document_title: Inca Empire

question_text: what two important civilizations preceded the rise of the inca

question_tokens: what two important civilizations preceded the rise of the inca

text: Inca Empire

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu,[2] "the four suyu". In Quechua, tawa is four and -ntin is a suffix naming a group, so that a tawantin is a quartet, a group of four things taken together, in this case representing the four suyu ("regions" or "provinces") whose corners met at the capital. The four suyu were: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east; the Amazon jungle), Qullasuyu (south) and Kuntisuyu (west). The name Tawantinsuyu was, therefore, a descriptive term indicating a union of provinces. The Spanish transliterated the name as Tahuatinsuyo or Tahuatinsuyu.

text: The term Inka means "ruler" or "lord" in Quechua and was used to refer to the ruling class or the ruling family.[12] The Incas were a very small percentage of the total population of the empire, probably numbering only 15,000 to 40,000, but ruling a population of around 10 million persons.[13] The Spanish adopted the term (transliterated as Inca in Spanish) as an ethnic term referring to all subjects of the empire rather than simply the ruling class. As such the name Imperio inca ("Inca Empire") referred to the nation that they encountered and subsequently conquered.

text: History[edit]

text: Antecedents[edit]

text: The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilization. Andean civilization was one of five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine", that is indigenous and not derivative from other civilizations.[14]

text: The Inca Empire was preceded by two large-scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku (c. 300–1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca and the Wari or Huari (c. 600–1100 AD) centered near the present-day city of Ayacucho. The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures.[15]

text: Carl Troll has argued that the development of the Inca state in the central Andes was aided by conditions that allows for the elaboration of the staple food chuño. Chuño, which can be stored for long periods, is made of potato dried at the freezing temperatures that are common at nighttime in the southern Peruvian highlands. Such link between the Inca state and chuño may be questioned as potatoes and other crops such as maize can also be dried with only sunlight.[16] Troll did also argue that llamas, the Inca's pack animal, can be found in its largest numbers in this very same region.[16] It is worth considering the maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the greatest distribution of llamas and alpacas in Pre-Hispanic America.[17] The link between the Andean biomes of puna and páramo, pastoralism and the Inca state is a matter of research.[18] As a third point Troll pointed out irrigation technology as advantageous to the Inca state-building.[18] While Troll theorized environmental influences on the Inca Empire he opposed environmental determinism arguing that culture lay at the core of the Inca civilization.[18]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Incan oral history tells an origin story of three caves. The center cave at Tampu T'uqu (Tambo Tocco) was named Qhapaq T'uqu ("principal niche", also spelled Capac Tocco). The other caves were Maras T'uqu (Maras Tocco) and Sutiq T'uqu (Sutic Tocco).[19] Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco, Ayar Cachi, Ayar Awqa (Ayar Auca) and Ayar Uchu; and Mama Ocllo, Mama Raua, Mama Huaco and Mama Qura (Mama Cora). Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans.

text: Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama. When he went into the cave, they trapped him inside to get rid of him.

text: Ayar Uchu decided to stay on the top of the cave to look over the Inca people. The minute he proclaimed that, he turned to stone. They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object. Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone. Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained.

text: Finally, they reached Cusco. The staff sank into the ground. Before they arrived, Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco a child, Sinchi Roca. The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land, but Mama Huaca was a good fighter. When the enemy attacked, she threw her bolas (several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown) at a soldier (gualla) and killed him instantly. The other people became afraid and ran away.

text: After that, Ayar Manco became known as Manco Cápac, the founder of the Inca. It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands. When the time came, Manco Cápac turned to stone like his brothers before him. His son, Sinchi Roca, became the second emperor of the Inca.[20]

text: Kingdom of Cusco[edit]

text: Under the leadership of Manco Cápac, the Inca formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cusco (Quechua Qusqu', Qosqo). In 1438, they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti-Cusi Yupanqui, whose name literally meant "earth-shaker". The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the Tribe of Chancas (modern Apurímac). During his reign, he and his son Tupac Yupanqui brought much of the Andes mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control.[21]

text: Reorganization and formation[edit]

text: Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE).[22] Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station.[23]

text: Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on political organization, military strength and wealth. He then sent messages to their leaders extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects.

text: Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Refusal to accept Inca rule resulted in military conquest. Following conquest the local rulers were executed. The ruler's children were brought to Cusco to learn about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.

text: Expansion and consolidation[edit]

text: Traditionally the son of the Inca ruler led the army. Pachacuti's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti's death in 1471. Túpac Inca's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the Peruvian coast. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern-day Ecuador and Colombia.

text: Túpac Inca's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern-day Ecuador and in parts of Peru. At its height, the Inca Empire included Peru and Bolivia, most of what is now Ecuador and a large portion of what is today Chile, north of the Maule River. The advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche. The empire's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527.[24] The empire extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Qullasuyu, was located in the Altiplano.

text: The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote describes a method of taxation:

text: For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which was the Inca's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute.[25]

text: Inca Civil War and Spanish conquest[edit]

text: Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526.[26] It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land."[27]

text: When they returned to Peru in 1532, a war of succession between the sons of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa, and unrest among newly conquered territories weakened the empire. Perhaps more importantly, smallpox, influenza, typhus and measles had spread from Central America.

text: The forces led by Pizarro consisted of 168 men, one cannon, and 27 horses. Conquistadors ported lances, arquebuses, steel armor and long swords. In contrast, the Inca used weapons made out of wood, stone, copper and bronze, putting them at significant technological disadvantage. In addition, due to the absence of horses in the Americas, the Inca did not develop tactics to fight cavalry. However, the Inca were still effective warriors, being able to successfully fight the Mapuche, which later would strategically defeat the Spanish as they expanded further south.

text: The first engagement between the Inca and the Spanish was the Battle of Puná, near present-day Guayaquil, Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops, that were at the moment armed only with hunting tools (knives and lassos for hunting llamas).

text: Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde, met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. The Inca offered them ceremonial chicha in a golden cup, which the Spanish rejected. The Spanish interpreter, Friar Vincente, read the "Requerimiento" that demanded that he and his empire accept the rule of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Atahualpa dismissed the message and asked them to leave. After this, the Spanish began their attack against the mostly unarmed Inca, captured Atahualpa as hostage, and forced the Inca to collaborate.

text: Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huáscar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him, in August 1533.[28]

text: Although "defeat" often implies an unwanted loss in battle, much of the Inca elite "actually welcomed the Spanish invaders as liberators and willingly settled down with them to share rule of Andean farmers and miners."[29]

text: Last Incas[edit]

text: The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed.[30] This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state.

text: After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture.[31] Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims, sometimes brutally. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement.[citation needed]

text: The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Smallpox was only the first epidemic.[32] Other diseases, including a probable Typhus outbreak in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618, all ravaged the Inca people.

