baptismal creed of his own diocese at Caesarea at Palestine, as a form of reconciliation. The majority of the bishops agreed. For some time, scholars thought that the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius. Today, most scholars think that the Creed is derived from the baptismal creed of Jerusalem, as Hans Lietzmann proposed.

text: The orthodox bishops won approval of every one of their proposals regarding the Creed. After being in session for an entire month, the council promulgated on 19 June the original Nicene Creed. This profession of faith was adopted by all the bishops "but two from Libya who had been closely associated with Arius from the beginning".[19] No explicit historical record of their dissent actually exists; the signatures of these bishops are simply absent from the Creed. The sessions continued to deal with minor matters until 25 August.[39]

text: Arian controversy[edit]

text: The Arian controversy arose in Alexandria when the newly reinstated presbyter Arius[40] began to spread doctrinal views that were contrary to those of his bishop, St. Alexander of Alexandria. The disputed issues centered on the natures and relationship of God (the Father) and the Son of God (Jesus). The disagreements sprang from different ideas about the Godhead and what it meant for Jesus to be God's Son. Alexander maintained that the Son was divine in just the same sense that the Father is, coeternal with the Father, else he could not be a true Son.[13][41]

text: Arius emphasized the supremacy and uniqueness of God the Father, meaning that the Father alone is almighty and infinite, and that therefore the Father's divinity must be greater than the Son's. Arius taught that the Son had a beginning, and that he possessed neither the eternity nor the true divinity of the Father, but was rather made "God" only by the Father's permission and power, and that the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures.[13][41]

text: The Arian discussions and debates at the council extended from about 20 May 325, through about 19 June.[41] According to legendary accounts, debate became so heated that at one point, Arius was struck in the face by Nicholas of Myra, who would later be canonized.[42] This account is almost certainly apocryphal, as Arius himself would not have been present in the council chamber due to the fact that he was not a bishop.[43]

text: Much of the debate hinged on the difference between being "born" or "created" and being "begotten". Arians saw these as essentially the same; followers of Alexander did not. The exact meaning of many of the words used in the debates at Nicaea were still unclear to speakers of other languages. Greek words like "essence" (ousia), "substance" (hypostasis), "nature" (physis), "person" (prosopon) bore a variety of meanings drawn from pre-Christian philosophers, which could not but entail misunderstandings until they were cleared up. The word homoousia, in particular, was initially disliked by many bishops because of its associations with Gnostic heretics (who used it in their theology), and because their heresies had been condemned at the 264–268 Synods of Antioch.

text: Arguments for Arianism[edit]

text: According to surviving accounts, the presbyter Arius argued for the supremacy of God the Father, and maintained that the Son of God was created as an act of the Father's will, and therefore that the Son was a creature made by God, begotten directly of the infinite, eternal God. Arius's argument was that the Son was God's very first production, before all ages. The position being that the Son had a beginning, and that only the Father has no beginning. And Arius argued that everything else was created through the Son. Thus, said the Arians, only the Son was directly created and begotten of God; and therefore there was a time that He had no existence. Arius believed that the Son of God was capable of His own free will of right and wrong, and that "were He in the truest sense a son, He must have come after the Father, therefore the time obviously was when He was not, and hence He was a finite being",[44] and that He was under God the Father. Therefore, Arius insisted that the Father's divinity was greater than the Son's. The Arians appealed to Scripture, quoting biblical statements such as "the Father is greater than I",[45] and also that the Son is "firstborn of all creation".[46]

text: Arguments against Arianism[edit]

text: The opposing view stemmed from the idea that begetting the Son is itself in the nature of the Father, which is eternal. Thus, the Father was always a Father, and both Father and Son existed always together, eternally, coequally and consubstantially.[47] The contra-Arian argument thus stated that the Logos was "eternally begotten", therefore with no beginning. Those in opposition to Arius believed that to follow the Arian view destroyed the unity of the Godhead, and made the Son unequal to the Father. They insisted that such a view was in contravention of such Scriptures as "I and the Father are one"[48] and "the Word was God",[48] as such verses were interpreted. They declared, as did Athanasius,[49] that the Son had no beginning, but had an "eternal derivation" from the Father, and therefore was coeternal with him, and equal to God in all aspects.[50]

text: Result of the debate[edit]

text: The Council declared that the Son was true God, coeternal with the Father and begotten from His same substance, arguing that such a doctrine best codified the Scriptural presentation of the Son as well as traditional Christian belief about him handed down from the Apostles. This belief was expressed by the bishops in the Creed of Nicaea, which would form the basis of what has since been known as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.[51]

text: Nicene Creed[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: One of the projects undertaken by the Council was the creation of a Creed, a declaration and summary of the Christian faith. Several creeds were already in existence; many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council, including Arius. From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism.

text: In Rome, for example, the Apostles' Creed was popular, especially for use in Lent and the Easter season. In the Council of Nicaea, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not.

text: Some distinctive elements in the Nicene Creed, perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added, some specifically to counter the Arian point of view.[13][52]

text:
Jesus Christ is described as "Light from Light, true God from true God," proclaiming his divinity.
Jesus Christ is said to be "begotten, not made," asserting that he was not a mere creature, brought into being out of nothing, but the true Son of God, brought into being "from the substance of the Father."
He is said to be "of one being with the Father," proclaiming that although Jesus Christ is "true God" and God the Father is also "true God," they are "of one being," in accord to what is found in John 10:30: "I and the Father are one." The Greek term homoousios, or consubstantial (i.e., "of the same substance) is ascribed by Eusebius to Constantine who, on this particular point, may have chosen to exercise his authority. The significance of this clause, however, is extremely ambiguous as to the extent in which Jesus Christ and God the Father are "of one being," and the issues it raised would be seriously controverted in the future.

text: At the end of the creed came a list of anathemas, designed to repudiate explicitly the Arians' stated claims.

text:
The view that "there was once when he was not" was rejected to maintain the coeternity of the Son with the Father.
The view that he was "mutable or subject to change" was rejected to maintain that the Son just like the Father was beyond any form of weakness or corruptibility, and most importantly that he could not fall away from absolute moral perfection.

text: Thus, instead of a baptismal creed acceptable to both the Arians and their opponents the council promulgated one which was clearly opposed to Arianism and incompatible with the distinctive core of their beliefs. The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius, and elsewhere. Although the most vocal of anti-Arians, the Homoousians (from the Koine Greek word translated as "of same substance" which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264–268) were in the minority, the Creed was accepted by the council as an expression of the bishops' common faith and the ancient faith of the whole Church.[citation needed]

text: Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have helped bring the council to consensus. At the time of the council, he was the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters. Hosius stands at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the actual formulation of the creed. Great leaders such as Eustathius of Antioch, Alexander of Alexandria, Athanasius, and Marcellus of Ancyra all adhered to the Homoousian position.

