document_title: English Renaissance theatre

question_text: when did plays take place in elizabethan theatres

text: English Renaissance theatre

text: Background[edit]

text: The term English Renaissance theatre encompasses the period between 1562—following a performance of Gorboduc, the first English play using blank verse, at the Inner Temple during the Christmas season of 1561—and the ban on theatrical plays enacted by the English Parliament in 1642.

text: The phrase Elizabethan theatre is sometimes used, improperly, to mean English Renaissance theatre, although in a strict sense "Elizabethan" only refers to the period of Queen Elizabeth's reign (1558–1603). English Renaissance theatre may be said to encompass Elizabethan theatre from 1562 to 1603, Jacobean theatre from 1603 to 1625, and Caroline theatre from 1625 to 1642.

text: Along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed towards the end of the period. Under Elizabeth, the drama was a unified expression as far as social class was concerned: the Court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public playhouses. With the development of the private theatres, drama became more oriented towards the tastes and values of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign of Charles I, few new plays were being written for the public theatres, which sustained themselves on the accumulated works of the previous decades.[1]

text: Sites of dramatic performance[edit]

text: Grammar schools[edit]

text: The English grammar schools, like those on the continent, placed special emphasis on the trivium: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Though rhetorical instruction was intended as preparation for careers in civil service such as law, the rhetorical canons of memory (memoria) and delivery (pronuntiatio), gesture and voice, as well as exercises from the progymnasmata, such as the prosopopoeia, taught theatrical skills.[2][3] Students would typically analyze Latin and Greek texts, write their own compositions, memorize them, and then perform them in front of their instructor and their peers.[4] Records show that in addition to this weekly performance, students would perform plays on holidays,[5] and in both Latin and English.[6]

text: Choir schools[edit]

text: Choir schools connected with the Elizabethan court included St. George’s Chapel, the Chapel Royal, and St. Paul’s.[7] These schools frequently performed plays and other court entertainments for the Queen.[8] Between the 1560s and 1570s these schools had begun to perform for general audiences as well.[9] Playing companies of boy actors were derived from choir schools.[10] An earlier example of a playwright contracted to write for the children's companies is John Lyly, who wrote Gallathea, Endymion, and Midas for Paul’s Boys.[11] Another example is Ben Jonson, who wrote Cynthia’s Revels.[12]

text: Universities[edit]

text: Academic drama stems from late medieval and early modern practices of miracles and morality plays as well as the Feast of Fools and the election of a Lord of Misrule.[13] The Feast of Fools includes mummer plays.[14] The universities, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, were attended by students studying for bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, followed by doctorates in Law, Medicine, and Theology.[15] In the 1400s, dramas were often restricted to mummer plays with someone who read out all the parts in Latin.[16] With the rediscovery and redistribution of classical materials during the English Renaissance, Latin and Greek plays began to be restaged.[17] These plays were often accompanied by feasts.[18] Queen Elizabeth I viewed dramas during her visits to Oxford and Cambridge.[19] A well-known play cycle which was written and performed in the universities was the Parnassus Plays.[13]

text: Inns of Court[edit]

text: Upon graduation, many university students, especially those going into law, would reside and participate in the Inns of Court. The Inns of Court were communities of working lawyers and university alumni.[20] Notable literary figures and playwrights who resided in the Inns of Court include John Donne, Francis Beaumont, John Marston, Thomas Lodge, Thomas Campion, Abraham Fraunce, Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Thomas More, Sir Francis Bacon, and George Gascoigne.[21][22] Like the university, the Inns of Court elected their own Lord of Misrule.[23] Other activities included participation in moot court, disputation, and masques.[23][22] Plays written and performed in the Inns of Court include Gorboduc, Gismund of Salerne, and The Misfortunes of Arthur.[22] An example of a famous masque put on by the Inns was James Shirley’s The Triumph of Peace. Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors and Twelfth Night were also performed here, although written for commercial theater.[24]

text: Masques[edit]

text: Establishment of playhouses[edit]

text: The first permanent English theatre, the Red Lion, opened in 1567[25] but it was a short-lived failure. The first successful theatres, such as The Theatre, opened in 1576.

text: The establishment of large and profitable public theatres was an essential enabling factor in the success of English Renaissance drama. Once they were in operation, drama could become a fixed and permanent, rather than transitory, phenomenon. Their construction was prompted when the Mayor and Corporation of London first banned plays in 1572 as a measure against the plague, and then formally expelled all players from the city in 1575.[26] This prompted the construction of permanent playhouses outside the jurisdiction of London, in the liberties of Halliwell/Holywell in Shoreditch and later the Clink, and at Newington Butts near the established entertainment district of St. George's Fields in rural Surrey.[26] The Theatre was constructed in Shoreditch in 1576 by James Burbage with his brother-in-law John Brayne (the owner of the unsuccessful Red Lion playhouse of 1567)[27] and the Newington Butts playhouse was set up, probably by Jerome Savage, some time between 1575[28] and 1577.[29] The Theatre was rapidly followed by the nearby Curtain Theatre (1577), the Rose (1587), the Swan (1595), the Globe (1599), the Fortune (1600), and the Red Bull (1604).[a]

text: Playhouse architecture[edit]

text: Archaeological excavations on the foundations of the Rose and the Globe in the late 20th century showed that all the London theatres had individual differences, but their common function necessitated a similar general plan.[30] The public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. Usually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect, although the Red Bull and the first Fortune were square. The three levels of inward-facing galleries overlooked the open centre, into which jutted the stage: essentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the audience. The rear side was restricted for the entrances and exits of the actors and seating for the musicians. The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony, as in Romeo and Juliet and Antony and Cleopatra, or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd, as in Julius Caesar.[31]

text: The playhouses were generally built with timber and plaster. Individual theatre descriptions give additional information about their construction, such as flint stones being used to build the Swan. Theatres were also constructed to be able to hold a large number of people.[32]

text: A different model was developed with the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into regular use on a long-term basis in 1599.[b] The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the earlier theatres and roofed rather than open to the sky. It resembled a modern theatre in ways that its predecessors did not. Other small enclosed theatres followed, notably the Whitefriars (1608) and the Cockpit (1617). With the building of the Salisbury Court Theatre in 1629 near the site of the defunct Whitefriars, the London audience had six theatres to choose from: three surviving large open-air public theatres—the Globe, the Fortune, and the Red Bull—and three smaller enclosed private theatres: the Blackfriars, the Cockpit, and the Salisbury Court.[c] Audiences of the 1630s benefited from a half-century of vigorous dramaturgical development; the plays of Marlowe and Shakespeare and their contemporaries were still being performed on a regular basis, mostly at the public theatres, while the newest works of the newest playwrights were abundant as well, mainly at the private theatres.[citation needed]

text: Audiences[edit]

text: Around 1580, when both the Theatre and the Curtain were full on summer days, the total theatre capacity of London was about 5000 spectators. With the building of new theatre facilities and the formation of new companies, London's total theatre capacity exceeded 10,000 after 1610.[33]

text: Ticket prices in general varied during this time period. The cost of admission was based on where in the theatre a person wished to be situated, or based on what a person could afford. If people wanted a better view of the stage or to be more separate from the crowd, they would pay more for their entrance. Due to inflation that occurred during this time period, admission increased in some theatres from a penny to a sixpence or even higher.[34]

text: Commercial theaters were largely located just outside the boundaries of the City of London, since City authorities tended to be wary of the adult playing companies, but plays were performed by touring companies all over England.[35] English companies even toured and performed English plays abroad, especially in Germany and in Denmark.[36][d]

text: Performances[edit]

text: The acting companies functioned on a repertory system: unlike modern productions that can run for months or years on end, the troupes of this era rarely acted the same play two days in a row. Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess ran for nine straight performances in August 1624 before it was closed by the authorities; but this was due to the political content of the play and was a unique, unprecedented, and unrepeatable phenomenon. The 1592 season of Lord Strange's Men at the Rose Theatre was far more representative: between 19 February and 23 June the company played six days a week, minus Good Friday and two other days. They performed 23 different plays, some only once, and their most popular play of the season, The First Part of Hieronimo, based on Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy, 15 times. They never played the same play two days in a row, and rarely the same play twice in a week.[38][e] The workload on the actors, especially the leading performers like Richard Burbage or Edward Alleyn, must have been tremendous.

text: One distinctive feature of the companies was that they included only males. Female parts were played by adolescent boy players in women's costume. Some companies were composed entirely of boy players.[f] Performances in the public theatres (like the Globe) took place in the afternoon with no artificial lighting, but when, in the course of a play, the light began to fade, candles were lit.[41] In the enclosed private theatres (like the Blackfriars) artificial lighting was used throughout. Plays contained little to no scenery as the scenery was described by the actors or indicated by costume through the course of the play.[42]

text: In the Elizabethan era, research has been conclusive about how many actors and troupes there were in the 16th century, but little research delves into the roles of the actors on the English renaissance stage. The first point is that during the Elizabethan era, women were not allowed to act on stage. The actors were all male; in fact, most were boys. For plays written that had male and female parts, the female parts were played by the youngest boy players.[43]

text: In Elizabethan entertainment, troupes were created and they were considered the actor companies. They traveled around England as drama was the most entertaining art at the time. As a boy player, many skills had to be implemented such as voice and athleticism (fencing was one).[43] Stronger female roles in tragedies were acted by older boy players because they had the experience.[43]

text: Elizabethan actors never played the same show on successive days and added a new play to their repertoire every other week. These actors were getting paid within these troupes so for their job, they would constantly learn new plays as they toured different cities in England. In these plays, there were bookkeepers that acted as the narrators of these plays and they would introduce the actors and the different roles they played. At some points, the bookkeeper wouldn’t state the narrative of the scene, so the audience could find out for themselves. In Elizabethan and Jacobean plays, the plays often exceeded the number of characters/roles and didn’t have enough actors to fulfill them, thus the idea of doubling roles came to be.[44] Doubling roles is used to reinforce a plays theme by having the actor act out the different roles simultaneously.[45] The reason for this was for the acting companies to control salary costs, or to be able to perform under conditions where resources such as other actor companies lending actors were not present.[45]

text: There are two acting styles implemented. Formal and natural. Formal acting is objective and traditional, natural acting attempts to create an illusion for the audience by remaining in character and imitating the fictional circumstances. The formal actor symbolizes while the natural actor interprets. The natural actor impersonates while the formal actor represents the role. Natural and formal are opposites of each other, where natural acting is subjective. Overall, the use of these acting styles and the doubled roles dramatic device made Elizabethan plays very popular.[46]

text: Costumes[edit]

text: One of the main uses of costume during the Elizabethan era was to make up for the lack of scenery, set, and props on stage. It created a visual effect for the audience, and it was an integral part of the overall performance.[47] Since the main visual appeal on stage were the costumes, they were often bright in colour and visually entrancing. Colours symbolized social hierarchy, and costumes were made to reflect that. For example, if a character was royalty, their costume would include purple. The colours, as well as the different fabrics of the costumes, allowed the audience to know the status of each character when they first appeared on stage.[48]

text: Costumes were collected in inventory. More often than not, costumes wouldn't be made individually to fit the actor. Instead, they would be selected out of the stock that theatre companies would keep. A theatre company reused costumes when possible and would rarely get new costumes made. Costumes themselves were expensive, so usually players wore contemporary clothing regardless of the time period of the play. The most expensive pieces were given to higher class characters because costuming was used to identify social status on stage. The fabrics within a playhouse would indicate the wealth of the company itself. The fabrics used the most were: velvet, satin, silk, cloth-of-gold, lace, and ermine.[49] For less significant characters; actors would use their own clothes.

