document_title: Paralympic Games

question_text: who were the paralympic games initially meant for

text: Paralympic Games

text: Forerunners[edit]

text: Athletes with disabilities did compete in the Olympic Games prior to the advent of the Paralympics. The first athlete to do so was German American gymnast George Eyser in 1904, who had one artificial leg. Hungarian Karoly Takacs competed in shooting events in both the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics. He was a right-arm amputee and could shoot left-handed. Another disabled athlete to appear in the Olympics prior to the Paralympic Games was Lis Hartel, a Danish equestrian athlete who had contracted polio in 1943 and won a silver medal in the dressage event.[6]

text: The first organized athletic day for disabled athletes that coincided with the Olympic Games took place on the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Jewish-German born Dr. Ludwig Guttmann of Stoke Mandeville Hospital,[7] who had been helped to flee Nazi Germany by the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics (CARA) in 1939,[8] hosted a sports competition for British World War II veteran patients with spinal cord injuries. The first games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games, and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics.[9] Dr. Guttman's aim was to create an elite sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games. The games were held again at the same location in 1952, and Dutch and Israeli veterans took part alongside the British, making it the first international competition of its kind. These early competitions, also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games, have been described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games.

text: Milestones[edit]

text: There have been several milestones in the Paralympic movement. The first official Paralympic Games, no longer open solely to war veterans, was held in Rome in 1960.[10] 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games. Since 1960, the Paralympic Games have taken place in the same year as the Olympic Games.[11][12] The Games were initially open only to athletes in wheelchairs; at the 1976 Summer Games, athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a Summer Paralympics.[9] With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1,600 athletes from 40 countries.[11] The 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul, South Korea, was another milestone for the Paralympic movement. It was in Seoul that the Paralympic Summer Games were held directly after the Olympic Summer Games, in the same host city, and using the same facilities. This set a precedent that was followed in 1992, 1996 and 2000. It was eventually formalized in an agreement between the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2001,[11][13] and was recently extended through 2020.[14] The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics.

text: Winter Games[edit]

text: The first Winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete.[11] The Winter Games were celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart, just as the Olympics were. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Paralympics and the Winter Olympics have been held in those even-numbered years separate from the Summer Games.[11]

text: Recent games[edit]

text: The Paralympic games were designed to emphasize the participants' athletic achievements and not their disability. Recent games have emphasized that these games are about ability and not disability.[15] The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example, the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to over 3,900 athletes from 164 countries in London in 2012.[16] Both the Paralympic Summer and Winter Games are recognized on the world stage. The Paralympics is no longer held solely for British war veterans or just for athletes in wheelchairs, but for elite athletes with a wide variety of disabilities from all over the world.[17]

text: International Paralympic Committee[edit]

text: The IPC is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement. It comprises 176[18] National Paralympic Committees (NPC) and four disability-specific international sports federations.[19] The president of the IPC is Philip Craven, a former Paralympian from Great Britain.[20] In his capacity as head of the IPC, Craven is also a member of the International Olympic Committee.[21] The IPC's international headquarters are in Bonn, Germany.[22] The IPC is responsible for organizing the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games. It also serves as the International Federation for nine sports (Paralympic athletics, Paralympic swimming, Paralympic shooting, Paralympic powerlifting, Para-alpine skiing, Paralympic biathlon, Paralympic cross-country skiing, ice sledge hockey and Wheelchair DanceSport). This requires the IPC to supervise and coordinate the World Championships and other competitions for each of the nine sports it regulates.[15] IPC membership also includes National Paralympic Committees [18] and international sporting federations.[23] International Federations are independent sport federations recognized by the IPC as the sole representative of a Paralympic Sport. International Federations responsibilities include technical jurisdiction and guidance over the competition and training venues of their respective sports during the Paralympic Games. The IPC also recognizes media partners, certifies officials, judges, and is responsible for enforcing the bylaws of the Paralympic Charter.[24]

text: The IPC has a cooperative relationship with the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Delegates of the IPC are also members of the IOC and participate on IOC committees and commissions. The two governing bodies remain distinct, with separate Games, despite the close working relationship.[25]

text: Name and symbols[edit]

text: Although the name was originally coined as a portmanteau combining "paraplegic" (due to its origins as games for people with spinal injuries) and "Olympic," the inclusion of other disability groups meant that this was no longer considered very accurate. The present formal explanation for the name is that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά, pará ("beside" or "alongside") and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games.[26] The Summer Games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term "Paralympic" came into official use.

text: “Spirit in Motion” is the motto for the Paralympic movement. The symbol for the Paralympics contains three colours, red, blue, and green, which are the colours most widely represented in the flags of nations. The colours are each in the shape of an Agito (which is Latin for "I move"), which is the name given to an asymmetrical crescent specially designed for the Paralympic movement. The three Agitos circle a central point, which is a symbol for the athletes congregating from all points of the globe.[27] The motto and symbol of the IPC were changed in 2003 to their current versions. The change was intended to convey the idea that Paralympians have a spirit of competition and that the IPC as an organization realizes its potential and is moving forward to achieve it. The vision of the IPC is, "To enable Paralympic athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to inspire and excite the world."[28] The Paralympic anthem is "Hymne de l'Avenir" or "Anthem of the Future". It was composed by Thierry Darnis and adopted as the official anthem in March 1996.[29]

text: Ceremonies[edit]

text: Opening[edit]

text: As mandated by the Paralympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.[30] The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. Unlike the Olympic Games, immediately after the national anthem the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Since the 1988 Summer Paralympics, the nations enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language, though with the host country's athletes being the last to enter. Since the 1988 Summer Paralympics, the host nation presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theatre representative of its culture.

text: Speeches are given, formally opening the games. Finally, the Paralympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier—often a Paralympic athlete from the host nation—who lights the Paralympic flame in the stadium's cauldron.[31]

text: Closing[edit]

text: The closing ceremony of the Paralympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. The Paralympic flag is taken down. Since the 1988 Winter Paralympics, with some exceptions, the national flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Paralympic Games is hoisted while the corresponding national anthem is played. The games are officially closed, and the Paralympic flame is extinguished.[32] After these compulsory elements, the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture.

text: Medal presentation[edit]

text: A medal ceremony is held after each Paralympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IPC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medallists country plays.[33] Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag-bearers.[34] For every Paralympic event, the respective medal ceremony is held, at most, one day after the event's final.

text: Equality[edit]

text: Relationship with the Olympics[edit]

text: In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. This agreement was to remain in effect until the 2012 Summer Olympics,[11] but was extended, encompassing all Summer and Winter games up until the 2020 Summer Olympics.[35]

text: The IOC has written its commitment to equal access to athletics for all people into its charter, which states,[36]

text: The practice of sport is a human right. Every individual must have the possibility of practising sport, without discrimination of any kind and in the Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play....Any form of discrimination with regard to a country or a person on grounds of race, religion, politics, gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement.

text: While the charter is silent on discrimination specifically related to disability; given the language in the charter regarding discrimination it is reasonable to infer that discrimination on the basis of disability would be against the ideals of the Olympic Charter and the IOC.[37] This is also consistent with the Paralympic Charter, which forbids discrimination on the basis of political, religious, economic, disability, gender, sexual orientation or racial reasons.[38]

text: Chairman of the London organising committee, Sebastian Coe, said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England, that, "We want to change public attitudes towards disability, celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two Games are an integrated whole."[39]

text: The 2014 Winter Paralympic Games is the first such Paralympics hosted by Russia. Russia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities during that period. Notably at 2010 Vancouver their Paralympic team topped the medal table at the Winter Paralympics, while their Olympic team performed well below expectations at the Winter Olympics. This led the media to highlight the contrast between the achievements of the country's Olympic and Paralympic delegations, despite the greater attention and funding awarded to the Olympic athletes.[40][41] The Russian Federation organizers of the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games have, since 2007, made efforts to make the host city Sochi more accessible.[42]

text: Paralympians at the Olympics[edit]

text: Paralympic athletes have sought equal opportunities to compete at the Olympic Games. The precedent was set by Neroli Fairhall, a Paralympic archer from New Zealand, who competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.[43]

text: In 2008 Oscar Pistorius, a South African sprinter, attempted to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics. Pistorius had both his legs amputated below the knee and races with two carbon fibre blades manufactured by Ossur. He holds Paralympic world record in the 400 meter event.[44] Pistorius missed qualifying for the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 400 meter race, by 0.70 seconds. He qualified for the 2008 Summer Paralympics where he won gold medals in the 100, 200, and 400 meter sprints.[45] In 2011, Pistorius qualified for the 2012 Summer Olympics and competed in two events: he made the semi-final in the 400 metres race; and his team came 8th in the final of the 4 × 400 metres relay race.[46] Even though all athletes are given equal opportunities to participate in these events, such as the 400 meter race, there has been a growing conspiracy that the games may not be fair to all athletes. For example, athletes running a race with a left prosthetic leg may have the disadvantage than those with a right side prosthesis because the races are run in an anticlockwise direction, giving some athletes an advantage. [47]

text: Some athletes without a disability also compete at the Paralympics; The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team, and both athletes are medal candidates.[48]

text: Funding[edit]

text: There has been criticism for not providing equal funding to Paralympic athletes as compared to Olympic athletes. An example of this criticism was a lawsuit filed by Paralympic athletes Tony Iniguez, Scot Hollonbeck and Jacob Heilveil of the United States, in 2003.[49] They alleged that the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), which also include the USOC Paralympic Division (the National Paralympic Committee), was underfunding American Paralympic athletes. Iniguez cited the fact that the USOC made healthcare benefits available to a smaller percentage of Paralympians, the USOC provided smaller quarterly training stipends and paid smaller financial awards for medals won at a Paralympics. US Paralympians saw this as a disadvantage for the US Paralympic athletes, as nations such as Canada and Britain supported Paralympians and Olympians virtually equally. The USOC did not deny the discrepancy in funding and contended that this was due to the fact that it did not receive any government financial support. As a result, it had to rely on revenue generated by the media exposure of its athletes. Olympic athletic success resulted in greater exposure for the USOC than Paralympic athletic achievements. The case was heard by lower courts, who ruled that the USOC has the right to allocate its finances to athletes at different rates. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court,[50] where on September 6, 2008 it announced that it would not hear the appeal. However, during the time the lawsuit lasted (from 2003 to 2008), the funding from the USOC had nearly tripled. In 2008 $11.4 million was earmarked for Paralympic athletes, up from $3 million in 2004.[49]

text: As with the Olympics, recent Paralympics have also been supported by contributions from major sponsors. Unlike the Olympics, where the IOC mandates that arenas be clean of sponsor logos, the Paralympics do allow the logos of official sponsors to be displayed inside arenas and on uniforms.[51]

text: Media coverage[edit]

text: While the Olympic Games have experienced tremendous growth in global media coverage since the 1984 Summer Olympics, the Paralympics have been unable to maintain a consistent international media presence.