text: In spite of his sympathy for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea adhered to the decisions of the council, accepting the entire creed. The initial number of bishops supporting Arius was small. After a month of discussion, on 19 June, there were only two left: Theonas of Marmarica in Libya, and Secundus of Ptolemais. Maris of Chalcedon, who initially supported Arianism, agreed to the whole creed. Similarly, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for certain statements.

text: The Emperor carried out his earlier statement: everybody who refused to endorse the Creed would be exiled. Arius, Theonas, and Secundus refused to adhere to the creed, and were thus exiled to Illyria, in addition to being excommunicated. The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and consigned to the flames,[9] while his supporters considered as "enemies of Christianity." [53] Nevertheless, the controversy continued in various parts of the empire.[54]

text: The Creed was amended to a new version by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.

text: Separation of Easter computation from Jewish calendar[edit]

text: The feast of Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread, as Christians believe that the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus occurred at the time of those observances.

text: As early as Pope Sixtus I, some Christians had set Easter to a Sunday in the lunar month of Nisan. To determine which lunar month was to be designated as Nisan, Christians relied on the Jewish community. By the later 3rd century some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with what they took to be the disorderly state of the Jewish calendar. They argued that contemporary Jews were identifying the wrong lunar month as the month of Nisan, choosing a month whose 14th day fell before the spring equinox.[55]

text: Christians, these thinkers argued, should abandon the custom of relying on Jewish informants and instead do their own computations to determine which month should be styled Nisan, setting Easter within this independently computed, Christian Nisan, which would always locate the festival after the equinox. They justified this break with tradition by arguing that it was in fact the contemporary Jewish calendar that had broken with tradition by ignoring the equinox, and that in former times the 14th of Nisan had never preceded the equinox.[56] Others felt that the customary practice of reliance on the Jewish calendar should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error from a Christian point of view.[57]

text: The controversy between those who argued for independent computations and those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar was formally resolved by the Council, which endorsed the independent procedure that had been in use for some time at Rome and Alexandria. Easter was henceforward to be a Sunday in a lunar month chosen according to Christian criteria—in effect, a Christian Nisan—not in the month of Nisan as defined by Jews.[7] Those who argued for continued reliance on the Jewish calendar (called "protopaschites" by later historians) were urged to come around to the majority position. That they did not all immediately do so is revealed by the existence of sermons,[58] canons,[59] and tracts[60] written against the protopaschite practice in the later 4th century.

text: These two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies (see also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not seem to decree that Easter must fall on Sunday.[61]

text: Nor did the Council decree that Easter must never coincide with Nisan 14 (the first Day of Unleavened Bread, now commonly called "Passover") in the Hebrew calendar. By endorsing the move to independent computations, the Council had separated the Easter computation from all dependence, positive or negative, on the Jewish calendar. The "Zonaras proviso", the claim that Easter must always follow Nisan 14 in the Hebrew calendar, was not formulated until after some centuries. By that time, the accumulation of errors in the Julian solar and lunar calendars had made it the de facto state of affairs that Julian Easter always followed Hebrew Nisan 14.[62]

text: Meletian schism[edit]

text: The suppression of the Meletian schism, an early breakaway sect, was another important matter that came before the Council of Nicaea. Meletius, it was decided, should remain in his own city of Lycopolis in Egypt, but without exercising authority or the power to ordain new clergy; he was forbidden to go into the environs of the town or to enter another diocese for the purpose of ordaining its subjects. Melitius retained his episcopal title, but the ecclesiastics ordained by him were to receive again the laying on of hands, the ordinations performed by Meletius being therefore regarded as invalid. Clergy ordained by Meletius were ordered to yield precedence to those ordained by Alexander, and they were not to do anything without the consent of Bishop Alexander.[63]

text: In the event of the death of a non-Meletian bishop or ecclesiastic, the vacant see might be given to a Meletian, provided he was worthy and the popular election were ratified by Alexander. As to Meletius himself, episcopal rights and prerogatives were taken from him. These mild measures, however, were in vain; the Meletians joined the Arians and caused more dissension than ever, being among the worst enemies of Athanasius. The Meletians ultimately died out around the middle of the fifth century.

text: Promulgation of canon law[edit]

text:
Part of a series on the

Jurisprudence of
Catholic canon law

Current law[show]

1983 Code of Canon Law

Omnium in mentem
Magnum principium

Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches
Ad tuendam fidem
Ex corde Ecclesiae
Indulgentiarum Doctrina
Pastor bonus

Pontificalis Domus

Veritatis gaudium
Custom

Legal history[show]

1917 Code of Canon Law

Corpus Juris Canonici

Decretist
Regulæ Juris
Decretals of Gregory IX

Decretalist

Decretum Gratiani
Extravagantes
Liber Septimus

Ancient Church Orders

Didache
The Apostolic Constitutions

Canons of the Apostles

Collections of ancient canons

Collectiones canonum Dionysianae
Collectio canonum quadripartita
Collectio canonum Quesnelliana
Collectio canonum Wigorniensis

Other

Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals
Benedictus Deus (Pius IV)
Contractum trinius
Defect of Birth
Jus exclusivae
Papal appointment

Oriental law[show]

Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches
Eastern Canonical Reforms of Pius XII
Nomocanon
Archeparchy

Eparchy

Liturgical law[show]

Ecclesia Dei
Mysterii Paschalis
Sacrosanctum concilium

Musicam sacram

Summorum Pontificum
Tra le sollecitudini

Sacramental law[show]

Canon 844
Ex opere operato
Omnium in mentem
Valid but illicit

Holy Orders

Impediment (canon law)

Abstemius

Clerical celibacy (Catholic Church)
Nullity of Sacred Ordination

Apostolicae curae

Dimissorial letters
Approbation

Confession

Apostolic Penitentiary
Complicit absolution
Canon penitentiary
Internal forum
Paenitentiale Theodori
Penitential canons
Seal of the Confessional

Eucharist

Eucharistic discipline
Canon 915

Matrimonial law[show]

Banns of Marriage
Declaration of Nullity

Matrimonial Nullity Trial Reforms of Pope Francis

Defender of the Bond
Impediments to Marriage

Affinity
Bigamy
Clandestinity
Impediment of crime
Disparity of Cult
Ligamen

Matrimonial Dispensation

Ratum sed non consummatum
Sanatio in radice

Natural marriage

Pauline privilege
Petrine privilege

Trials and tribunals[show]

Tribunals

Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura
Tribunal of the Roman Rota
Apostolic Penitentiary