text: Actors also left clothes in their will for following actors to use. Masters would also leave clothes for servants in their will, but servants weren’t allowed to wear fancy clothing, instead, they sold the clothes back to theatre companies.[48] In the Elizabethan era, there was a law stating that certain classes could only wear clothing fitting of their status in society. There was a discrimination of status within the classes. Higher classes flaunted their wealth and power through the appearance of clothing, however, actors were the only exception. If actors belonged to a licensed acting company, they were allowed to dress above their standing in society for specific roles in a production.[50]

text: Playwrights[edit]

text: The growing population of London, the growing wealth of its people, and their fondness for spectacle produced a dramatic literature of remarkable variety, quality, and extent. Although most of the plays written for the Elizabethan stage have been lost, over 600 remain.

text: The people who wrote these plays were primarily self-made men from modest backgrounds.[g] Some of them were educated at either Oxford or Cambridge, but many were not. Although William Shakespeare and Ben Jonson were actors, the majority do not seem to have been performers, and no major author who came on to the scene after 1600 is known to have supplemented his income by acting. Their lives were subject to the same levels of danger and earlier mortality as all who lived during the early modern period: Christopher Marlowe was killed in an apparent tavern brawl, while Ben Jonson killed an actor in a duel. Several were probably soldiers.

text: Playwrights were normally paid in increments during the writing process, and if their play was accepted, they would also receive the proceeds from one day's performance. However, they had no ownership of the plays they wrote. Once a play was sold to a company, the company owned it, and the playwright had no control over casting, performance, revision, or publication.

text: The profession of dramatist was challenging and far from lucrative.[52] Entries in Philip Henslowe's Diary show that in the years around 1600 Henslowe paid as little as £6 or £7 per play. This was probably at the low end of the range, though even the best writers could not demand too much more. A playwright, working alone, could generally produce two plays a year at most. In the 1630s Richard Brome signed a contract with the Salisbury Court Theatre to supply three plays a year, but found himself unable to meet the workload. Shakespeare produced fewer than 40 solo plays in a career that spanned more than two decades: he was financially successful because he was an actor and, most importantly, a shareholder in the company for which he acted and in the theatres they used. Ben Jonson achieved success as a purveyor of Court masques, and was talented at playing the patronage game that was an important part of the social and economic life of the era. Those who were purely playwrights fared far less well: the biographies of early figures like George Peele and Robert Greene, and later ones like Brome and Philip Massinger, are marked by financial uncertainty, struggle, and poverty.

text: Playwrights dealt with the natural limitation on their productivity by combining into teams of two, three, four, and even five to generate play texts. The majority of plays written in this era were collaborations, and the solo artists who generally eschewed collaborative efforts, like Jonson and Shakespeare, were the exceptions to the rule. Dividing the work, of course, meant dividing the income; but the arrangement seems to have functioned well enough to have made it worthwhile. Of the 70-plus known works in the canon of Thomas Dekker, roughly 50 are collaborations. In a single year (1598) Dekker worked on 16 collaborations for impresario Philip Henslowe, and earned £30, or a little under 12 shillings per week—roughly twice as much as the average artisan's income of 1s. per day.[53] At the end of his career, Thomas Heywood would famously claim to have had "an entire hand, or at least a main finger" in the authorship of some 220 plays. A solo artist usually needed months to write a play (though Jonson is said to have done Volpone in five weeks); Henslowe's Diary indicates that a team of four or five writers could produce a play in as little as two weeks. Admittedly, though, the Diary also shows that teams of Henslowe's house dramatists—Anthony Munday, Robert Wilson, Richard Hathwaye, Henry Chettle, and the others, even including a young John Webster—could start a project, and accept advances on it, yet fail to produce anything stageworthy.[54]

text: Timeline[edit]

text: English Renaissance Playwrights Timeline

text: Short yellow lines indicate 27 years — the average age these authors began their playwrighting careers.

text: Genres[edit]

text: Genres of the period included the history play, which depicted English or European history. Shakespeare's plays about the lives of kings, such as Richard III and Henry V, belong to this category, as do Christopher Marlowe's Edward II and George Peele's Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First. History plays dealt with more recent events, like A Larum for London which dramatizes the sack of Antwerp in 1576.

text: Tragedy was a very popular genre. Marlowe's tragedies were exceptionally successful, such as Dr. Faustus and The Jew of Malta. The audiences particularly liked revenge dramas, such as Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy. The four tragedies considered to be Shakespeare's greatest (Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth) were composed during this period.

text: Comedies were common, too. A subgenre developed in this period was the city comedy, which deals satirically with life in London after the fashion of Roman New Comedy. Examples are Thomas Dekker's The Shoemaker's Holiday and Thomas Middleton's A Chaste Maid in Cheapside.

text: Though marginalised, the older genres like pastoral (The Faithful Shepherdess, 1608), and even the morality play (Four Plays in One, ca. 1608-13) could exert influences. After about 1610, the new hybrid subgenre of the tragicomedy enjoyed an efflorescence, as did the masque throughout the reigns of the first two Stuart kings, James I and Charles I.

text: Printed texts[edit]

text: Only a minority of the plays of English Renaissance theatre were ever printed. Of Heywood's 220 plays, only about 20 were published in book form.[55] A little over 600 plays were published in the period as a whole, most commonly in individual quarto editions. (Larger collected editions, like those of Shakespeare's, Ben Jonson's, and Beaumont and Fletcher's plays, were a late and limited development.) Through much of the modern era, it was thought that play texts were popular items among Renaissance readers that provided healthy profits for the stationers who printed and sold them. By the turn of the 21st century, the climate of scholarly opinion shifted somewhat on this belief: some contemporary researchers argue that publishing plays was a risky and marginal business[56]—though this conclusion has been disputed by others.[57] Some of the most successful publishers of the English Renaissance, like William Ponsonby or Edward Blount, rarely published plays.

text: A small number of plays from the era survived not in printed texts but in manuscript form.[h]

text: The end of English Renaissance theatre[edit]

text: The rising Puritan movement was hostile toward theatre, as they felt that "entertainment" was sinful. Politically, playwrights and actors were clients of the monarchy and aristocracy, and most supported the Royalist cause. The Puritan faction, long powerful in London, gained control of the city early in the First English Civil War, and on 2 September 1642, the Long Parliament, pushed by the Parliamentarian party, under Puritan influence, banned the staging of plays in the London theatres though it did not, contrary to what is commonly stated, order the closure, let alone the destruction, of the theatres themselves:

text: Whereas the distressed Estate of Ireland, steeped in her own Blood, and the distracted Estate of England, threatened with a Cloud of Blood by a Civil War, call for all possible Means to appease and avert the Wrath of God, appearing in these Judgements; among which, Fasting and Prayer, having been often tried to be very effectual, having been lately and are still enjoined; and whereas Public Sports do not well agree with Public Calamities, nor Public Stage-plays with the Seasons of Humiliation, this being an Exercise of sad and pious Solemnity, and the other being Spectacles of Pleasure, too commonly expressing lascivious Mirth and Levity: It is therefore thought fit, and Ordained, by the Lords and Commons in this Parliament assembled, That, while these sad causes and set Times of Humiliation do continue, Public Stage Plays shall cease, and be forborn, instead of which are recommended to the People of this Land the profitable and seasonable considerations of Repentance, Reconciliation, and Peace with God, which probably may produce outward Peace and Prosperity, and bring again Times of Joy and Gladness to these Nations.

text: The Act purports the ban to be temporary ("...while these sad causes and set Times of Humiliation do continue, Public Stage Plays shall cease and be forborn") but does not assign a time limit to it.

text: Even after 1642, during the English Civil War and the ensuing Interregnum (English Commonwealth, some English Renaissance theatre continued. For example, short comical plays called Drolls were allowed by the authorities, while full-length plays were banned. The theatre buildings were not closed but rather were used for purposes other than staging plays.[i]

text: The performance of plays remained banned for most of the next eighteen years, becoming allowed again after the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660. The theatres began performing many of the plays of the previous era, though often in adapted forms. New genres of Restoration comedy and spectacle soon evolved, giving English theatre of the later seventeenth century its distinctive character.

text: List of playwrights and actors[edit]

text:
William Alabaster
William Alley
Robert Armin
Thomas Ashton
William Barksted
Barnabe Barnes
Lording Barry
Francis Beaumont
Sir William Berkeley
Samuel Brandon
Richard Brome
Lodowick Carlell
William Cartwright
William Cavendish
Robert Chamberlain
George Chapman
Henry Chettle
John Clavell
Robert Daborne
Samuel Daniel
William Davenant
Robert Davenport
John Day
Edward de Vere
Thomas Dekker
Michael Drayton
Richard Edwardes
Nathan Field
John Fletcher
John Ford
Abraham Fraunce
Ulpian Fulwell
William Gager
George Gascoigne
Henry Glapthorne
Thomas Goffe
Arthur Golding
Alexander Gough
Robert Greene
Thomas Greene
Richard Gunnell
Stephen Hammerton
Charles Hart
Richard Hathwaye
William Haughton
John Heminges
Thomas Heywood
John Honyman
Thomas Hughes
Ben Jonson
Will Kempe
Henry Killigrew
Thomas Killigrew
Thomas Kyd
Thomas Legge
Thomas Lodge
John Lowin
Thomas Lupton
John Lyly
Gervase Markham
Christopher Marlowe
Shackerley Marmion
John Marston
Philip Massinger
Thomas May
Thomas Middleton
Anthony Munday
Thomas Nabbes
Thomas Nashe
Thomas Norton
William Ostler
George Peele
Andrew Pennycuicke
William Percy
Augustine Phillips
John Pickering
Thomas Pollard
Henry Porter
Thomas Preston
William Rankins
Timothy Read
Samuel Rowley
William Rowley
Joseph Rutter
Thomas Sackville
William Sampson
William Shakespeare
Edward Sharpham
James Shirley
Mary Sidney
Philip Sidney
Wentworth Smith
Sir John Suckling
Robert Tailor
Thomas Tomkis
Cyril Tourneur
John Webster
George Whetstone
George Wilkins
Arthur Wilson
Robert Wilson

