document_title: Nanny and the Professor

question_text: who played prudence on nanny and the professor

text: Nanny and the Professor

text: Premise[edit]

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text: Playing upon the popularity of Mary Poppins and other magical nannies of literature, this TV series posited another ostensibly magical British nanny taking care of a family in need of guidance. Unlike the candid "magicality" of its forebears, this Nanny's paranormal nature was less overt and only implied. The Nanny's young wards, as well as the audience, were left intentionally uncertain of the nature of Nanny's "powers", if any.

text: The series starred Juliet Mills as Nanny Phoebe Figalilly, Richard Long as Professor Harold Everett, and in season 3 Elsa Lanchester in the recurring role of Aunt Henrietta.  Figalilly was housekeeper for Professor Everett as well as nanny to his three children: Hal, the intellectual tinkerer, played by David Doremus; Butch, the middle child, played by Trent Lehman; and Prudence, the youngest, played by Kim Richards.

text: Nanny was apparently psychic, and had regular flashes of what was often more than intuition (accented by a musical tinkling sound effect); she frequently knew who was at the door before the doorbell even rang.  There was the vague suggestion that she may have been at least several hundred years old and more than human, which the children thought they discovered in an episode after they saw a photo of Phoebe that looked like it was taken a century earlier.  On outings, Nanny wore a navy blue Inverness cape and cap that resembled a deerstalker; the program's opening titles showed animations of both.  Midway through the first season Nanny and the kids restored a broken down 1930 Model A Ford, which Nanny named "Arabella"; for some reason the car's radio can only pick up radio broadcasts from 1930.

text: The location of the series remained unclear; in the season 2 episode "The Art of Relationships" it is mentioned that Everett is a professor at Collier University, but at the time there was no known existing college to bear that name.

text: Following the show's cancellation, two animated adaptations of the series (Nanny and the Professor and Nanny and the Professor and the Phantom of the Circus) aired as part of The ABC Saturday Superstar Movie. Members of the original cast provided voices for their respective characters.

text: Main cast[edit]

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text:
"Nanny" Phoebe Figalilly (Juliet Mills), a beautiful young British woman who shows up unannounced at the Everett household to look after the Professor's children.  Though she gives no references, Everett affords Phoebe the customary six-week probationary period to see what she can do. At first her antics seem strange to the family, especially Hal, who calls her a "weirdo", but she soon endears herself to the three kids and, to a lesser extent, Everett himself.  Phoebe (who prefers to be called "Nanny") claims to be neither clairvoyant nor magical, but appears to have a sixth sense about many things (accented by a tinkling musical sound whenever her senses assert themselves), including knowing the names of people she has never met, communicating with animals, and especially knowing someone is at the front door or on the telephone before they ring the bell.
Professor Harold Everett (Richard Long), a widower and mathematics teacher at Collier University.  Everett's three children are so rambunctious that he cannot retain a nanny to take care of them; In the first episode they have gone through five different au pairs in less than a year before Nanny's arrival.  Though he admits Nanny is already doing a very good job, his skepticism and Nanny's lack of references maintain his doubts as to whether it will work out, added to which the sheer implausibility of the many strange things that have happened since Nanny's arrival contradict Everett's discipline of practicality.  Initially he spends most of his time working, but with Nanny's subtle prompting he begins to spend more and more time with his family.  As the series progressed there were increasingly prevalent hints of a romantic interest between Everett and Nanny.
Harold "Hal" Everett, Jr. (David Doremus), the oldest of the Everett kids, Hal is of above average intelligence and takes after his father's practical and skeptical persona; the two often play chess together.  Hal is also a tinkerer and inventor, though his experiments often go awry; one of his inventions is a prototype of what would later become known as The Clapper.
Bentley "Butch" Everett (Trent Lehman),  the middle child and Hal's younger brother, who hates his real name and, when he's not eating, enjoys sports and is an occasional prankster; he unsuccessfully attempts to frighten Nanny by hiding his pet guinea pig in her bag.  Butch harbors jealousy and envy of Hal and has a penchant for following in his footsteps whenever Hal takes up a new career choice, though in one episode the tables are briefly turned when, after he mimics Hal's stargazing, he happens to find a new comet and the Bureau of Astronomics decide to name the comet after him.
Prudence Everett (Kim Richards), the youngest of the Everett kids and the Professor's only daughter.  Prudence immediately takes a liking to Nanny when she first arrives.
Mrs. Fowler (Patsy Garrett) (recurring), the Everetts' sometimes nosy neighbor.
Francine Fowler (Eileen Baral) (recurring), Mrs. Fowler's daughter and classmate of Hal. Francine has a terrible crush on Hal.
Waldo, the family dog, an Old English Sheepdog

text: Episode list[edit]

text: Season 1, 1970[edit]

text:
Nº

Ep

Title

Air date
11"Nanny Will Do"January 21, 1970 (1970-01-21)
22"The Wiblet Will Get You If You Don't Watch Out"January 28, 1970 (1970-01-28)
33"The New Butch"February 4, 1970 (1970-02-04)
44"The Scientific Approach"February 11, 1970 (1970-02-11)
55"The Astronomers"February 18, 1970 (1970-02-18)
66"Spring, Sweet Spring"February 25, 1970 (1970-02-25)
77"Nanny on Wheels"March 4, 1970 (1970-03-04)
88"Strictly for the Birds"March 11, 1970 (1970-03-11)
99"The Tyrannosaurus Tibia"March 18, 1970 (1970-03-18)
1010"I Think That I Shall Never See a Tree"March 25, 1970 (1970-03-25)
1111"The Games Families Play"April 1, 1970 (1970-04-01)
1212"An Element of Risk"April 8, 1970 (1970-04-08)
1313"The Philosopher's Stone"April 15, 1970 (1970-04-15)
1414"A Fowl Episode"April 22, 1970 (1970-04-22)
1515"Nanny and the Smoke-Filled Room"April 29, 1970 (1970-04-29)

text: Season 2, 1970–71[edit]

text:
Nº

Ep

Title

Air date
161"The Human Element"September 25, 1970 (1970-09-25)
172"The Haunted House"October 2, 1970 (1970-10-02)
183"Star Bright"October 9, 1970 (1970-10-09)
194"E.S. Putt"October 16, 1970 (1970-10-16)
205"Back to Nature"October 23, 1970 (1970-10-23)
216"A Letter for Nanny"October 30, 1970 (1970-10-30)
227"The Great Broadcast of 1936"November 6, 1970 (1970-11-06)
238"The Masculine-Feminine Mystique"November 13, 1970 (1970-11-13)
249"The India Queen"November 20, 1970 (1970-11-20)
2510"The Visitor"December 4, 1970 (1970-12-04)
2611"My Son, the Sitter"December 11, 1970 (1970-12-11)
2712"From Butch, with Love"December 18, 1970 (1970-12-18)
2813"The Humanization of Herbert T. Peabody"December 25, 1970 (1970-12-25)
2914"A Diller, a Dollar"January 8, 1971 (1971-01-08)
3015"Separate Rooms"January 15, 1971 (1971-01-15)
3116"The Human Fly"January 22, 1971 (1971-01-22)
3217"The Man Who Came to Pasta"January 29, 1971 (1971-01-29)
3318"The Art of Relationships"February 5, 1971 (1971-02-05)
3419"The Balloon Ladies"February 12, 1971 (1971-02-12)
3520"The Prodigy"February 19, 1971 (1971-02-19)
3621"How Many Candles?"February 26, 1971 (1971-02-26)
3722"The Unknown Factor"March 5, 1971 (1971-03-05)
3823"Kid Stuff"March 12, 1971 (1971-03-12)
3924"The Communication Gap"March 26, 1971 (1971-03-26)

text: Season 3, 1971[edit]