text: Society[edit]

text: Population[edit]

text: The number of people inhabiting Tawantinsuyu at its peak is uncertain, with estimates ranging from 4–37 million. Most population estimates are in the range of 6 to 14 million. In spite of the fact that the Inca kept excellent census records using their quipus, knowledge of how to read them was lost as almost all fell into disuse and disintegrated over time or were destroyed by the Spaniards.[33]

text: Language[edit]

text: The main form of communication and record-keeping in the empire were quipus, ceramics, textiles and various dialects of Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, including central Peru, for several centuries prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization, the dialect of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of "Southern Quechua" originally named Qhapaq Runasimi, or 'the great language of the people'), or what some historians define as the Cusco dialect.[34][35]

text: The language imposed by the Incas diverted from its original phonetics as some societies formed their own regional varieties. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come directly from the Incas, who were just a part of the reason for Quechua's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct from the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these dialects of Quechua had a similar linguistic structure, they differed according to the region in which they were spoken.[35]

text: Although many of the societies within the empire spoke or learned to speak Quechua, others continued to speak their original languages, such as Aymara, which remains in use in contemporary Bolivia, where it is the primary indigenous language and in various regions surrounding Bolivia. The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus varied. The Inca's impact outlasted their empire, as the Spanish continued the use of Quechua.[35]

text: The Incas were not known to develop a written form of communication; however, they visually recorded narratives through paintings on vases and cups (qirus).[36] These paintings are usually accompanied by geometric patterns known as toqapu, which are also found in textiles. Researchers have speculated that toqapu patterns could have served as a form of written communication (e.g.: heraldry, or glyphs), however this remains unclear.[37]

text: Marriage[edit]

text: In the Incan Empire, the age of marriage differed for men and women; men typically married at the age of 20, while women usually got married around 4 years earlier at the age of 16.[38] Men who were highly ranked in society could have multiple wives, but those lower in the ranks could only take a single wife.[39] Marriages were typically within classes and resembled a more business-like agreement. Once married, the women were expected to cook, collect food and watch over the children and livestock.[38] Girls and mothers would also work around the house to keep it orderly to please the public inspectors.[40] These duties remained the same even after wives became pregnant and with the added responsibility of praying and making offerings to Kanopa, who was the god of pregnancy.[38] It was typical for marriages to begin on a trial basis with both men and women having a say in the longevity of the marriage. If the man felt that it wouldn’t work out or if the woman wanted to return to her parent’s home the marriage would end. Once the marriage was final, the only way the two could be divorced was if they did not have a child together.[38]

text: Gender[edit]

text: The Inca called newborn infants wawa, a term that they also used for newborn animals. This term was used for all newborn beings without regard to their biological sex. Babies were not given human social status until they reached two or three years of age due to the high infant mortality rates. It was at this time that a ceremony was held called rutuchikuy in which the infant was given its first haircut, name and introduced to the extended family. Also in this ceremony, children advanced from the description of wawa to warma, a gender neutral term for a child who has not developed the language skill set. By the time children reached the age of seven, they had completed gender specific tasks and were referred to as gender specific terms, Thaski for girls and maqt’a for boys.[41]

text: Religion[edit]

text: Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records.[42]

text: The Inca believed in reincarnation.[43] After death, the passage to the next world was fraught with difficulties. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like an earthly paradise with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains.

text: It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world. Those who obeyed the Inca moral code – ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) – "went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth".[44] The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation.[45] They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form, thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes.

text: The Incas made human sacrifices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527.[46] The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine. These sacrifices were known as qhapaq hucha.[47]

text: Deities[edit]

text: The Incas were polytheists who attempted to please many gods. These included:

text:
Viracocha (also Pachacamac) – Created all living things
Apu Illapu – Rain God, prayed to when they need rain
Ayar Cachi – Hot-tempered God, causes earthquakes
Illapa – Goddess of lightning and thunder (also Yakumama water goddess)
Inti – sun god and patron deity of the holy city of Cusco (home of the sun)
Kuychi – Rainbow God, connected with fertility
Mama Killa – Wife of Inti, called Moon Mother
Mama Occlo – Wisdom to civilize the people, taught women to weave cloth and build houses
Manco Cápac – known for his courage and sent to earth to become first king of the Incas. Taught people how to grow plants, make weapons, work together, share resources and worship the Gods
Pachamama – The Goddess of earth and wife of Viracocha. People give her offerings of coca leaves and beer and pray to her for major agricultural occasions
Quchamama – Goddess of the sea
Sachamama – Means Mother Tree, goddess in the shape of a snake with two heads
Yakumama – Means mother Water. Represented as a snake. When she came to earth she transformed into a great river (also Illapa).

text: Economy[edit]

text: The Inca Empire employed central planning. The Inca Empire traded with outside regions, although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy. While axe-monies were used along the northern coast, presumably by the provincial mindaláe trading class,[48] most households in the empire lived in a traditional economy in which households were required to pay taxes, usually in the form of the mit'a corvée labor, and military obligations,[49] though barter (or trueque) was present in some areas.[50] In return, the state provided security, food in times of hardship through the supply of emergency resources, agricultural projects (e.g. aqueducts and terraces) to increase productivity and occasional feasts. The economy rested on the material foundations of the vertical archipelago, a system of ecological complementarity in accessing resources[51] and the cultural foundation of ayni, or reciprocal exchange.[52][53]

text: Government[edit]

text: Beliefs[edit]

text: The Sapa Inca was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. The Willaq Umu (or Chief Priest) was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the Peruvian coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, who placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister. He was "son of the sun," and his people the intip churin, or "children of the sun," and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically important festivals, notably during the Inti Raymi, or "warriors' cultivation," attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics and the general population of Cusco beginning on the June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca. Moreover, Cusco was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines and geographic center of the Four Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega called it "the navel of the universe".[54][55][56][57]

text: Organization of the empire[edit]

text: The Inca Empire was a federalist system consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four quarters, or suyu: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW) and Qulla Suyu (SE). The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cusco. These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent. At the time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes.[60]

text: Cusco was likely not organized as a wamani, or province. Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district, like Washington, D.C. or Mexico City. The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cusco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu, a term of esteem used for men of high status and for venerated mountains. Both Cusco as a district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions. As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani. However, colonial records allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani, with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on the coast.[61][62][63]

text: Suyu[edit]

text: The most populous suyu was Chinchaysuyu, which encompassed the former Chimu empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, it extended through much of modern Ecuador and into modern Colombia.

text: The largest suyu by area was Qullasuyu, named after the Aymara-speaking Qulla people. It encompassed the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, reaching Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in Central Chile.[58] Historian José Bengoa singled out Quillota as likely being the foremost Inca settlement in Chile.[64]

text: The second smallest suyu, Antisuyu, was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes. Its name is the root of the word "Andes."[65]

text: Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu, located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into the highlands towards Cusco.[66]

text: Laws[edit]

text: The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws. Customs, expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior. The state had legal force, such as through tokoyrikoq (lit. "he who sees all"), or inspectors. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relative to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence.[67]

text: The Inca had three moral precepts that governed their behavior:

text:
Ama sua: Do not steal
Ama llulla: Do not lie
Ama quella: Do not be lazy

text: Administration[edit]

text: Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure, such as exact duties and functions of government positions. But the basic structure can be broadly described. The top was the Sapa Inca. Below that may have been the Willaq Umu, literally the "priest who recounts", the High Priest of the Sun.[68] However, beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin, who was a confidant and assistant to the Sapa Inca, perhaps similar to a Prime Minister.[69] Starting with Topa Inca Yupanqui, a "Council of the Realm" was composed of 16 nobles: 2 from hanan Cusco; 2 from hurin Cusco; 4 from Chinchaysuyu; 2 from Cuntisuyu; 4 from Collasuyu; and 2 from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of the empire, both within Cusco and within the Quarters (hanan suyukuna and hurin suyukuna).[70]

text: While provincial bureaucracy and government varied greatly, the basic organization was decimal. Taxpayers – male heads of household of a certain age range – were organized into corvée labor units (often doubling as military units) that formed the state's muscle as part of mit'a service. Each unit of more than 100 tax-payers were headed by a kuraka, while smaller units were headed by a kamayuq, a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary and typically served for life, the position of a kuraka in the hierarchy was subject to change based on the privileges of superiors in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka could be appointed to the position by a waranqa kuraka. Furthermore, one kuraka in each decimal level could serve as the head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that a pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka, in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax-payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units.[71][72][73]

text:
Kuraka in Charge[74][75]
Number of Taxpayers

Hunu kuraka
10,000

Pichkawaranqa kuraka
5,000

Waranqa kuraka
1,000

Pichkapachaka kuraka
500

Pachaka kuraka
100

Pichkachunka kamayuq
50

Chunka kamayuq
10

text: Arts and technology[edit]

text: Monumental architecture[edit]

text:
We can assure your majesty that it is so beautiful and has such fine buildings that it would even be remarkable in Spain.
“
”