text: Playhouses[edit]

text:
Blackfriars Theatre
Cockpit Theatre
Cockpit-in-Court
Inn-yard theatres
Newington Butts
Red Bull Theatre
Red Lion (theatre)
Salisbury Court Theatre
The Curtain
The Fortune
The Globe
The Hope
The Phoenix
The Rose
The Swan
The Theatre
Whitefriars Theatre

text: Playing companies[edit]

text:
King's Revels Children
King's Revels Men
Lady Elizabeth's Men
Leicester's Men
Lord Strange's Men (later Derby's Men)
Oxford's Boys
Oxford's Men
Pembroke's Men
Prince Charles's Men
Queen Anne's Men
Queen Elizabeth's Men
Queen Henrietta's Men
The Admiral's Men
The Children of Paul's
The Children of the Chapel (Queen's Revels)
The King's Men
The Lord Chamberlain's Men
Sussex's Men
Warwick's Men
Worcester's Men

text: English Renaissance playing company timeline

text: This timeline charts the existence of major English playing companies from 1572 ("Acte for the punishment of Vacabondes", which legally restricted acting to players with a patron of sufficient degree) to 1642 (the closing of the theatres by Parliament). A variety of strolling players, and even early London-based troupes existed before 1572. The situations were often fluid, and much of this history is obscure; this timeline necessarily implies more precision than exists in some cases. The labels down the left indicate the most common names for the companies. The bar segments indicate the specific patron. In the case of children's companies (a distinct legal situation) some founders are noted.

text: Significant others[edit]

text:
Susan Baskervile, investor and litigant
William Beeston, manager
George Buc, Master of the Revels 1609–1622
Cuthbert Burbage, entrepreneur
James Burbage, entrepreneur
Ralph Crane, scribe
Philip Henslowe, entrepreneur
Henry Herbert, Master of the Revels 1623–1673
Edward Knight, prompter
Francis Langley, entrepreneur
John Rhodes, manager
Edmund Tilney, Master of the Revels 1579–1609


document_title: Base of skull

question_text: which bone is located at the base of the skull

root

text: Base of skull

text: Structure[edit]

text: Structures found at the base of the skull are for example:

tag: p

text: Bones[edit]

text: There are five bones that make up the base of the skull:

text:
Ethmoid bone
Sphenoid bone
Occipital bone
Frontal bone
Temporal bone

tag: ul

text: Sinuses[edit]

text:
Occipital sinus
Superior sagittal sinus
Superior petrosal sinus

text: Foramina of the skull[edit]

text:
Foramen cecum
Optic foramen
Foramen lacerum
Foramen rotundum
Foramen magnum
Foramen ovale
Jugular foramen
Internal auditory meatus
Mastoid foramen
Sphenoidal emissary foramen
Foramen spinosum

text: Sutures[edit]

text:
Frontoethmoidal suture
Sphenofrontal suture
Sphenopetrosal suture
Sphenoethmoidal suture
Petrosquamous suture
Sphenosquamosal suture

text: Other[edit]

text:
Sphenoidal lingula
Subarcuate fossa
Dorsum sellae
Jugular process
Petro-occipital fissure
Condylar canal
Jugular tubercle
Tuberculum sellae
Carotid groove
Fossa hypophyseos
Posterior clinoid processes
Sigmoid sulcus
Internal occipital protuberance
Internal occipital crest
Ethmoidal spine
Vestibular aqueduct
Chiasmatic groove
Middle clinoid process
Groove for sigmoid sinus
Trigeminal ganglion
Middle cranial fossa
Anterior cranial fossa
Middle meningeal artery
Cribriform plate
Posterior cranial fossa
Nasociliary nerve
Hypoglossal canal

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Base of the skull. Upper surface

Base of skull

Base of skull - crista galli, cribriform plate and foramen cecum

Base of skull - sella turcica

The anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossa in different colors

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cranial base.

tag: table

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

Compound structures of skull

Neurocranium

Calvaria

Diploë

Asterion
Pterion
Stephanion
Inion
Bregma
Lambda
Fossae

anterior
middle
posterior

cranial cavity
Base of skull
Fontanelle

anterior
posterior
sphenoidal
mastoid

Facial skeleton

Nasion
Gonion

Both

dacryon
zygomatic arch
temporal fossa
infratemporal fossa
pterygomaxillary fissure
pterygopalatine fossa

text: Skull

text: Pages with unresolved properties


document_title: The Great Escape (film)

question_text: what was steve mcqueen's name in the great escape

question_tokens: what was steve mcqueen 's name in the great escape

text: The Great Escape (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1943, having expended enormous resources on recapturing escaped Allied POWs, the Germans move those POWs most determined to escape to a new, high-security prisoner of war camp. The commandant, Luftwaffe Colonel von Luger, tells the senior British officer, Group Captain Ramsey, "There will be no escapes from this camp." Von Luger points out the various features of the new camp designed to prevent escape, as well as the advantages that the prisoners will receive as incentive not to try. After several failed attempts on the first day, the POWs settle into life at the camp.

text: Meanwhile, Gestapo agents Kuhn and Preissen and SS Lieutenant Dietrich bring RAF Squadron Leader Roger Bartlett to the camp. Known as "Big X", Bartlett is introduced as the principal escape organiser. As Kuhn leaves, he warns Bartlett that if he escapes again, he will be shot. However, locked up with "every escape artist in Germany", he immediately plans the greatest escape ever attempted, with tunnels to break out 250 prisoners, so that as many troops and resources as possible will be wasted looking for escapees rather than used at the front line.

text: The POWs organise themselves into teams. Flight Lieutenant Robert Hendley is "the scrounger" who finds needed materials, from a camera to clothes and identity cards. Australian Flying Officer Louis Sedgwick, "the manufacturer," makes tools like picks for digging and bellows for pumping air into the tunnels. Flight Lieutenants Danny Valinski and William "Willie" Dickes are "the tunnel kings" in charge of the digging. Flight Lieutenant Andrew MacDonald acts as intelligence provider and Bartlett's second-in-command. Lieutenant Commander Eric Ashley-Pitt of the Royal Navy devises a method of spreading soil from the tunnels over the camp, under the guards' noses. Flight Lieutenant Griffith acts as "the tailor", creating civilian outfits from scavenged cloth. Forgery is handled by Flight Lieutenant Colin Blythe, who becomes nearly blind due to progressive myopia caused by intricate work by candlelight; Hendley takes it upon himself to be Blythe's guide in the escape. The prisoners work on three tunnels simultaneously, calling them "Tom", "Dick", and "Harry".

text: USAAF Captain Virgil Hilts, the "Cooler King", irritates guards with frequent escape attempts and general irreverence. Hilts and RAF Flying Officer Archibald Ives conceive an escape attempt through a short tunnel at a blind spot right near the edge of the camp, a proposal which is accepted by Bartlett on the grounds that vetoing every independent escape attempt would raise suspicion of the collective escape attempt being planned. However, Hilts and Ives are caught and returned to the 'cooler'. Upon release from the cooler, Bartlett requests that Hilts use his next escape attempt as an opportunity for a reconnaissance of the area immediately surrounding the camp; Hilts turns down Bartlett's request but assists the prisoners as a scrounger. Meanwhile, Hendley forms a friendship with German guard Werner, which he exploits to obtain documents, and then as blackmail to get hold of other items for the escape. Soon, Bartlett orders "Dick" and "Harry" to be shut down, as "Tom" is closest to completion.

text: While the POWs enjoy a 4th of July celebration arranged by the three Americans, the guards discover "Tom". The mood drops to despair and Ives, who has been badly affected by his time in the cooler, walks in a daze to the barbed wire that surrounds the camp and climbs it in view of guards; Hilts runs to stop him but is too late, and Ives is shot dead near the top of the fence. The prisoners switch their efforts to "Harry", and Hilts agrees to reconnoiter outside the camp and allow himself to be recaptured. The information he brings back is used to create maps to guide the escapees.

text: The last part of the tunnel is completed on the scheduled night, but it proves to be twenty feet short of the woods. Knowing there are no other options, Bartlett orders the escape to go ahead, and Hilts improvises a signal system to allow them to exit the tunnel between sweeps of the guards on patrol. The claustrophobic Danny, having spent much of his time in the tunnel and barely surviving multiple cave-ins, nearly refuses to go, but is helped along by Willie. 76 prisoners manage to escape: however, Griffith impatiently exits the tunnel in view of the guards and the escape is discovered.

text: After attempts to reach neutral Switzerland, Sweden, or Spain, almost all the POWs are recaptured or killed. Hendley and Blythe steal a plane to fly over the Swiss border, but the engine fails and they crash-land. Soldiers arrive and Blythe, his eyesight damaged, stands and is shot. Hendley surrenders as Blythe dies.

text: When Bartlett is identified in a crowded railway station by Gestapo agent Kuhn, Ashley-Pitt overpowers and shoots him with his own gun, but is killed by soldiers while attempting to escape. The resulting confusion allows Bartlett and MacDonald to slip away, but they are later caught while boarding a bus after MacDonald blunders by replying to a suspicious Gestapo agent who wishes them "Good luck" in English. MacDonald is quickly apprehended, but Bartlett manages to temporarily escape, until he is recognised and arrested by SS Lieutenant Steinach. Hilts steals a motorcycle and is pursued by German soldiers, jumps a first-line barbed wire fence at the German-Swiss border and drives on to the Neutral Zone, but becomes entangled in the second line of the barbed fence and is captured.

text: Three truckloads of recaptured POWs are driven down a country road and split off in three directions. One truck, containing Bartlett, MacDonald, Cavendish, Haynes, and others, stops in a field and the POWs are told to get out and "stretch their legs". They are shot dead under the pretense that they were trying to escape. In all, 50 escapees are murdered; Hendley and ten others are returned to the camp. Von Luger is relieved of command of the camp by SS Lieutenant Steinach for having failed to prevent the breakout. It is heavily implied that he will be executed.