text:
Nº

Ep

Title

Air date
401"Oh, What a Tangled Web"September 13, 1971 (1971-09-13)
412"The Flower Children"September 20, 1971 (1971-09-20)
423"Sunday's Hero"September 27, 1971 (1971-09-27)
434"South Sea Island Sweetheart"October 4, 1971 (1971-10-04)
445"Aunt Henrietta's Premonition"October 11, 1971 (1971-10-11)
456"Cholmondeley Featherstonehaugh"October 18, 1971 (1971-10-18)
467"Aunt Henrietta and the Jinx"October 25, 1971 (1971-10-25)
478"Nanny and Her Witch's Brew"November 1, 1971 (1971-11-01)
489"The Conversion of Brother Ben"November 8, 1971 (1971-11-08)
4910"Aunt Henrietta and the Poltergeist"November 15, 1971 (1971-11-15)
5011"Professor Pygmalion Plays Golf"November 22, 1971 (1971-11-22)
5112"The Great Debate"November 29, 1971 (1971-11-29)
5213"One for the Road"December 6, 1971 (1971-12-06)
5314"Good-bye, Arabella, Hello"December 13, 1971 (1971-12-13)
5415"Whatever Happened to Felicity?"December 27, 1971 (1971-12-27)

text: Nanny's relatives[edit]

text: From time to time, some of Nanny's eccentric relatives (and some Nanny claimed as relatives because they were everybody's uncle) dropped by the Everett home for a visit. They include:

text:
Uncle Alfred (portrayed by John Mills, Juliet Mills's father), an eccentric who enthralls the Everett children with his wonderful stories and human flying act in his visit in "The Human Fly".
Aunt Justine (portrayed by Ida Lupino) and Aunt Agatha (portrayed by Marjorie Bennett), two of  Nanny's loveable aunts who draw a mob of reporters, tourists and "Women's Libbers" when they descend on the Everetts, quite literally, in a balloon in "The Balloon Ladies".
Uncle Horace (portrayed by Ray Bolger), Nanny's roguish uncle, an old charmer, just back from the South seas, finds himself in great demand as rainmaker in Nanny's drought-stricken town during his visit in "South Sea Island Sweetheart".
Aunt Henrietta (portrayed by Elsa Lanchester), an eccentric grand dame who arrives in town with her circus and a disturbing premonition that Nanny is about to be carried off by a mustachioed stranger in "Aunt Henrietta's Premonition." She later appeared in "Aunt Henrietta and the Jinx" during a battle between reason and superstition and returned again in "Aunt Henrietta and the Poltergeist" helping to get rid of a ghost.
Aunt Arabella, Nanny's aunt and the inspiration for the nickname of Nanny's antique 1930 Model A automobile in "Nanny on Wheels".
Nanny had a lookalike great-aunt (never seen) who lived to a ripe old age (she was born in October - a Libra).
During Nanny's wedding to Cholmondeley Featherstonehaugh (pronounced "Chumley Fanshaw"), she found a note from her mother tucked in her great-great-great grandmother's wedding gown that told her to only marry if she was truly in love. Nanny took the advice of the note and called off the wedding.

text: Ratings and cancellation[edit]

text: The series first aired as a mid-season replacement on January 21, 1970, on ABC, and was last telecast on December 27, 1971. The series enjoyed initial success due to its Friday night timeslot when it was scheduled between The Brady Bunch and The Partridge Family, which were shows aimed at similar demographics (largely young children and pre-teens). Ratings suffered in the third season when ABC moved the series to Monday night opposite Gunsmoke and Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In. After it was canceled, the show had a brief run in syndication.  It was also one of the first shows rerun on FX Network in 1994. The show was added to getTV's lineup in May 2016.

text: The first two seasons are presently available for viewing on Hulu, but three episodes of season two are not included.  20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has not released the series on DVD.


document_title: Representative democracy

question_text: where did the system of representative government come from

root

text: Representative democracy

text: Powers of representatives[edit]

text: Representatives are elected by the public, as in national elections for the national legislature.[3] Elected representatives may hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the Prime Minister in the latter case. (indirect representation).

tag: p

text: The power of representatives is usually curtailed by a constitution (as in a constitutional democracy or a constitutional monarchy) or other measures to balance representative power:[citation needed]

text:
An independent judiciary, which may have the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional (e.g. constitutional court, supreme court).
The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy (e.g., Royal Commissions) or direct popular measures (e.g., initiative, referendum, recall elections). However, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives.[where?]
In some cases, a bicameral legislature may have an "upper house" that is not directly elected, such as the Canadian Senate, which was in turn modeled on the British House of Lords.

tag: ul

text: Theorists such as Edmund Burke believe that part of the duty of a representative was not simply to communicate the wishes of the electorate but also to use their own judgement in the exercise of their powers, even if their views are not reflective of those of a majority of voters:[6]

text: ...it ought to be the happiness and glory of a representative to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any set of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the law and the constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.

text: History[edit]

text: The Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have a representative government, despite taking the form of a direct government in the Roman assemblies. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries,[7] and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader.[8] Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives as opposed to a direct democracy, a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly.[9] A European medieval tradition of selecting representatives from the various estates (classes, but not as we know them today) to advise/control monarchs led to relatively wide familiarity with representative systems inspired by Roman systems.

text: In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments.[10][11] The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns.[12] Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.[13][14]

text: The American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787. With a national legislature based partly on direct elections of representatives every two years, and thus responsible to the electorate for continuance in office. Senators were not directly elected by the people until the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. Women, men who owned no property, and blacks, and others not originally given voting rights in most states eventually gained the vote through changes in state and federal law in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until it was repealed by the Fourteenth Amendment following the Civil War, the Three-Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states,[15][16]

text: In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792.[17]

text: Representative democracy came into particular general favour in post-industrial revolution nation states where large numbers of citizens evinced interest in politics, but where technology and population figures remained unsuited to direct democracy. As noted above, Edmund Burke in his speech to the electors of Bristol classically analysed their operation in Britain and the rights and duties of an elected representative.

text: Globally, a majority of the world's people live in representative democracies including constitutional monarchies and republics with strong representative branches.

text: Research on representation per se[edit]

text: Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in political philosophy and social science investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent the interests or preferences of one or another constituency.

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: In his book Political Parties, written in 1911, Robert Michels argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an oligarchy or particracy. This is known as the iron law of oligarchy.[18] Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by Adolf Gasser and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book "Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas" which was published in 1943 (first edition in German) and a second edition in 1947 (in German).[19] Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by the iron law of oligarchy:

text:
Society has to be built up from bottom to top. As a consequence, society is built up by people, who are free and have the power to defend themselves with weapons.
These free people join or form local communities. These local communities are independent, which includes financial independence, and they are free to determine their own rules.
Local communities join together into a higher unit e.g. a canton.
There is no hierarchical bureaucracy.
There is competition between these local communities e.g. on services delivered or on taxes.

text: A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self-interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance.[20] Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority-won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among the marginalized.[21]

text: Proposed solutions[edit]

text: The system of stochocracy has been proposed as an improved system compared to the system of representative democracy, where representatives are elected. Stochocracy aims to at least reduce this degradation by having all representatives appointed by lottery instead of by voting. Therefore, this system is also called lottocracy. The system was proposed by the writer Roger de Sizif in 1998 in his book La Stochocratie. Choosing officeholders by lot was also the standard practice in ancient Athenian democracy.[22] The rationale behind this practice was to avoid lobbying and electioneering by economic oligarchs.

text: The system of deliberative democracy is a mix between a majority ruled system and a consensus-based system. It allows for representative democracies or direct democracies to coexist with its system of governance, providing an initial advantage.[23] It is a system which allows for legislators to discuss the issues in a productive manner trying to reach a consensus. If the group cannot reach a consensus then a majority-wins vote must be taken.

text: The system of delegative democracy or Liquid Democracy is a dynamic mixture of representative democracy and direct democracy, meaning that each participant can decide himself when he wants to participate in a decision by direct voting, or whether he rather wants a delegate to vote for him by using a software system. The voter can delegate his vote an organization, a political party or an individual. One can have different delegates in different subject areas, and always change the delegate. When the voter votes directly in an issue, the delegates vote will be erased and the direct vote will be counted. This system also contains room for popular initiatives and deliberation. The first example of delegative or Liquid Democracy using a software program in a real political setting involved the local political party Demoex in Vallentuna near Stockholm, Sweden. Pirate Parties in Germany,[24] Italy, Austria, Norway, France and the Netherlands[25] use delegative democracy with the open-source software LiquidFeedback,[citation needed] while members of the Belgian Pirate Party have developed their own software called Get Opinionated.