Francisco Pizarro

text: Architecture was the most important of the Incan arts, with textiles reflecting architectural motifs. The most notable example is Machu Picchu, which was constructed by Inca engineers. The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. These constructs have survived for centuries, with no use of mortar to sustain them.

text: This process was first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC–AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca and later in the city of Tiwanaku (ca. AD 400–1100) in present-day Bolivia. The rocks were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable, despite the ongoing challenge of earthquakes and volcanic activity.

text: Measures, calendrics and mathematics[edit]

text: Physical measures used by the Inca were based on human body parts. Units included fingers, the distance from thumb to forefinger, palms, cubits and wingspans. The most basic distance unit was thatkiy or thatki, or one pace. The next largest unit was reported by Cobo to be the topo or tupu, measuring 6,000 thatkiys, or about 7.7 km (4.8 mi); careful study has shown that a range of 4.0 to 6.3 km (2.5 to 3.9 mi) is likely. Next was the wamani, composed of 30 topos (roughly 232 km or 144 mi). To measure area, 25 by 50 wingspans were used, reckoned in topos (roughly 3,280 km2 or 1,270 sq mi). It seems likely that distance was often interpreted as one day's walk; the distance between tambo way-stations varies widely in terms of distance, but far less in terms of time to walk that distance.[76][77]

text: Inca calendars were strongly tied to astronomy. Inca astronomers understood equinoxes, solstices and zenith passages, along with the Venus cycle. They could not, however, predict eclipses. The Inca calendar was essentially lunisolar, as two calendars were maintained in parallel, one solar and one lunar. As 12 lunar months fall 11 days short of a full 365-day solar year, those in charge of the calendar had to adjust every winter solstice. Each lunar month was marked with festivals and rituals.[78] Apparently, the days of the week were not named and days were not grouped into weeks. Similarly, months were not grouped into seasons. Time during a day was not measured in hours or minutes, but in terms of how far the sun had travelled or in how long it had taken to perform a task.[79]

text: The sophistication of Inca administration, calendrics and engineering required facility with numbers. Numerical information was stored in the knots of quipu strings, allowing for compact storage of large numbers.[80][81] These numbers were stored in base-10 digits, the same base used by the Quechua language[82] and in administrative and military units.[72] These numbers, stored in quipu, could be calculated on yupanas, grids with squares of positionally varying mathematical values, perhaps functioning as an abacus.[83] Calculation was facilitated by moving piles of tokens, seeds or pebbles between compartments of the yupana. It is likely that Inca mathematics at least allowed division of integers into integers or fractions and multiplication of integers and fractions.[84]

text: According to mid-17th-century Jesuit chronicler Bernabé Cobo,[85] the Inca designated officials to perform accounting-related tasks. These officials were called quipo camayos. Study of khipu sample VA 42527 (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin)[86] revealed that the numbers arranged in calendrically significant patterns were used for agricultural purposes in the "farm account books" kept by the khipukamayuq (accountant or warehouse keeper) to facilitate the closing of accounting books.[87]

text: Ceramics, precious metals and textiles[edit]

text: Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, felines (popular in the Chavin culture) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics. In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including the smelting of metals, relationships and scenes of tribal warfare. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or "aryballos".[88] Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History.

text: Almost all of the gold and silver work of the Incan empire was melted down by the conquistadors.

text: Communication and medicine[edit]

text: The Inca recorded information on assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu, although they can no longer be decoded. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Quipus are also believed to record history and literature.[89]

text: The Inca made many discoveries in medicine.[90] They performed successful skull surgery, by cutting holes in the skull to alleviate fluid buildup and inflammation caused by head wounds. Many skull surgeries performed by Inca surgeons were successful. Survival rates were 80–90%, compared to about 30% before Inca times.[91]

text: Coca[edit]

text: The Incas revered the coca plant as sacred/magical. Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but were mostly used for religious and health purposes.[92] The Spaniards took advantage of the effects of chewing coca leaves.[92] The Chasqui, messengers who ran throughout the empire to deliver messages, chewed coca leaves for extra energy. Coca leaves were also used as an anaesthetic during surgeries.

text: Weapons, armor and warfare[edit]

text: The Inca army was the most powerful at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier. Every able bodied male Inca of fighting age had to take part in war in some capacity at least once and to prepare for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire reached its largest size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war.

text: The Incas had no iron or steel and their weapons were not much more effective than those of their opponents. They went into battle with drums beating and trumpets blowing. Their armor included:[citation needed]

text:
Helmets made of wood, copper, bronze, cane, or animal skin; some were adorned with feathers
Round or square shields made from wood or hide
Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect the spine.

text: The Inca weaponry included:

text:
Bronze[93]or bone-tipped spears
Clubs with stone and spiked metal[citation needed] heads
Woolen slings and stones
Stone or copper[citation needed][94] headed battle-axes
Bolas (stones fastened to lengths of cord)[95]

text: Roads allowed quick movement (on foot) for the Inca army and shelters called tambo and storage silos called qullqas were built one day's travelling distance from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord's Storehouse. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as they traveled.

text: Flag[edit]

text: Chronicles and references from the 16th and 17th centuries support the idea of a banner. However, it represented the Inca (emperor), not the empire.

text: Francisco López de Jerez[96] wrote in 1534:

text:
... todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos.
(... all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well-ordered as Turks.)

text: Chronicler Bernabé Cobo wrote:

text:
The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool cloth, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow and two parallel snakes along the width with the tassel as a crown, which each king used to add for a badge or blazon those preferred, like a lion, an eagle and other figures.
(... el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste y dos culebras tendidas a lo largo paralelas con la borda que le servía de corona, a las cuales solía añadir por divisa y blasón cada rey las que le parecía, como un león, un águila y otras figuras.)
-Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653)

text: Guaman Poma's 1615 book, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags.[97] In his 1847 book A History of the Conquest of Peru, "William H. Prescott ... says that in the Inca army each company had its particular banner and that the imperial standard, high above all, displayed the glittering device of the rainbow, the armorial ensign of the Incas."[98] A 1917 world flags book says the Inca "heir-apparent ... was entitled to display the royal standard of the rainbow in his military campaigns."[99]

text: In modern times the rainbow flag has been wrongly associated with the Tawantinsuyu and displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage by some groups in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco also flies the Rainbow Flag, but as an official flag of the city. The Peruvian president Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in Lima's presidential palace. However, according to Peruvian historiography, the Inca Empire never had a flag. Peruvian historian María Rostworowski said, "I bet my life, the Inca never had that flag, it never existed, no chronicler mentioned it".[100] Also, to the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio, the flag dates to the first decades of the 20th century,[101] and even the Congress of the Republic of Peru has determined that flag is a fake by citing the conclusion of National Academy of Peruvian History:

text:
"The official use of the wrongly called 'Tawantinsuyu flag' is a mistake. In the Pre-Hispanic Andean World there did not exist the concept of a flag, it did not belong to their historic context".[101]
National Academy of Peruvian History

text: Adaptations to altitude[edit]

text: Incas were able to adapt to their high-altitude living through successful acclimatization, which is characterized by increasing oxygen supply to the blood tissues. For the native Inca living in the Andean highlands, this was achieved through the development of a larger lung capacity, and an increase in red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentration, and capillary beds.[102]

text: Compared to other humans, the Incas had slower heart rates, almost one-third larger lung capacity, about 2 L (4 pints) more blood volume and double the amount of hemoglobin, which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. While the Conquistadors may have been slightly taller, the Inca had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude.