text: Television broadcasts of Paralympic Games began in 1976, but this early coverage was confined to taped-delay releases to one nation or region. At the 1992 Summer Paralympics there were 45 hours of live coverage but it was available only in Europe. Other countries broadcast highlight packages during the Games. No meaningful improvements in coverage occurred until the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney.

text: The 2000 Paralympics represented a significant increase in global media exposure for the Paralympic Games. A deal was reached between the Sydney Paralympic Organizing Committee (SPOC) and All Media Sports (AMS) to broadcast the Games internationally. Deals were reached with Asian, South American, and European broadcast companies to distribute coverage to as many markets as possible. The Games were also webcast for the first time. Because of these efforts the Sydney Paralympics reached a global audience estimated at 300 million people.[52] Also significant was the fact that the organizers did not have to pay networks to televise the Games as had been done at the 1992 and 1996 Games.[53] Despite these advances consistent media attention has been a challenge, which was evidenced in the coverage in Great Britain of the 2010 Winter Paralympics.

text: In the UK, it is a legal requirement for the games to be broadcast by a free-to-air broadcaster; the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was criticized for its minimal coverage of the 2010 Winter Paralympics as compared to its coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics. The BBC announced it would stream some content on its website and show a one-hour highlight program after the Games ended. For the Winter Olympics the BBC aired 160 hours of coverage. The response from the BBC was that budget constraints and the "time zone factor" necessitated a limited broadcast schedule.[54] The reduction in coverage was done in spite of increased ratings for the 2008 Summer Paralympics, which was watched by 23% of the population of Great Britain.[54] In Norway, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) broadcast 30 hours of the 2010 Winter Games live. NRK-sport were critical of parts of the TV production from Vancouver, and notified the EBU of issues such as the biathlon coverage excluding the shooting, and cross-country skiing with skiers in the distance, making it hard to follow the progress of the competition. NRK were far more pleased with the production of the ice sledge hockey and wheelchair curling events, which they felt reached the same level as the Olympic Games.[55]

text: Public-service broadcaster Channel 4 acquired the rights to the Paralympics in the United Kingdom for the 2012 Summer Paralympics, and planned to air extensive coverage of the games; Channel 4 aired 150 hours of coverage, and also offered mobile apps, and three dedicated streaming channels of additional coverage on Sky, Freesat, Virgin Media and Channel 4's website."[56] Channel 4 also made a push to heighten the profile of the Paralympics in the country by producing a 2 minute trailer for its coverage, "Meet the Superhumans"; which premièred simultaneously on over 70 commercial channels in the UK on 17 July 2012.[57][58] Channel 4 have also acquired the rights to the 2014 Winter Paralympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics.[59]

text: American broadcaster NBC Sports, who also owns the broadcast rights to the Olympics, has been criticised by athletes and IPC officials for airing too little coverage of the Paralympics; the lack of coverage from NBC in Athens was a cause for concern from senior IPC officials, especially given that the United States was bidding for the 2012 Games. In 2012 NBC only produced around 5 hours of tape delayed highlights from the Games, airing on the pay TV channel NBC Sports Network, and did not cover the ceremonies at all.[60]

text: IPC president Philip Craven was vocal about NBC's reluctance to air coverage in 2012, expressing his disappointment for American athletes and viewers who would miss the "amazing images" the games would bring, and remarking that "some people think that North America always lead[s] on everything, and on this they don't. It's about time they caught up."[61] Following the closing ceremonies, Craven hinted that the IPC might put greater scrutiny on broadcasters at future editions of the Paralympics (or may strip NBC of its broadcast rights), by stating that "if we find our values don’t fit, we’ll have to go somewhere else."[62] NBC would pick up broadcast rights to the 2014 and 2016 Paralympics, promising significantly increased coverage than before.[63]

text: Outside the games[edit]

text: A 2010 study by the University of British Columbia (UBC) on the Olympic Games Impact (OGI), showed that of roughly 1,600 Canadian respondents, 41–50 percent believed the 2010 Paralympic and Olympic Games in Vancouver, Canada triggered additional accessibility of buildings, sidewalks and public spaces. 23 percent of employers said the Games had increased their willingness to hire people with disabilities.[64]

text: Chief Executive Officer for the International Paralympic Committee, Xavier Gonzalez, said about the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing, China, that

text: "In China, the (Paralympic) Games were really a transformation tool for changing attitudes across the board in China towards people with disability, to building accessibility facilities in the city, to changing laws to allow people with a disability to be part of society."[65]

text: Classification[edit]

text: The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has established ten disability categories. Athletes are divided within each category according to their level of impairment, in a functional classification system which differs from sport to sport.

text: Categories[edit]

text: The IPC has established ten disability categories, including physical, visual, and intellectual impairment. Athletes with one of these disabilities can compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category. These categories apply to both Summer and Winter Paralympics.[66]

text: Physical Impairment – There are eight different types of physical impairment:

text:
Impaired muscle power – With impairments in this category, the force generated by muscles, such as the muscles of one limb, one side of the body or the lower half of the body is reduced, (e.g. spinal cord injury, spina bifida, post-polio syndrome).
Impaired passive range of movement – Range of movement in one or more joints is reduced in a systematic way. Acute conditions such as arthritis are not included.
Loss of limb or limb deficiency – A total or partial absence of bones or joints from partial or total loss due to illness, trauma, or congenital limb deficiency (e.g. dysmelia).
Leg-length difference – Significant bone shortening occurs in one leg due to congenital deficiency or trauma.
Short stature – Standing height is reduced due to shortened legs, arms and trunk, which are due to a musculoskeletal deficit of bone or cartilage structures. (e.g. achondroplasia, growth hormone deficiency, osteogenesis imperfecta)
Hypertonia – Hypertonia is marked by an abnormal increase in muscle tension and reduced ability of a muscle to stretch. Hypertonia may result from injury, disease, or conditions which involve damage to the central nervous system (e.g. cerebral palsy).
Ataxia – Ataxia is an impairment that consists of a lack of coordination of muscle movements (e.g. cerebral palsy, Friedreich’s ataxia, multiple sclerosis).
Athetosis – Athetosis is generally characterized by unbalanced, involuntary movements and a difficulty maintaining a symmetrical posture (e.g. cerebral palsy, choreoathetosis).

text: Visual Impairment – Athletes with visual impairment ranging from partial vision, sufficient to be judged legally blind, to total blindness. This includes impairment of one or more component of the visual system (eye structure, receptors, optic nerve pathway, and visual cortex).[66] The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team. Beginning in 2012, these guides (along with sighted goalkeepers in 5-a-side football became eligible to receive medals of their own.[48][67]

text: Intellectual Disability – Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behaviour. The IPC primarily serves athletes with physical disabilities, but the disability group Intellectual Disability has been added to some Paralympic Games. This includes only elite athletes with intellectual disabilities diagnosed before the age of 18.[66] However, the IOC-recognized Special Olympics World Games are open to all people with intellectual disabilities.[4]

text: Classification system[edit]

text: Within the disability categories, the athletes still need to be divided according to level of impairment. The classification systems differ from sport to sport and are intended to open up sports to as many athletes as possible who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability. The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities. Consequently, there is a range of impairment within most classifications .[68]

text: Medical classification (until 1980s)[edit]

text: From its inception until the 1980s, the Paralympic system for classifying athletes consisted of a medical evaluation and diagnosis of impairment. An athlete's medical condition was the only factor used to determine what class they competed in. For example, an athlete who had a spinal cord injury that resulted in lower limb paresis, would not compete in the same wheelchair race as an athlete with a double above-knee amputation. The fact that their disability caused the same impairment did not factor into classification determination, the only consideration was their medical diagnosis. It was not until views on disabled athletics shifted from just a form of rehabilitation to an end in itself, that the classification system changed from medical diagnosis to a focus on the functional abilities of the athlete.[69]

text: Functional classification (since 1980s)[edit]

text: While there is no clear date when the shift occurred, a functional classification system became the norm for disabled athletic classification in the 1980s. In a functional system the focus is on what effect the athlete's impairment has on his or her athletic performance. Under this system, athletes with total loss of function in their legs will compete together in most sports, because their functional loss is the same and the reason for the loss is immaterial. The only exception to the functional system is the classification format used by International Blind Sport Federation (IBSA), which still uses a medically based system.[69]

text: Some sports are only held for certain disability types. For example, goalball is only for visually impaired athletes. The Paralympics recognizes three different grades of visual impairment, consequently all competitors in goalball must wear a visor or "black out mask" so that athletes with less visual impairment will not have an advantage.[70] Other sports, like athletics, are open to athletes with a wide variety of impairments. In athletics, participants are broken down into a range of classes based on the disability they have and then they are placed in a classification within that range based on their level of impairment. For example: classes 11–13 are for visually impaired athletes, which class they are in depends on their level of visual impairment.[71] There are also team competitions such as wheelchair rugby. Members of the team are each given a point value based on their activity limitation. A lower score indicates a more severe activity limitation than a higher score. A team cannot have more than a certain maximum total of points on the field of play at the same time to ensure equal competition. For example, in wheelchair rugby the five players' combined disability number must total no more than eight points.[72]