document_title: Georgia General Assembly

question_text: the upper chamber of the georgia general assembly consists of how many members

text: Georgia General Assembly

text: History[edit]

text: The General Assembly, which is the legislative branch of the state's government, was created in 1777 during the American Revolution—it is older than the United States Congress. During its existence the Assembly has moved four different times when the state capital changed its location. The first location the Assembly served in was Savannah, then Augusta and Louisville, moving from there to Milledgeville, and finally to Atlanta in 1868.[5]

text: The General Assembly in Savannah[edit]

text: By January 1777 Savannah had become the capital of Georgia—when the former colony declared independence from Britain. The legislature, then a unicameral body, met there in 1777–1778—retreating to Augusta when the British captured the city. They were not in Augusta long before it was captured by the British in 1779. Augusta changed hands three times during the war, finally returning to American possession in July 1781. They stayed in Augusta until the British left Savannah in May 1782 and the legislature returned to the capital.[5]

text: Move to Augusta[edit]

text: Between 1783–95, the Georgia General Assembly met in both Savannah and Augusta—moving from there when tensions arose between the two cities, causing then Governor Lyman Hall to officially reside in both places. On February 22, 1785 the General Assembly held its last meeting in Savannah—Augusta had become the official capital due to pressure from the general populace to have their capital in the center of the state.[5]

text: On to Louisville[edit]

text: As the population dispersed—shifting the geographic center, it was determined that the state's capital needed to move as well. A commission was appointed by the legislature in 1786 to find a suitable location that was central to the new demography. The commission recommended Louisville, which would become Georgia's first planned capital and would hold her first capitol building. Due to the fact that the capital would have to be built from the ground up, and because of numerous construction delays, it took a decade to build the city. The name Louisville was chosen by the General Assembly in honor of King Louis XVI of France for France's aid during the Revolutionary War.

text: The new state house, a two-story 18th century Gregorian building of red brick, was completed in 1796. The Legislature designated Louisville the "permanent seat" of Georgia's government. Yet, further western expansion created the need for another new state capital. The capitol building was purchased by Jefferson County and used as a courthouse, but the building had to be torn down because it became unsound. A plaque marks the location of the old Capitol.[5]

text: The Assembly arrives in Milledgeville[edit]

text:
Ordinance of Secession
Facsimile of the 1861 Ordinance of Secession signed by 293 delegates to the Georgia Secession Convention at the statehouse in Milledgeville, Georgia January 21, 1861.

tag: table

text: In 1804, the state government decided that yet another capital, would be needed. Subsequently, an act was passed authorizing construction of a new capital city on 3,240 acres (13 km2) in the area currently known as Baldwin County. The city was named Milledgeville in honor of Governor John Milledge.

text: The new Capitol took two years to complete and was a brick construction in the Gothic Revival style. The legislature convened The Georgia Secession Convention of 1861 in the Milledgeville statehouse on January 16, 1861. On January 19, delegates voted for Georgia to secede from the Union—208 in favor with 89 against—drafting a new constitution, and declaring the state an independent Republic.

text: On January 21, Assembly delegates celebrated their decision by a public signing of the Ordinance of Secession outside of the State Capitol. The legislature also voted to send $100,000 to South Carolina for "the relief of Charlestonians" who suffered a disastrous fire in December 1861. With General Sherman's approach, the members of the General Assembly adjourned in fall 1864, reconvening briefly in Macon in 1865. As the American Civil War came to a close with the federal government in military control of Georgia, the legislature reconvened at the Capitol in Milledgeville.[5]

text: Atlanta[edit]

text: In 1867, Major General John Pope, military governor of Georgia, called for an assembly in Atlanta to hold a constitutional convention. At that time Atlanta officials moved once again to have the city designated as Georgia's state capital, donating the property where Atlanta's first city hall was constructed. The constitutional convention agreed and the people voted to ratify the decision on April 20, 1868. The Georgia General Assembly first convened in Atlanta on July 4, 1868.

text: In 1884, the legislature appropriated one million dollars to build a new State Capitol. Construction began October 26, 1884 and the building was completed (slightly under budget) and occupied on June 15, 1889.[5]

text: Notably, the dome atop the capitol building is plated with real gold, most of which came from the Dahlonega, Georgia area.[6]  The roofing gives rise to local colloquialisms—for instance, if one knowledgeable Georgian wanted to ask another what the General Assembly was doing, he might ask what was happening "under the gold dome."[7]

text: Organization and procedure of the General Assembly[edit]

text: The General Assembly meets in regular session on the second Monday in January for no longer than  40 legislative (rather than calendar) days each year. Neither the House nor the Senate can adjourn during a regular session for longer than three days or meet in any place other than the state capitol without the other house's consent.

text: Committees[edit]

text: Rules of procedure, employees and interim committees[edit]

text: Both houses of the General Assembly may determine procedural rules provide for its employees. The General Assembly as a whole, or each house separately, has the ability to create interim committees.

text: Oath of office[edit]

text: Before taking office senators and representatives must swear (or affirm) an oath—stipulated by state law.

text: Quorum[edit]

text: A majority of the members to which each house is entitled shall constitute a quorum to transact business. A smaller number may adjourn from day to day and compel the presence of its absent members.

text: Vacancies[edit]

text: Whenever a vacancy occurs in the General Assembly, an event that occurs whenever a member dies, resigns, or moves from the district from which he was elected, it is filled according to Georgia law and the Constitution.[8] If the vacancy occurs anytime prior to the end of the legislative session in the second year of a term, the governor must issue a writ of special election within ten days of the vacancy occurring, and, if the vacancy occurs after the end of the legislative session in the second year of a term, then the governor may choose to issue a writ of special election. But, if the vacancy exists at the time that an extraordinary session is called, then the governor must issue a writ of special election within 2 days after the call for the extraordinary session, and, if the vacancy occurs after the call but before the special session has concluded, then the governor must issue a writ of special election within 5 days of the occurrence. In each case, the writ of special election must designate a day on which the election will be held, which must be no less than 30 days and no more than 60 days after the governor issues the writ.[9]

text: Salaries[edit]

text: Members of the General Assembly receive salaries provided by law, so long as that salary does not increase before the end of the term during which the increase becomes effective. Members of the Georgia General Assembly currently earn $17,000 a year.[10]

text: Election and returns; disorderly conduct[edit]

text: Both houses hold the responsibility of judging the election, returns, and qualifications of their members. Also, both houses have the power to punish members for disorderly misconduct. Punishments for such conduct are:

text:
censure
fine
imprisonment
expulsion

text: However, no member can be expelled without a vote of two-thirds of the members of the house the member belongs to.

text: Contempt[edit]

text: When a person is guilty of contempt, the individual may be imprisoned if ordered by either the House or the Senate.

text: Elections by either house[edit]

text: All elections of the General Assembly are to be recorded. The recorded vote then appears in the journal of each house.

text: Open meetings[edit]

text: Sessions of the General Assembly, including committee meetings, are open to the public except when either house makes an exception.

text: Legislative history[edit]

text: The General Assembly does not publish reports and does not keep bill files. Major legislation is discussed in detail in the Peach Sheets,[11] a student-written part of Georgia State University College of Law's Law Review. Recent Peach Sheet articles are available in an online archive. Otherwise, Peach Sheets articles should be included in the Georgia State Law Review databases on Lexis, Westlaw and HeinOnline.[12]

text: Composition[edit]

text: The Georgia General Assembly began as a unicameral body in 1777 but changed to a bicameral legislature in 1789. It is now made up of a Senate (the upper house) and a House of Representatives (the lower house). The Senate has 56 members while the House of Representatives has 180. Members from each body serve for two years, but have no limit to the number of times they can be re-elected. Both senators and representatives are elected from their constituents' districts.

text:
Terms of the Georgia General Assembly
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text: Qualifications for election[edit]

text: The Georgia Constitution stipulates that members of the Senate must be citizens of the United States, at least 25 years old, a citizen of the state of Georgia for at least two years, and a legal resident of the district the senator was elected for at least one year. Members of the House of Representatives must be citizens of the United States, at least 21 years old, a Georgia citizen for at least two years, and a legal resident of  district the representative was elected for at least one year. They have to have a 5,000 dollar income too.