text: Only three POWs make it to safety: Danny and Willie steal a rowboat and proceed downriver to the Baltic coast, where they sneak aboard a Swedish merchant ship, while Sedgwick slips through the countryside on a stolen bicycle before hiding aboard a freight train to France, where he is guided by the Resistance into Spain. Hilts is returned to the camp alone in handcuffs and taken back to the cooler – ironically just as Von Luger is relieved of his command. Lieutenant Goff, one of the Americans, fetches Hilts's baseball and glove and throws them to him when Hilts and his guards pass by. The guard locks him in his cell and walks away, but momentarily pauses when he hears the familiar sound of Hilts bouncing his baseball against a cell wall.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Steve McQueen as Capt. Virgil Hilts, the "Cooler King"
James Garner as Flt. Lt. Robert Hendley, the "Scrounger"
Richard Attenborough as Sqn. Ldr. Roger Bartlett, "Big X"
James Donald as Gp. Capt. Ramsey, the Senior British Officer (SBO)
Charles Bronson as Flt. Lt. Danny Velinski, the "Tunnel King"
Donald Pleasence as Flt. Lt. Colin Blythe, the "Forger"
James Coburn as Fg. Off. Louis Sedgwick, the "Manufacturer"
Hannes Messemer as Oberst (Colonel) von Luger, the Kommandant
David McCallum as Lt. Cmdr. Eric Ashley-Pitt, "Dispersal"
Gordon Jackson as Flt. Lt. Andrew MacDonald, "Intelligence"
John Leyton as Flt. Lt. William Dickes, the "Tunnel King"
Angus Lennie as Fg. Off. Archibald Ives, the "Mole"
Nigel Stock as Flt. Lt. Dennis Cavendish, the "Surveyor"
Robert Graf as Werner, the "Ferret"
Jud Taylor as 2nd Lt. Goff
Hans Reiser as Kuhn (Gestapo)
Harry Riebauer as Stabsfeldwebel (Sergeant Major) Strachwitz
William Russell as Sorren
Robert Freitag as Hauptmann (Captain) Posen
Ulrich Beiger as Preissen
George Mikell as SS Obersturmführer Dietrich
Lawrence Montaigne as Haynes, "Diversions"
Robert Desmond as Griffith, "Tailor"
Til Kiwe (de) as Frick
Heinz Weiss as Kramer
Tom Adams as Dai Nimmo, "Diversions"
Karl-Otto Alberty as SS Untersturmführer Steinach
Michael Paryla (de) as SS Officer on train (uncredited)

text: Production[edit]

text: Adaptation[edit]

text: The story was adapted by James Clavell, W. R. Burnett, and Walter Newman from Paul Brickhill's book The Great Escape. Brickhill had been a prisoner at Stalag Luft III during World War II.

text: The film was to a significant extent fictional, based on real events but with numerous changes made to increase its drama and appeal, and as a vehicle for its box-office stars. While some of its characters were fictitious, most were amalgams of several real characters and others based on real people. In reality there were no escapes by aircraft or motorcycle: the motorcycle sequence was asked for by McQueen, a keen motorcyclist, who did the stunt riding himself (except for the final jump, done by Bud Ekins).[3] Nor were the recaptured prisoners executed at the same time. The screenwriters significantly increased the involvement of American POWs; the real escape was by largely British and other allied personnel. A few American officers in the camp initially helped dig the tunnels, and worked on the early plans; however, they were moved away seven months before the escape, ending their involvement.[4][5][6] In addition, the film suggests the three prisoners who escaped to freedom were British, Polish, and Australian; in reality, they were Norwegian (Jens Müller and Per Bergsland) and Dutch (Bram van der Stok).[7]

text: The film omits to mention the crucial role Canadians played in building the tunnels and in the escape itself. Of the 1,800 or so POWs, 600 were involved in preparations out of which 150 were Canadian. Wally Floody, an RCAF pilot and mining engineer who was the real-life "tunnel king", was engaged as a technical advisor for the film.[8]

text: Ex-POWs asked film-makers to exclude details about the help they received from their home countries, such as maps, papers, and tools hidden in gift packages, lest it jeopardise future POW escapes. The film-makers complied.[9]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Steve McQueen, in a role based on at least three pilots, David M. Jones, John Dortch Lewis,[10] and William Ash,[11][12][13] has been credited with the most significant performance. Critic Leonard Maltin wrote that "the large, international cast is superb, but the standout is McQueen; it's easy to see why this cemented his status as a superstar."[14] McQueen served in the US Marines after WWII, and is credited for saving fellow Marines' lives during an Arctic exercise.

text: Richard Attenborough was cast as Sqn Ldr Roger Bartlett RAF ("Big X"), a character based on Roger Bushell, the South African-born British POW who was the mastermind of the real Great Escape.[15] This was the film that first brought Attenborough to wide popular attention in the United States. During the Second World War, Attenborough served in the Royal Air Force. He volunteered to fly with the Film Unit and after further training, where he sustained permanent ear damage, qualified as a sergeant, flying on several missions over Europe filming from the rear gunner's position to record the outcome of Bomber Command sorties.

text: Group Captain Ramsey RAF (the "SBO") was based on Group Captain Herbert Massey, a WWI veteran who had volunteered in WWII. He is played by James Donald. Massey walked with a limp, and so did Ramsey in the movie who walked with a cane. Massey had suffered severe wounds to the same leg in both wars. There would be no escape for him but as Senior British Officer, he had to know what was going on. Group Captain Massey had been a veteran escaper himself and had been in trouble with the Gestapo. His experience allowed him to offer sound advice to the X-Organisation.[16] Another officer that had most likely inspired the character of Ramsey was Wing Commander Harry Day. There was an uncanny resemblance between Harry Day and James Donald as Group Captain Ramsey in this picture.

text: Flt Lt Colin Blythe RAF ("The Forger") was based on Tim Walenn and played by Donald Pleasence.[17] Pleasence himself had served in the Royal Air Force during World War II. He was shot down and spent a year in German prisoner-of-war camp Stalag Luft I.

text: Charles Bronson had been a gunner in the USAAF and was wounded, but had not been shot down. Like his character, Danny Valinski, he was a coal miner and suffered from claustrophobia.

text: James Garner had been a soldier in the Korean War and was twice wounded. He was a scrounger during that time, as is his character Flt Lt Hendley.[18]

text: Hannes Messemer was cast as the Kommandant of Stalag Luft III, "Colonel von Luger," a character based on Oberst Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner-Wildau.[19] He had been a POW in Russia during World War II and had escaped by walking hundreds of miles to the German border.[20]

text: Angus Lennie's Flying Officer Archibald Ives, "The Mole", was based on Jimmy Kiddel, who was shot dead while trying to scale the fence.[21]

text: The film is accurate in showing that only three escapees made home runs, although the people who made them differed from those in the film. The escape of Danny and Willie in the film is based on two Norwegians who escaped by boat to Sweden, Per Bergsland and Jens Müller. The successful escape of James Coburn's Australian character Sedgwick (the manufacturer) via Spain was based on Dutchman Bram van der Stok. Coburn, an American, was cast in the role of Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Flying Officer Louis Sedgwick who was an amalgamation of Flt Lt Albert Hake, an Australian serving in the RAF and the camps compass maker, and Johnny Travis, the real manufacturer.

text: Tilman 'Til Kiwe' Kiver played the German guard "Frick". He is the one who fires his pistol at Steve McQueen's character during the escape. Kiwe had been a German paratrooper officer who was captured and held prisoner at a POW camp in Colorado. He made several escape attempts, dyeing his uniform and carrying forged papers. He was captured in the St. Louis train station during one escape attempt. He won the Knight's Cross before his capture and was the cast member who had actually done many of the exploits shown in the film.

text: Location and set design[edit]

text: The film was made at the Bavaria Film Studio in the Munich suburb of Geiselgasteig in rural Bavaria, where sets for the barrack interiors and tunnels were constructed. The camp was built in a clearing of the Perlacher forest near the studio.[22][23] The German town near the real camp was Sagan (now Żagań, Poland); it was renamed Neustadt in the film.[23] Many scenes were filmed in and around the town of Füssen in Bavaria, including its railway station. The nearby district of Pfronten[24] with its distinctive St. Nikolaus Church and scenic background also features often in the film.[23] Many scenes involving the railway were filmed near Deisenhofen station and on the Großhesselohe - Holzkirchen line.[25] The castle Hendley and Blythe fly by while attempting to escape is Neuschwanstein Castle.[26]

text: The film depicts the tunnel codenamed Tom as having its entrance under a stove and Harry's as in a drain sump in a washroom. In reality, Dick's entrance was the drain sump, Harry's was under the stove, and Tom's was in a darkened corner next to a stove chimney.[27]

text: The motorcycle chase scenes with the barbed wire fences were shot on meadows outside Füssen, and the "barbed wire" that Hilts crashes into before being recaptured was simulated by strips of rubber tied around barbless wire, constructed by the cast and crew in their spare time.[28] The final jump scene was performed by stuntman Bud Ekins in place of Steve McQueen. Other parts of the chase were done by McQueen, playing both Hilts and the soldiers chasing him, because of his ability on a motorcycle.[29]

text: Music[edit]

text: Intrada Records album[edit]

text: Disc one[edit]

text:
[show]Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Main Title"
2:30

2.
"At First Glance"
3:07

3.
"Premature Plans"
2:28

4.
"If At Once"
2:31

5.
"Forked"
1:28

6.
"Cooler"
1:59

7.
"Mole"
1:28

8.
""X"/Tonight We Dig"
1:30

9.
"The Scrounger/Blythe"
3:50

10.
"Water Faucet"
1:23

11.
"Interruptus"
1:33

12.
"The Plan/The Sad Ives"
1:43

13.
"Green Thumbs"
2:28

14.
"Hilts And Ives"
0:38

15.
"Cave In"
2:01

16.
"Restless Men"
1:56

17.
"Booze"
1:47

18.
""Yankee Doodle""
0:55

19.
"Discovery"
3:40

text: Disc two[edit]

text:
[show]Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (Cont'd)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Various Troubles"
3:52