document_title: Met Gala

question_text: what was the theme fir the met gala

question_tokens: what was the theme fir the met gala

root

text: Met Gala

text: Details[edit]

text: Institute Gala is a major fundraising benefit that serves as an opening celebration for the Institute's annual fashion exhibit.[3][4] Following the event, the exhibition runs for several months. The 2014 exhibition was scheduled to run from May 8 until August 10, 2014.[5] The Gala is widely regarded as one of the most exclusive social events in New York and one of the biggest fundraising nights in the city with $9 million raised in 2013 and a record of $12 million the following year.[6][7][8][9] It is one of the most notable sources of funding for the Institute.[10] The affair, attended by personalities from the arts, fashion, high-society, film, and music, has been held at the Met since 1948[11] and is considered to be the fashion industry's premier annual red carpet event.[4][12][13][14][15][16] Its red carpet fashions are widely photographed, reviewed, critiqued, and emulated.[17][18][19][20] The museum is closed to the general public on the first Monday of May due to the gala occurring.[21]

tag: p

text: Anna Wintour, Vogue editor-in-chief and a chair of the event since 1995 (excluding 1996 and 1998), oversees both the benefit committee and the guest list, with Vogue staffers helping assemble the list of invitees.[2][13] According to Cathy Horyn of The New York Times, the gathering rivals the West Coast's Vanity Fair Oscar Party, which is said to have more "star power" but less fashion panache.[22] In 2014, the individual tickets cost $30,000 for those outside the official guest list, after prices were raised $10,000 to increase the exclusivity of the event.[23][13][24] The annual guest list includes only 650–700 people.[25][26]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Each year the event has a theme, and includes a cocktail hour and a formal dinner.[27][28] During the cocktail hour, guests arrive to walk on the red carpet, tour the year's special themed exhibition, and be seated before the dinner party that includes entertainment from the preeminent entertainers of the day.[26] The theme not only sets the tone for the annual exhibit, but also for the guests who attempt to dress to uphold the theme of the year, oftentimes causing runs on certain fashion themes among the world's leading fashion retailers.[29][30] Sometimes, such as in 2013, the theme is a bit befuddling because it does not provide a clear stylistic directive, while at other times, such as 2014 the theme may be far more challenging to one gender than the other.[31][32]

text:
1971–1972: Fashion Plate (October 1971 – January 1972)[33][34]
1972–1973: Untailored Garments (January–July 1972)[35][36]
1973–1974: The World of Balenciaga (March–September 1973)[37]
1974–1975: Romantic and Glamorous Hollywood Design (November 1974 – August 1975)[34][38]
1975–1976: American Women of Style (December 1975 – August 1976)[34][39]
1976–1977: The Glory of Russian Costume (December 1976 – August 1977)[34][40][41]
1977–1978: Vanity Fair: A Treasure Trove (December 1977– September 1978)[34][42]
1978–1979: Diaghilev: Costumes and Designs of the Ballets Russes (November 1978 – June 1979)[34]
1979–1980: Fashions of the Habsburg Era: Austria-Hungary (December 1979 – August 1980)[34][43]
1980–1981: The Manchu Dragon: Costumes of China, the Chi'ng Dynasty (December 1980 – August 1981)[34]
1981–1982: The Eighteenth-Century Woman (December 1981 – September 1982)[34][44][45]
1982–1983: La Belle Époque (December 1982 – September 1983)[34][46]
1983–1984: Yves Saint Laurent: 25 Years of Design (December 1983 – September 1984)[34][47]
1984–1985: Man and the Horse (December 1984 – September 1985)[34][48]
1985–1986: Costumes of Royal India (December 1985 – August 1986)[34][49]
1986–1987: Dance (December 1986 – September 1987)[34][50]
1987–1988: In Style: Celebrating Fifty Years of the Costume Institute (November 1987 – April 1988)[34][51]
1988–1989: From Queen to Empress: Victorian Dress 1837–1877 (December 1988 – April 1989)[34][52]
1989–1990: The Age of Napoleon: Costume from Revolution to Empire, 1789–1815 (December 1989 – April 1990)[34]
1990–1991: Théâtre de la Mode – Fashion Dolls: The Survival of Haute Couture (December 1990 – April 1991)[34]
1991–1992: Gala held, but no concurrent costume exhibition[53]
1992–1993: Fashion and History: A Dialogue (December 1992 – March 1993)[34][54]
1993–1994: Diana Vreeland: Immoderate Style (December 1993 – March 1994)[34][55]
1994–1995: Orientalism: Visions of the East in western dress (December 1994 – March 1995)[34][56][57]
1995–1996: Haute Couture (December 1995 – March 1996)[34][58]
1996–1997: Christian Dior (December 1996 – March 1997)[34][59][60]
1997–1998: Gianni Versace (December 1997 – March 1998)[34][61][62][63]
1998–1999: Cubism and Fashion (December 10, 1998 – March 14, 1999)[34][64]
1999–2000: Rock Style (December 9, 1999 – March 19, 2000)[34][65]
2000–2001: No costume exhibition gala presented[66]
2001: Jacqueline Kennedy: The White House Years (May 1 –July 29, 2001)[34][67]
2001–2002: No costume exhibition gala presented[66]
2003: Goddess: The Classical Mode (May 1 – August 3, 2003)[34][68]
2004: Dangerous Liaisons: Fashion and Furniture in the 18th Century (April 2?, –August 8, 2004)[34][69]
2005: The House of Chanel (May 5 –August 7, 2005)[34][70]
2006: AngloMania: Tradition and Transgression in British Fashion (May 3 –September 6, 2006)[34][71]
2007: Poiret: King of Fashion (May 9 –August 5, 2007)[34][72][73]
2008: Superheroes: Fashion and Fantasy (May 7 –September 1, 2008)[34][74][75]
2009: The Model As Muse: Embodying Fashion (May 6 –August 9, 2009)[34][76][77][78]
2010: American Woman: Fashioning a National Identity (May 5 –August 10, 2010)[34][79][80][81]
2011: Alexander McQueen: Savage Beauty (May 4 –August 7, 2011)[34][82][83][84]
2012: Schiaparelli and Prada: Impossible Conversations (May 10 –August 19, 2012)[85]
2013: Punk: Chaos to Couture (May 9 –August 14, 2013)[86][87]
2014: Charles James: Beyond Fashion (May 8 –August 10, 2014)[88][89][90]
2015: China: Through the Looking Glass (May 7 – September 7, 2015)[91]
2016: Manus x Machina: Fashion In An Age Of Technology[92]
2017: Rei Kawakubo/Comme des Garçons: Art of the In-Between[93]
2018: Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination (May 10–October 8, 2018)[94]

tag: ul

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Guo Pei gown displayed at "China: Through the Looking Glass" in 2015

Balenciaga dress with a Chinese floral motif

Savage Beauty exhibition

text: The 2015 Gala and its theme of "China: Through the Looking Glass" became the subject of a documentary—The First Monday in May' directed by Andrew Rossi produced by Condé Nast Entertainment, Vogue, and Relativity Studios.[95] 225 approved photographers, reporters, and social media participants documented the event for the documentary.[96] All other attendees were forbidden from using social media at the event.[97] Guests received notices about the restriction of selfies and social media inside the gala.[98] The no-selfie ordinance was extended to the following editions of the Met Gala.

text: Honorary Event Day Chairs[edit]

text: In addition to Wintour's role of chairing the whole event, there are annual chairs and co-chairs for the day of the event. The list of past honorary event day chairs includes the following:

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In 2015, the theme "China: Through the Looking Glass" was previously named "Chinese Whispers: Tales of the East in Art, Film and Fashion".[100] The same year's theme was met with critics saying it was "A reminder of the subtle institutionalised racism that's been compounded by centuries of Asian isolationism across the board, and enduring Western stereotypes exacerbated by ignorance and the meme-able nature of social media."[100]

text: In 2016, Madonna, whilst channeling the theme "Manus x Machina: Fashion in an Age of Technology", provided one of the most controversial outfits in the gala's history. She appeared in an ensemble designed by Givenchy creative director Riccardo Tisci exposing both her breasts and buttocks.[101] Madonna hit back on her official social media channels by stating "We have fought and continue to fight for civil rights and gay rights around the world. When it comes to women’s rights we are still in the dark ages. My dress at the Met Ball was a political statement as well as a fashion statement".[102]

text: The 2018 Gala had a Roman Catholic theme, and included Rihanna wearing a papal mitre. Critics on social media called it "blasphemous" and "sacrilegious cosplay", even though the Catholic Church lent more than forty papal vestments from the Vatican and Cardinal Timothy M. Dolan attended.[103][104] Kyle Smith argued that the Catholic Church was in fact "abetting the mockery of its symbols".[105] Catholic apologist Michael Voris has criticized Cardinal Dolan for attending the 2018 Met Gala.[106]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Borrelli-Persson, Laird. "A History of the Met Gala in 60 Seconds, Narrated by Vogue's Hamish Bowles". Vogue. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Costume Institute | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Whitworth, Melissa (2011-04-28). "Countdown to the Met Ball 2011". The Daily Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
^ Jump up to: a b "First Look: Inside the Met for Tonight's Costume Institute Gala". New York. May 2, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ "Charles James: Beyond Fashion: May 8 – August 10, 2014". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "YouTube". www.youtube.com.
Jump up ^ Bourne, Leah (May 5, 2011). "Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Met Gala (But Were Too Afraid To Ask)". NBC New York. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Anna Wintour 'Wants More Exclusivity' at the Met Ball – The Cut". Nymag.com. April 16, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Peter (May 4, 2010). "Top social ticket: NYC's Costume Institute gala". USA Today. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ The Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9781588394552.
Jump up ^ http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/curatorial-departments/the-costume-institute
Jump up ^ Trebay, Guy (November 25, 2003). "Final Splash For Publicist". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Charity Ball Game". New York. May 21, 2005. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ Vogel, Carol (December 15, 2008). "Brooklyn Museum's Costume Treasures Going to the Met". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Derschowitz, Jessica (April 9, 2013). "Beyonce named honorary chair for Costume Institute gala". CBS News. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Newly Slim Beyonce and Daring Racy in Lace Rihanna Turn Heads in Their Dramatic Gowns at Met Gala". Daily Mail. May 3, 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ Rodriguez, Leah (May 5, 2014). "See All the Looks From the 2014 Met Gala". New York. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Malle, Chloe. "Met Gala 2014: The 64 Best Dressed Celebrities". Vogue. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Oliver, Simone S. (May 6, 2014). "Beauty on the Met Gala Red Carpet". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Dee, Britteny (May 6, 2014). "Met Gala 2014 Theme: Ball Gowns That Would Make Charles James Proud". Fashion Times. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
Jump up ^ "The Met Fifth Avenue". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Horyn, Cathy (May 4, 2006). "Anna's Party: Silk, Satin and Pub Grub". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ Staff, AOL. "You can't afford to go to the Met Gala and you probably wouldn't get in even if you could".
Jump up ^ Gurfein, Laura (April 17, 2014). "Anna Wintour Raised Met Ball Ticket Prices, Wants 'Exclusivity' – That's a Spicy Met Ball! – Racked NY". Ny.racked.com. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Bourne, Leah (April 29, 2013). "10 Ways to Get Invited to the Met Gala". The Vivant. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Wild Bunch". Vogue: 110–32. July 2009.
Jump up ^ Levine, Joshua (March 24, 2011). "Anna Wintour's Brand Anna - WSJ.com". Online.wsj.com. Retrieved 2014-05-02.
Jump up ^ Cristobal, Sarah. "Salute to the King: The Haute Monde Descends on the Met to Celebrate Legendary Couturier Paul Poiret". Style.com. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
Jump up ^ "Revel, Revel". Vogue: 116–50. July 2011.
Jump up ^ Hyland, Véronique (May 1, 2014). "Men Are Freaking Out About What to Wear to the Met Ball". New York. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Costume Institute Calls for White Tie Dress Code at Gala". Women's Wear Daily. April 7, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Hyland, Véronique (April 7, 2014). "This Year's Met Ball Has Some Weird Dress-Code Requirements". New York. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Cavallo, Adolph S (October 1971). Stoddart, Katherine, ed. "Fashion Plate: An Opening Exhibition for the New Costume Institute" (PDF). The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. 30 (1): 5. doi:10.2307/3258574. Retrieved 2014-05-23. To salute the fashion industry of New York, whose tireless efforts and financial contributions were instrumental in making the new Costume Institute a reality, the Museum will present Fashion Plate in the Costume Institute in the fall of 1971...Fashion Plate will be the first of these gallery installations – the inaugural exhibition.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj "Museum Exhibitions 1870–2012" (PDF). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Costume Institute opens new exhibition" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. January 1972. Retrieved 2014-05-23. The Costume Institute of The Metropolitan Museum of Art opens its second exhibition on Wednesday, January 26. Entitled Untailored Garments it presents a diverse assemblage of clothing—mostly non-European in origin—which is folded and draped on the human body rather than cut and seamed.
Jump up ^ "Around Town:Museums". New York: 26. June 19, 1972. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Martin, Richard; Koda, Harold (1993). Diana Vreeland: Immoderate Style. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 15. ISBN 9780870996917. OCLC 29315100. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "In and Around Town:Museums". New York: 26. August 25, 1975. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "New Costume Institute exhibition, American women of style, to open at Metropolitan Museum December 13" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. December 1975. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Museum to Exhibit Old Russian Clothes". Palm Beach Daily News. November 9, 1975. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "History of Russian costume from the eleventh to the twentieth century : from the collections of the Arsenal Museum, Leningrad ; Hermitage, Leningrad ; Historical Museum, Moscow ; Kremlin Museums, Moscow ; Pavlovsk Museum / [catalogue compiled by T.S. Alyoshina, I.I. Vishnevskaya, L.V. Efimova, T.T. Korshunova. V.A. Malm, E. Yu. Moiseenko, M.M. Postnokova-Loseva, E.P. Chernukha]". Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Treasure trove of costumes". St. Petersburg Times. November 2, 1977. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Cone, Polly, ed. (1980). The Imperial Style: Fashions of the Hapsburg Era: Based on the Exhibition "Fashions of the Hapsburg era, Austria-Hungary" at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, December 1979 – August 1980. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870992325. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 8, 1981). "18th Century Sparks Gala Fashion Night". Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Leon Talley, Andre (December 6, 1981). "Vreeland's Show". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Duka, John (December 7, 1982). "La Belle Europe Reigns Again At Met Museum". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 6, 1983). "Gala Night at Met Hails Saint Laurent". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 4, 1984). "At Costume Institute Show, Equestrian is the Theme". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 10, 1985). "A Celebration of Royal India's Fashions". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 10, 1986). "Amid Costumes A Little Night Music". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 8, 1997). "Spectacular outfits abound at 15th annual costume gala". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 6, 1988). "Costume Show: Victorian Elegance". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "In Decked Halls, Wassails". New York Times. December 15, 1991. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Morris, Bernadine (December 8, 1992). "Review/Fashion; Costume Change At the Met". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "EVENING HOURS; The Ladies in Red". New York Times. December 12, 1993. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Orientalism: Visions of the East in Western Dress. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870997335.
Jump up ^ Dullea, Georgia (September 25, 1994). "Glamour Guys for the Ball". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Brozan, Nadine (October 9, 1995). "Chronicle". New York Times. Retrieved 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "USA: NEW YORK: CHRISTIAN DIOR'S COSTUME INSTITUTE GALA". Associated Press. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Brozan, Nadine (August 1, 1996). "Chronicle". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ DiGiacomo, Frank (December 15, 1997). "Inside the sold-out Costume Institute gala". New York. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Menkes, Suzy (December 9, 1997). "The Verve and Vivacity of Versace in Met Retrospective". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ C.R. White, Constance (December 11, 1997). "At the Met, a Golden Melting Pot". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "CUBISM AND FASHION" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. November 2, 1998. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "ROCK STYLE IS THEME FOR METROPOLITAN MUSEUM'S DECEMBER COSTUME INSTITUTE EXHIBITION" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. December 3, 1999. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Costume Institute Gala Returns". BizBash. July 31, 2002. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "JACQUELINE KENNEDY: THE WHITE HOUSE YEARS" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. November 13, 2000. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Goddess to be Theme of Costume Institute's Spring 2003 Exhibition and Gala at Metropolitan Museum" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2003. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b Menkes, Suzy (April 27, 2004). "Voluptuous lives, 'Dangerous Liaisons'". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Metropolitan Museum to Present Unprecedented Chanel Exhibition" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2005. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "AngloMania: Tradition and Transgression in British Fashion" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 22, 2006. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
^ Jump up to: a b ""Poiret: King of Fashion" at Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute to Celebrate Paul Poiret, Visionary Artist-Couturier of Early 20th Century" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 22, 2006. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ "Poiret's Descendents". runway.blogs.nytimes.com/. New York Times. May 8, 2007. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute Salutes Power of "Superheroes" Imagery in Fashion" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2008. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Eric (May 6, 2008). "Stars and Superheroes Sparkle at Museum Gala". New York Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Model as Muse Embodying Fashion". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute Explores Role of Fashion Models as Muses of Recent Eras" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 2009. Retrieved 2014-05-26.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Eric (May 4, 2009). "A Museum Gala Where High Cheekbones and Higher Hemlines Rule". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ ""American Woman: Fashioning a National Identity" at Metropolitan Museum to Open May 5, 2010; First Costume Institute Exhibition Based on Renowned Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 3, 2010. Retrieved 2014-05-25.
Jump up ^ Horyn, Cathy (May 3, 2010). "American Women on the March". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Menkes, Suzy (May 3, 2010). "Elegance Is the Norm at Costume Institute Gala". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alexander McQueen's Iconic Designs to be Celebrated in a Spring 2011 Costume Institute Retrospective". Metropolitan Museum of Art. February 1, 2010. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Menkes, Suzy (May 2, 2011). "Alexander McQueen in All His Dark Glory". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Forrester, Sharon. "Met Ball 2011". vogue.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Elsa Schiaparelli and Miuccia Prada's Impossible Conversations at Metropolitan Museum's Costume Institute" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 7, 2012. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Punk Fashion Is Focus of Costume Institute Exhibition at The Metropolitan Museum of Art" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. May 9, 2013. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Lisa (May 7, 2013). "Met Ball 2013: The Punk Parade". Telegraph. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Charles James: Beyond Fashion May 8 – August 10, 2014" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 10, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-23.
Jump up ^ Trebay, Guy (May 7, 2014). "Inside the Met Ball: Sculptures in Silk". New York Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
Jump up ^ Moore, Booth. "Met Costume Institute Gala: Beyond fashion indeed". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2014-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "China: Through the Looking Glass: Costume Institute's Spring 2015 Exhibition at Metropolitan Museum to Focus on Chinese Imagery in Art, Film, and Fashion" (Press release). New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. April 14, 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Manus x Machina: Fashion in an Age of Technology". New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2016-05-02. Retrieved 2016-05-03.
Jump up ^ "Costume Institute's Spring 2017 Exhibition at The Met to Focus on Rei Kawakubo and the Art of the In-Between". New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2016-10-21. Retrieved 2016-10-25.
Jump up ^ "Met Gala 2018 Theme Revealed: "Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination"" (Press release). New York: Vogue. November 8, 2017. Retrieved 2017-11-08.
Jump up ^ Chan, Stephanie (2015-04-16). "The Met Gala Is Getting the Documentary Treatment". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Vanessa (2015-05-02). "It's Called the Met Gala, but It's Definitely Anna Wintour's Party". The New York Times. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
Jump up ^ Chan, Stephanie (2015-05-01). "Met Gala: No Selfies Allowed". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2015-05-04.
Jump up ^ "Selfies Banned Inside Met Gala?!". Entertainment Tonight. Retrieved 2017-05-05.
Jump up ^ Borrelli-Person, Laird (November 8, 2017). "Amal Clooney, Rihanna, and Donatella Versace to Host 2018 Met Gala". Vogue. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "The China-Themed Met Gala Wasn't Totally Offensive, But Still Problematic". Complex AU. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ "Madonna's peek-a-boob Met Gala moment". NewsComAu. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ "Madonna slams 'ageist and sexist' Met Gala outfit critics". NewsComAu. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
Jump up ^ Quinn, Dave (8 May 2018). "The Met Gala's 'Catholic Imagination' Theme Called 'Blasphemous' and 'Sacrilegious' by Critics". People. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Syme, Rachel (8 May 2018). "Pope Rihanna and Other Revelations from the Catholic-Themed 2018 Met Gala". The New Yorker. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ Smith, Kyle (9 May 2018). "Red-Carpet Catholicism Is a Loss for the Church". National Review. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dolan Disgrace, Again". www.churchmilitant.com.