text: Disqualifications[edit]

text: According to the Georgia Constitution Article III Section II Paragraph IV:[13]

text:
No person on active duty with any branch of the armed forces of the United States shall have a seat in either house unless otherwise provided by law.
No person holding any civil appointment or office having any emolument annexed thereto under the United States, this state, or any other state shall have a seat in either house.
No Senator or Representative shall be elected by the General Assembly or appointed by the Governor to any office or appointment having any emolument annexed thereto during the time for which such person shall have been elected unless the Senator or Representative shall first resign the seat to which elected; provided, however, that, during the term for which elected, no Senator or Representative shall be appointed to any civil office which has been created during such term.

text: Officers[edit]

text: The presiding officer of the Senate is the President of the Senate or Lieutenant Governor. Like the United States Senate, a President Pro Tempore is elected by the Senate from among its members. The President Pro Tempore acts as President in case of the temporary disability of the President. In case of the death, resignation, or permanent disability of the President or in the event of the succession of the President to the executive power, the President Pro Tempore becomes President. The Senate also has as an officer the Secretary of the Senate.

text: The House of Representatives elects its own Speaker and a Speaker Pro Tempore. The Speaker Pro Tempore becomes Speaker in case of the death, resignation, or permanent disability of the Speaker. The Speaker Pro Tempore serves until a new Speaker is elected. The House also has as an officer the Clerk of the House of Representatives.

text: Powers and privileges[edit]

text: Article III Section VI of the Georgia State Constitution specifies the powers given to the Georgia General Assembly.[13] Paragraph I states, "The General Assembly shall have the power to make all laws not inconsistent with this Constitution, and not repugnant to the Constitution of the United States, which it shall deem necessary and proper for the welfare of the state." Moreover, the powers the Constitution gives the Assembly include land use restrictions to protect and preserve the environment and natural resources; the creation, use and disciplining through court martial of a state militia which would be under the command of the Governor of Georgia acting as commander-in-chief (excepting times when the militia is under Federal command); The power to expend public money, to condemn property, and to zone property; The continuity of state and local governments during times of emergency; state participation in tourism. The use, control and regulation of outdoor advertising within the state.

text: Limitation of powers[edit]

text: Paragraph V of Article III Section VI states that:

text:
The General Assembly shall not have the power to grant incorporation to private persons but shall provide by general law the manner in which private corporate powers and privileges may be granted.
The General Assembly shall not forgive the forfeiture of the charter of any corporation existing on August 13, 1945, nor shall it grant any benefit to or permit any amendment to the charter of any corporation except upon the condition that the acceptance thereof shall operate as a novation of the charter and that such corporation shall thereafter hold its charter subject to the provisions of this Constitution.
The General Assembly shall not have the power to authorize any contract or agreement which may have the effect of or which is intended to have the effect of defeating or lessening competition, or encouraging a monopoly, which are hereby declared to be unlawful and void.
The General Assembly shall not have the power to regulate or fix charges of public utilities owned or operated by any county or municipality of this state, except as authorized by this Constitution.
No municipal or county authority which is authorized to construct, improve, or maintain any road or street on behalf of, pursuant to a contract with, or through the use of taxes or other revenues of a county or municipal corporation shall be created by any local Act or pursuant to any general Act nor shall any law specifically relating to any such authority be amended unless the creation of such authority or the amendment of such law is conditioned upon the approval of a majority of the qualified voters of the county or municipal corporation affected voting in a referendum thereon. This subparagraph shall not apply to or affect any state authority.

text: Privileges of members[edit]

text: Members of the Georgia General Assembly maintain two important privileges during their time in office. First, no member of either house of the Assembly can be arrested during sessions of the General Assembly or during committee meetings except in cases of treason, felony, or "breach of the peace". Also, members are not liable for anything they might say in either the House or the Senate or in any committee meetings of both.


document_title: 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification

question_text: how many teams start off in world cup

question_tokens: how many teams start off in world cup

text: 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification

text: Qualified teams[edit]

text:
Team

Method ofqualification

Date ofqualification

Finalsappearance

Lastappearance

Consecutivefinalsappearances

Previous bestperformance

 Russia
Hosts
2 December 2010
11th1
2014
2
Fourth place (1966)2

 Brazil
CONMEBOL Round Robin winners
28 March 2017
21st
2014
21
Winners (1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, 2002)

 Iran
AFC Third Round Group A winners
12 June 2017
5th
2014
2
Group stage (1978, 1998, 2006, 2014)

 Japan
AFC Third Round Group B winners
31 August 2017
6th
2014
6
Round of 16 (2002, 2010)

 Mexico
CONCACAF Fifth Round winners
1 September 2017
16th
2014
7
Quarter-finals (1970, 1986)

 Belgium
UEFA Group H winners
3 September 2017
13th
2014
2
Fourth place (1986)

 South Korea
AFC Third Round Group A runners-up
5 September 2017
10th
2014
9
Fourth place (2002)

 Saudi Arabia
AFC Third Round Group B runners-up
5 September 2017
5th
2006
1
Round of 16 (1994)

 Germany
UEFA Group C winners
5 October 2017
19th3
2014
17
Winners (1954, 1974, 1990, 2014)

 England
UEFA Group F winners
5 October 2017
15th
2014
6
Winners (1966)

 Spain
UEFA Group G winners
6 October 2017
15th
2014
11
Winners (2010)

 Nigeria
CAF Third Round Group B winners
7 October 2017
6th
2014
3
Round of 16 (1994, 1998, 2014)

 Costa Rica
CONCACAF Fifth Round runners-up
7 October 2017
5th
2014
2
Quarter-finals (2014)

 Poland
UEFA Group E winners
8 October 2017
8th
2006
1
Third place (1974, 1982)

 Egypt
CAF Third Round Group E winners
8 October 2017
3rd
1990
1
First round (1934), Group stage (1990)

 Iceland
UEFA Group I winners
9 October 2017
1st
–
1
–

 Serbia
UEFA Group D winners
9 October 2017
12th4
2010
1
Fourth place (1930, 1962)5

 Portugal
UEFA Group B winners
10 October 2017
7th
2014
5
Third place (1966)

 France
UEFA Group A winners
10 October 2017
15th
2014
6
Winners (1998)

 Uruguay
CONMEBOL Round Robin runners-up
10 October 2017
13th
2014
3
Winners (1930, 1950)

 Argentina
CONMEBOL Round Robin third place
10 October 2017
17th
2014
12
Winners (1978, 1986)

 Colombia
CONMEBOL Round Robin fourth place
10 October 2017
6th
2014
2
Quarter-finals (2014)

 Panama
CONCACAF Fifth Round third place
10 October 2017
1st
–
1
–

 Senegal
CAF Third Round Group D winners
10 November 2017
2nd
2002
1
Quarter-finals (2002)

 Morocco
CAF Third Round Group C winners
11 November 2017
5th
1998
1
Round of 16 (1986)

 Tunisia
CAF Third Round Group A winners
11 November 2017
5th
2006
1
Group stage (1978, 1998, 2002, 2006)

  Switzerland
UEFA Second Round winners
12 November 2017
11th
2014
4
Quarter-finals (1934, 1938, 1954)

 Croatia
UEFA Second Round winners
12 November 2017
5th
2014
2
Third place (1998)

 Sweden
UEFA Second Round winners
13 November 2017
12th
2006
1
Runners-up (1958)

 Denmark
UEFA Second Round winners
14 November 2017
5th
2010
1
Quarter-finals (1998)

 Australia
CONCACAF v AFC play-off winners
15 November 2017
5th
2014
4
Round of 16 (2006)