2.
"Panic"
2:05

3.
"Pin Trick"
0:59

4.
"Hendley’s Risk"
1:43

5.
"Released Again/Escape Time"
5:25

6.
"20 Feet Short"
3:06

7.
"Foul Up"
2:37

8.
"At The Station"
1:33

9.
"On The Road"
3:27

10.
"The Chase/First Casualty"
6:49

11.
"Flight Plan"
2:09

12.
"More Action/Hilts Captured"
6:07

13.
"Road’s End"
2:06

14.
"Betrayal"
2:20

15.
"Three Gone/Home Again"
3:13

16.
"Finale/The Cast"
2:47

text: Disc three[edit]

text:
[show]Original 1963 United Artists Score Album

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Main Title"
2:07

2.
"Premature Plans"
2:08

3.
"Cooler And Mole"
2:26

4.
"Blythe"
2:13

5.
"Discovery"
2:54

6.
"Various Troubles"
2:40

7.
"On The Road"
2:54

8.
"Betrayal"
2:05

9.
"Hendley’s Risk"
2:24

10.
"Road’s End"
2:00

11.
"More Action"
1:57

12.
"The Chase"
2:49

13.
"Finale"
3:14

text: Reception[edit]

text: The Great Escape grossed $11.7 million at the box office,[30] after a budget of $4 million.[31] It became one of the highest-grossing films of 1963, despite heavy competition. In the years since its release, its audience has broadened, cementing its status as a cinema classic.[32] It was entered into the 3rd Moscow International Film Festival where McQueen won the Silver Prize for Best Actor.[33]

text: Critical and public response has mostly been enthusiastic, with a 93% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[34] In 1963 New York Times critic Bosley Crowther wrote: "But for much longer than is artful or essential, The Great Escape grinds out its tormenting story without a peek beneath the surface of any man, without a real sense of human involvement. It's a strictly mechanical adventure with make-believe men."[35] British film critic Leslie Halliwell described it as "pretty good but overlong POW adventure with a tragic ending".[36] In Time magazine 1963: "The use of color photography is unnecessary and jarring, but little else is wrong with this film. With accurate casting, a swift screenplay, and authentic German settings, Producer-Director John Sturges has created classic cinema of action. There is no sermonizing, no soul probing, no sex. The Great Escape is simply great escapism".[37]

text: In a 2006 poll in the United Kingdom, regarding the family film that television viewers would most want to see on Christmas Day, The Great Escape came in third, and was first among the choices of male viewers.[38]

text: In 2009, seven POWs returned to Stalag Luft III for the 65th anniversary of the escape[39] and watched the film. According to the veterans, many details of the first half depicting life in the camp were authentic, e.g. the machine-gunning of Ives, who snaps and tries to scale the fence, and the actual digging of the tunnels. In 2014, the RAF staged a commemoration of the escape attempt, with 50 serving personnel carrying a photograph of one of the men shot.[40]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text:
Nominated Academy Award for Film Editing (Ferris Webster)
Nominated Golden Globe Award for Best Picture
Winner Moscow International Film Festival Best Actor (Steve McQueen)
Nominated Moscow International Film Festival Grand Prix (John Sturges)
Selected National Board of Review Top Ten Films of Year
Nominated Writers Guild of America Best Written American Drama (James Clavell, W. R. Burnett) (Screenplay Adaptation)

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: References to scenes and motifs from the film, as well as Elmer Bernstein's theme, have appeared in other films, television series, and video games.

text: The films Chicken Run, Reservoir Dogs, the 1998 remake of The Parent Trap, Top Secret!, and Charlie's Angels, all contain references or homages to the film.[41]

text:
Monty Python's Flying Circus, The Simpsons, Hogan's Heroes, Nash Bridges, Seinfeld, Get Smart, and Red Dwarf have all parodied or paid homage to the film.[41]
In "Escape From Stalag Luft 112B," an episode of Ripping Yarns, Maj. Errol Phipps (played by Michael Palin) is depicted as being the only prisoner of war never to escape from the camp of the title.[41]
A fictional, made-for-television sequel, The Great Escape II: The Untold Story, appeared in 1988. It starred Christopher Reeve and Judd Hirsch, with Donald Pleasence as an SS villain.[41]

text: Bernstein's Great Escape theme tune has been taken up by the Pukka Pies England Band, a small brass band who have played in the crowd at England football team matches since 1996.[42] They released an arrangement of the theme as a single for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and a newer version for UEFA Euro 2000.[43]


document_title: List of burial places of presidents and vice presidents of the United States

question_text: who was the only president to be buried in washington dc

text: Presidential burial places[edit]

text:
OP

President

Date of death

Burial place

City

State

Site image

1

George Washington[1]

December 14, 1799[2]

Mount Vernon[A]

Fairfax County

Virginia

2

John Adams[4]

July 4, 1826[5][B]

United First Parish Church[C]

Quincy

Massachusetts

3

Thomas Jefferson[6]

July 4, 1826[7][B]

Monticello

Charlottesville

Virginia

4

James Madison[9]

June 28, 1836

Montpelier

Orange

Virginia

5

James Monroe[10]

July 4, 1831

James Monroe Tomb,[D] Hollywood Cemetery

Richmond

Virginia

6

John Quincy Adams[11]

February 23, 1848

United First Parish Church[E]

Quincy

Massachusetts

7

Andrew Jackson[12]

June 8, 1845

The Hermitage

Nashville

Tennessee

8

Martin Van Buren[13]

July 24, 1862

Kinderhook Reformed Church Cemetery

Kinderhook

New York

9

William Henry Harrison[14]

April 4, 1841[15][F]

William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial[G]

North Bend

Ohio

10

John Tyler[17]

January 18, 1862

Hollywood Cemetery

Richmond

Virginia

11

James K. Polk[18]

June 15, 1849

Tennessee State Capitol[H]

Nashville

Tennessee

12

Zachary Taylor[19]

July 9, 1850[F]

Zachary Taylor National Cemetery[I]

Louisville

Kentucky

13

Millard Fillmore[20]

March 8, 1874

Forest Lawn Cemetery

Buffalo

New York

14

Franklin Pierce[21]

October 8, 1869

Old North Cemetery

Concord

New Hampshire

15

James Buchanan[22]

June 1, 1868

Woodward Hill Cemetery

Lancaster

Pennsylvania

16

Abraham Lincoln[23]

April 15, 1865[F]

Lincoln Tomb,[J] Oak Ridge Cemetery

Springfield

Illinois

17

Andrew Johnson[24]

July 31, 1875

Andrew Johnson National Cemetery

Greeneville

Tennessee

18

Ulysses S. Grant[25]

July 23, 1885

General Grant National Memorial[K]

New York City

New York

19

Rutherford B. Hayes[26]

January 17, 1893

Spiegel Grove[L]

Fremont

Ohio

20

James A. Garfield[27]

September 19, 1881[28][F]

James A. Garfield Memorial,[M] Lake View Cemetery

Cleveland

Ohio

21

Chester A. Arthur[30]

November 18, 1886

Albany Rural Cemetery

Menands

New York

22/24[N]

Grover Cleveland[31]

June 24, 1908

Princeton Cemetery

Princeton

New Jersey

23

Benjamin Harrison[32]

March 13, 1901

Crown Hill Cemetery

Indianapolis

Indiana

25

William McKinley[33]

September 14, 1901[F]

McKinley National Memorial[O]

Canton

Ohio

26

Theodore Roosevelt[34]

January 6, 1919

Youngs Memorial Cemetery

Oyster Bay

New York

27

William Howard Taft[35]

March 8, 1930

Arlington National Cemetery

Arlington

Virginia

28

Woodrow Wilson[36]

February 3, 1924

Washington National Cathedral

Washington, D.C.

29

Warren G. Harding[37]

August 2, 1923[F]

Harding Tomb[P]

Marion

Ohio

30

Calvin Coolidge[38]

January 5, 1933

Plymouth Notch Cemetery

Plymouth Notch

Vermont

31

Herbert Hoover[39]

October 20, 1964

Hoover Presidential Library

West Branch

Iowa

32

Franklin D. Roosevelt[40]

April 12, 1945[F]

Springwood

Hyde Park

New York

33

Harry S. Truman[41]

December 26, 1972

Truman Presidential Library

Independence

Missouri

34

Dwight D. Eisenhower[42]

March 28, 1969

Eisenhower Presidential Center

Abilene

Kansas

35

John F. Kennedy[43]

November 22, 1963[F]

Kennedy gravesite,[Q] Arlington National Cemetery

Arlington

Virginia

36

Lyndon B. Johnson[45]

January 22, 1973

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park

Stonewall

Texas

37

Richard Nixon[46]

April 22, 1994

Nixon Presidential Library

Yorba Linda

California

38

Gerald Ford[47]

December 26, 2006

Gerald R. Ford Museum

Grand Rapids

Michigan

40

Ronald Reagan[48]

June 5, 2004

Reagan Presidential Library

Simi Valley

California

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Interred at this site on October 7, 1837, after initially being interred in the "old tomb", also at Mount Vernon.[3]

^ Jump up to: a b Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both died on July 4, 1826; Jefferson's death occurred approximately five hours before Adams's.[8]

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1828, after initially being interred in the Hancock Cemetery, Quincy, Massachusetts.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site on July 5, 1858, after initially being interred in the New York City Marble Cemetery.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1852, after initially being interred in the Congressional Cemetery, Washington, D.C., and then at Hancock Cemetery, Quincy, Massachusetts.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Died in office.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site on July 7, 1841, after initially being interred in the Congressional Cemetery, Washington, D.C..[16]

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1893, after initially being interred in the Nashville City Cemetery, and then at Polk Place, also in Nashville, Tennessee.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in October 1850, after initially being interred in the Congressional Cemetery, Washington, D.C..

Jump up ^ Between May 4, 1865, when it first arrived at Oak Ridge Cemetery, and September 26, 1901, Lincoln's casket was moved 17 times, and opened on five occasions.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site on April 17, 1897, after initially being interred in Riverside Park, New York City.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site on April 3, 1915, after initially being interred in Oakwood Cemetery, Fremont, Ohio.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site on May 19, 1890, after initially being interred in a temporary vault, also at Lake View Cemetery.[29]

Jump up ^ Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office, and due to this is counted as the nation's 22nd president and its 24th president.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in September 1907, after initially being interred in West Lawn Cemetery, Canton, Ohio.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1927, after initially being interred in Marion Cemetery, Marion, Ohio.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site on  March 14, 1967, after initially being interred in a temporary grave, also at Arlington National Cemetery.[44]

tag: ol

text: Vice presidential burial places[edit]

text:
OVP

Vice President

Date of death

Burial place

City

State

Site image

1

John Adams[49]

July 4, 1826[5][a]

United First Parish Church[b]

Quincy

Massachusetts

2

Thomas Jefferson[50]

July 4, 1826[7][a]

Monticello

Charlottesville

Virginia

3

Aaron Burr[51]

September 14, 1836

Princeton Cemetery

Princeton

New Jersey

4

George Clinton[52]

April 20, 1812[c]

Old Dutch Churchyard[d]

Kingston

New York

5

Elbridge Gerry[53]

November 23, 1814[c]

Congressional Cemetery

Washington, D.C.