Tribunal Officers

Judicial Vicar/Officialis
Auditor
Advocatus Diaboli
Defender of the Bond

Tribunal Procedure

Appeal as from an abuse
Presumption

Canonical structures[show]
Particular churches

Particular churches sui juris

Latin Church
Eastern Catholic Churches

Local particular churches

Abbacy nullius

Abbot nullius

Apostolic vicariate

Apostolic vicar

Apostolic administration

Apostolic administrator

Archdiocese
Diocese

Aeque principaliter
Cathedraticum
In persona episcopi
Chancery
Deanery

Vicar forane

Archeparchy
Eparchy
Military ordinariate
Mission sui juris
Personal ordinariate

Anglicanorum Coetibus

Personal Prelature

Juridic persons

Parish
Roman Curia

Dicastery
Congregation
Pontifical council

Jurisprudence[show]

Canonical coronation

Canonically crowned images

Computation of time
Contract law
Custom
Delegata potestas non potest delegari
Derogation
Dispensation

Taxa Innocentiana

Indult
Impediment
Interpretation

Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts

Jurisdiction
Peritus
Obreption & subreption
Obrogation
Promulgation
Resignation of the Roman Pontiff
Sede vacante
Vacatio legis
Valid but illicit

Philosophy, theology, and
fundamental theory[show]

Theology

Ecclesiology

Treatise on Law

Determinatio

Law of persons[show]

Person (canon law)
Canonical age
Canonical faculties
Clerics and public office
Clerical celebacy
Consecrated life
Defect of Birth
Emancipation
Juridic & physical persons
Jus patronatus
Laicization (dispensation)

Canonical documents[show]

Notary (canon law)

Protonotary apostolic

Apostolic constitution
Canon
Concordat
Decree
Decretal
Encyclical
Motu proprio
Ordinance
Papal brief
Papal bull
Penitential
Positive law
Rescript

Penal law[show]

Canon 1324
Canon 1398
Censure (canon law)
Excommunication

List of excommunicable offences in the Catholic Church
List of people excommunicated by the Catholic Church

List of excommunicated cardinals

Interdict
Internal forum
Laicization (penal)
Latae sententiae

Procedural law[show]
Election of the Roman Pontiff

Universi Dominici gregis
Papal renunciation

 Catholicism portal

v
t
e

text: The council promulgated twenty new church laws, called canons, (though the exact number is subject to debate), that is, unchanging rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers[64] are as follows:

text: On 25 July 325, in conclusion, the fathers of the council celebrated the Emperor's twentieth anniversary. In his farewell address, Constantine informed the audience how averse he was to dogmatic controversy; he wanted the Church to live in harmony and peace. In a circular letter, he announced the accomplished unity of practice by the whole Church in the date of the celebration of Christian Passover (Easter).

text: Effects of the council[edit]

text: The long-term effects of the Council of Nicaea were significant. For the first time, representatives of many of the bishops of the Church convened to agree on a doctrinal statement. Also for the first time, the Emperor played a role, by calling together the bishops under his authority, and using the power of the state to give the council's orders effect.

text: In the short-term, however, the council did not completely solve the problems it was convened to discuss and a period of conflict and upheaval continued for some time. Constantine himself was succeeded by two Arian Emperors in the Eastern Empire: his son, Constantius II and Valens. Valens could not resolve the outstanding ecclesiastical issues, and unsuccessfully confronted St. Basil over the Nicene Creed.[65]

text: Pagan powers within the Empire sought to maintain and at times re-establish paganism into the seat of the Emperor (see Arbogast and Julian the Apostate). Arians and Meletians soon regained nearly all of the rights they had lost, and consequently, Arianism continued to spread and be a subject of debate within the Church during the remainder of the fourth century. Almost immediately, Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop and cousin to Constantine I, used his influence at court to sway Constantine's favor from the proto-orthodox Nicene bishops to the Arians.[66]

text: Eustathius of Antioch was deposed and exiled in 330. Athanasius, who had succeeded Alexander as Bishop of Alexandria, was deposed by the First Synod of Tyre in 335 and Marcellus of Ancyra followed him in 336. Arius himself returned to Constantinople to be readmitted into the Church, but died shortly before he could be received. Constantine died the next year, after finally receiving baptism from Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and "with his passing the first round in the battle after the Council of Nicaea was ended".[66]

text: Role of Constantine[edit]

text: Christianity was illegal in the empire until the emperors Constantine and Licinius agreed in 313 to what became known as the Edict of Milan. However, Nicene Christianity did not become the state religion of the Roman Empire until the Edict of Thessalonica in 380. In the mean time, paganism remained legal and present in public affairs. Constantine's coinage and other official motifs, until the Council of Nicaea, had affiliated him with the pagan cult of Sol Invictus. At first, Constantine encouraged the construction of new temples[67] and tolerated traditional sacrifices.[68] Later in his reign, he gave orders for the pillaging and the tearing down of Roman temples.[69][70][71]

text: Constantine's role regarding Nicaea was that of supreme civil leader and authority in the empire. As Emperor, the responsibility for maintaining civil order was his, and he sought that the Church be of one mind and at peace. When first informed of the unrest in Alexandria due to the Arian disputes, he was "greatly troubled" and, "rebuked" both Arius and Bishop Alexander for originating the disturbance and allowing it to become public.[72] Aware also of "the diversity of opinion" regarding the celebration of Easter and hoping to settle both issues, he sent the "honored" Bishop Hosius of Cordova (Hispania) to form a local church council and "reconcile those who were divided".[72] When that embassy failed, he turned to summoning a synod at Nicaea, inviting "the most eminent men of the churches in every country".[73]

text: Constantine assisted in assembling the council by arranging that travel expenses to and from the bishops' episcopal sees, as well as lodging at Nicaea, be covered out of public funds.[74] He also provided and furnished a "great hall ... in the palace" as a place for discussion so that the attendees "should be treated with becoming dignity".[74] In addressing the opening of the council, he "exhorted the Bishops to unanimity and concord" and called on them to follow the Holy Scriptures with: "Let, then, all contentious disputation be discarded; and let us seek in the divinely-inspired word the solution of the questions at issue."[74]

text: Thereupon, the debate about Arius and church doctrine began. "The emperor gave patient attention to the speeches of both parties" and "deferred" to the decision of the bishops.[75] The bishops first pronounced Arius' teachings to be anathema, formulating the creed as a statement of correct doctrine. When Arius and two followers refused to agree, the bishops pronounced clerical judgement by excommunicating them from the Church. Respecting the clerical decision, and seeing the threat of continued unrest, Constantine also pronounced civil judgement, banishing them into exile. This was the beginning of the practice of using secular power to establish doctrinal orthodoxy within Christianity, an example followed by all later Christian emperors, which led to a circle of Christian violence, and of Christian resistance couched in terms of martyrdom.[76]