 Peru
OFC v CONMEBOL play-off winners
15 November 2017
5th
1982
1
Quarter-finals (1970), Second round (1978)6

text:
1: This is the 4th appearance of Russia at the FIFA World Cup; however, FIFA considers Russia as the successor team of the Soviet Union who themselves qualified on 7 occasions.
2: Russia's best result is group stage in 1994, 2002 and 2014; however, FIFA considers Russia as the successor team of the Soviet Union who achieved this result.
3: Germany between 1951 and 1990 is often referred to as "West Germany", as a separate East German state and team existed then.
4: This is the 2nd appearance of Serbia at the FIFA World Cup. However, FIFA considers Serbia as the successor team of the Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro national teams, who between them qualified on 10 occasions.
5: No official third place match took place in 1930 and no official third place was awarded at the time; both United States and Yugoslavia lost in the semi-finals. However, FIFA lists the teams as third and fourth respectively using the overall records of the teams in the tournament.
6: In 1978, the second round was another group stage which involved 8 teams qualified from the first round.

text: Qualification process[edit]

text: The number of teams participating in the final tournament was 32. Even though the qualification process began in March 2015, the allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress.[14] It was decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments.[15]

text: Proposal for expansion[edit]

text: In October 2013, UEFA President Michel Platini proposed that the World Cup finals should be expanded from 32 to 40 teams starting from 2018. The format would have been the same, but in groups of five instead of four.[16] This was in response to FIFA President Sepp Blatter's comments that Africa and Asia deserved more spots in the World Cup finals at the expense of European and South American teams.[17] However, FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said that expansion in 2018 would be "unlikely", while Russian sports minister Vitaly Mutko said that the country was "preparing on the basis that 32 teams will be taking part."[18][19] Expansion was ultimately delayed until 10 January 2017, when the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to 48 teams starting in the 2026 FIFA World Cup.[20]

text: Summary of qualification[edit]

text: While all FIFA members entered the tournament, not all competed. Zimbabwe were expelled from the competition on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee and Indonesia were excluded from the qualifying competition following the suspension of their football association by FIFA on 30 May 2015.[3] Kuwait had a number of their qualifiers cancelled for a similar suspension that began while their campaign was underway,[21] which eventually resulted in their elimination. Brazil were the first team to achieve qualification for the tournament following their 3–0 victory over Paraguay and Uruguay's loss to Peru on 28 March 2017.[22] Peru became the 32nd and final team to qualify when, 233 days after Brazil secured their place, they beat New Zealand 2–0 on aggregate in the OFC-CONMEBOL play-off.[23]

text:
Confederation

Available slots in finals

Teams started

Teams eliminated

Teams qualified

Qualifying start date

Qualifying end date

AFC
4.5
46
41
5
12 March 2015
15 November 2017

CAF
5
54
49
5
7 October 2015
14 November 2017

CONCACAF
3.5
35
32
3
22 March 2015
15 November 2017

CONMEBOL
4.5
10
5
5
8 October 2015
15 November 2017

OFC
0.5
11
11
0
31 August 2015
15 November 2017

UEFA
13+1
54+1
41
13+1
4 September 2016
14 November 2017

Total
31+1
210+1
179
31+1
12 March 2015
15 November 2017

text: Note: One team each from AFC, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, and OFC played in the inter-confederation play-offs, between 10–15 November 2017 (CONCACAF v AFC and OFC v CONMEBOL).

text: Note: UEFA total includes +1 for Russia as hosts.

text: Format[edit]

text: The formats of the qualifying competitions depended on each confederation (see below). Each round might be played in either of the following formats:[24]

text:
League format, where more than two teams formed groups to play home-and-away round-robin matches, or in exceptions permitted by the FIFA Organizing Committee, single round-robin matches hosted by one of the participating teams or on neutral territory.
Knockout format, where two teams played home-and-away two-legged matches.

text: Tiebreakers[edit]

text: In league format, the ranking of teams in each group is based on the following criteria (regulations Articles 20.6 and 20.7):[24]

text:
Points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss)
Overall goal difference
Overall goals scored
Points in matches between tied teams
Goal difference in matches between tied teams
Goals scored in matches between tied teams
Away goals scored in matches between tied teams (if the tie is only between two teams in home-and-away league format)
Fair play points
first yellow card: minus 1 point
indirect red card (second yellow card): minus 3 points
direct red card: minus 4 points
yellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points
Drawing of lots by the FIFA Organising Committee

tag: ol

text: In cases where teams finishing in the same position across different groups are compared for determining which teams advance to the next stage, the criteria is decided by the confederation and require the approval of FIFA (regulations Article 20.8).[24]

text: In knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen-minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot-out (regulations Article 20.9).[24]

text: Confederation qualification[edit]

text: AFC[edit]

text: The AFC Executive Committee meeting on 16 April 2014 approved the proposal to merge the preliminary qualification rounds of the FIFA World Cup and the AFC Asian Cup, which will be expanded to 24 teams starting in 2019:[25]

text:
First round: 12 teams (ranked 35–46) played home-and-away over two legs. The six winners advanced to the second round.
Second round: 40 teams (teams ranked 1–34 and six first round winners) were divided into eight groups of five teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The eight group winners and the four best group runners-up advanced to the third round of FIFA World Cup qualification as well as qualified for the 2019 AFC Asian Cup finals.
Third round: The 12 teams (an increase from 10 for 2014) which advanced from the second round were divided into two groups of six teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The top two teams of each group qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the two third-placed teams advanced to the fourth round.
Fourth round: The two third-placed teams of each group from the third round played home-and-away over two legs. The winners advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs, playing the fourth-placed CONCACAF team.

text: Final positions (third round)[edit]

text: The draw for the third round was held on 12 April 2016 at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.[26]

text:
Group A

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Iran

10

22

2

 South Korea

10

15

3

 Syria

10

13

4

 Uzbekistan

10

13

5

 China PR

10

12

6

 Qatar

10

7

Source: FIFA

Group B

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Japan

10

20

2

 Saudi Arabia

10

19

3

 Australia

10

19

4

 United Arab Emirates

10

13

5

 Iraq

10

11

6

 Thailand

10

2

Source: FIFA

text: Play-off for 5th place (fourth round)[edit]

text: The third-placed teams from each group in the third round played against each other home-and-away over two legs to determine which team advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs.

text:
Team 1

Agg.

Team 2

1st leg

2nd leg

Syria

2–3

 Australia

1–1

1–2 (a.e.t.)

text: CAF[edit]

text: The CAF Executive Committee approved the format for the qualifiers of the 2018 FIFA World Cup on 14 January 2015.[27] However, on 9 July 2015 FIFA officially announced that only three rounds would be played instead of four.[28]

text:
First round: 26 teams (ranked 28–53) played home-and-away over two legs. The 13 winners advanced to the second round.
Second round: 40 teams (teams ranked 1–27 and 13 first round winners) played home-and-away over two legs. The 20 winners advanced to the third round.
Third round: The 20 teams which had advanced from the second round were divided into five groups of four teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The winners of each group qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

text: Zimbabwe, even though they entered the competition, were expelled on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee.[2] Therefore, only 53 African teams were involved in the draw.

text: Final positions (third round)[edit]

text: The draw for the third round was held on 24 June 2016 at the CAF headquarters in Cairo, Egypt.[29]

text:
Group A

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Tunisia

6

14

2

 DR Congo

6

13

3

 Libya

6

4

4

 Guinea

6

3

Source: FIFA

Group B

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Nigeria

6

13

2

 Zambia

6

8

3

 Cameroon

6

7

4

 Algeria

6

4

Source: FIFA

Group C

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Morocco

6

12

2

 Ivory Coast

6

8

3

 Gabon

6

6

4

 Mali

6

4

Source: FIFA

text:
Group D

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Senegal

6

14

2

 Burkina Faso

6

9

3

 Cape Verde

6

6

4

 South Africa

6

4

Source: FIFA

Group E

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Egypt

6

13

2

 Uganda

6

9

3

 Ghana

6

7

4

 Congo

6

2

Source: FIFA

text: CONCACAF[edit]

text: An amendment to the qualification process for this tournament had been suggested,[30] which would see the first three rounds played as knockout rounds, with both the fourth round and the final round (referred to as 'The Hex') played as group stages. The first round would be played during the FIFA international dates of 23–31 March 2015.[31] CONCACAF announced the full details on 12 January 2015:[32][33]

text:
First round: 14 teams (teams ranked 22–35) played home-and-away over two legs. The seven winners advanced to the second round.
Second round: 20 teams (teams ranked 9–21 and seven first round winners) played home-and-away over two legs. The ten winners advanced to the third round.
Third round: 12 teams (teams ranked 7–8 and ten second round winners) played home-and-away over two legs. The six winners advanced to the fourth round.
Fourth round: 12 teams (teams ranked 1–6 and six third round winners) were divided into three groups of four teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The top two teams of each group advanced to the fifth round.
Fifth round: The six teams which advanced from the fourth round played home-and-away round-robin matches in one single group. The top three teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fourth-placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs, playing the winners of the Asian Football Confederation play-off.