text: Sports[edit]

text: There are twenty-two sports on the Summer Paralympic program and five sports on the Winter Paralympics program. Within some of the sports are several events. For example, alpine skiing has downhill, super combined, super-G, slalom, giant slalom. The IPC has governance over several of the sports but not all of them. Other international organizations, known as International Sports Federations (IF), notably the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation (IWAS), the International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA), and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CP-ISRA), govern some sports that are specific to certain disability groups.[73] There are national chapters for these International Sport Federations including National Paralympic Committees, which are responsible for recruitment of athletes and governance of sports at the national level.[74]

text: Cheating[edit]

text: After the 2000 Sydney games, a Spanish basketball player alleged that several members of the gold-medal winning Spanish basketball intellectually disabled (ID) team were not disabled. He claimed that only two athletes out of the twelve-member team met the qualifications of an intellectually disabled athlete.[75] A controversy ensued and the IPC called on the Spanish National Paralympic Committee to launch an investigation.[76] The investigation uncovered several Spanish athletes who had flouted the ID rules. In an interview with the president of the federation that oversees ID competition, Fernando Martin Vicente admitted that athletes around the world were breaking the ID eligibility rules. The IPC responded by starting an investigation of its own.[75] The results of the IPC's investigation confirmed the Spanish athlete's allegations and also determined that the incident was not isolated to the basketball ID event or to Spanish athletes.[75] As a result, all ID competitions were suspended indefinitely.[77] The ban was lifted after the 2008 Games after work had been done to tighten the criteria and controls governing admission of athletes with intellectual disabilities. Four sports, swimming, athletics, table tennis and rowing, were anticipated to hold competitions for ID athletes at the 2012 Summer Paralympics.[78][79]

text: The Paralympics have also been tainted by steroid use. At the 2008 Games in Beijing, three powerlifters and a German basketball player were banned after having tested positive for banned substances.[78] This was a decrease in comparison to the ten powerlifters and one track athlete who were banned from the 2000 Games.[80] German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids. He had won two gold medals at the 2002 Winter Paralympics, but his medals were stripped after his positive drug test.[81] At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Swedish curler Glenn Ikonen tested positive for a banned substance and was suspended for six months[82] by the IPC. He was removed from the rest of the curling competition but his team was allowed to continue. The 54-year-old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list.[83][84]

text: Another concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of "boosting". Athletes can artificially increase their blood pressure, often by self-harming, which has been shown to improve performance by up to 15%. This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly, and using high-pressure compression stockings. The injury is painless but it does affect the athlete's blood pressure.[85]

text: Another potential concern is the use of gene therapy among Paralympic athletes. All Paralympic athletes are banned from enhancing their abilities through gene doping, but it is extremely difficult to differentiate these concepts.[86] The World Anti-Doping Agency is currently researching both gene doping and gene therapy, in part to discern the boundary between the two closely related concepts.[87]

text: The IPC have been working with the World Anti-Doping Agency since 2003, to ensure compliance with WADA's anti-doping code among its Paralympic athletes.[88] The IPC has also promised to continue increasing the number of athletes tested at each of its Games, in order to further minimize the possible effect of doping in Paralympic sports.[88] Mandatory in- and out-of competition testing has also been implemented by the IPC to further ensure all of its athletes are performing in compliance with WADA regulations.[88]

text: Notable champions and achievements[edit]

text: Trischa Zorn of the United States is the most decorated Paralympian in history. She competed in the blind swimming events and won a total of 55 medals, 41 of which are gold. Her Paralympic career spanned 24 years from 1980 to 2004. She was also an alternate on the 1980 American Olympic swim team, but did not go to the Olympics due to a boycott by the United States and several of its allies.[89][90] Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Winter Paralympic Games. Competing in a variety of events in 1988, 1992, 1994 and 2002, she won a total of 22 medals, of which 17 were gold. After winning five gold medals at the 2002 Games she retired at the age of 58.[91] Neroli Fairhall, a paraplegic archer from New Zealand, was the first paraplegic competitor, and the first Paralympian, to participate in the Olympic Games, when she competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. She placed thirty-fourth in the Olympic archery competition, and won a Paralympic gold medal in the same event.[43]

text: Host cities[edit]

text:
List of Paralympics host cities

Year
Summer Paralympic Games[92]
Winter Paralympic Games[93]

Edition
Host(s)
Edition
Host(s)

1960
I
 Rome

1964
II
 Tokyo

1968
III
 Tel Aviv

1972
IV
 Heidelberg

1976
V
 Toronto
I
 Örnsköldsvik

1980
VI
 Arnhem, Netherlands
II
 Geilo

1984
VII
 New York
 Stoke Mandeville
III
 Innsbruck

1988
VIII
 Seoul
IV
 Innsbruck

1992
IX
 Barcelona & Madrid[94]
V
 Tignes & Albertville

1994

VI
 Lillehammer

1996
X
 Atlanta

1998

VII
 Nagano

2000
XI
 Sydney

2002

VIII
 Salt Lake City

2004
XII
 Athens

2006

IX
 Turin

2008
XIII
 Beijing

2010

X
 Vancouver

2012
XIV
 London

2014

XI
 Sochi

2016
XV
 Rio de Janeiro

2018

XII
 PyeongChang

2020
XVI
 Tokyo

2022

XIII
 Beijing

2024
XVII
 Paris

2026

XIV

2028
XVIII
 Los Angeles


document_title: 2 Chainz discography

question_text: when did 2 chainz first album come out

question_tokens: when did 2 chainz first album come out

root

text: 2 Chainz discography

text: Albums[edit]

text: Studio albums[edit]

text:
List of studio albums, with selected chart positions, sales figures and certifications

Title
Album details
Peak chart positions
Sales
Certifications

US
[1]
US
R&B/HH
[2]
US
Rap
[3]
AUS
[4]
BEL
(FL)
[5]
CAN
[6]
FRA
[7]
UK
[8]
UK
R&B
[9]

Based on a T.R.U. Story

Released: August 14, 2012 (US)[10]
Label: Def Jam
Formats: CD, LP, digital download

1
1
1
—
132
7
180
—
31

US: 623,000[11]

RIAA: Platinum[12]

B.O.A.T.S. II: Me Time

Released: September 10, 2013 (US)[13]
Label: Def Jam
Formats: CD, LP, digital download

3
2
1
—
153
11
—
87
10

US: 293,000[14]

ColleGrove

Released: March 4, 2016
Label: Def Jam
Formats: CD, digital download

4
2
2
—
—
20
—
—
—

Pretty Girls Like Trap Music

Released: June 16, 2017
Label: Def Jam
Formats: CD, digital download

2
1
1
52
139
7
[15]
120
[16]
88
19

US: 500,000[A]

RIAA: Gold[12]

"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.

tag: table

text: Mixtapes[edit]

text:
List of mixtapes, with selected chart positions

Title
Album details
Peak chart positions

US
R&B
[2]

Me Against the World[18]

Released: 2007 (US)[18]
Label: Duffle Bag Boyz
Formats: Digital download

—

All Ice on Me[19]

Released: August 3, 2009 (US)[19]
Label: Disturbing tha Peace
Formats: Digital download

—

Trap-A-Velli[20]

Released: November 24, 2009 (US)[20]
Label: B Black
Formats: Digital download

—

Me Against the World 2: Codeine
Withdrawal[21]

Released: April 14, 2010 (US)[21]
Label: Disturbing tha Peace
Formats: Digital download

—

Trap-A-Velli 2: (The Residue)[22]

Released: August 13, 2010 (US)[22]
Label: Duffle Bag Boyz
Formats: CD, digital download

—

Codeine Cowboy (A 2 Chainz
Collective)[23]

Released: February 22, 2011 (US)[23]
Label: DTP
Formats: Digital download

—

T.R.U. REALigion

Released: November 1, 2011 (US)[24]
Label: Howie McDuffie Music Group
Formats: Digital download

58

Freebase

Released: May 5, 2014 (US)[25]
Labels: The Real University
Formats: Digital download

—

T.R.U. Jack City (with The Real University)

Released: January 27, 2015 (US)[26]
Formats: Digital download

—

Trap-A-Velli Tre

Released: August 13, 2015[27]
Formats: Digital download

—

Felt Like Cappin

Released: January 27, 2016[28]
Formats: Digital download

—

Daniel Son; Necklace Don

Released: August 5, 2016
Formats: Digital download

—

Hibachi for Lunch

Released: October 28, 2016
Formats: Digital download

—

"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.

text: Singles[edit]

text: As lead artist[edit]

text:
List of singles as lead artist, with selected chart positions and certifications, showing year released and album name

Title
Year
Peak chart positions
Certifications
Album

US
[29]
US
R&B
[30]
US
Rap
[31]
AUS
[32]
CAN
[33]
FRA
[7]
GER
[34]
NZ
[35]
SWI
[36]
UK
[37]

"Spend It"
2011
—
55
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Codeine Cowboy (A 2 Chainz Collective)

"Riot"
2012
—[B]
54
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

T.R.U. REALigion

"Mercy"
(with Kanye West, Big Sean and Pusha T)
13
1
1
60
46
101
—
—
—
55

RIAA: 3× Platinum[39]

Cruel Summer

"No Lie"
(featuring Drake)
24
1
1
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[12]

Based on a T.R.U. Story

"Birthday Song"
(featuring Kanye West)
47
10
7
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: 2× Platinum[12]

"I'm Different"
27
6
6
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: 2× Platinum[12]

"We Own It (Fast & Furious)"
(with Wiz Khalifa)
2013
16
4
3
6
14
9
5
6
3
6

RIAA: 2× Platinum[12]
ARIA: Platinum[40]
BPI: Silver[41]