tag: ol


document_title: Luck

question_text: one of the characters in this story believes that luck is what causes you to have money

text: Luck

text: Etymology and definition[edit]

text: Look up luck in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

tag: table

text: The English noun luck appears comparatively late, during the 1480s, as a loan from Low German, Dutch or Frisian luk, a short form of gelucke (Middle High German gelücke). Compare to old Slavic word lukyj (лукый) - appointed by destiny and old Russian luchaj (лучаи) - destiny, fortune. It likely entered English as a gambling term, and the context of gambling remains detectable in the word's connotations; luck is a way of understanding a personal chance event. Luck has three aspects[3][4] which make it distinct from chance or probability.[5]

text:
Luck can be good or bad.[6]
Luck can be accident or chance.[7]
Luck applies to a sentient being.

text: Some examples of luck:

text:
You find a valuable object or money.
You win an event despite negative logical assumptions.
You correctly guess an answer to a quiz question.
You avoid an accident at the last moment.
You were born in a wealthy family.

text: Before the adoption of luck at the end of the Middle Ages, Old English and Middle English expressed the notion of "good fortune" with the word speed (Middle English spede, Old English spēd); speed besides "good fortune" had the wider meaning of "prosperity, profit, abundance"; it is not associated with the notion of probability or chance but rather with that of fate or divine help; a bestower of success can also be called speed, as in "Christ be our speed" (William Robertson, Phraseologia generalis, 1693).

text: The notion of probability was expressed by the Latin loanword chance, adopted in Middle English from the late 13th century, literally describing an outcome as a "falling" (as it were of dice), via Old French cheance from Late Latin cadentia "falling". Fortuna, the Roman goddess of fate or luck, was popular as an allegory in medieval times, and even though it was not strictly reconcilable with Christian theology, it became popular in learned circles of the High Middle Ages to portray her as a servant of God in distributing success or failure in a characteristically "fickle" or unpredictable way, thus introducing the notion of chance.

text: Interpretations[edit]

text: Luck is interpreted and understood in many different ways.

text: As lack of control[edit]

text: Luck refers to that which happens to a person beyond that person's control. This view incorporates phenomena that are chance happenings, a person's place of birth for example, but where there is no uncertainty involved, or where the uncertainty is irrelevant. Within this framework, one can differentiate between three different types of luck:

text:
Constitutional luck, that is, luck with factors that cannot be changed. Place of birth and genetic constitution are typical examples.
Circumstantial luck—with factors that are haphazardly brought on. Accidents and epidemics are typical examples.
Ignorance luck, that is, luck with factors one does not know about. Examples can be identified only in hindsight.

text: As a fallacy[edit]

text: Another view holds that "luck is probability taken personally." A rationalist approach to luck includes the application of the rules of probability and an avoidance of unscientific beliefs. The rationalist thinks that the belief in luck is a result of poor reasoning or wishful thinking. To a rationalist, a believer in luck who asserts that something has influenced his or her luck commits the "post hoc ergo propter hoc" logical fallacy: that because two events are connected sequentially, they are connected causally as well. In general:

text:
A happens (luck-attracting event or action) and then B happens;
Therefore, A influenced B.