text: Final positions (fifth round)[edit]

text: The draw for the fifth round (to decide the fixtures) was held on 8 July 2016 at the CONCACAF headquarters in Miami Beach, United States.[34]

text:
Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Mexico

10

21

2

 Costa Rica

10

16

3

 Panama

10

13

4

 Honduras

10

13

5

 United States

10

12

6

 Trinidad and Tobago

10

6

text: CONMEBOL[edit]

text: The qualification structure was the same as the previous five editions. The ten teams played in a league of home-and-away round-robin matches. The top four teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fifth-placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs, playing the winners of the Oceania Football Confederation qualifying competition.

text: Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were decided by a draw held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.[35]

text: Final positions[edit]

text:
Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Brazil

18

41

2

 Uruguay

18

31

3

 Argentina

18

28

4

 Colombia

18

27

5

 Peru

18

26

6

 Chile

18

26

7

 Paraguay

18

24

8

 Ecuador

18

20

9

 Bolivia

18

14

10

 Venezuela

18

12

text: OFC[edit]

text: The qualification structure was as follows:[36][28]

text:
First round: American Samoa, Cook Islands, Samoa, and Tonga played a round-robin tournament at a single country. The winners advanced to the second round.
Second round (OFC Nations Cup): A total of eight teams (Fiji, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tahiti, Vanuatu, and the first round winner) played the tournament at a single country. For the group stage, they were divided into two groups of four teams. The top three teams of each group advanced to the third round of World Cup qualifying. The top two teams of each group also advanced to the knockout stage (semi-finals and final) to decide the 2016 OFC Nations Cup winners which would play in the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup.
Third round: The six teams which advanced from the second round were divided into two groups of three teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The two group winners met in a two-legged match with the winners advancing to the inter-confederation play-offs, playing the fifth-placed CONMEBOL team.

text: The OFC had considered different proposals of the qualifying tournament.[37] A previous proposal adopted by the OFC in October 2014 would have the eight teams divided into two groups of four teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches in the second round, followed by the top two teams of each group advancing to the third round to play in a single group of home-and-away round-robin matches to decide the winners of the 2016 OFC Nations Cup which would qualify to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and advance to the inter-confederation play-offs.[38] However, it was later reported in April 2015 that the OFC had reversed its decision, and the 2016 OFC Nations Cup was played as a one-off tournament similar to the 2012 OFC Nations Cup.[39]

text: Final positions (third round)[edit]

text: The draw for the third round was held on 8 July 2016 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand.[40]

text:
Group A

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 New Zealand

4

10

2

 New Caledonia

4

5

3

 Fiji

4

1

Source: FIFA

Group B

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Solomon Islands

4

9

2

 Tahiti

4

6

3

 Papua New Guinea

4

3

Source: FIFA

text:
Final
The draw for the final (which decided the order of legs) was held on 15 June 2017 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand.[41] The winners of the final advanced to inter-confederation play-offs.

text:
Team 1

Agg.

Team 2

1st leg

2nd leg

New Zealand

8–3

 Solomon Islands

6–1

2–2

text: UEFA[edit]

text: Russia qualified automatically as hosts. The qualifying format for the remaining FIFA-affiliated UEFA teams was confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee meeting on 22–23 March 2015 in Vienna.[42][43]

text:
First round (group stage): The 52 UEFA teams affiliated with FIFA at the time of the draw were divided into nine groups (seven groups of six teams and two groups of five teams) to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The winners of each group qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the eight best runners-up advanced to the second round (play-offs). With the admission of Gibraltar and Kosovo as FIFA members in May 2016, both national teams were eligible to make their debuts in World Cup qualifying.[6] With initially two groups in the first round having only five teams, Kosovo was assigned to Group I as it was decided that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia should not play against Kosovo for security reasons, and Gibraltar was then added to Group H,[7][8] so that each of the nine groups then had six teams.
Second round (play-offs): The eight best runners-up from the first round played one other team over two legs, home and away. The four winners qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup.

text: Final positions (first round)[edit]

text: The draw for the first round was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.[28]

text: Qualification to 2018 FIFA World Cup

text: Advance to Second round (play-offs)

text:
Group A

Group B

Group C

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 France

10

23

2

 Sweden

10

19

3

 Netherlands

10

19

4

 Bulgaria

10

13

5

 Luxembourg

10

6

6

 Belarus

10

5

Source: FIFA

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Portugal

10

27

2

  Switzerland

10

27

3

 Hungary

10

13

4

 Faroe Islands

10

9

5

 Latvia

10

7

6

 Andorra

10

4

Source: FIFA

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Germany

10

30

2

 Northern Ireland

10

19

3

 Czech Republic

10

15

4

 Norway

10

13

5

 Azerbaijan

10

10

6

 San Marino

10

0

Source: FIFA

Group D

Group E

Group F

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Serbia

10

21

2

 Republic of Ireland

10

19

3

 Wales

10

17

4

 Austria

10

15

5

 Georgia

10

5

6

 Moldova

10

2

Source: FIFA

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Poland

10

25

2

 Denmark

10

20

3

 Montenegro

10

16

4

 Romania

10

13

5

 Armenia

10

7

6

 Kazakhstan

10

3

Source: FIFA

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 England

10

26

2

 Slovakia

10

18

3

 Scotland

10

18

4

 Slovenia

10

15

5

 Lithuania

10

6

6

 Malta

10

1

Source: FIFA

Group G

Group H

Group I

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Spain

10

28

2

 Italy

10

23

3

 Albania

10

13

4

 Israel

10

12

5

 Macedonia

10

11

6

 Liechtenstein

10

0

Source: FIFA

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Belgium

10

28

2

 Greece

10

19

3

 Bosnia and Herzegovina

10

17

4

 Estonia

10

11

5

 Cyprus

10

10

6

 Gibraltar

10

0

Source: FIFA

Pos

Team[ vte ]

Pld

Pts

1

 Iceland

10

22

2

 Croatia

10

20

3

 Ukraine

10

17

4

 Turkey

10

15

5

 Finland

10

9

6

 Kosovo

10

1

Source: FIFA

text: In deciding the eight best runners-up, the matches against the sixth-placed team in each group were discarded.[44]

text:
Pos

Grp

Team[ vte ]

Pld

W

D

L

GF

GA

GD

Pts

Qualification

1

B

  Switzerland

8

7

0

1

18

6

+12

21

Advance to second round (play-offs)

2

G

 Italy

8

5

2

1

12

8

+4

17

3

E

 Denmark

8

4

2

2

13

6

+7

14

4

I

 Croatia

8

4

2

2

8

4

+4

14

5

A

 Sweden

8

4

1

3

18

9

+9

13

6

C

 Northern Ireland

8

4

1

3

10

6

+4

13

7

H

 Greece

8

3

4

1

9

5

+4

13

8

D

 Republic of Ireland

8

3

4

1

7

5

+2

13

9

F

 Slovakia

8

4

0

4

11

6

+5

12

text: Play-offs (second round)[edit]

text: The draw for the second round (play-offs) was held on 17 October 2017 at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland.[47] The winners of each tie qualified for the World Cup.

text:
Team 1

Agg.

Team 2

1st leg

2nd leg

Northern Ireland

0–1

  Switzerland

0–1

0–0

Croatia

4–1

 Greece

4–1

0–0

Denmark

5–1

 Republic of Ireland

0–0

5–1

Sweden

1–0

 Italy

1–0

0–0

text: Inter-confederation play-offs[edit]

text: There were two inter-confederation playoffs to determine the final two qualification spots for the finals. The first legs were played on 10 and 11 November 2017, and the second legs were played on 15 November 2017.[48][49]

text: The matchups were decided at the preliminary draw which was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.[28]

text: CONCACAF v AFC[edit]

text:
Team 1

Agg.