Fast & Furious 6 soundtrack

"Feds Watching"
(featuring Pharrell)
66
18
12
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[12]

B.O.A.T.S. II: Me Time

"Used 2"
—[C]
38
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

"Watch Out"
2015
64
19
19
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[12]

Trap-A-Velli Tre

"Bounce"
(featuring Lil Wayne)
2016
—[D]
34
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

ColleGrove

"Gotta Lotta"
(featuring Lil Wayne)
100
33
20
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

"MFN Right"
(featuring Lil Wayne)
—
—[E]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

"Champions"
(with Kanye West, Gucci Mane, Big Sean, Travis Scott, Yo Gotti, Quavo and Desiigner)
71
22
15
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[42]

Cruel Winter

"Big Amount"
(featuring Drake)
—[F]
44
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[12]

Daniel Son; Necklace Don

"Good Drank"
(featuring Quavo and Gucci Mane)
2017
70
32
22
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[43]

Pretty Girls Like Trap Music

"It's a Vibe"
(featuring Ty Dolla Sign, Trey Songz and Jhené Aiko)
44
20
13
—
81
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[12]

"Gang Up"
(with Young Thug, PnB Rock and Wiz Khalifa)
—[G]
—[H]
—
—
—
—
—
—
72
—

The Fate of the Furious: The Album

"4 AM"
(featuring Travis Scott)
55
24
16
—
50
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[12]

Pretty Girls Like Trap Music

"—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.

text: As featured artist[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
List of singles as featured artist, with selected chart positions and certifications, showing year released and album name

Title
Year
Peak chart positions
Certifications
Album

US
US
R&B
US
Rap
AUS
[32]
CAN
[33]
FRA
[7]
GER
[34]
IRL
[45]
SWI
[36]
UK
[46]

"We Up in Here"[47]
(LA da Boomman featuring Tity Boi and Yo Gotti)
2011
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"I'm on Worldstar"[48]
(Drumma Boy featuring Tity Boi, Gucci Mane
and Young Buck)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

The Birth of D-Boy Fresh

"Money on the Floor"
(Big K.R.I.T. featuring 8Ball & MJG and 2 Chainz)
—
—[I]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Live from the Underground

"Helicopter"[50]
(Lil Scrappy featuring 2 Chainz and Twista)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Tha Merlo Jonez EP and Tha Grustle

"Da Ghetto"[51]
(Pimpin featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album singles

"Where U Get That"[52]
(Pimpin featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

"Yao Ming"[53]
(David Banner featuring Lil Wayne and 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Sex, Drugs & Video Games

"U Did That"[54]
(Teairra Marí featuring 2 Chainz)
2012
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Unfinished Business

"Where I Know U Like"[55]
(Tha Dogg Pound featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

D.P.G.C'ology

"Beez in the Trap"
(Nicki Minaj featuring 2 Chainz)
48
7
7
—
—
—
—
74
—
131

RIAA: Gold[56]

Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded

"How I'm Livin'"[57]
(OG Boo Dirty featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Born a Soldier, Die a Vet

"Breakfast (Syrup)"[58]
(Kreayshawn featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Somethin' 'Bout Kreay

"My Moment"
(DJ Drama featuring 2 Chainz, Meek Mill and
Jeremih)
89
23
16
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Quality Street Music

"Grindmode"[59]
(YG featuring 2 Chainz and Nipsey Hussle)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

4 Hunnid Degreez

"In My Trunk"[60]
(Dev featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"Bandz a Make Her Dance"
(Juicy J featuring Lil Wayne and 2 Chainz)
29
6
5
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[61]

Stay Trippy

"Do My Dance"
(Tyga featuring 2 Chainz)
—[J]
32
22
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[62]

Well Done 3

"Fuckin' Problems"
(ASAP Rocky featuring Drake, 2 Chainz and
Kendrick Lamar)
8
2
2
78
65
30
86
—
65
50

RIAA: 2× Platinum[63]
ARIA: Platinum[64]
MC: Platinum[65]
BPI: Gold[41]

Long. Live. ASAP

"Leggo"
(B. Smyth featuring 2 Chainz)
—[K]
41
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"Marble Floors"
(French Montana featuring Lil Wayne, Rick Ross and 2 Chainz)
—
—[L]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Excuse My French

"Tadow"[66]
(P.A.P.I. featuring French Montana, 2 Chainz and Pusha T)
2013
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Student of the Game

"R.I.P."
(Young Jeezy featuring 2 Chainz)
58
16
12
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[67]

It's Tha World

"Charades"[68]
(Chrisette Michele featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Better

"Rich as Fuck"
(Lil Wayne featuring 2 Chainz)
38
11
9
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[69]

I Am Not a Human Being II

"Upper Echelon"[70]
(Travis Scott featuring T.I. and 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Owl Pharaoh

"Fan"
(Hit-Boy featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—[M]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

All I've Ever Dreamed Of

"HeadBand"
(B.o.B featuring 2 Chainz)
53
16
11
—
67
—
57
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[71]

Underground Luxury

"Gold Rush"[72]
(Clinton Sparks featuring 2 Chainz, Macklemore and D.A.)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

ICONoclast

"Entertainment 2.0"
(Sean Paul featuring Juicy J, 2 Chainz and Nicki Minaj)
—
—[N]
—
—
94
—
—
—
—
—

Full Frequency

"Trampoline"
(Tinie Tempah featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
29
—
3

BPI: Silver[41]

Demonstration

"When I Feel Like It"
(Fabolous featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—[O]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Loso's Way 2: Rise to Power

"My Story"
(R. Kelly featuring 2 Chainz)
89
27
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Black Panties

"Talk Dirty"
(Jason Derulo featuring 2 Chainz)
3
2
—
1
3
3
1
2
4
1

RIAA: 4× Platinum[73]
ARIA: 4× Platinum[40]
BPI: Platinum[41]
BVMI: Platinum[74]
IFPI SWI: Platinum[75]

Tattoos

"All Me"
(Drake featuring 2 Chainz and Big Sean)
20
6
4
—
72
141
—
—
—
112

RIAA: Platinum[76]

Nothing Was the Same

"Fire"[77]
(Bun B featuring Rick Ross, 2 Chainz and Serani)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Trill OG: The Epilogue

"Keep Calm"[78]
(DJ Kay Slay featuring Juicy J, Jadakiss, 2 Chainz and Rico Love)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Rhyme or Die

"Cut Her Off"
(K Camp featuring 2 Chainz)
49
13
6
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Platinum[79]

In Due Time

"Only That Real"
(Iamsu! featuring 2 Chainz and Sage the Gemini)
2014
—
—[P]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Sincerely Yours

"24 Hours"
(TeeFlii featuring 2 Chainz)
85
23
12
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Starr

"Down on Me"[80]
(DJ Mustard featuring Ty Dolla Sign and 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

10 Summers

"Drop Girl"
(Ice Cube featuring Redfoo and 2 Chainz)
42
—
22
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Everythang's Corrupt

"Burnin' Up"
(Jessie J featuring 2 Chainz)
86
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
73

Sweet Talker

"Party Ain't a Party"[81]
(Jamie Foxx featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"U Guessed It" (Remix)
(OG Maco featuring 2 Chainz)
90
27
20
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

OG Maco

"Mama Ain't Proud"
(Guy Sebastian featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
17
—
—
92
—
—
—

ARIA: Gold[82]

Madness

"Focused On You"
(Eric Bellinger featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Cuffin Season

"Double Tap"
(Jordin Sparks featuring 2 Chainz)
2015
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Right Here, Right Now

"Hood Go Crazy"
(Tech N9ne featuring B.o.B. and 2 Chainz)
90
28
17
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[83]

Special Effects

"Get Low"
(50 Cent featuring Jeremih, T.I. and 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"3500"
(Travis Scott featuring Future and 2 Chainz)
82
25
18
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[84]

Rodeo

"No Problem"
(Chance the Rapper featuring Lil Wayne & 2 Chainz)
2016
43
14
10
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Coloring Book

"Magic City Monday"
(Jeezy featuring Future and 2 Chainz)
—
—[Q]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"I Want"
(MadeinTYO featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

RIAA: Gold[86]

You Are Forgiven

"Buy Back the Block"
(Rick Ross featuring Gucci Mane and 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Rather You Than Me

"Castro"
(Yo Gotti featuring Kanye West, Big Sean, 2 Chainz and Quavo)[87]
—[R]
—[S]
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

White Friday (CM9)

"Throw Myself a Party"
(Cashmere Cat featuring 2 Chainz, Starrah, and Tory Lanez)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Wild Love

"Without U"
(Steve Aoki & DVBBS featuring 2 Chainz)
2017
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Kolony

"Floor Seats"
(Jeezy featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—

Pressure

"—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.

text: Promotional singles[edit]

text:
List of promotional singles, with selected chart positions, showing year released and album name

Title
Year
Peak chart
positions
Album

US
[29]
US
R&B
[30]
CAN
[33]

"Oh My" (Remix)[88]
(DJ Drama featuring Trey Songz, 2 Chainz and Big Sean)
2011
—
—
—
Third Power

"Let It Go" (Remix)[89]
(Red Café featuring Diddy, French Montana and 2 Chainz)
2012
—
—
—
Non-album singles

"No Country for Old Men"[90]
(Fat Joe featuring 2 Chainz and French
Montana)
—
—
—

"Wild Boy" (Remix)[91]
(MGK featuring 2 Chainz, French Montana,
Meek Mill, Mystikal, Steve-O and Yo Gotti)
—
—
—

"Oh Yeah"[92]
(Chris Brown featuring Snoop Dogg and 2
Chainz)
—
—
—

"Sweat"
(Ciara featuring 2 Chainz)
—
86
—

"U.O.E.N.O." (Remix)[93]
(Rocko featuring Future and 2 Chainz)
2013
—
—
—

"Bugatti" (Remix)[94]
(Ace Hood featuring Wiz Khalifa, T.I., Meek Mill, French Montana, 2 Chainz, Future, DJ Khaled and Birdman)
—
—
—
Trials & Tribulations