text: Misconceptions[edit]

text: Biblical canon[edit]

text: There is no record of any discussion of the biblical canon at the council.[77] The development of the biblical canon took centuries, and was nearly complete (with exceptions known as the Antilegomena, written texts whose authenticity or value is disputed) by the time the Muratorian fragment was written.[78]

text: In 331, Constantine commissioned fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople, but little else is known (in fact, it is not even certain whether his request was for fifty copies of the entire Old and New Testaments, only the New Testament, or merely the Gospels). Some scholars believe that this request provided motivation for canon lists. In Jerome's Prologue to Judith,[79] he claims that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures", which some have suggested means the Nicene Council did discuss what documents would number among the sacred scriptures, but more likely simply means the Council used Judith in its deliberations on other matters and so it should be considered canonical.[citation needed]

text: The main source of the idea that the Bible was created at the Council of Nicea seems to be Voltaire, who popularised a story that the canon was determined by placing all the competing books on an altar during the Council and then keeping the ones that did not fall off. The original source of this "fictitious anecdote" is the Synodicon Vetus,[80] a pseudo-historical account of early Church councils from AD 887:[81]

text: The canonical and apocryphal books it distinguished in the following manner: in the house of God the books were placed down by the holy altar; then the council asked the Lord in prayer that the inspired works be found on top and—as in fact happened—the spurious on the bottom.[82]

text: Trinity[edit]

text: The council of Nicaea dealt primarily with the issue of the deity of Christ. Over a century earlier the term "Trinity" (Τριάς in Greek; trinitas in Latin) was used in the writings of Origen (185–254) and Tertullian (160–220), and a general notion of a "divine three", in some sense, was expressed in the second century writings of Polycarp, Ignatius, and Justin Martyr. In Nicaea, questions regarding the Holy Spirit were left largely unaddressed until after the relationship between the Father and the Son was settled around the year 362.[83] So the doctrine in a more full-fledged form was not formulated until the Council of Constantinople in 360 AD,[84] and a final form formulated in 381 AD, primarily crafted by Gregory of Nyssa.[85]

text: Constantine[edit]

text: While Constantine had sought a unified church after the council, he did not force the Homoousian view of Christ's nature on the council (see The role of Constantine).

text: Constantine did not commission any Bibles at the council itself. He did commission fifty Bibles in 331 for use in the churches of Constantinople, itself still a new city. No historical evidence points to involvement on his part in selecting or omitting books for inclusion in commissioned Bibles.

text: Despite Constantine's sympathetic interest in the Church, he was not baptized until some 11 or 12 years after the council, putting off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much sin as possible[86] in accordance with the belief that in baptism all sin is forgiven fully and completely.[87]

text: Disputed matters[edit]

text: Role of the Bishop of Rome[edit]

text: Roman Catholics assert that the idea of Christ's deity was ultimately confirmed by the Bishop of Rome, and that it was this confirmation that gave the council its influence and authority. In support of this, they cite the position of early fathers and their expression of the need for all churches to agree with Rome (see Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses III:3:2).[citation needed]

text: However, Protestants, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox do not believe the Council viewed the Bishop of Rome as the jurisdictional head of Christendom, or someone having authority over other bishops attending the Council. In support of this, they cite Canon 6, where the Roman Bishop could be seen as simply one of several influential leaders, but not one who had jurisdiction over other bishops in other regions.[88]

text: According to Protestant theologian Philip Schaff, "The Nicene fathers passed this canon not as introducing anything new, but merely as confirming an existing relation on the basis of church tradition; and that, with special reference to Alexandria, on account of the troubles existing there. Rome was named only for illustration; and Antioch and all the other eparchies or provinces were secured their admitted rights. The bishoprics of Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch were placed substantially on equal footing." Thus, according to Schaff, the Bishop of Alexandria was to have jurisdiction over the provinces of Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis, just as the Bishop of Rome had authority "with reference to his own diocese."[89]

text: But according to Fr. James F. Loughlin, there is an alternate Roman Catholic interpretation. It involves five different arguments "drawn respectively from the grammatical structure of the sentence, from the logical sequence of ideas, from Catholic analogy, from comparison with the process of formation of the Byzantine Patriarchate, and from the authority of the ancients"[90] in favor of an alternative understanding of the canon. According to this interpretation, the canon shows the role the Bishop of Rome had when he, by his authority, confirmed the jurisdiction of the other patriarchs—an interpretation which is in line with the Roman Catholic understanding of the Pope. Thus, the Bishop of Alexandria presided over Egypt, Libya and the Pentapolis,[9] while the Bishop of Antioch "enjoyed a similar authority throughout the great diocese of Oriens," and all by the authority of the Bishop of Rome. To Loughlin, that was the only possible reason to invoke the custom of a Roman Bishop in a matter related to the two metropolitan bishops in Alexandria and Antioch.[90]

text: However, Protestant and Roman Catholic interpretations have historically assumed that some or all of the bishops identified in the canon were presiding over their own dioceses at the time of the Council—the Bishop of Rome over the Diocese of Italy, as Schaff suggested, the Bishop of Antioch over the Diocese of Oriens, as Loughlin suggested, and the Bishop of Alexandria over the Diocese of Egypt, as suggested by Karl Josef von Hefele. According to Hefele, the Council had assigned to Alexandria, "the whole (civil) Diocese of Egypt."[91] Yet those assumptions have since been proven false. At the time of the Council, the Diocese of Egypt did not yet exist, so the Council could not have assigned it to Alexandria. Antioch and Alexandria were both located within the civil Diocese of Oriens, Antioch being the chief metropolis, but neither administered the whole. Likewise, Rome and Milan were both located within the civil Diocese of Italy, Milan being the chief metropolis,[92][93] yet neither administered the whole.

