document_title: Demography of the Roman Empire

question_text: what was the average life expectancy in the roman empire

text: Demography of the Roman Empire

text: Background[edit]

text: For the lands around the Mediterranean Sea and their hinterlands, the period from the second millennium BCE to the early first millennium CE was one of substantial population growth. What would become the territory of the Roman Empire saw an average annual population growth of about 0.1 per cent from the 12th century BCE to the 3rd century CE, resulting in a quadrupling of the region's total population. Growth was slower around the eastern Mediterranean, which was already more developed at the beginning of the period, on the order of about 0.07 per cent per year.[1] This was stronger growth than that seen in the succeeding period; from about 200 CE to 1800 CE, the European half of the empire only saw about 0.06 to 0.07 per cent annual growth (Europe as a whole saw 0.1 per cent annual growth rates), and the north African and west Asian parts of the empire saw almost no growth at all.[2]

text: By comparison, what is now the territory of China experienced 0.1 per cent annual growth from 1 CE to 1800 CE. After population decline following the disintegration of the western half of the Roman state in the fifth and sixth centuries, Europe probably re-attained Roman-era population totals in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and, following another decline associated with the Black Death, consistently exceeded them after the mid-15th century.[2]

text: There are no reliable surviving records for the general demography of the Roman Empire. There are no detailed local records, such as underlie the demographic study of early modern Europe, either. Large numbers of impressionistic, moralizing, and anecdotal observations on demography survive from the literary sources. They are of little use in the study of Roman demography, which tends to rely instead on conjecture and comparison, rather than records and observations.[3]

text: Mortality[edit]

text: When the high infant mortality rate is factored in (life expectancy at birth) inhabitants of the Roman Empire had a life expectancy at birth of about 25 years. However, when infant mortality is factored out, life expectancy is doubled to the late-50s. If a Roman survived infancy to their mid-teens, they could, on average, expect near six decades of life, although of course many lived much longer or shorter lives for varied reasons.[clarification needed] Although this figure relies more on conjecture than ancient evidence, which is sparse and of dubious quality, it is a point of general consensus among historians of the period. It originates in cross-country comparison: given the known social and economic conditions of the Roman Empire, we should expect a life expectancy near the lower bound of known pre-modern populations. Roman demography bears comparison to available data for India and rural China in the early 20th century, where life expectancies at birth were also in the low 20s.[4]

text: About 300 census returns filed in Egypt in the first three centuries CE survive. R. Bagnall and B. Frier have used them to build female and male age distributions, which show life expectancies at birth of between 22 and 25 years, results broadly consistent with model life tables.[5] Other sources used for population reconstructions include cemetery skeletons, Roman tombstones in North Africa, and an annuities table known as "Ulpian's life table". The basis and interpretation of these sources is disputed: the skeletons cannot be firmly dated, the tombstones show non-representative sample populations, and the sources of "Ulpian's life table" are unknown. Nonetheless, because they converge with low Roman elite survival rates shown in the literary sources, and because their evidence is consistent with data from populations with comparably high mortality rates, such as in 18th century France, and early 20th century China, India, and Egypt, they reinforce the basic assumption of Roman demography: that life expectancies at birth were in the low 20s.[6]

text: As no population for which accurate observations survive has such a low life expectancy, model life tables must be used to understand this population's age demography. These models, based on historical data, describe 'typical' populations at different levels of mortality. For his demographic synopsis of the Roman Empire, Bruce Frier used the Model West framework, as it is "the most generalized and widely applicable".[7] Because it is based on only one empirical input, the model life table can provide only a very approximate picture of Roman demography. On two important points, the table may seriously misrepresent the Roman situation: the structural relationship between juvenile and adult mortality, and the relative mortality rates across the sexes.[8] In any case, Roman mortality should be expected to have varied greatly across times, places, and perhaps classes.[9][notes 1] A variation of ten years would not have been unusual. A life expectancy range of between 20 and 30 years is therefore plausible,[11] though it may have been exceeded in either direction in marginal regions (e.g., malarious urban districts on one end; high-altitude, low-density settlements on the other).[6]

text:
Model West, level 3: a possible life table for the Roman Empire

Females
Males

Age
Mortality
Cohort
Life expectancy
Mortality
Cohort
Life expectancy

0
0.3056
100,000
25.0
0.3517
100,000
22.8

1
0.2158
69,444
34.9
0.2147
64,826
34.1

5
0.0606
54,456
40.1
0.0563
50,906
39.0

10
0.0474
51,156
37.5
0.0404
48,041
36.2

15
0.0615
48,732
34.2
0.0547
46,099
32.6

20
0.0766
45,734
31.3
0.0775
43,579
29.4

25
0.0857
42,231
28.7
0.0868
40,201
26.6

30
0.0965
38,614
26.1
0.1002
36,713
23.9

35
0.1054
34,886
23.7
0.1168
33,035
21.3

40
0.1123
31,208
21.1
0.1397
29,177
18.7

45
0.1197
27,705
18.5
0.1597
25,101
16.4

50
0.1529
24,389
15.6
0.1981
21,092
14.0

55
0.1912
20,661
13.0
0.2354
16,915
11.8

60
0.2715
16,712
10.4
0.3091
12,932
9.6

65
0.3484
12,175
8.4
0.3921
8,936
7.7

70
0.4713
7,934
6.5
0.5040
5,432
6.1

75
0.6081
4,194
4.9
0.6495
2,694
4.6

80
0.7349
1,644
3.6
0.7623
944
3.4

85
0.8650
436
2.5
0.8814
225
2.4

90
0.9513
59
1.8
0.9578
27
1.7

95
1.0000
3
1.2
1.0000
1
1.2

After Frier, "Demography", 789, table 1.[notes 2]