6

Daniel Tompkins[54]

June 11, 1825

St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery

New York City

New York

7

John C. Calhoun[55]

March 31, 1850

St. Phillips Churchyard

Charleston

South Carolina

8

Martin Van Buren[56]

July 24, 1862

Kinderhook Reformed Church Cemetery

Kinderhook

New York

9

Richard M. Johnson[57]

November 19, 1850

Frankfort Cemetery

Frankfort

Kentucky

10

John Tyler[58]

January 18, 1862

Hollywood Cemetery

Richmond

Virginia

11

George M. Dallas[59]

December 31, 1864

St. Peter’s Churchyard

Philadelphia

Pennsylvania

12

Millard Fillmore[60]

March 8, 1874

Forest Lawn Cemetery

Buffalo

New York

13

William R. King[61]

April 18, 1853[c]

Live Oak Cemetery[e]

Selma

Alabama

14

John C. Breckinridge[63]

May 17, 1875

Lexington Cemetery

Lexington

Kentucky

15

Hannibal Hamlin[64]

July 4, 1891

Mount Hope Cemetery

Bangor

Maine

16

Andrew Johnson[65]

July 31, 1875

Andrew Johnson National Cemetery

Greeneville

Tennessee

17

Schuyler Colfax[66]

January 13, 1885

City Cemetery

South Bend

Indiana

18

Henry Wilson[67]

November 22, 1875[c]

Old Dell Park Cemetery

Natick

Massachusetts

19

William A. Wheeler[68]

June 4, 1887

Morningside Cemetery

Malone

New York

20

Chester Arthur[69]

November 18, 1886

Albany Rural Cemetery

Menands

New York

21

Thomas A. Hendricks[70]

November 25, 1885[c]

Crown Hill Cemetery

Indianapolis

Indiana

22

Levi P. Morton[71]

May 16, 1920

Rhinebeck Cemetery

Rhinebeck

New York

23

Adlai Stevenson I[72]

June 14, 1914

Evergreen Cemetery

Bloomington

Illinois

24

Garret Hobart[73]

November 21, 1899[c]

Cedar Lawn Cemetery

Paterson

New Jersey

25

Theodore Roosevelt[74]

January 6, 1919

Youngs Memorial Cemetery

Oyster Bay

New York

26

Charles W. Fairbanks[75]

June 4, 1918

Crown Hill Cemetery

Indianapolis

Indiana

27

James S. Sherman[76]

October 30, 1912[c]

Forest Hill Cemetery

Utica

New York

28

Thomas R. Marshall[77]

June 1, 1925

Crown Hill Cemetery

Indianapolis

Indiana

29

Calvin Coolidge[78]

January 5, 1933

Plymouth Notch Cemetery

Plymouth Notch

Vermont

30

Charles G. Dawes[79]

April 23, 1951

Rosehill Cemetery

Chicago

Illinois

31

Charles Curtis[80]

February 8, 1936

Topeka Cemetery

Topeka

Kansas

32

John Nance Garner[81]

November 7, 1967

Uvalde Cemetery

Uvalde

Texas

33

Henry A. Wallace[82]

November 18, 1965

Glendale Cemetery[f]

Des Moines

Iowa

34

Harry S. Truman[84]

December 26, 1972

Truman Presidential Library

Independence

Missouri

35

Alben W. Barkley[85]

April 30, 1956

Mount Kenton Cemetery

Paducah

Kentucky

36

Richard Nixon[86]

April 22, 1994

Nixon Presidential Library

Yorba Linda

California

37

Lyndon B. Johnson[87]

January 22, 1973

Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park

Stonewall

Texas

38

Hubert Humphrey[88]

January 13, 1978

Lakewood Cemetery

Minneapolis

Minnesota

39

Spiro Agnew[89]

September 17, 1996

Dulaney Valley Memorial Gardens

Timonium

Maryland

40

Gerald Ford[90]

December 26, 2006

Gerald R. Ford Museum

Grand Rapids

Michigan

41

Nelson Rockefeller[91]

January 26, 1979

Rockefeller Family Cemetery[g]

Sleepy Hollow

New York

text: Future arrangements[edit]

text: Among the living presidents and vice presidents, George H.W. Bush's future burial site is fairly clear.  Bush's wife Barbara was interred at the George Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, in a family plot with signage which indicates that Bush will also be interred there.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both died on July 4, 1826; Jefferson's death occurred approximately five hours before Adams's.[8]

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1828, after initially being interred in the Hancock Cemetery, Quincy, Massachusetts.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Died in office.

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1908, after initially being interred in the Congressional Cemetery, Washington, D.C..

Jump up ^ Interred at this site in 1882, after initially being interred at Chestnut Hill, his plantation near Selma, Alabama.[62]

Jump up ^ Cremated in Bridgeport, Connecticut, ashes interred at this site.[83]

Jump up ^ Cremated ashes interred at this site.[92]

text: Maps and diagrams[edit]

text:
Map showing burial sites of U.S. presidents

Map showing burial sites of U.S. vice presidents


document_title: Jabra (headset)

question_text: what european country does the jabra brand originate from

text: Jabra (headset)

text: This article possibly contains inappropriate or misinterpreted citations that do not verify the text. Please help improve this article by checking for citation inaccuracies. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Industry
Business & Consumer electronicsFounded
1983Founder
Elwood NorrisHeadquarters
Copenhagen, DenmarkArea served
World-wideProducts
HeadsetsWebsite
www.jabra.com

text: Jabra is a subsidiary of GN Netcom.[1] It develops, manufactures and markets wireless and corded headsets for mobile phone users, contact centers and office-based users.

text: History[edit]

text: Jabra Corporation has among its roots Norcom Electronics Corporation, a Utah corporation founded in 1983 by inventor/entrepreneur Elwood "Woody" Norris.[2] From its inception, Norcom was engaged in the development of ear-radio and ear-microphone technologies.

text: In September 1984, American Technology Corporation (ATC), a publicly traded corporation also founded by Norris, acquired 100% of the outstanding shares of Norcom Electronics.[3]

text: In March 1988, ATC sold Norcom Electronics to Norris Communications, Inc. (NCI), another publicly traded corporation founded by Norris, in return for 700,000 shares of NCI common stock and a 1% royalty on gross sales of its EarPHONE product.[3]

text: NCI spun off the assets of Norcom earphone to Randy Granovetter who with Brean Murray founded Jabra Corporation on January 3, 1993. Jabra developed the first in-ear integrated microphone and speaker, invented and patented EarGels ©, developed DSP based echo and noise cancellation technologies, became the first company to tune a headset over-the-air, and created the market segment category for mobile headsets with its Motorola StarTac product. In 1996 the company acquired operations in Scotland to lead its push into Bluetooth technology. In September 2000, Jabra Corporation was acquired by GN Netcom, a division of the Danish company GN Great Nordic, the latter having been founded in 1869 as the Great Northern Telegraph Company

text: In 2006, GN Netcom consolidated its Contact Center and Office (CC&O) headset division under the Jabra brand. This was followed by a restructuring in 2008, which established two distinct divisions within Jabra; CC&O and Mobile. This restructuring thus facilitated a greater focus on business-to-business and consumer markets respectively.[4][5]


document_title: Olympic symbols

question_text: the five rings of the olympics represent what

text: Olympic symbols

text: Motto[edit]

text: The Olympic motto is the hendiatris Citius, Altius, Fortius, which is Latin for "Faster, Higher, Stronger".[1] It was proposed by Pierre de Coubertin upon the creation of the International Olympic Committee in 1894.

text: Coubertin borrowed it from his friend Henri Didon, a Dominican priest who was an athletics enthusiast.[2]

text: Coubertin said "These three words represent a programme of moral beauty. The aesthetics of sport are intangible."[2] The motto was introduced in 1924 at the Olympic Games in Paris.[3] A more informal but well-known motto, also introduced by Coubertin, is "The most important thing is not to win but to take part!" Coubertin got this motto from a sermon by the Bishop of Pennsylvania during the 1908 London Games.[4]

text: Rings[edit]

text: The rings are five interlocking rings, colored blue, yellow, black, green and red on a white field, known as the "Olympic rings". The symbol was originally designed in 1912 by Baron Pierre de Coubertin, co-founder of the modern Olympic Games. He appears to have intended the rings to represent the five participating continents: Africa, Asia, America, Australia and Europe.[5] According to Coubertin, the colors of the rings together with the white of the background included the colors composing every competing nation's flag at the time. Upon its initial introduction, Coubertin stated the following in the August 1912 edition of Olympique:[6]

text: ... the six colors [including the flag's white background] combined in this way reproduce the colours of every country without exception. The blue and yellow of Sweden, the blue and white of Greece, the tricolor flags of France, England, the United States, Germany, Belgium, Italy and Hungary, and the yellow and red of Spain are included, as are the innovative flags of Brazil and Australia, and those of ancient Japan and modern China. This, truly, is an international emblem.

text: In his article published in the Olympic Revue the official magazine of the International Olympic Committee in November 1992, the American historian Robert Barney explains that the idea of the interlaced rings came to Pierre de Coubertin when he was in charge of the USFSA, an association founded by the union of two French sports associations and until 1925, responsible for representing the International Olympic Committee in France: The emblem of the union was two interlaced rings (like the vesica piscis typical interlaced marriage rings) and originally the idea of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung: for him, the ring symbolized continuity and the human being.[7]

text: The 1914 Congress was suspended due to the outbreak of World War I, but the symbol and flag were later adopted. They would first officially debut at the Games of the VII Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium in 1920.[8]

text: The symbol's popularity and widespread use began during the lead-up to the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. Carl Diem, president of the Organizing Committee of the 1936 Summer Olympics, wanted to hold a torchbearers' ceremony in the stadium at Delphi, site of the famous oracle, where the Pythian Games were also held. For this reason he ordered construction of a milestone with the Olympic rings carved in the sides, and that a torchbearer should carry the flame along with an escort of three others from there to Berlin. The ceremony was celebrated but the stone was never removed. Later, two American authors, Lynn and Gray Poole, when visiting Delphi in the late 1950s, saw the stone and reported in their History of the Ancient Games[9] that the Olympic rings design came from ancient Greece. This has become known as "Carl Diem's Stone".[10] This created a myth that the symbol had an ancient Greek origin. The rings would subsequently be featured prominently in Nazi images in 1936 as part of an effort to glorify the Third Reich.[11]

text: The current view of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is that the symbol "reinforces the idea" that the Olympic Movement is international and welcomes all countries of the world to join.[12] As can be read in the Olympic Charter, the Olympic symbol represents the union of the "five continents" of the world and the meeting of athletes from throughout the world at the Olympic Games. However, no continent is represented by any specific ring. Prior to 1951, the official handbook stated that each color corresponded to a particular continent: blue for Europe, yellow for Asia, black for Africa, green for Australia and Oceania and red for the Americas; this was removed because there was no evidence that Coubertin had intended it (the quotation above was probably an afterthought).[13] Nevertheless, the logo of the Association of National Olympic Committees places the logo of each of its five continental associations inside the ring of the corresponding color.

text: Flag[edit]

text: The Olympic flag was created by Pierre de Coubertin in 1914.