text: This geographic issue related to Canon 6 was highlighted by Protestant writer, Timothy F. Kauffman, as a correction to the anachronism created by the assumption that each bishop was already presiding over a whole diocese at the time of the council.[94] According to Kauffman, since Milan and Rome were both located within the Diocese of Italy, and Antioch and Alexandria were both located within the Diocese of Oriens, a relevant and "structural congruency" between Rome and Alexandria was readily apparent to the gathered bishops: both had been made to share a diocese of which neither was the chief metropolis. Rome's jurisdiction within Italy had been defined in terms of several of the city's adjacent provinces since Diocletian's reordering of the empire in 293, as the earliest Latin version of the canon indicates,[95] and the rest of the Italian provinces were under the jurisdiction of Milan.[citation needed]

text: That provincial arrangement of Roman and Milanese jurisdiction within Italy therefore was a relevant precedent, and provided an administrative solution to the problem facing the council—namely, how to define Alexandrian and Antiochian jurisdiction within the Diocese of Oriens. In canon 6, the Council left most of the diocese under Antioch's jurisdiction, and assigned a few provinces of the diocese to Alexandria, "since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also."[96]

text: In that scenario, a relevant Roman precedent is invoked, answering Loughlin's argument as to why the custom of a bishop in Rome would have any bearing on a dispute regarding Alexandria in Oriens, and at the same time correcting Schaff's argument that the bishop of Rome was invoked by way of illustration "with reference to his own diocese." The custom of the bishop of Rome was invoked by way of illustration, not because he presided over the whole Church, or over the western Church or even over "his own diocese," but rather because he presided over a few provinces in a diocese that was otherwise administered from Milan. On the basis of that precedent, the council recognized Alexandria's ancient jurisdiction over a few provinces in the Diocese of Oriens, a diocese that was otherwise administered from Antioch.[citation needed]

text: Liturgical commemoration[edit]

text: The Churches of Byzantium celebrate the Fathers of the First Ecumenical Council on the seventh Sunday of Pascha (the Sunday before Pentecost).[97] The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod celebrates the First Ecumenical Council on 12 June. The Coptic Church celebrates The Assembly of the First Ecumenical Council on 9 Hathor (usually 18 Nov.). The Armenian Church celebrates the 318 Fathers of the Holy Council of Nicaea on 1 Sept..


document_title: Leader of the Opposition (India)

question_text: who was the first leader of opposition in rajya sabha

text: Leader of the Opposition (India)

text:
Leader of the Opposition of India
Emblem of India
IncumbentNone (No opposition with more than 10% seats) (in Lok Sabha)Ghulam Nabi Azad (in Rajya Sabha)Website
www.parliamentofindia.nic.in

text: The Leader of the Opposition is the politician who leads the official opposition in either House of the Parliament of India.

text: While the position also existed in former Central Legislative Assembly of British India, and holders of it there included Motilal Nehru, it received statutory recognition through the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977 which defines the term "Leader of the Opposition" as that member of the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha who, for the time being, is the Leader of that House of the Party in Opposition to the Government having the greatest numerical strength and recognised, as such, by the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. However, in order to get formal recognition, the concerned party must have at least  10% of the total strength of the House (55 seats in the Lok Sabha). If any party fails to get 10% seats in opposition, the House will not have recognised leader of the opposition.[1][2] A single party has to meet the 10% seat criteria, not an alliance.[3]

text: This is the most accepted or most spoken rule of appointing this post but when we refer to "Salary and Allowances of Leaders of Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977" by which the post has got official and statutory status, the majority required is decided by the heads of the houses, that is speaker and chairman as the case maybe.Refer to definition of Leader of Opposition in the act.

text: The Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003, clause 4, provides for the leader of the largest opposition party to be inducted as a member of the selection committee in a scenario where the lower house of parliament does not have a recognised leader of the opposition.[4]

text: Leaders of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha[edit]

text: The Lok Sabha had no recognised Leader of the Opposition until 1969 . The post was also vacant between 1980 and 1989.[5]

text:
Name

Party

Term

Lok Sabha

Vacant

No official opposition

26 January 1952 – 4 April 1957

First

Vacant

No official opposition

4 April 1957 – 4 March 1967

SecondThird

Vacant

No official opposition

4 March 1967 – 12 December 1969

Fourth

Ram Subhag Singh

Indian National Congress (O)

17 December 1969 – 27 December 1970

Vacant

No official opposition

27 December 1970 – 30 June 1977

Fifth

Y. B. Chavan

Indian National Congress

1 July 1977 – 11 April 1978

Sixth

C. M. Stephen

12 April 1978 – 9 July 1979

Y. B. Chavan

10–28 July 1979

Jagjivan Ram

Janata Party

29 July – 22 August 1979

Vacant

No official opposition[6]

22 August 1979 – 18 December 1989

SeventhEighth

Rajiv Gandhi

Indian National Congress

18 December 1989 – 23 December 1990

Ninth

L. K. Advani

Bharatiya Janata Party

24 December 1990 – 13 March 1991

21 June 1991 – 26 July 1993

Tenth

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

21 July 1993 – 10 May 1996

P. V. Narasimha Rao

Indian National Congress

16 May 1996 – 31 May 1996

Eleventh

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Bharatiya Janata Party

1 June 1996 – 4 December 1997

Sharad Pawar

Indian National Congress

19 March 1998 – 26 April 1999

Twelfth

Sonia Gandhi

31 October 1999 – 6 February 2004

Thirteenth

L. K. Advani

Bharatiya Janata Party

21 May 2004 – 18 May 2009

Fourteenth

Sushma Swaraj

21 December 2009 – 19 May 2014

Fifteenth

Vacant

No official opposition [7]

20 May 2014 - Till date

Sixteenth

Source:[8]

text: List of Leaders of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha[edit]

text: In Rajya Sabha until 1969, there was no Leader of the Opposition in real sense of the term. Till then, the practice was to call the Leader of the party in Opposition having the largest number of the members as the Leader of the Opposition, without according him any formal recognition, status or privilege. The office of Leader of the Opposition was given official recognition through the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act, 1977. This Act defines the Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha, as a member of the Council of States who is, for the time being, the Leader in that House of the party in opposition to the Government constituting the greatest numerical strength and recognised as such by the Chairman of the Council of States. Thus, the Leader of the Opposition should satisfy three conditions, namely, (i) he should be a member of the House (ii) the Leader in Rajya Sabha of the party in opposition to the Government having the greatest numerical strength and (iii) be recognised as such by the Chairman, Rajya Sabha.

text: Following members have been the Leaders of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha.[9]

text:
Name

Party

Term

1

Shyam Nandan Prasad Mishra

Indian National Congress (O)

December 1969 – March 1971

2

M. S. Gurupadaswamy

March 1971 – April 1972

3

Kamalapati Tripathi

Indian National Congress

30 March 1977 – 15 February 1978

4

Bhola Paswan Shastri

Indian National Congress (O)