Team 2

1st leg

2nd leg

Honduras

1–3

 Australia

0–0

1–3

text: OFC v CONMEBOL[edit]

text:
Team 1

Agg.

Team 2

1st leg

2nd leg

New Zealand

0–2

 Peru

0–0

0–2

text: Top goalscorers[edit]

text:
Robert Lewandowski
 Mohammad Al-Sahlawi[A]
 Ahmed Khalil

text: Cristiano Ronaldo

text:
Tim Cahill
 Romelu Lukaku
 Christian Eriksen
 Sardar Azmoun[A]

text:
Mile Jedinak
 Omar Kharbin
 Edinson Cavani

text:
Carlos Ruiz
 André Silva
 Hassan Al-Haydos
 Ali Mabkhout

text:
Yang Xu
 Mehdi Taremi[A]
 Chris Wood
 Marcus Berg
 Jozy Altidore

text: For each confederation and inter-confederation play-offs, see sections in each article:

text:
AFC
CAF
CONCACAF
CONMEBOL
OFC
UEFA
Inter-confederation play-offs

text: Notes[edit]

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c This player's goal tally includes one or more goals which the player scored in matches that were subsequently forfeited, but which FIFA continues to count in its statistics.


document_title: Cell membrane

question_text: the plama membrane or cell membrane in the skeletal muscle cell is called

text: Cell membrane

text: History

text: While Robert Hooke’s discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the Cell Theory, Hooke misled the cell membrane theory that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time.[7] Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to suggest a universal mechanism for cell protection and development. By the second half of the 19th century, microscopy was still not advanced enough to make a distinction between cell membranes and cell walls. However, some microscopists correctly identified at this time that while invisible, it could be inferred that cell membranes existed in animal cells due to intracellular movement of components internally but not externally and that membranes weren’t the equivalent of a cell wall to plant cell. It was also inferred that cell membranes weren’t vital components to all cells. Many refuted the existence of a cell membrane still towards the end of the 19th century. In 1890, an update to the Cell Theory stated that cell membranes existed, but were merely secondary structures. It wasn’t until later studies with osmosis and permeability that cell membranes gained more recognition.[7] In 1895, Ernest Overton proposed that cell membranes were made of lipids.[8]

text: The lipid bilayer hypothesis, proposed in 1925 by Gorter and Grendel,[9] created speculation to the description of the cell membrane bilayer structure based on crystallographic studies and soap bubble observations. In an attempt to accept or reject the hypothesis, researchers measured membrane thickness.[7] In 1925 it was determined by Fricke that the thickness of erythrocyte and yeast cell membranes ranged between 3.3 and 4 nm, a thickness compatible with a lipid monolayer. The choice of the dielectric constant used in these studies was called into question but future tests could not disprove the results of the initial experiment. Independently, the leptoscope was invented in order to measure very thin membranes by comparing the intensity of light reflected from a sample to the intensity of a membrane standard of known thickness. The instrument could resolve thicknesses that depended on pH measurements and the presence of membrane proteins that ranged from 8.6 to 23.2 nm, with the lower measurements supporting the lipid bilayer hypothesis. Later in the 1930s, the membrane structure model developed in general agreement to be the paucimolecular model of Davson and Danielli (1935). This model was based on studies of surface tension between oils and echinoderm eggs. Since the surface tension values appeared to be much lower than would be expected for an oil–water interface, it was assumed that some substance was responsible for lowering the interfacial tensions in the surface of cells. It was suggested that a lipid bilayer was in between two thin protein layers. The paucimolecular model immediately became popular and it dominated cell membrane studies for the following 30 years, until it became rivaled by the fluid mosaic model of Singer and Nicolson (1972).[10][7]

text: Despite the numerous models of the cell membrane proposed prior to the fluid mosaic model, it remains the primary archetype for the cell membrane long after its inception in the 1970s.[7] Although the fluid mosaic model has been modernized to detail contemporary discoveries, the basics have remained constant: the membrane is a lipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic exterior heads and a hydrophobic interior where proteins can interact with hydrophilic heads through polar interactions, but proteins that span the bilayer fully or partially have hydrophobic amino acids that interact with the non-polar lipid interior. The fluid mosaic model not only provided an accurate representation of membrane mechanics, it enhanced the study of hydrophobic forces, which would later develop into an essential descriptive limitation to describe biological macromolecules.[7]

text: For many centuries, the scientists cited disagreed with the significance of the structure they were seeing as the cell membrane. For almost 2 centuries, the membranes were seen but mostly disregarded this as an important structure with cellular function. It wasn’t until the 20th century that the significance of the cell membrane as it was acknowledged. Finally, two scientists Gorter and Grendel (1925) made the discovery that the membrane is “lipid-based”. From this, they furthered the idea that this structure would have to be in a formation that mimicked layers. Once studied further, it was found by comparing the sum of the cell surfaces and the surfaces of the lipids, a 2:1 ratio was estimated; thus, providing the first basis of the bilayer structure known today. This discovery initiated many new studies that arose globally within various fields of scientific studies, confirming that the structure and functions of the cell membrane are widely accepted.[7]

text: The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast (de Vries, 1885),[11] Plasmahaut (plasma skin, Pfeffer, 1877, 1891),[12] Hautschicht (skin layer, Pfeffer, 1886; used with a different meaning by Hofmeister, 1867), plasmatic membrane (Pfeffer, 1900),[13] plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane, cell envelope and cell membrane.[14][15] Some authors that did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma (coined by Mast, 1924) for the external region of the cell.[16][17][18]

text: Composition

text: Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Composition is not set, but constantly changing for fluidity and changes in the environment, even fluctuating during different stages of cell development. Specifically, the amount of cholesterol in human primary neuron cell membrane changes, and this change in composition affects fluidity throughout development stages.[19]

text: Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms:

text:
Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (endocytosis).
If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously.
Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases.

text: Lipids

text: The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant, often contributing for over 50% of all lipids in plasma membranes.[20][21] Glycolipids only account for a minute amount of about 2% and sterols make up the rest. In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. However, for the majority of eukaryotic cells, the composition of plasma membranes is about half lipids and half proteins by weight.

text: The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis". The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane.[20][21] The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation.

text: The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present.[20] However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane.[21] Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell; it behaves as a part of protein complex.

text: In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane.[3] Additionally, the amount of cholesterol in biological membranes varies between organisms, cell types, and even in individual cells. Cholesterol, a major component of animal plasma membranes, regulates the fluidity of the overall membrane, meaning that cholesterol controls the amount of movement of the various cell membrane components based on its concentrations.[3] In high temperatures, cholesterol inhibits the movement of phospholipid fatty acid chains,causing a reduced permeability to small molecules and reduced membrane fluidity. The opposite is true for the role of cholesterol in cooler temperatures. Cholesterol production, and thus concentration, is up-regulated (increased) in response to cold temperature. At cold temperatures, cholesterol interferes with fatty acid chain interactions. Acting as antifreeze, cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol is more abundant in cold-weather animals than warm-weather animals. In plants, which lack cholesterol, related compounds called sterols perform the same function as cholesterol.[3]

text: Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles

text: Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer.[22] These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions.

text: Carbohydrates

text: Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). Carbohydrates are important in the role of cell-cell recognition in eukaryotes; they are located on the surface of the cell where they recognize host cells and share information, viruses that bind to cells using these receptors cause an infection [23] For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing,[23] and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles.

text: Proteins

text:
Type
Description
Examples

Integral proteins
or transmembrane proteins
Span the membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a combination of α-helices and β sheet protein motifs.
Ion channels, proton pumps, G protein-coupled receptor

Lipid anchored proteins
Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules; hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor the protein. The protein itself is not in contact with the membrane.
G proteins