text: More contemporary authors writing on the subject believe that the definition of good destiny is: One who enjoys good health; has the physical and mental capabilities of achieving his goals in life; has good appearance, and; has happiness in mind and is not prone to accidents.[8]

text: In the rationalist perspective, probability is only affected by confirmed causal connections.

text: The gambler's fallacy and inverse gambler's fallacy both explain some reasoning problems in common beliefs in luck. They involve denying the unpredictability of random events: "I haven't rolled a seven all week, so I'll definitely roll one tonight".

text: As an essence[edit]

text: There is also a series of spiritual, or supernatural beliefs regarding fortune. These beliefs vary widely from one to another, but most agree that luck can be influenced through spiritual means by performing certain rituals or by avoiding certain circumstances.

text: Luck can also be a belief in an organization of fortunate and unfortunate events. Luck is a form of superstition which is interpreted differently by different individuals. Carl Jung coined the term synchronicity, which he described as "a meaningful coincidence".

text: Abrahamic religions believe God controls future events; belief in luck or fate is criticised in Book of Isaiah chapter 65, verses 11-12:

text: What will happen to you for offering food and wine to the gods you call good luck and fate? Your luck will end.

text: Belief in the extent of Divine Providence varies; most acknowledge providence as at least a partial, if not complete influence on luck. Christianity, in its early development, accommodated many traditional practices which at different times, accepted omens and practiced forms of ritual sacrifice in order to divine the will of their supreme being or to influence divine favoritism. The concepts of "Divine Grace" or "Blessing" as they are described by believers closely resemble what is referred to as "luck" by others.

text: Mesoamerican religions, such as the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas, had particularly strong beliefs regarding the relationship between rituals and the gods, which could in a similar sense to Abrahamic religions be called luck or providence. In these cultures, human sacrifice (both of willing volunteers and captured enemies), as well as self-sacrifice by means of bloodletting, could possibly be seen as a way to propitiate the gods and earn favor for the city offering the sacrifice. An alternative interpretation[9] would be that the sacrificial blood was considered as a necessary element for the gods to maintain the proper working order of the universe, in the same way that oil would be applied to an automobile to keep it working as designed.

text: Many traditional African practices, such as voodoo and hoodoo, have a strong belief in superstition. Some of these religions include a belief that third parties can influence an individual's luck. Shamans and witches are both respected and feared, based on their ability to cause good or bad fortune for those in villages near them.

text: As a self-fulfilling prophecy[edit]

text: Some encourage the belief in luck as a false idea, but which may produce positive thinking, and alter one's responses for the better. Others, like Jean-Paul Sartre and Sigmund Freud, feel a belief in luck has more to do with a locus of control for events in one's life, and the subsequent escape from personal responsibility. According to this theory, one who ascribes their travails to "bad luck" will be found upon close examination to be living risky lifestyles. In personality psychology, people reliably differ from each other depending on four key aspects: beliefs in luck, rejection of luck, being lucky, and being unlucky.[10] People who believe in good luck are more optimistic, more satisfied with their lives, and have better moods.[10] If "good" and "bad" events occur at random to everyone, believers in good luck will experience a net gain in their fortunes, and vice versa for believers in bad luck. This is clearly likely to be self-reinforcing. Thus, a belief in good luck may actually be an adaptive meme.

text: Social aspects[edit]

text: Luck is an important factor in many aspects of society.

text: Games[edit]

text: A game may depend on luck rather than skill or effort. For example, chess does not involve any random factors such as throwing dice, while dominoes has the "luck of the draw" when selecting tiles. In poker, especially games with a communal board, pure luck may decide a winning hand. Luck in games involving chance is defined as the change in a player's equity after a random event such as a die roll or card draw.[11] Luck is positive (good luck) if the player's position is improved and negative (bad luck) if it is worsened. A poker player who is doing well (playing successfully, winning) is said to be "running good".[12] There is, currently, no academic research as to explain how some profitable players who ascribe their profitability to a mix of probability and chance understand luck in the game.

text: In baseball, it is unusual for the best team in the league to win the World Series.[citation needed] Experts from statisticians to oddsmakers say chance plays an unusually big part in the game, partly because play is spread out over such a large area.[citation needed] The game's complexity is also relevant: The scoring value of a base hit, for instance, depends largely on factors outside the hitter's control—namely the ability of the previous batters to get on base.

text: Lotteries[edit]

text: Many countries have a national lottery. Individual views of the chance of winning, and what it might mean to win, are largely expressed by statements about luck. For example, the winner was "just lucky" meaning they contributed no skill or effort.

text: Means of resolving issues[edit]

text: "Leaving it to chance" is a way of resolving issues. For example, flipping a coin at the start of a sporting event may determine who goes first.

text: Numerology[edit]

text: Most cultures consider some numbers to be lucky or unlucky. This is found to be particularly strong in Asian cultures, where the obtaining of "lucky" telephone numbers, automobile license plate numbers, and household addresses are actively sought, sometimes at great monetary expense. Numerology, as it relates to luck, is closer to an art than to a science, yet numerologists, astrologists or psychics may disagree. It is interrelated to astrology, and to some degree to parapsychology and spirituality and is based on converting virtually anything material into a pure number, using that number in an attempt to detect something meaningful about reality, and trying to predict or calculate the future based on lucky numbers. Numerology is folkloric by nature and started when humans first learned to count. Through human history it was, and still is, practiced by many cultures of the world from traditional fortune-telling to on-line psychic reading.

text: See: Triskaidekaphobia.

text: Science[edit]

text: Different thinkers like Thomas Kuhn have discussed the role of chance in scientific discoveries. Richard Wiseman did a ten-year scientific study into the nature of luck that has revealed that, to a large extent, people make their own good and bad fortune. His research revealed that "Lucky people generate their own good fortune via four basic principles. They are skilled at creating and noticing chance opportunities, making lucky decisions by listening to their intuition, creating self-fulfilling prophecies via positive expectations, and adopting a resilient attitude that transforms bad luck into good."[13] Researchers have suggested that good luck and good mood often co-occur (Duong & Ohtsuka, 2000)[14] and that lucky people are happy and optimistic whereas unlucky people feel anxious and depressed (Day & Maltby, 2003; Wiseman, 2003).[13][15]

text: Although previous studies have explored the antecedences and consequences of luck using attribution theory (e. g., Fischoff, 1976; Weiner et al., 1987),[16][17] personality variables (Darke & Freedman, 1997a;b),[18] and more recently a cognitive priming approach (DeMarree et al., 2005; Kramer & Block, 2008) research on the underlying mechanism of how luck influences consumer judgment and behavior has been noticeably absent in the extant literature. Moreover, in much of this previous work, luck is manipulated in a way that is very likely to elicit positive affect as well. Thus, it is difficult to articulate whether the observed effects of luck are due to chronic beliefs about luck, temporary changes in how lucky people feel, or because of changes caused by the positive affect that is experienced. Their research showed that priming participants subliminally with luck-related stimuli made them feel luckier and happier. It was also found that the effects of priming luck using subliminal messages increased participants' estimates of the likelihood of favorable events, their participation in lotteries, the amount of money they invested in relatively risky financial options and these effects appeared to be mediated by temporary changes in perceptions of luck rather than by affect).[19][20]

text: In religion and mythology[edit]

text: Buddhism[edit]

text: Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, taught his followers not to believe in luck. He taught that all things which happen must have a cause, either material or spiritual, and do not occur due to luck, chance or fate. The idea of moral causality, karma (Pali: kamma), is central in Buddhism. In the Sutta Nipata, the Buddha is recorded as having said the following about selling luck:

text: Whereas some religious men, while living of food provided by the faithful make their living by such low arts, such wrong means of livelihood as palmistry, divining by signs, interpreting dreams ... bringing good or bad luck ... invoking the goodness of luck ... picking the lucky site for a building, the monk Gautama refrains from such low arts, such wrong means of livelihood. D.I, 9–12[21]

text: However, belief in luck is prevalent in many predominantly Buddhist countries. In Thailand, Buddhists may wear verses (takrut) or lucky amulets which have been blessed by monks for protection against harm.[22]

text: Christianity and Judaism[edit]

text: Proverbs 16:33 states "the lot is cast into the lap, but the whole disposing thereof is of the Lord". Ecclesiastes 9:11 states: "chance happeneth to them all". Proverbs 16:33 would indicate that something as random as the rolling of dice or the tossing of a coin is not outside of God’s sovereign control. And, therefore, its results are not merely of chance.