24 February 1978 – 23 March 1978

5

Kamalapati Tripathi

Indian National Congress

23 March 1978 – 8 January 1980

6

L. K. Advani

Bharatiya Jana Sangh

21 January 1980 – 7 April 1980

7

P. Shiv Shankar

Indian National Congress

18 December 1989 – 2 January 1991

8

M. S. Gurupadaswamy

Janata Dal

28 June – 21 July 1991

9

S. Jaipal Reddy

22 July 1991 – 29 June 1992

10

Sikander Bakht

Bharatiya Janata Party

7 July 1992 – 23 May 1996

11

Shankarrao Chavan

Indian National Congress

23 May 1996 – 1 June 1996

12

Sikander Bakht

Bharatiya Janata Party

1 June 1996 – 19 March 1998

13

Manmohan Singh

Indian National Congress

21 March 1998 – 21 May 2004

14

Jaswant Singh

Bharatiya Janata Party

3 June 2004 – 16 May 2009

15

Arun Jaitley

3 June 2009 – 26 May 2014

16

Ghulam Nabi Azad

Indian National Congress

8 June 2014 - incumbent


document_title: Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt

question_text: kohl makeup was used in ancient egypt for

text: Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt

text: Chemistry of ancient Egyptian cosmetics[edit]

text: The two main forms of eye makeup were grepond eye paint and black kohl. The green eye paint was made of malachite, a copper carbonate pigment, and the black kohl was made from a substance called galena, a dark grey ore. Crushed up charcoal was also used in this process.

text: Medical uses of ancient Egyptian cosmetics[edit]

text: The ancient Egyptians were not entirely misguided in believing that kohl would prevent eye infections because it actually did prevent an ocular infection that was caused by the flooding of the Nile. The lead-based substances in the kohl promoted the production of nitric oxide in their skin, which helped strengthen their immune systems against diseases.[1] The soot in kohl helped in reducing the damaging effects of sun glare on their eyes. The ancient Egyptians created a remedy for burns by mixing the cheek and lip stain and other remedies for improving skin with red natron, northern salt and honey.[2] However, the ancient Egyptians strongly believed that the healing effects of these cosmetics were magical rather than medical.

text: Cosmetic palettes and jars[edit]

text: Cosmetics palettes were used to grind makeup. The earliest examples were rectangular in shape and date back to 5000 BC.[3] The palettes later adopted a rounder shape like the Narmer palette. King Narmer’s palette was the earliest piece of its kind. It has decorations of the King smiting the enemies of Egypt and the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, as well as a cavity for the grinding of cosmetics, making it a double purposed palette. These later developed into fish shaped palettes. They might have chosen the fish shape as the fish was a symbol of resurrection and new life. The fish shaped palettes were usually adorned with precious stones for royalty. These palettes have developed into baboon shaped containers to hold the kohl which held symbolic meanings for the ancient Egyptians.

text: Use of cosmetics in different social classes[edit]

text: The use of cosmetics in Egypt varied slightly between social classes, where more make-up was worn by higher class individuals as wealthier individuals could afford more cosmetics. Although there was no prominent difference between the make-up styles of the upper and lower class, noble women were known to pale their skin using creams and powders. This was due to pale skin being a sign of nobility as lighter skin meant less exposure to the sun whereas dark skin was associated with the lower class who tanned while taking part in menial labor such as working in the fields. Thus, paler skin represented the non-working noble class, as noble women would not work in the sun.[4]


document_title: White House Deputy Chief of Staff

question_text: what does the white house deputy chief of staff do

text: White House Deputy Chief of Staff

text: The White House Deputy Chief of Staff is officially the top aide to the White House Chief of Staff, who is the senior aide to the President of the United States. The Deputy Chief of Staff usually has an office in the West Wing and is responsible for ensuring the smooth running of the White House bureaucracy, as well as such other duties as the Chief of Staff assigns to him or her. In some administrations, there are multiple deputy chiefs with different duties.

text: In the Trump administration, there are three current Deputy Chiefs of Staff:

text:
Kirstjen Nielsen, Principal Deputy Chief of Staff
Joe Hagin, Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations
Rick Dearborn, Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy Implementation

tag: ul

text: Six Deputy Chiefs of Staff were subsequently promoted to become Chief of Staff: Dick Cheney, Ken Duberstein, Andrew Card, Erskine Bowles, John Podesta, and Joshua Bolten.

text: List of White House Deputy Chiefs of Staff[edit]

text:
Ford administration

Dick Cheney, Deputy Chief of Staff[1]

Carter administration

Landon Butler, Deputy Chief of Staff[2]

Reagan administration

Michael Deaver, Deputy Chief of Staff, 1981–1985
Ken Duberstein, Deputy Chief of Staff, 1987–1988
M. B. Oglesby Jr., Deputy Chief of Staff, 1988–1989

G.H.W. Bush administration

Andrew Card, Deputy Chief of Staff, 1989–1992
Henson Moore, Deputy Chief of Staff, 1992
Robert Zoellick, Deputy Chief of Staff, 1992–1993

Clinton administration

Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy

Mark Gearan, 1993
Roy Neel, 1994
Harold M. Ickes, 1993–1996
Sylvia Mathews Burwell, 1997–1998
Maria Echaveste, 1998–2001

Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations

Philip Lader, 1993–1994
Erskine Bowles, 1994–1996
Evelyn S. Lieberman, 1996
John Podesta, 1997–1998
Steve Ricchetti, 1998–2001

G.W. Bush administration

Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations

Joe Hagin, 2001–2008
Blake Gottesman, 2008–2009

Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy

Joshua Bolten, 2001–2003

Harriet Miers, 2003–2005
Karl Rove, 2005–2007
Joel Kaplan, 2006–2009

Obama administration

Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations

Jim Messina, 2009–2011
Alyssa Mastromonaco, 2011–2014
Anita Decker Breckenridge, 2014–2017

Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy

Mona Sutphen, 2009–2011
Nancy-Ann DeParle, 2011–2013
Rob Nabors, 2013–2015

Deputy Chief of Staff for Planning

Mark B. Childress, 2012–2014

Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy Implementation

Kristie Canegallo, 2014–2017

Trump administration

Principal Deputy Chief of Staff

Kirstjen Nielsen, 2017–present[3][4]

Deputy Chief of Staff

Katie Walsh, January– March 2017[5]

Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations

Joe Hagin, 2017–present

Deputy Chief of Staff for Policy

Rick Dearborn, 2017–present

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
In the NBC television drama The West Wing, the position of White House Deputy Chief of Staff (For Strategic Planning) was held by Josh Lyman in the fictional Bartlet administration and Sam Seaborn in the fictional Santos administration.
Chad Lowe portrayed White House Deputy Chief of Staff Reed Pollock, serving under White House Chief of Staff Tom Lennox and President Wayne Palmer on the television drama 24.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "Richard Cheney as an Assistant to President Ford". Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum. August 26, 2002.
Jump up ^ Walcott, Charles E.; Wayne, Stephen J.; Warshaw, Shirley Anne (December 2000). "Report No. 21: The Chief of Staff" (PDF). The White House Interview Program. The White House Transition Project.
Jump up ^ Restuccia, Andrew (July 29, 2017). "Kelly to bring DHS staffer to the White House". Politico.
Jump up ^ "President Donald J. Trump Announces White House Appointments". White House. September 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Miller, Zeke J. (March 30, 2017). "White House Deputy Chief of Staff Leaves for Pro-Trump Group". time.com.