text: The Olympic flag has a white background, with five interlaced rings in the centre: blue, yellow, black, green and red. This design is symbolic; it represents the five continents of the world, united by Olympism, while the six colours are those that appear on all the national flags of the world at the present time.

text: Specific flags[edit]

text: There are specific Olympic flags that are displayed by cities that will be hosting the next Olympic games. During each Olympic closing ceremony in what is traditionally known as the Antwerp Ceremony,[15] the flag is passed from the mayor of one host city to the next host, where it will then be taken to the new host and displayed at city hall. These flags should not be confused with the larger Olympic flags designed and created specifically for each games, which are flown over the host stadium and then retired. Because there is no specific flag for this purpose, the flags flown over the stadiums generally have subtle differences, including minor color variations, and, more noticeably, the presence (or lack) of white outlines around each ring.

text: Antwerp flag[edit]

text: The first Olympic flag was presented to the IOC at the 1920 Summer Olympics by the city of Antwerp, Belgium. At the end of the Games, the flag could not be found and a new Olympic flag had to be made for the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris. Despite it being a replacement, the IOC officially still calls this the "Antwerp Flag" instead of the "Paris Flag".[16] It was passed on to the next organizing city of the Summer Olympics or Winter Olympics until the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway when a separate Olympic flag was created to be used only at the Winter Olympics (see below). The 1924 flag then continued to be used at the Summer Olympics until the Games of Seoul 1988 when it was retired.

text: In 1997, at a banquet hosted by the US Olympic Committee, a reporter was interviewing Hal Haig Prieste who had won a bronze medal in platform diving as a member of the 1920 US Olympic team. The reporter mentioned that the IOC had not been able to find out what had happened to the original Olympic flag. "I can help you with that," Prieste said, "It's in my suitcase." At the end of the Antwerp Olympics, spurred on by teammate Duke Kahanamoku, he climbed a flagpole and stole the Olympic flag. For 77 years the flag was stored away in the bottom of his suitcase. The flag was returned to the IOC by Prieste, by then 103 years old, in a special ceremony held at the 2000 Games in Sydney.[17] The original Antwerp Flag is now on display at the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, with a plaque thanking him for donating it.[18]

text: Oslo flag[edit]

text: The Oslo flag was presented to the IOC by the mayor of Oslo, Norway during the 1952 Winter Olympics. Since then, it has been passed to the next organizing city for the Winter Olympics. Currently, the actual Oslo flag is kept preserved in a special box, and a replica has been used during recent closing ceremonies instead.[19]

text: Seoul flag[edit]

text: As a successor to the Antwerp Flag,[20] the Seoul flag was presented to the IOC at the 1988 Summer Olympics by the city of Seoul, South Korea, and has since then been passed on to the next organizing city of the Summer Olympics. The Seoul flag is currently on display at the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Building.

text: Rio flag[edit]

text: As a successor to the Seoul Flag,[21] the Rio flag was presented to the IOC at the 2016 Summer Olympics by the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and has since then been passed on to the next organizing city of the Summer Olympics.

text: Singapore flag[edit]

text: For the inaugural Youth Olympic Games, an Olympic flag was created for the junior version of the Games. The flag is similar to the Olympic flag, but has the host city and year on it and was first presented to Singapore by IOC President Jacques Rogge.[22][23] During the closing ceremony on 26 August 2010, Singapore officials presented it to the next organizing committee, Nanjing 2014.[24]

text: Flame and torch relay[edit]

text: The modern tradition of moving the Olympic Flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue began with the Berlin Games in 1936. Months before the Games are held, the Olympic Flame is lit on a torch, with the rays of the Sun concentrated by a parabolic reflector, at the site of the Ancient Olympics in Olympia, Greece. The torch is then taken out of Greece, most often to be taken around the country or continent where the Games are held. The Olympic torch is carried by athletes, leaders, celebrities, and ordinary people alike, and at times in unusual conditions, such as being electronically transmitted via satellite for Montreal 1976, submerged underwater without being extinguished for Sydney 2000, or in space and at the North Pole for Sochi 2014. On the final day of the torch relay, the day of the Opening Ceremony, the Flame reaches the main stadium and is used to light a cauldron situated in a prominent part of the venue to signify the beginning of the Games.

text: Medals[edit]

text: The Olympic medals awarded to winners are another symbol associated with the Olympic games. The medals are made of gold-plated silver (commonly described as gold medals), silver, or bronze, and awarded to the top 3 finishers in a particular event. Each medal for an Olympiad has a common design, decided upon by the organizers for the particular games. From 1928 until 2000, the obverse side of the medals contained an image of Nike, the traditional goddess of victory, holding a palm in her left hand and a winner's crown in her right. This design was created by Giuseppe Cassioli. For each Olympic games, the reverse side as well as the labels for each Olympiad changed, reflecting the host of the games.

text: In 2004, the obverse side of the medals changed to make more explicit reference to the Greek character of the games. In this design, the goddess Nike flies into the Panathenic stadium, reflecting the renewal of the games. The design was by Greek jewelry designer Elena Votsi.[25]

text: Olympic diplomas are given to competitors placing fourth, fifth, and sixth since 1949, and to competitors placing seventh and eighth since 1981.

text: Anthems[edit]

text: The Olympic Hymn, officially known as the Olympic Anthem, is played when the Olympic Flag is raised. It is a musical piece composed by Spyridon Samaras with words written from a poem of the Greek poet and writer Kostis Palamas. Both the poet and the composer were the choice of Demetrius Vikelas, a Greek Pro-European and the first President of the IOC. The anthem was performed for the first time for the ceremony of opening of the 1896 Athens Olympic Games but wasn't declared the official hymn by the IOC until 1957. In the following years, every hosting nation commissioned the composition of a specific Olympic hymn for their own edition of the Games until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.

text: Other notable Olympic anthems and fanfares include:

text:
Olympische Hymne: A composition for orchestra and mixed chorus composed by Richard Strauss for the 1936 Berlin Summer Olympics.
The Olympic Fanfare for the 1952 Helsinki Summer Olympics was originally composed by Aarre Merikanto for the 1940 Summer Olympics, which were cancelled. Merikanto's Fanfare won the fanfare contest organized in Finland in 1939, but the score was lost over a decade; when rediscovered in 1951, it was decided to use this Fanfare in 1952. The popular Fanfare was recorded in 1953.[26]
Bugler's Dream: Written in 1958 by Leo Arnaud as part of his Charge Suite, the theme is often thought of by Americans as the "Olympic theme" due to its usage in television coverage by ABC and NBC, starting with the 1964 Olympics.
The Olympic March: The theme written by Yūji Koseki for the Tokyo 1964 Summer Olympics theme song.
Olympic Fanfare 1972: The winning submission for the Munich 1972 Summer Olympics theme song, used as the TV signature tune of the German Olympic Center (Deutsches Olympia-Zentrum, DOZ) and the prelude to the medal ceremonies, composed by Herbert Rehbein.[27] It was performed by the Orchestra of the Bavarian Broadcasting Company (Orchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks) and members of the Air Force Band Neubiberg, conducted by Willy Mattes.[citation needed]
Olympic Fanfare and Theme: Composed by John Williams for the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics, the theme was performed in the opening ceremonies by the United States Army Herald Trumpets conducted by then-Captain David Deitrick.[28] The first recording, performed by an orchestra composed of Los Angeles-area musicians, was released in its entirety on the LP and cassette album The Official Music of the XXIIIrd Olympiad Los Angeles 1984, with a concurrent Japan-only CD release (which went on to win a Grammy in 1985).[29] A slightly different arrangement of the piece was released on the Philips album By Request: The Best of John Williams and the Boston Pops Orchestra. In 1996, an alternate version of "Olympic Fanfare and Theme" was released on the album Summon the Heroes for the Atlanta Olympic Games, replacing the first part of the piece with Arnaud's Bugler's Dream. The theme was also used in closing ceremony of the 2010 Olympic Games, as the nations' flagbearers entered BC Place Stadium surrounding the Olympic Flame and when the Olympic Flag was brought into the stadium by Vancouver mayor Gregor Robertson.
The Olympic Spirit: The theme written by John Williams for the 1988 Olympics in Seoul and used in the corresponding NBC broadcasts.
Summon the Heroes: The theme written by John Williams for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta.
The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.: The theme song to this television show, composed by Randy Edelman, has been used by NBC for its television broadcasts since the 1996 Summer Olympics.
Call of the Champions: The theme written by John Williams for the 2002 Salt Lake Winter Olympics.

text: Several other composers have contributed Olympic music during the years, including Henry Mancini, Francis Lai, Marvin Hamlisch, Philip Glass, David Foster, Mikis Theodorakis, Ryuichi Sakamoto, Vangelis, Basil Poledouris, Michael Kamen, and Mark Watters.

text: Kotinos[edit]

text: The kotinos (Greek: κότινος),[30] is an olive branch, originally of wild olive-tree, intertwined to form a circle or a horse-shoe, introduced by Heracles.[31] In the ancient Olympic Games there were no gold, silver, or bronze medals. There was only one winner per event, crowned with an olive wreath made of wild olive leaves from a sacred tree near the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Aristophanes in Plutus makes a sensible remark why victorious athletes are crowned with wreath made of wild olive instead of gold.[32] The victorious athletes were honored, feted, and praised. Their deeds were heralded and chronicled so that future generations could appreciate their accomplishments.

text: Herodotus describes the following story which is relevant to the olive wreath. Xerxes was interrogating some Arcadians after the Battle of Thermopylae. He inquired why there were so few Greek men defending the Thermopylae. The answer was "All other men are participating in the Olympic Games". And when asked "What is the prize for the winner?", "An olive-wreath" came the answer. Then Tigranes, one of his generals uttered a most noble saying: "Good heavens! Mardonius, what kind of men are these against whom you have brought us to fight? Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour."[33]

text: However, in later times, this was not their only reward; the athlete was rewarded with a generous sum of money by his country. The kotinos tradition was renewed specifically for the Athens 2004 Games, although in this case it was bestowed together with the gold medal. Apart from its use in the awards-ceremonies, the kotinos was chosen as the 2004 Summer Olympics emblem.

text: Olympic salute[edit]

text: The Olympic salute is a variant of the Roman salute, with the right arm and hand are stretched and pointing upward, the palm is outward and downward, with the fingers touching. However, unlike the Roman Salute, the arm is raised higher and at an angle to the right from the shoulder.[34][35]The greeting is visible on the official posters of the games at Paris 1924[34] and Berlin 1936.[36]

text: The Olympic salute has fallen out of use since World War II because of its strong resemblance to the Nazi salute.[37]

text: Mascots[edit]

text: Since the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France, the Olympic Games have had a mascot, usually an animal native to the area or occasionally human figures representing the cultural heritage. The first major mascot in the Olympic Games was Misha in the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Misha was used extensively during the opening and closing ceremonies, had a TV animated cartoon and appeared on several merchandise products. Nowadays, most of the merchandise aimed at young people focuses on the mascots, rather than the Olympic flag or organization logos.