"Who I Am"[95]
(Pusha T featuring 2 Chainz and Big Sean)
—
—
—
My Name Is My Name

"Where U Been?"
(featuring Cap1)
—
—[T]
—
B.O.A.T.S. II: Me Time

"Netflix"
(featuring Fergie)
—
—[U]
—

"Turn Down for What" (Remix)[96]
(DJ Snake and Lil Jon featuring Juicy J, 2 Chainz and French Montana)
2014
—
—
—
Non-album singles

"Smartphone"[97]
2017
—
—
—

"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.

text: Other charted songs[edit]

text:
List of songs, with selected chart positions and certifications, showing year released and album name

Title
Year
Peak chart positions
Certifications
Album

US
[29]
US
R&B
[30]
US
Rap
[31]
FRA
[7]

"Fightin' in the Club"
(I-20 featuring Chingy, Lil Fate and Tity Boi)
2004
—
—[V]
—
—

Self Explanatory

"Boo"
(featuring Yo Gotti)
2010
—
76
—
—

Trap-A-Velli 2 (The Residue) and
Codeine Cowboy (A 2 Chainz Collective)

"SupaFreak"
(Young Jeezy featuring 2 Chainz)
2011
—
39
24
—

Thug Motivation 103: Hustlerz Ambition

"Falling to Pieces"
(Jenna featuring 2 Chainz)
2012
—
—[W]
—
—

Non-album single

"Hood Rich Anthem"
(DJ Scream featuring 2 Chainz, Future, Fozzie
Bear, Yo Gotti and Gucci Mane)
—
96
—
—

Long Live the Hustle

"Yuck!"
(featuring Lil Wayne)
80
48
—
—

Based on a T.R.U. Story

"I Luv Dem Strippers"
(featuring Nicki Minaj)
—[X]
41
—
—

RIAA: Gold[12]

"Crack"
—
—[Y]
—
—

"The One"
(with Kanye West, Big Sean and Marsha
Ambrosius)
—[Z]
—[AA]
—
—

Cruel Summer

"The Morning"
(with Raekwon, Pusha T, Common, Cyhi the
Prynce, Kid Cudi and D'banj)
—[AB]
49
—
—

"C'est la vie"
(Booba featuring 2 Chainz)
—
—
—
153

Futur

"It's Nothin'"
(Wiz Khalifa featuring 2 Chainz)
—[AC]
34
—
—

O.N.I.F.C.

"Ali Bomaye"
(Game featuring 2 Chainz and Rick Ross)
—
—[AD]
—
—

Jesus Piece

"Days and Days"
(Lil Wayne featuring 2 Chainz)
2013
—[AE]
37
—
—

I Am Not a Human Being II

"Hijack"
(Tyga featuring 2 Chainz)
—[AF]
39
—
—

Hotel California

"Mula" (Remix)
(Big Sean featuring 2 Chainz, Meek Mill and Earlly Mac)
—
—[AG]
—
—

Hall of Fame

"I Do It"
(featuring Drake and Lil Wayne)
94
31
23
—

B.O.A.T.S. II: Me Time

"What They Want"
(Schoolboy Q featuring 2 Chainz)
2014
—
—[AH]
—
—

Oxymoron

"Don't Shoot"
(The Game featuring Rick Ross, 2 Chainz, Diddy, Fabolous, Wale, DJ Khaled, Swizz Beatz, Yo Gotti, Currensy, Problem, King Pharoah and TGT)
—
—
—
—

Non-album single

"Smell Like Money"
(featuring Lil Wayne)
2016
—
45
—
—

ColleGrove

"Sacrifices"
(Drake featuring 2 Chainz and Young Thug)
2017
36
19
12
—

More Life

"Realize"
(featuring Nicki Minaj)
—[AI]
50
—
—

Pretty Girls Like Trap Music

"Blue Cheese"
(featuring Migos)
—[AJ]
—[AK]
—
—

"Poor Fool"
(featuring Swae Lee)
—
—[AL]
—
—

"Trap Check"
—
—[AM]
—
—

"Riverdale Rd"
—
—[AN]
—
—

"Saturday Night"
—
—[AO]
—
—

"—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.

text: Guest appearances[edit]

text:
List of non-single guest appearances, with other performing artists, showing year released and album name

Title
Year
Other artist(s)
Album

"Break Sumthin'"[98]
2002
Ludacris, Shawnna, Lil' Fate, I-20
Golden Grain

"Smokin' Dro"[98]
I-20, Ludacris

"A-Town Hatz"[98]
Lil' Fate, I-20, Chimere

"N.S.E.W."[98]
Shawnna, I-20, Lil' Fate

"Outro on Ya"[98]
I-20, Lil' Fate, Ludacris

"Represent"[99]
2003
Chingy, I-20
Jackpot

"We Got"[100]
Ludacris, I-20, Chingy
Chicken-n-Beer

"Eyebrows Down"[100]
Ludacris, Dolla Boy

"Fightin' in the Club"[101]
2004
I-20, Chingy, Lil Fate
Self Explanatory

"I Came to Bring the Pain"[102]
Lil' Flip, Static Major, Ludacris
U Gotta Feel Me

"Grew Up a Screw Up"[103]
2006
Lil Wayne, Brisco
Lil Weezy Ana Vol. 1

"Keep It Hood"[104]
2007
Lloyd Banks, Young Buck
none

"We Got Dat"[105]
2009
Gucci Mane, Chubbie Baby
Writing on the Wall

"Pussy Rehab"[105]
Gucci Mane

"Gettin' to the Money"[106]
Gudda Gudda
Guddaville

"I Like It"[107]
Nicole Wray
Kill Cupid

"Realest They Come"[108]
Lil Wayne, Dre
Follow Me

"Smell It on Me"[109]
2010
Yukmouth, Gudda Gudda, D-Golder
Free at Last

"U Know What It Is"[110]
Young Buck, MJG
Back on My Buck Shit Vol. 2: Change of Plans

"Leather Wood"[111]
Short Dawg, Gudda Gudda
Southern Flame Spitta 4

"NFL"[112]
Diamond
Cocaine Waitress

"All I Do Is Win" (Hood Remix)[113]
Young Cash, Yo Gotti, Gudda Gudda, Bun B, Ice Berg, T-Pain, Field Mob
Fed Bound

"Yeah Yeah" (Remix)[114]
2011
Future
Dirty Sprite

"Money Mane"[115]
Project Pat, Ta Ta Licious, NastyMane
none

"Big Man"[116]
T-Pain
Prevolver

"Deuces"[117]
Yung Joc
Ready to Fly

"Emotional"[118]
Cyhi the Prynce
Royal Flush II

"Bang!!!!"[119]
Lloyd, Salo
King of Hearts

"Y'all Ain't Got Nothin' on Me"[120]
Cory Gunz
Son of a Gun

"Pacman" (Remix)[121]
Pill, Rick Ross, Meek Mill, Gunplay
The Diagnosis

"Lost It"[122]
Gucci Mane, Future
Free Bricks

"Mud Muzik"[123]
Gucci Mane, Waka Flocka Flame
Ferrari Boyz

"Ima Stunt"[124]
Bow Wow, Lil Wayne, DJ Khaled
Greenlight 4

"Globetrotter"[125]
Wale
The Eleven One Eleven Theory

"Stop"[126]
Kid Ink, Tyga
Wheels Up

"Thank the Plug"[127]
Chubbie Baby, Jim Jones
36 Oz.

"Neighborhood Hoes"[128]
Freddie Gibbs
Cold Day in Hell

"I Don't Care"[129]
2 Pistols
Mr. P

"I Ain't the One"[130]
Ludacris
1.21 Gigawatts: Back to the First Time

"Choose Up"[131]
Serius Jones, Sam Scarfo
Serius Bizness 2

"Perfect Symmetry"[132]
B.o.B
E.P.I.C. (Every Play Is Crucial)

"Oh Well" (Remix)[133]
Juicy J
Blue Dream & Lean

"Zip & a Double Cup" (Remix)[133]
Juicy J, Tha Joker

"Bad Bitches" (Remix)[134]
Tyga, Gudda Gudda
#BitchImTheShit

"Ball"[135]
Waka Flocka Flame
Benjamin Flocka

"Luv Her"[136]
Ace Hood
The Statement 2

"Whip"[137]
French Montana
Coke Boys 2

"Drop It"[138]
Bobby V, Meek Mill
Vitamin V

"SupaFreak"[139]
Young Jeezy
Thug Motivation 103: Hustlerz Ambition

"Fuck You Too"[140]
Planet VI, Jarren Benton
American Dream

"Count It Up"[141]
Young Jeezy
CTE or Nothing

"Country Ass Nigga"[142]
Nelly, T.I.
O.E.MO

"Shinin'"[143]
DJ Scream, Stuey Rock, Yo Gotti, Future, Gucci Mane
none

"Too Cool" (Remix)[144]
King Louie, Red Café

"Bait" (Remix)[145]
Wale, Rick Ross, Trey Songz

"You Don't Know 'Bout It" (Remix)[146]
Travis Porter, Young Jeezy

"Loud Mouth"[147]
2012
T.I.
Fuck da City Up

"Fuck Em"[148]
Rick Ross, Wale
Rich Forever

"Party Heart"[148]
Rick Ross, Stalley

"Cases"[149]
Yo Gotti
Live from the Kitchen

"Let It Go (Dope Boy)" (Remix)[150]
Red Café, Diddy, French Montana
Hell's Kitchen

"How You Love That"[150]
Red Café, Meek Mill

"Get It Back"[151]
Gucci Mane
Trap Back

"Okay with Me"[151]