text: God’s sovereignty involves two aspects. God’s active will or sovereignty would involve something He causes to happen such as the leading of wicked King Ahab into battle (2 Chronicles 18:18-19). Ahab’s death was not merely the result of a randomly shot arrow, but as 2 Chronicles 18 reveals, God actively directed the events that led Ahab into battle and used that randomly shot arrow to accomplish His intended will for Ahab that day.

text: God’s passive will involves Him allowing, rather than causing, something to happen. Chapter1 of the book of Job illustrates this in what God allowed Satan to do in the life of Job. It is also involved in the evil that God allowed Joseph’s brothers to do to Joseph in order to accomplish a greater good, a good not apparent to Joseph until years later (Genesis 50:20).

text: Hinduism[edit]

text: In Hinduism it is said that by proper worship, with a meticulous prayer procedure (Sanskrit: Shri Lakshmi Sahasranam Pujan Vidhi) the blessings of Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of money and fortune, may be obtained. Lakshmi Parayan (prayer) is performed in most Hindu homes on the day of Diwali, the festival of lights. At that time also Rangoli are drawn, decorative designs on floors of living rooms and courtyards during Hindu festivals that are meant as a sacred welcoming area for the luck.

text: Islam[edit]

text: There is no concept of luck in Islam other than actions determined by Allah based on the merit of the choice made by human beings. It is stated in the Qur'an (Sura: Adh-Dhariyat (The Wind that Scatter) verse:22) that one's sustenance is pre-determined in heaven when the Lord says: "And in the heaven is your provision and that which ye are promised." However, one should supplicate towards Allah to better one's life rather than hold faith in un-Islamic acts such as using "lucky charms". However, in Arabic language there is a word which directly means "luck", which is حظ ḥaẓẓ, and a related word for "lucky", محظوظ maḥẓūẓ. It is also forbidden to believe in luck or anything else related to luck, as it is classified as shirk (associating partners of Allah or giving any share of any attribution which belongs to Allah and Allah alone).

text: The Tunisians retain some native beliefs of Berber origin such as the evil eye.[23] A number of practices, such as shutters painted blue are also used to repel evil spirits.[24]

text: International "good luck" greetings[edit]

text:
Arabic: حظا سعيدا!
Bengali: ভাগ্য আপনার সহায় হোক!
Catalan: Bona sort!
Balochi: وش بخت بیبے
Brahui: خوئش بخت مریس
Chinese: 祝你好运！
Dutch: Veel geluk!
English: Good luck![25]
German: Viel Glück!
Greek: Καλή τύχη!
French: Bonne chance!
Indonesian: Semoga beruntung!
Italian: Buona Fortuna!
Japanese: 頑張って！
Korean: 행운을 빌어 요!
Persian: موفق باشید!
Polish: Powodzenia
Portuguese: Boa sorte!
Romanian: Noroc bun
Russian: Удачи! (Udachi!)
Serbian: Срећно (Srećno)
Sinhalese: වාසනා වේවා
Spanish: ¡Buena suerte!
Swedish: Lycka till!
Turkish: İyi şanslar!
Vietnamese: Chúc may mắn!

text: In fiction[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Donald Duck's cousin Gladstone Gander, created by Carl Barks in 1948, is known for his extreme good fortune that causes him to be given anything he wants without any effort. There have been different versions how he got so lucky, Carl Barks tells in his story Luck of the North that Gladstone was born under a lucky star, while Don Rosa tells that he inherited his luck from his mother, who got it from a distelfink symbol when she was born. In many Italian comics, Gladstone is extremely lucky because the goddess Fortuna is in love with him.
In Larry Niven's novel Ringworld, the character Teela Brown was the incredibly lucky result of a centuries-long breeding program initiated by the alien Pierson's Puppeteers directed to just such an outcome. The consequence of her state was that she had led such a charmed and worry-free life that she was emotionally immature and unprepared for "harsh reality."
The premise of the 2001 Spanish thriller film Intacto is that luck can be amassed and transferred as any other commodity and fortune flows from those who have less to those who have more.
In J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Harry drinks a potion called Felix Felicis, also known as 'Liquid Luck'. It makes the drinker lucky for a period of time, during which everything they attempt will have an extremely good chance of being successful.
While the video game Fallout: New Vegas depicts Luck as a statistic (one of seven that define characters), one character offers an implant called a Probability Calculator. Its effect is similar to that described in Science above, allowing its recipient to understand probabilities better. Notably, one of the major non-player characters, Robert House, has a perfect luck score, and in-story had done everything from calculating the date of a nuclear war (being off by mere hours) and taking control of a 'vault' fallout shelter in a game of chance.
In the Danganronpa franchise, Makoto Naegi, Nagito Komaeda, and Izuru Kamukura all possess a talent which grants them uncommonly good fortune and therefore were given the title of "Ultimate Lucky Student."


document_title: Trafalgar Square Christmas tree

question_text: why does norway give london a tree at christmas

text: Trafalgar Square Christmas tree

text: History[edit]

text: The Trafalgar Square Christmas tree has been an annual gift to the people of Britain by the city of Oslo as a token of gratitude for British support to Norway during the Second World War.[2]

text: The tree has provided a central focus for the Trafalgar Square traditional carol-singing programme, performed by different groups raising money for voluntary or charitable organisations.

text: The tree remains until just before the Twelfth Night of Christmas, when it is taken down for recycling. The tree is chipped and composted, to make mulch.[3]

text: Tree[edit]

text: The Trafalgar Square Christmas tree is typically a 50- to 60-year-old Norway spruce, generally over 20 metres tall.[3] The tree is cut in Norway sometime in November during a ceremony attended by the British Ambassador to Norway, Mayor of Oslo, and Lord Mayor of Westminster.[3] After the tree is cut, it is shipped to the UK by boat across the sea.[3] At one time it was shipped to Felixstowe free of charge by a cargo ship of the Fred Olsen Line.[1] As of at least 2007, the tree was shipped across the North Sea to Immingham by DFDS Tor Line.[4] From 2003, it has been the responsibility of Beck & Pollitzer Ltd. to transport, guard and erect the tree in Trafalgar Square.[citation needed]

text: The Trafalgar Square tree is decorated in a traditional Norwegian style and adorned with 500 white lights.[5] In 2008, the tree utilised low-wattage halogen bulbs which used 3.5 kW of power.[5]

text: At the base of the tree stands a plaque, bearing the words:

text:
This tree is given by the city of Oslo as a token of Norwegian gratitude to the people of London for their assistance during the years 1940-45.

A tree has been given annually since 1947.

text: Lighting ceremony and carolling[edit]

text: The tree lighting ceremony in Trafalgar Square takes place on the first Thursday in December and is attended by thousands of people.[4] The ceremony, led by the Lord Mayor of Westminster, includes a band and choir followed by the switching on of the Christmas lights.[4]

text: Traditionally, the tree provides a focal point for Christmas carolling groups.[1] For many in London, the tree and the accompanying carolling signals the countdown to Christmas.[3]

text: Since 2009, the Poetry Society has commissioned new poems annually for display on banners around the base of the tree. In 2010, schoolchildren also performed one of the poems at the lighting-up ceremony.[6]

text: On November 6th 2016 a children's book called "The Troll of Trafalgar Square" was published by Author Fiona Scott who grew up in London. It was launched in Waterstones book shop in Trafalgar Square.