text: Intellectual property[edit]

text: The Olympic Movement is very protective of its symbols; as many jurisdictions have given the movement exclusive rights to any interlocking arrangement of five rings, and usage of the word "Olympic" under trademark statutes. (The rings themselves are not eligible for copyright, both because of their date of creation and because five circles arranged in a pattern do not reach the threshold of originality required for copyright to be invoked.) They have taken action against numerous groups alleged to have violated this trademark, including the Gay Games; the Minneapolis-based band The Hopefuls, formerly The Olympic Hopefuls; Redneck Olympics or Redneck Games; Awana Clubs International, a Christian youth ministry who used the term for its competitive games; and Wizards of the Coast, publisher at the time of the IOC's complaint of the card game Legend of the Five Rings. But a few companies have been successful in using the Olympic name, such as Olympic Paint, which even has a paintbrush in the form of a torch as its logo, and the former Greek airline Olympic Airlines.

text: Norwegian brewery Frydenlund designed a label with the five Olympic rings on the brewery's root beer, patenting the label in 1938. In 1952, when Norway was to arrange the Winter Olympics, the Olympic Committee was notified by Norway's Patent Office that it was Frydenlund who owned the rights to the rings. Today, the brewery Ringnes AS owns the rights to continue the tradition with the five rings on its root beer.[38] Certain other sporting organizations and events have been granted permission by the IOC to use the word "Olympics" in their name, such as Special Olympics, an international sporting event held every four years for people with intellectual disabilities.

text: In recent years, organizing committees have also demanded the passing of laws to combat ambush marketing by non-official sponsors during the Games (such as the London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006), putting heavy restrictions on using any term or imagery that could constitute an unauthorized association with the games, including mere mentioning of the host city, the year, and others.[39][40]


document_title: List of Asian countries by area

question_text: what is the largest country in the asia

question_tokens: what is the largest country in the asia

text: List of Asian countries by area

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Below is a list of all the Asian countries, in order of geographical area. Asia's total geographical area is 44,579,000 km².

text: Note: Some of these countries are transcontinental or have territory located somewhere other than Asia. These countries are marked with an asterisk (*).

text:
Rank
Country
Area (km²)
Notes

1
 Russia*
13,100,000
17,125,200 including European part

2
 China
9,596,961
excludes Hong Kong, Macau,Taiwan and disputed areas/islands

3
 India[1]
3,287,263

4
 Kazakhstan*
2,455,034
2,724,902 km² including European part

5
 Saudi Arabia
2,149,690

6
 Iran
1,648,195

7
 Mongolia
1,564,110

8
 Indonesia*
1,472,639
1,904,569 km² including Oceanian part

9
 Pakistan
796,095
882,363 km² including Gilgit-Baltistan and AJK

10
 Turkey*
747,272
783,562 km² including European part

11
 Myanmar
676,578

12
 Afghanistan
652,230

13
 Yemen
527,968

14
 Thailand
513,120

15
 Turkmenistan
488,100

16
 Uzbekistan
447,400

17
 Iraq
438,317

18
 Japan
377,930

19
 Vietnam
331,212

20
 Malaysia
330,803

21
 Oman
309,500

22
 Philippines
300,000

23
 Laos
236,800

24
 Kyrgyzstan
199,951

25
 Syria
185,180
Includes the parts of the Golan Heights

26
 Cambodia
181,035

27
 Bangladesh
147,570

28
 Nepal
147,181

29
 Tajikistan
143,100

30
 North Korea
120,538

31
 South Korea
100,210

32
 Jordan
89,342

33
 Azerbaijan*
86,600
Sometimes considered part of Europe.

34
 United Arab Emirates
83,600

35
 Georgia*
69,000
Sometimes considered part of Europe.

36
 Sri Lanka
65,610

37
 Egypt*
60,000
1,002,450 km² including African part

38
 Bhutan
38,394

39
 Taiwan
36,193

40
 Armenia
29,843
Sometimes considered part of Europe.

41
 Israel
20,273

42
 Kuwait
17,818

43
 Timor-Leste
14,874

44
 Qatar
11,586

45
 Lebanon
10,452

46
 Cyprus
9,251
5,896  km² excluding Northern Cyprus. Politically sometimes considered part of Europe.

47
 Palestine
6,220

48
 Brunei
5,765

49
 Bahrain
765

50
 Singapore
716

51
 Maldives
300

Total
44,579,000


document_title: Indian honours system

question_text: which is the india's highest honour in the field of literature

question_tokens: which is the india 's highest honour in the field of literature

text: Indian honours system

text: Civilian Awards[edit]

text: Bharat Ratna[edit]

text:
The Bharat Ratna,[1] the highest civilian award of the country, was instituted in the year 1954. Any person without distinction of race, occupation, position, or gender is eligible for this award. It is awarded in recognition of exceptional service/performance of the highest order in any field of human endeavour. On conferment of the award, the recipient receives a
certificate signed by the President and a medallion.
It is not mandatory that this award should be given every year.

text: Padma awards[edit]

text: Padma Awards[2] were instituted in the year 1954. Except for brief interruptions during the years 1977 to 1980 and 1993 to 1997, these awards have been announced every year on Republic Day. The award is given in three categories, viz. Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri, in the decreasing order of importance.

text:
Padma Vibhushan  for "exceptional and distinguished service". Padma Vibhushan is the second-highest civilian award in India.
Padma Bhushan for "distinguished service of a high order". Padma Bhushan is the third-highest civilian award in India .
Padma Shri is awarded for "distinguished service". Padma Shri is the fourth-highest civilian award in India.

text: While national honours, the Padma awards do not include cash allowances, benefits, or special concessions in rail/air travel.[3] Per a December 1995 judgment of the Supreme Court of India, no titles or honorifics are associated with the Bharat Ratna or any of the Padma awards; honorees cannot use them or their initials as suffixes, prefixes or pre- and post-nominals attached to the awardee’s name. This includes any such use on letterheads, invitation cards, posters, books etc. In the case of any misuse, the awardee will forfeit the award, and he or she is cautioned against any such misuse upon receiving the honour.[4]

text:
The decoration comprises a sanad (Certificate) issued under the hand and seal of the President and a Medallion.
The recipients are also given a replica of the medallion, which they can wear during any ceremonial/State functions etc., if they desire.
A commemorative brochure giving out brief details in respect of each award winner is also released on the day of the investiture ceremony.

text: Selection process[edit]

text: These awards seek to recognize work of any distinction and is given for distinguished and exceptional achievements/service in all fields of activities/disciplines, such as art, literature and education, sports, medicine, social work, science and engineering, public affairs, civil service, trade and industry, etc. All persons without distinction of race, occupation, position or sex are eligible for these awards.

text: In 2018, the BJP government decided to end the practice of ministers recommending names for Padma awards and replaced it with any Indian citizen recommending a person for Padma awards online. The government said that this was done with the belief that every citizen has something to contribute to the nation and that contribution should be integrated with the country's growth. Accordingly, several hitherto unknown citizens were awarded Padma awards in 2017. The role of the state governments was also minimised.[5][6][7]

text: Annulment of awards[edit]

text: While there are no specific criteria for withdrawing a Padma award, the President of India, per the awards' statutes, may cancel and annul any award in the case of any misconduct committed by the recipient. At least three awards of the Padma Shri have been so annulled, twice in 1958 for recipients residing in the state of Punjab and once in 1974 for a recipient residing in the state of Gujarat.[8]

text: Military Awards[edit]

text: Wartime gallantry awards[edit]

text:
Param Vir Chakra — Highest military award for, equivalent to the Victoria Cross (which was replaced once India gained its independence).
Maha Vir Chakra – Maha Vir Chakra is the second highest military decoration in India and is awarded for acts of conspicuous gallantry in the presence of the enemy, whether on land, at sea or in the air.
Vir Chakra – Third in precedence in the awards for wartime gallantry

text: Peacetime gallantry awards[edit]

text:
Ashok Chakra Award – An Indian military decoration awarded for valour, courageous action or self-sacrifice away from the battlefield. It is the peacetime equivalent of the Param Vir Chakra.
Kirti Chakra – Second in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards.
Shaurya Chakra – Third in order of precedence of peacetime gallantry awards.

text: Wartime/Peacetime service  awards[edit]

text: Sena Medal / Nau Sena Medal / Vayusena Medal

text: Wartime Distinguished Service[edit]

text:
Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal
Uttam Yudh Seva Medal
Yudh Seva Medal

text: Peacetime Distinguished Service[edit]

text:
Param Vishisht Seva Medal
Ati Vishisht Seva Medal
Vishisht Seva Medal

text: National awards[edit]

text: Women[edit]

text: Nari Shakti Puraskar

text: Children[edit]

text:
National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement
National Bal Shree Honour

text: Literature awards[edit]

text:
Jnanpith Award is the highest literary honour Award in Literature of India
Sahitya Akademi Award
Sahitya Akademi Fellowship
Saraswati samman
Bhasha Samman
Translation Awards
Anand Coomarswamy Fellowships
Premchand Fellowship

text: Particular  awards[edit]

text: National sports awards[edit]

text:
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna
Dronacharya award
Arjuna award
Dhyan Chand Award
C.K. Nayudu Award
Ranjit Award

text: Police awards[edit]

text:
President's Police Medal for Gallantry
President's Fire Services Medal for Gallantry
President's Correctional Service Medal for Gallantry
President's Home Guards and Civil Defence Medal for Gallantry
Police Medal for Gallantry
Fire Services Medal for Gallantry
Correctional Service Medal for Gallantry
Home Guards and Civil Defence Medal for Gallantry
President's Police Medal for Distinguished Service
President's Fire Services Medal for Distinguished Service
President's Correctional Service Medal for Distinguished Service
President's Home Guards and Civil Defence for Distinguished Service
Police Medal for Meritorious Service
Fire Services Medal for Meritorious Service
Correction Service Medal for Meritorious Service
Home Guards and Civil Defence Medal for Meritorious Service
President Tat Rakshak Medal

text: Bravery awards[edit]

text:
National Bravery Award
Bharat Award
Sanjay Chopra Award
Geeta Chopra Award
Kritin Bhardwaj
Jeevan Raksha Padak Series of Awards
Sarvottam Jeevan Raksha Padak
Uttam Jeevan Raksha Padak
Jeevan Raksha Padak