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Executive Office of the United States President

Executive Office of the President

Advisory Boards (Council for Community Solutions, Global Development Council, Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, President's Intelligence Advisory Board, President's Management Advisory Board)
Council of Economic Advisers
Council on Environmental Quality
Digital Service
Executive Residence (Committee for the Preservation of the White House, Office of the Curator, Office of the Chief Usher, Office of the Chief Floral Designer, Office of the Executive Chef, Graphics and Calligraphy Office)
National Security Council (Deputies Committee, Homeland Security Council)
Office of Administration (Office of Mail and Messenger Operations, Office of the Chief Financial Officer, Office of the Chief Administrative Officer)
Office of Management and Budget (Office of the Chief Performance Officer, Office of E-Government and Information Technology, Office of Federal Financial Management, Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs)
Office of National Drug Control Policy
Office of Science and Technology Policy (Office of the Chief Technology Officer)
Office of the Trade Representative
Office of the Vice President (Office of the Chief of Staff)
Military Office (Communications Agency, Medical Unit, Presidential Food Service, Transportation Agency)

White House Office

Office of Cabinet Affairs
Office of the Chief of Staff (Office of Senior Advisors)
Office of Communications (Office of Media Affairs, Office of Research, Office of the Press Secretary, Office of Speechwriting)
Office of the Counselor
Office of Digital Strategy
Domestic Policy Council (Office of Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships, Office of National AIDS Policy, Office of Social Innovation and Civic Participation, Rural Council)
Office of the First Lady (Office of the Social Secretary)
Office of the National Security Advisor (Homeland Security Advisor)
Office of Legislative Affairs
Office of Management and Administration ( White House Operations, White House Personnel, Visitors Office)
National Economic Council
National Trade Council
Oval Office Operations (Personal Secretary)
Office of Political Affairs
Presidential Innovation Fellows
Office of Presidential Personnel
Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs (Council on Women and Girls, Jewish Liaison, Office of Urban Affairs)
Office of Scheduling and Advance
Office of the Staff Secretary (Office of the Executive Clerk, Office of Presidential Correspondence, Office of Records Management)
Office of the White House Counsel
White House Fellows

text:
[show]

v
t
e

White House Office

American Innovation
Cabinet Affairs
Chief of Staff
Communications
Counselor
First Lady

Executive Chef
Floral Designer
Social Secretary

Intergovernmental Affairs
Legislative Affairs
Management and Administration
Oval Office Operations
Political Affairs
Presidential Personnel
Public Liaison
Press Secretary
Scheduling and Advance
Senior Advisor
Staff Secretary
Trade and Manufacturing Policy
White House Counsel
White House Fellows

text: White House Deputy Chiefs of Staff


document_title: List of House of Cards episodes

question_text: how many episodes of house of cards this season

text: List of House of Cards episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally released

1
13
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)

2
13
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)

3
13
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)

4
13
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)

5
13
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

1
1
"Chapter 1"
David Fincher
Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-101

2
2
"Chapter 2"
David Fincher
Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-102

3
3
"Chapter 3"
James Foley
Keith Huff and Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-103

4
4
"Chapter 4"
James Foley
Rick Cleveland and Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-104

5
5
"Chapter 5"
Joel Schumacher
Sarah Treem
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-105

6
6
"Chapter 6"
Joel Schumacher
Sam Forman
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-106

7
7
"Chapter 7"
Charles McDougall
Kate Barnow and Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-107

8
8
"Chapter 8"
Charles McDougall
Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-108

9
9
"Chapter 9"
James Foley
Beau Willimon and Rick Cleveland
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-109

10
10
"Chapter 10"
Carl Franklin
Sarah Treem
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-110

11
11
"Chapter 11"
Carl Franklin
Keith Huff and Kate Barnow and Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-111

12
12
"Chapter 12"
Allen Coulter
Gina Gionfriddo and Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-112

13
13
"Chapter 13"
Allen Coulter
Beau Willimon
February 1, 2013 (2013-02-01)
HOC-113

text: Season 2 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

14
1
"Chapter 14"
Carl Franklin
Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-201

15
2
"Chapter 15"
Carl Franklin
Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-202

16
3
"Chapter 16"
James Foley
Bill Cain
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-203

17
4
"Chapter 17"
James Foley
Laura Eason
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-204

18
5
"Chapter 18"
John Coles
Kenneth Lin
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-205

19
6
"Chapter 19"
John Coles
John Mankiewicz
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-206

20
7
"Chapter 20"
James Foley
Bill Kennedy
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-207

21
8
"Chapter 21"
James Foley
David Manson
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-208

22
9
"Chapter 22"
Jodie Foster
Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-209

23
10
"Chapter 23"
Robin Wright
Laura Eason and Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-210

24
11
"Chapter 24"
John Coles
John Mankiewicz and Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-211

25
12
"Chapter 25"
James Foley
Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-212

26
13
"Chapter 26"
James Foley
Beau Willimon
February 14, 2014 (2014-02-14)
HOC-213

text: Season 3 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

27
1
"Chapter 27"
John David Coles
Beau Willimon
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-301

28
2
"Chapter 28"
John David Coles
John Mankiewicz
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-302

29
3
"Chapter 29"
Tucker Gates
Frank Pugliese
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-303

30
4
"Chapter 30"
Tucker Gates
Laura Eason
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-304

31
5
"Chapter 31"
James Foley
Kenneth Lin
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-305

32
6
"Chapter 32"
James Foley
Melissa James Gibson
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-306

33
7
"Chapter 33"
John Dahl
Beau Willimon
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-307

34
8
"Chapter 34"
John Dahl
Bill Kennedy
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-308

35
9
"Chapter 35"
Robin Wright
John Mankiewicz
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-309

36
10
"Chapter 36"
Agnieszka Holland
Frank Pugliese
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-310

37
11
"Chapter 37"
Agnieszka Holland
Melissa James Gibson
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-311

38
12
"Chapter 38"
Robin Wright
Beau Willimon
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-312

39
13
"Chapter 39"
James Foley
Beau Willimon
February 27, 2015 (2015-02-27)
HOC-313

text: Season 4 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

40
1
"Chapter 40"
Tucker Gates
Beau Willimon
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-401

41
2
"Chapter 41"
Tucker Gates
Melissa James Gibson
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-402