"Pussy"[152]
Don Trip
Guerrilla

"Em Down"[153]
8Ball, Yung Joc
Premro

"They Point"[154]
E-40, Juicy J
The Block Brochure: Welcome to the Soil 1

"Mean Muggin'"[155]
Game, French Montana
California Republic

"Honey I'm Home" (Noodles Mix)[156]
Akon
The Koncrete Mixtape

"Cocky" (Remix)[157]
DJ Paul
For I Have Sinned

"Make It Work"[158]
Young Fame
Welcome to the Social Club

"Count It"[159]
Jadakiss, Styles P
Consignment

"Whole Thang"[160]
2Win, Young Jeezy
Imagine

"Str8 Like That"[161]
Meek Mill, Louie V
Dreamchasers 2

"Big Money Talk"[162]
Lil Chuckee, Yo Gotti
Hood Guys

"I'm Up"[163]
Gucci Mane
I'm Up

"Pussy Real Good"[164]
Travis Porter
From Day 1

"Capitol"[165]
Currensy
The Stoned Immaculate

"Got Damn" (Remix)[166]
DJ Kay Slay, Torch, Gunplay, Busta Rhymes, French Montana
none

"Drank in My Cup" (Remix)[167]
Kirko Bangz, Juelz Santana

"Like That" (Remix)[168]
Papoose, Jadakiss, Styles P
The Last Year

"Keep It Gee"[169]
Big Sean
none

"No Go"[170]
TK n Cash
Orientation

"Like Diz"[171]
Roscoe Dash
2.0

"Cooking All Morning"[172]
Jay Stonez
A1 Fishscale

"PayCation"[173]
Dolla Boy
2KHustle

"Molly"[174]
Jae Millz
The Appreciation Volume 4

"Boyfriend" (Remix)[175]
Justin Bieber, Asher Roth, Mac Miller
none

"Sloppy" (Remix)[176]
Ray Jr., Big Sean, Ducky Smallz

"Something on Your Mind"[177]
Allie Baby, Young Buck
Southern Smoke Radio Pt. 11

"Falling to Pieces"[178]
Jenna
none

"Swagga to the Ceiling"[179]
I-20
Endless Pursuit

"Hungry in the Streets"[179]
I-20, Ludacris, Dolla Boy

"Fuck You Too"[180]
Jarren Benton, Planet VI
Freebasing with Kevin Bacon

"Cases"[181]
Yo Gotti
Est. in 1989 Pt. 2

"Got One"[181]
none

"Ex Amnesia"[182]
K'Jon
Moving On

"Got Damn" (Remix)[183]
Torch, Gunplay, Busta Rhymes
No A/C

"Do It Like Me"[184]
Drumma Boy
2K12 4th of July Playlist

"Don't Bring Me Down"[185]
8Ball
Life's Quest

"See Nann"[186]
Plies
Purple Heart

"Hood Rich Anthem"[187]
DJ Scream, Future, Waka Flocka Flame, Yo Gotti, Gucci Mane
Long Live the Hustle

"Outta Control"[188]
Jeremih, Gucci Mane
Late Nights with Jeremih

"I Don't See 'Em"[189]
DJ Khaled, Birdman, Ace Hood
Kiss the Ring

"All I Do"[190]
Chris Varsity
none

"Rooster in My Rari" (Remix)[191]
Waka Flocka Flame, Gucci Mane
Salute Me or Shoot Me 4 (Banned from America)

"Retarded"[192]
Caddy da Don
Cut the Check

"The Morning"[193]
Pusha T, Common, Cyhi the Prynce, Kid Cudi, D'banj, Raekwon
Cruel Summer

"The One"[193]
Kanye West, Big Sean, Marsha Ambrosius

"Put It Down" (Remix)[194]
Brandy, Tyga
none

"Make You Somebody"[195]
Sterling Simms, Tyga, Travis Porter
Mary & Molly

"911"[196]
Rick Ross
The Black Bar Mitzvah

"Freak Show"[197]
Meek Mill, Sam Sneak
Dreams & Nightmares

"So Gone"[198]
Young Buck
Strictly 4 Traps N Trunks 44: Free Young Buck Edition

"Charades"[199]
Chrisette Michele
Audrey Hepburn: An Audiovisual Presentation

"C'est la vie"[200]
Booba
Futur

"So Good"[201]
Yung Joc, Ebony Love
Bitch I'm Joc

"Plug"[202]
Chubbie Baby
36 Oz, Part 2

"I'm Gudda"[203]
Gudda Gudda, T-Streets
Guddaville 3

"Bang Bang"[204]
Gudda Gudda

"Aww Naw"[205]
Cory Mo, Attitude, Bobby Marley
Country Rap Tunes 2

"Do You See Me"[205]
Cory Mo, KD

"It's Nothin'"[206]
Wiz Khalifa
O.N.I.F.C.

"Ali Bomaye"[207]
Game, Rick Ross
Jesus Piece

"Real Live Pro"[208]
A-Mafia
Straight Savage

"Drug Lord"[209]
Red Café
American Psycho

"Get Me Doe"[210]
Wale
Folarin

"Own Drugs (O.D.)"[211]
Mike WiLL Made It, Juicy J, Cap1
Est. in 1989 2.5

"All Gold Everything" (Remix)[212]
2013
Trinidad James, T.I., Young Jeezy
Don't Be S.A.F.E.

"2 of Everything"[213]
Boy Wonder, Reese
none

"A-Town" (Remix)[214]
Cyhi the Prynce, B.o.B, Travis Porter
Ivy League: Kick Back

"Get Money"[215]
Matt Toka
none

"Rubberband Money"[216]
A.R.S., Gillie da Kid

"Sweetest Joy"[217]
Kevin McCall
Definition

"Dirty Cup"[218]
Gucci Mane
none

"Gangnam Style" (Diplo Remix)[219]
Psy, Tyga
Remix Style

"What Happened to Us"[220]
Veronica
none

"Werk"[221]
Cap1, French Montana
T.R.U. 2 It

"I Want Sum"[221]
Cap1

"Phantom"[222]
Bangladesh, Birdman
Ponzi Scheme

"Buy"[222]
Bangladesh, Tom Foolery, Pusha T, Fast Life

"News for You" (Remix)[223]
Eric Benet
none

"Days and Days"[224]
Lil Wayne
I Am Not a Human Being II

"My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up)" (Remix)[225]
Fall Out Boy
none

"Hijack"[226]
Tyga
Hotel California

"Ya'll Ain't"[227]
Funkmaster Flex, Cap1
Who You Mad At? Me or Yourself?

"Chris Tucker"[228]
J. Cole
Truly Yours 2

"Use Me"[229]
Gucci Mane
Trap House III

"Get This Money"[230]
Young Dolph
High Class Street Music 3: Trappin' Out a Mansion

"Turnt"[231]
The-Dream, Beyoncé
IV Play

"Trap Doin Numbers"[232]
J. Money
The Medication

"Rotation"[233]
Wale, Wiz Khalifa
The Gifted

"Give It 2 U" (Remix)[234]
Robin Thicke, Kendrick Lamar
Blurred Lines

"Hulk Hogan"[235]
Young Cash
Win or Die

"No More"[236]
Gucci Mane
World War 3: Lean

"Hands Up"[237]
Swizz Beatz, Nicki Minaj, Rick Ross, Lil Wayne
none

"Mula" (Remix)[238]
Big Sean, Meek Mill, Earlly Mac
Hall of Fame

"Having Sex"[239]
Juicy J, Trina
Stay Trippy

"Shotta Luv"[240]
Sean Kingston
Back 2 Life

"100K"[241]
Nelly
M.O.

"Who I Am"[242]
Pusha T, Big Sean
My Name Is My Name

"Snapped"[243]
Cam'ron
Ghetto Heaven Vol. 1

"You Don't Want These Problems"[244]
DJ Khaled, Ace Hood, Meek Mill, French Montana, Rick Ross, Big Sean, Timbaland
Suffering from Success

"Benihana"[245]
Jeezy, Rocko
It's Tha World Vol. 2

"Strong" (Remix)[246]
Young Dro
none

"Countdown"[247]
E-40
The Block Brochure: Welcome to the Soil 5

"Lost Boyz"[248]
Troy Ave
White Christmas 2

"Grinding"[249]
Casanova Chris
none

"Booty"[250]
2014
Juvenile

"They Know"[251]
Cap1, Rich Homie Quan
Caviar Dreams

"My City"[252]
N.O.R.E., Mack Maine, Bun B, Gunplay, Cityboy Dee
Resource Room

"Show Me" (Remix)[253]
Kid Ink, Juicy J, Chris Brown, Trey Songz
none

"Familiar" (Remix)[254]
Ty Dolla Sign

"Anti Haters"[255]
Black Tha Don
Rookie of the Year

"Giuseppee"[256]
DJ Mustard, Jeezy, Yo Gotti
10 Summers

"Snapped"
Cam'ron
1st of the Month Vol. 4

"Really"[257]
The Game, Yo Gotti, Soulja Boy, T.I.
Blood Moon: Year of the Wolf

"Double Tap"
Jordin Sparks
ByeFelicia

"Breathe"
2015
Cap.1
Trupac

"Tonite"
Cap.1, Jeremih, Verse Simmonds

"Pot Life"
Young Jeezy
Gangsta Party

"Why Wait"
Cam'ron, Berner, Wiz Khalifa
Contraband

"This Me, Fuck It"
Timbaland
King Stays King

"Baller Alert"
2016
Tyga, Rick Ross
Rawwest Nigga Alive

"Money Made Me Do It"
Post Malone
August 26th and Stoney

"100it Racks"
DJ Esco, Future, Drake
Project E.T. (Esco Terrestrial)

"Whoodeeni"
De La Soul
And the Anonymous Nobody...