Peripheral proteins
Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes, and once reacted, the molecule dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm.
Some enzymes, some hormones

text: The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50% of membrane volume[24] These proteins are important for cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms.[22] Membrane proteins consist of three main types: Integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid-anchored proteins.[3]

text: As shown in the adjacent table, integral proteins are amphipathic transmembrane proteins. Examples of integral proteins include ion channels, proton pumps, and g-protein coupled receptors. Ion channels allow inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, or chlorine to diffuse down their electrochemical gradient across the lipid bilayer through hydrophilic pores across the membrane. The electrical behavior of cells (i.e. nerve cells) are controlled by ion channels.[3] Proton Pumps are protein pumps that are embedded in the lipid bilayer that allow protons to travel through the membrane by transferring from one amino acid side chain to another. Processes such as electron transport and generating ATP use proton pumps.[3] A G-protein coupled receptor is a single polypeptide chain that crosses the lipid bilayer seven times responding to signal molecules (i.e. hormones and neurotransmitters). G-protein coupled receptors are used in processes such as cell to cell signaling, the regulation of the production of cAMP, and the regulation of ion channels.[3]

text: The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell–cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell–cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane.

text: Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane.[25] For this to occur, an N-terminus "signal sequence" of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.

text: Function

text: The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to form tissues. Fungi, bacteria, most archaea, and plants also have a cell wall, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules.

text: The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive", occurring without the input of cellular energy, or "active", requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:

text: 1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane.[26] Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water. Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases.[27]

text: 2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Transmembrane proteins extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the membrane to transport molecules across it.[28] Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance. Another example of a transmembrane protein is a cell-surface receptor, which allow cell signaling molecules to communicate between cells.[28]

text: 3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured.This invagination is caused by proteins on the outside on the cell membrane, acting as receptors and clustering into depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the cytosolic side of the membrane.[29] The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating" or phagocytosis), small molecules and ions ("cell drinking" or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.

text: 4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell

text: Prokaryotes

text: Prokaryotes are divided into two different groups, Archaea and Bacteria, with bacteria dividing further into gram-positive and gram-negative. Gram-negative bacteria have both a plasma membrane and an outer membrane separated by periplasm, however, other prokaryotes have only a plasma membrane. These two membranes differ in many aspects. The outer membrane of the gram-negative bacteria differ from other prokaryotes due to phospholipids forming the exterior of the bilayer, and lipoproteins and phospholipids forming the interior.[30] The outer membrane typically has a porous quality due to its presence of membrane proteins, such as gram-negative porins, which are pore-forming proteins. The inner, plasma membrane is also generally symmetric whereas the outer membrane is asymmetric because of proteins such as the aforementioned. Also, for the prokaryotic membranes, there are multiple things that can affect the fluidity. One of the major factors that can affect the fluidity is fatty acid composition. For example, when the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus was grown in 37◦C for 24h, the membrane exhibited a more fluid state instead of a gel-like state. This supports the concept that in higher temperatures, the membrane is more fluid than in colder temperatures. When the membrane is becoming more fluid and needs to become more stabilized, it will make longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acid chains in order to help stabilize the membrane.[31] Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars). Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls, but none that are made of peptidoglycan. The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in lipopolysaccharides, which are combined poly- or oligosaccharide and carbohydrate lipid regions that stimulate the cell’s natural immunity.[32] The outer membrane can bleb out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell, and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles.[33] Bacterial cells provide numerous examples of the diverse ways in which prokaryotic cell membranes are adapted with structures that suit the organism’s niche. For example, proteins on the surface of certain bacterial cells aid in their gliding motion.[34] Many gram-negative bacteria have cell membranes which contain ATP-driven protein exporting systems.[34]

text: Structures

text: Fluid mosaic model

text: According to the fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson (1972), which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily.[35] Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two-dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein-protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin-based cytoskeleton, and potentially lipid rafts.

text: Lipid bilayer

text: Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic "head" regions interact with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Hydrophobic interactions (also known as the hydrophobic effect) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers. An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds.

text: Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane.

text: Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.

text: Membrane polarity

text: The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces. It faces outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane" and "lateral (side) membrane", which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent[clarification needed] to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface.

text: Membrane structures

text: Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveola, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, focal adhesion, and different types of cell junctions. These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion, communication, endocytosis and exocytosis. They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. They are composed of specific proteins, such as integrins and cadherins.

text: Cytoskeleton

text: The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane.[36] Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface — for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut — and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb.

text: Intracellular membranes

text: The content of the cell, inside the cell membrane, is composed of numerous membrane-bound organelles, which contribute to the overall function of the cell. The origin, structure, and function of each organelle leads to a large variation in the cell composition due to the individual uniqueness associated with each organelle.

text:
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are considered to have evolved from bacteria, known as the endosymbiotic theory. This theory arose from the idea that Paracoccus and Rhodopseaudomonas, types of bacteria, share similar functions to mitochondria and blue-green algae, or cyanobacteria, share similar functions to chloroplasts. The endosymbiotic theory proposes that through the course of evolution, a eukaryotic cell engulfed these 2 types of bacteria, leading to the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts inside eukaryotic cells. This engulfment lead to the 2 membranes systems of these organelles in which the outer membrane originated from the host's plasma membrane and the inner membrane was the endosymbiont's plasma membrane. Considering that mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain their own DNA is further support that both of these organelles evolved from engulfed bacteria that thrived inside a eukaryotic cell.[37]
In eukaryotic cells, the nuclear membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm of the cell.[38] The nuclear membrane is formed by an inner and outer membrane, providing the strict regulation of materials in to and out of the nucleus. Materials move between the cytosol and the nucleus through nuclear pores in the nuclear membrane. If a cell’s nucleus is more active in transcription, its membrane will have more pores. The protein composition of the nucleus can vary greatly from the cytosol as many proteins are unable to cross through pores via diffusion. Within the nuclear membrane, the inner and outer membranes vary in protein composition, and only the outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. Like the ER, the outer membrane also possesses ribosomes responsible for producing and transporting proteins into the space between the two membranes. The nuclear membrane disassembles during the early stages of mitosis and reassembles in later stages of mitosis.[39]
The ER, which is part of the endomembrane system, which makes up a very large portion of the cell's total membrane content. The ER is an enclosed network of tubules and sacs, and its main functions include protein synthesis, and lipid metabolism. There are 2 types of ER, smooth and rough. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it used for protein synthesis, while the smooth ER is used more for the processing of toxins and calcium regulation in the cell.[40]
The Golgi apparatus has two interconnected round Golgi cisternae. Compartments of the apparatus forms multiple tubular-reticular networks responsible for organization, stack connection and cargo transport that display a continuous grape-like stringed vesicles ranging from 50-60 nm. The apparatus consists of three main compartments, a flat disc-shaped cisterna with tubular-reticular networks and vesicles.[41]

text: Variations

text: The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct types of cells and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types.

text:
Sarcolemma in myocytes: “Sarcolemma” is the name given to the cell membrane of myocytes (also known as muscle cells).[42] Although the sarcolemma is similar to other cell membranes, it has other functions that set it apart. For instance, the sarcolemma transmits synaptic signals, helps generate action potentials, and is very involved in muscle contractions.[43] Unlike other cell membranes, the sarcolemma makes up small channels called “t-tubules” that pass through the entirety of muscle cells. It has also been found that the average sarcolemma is 10 m thick as opposed to the 4 m thickness of a general cell membrane.[44][42]
Oolemma in oocytes: The oolemma of oocytes, or egg cells, are not consistent with a lipid bilayer as they lack a bilayer and do not consist of lipids.[45] Rather, the structure has an inner layer, the fertilization envelope, and the exterior is made up of the vitelline layer, which is made up of glycoproteins; however, channels and proteins are still present for their functions in the membrane.
Axolemma: The specialized plasma membrane on the axons of nerve cells that is responsible for the generation of the action potential. It consists of a granular, densely packed lipid bilayer that works closely with the cytoskeleton components spectrin and actin. These cytoskeleton components are able to bind to and interact with transmembrane proteins in the axolemma.[46][47]

text: Permeability

text: The permeability of a membrane is the rate of passive diffusion of molecules through the membrane. These molecules are known as permeant molecules. Permeability depends mainly on the electric charge and polarity of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule. Due to the cell membrane's hydrophobic nature, small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH partition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body.