42
3
"Chapter 42"
Robin Wright
Frank Pugliese
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-403

43
4
"Chapter 43"
Robin Wright
John Mankiewicz
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-404

44
5
"Chapter 44"
Tom Shankland
Melissa James Gibson
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-405

45
6
"Chapter 45"
Tom Shankland
Laura Eason
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-406

46
7
"Chapter 46"
Tom Shankland
Bill Kennedy
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-407

47
8
"Chapter 47"
Alex Graves
John Mankiewicz
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-408

48
9
"Chapter 48"
Robin Wright
Frank Pugliese
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-409

49
10
"Chapter 49"
Robin Wright
Melissa James Gibson and Kenneth Lin
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-410

50
11
"Chapter 50"
Kari Skogland
Tian Jun Gu
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-411

51
12
"Chapter 51"
Jakob Verbruggen
Laura Eason and Bill Kennedy
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-412

52
13
"Chapter 52"
Jakob Verbruggen
Beau Willimon
March 4, 2016 (2016-03-04)
HOC-413

text: Season 5 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
Prod.
code

53
1
"Chapter 53"
Daniel Minahan
Frank Pugliese
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-501

54
2
"Chapter 54"
Daniel Minahan
Melissa James Gibson
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-502

55
3
"Chapter 55"
Alik Sakharov
John Mankiewicz
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-503

56
4
"Chapter 56"
Alik Sakharov
Kenneth Lin
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-504

57
5
"Chapter 57"
Michael Morris
Laura Eason
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-505

58
6
"Chapter 58"
Michael Morris
Bill Kennedy
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-506

59
7
"Chapter 59"
Alik Sakharov
Tian Jun Gu
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-507

60
8
"Chapter 60"
Roxann Dawson
John Mankiewicz
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-508

61
9
"Chapter 61"
Roxann Dawson
Bill Kennedy
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-509

62
10
"Chapter 62"
Agnieszka Holland
Kenneth Lin
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-510

63
11
"Chapter 63"
Agnieszka Holland
Laura Eason
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-511

64
12
"Chapter 64"
Robin Wright
Frank Pugliese & Melissa James Gibson
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-512

65
13
"Chapter 65"
Robin Wright
Melissa James Gibson & Frank Pugliese
May 30, 2017 (2017-05-30)
HOC-513


document_title: List of Major League Baseball career strikeout leaders

question_text: who has the most strikeouts in mlb history

text: In baseball, a strikeout occurs when the batter receives three strikes during his time at bat. Strikeouts are associated with dominance on the part of the pitcher and failure on the part of the batter.

text: Nolan Ryan has the most career strikeouts in Major League Baseball. During a record 27-year career, he struck out 5,714 batters.

text: The List[edit]

text:
†
Denotes elected to National Baseball Hall of Fame.

Bold
Denotes active player.

text:
A player is considered "inactive" if he has not played baseball for one year or has announced his retirement.
Stats updated through November 5, 2017.

text:
Rank
Player
K

1
Nolan Ryan †
5,714

2
Randy Johnson †
4,875

3
Roger Clemens
4,672

4
Steve Carlton †
4,136

5
Bert Blyleven †
3,701

6
Tom Seaver †
3,640

7
Don Sutton †
3,574

8
Gaylord Perry †
3,534

9
Walter Johnson †
3,508

10
Greg Maddux †
3,371

11
Phil Niekro †
3,342

12
Ferguson Jenkins †
3,192

13
Pedro Martínez †
3,154

14
Bob Gibson †
3,117

15
Curt Schilling
3,116

16
John Smoltz †
3,084

17
Jim Bunning †
2,855

18
CC Sabathia (120)
2,846

19
Mickey Lolich
2,832

20
Mike Mussina
2,813

21
Cy Young †
2,803

22
Frank Tanana
2,773

23
David Cone
2,668

24
Chuck Finley
2,610

25
Tom Glavine †
2,607

26
Warren Spahn †
2,583

27
Bob Feller †
2,581

28
Tim Keefe †
2,564

29
Jerry Koosman
2,556

30
Javier Vázquez
2,536

31
A. J. Burnett
2,513

32
Christy Mathewson †
2,507

33
Don Drysdale †
2,486

34
Jack Morris
2,478

text:
Rank
Player
K

35
Mark Langston
2,464

36
Jim Kaat
2,461

37
Bartolo Colón (89)
2,454

38
Sam McDowell
2,453

39
Andy Pettitte
2,448

40
Jamie Moyer
2,441

41
Luis Tiant
2,416

Justin Verlander (219)
2,416

43
Dennis Eckersley †
2,401

44
Kevin Brown
2,397

45
Sandy Koufax †
2,396

46
Charlie Hough
2,362

47
Robin Roberts †
2,357

48
Félix Hernández (78)
2,342

49
Early Wynn †
2,334

50
Rube Waddell †
2,316

51
Juan Marichal †
2,303

52
John Lackey (149)
2,294

53
Dwight Gooden
2,293

54
Lefty Grove †
2,266

55
Eddie Plank †
2,246

56
Tommy John
2,245

57
Zack Greinke (215)
2,236

58
Cole Hamels (105)
2,227

59
Jim Palmer †
2,212

60
Jake Peavy
2,207

61
David Wells
2,201

62
Grover Cleveland Alexander †
2,198

63
Vida Blue
2,175

64
Camilo Pascual
2,167

65
Tim Wakefield
2,156

66
Dennis Martínez
2,149

Max Scherzer (268)
2,149

68
Clayton Kershaw (202)
2,120

text:
Rank
Player
K

69
Roy Halladay
2,117

70
Kevin Millwood
2,083

71
Bobo Newsom
2,082

72
Tim Hudson
2,080

James Shields (103)
2,080

74
Ryan Dempster
2,075

75
Fernando Valenzuela
2,074

76
Dazzy Vance †
2,045

77
Jon Lester (180)
2,041

78
Rick Reuschel
2,015

79
Orel Hershiser
2,014

80
Dan Haren
2,013

81
Catfish Hunter †
2,012

82
Andy Benes
2,000

83
Billy Pierce
1,999

84
Kevin Appier
1,994

85
Johan Santana
1,988

86
Red Ruffing †
1,987

87
John Clarkson †
1,978

88
Liván Hernández
1,976

89
Al Leiter
1,974

90
Bob Welch
1,969

91
Kenny Rogers
1,968

92
Whitey Ford †
1,956

93
Bobby Witt
1,955

94
Amos Rusie †
1,950

95
Danny Darwin
1,942

96
Tom Gordon
1,928

97
Hideo Nomo
1,918

98
Jerry Reuss
1,907

99
Ervin Santana (167)
1,905

100
Josh Beckett
1,901