"Spend It (Remix)"
Dae Dae, Lil Wayne
none

"Can't Ignore"
Dave East
Kairi Chanel

"Light It Up"
Chocolate Droppa, Big Sean
Kevin Hart: What Now? (The Mixtape Presents Chocolate Droppa)

"Thick"
O.T. Genasis
Coke N Butter

"Deadz"[258]
2017
Migos
Culture

"Sacrifices"[259]
Drake, Young Thug
More Life

"Ultimate Gangsta"
Giggs
Wamp 2 Dem

"Go Get Sum Mo"
Young Dolph, Gucci Mane, Ty Dolla Sign
Thinking Out Loud

text: Music videos[edit]

text: As lead artist[edit]

text:
List of music videos, with directors, showing year released

Title
Year
Director(s)

"Boo"
(featuring Yo Gotti)
2011
Jordan Tower[260]

"Spend It"
Alex Nazari[261]

"Pimps"
(featuring Bun B and Big K.R.I.T.)
none[262]

"Spend It" (Remix)
(featuring T.I.)
2012
G Visuals[263]

"Got One"
Vitamin E[264]

"One Day at a Time"
(featuring Jadakiss)
Jim Jones[265]

"Riot"
Decatur Dan[266]

"Stunt"
(featuring Meek Mill)
Alex Nazari[267]

"Undastatement"
Decatur Dan[268]

"Murder"
(featuring Kreayshawn)
Alex Nazari[269]

"Turn Up"
(featuring Cap1)
Decatur Dan[270]

"No Lie"
(featuring Drake)
Director X[271]

"I Luv Dem Strippers"
(featuring Nicki Minaj)
Benny Boom[272]

"Birthday Song"
(featuring Kanye West)
Andreas Nilsson[273]

"I'm Different"
Elisha Smith[274]

"Crack"
2013
Aristotle[275]

"Yuck!"
(featuring Lil Wayne)
Alex Nazari[276]

"Like Me"
Sharod Marcus Simpson[277]

"Feds Watching"
(featuring Pharrell)
Ryan Hope[278]

"Where U Been?"
(featuring Cap1)
Sharod Marcus Simpson[279]

"Used 2"
Marc Klasfeld[280]

"Fork"
Parris Stewart[281]

"U Da Realest"
Sharod Marcus Simpson[282]

"Freebase"
2014
Alex Nazari


document_title: Primary production

question_text: which is the major limiting element in marine primary production

text: Primary production

text: Overview[edit]

text: Primary production is the production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living organisms.  The main source of this energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of inorganic molecules.

tag: p

text: Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).  The following two equations are simplified representations of photosynthesis (top) and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom):

text: In both cases, the end point is a polymer of reduced carbohydrate, (CH2O)n, typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars.  These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins, complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems.

text: Gross primary production and net primary production[edit]

text: Gross primary production (GPP) is the amount of chemical energy as biomass that primary producers create in a given length of time. (GPP is sometimes confused with Gross Primary productivity, which is the rate at which photosynthesis or chemosynthesis occurs.) Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration").[2][3] The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as net primary production (NPP).

text: Net primary production is the rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy; it is equal to the difference between the rate at which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration. Some net primary production goes toward growth and reproduction of primary producers, while some is consumed by herbivores.

text: Both gross and net primary production are in units of mass per unit area per unit time interval. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C m−2 yr−1) is most often used as the unit of measurement.

text: Terrestrial production[edit]

text: On the land, almost all primary production is now performed by vascular plants, with a small fraction coming from algae and non-vascular plants such as mosses and liverworts.  Before the evolution of vascular plants, non-vascular plants likely played a more significant role.  Primary production on land is a function of many factors, but principally local hydrology and temperature (the latter covaries to an extent with light, specifically photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), the source of energy for photosynthesis).  While plants cover much of the Earth's surface, they are strongly curtailed wherever temperatures are too extreme or where necessary plant resources (principally water and PAR) are limiting, such as deserts or polar regions.

text: Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration.  The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.  Transpiration allows plants to transport water and mineral nutrients from the soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water vapour out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as stomata. These structure also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain.  Certain plants use alternative forms of photosynthesis, called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) and C4. These employ physiological and anatomical adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and allow increased primary production to take place under conditions that would normally limit carbon fixation by C3 plants (the majority of plant species).

text: Oceanic production[edit]

text: In a reversal of the pattern on land, in the oceans, almost all photosynthesis is performed by algae, with a small fraction contributed by vascular plants and other groups.  Algae encompass a diverse range of organisms, ranging from single floating cells to attached seaweeds.  They include photoautotrophs from a variety of groups.  Eubacteria are important photosynthetizers in both oceanic and terrestrial ecosystems, and while some archaea are phototrophic, none are known to utilise oxygen-evolving photosynthesis.[4]  A number of eukaryotes are significant contributors to primary production in the ocean, including green algae, brown algae and red algae, and a diverse group of unicellular groups.  Vascular plants are also represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses.

text: Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the majority of primary production in the ocean is performed by free-living microscopic organisms called phytoplankton. Larger autotrophs, such as the seagrasses and macroalgae (seaweeds) are generally confined to the littoral zone and adjacent shallow waters, where they can attach to the underlying substrate but still be within the photic zone.  There are exceptions, such as Sargassum, but the vast majority of free-floating production takes place within microscopic organisms.

text: The factors limiting primary production in the ocean are also very different from those on land.  The availability of water, obviously, is not an issue (though its salinity can be).  Similarly, temperature, while affecting metabolic rates (see Q10), ranges less widely in the ocean than on land because the heat capacity of seawater buffers temperature changes, and the formation of sea ice insulates it at lower temperatures.  However, the availability of light, the source of energy for photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients, the building blocks for new growth, play crucial roles in regulating primary production in the ocean.[5] Available Earth System Models suggest that ongoing ocean bio-geochemical changes could trigger reductions in ocean NPP between 3% and 10% of current values depending on the emissions scenario.[6]

text: Light[edit]

text: The sunlit zone of the ocean is called the photic zone (or euphotic zone).  This is a relatively thin layer (10–100 m) near the ocean's surface where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur.  For practical purposes, the thickness of the photic zone is typically defined by the depth at which light reaches 1% of its surface value.  Light is attenuated down the water column by its absorption or scattering by the water itself, and by dissolved or particulate material within it (including phytoplankton).

text: Net photosynthesis in the water column is determined by the interaction between the photic zone and the mixed layer.  Turbulent mixing by wind energy at the ocean's surface homogenises the water column vertically until the turbulence dissipates (creating the aforementioned mixed layer).  The deeper the mixed layer, the lower the average amount of light intercepted by phytoplankton within it.  The mixed layer can vary from being shallower than the photic zone, to being much deeper than the photic zone.  When it is much deeper than the photic zone, this results in phytoplankton spending too much time in the dark for net growth to occur.  The maximum depth of the mixed layer in which net growth can occur is called the critical depth.  As long as there are adequate nutrients available, net primary production occurs whenever the mixed layer is shallower than the critical depth.

text: Both the magnitude of wind mixing and the availability of light at the ocean's surface are affected across a range of space- and time-scales.  The most characteristic of these is the seasonal cycle (caused by the consequences of the Earth's axial tilt), although wind magnitudes additionally have strong spatial components.  Consequently, primary production in temperate regions such as the North Atlantic is highly seasonal, varying with both incident light at the water's surface (reduced in winter) and the degree of mixing (increased in winter).  In tropical regions, such as the gyres in the middle of the major basins, light may only vary slightly across the year, and  mixing may only occur episodically, such as during large storms or hurricanes.

text: Nutrients[edit]

text: Mixing also plays an important role in the limitation of primary production by nutrients.  Inorganic nutrients, such as nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid are necessary for phytoplankton to synthesise their cells and cellular machinery.  Because of gravitational sinking of particulate material (such as plankton, dead or fecal material), nutrients are constantly lost from the photic zone, and are only replenished by mixing or upwelling of deeper water.  This is exacerbated where summertime solar heating and reduced winds increases vertical stratification and leads to a strong thermocline, since this makes it more difficult for wind mixing to entrain deeper water.  Consequently, between mixing events, primary production (and the resulting processes that leads to sinking particulate material) constantly acts to consume nutrients in the mixed layer, and in many regions this leads to nutrient exhaustion and decreased mixed layer production in the summer (even in the presence of abundant light).  However, as long as the photic zone is deep enough, primary production may continue below the mixed layer where light-limited growth rates mean that nutrients are often more abundant.

text: Iron[edit]

text: Another factor relatively recently discovered to play a significant role in oceanic primary production is the micronutrient iron.[7]   This is used as a cofactor in enzymes involved in processes such as nitrate reduction and nitrogen fixation.  A major source of iron to the oceans is dust from the Earth's deserts, picked up and delivered by the wind as aeolian dust.

text: In regions of the ocean that are distant from deserts or that are not reached by dust-carrying winds (for example, the Southern and North Pacific oceans), the lack of iron can severely limit the amount of primary production that can occur.  These areas are sometimes known as HNLC (High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) regions, because the scarcity of iron both limits phytoplankton growth and leaves a surplus of other nutrients. Some scientists have suggested introducing iron to these areas as a means of increasing primary productivity and sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[8]

text: Measurement[edit]

text: The methods for measurement of primary production vary depending on whether gross vs net production is the desired measure, and whether terrestrial or aquatic systems are the focus.  Gross production is almost always harder to measure than net, because of respiration, which is a continuous and ongoing process that consumes some of the products of primary production (i.e. sugars) before they can be accurately measured.  Also, terrestrial ecosystems are generally more difficult because a substantial proportion of total productivity is shunted to below-ground organs and tissues, where it is logistically difficult to measure.  Shallow water aquatic systems can also face this problem.

text: Scale also greatly affects measurement techniques.  The rate of carbon assimilation in plant tissues, organs, whole plants, or plankton samples can be quantified by biochemically based techniques, but these techniques are decidedly inappropriate for large scale terrestrial field situations.  There, net primary production is almost always the desired variable, and estimation techniques involve various methods of estimating dry-weight biomass changes over time.  Biomass estimates are often converted to an energy measure, such as kilocalories, by an empirically determined conversion factor.

text: Terrestrial[edit]

text: In terrestrial ecosystems, researchers generally measure net primary production (NPP). Although its definition is straightforward, field measurements used to estimate productivity vary according to investigator and biome. Field estimates rarely account for below ground productivity, herbivory, turnover, litterfall, volatile organic compounds, root exudates, and allocation to symbiotic microorganisms.  Biomass based NPP estimates result in underestimation of NPP due to incomplete accounting of these components.[9][10]  However, many field measurements correlate well to NPP.  There are a number of comprehensive reviews of the field methods used to estimate NPP.[9][10][11]  Estimates of ecosystem respiration, the total carbon dioxide produced by the ecosystem, can also be made with gas flux measurements.

text: The major unaccounted pool is belowground productivity, especially production and turnover of roots. Belowground components of NPP are difficult to measure. BNPP (below-ground NPP) is often estimated based on a ratio of ANPP:BNPP (above-ground NPP:below-ground NPP) rather than direct measurements.

text: Gross primary production can be estimated from measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide made by the eddy covariance technique. During night, this technique measures all components of ecosystem respiration. This respiration is scaled to day-time values and further subtracted from NEE.[12]

text: Grasslands[edit]

text: Most frequently, peak standing biomass is assumed to measure NPP. In systems with persistent standing litter, live biomass is commonly reported. Measures of peak biomass are more reliable if the system is predominantly annuals.  However, perennial measurements could be reliable if there were a synchronous phenology driven by a strong seasonal climate. These methods may underestimate ANPP in grasslands by as much as 2 (temperate) to 4 (tropical) fold.[10] Repeated measures of standing live and dead biomass provide more accurate estimates of all grasslands, particularly those with large turnover, rapid decomposition, and interspecific variation in timing of peak biomass. Wetland productivity (marshes and fens) is similarly measured. In Europe, annual mowing makes the annual biomass increment of wetlands evident.

text: Forests[edit]

text: Methods used to measure forest productivity are more diverse than those of grasslands. Biomass increment based on stand specific allometry plus litterfall is considered a suitable although incomplete accounting of above-ground net primary production (ANPP).[9] Field measurements used as a proxy for ANPP include annual litterfall, diameter or basal area increment (DBH or BAI), and volume increment.

text: Aquatic[edit]

text: In aquatic systems, primary production is typically measured using one of six main techniques:[13]

text:
variations in oxygen concentration within a sealed bottle (developed by Gaarder and Gran in 1927)
incorporation of inorganic carbon-14 (14C in the form of sodium bicarbonate) into organic matter[14][15]
Stable isotopes of Oxygen (16O, 18O and 17O)[16][17]
fluorescence kinetics (technique still a research topic)
Stable isotopes of Carbon (12C and 13C)[18]
Oxygen/Argon Ratios [19]

tag: ol

text: The technique developed by Gaarder and Gran uses variations in the concentration of oxygen under different experimental conditions to infer gross primary production.  Typically, three identical transparent vessels are filled with sample water and stoppered.  The first is analysed immediately and used to determine the initial oxygen concentration; usually this is done by performing a Winkler titration.  The other two vessels are incubated, one each in under light and darkened.  After a fixed period of time, the experiment ends, and the oxygen concentration in both vessels is measured.  As photosynthesis has not taken place in the dark vessel, it provides a measure of ecosystem respiration.  The light vessel permits both photosynthesis and respiration, so provides a measure of net photosynthesis (i.e. oxygen production via photosynthesis subtract oxygen consumption by respiration).  Gross primary production is then obtained by adding oxygen consumption in the dark vessel to net oxygen production in the light vessel.

text: The technique of using 14C incorporation (added as labelled Na2CO3) to infer primary production is most commonly used today because it is sensitive, and can be used in all ocean environments.  As 14C is radioactive (via beta decay), it is relatively straightforward to measure its incorporation in organic material using devices such as scintillation counters.

text: Depending upon the incubation time chosen, net or gross primary production can be estimated.  Gross primary production is best estimated using relatively short incubation times (1 hour or less), since the loss of incorporated 14C (by respiration and organic material excretion / exudation) will be more limited.  Net primary production is the fraction of gross production remaining after these loss processes have consumed some of the fixed carbon.

text: Loss processes can range between 10-60% of incorporated 14C according to the incubation period, ambient environmental conditions (especially temperature) and the experimental species used.  Aside from those caused by the physiology of the experimental subject itself, potential losses due to the activity of consumers also need to be considered.  This is particularly true in experiments making use of natural assemblages of microscopic autotrophs, where it is not possible to isolate them from their consumers.

text: The methods based on stable isotopes and O2/Ar ratios have the advantage of providing estimates of respiration rates in the light without the need of incubations in the dark. Among them, the method of the triple oxygen isotopes and O2/Ar have the additional advantage of not needing incubations in closed containers and O2/Ar can even be measured continuously at sea using equilibrator inlet mass spectrometry (EIMS)[20] or a membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS).[21] However, if results relevant to the carbon cycle are desired, it is probably better to rely on methods based on carbon (and not oxygen) isotopes. It is important to notice that the method based on carbon stable isotopes is not simply an adaptation of the classic 14C method, but an entirely different approach that does not suffer from the problem of lack of account of carbon recycling during photosynthesis.

text: Global[edit]

text: As primary production in the biosphere is an important part of the carbon cycle, estimating it at the global scale is important in Earth system science.  However, quantifying primary production at this scale is difficult because of the range of habitats on Earth, and because of the impact of weather events (availability of sunlight, water) on its variability.  Using satellite-derived estimates of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for terrestrial habitats and sea-surface chlorophyll for the oceans, it is estimated that the total (photoautotrophic) primary production for the Earth was 104.9 Gt C yr−1.[22]  Of this, 56.4 Gt C yr−1 (53.8%), was the product of terrestrial organisms, while the remaining 48.5 Gt C yr−1, was accounted for by oceanic production.

text: Scaling ecosystem-level GPP estimations based on eddy covariance measurements of net ecosystem exchange (see above) to regional and global values using spatial details of different predictor variables, such as climate variables and remotely sensed fAPAR or LAI led to a  terrestrial gross primary production of 123±8 Gt carbon (NOT carbon dioxide) per year during 1998-2005 [23]

text: In areal terms, it was estimated that land production was approximately 426 g C m−2 yr−1 (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), while that for the oceans was 140 g C m−2 yr−1.[22]  Another significant difference between the land and the oceans lies in their standing stocks - while accounting for almost half of total production, oceanic autotrophs only account for about 0.2% of the total biomass.

text: Estimates[edit]

text: Primary productivity can be estimated by a variety of proxies.  One that has particular relevance to the geological record is Barium, whose concentration in marine sediments rises in line with primary productivity at the surface.[24][25][26]

text: Primary production and plant biomass for the Earth[edit]

text:
Ecosystem type
Area (10⁶ km²)
Mean NPP(g/m²/yr)
World NPP(10⁹ tons/yr)
Mean biomass (kg/m²)
World biomass (10⁹ tons)

Tropical rainforest
17.0
2,200
37.4
45
763

Tropical seasonal forest
7.5
1,600
12.0
35
260

Temperate evergreen forest
5.0
1,300
6.5
35
175

Temperate deciduous forest
7.0
1,200
8.4
30
210

Boreal forest
12.0
800
9.6
20
240

Woodlands and shrublands
8.5
700
6.0
6
50

Savanna
15.0
900
13.6
4
60

Temperate grasslands
9.0
600
5.4
1.6
14

Tundra and alpine
8.0
140
1.1
0.6
5

Desert and semi-desert
18.0
90
1.6
0.7
13

Extreme desert and ice
24.0
3
0.07
0.02
0.5

Cultivated land
14.0
650
9.1
1.0
14

Swamp and wetland
2.0
2,000
4.0
12.3
30

Lakes and streams
2.0
250
0.5
0.02
0.05

Total Continental
149
773
115
12.3
1837

Open ocean
332.0
125
41.5
0.003
1.0

Upwelling zones
0.4
500
0.2
0.02
0.008

Continental shelf
26.6
360
9.6
0.01
0.27

Algal bed and reef
0.6
2,500
1.6
2.0
1.2

Estuaries
1.4
1,500
2.1
1.0
1.4

Total marine
361
152
55.0
0.01
3.9

Grand total
510
333
170
3.6
1841

text: From R.H. Whittaker, quoted in Peter Stiling (1996), "Ecology: Theories and Applications" (Prentice Hall).

text: Human impact and appropriation[edit]

text: Human societies are part of the Earth's NPP cycle, but exert a disproportionate influence in it.[27] In 1996, Josep Garí designed a new indicator of sustainable development based precisely on the estimation of the human appropriation of NPP: he coined it "HANPP" (Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production) and introduced it at the inaugural conference of the European Society for Ecological Economics.[28] HANPP has since been further developed and widely applied in research on ecological economics as well as in policy analysis for sustainability. HANPP represents a proxy of the human impact on Nature and can be applied to different geographical scales and also globally.

text: The extensive degree of human use of the Planet's resources, mostly via land use, results in various levels of impact on actual NPP (NPPact). Although in some regions, such as the Nile valley, irrigation has resulted in a considerable increase in primary production, in most of the Planet there us a notable trend of NPP reduction due to land changes (ΔNPPLC) of 9.6% across global land-mass.[29]  In addition to this, end consumption by people raises the total HANPP [27] to 23.8% of potential vegetation (NPP0).[29]  It is estimated that, in 2000, 34% of the Earth's ice-free land area (12% cropland; 22% pasture) was devoted to human agriculture.[30]  This disproportionate amount reduces the energy available to other species, having a marked impact on biodiversity, flows of carbon, water and energy, and ecosystem services,[29] and scientists have questioned how large this fraction can be before these services begin to break down.[31] Reductions in NPP are also expected in the ocean as a result of ongoing climate change, potentially impacting marine ecosystems and goods and services that the oceans provide [6]