text: The specifics of any ancient age distribution, moreover, would have seen heavy variation under the impact of local conditions.[6] In pre-modern societies, the major cause of death was not the chronic, end-of-life conditions that characterize mortality in industrialized societies, nor primary malnutrition, but acute infectious disease, which has varied effects on age distributions in populations. Pulmonary tuberculosis, for example, characterized much of the Roman region in antiquity; its deaths tend to be concentrated in the early twenties, where model life tables show a mortality trough.[12] Similarly, in pre-modern societies for which evidence is available, such as early modern England and early eighteenth-century China, infant mortality varies independently of adult mortality, to the extent that equal life expectancies at age twenty can be obtained in societies with infant mortality rates of 15% to 35% (life table models omit this; they depend on the assumption that age-specific mortality ratios co-vary in uniform, predictable ratios).[13] No ancient evidence can gauge this effect (the sources have a strong tendency to overlook infant death), and the model life tables might overstate it, but comparative evidence suggests that it is very high: mortality was strongly concentrated in the first years of life.[14]

text: Mortality on this scale: (1) discourages investment in human capital, hindering productivity growth (adolescent mortality rates in Rome were two-thirds higher than in early modern Britain); (2) creates large numbers of dependent widows and orphans; and (3) hinders long-term economic planning. With the prevalence of debilitating diseases, the number of effective working years was even worse: health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE), the number of years lived in good health, varies from life expectancy by no more than 8% in modern societies; in high-mortality societies such as Rome, it could be as much as one-sixth (17%) beneath total life expectancy. A HALE of less than 20 years would have left the empire with very depressed levels of economic productivity.[15]

text: Fertility[edit]

text: To maintain replacement levels under such a mortality regime—much less to achieve sustained growth—fertility figures needed to be very high. With life expectancies of twenty to thirty, women would have to give birth to between 4.5 and 6.5 children to maintain replacement levels. Given elevated levels of divorce, widowhood, and sterility, however, the birth rate would have needed to be higher than that baseline, at around 6 to 9 children per woman.[16] Fertility could not long have either fallen below or outstripped replacement levels. A population which maintained an annual growth or decline of 0.7% would double or halve itself every century. Such rates are feasible locally or over a short period of time, and deaths could consistently outstrip births during epidemics, but, in the long term, convergence to maintenance levels was the rule.[17]

text: The surviving census returns from Roman Egypt speak to a population that had not yet undergone the "fertility transition"; artificial fertility controls like contraception and abortion were not widely used to alter natural fecundity in the Roman period. Only family limitation, in which couples ceased procreating after they had attained an acceptable level of children, could have been widespread.[18] There is no indication that even this limitation was widespread, however; the recorded distribution shows no evidence of being governed by parity or maternal age.[19]

text:
Marital fertility in Roman Egypt

Age

Roman Egypt

Natural fertility

Attested rates
Gompertz Model

12–14
22
23
225

15–19
232
249
420

20–24
343
333
460

25–29
367
325
431

30–34
293
299
396

35–39
218
262
321

40–44
219
166
167

45–49
134
37
24

After Frier, "Natural fertility", 325, table 1.[notes 3]

text: Imperial Rome largely conforms to what is known as the "Mediterranean" pattern of marital fertility: men married late and women married early.[21] The evidence on marriage age is fairly robust for Roman elites: men in the senatorial class were expected to marry in their early twenties; women were expected to marry in their early teens. According to the most plausible interpretation of the evidence from funerary commemoration, in the lower classes, women married in their late teens or early twenties, and men married in their late twenties or early thirties.[22]

text: The Roman pattern thus stands in contrast to the "Eastern" (i.e., East Asian) pattern, in which both men and women married young.[21] China, the major example of the "Eastern" pattern, also had lower levels of fertility than Rome. This was apparently achieved by a combination of prolonged breastfeeding, female infanticide, and male celibacy, though the details are controversial.[23] Roman families share some features of the "Eastern" pattern. Roman Egypt, for example, had a custom of extended breastfeeding, which may have lengthened birth spacing. Egyptian fertility levels are comparable to those recorded in the early modern Japanese village Nakahara, where about half the population practiced family limitation. On the historian Walter Scheidel's judgment, this speaks to the incidence of family limitation even in what are supposedly "natural fertility" regimes.[24]

text: Roman and Greek literary and legal tradition also makes frequent reference to the "Eastern" demographic features infanticide and child exposure. Although the extent of these practices is unlikely to have been small, it is nonetheless impossible to quantify (nor can reported gender ratios permit judgment on the prevalence of femicide). These "Eastern" features did not prevail in medieval or modern Europe, where there were cultural and structural factors directly discouraging them or diminishing their effects on childhood mortality (religious doctrine, legal enforcement, institutions of foundling care, child labor, wet-nursing, etc.). These constraints were weak or absent in Greek and Roman society.[25]

text: Migration[edit]

text: According to the Cavalli–Sforza reconstruction of genetic history, there was little migration in Europe after the Iron Age. Most population growth can therefore be ascribed to the gradual expansion of local populations under conditions of improving fertility, rather than inter-regional transfer. That said, local migration from village to village may have been substantial; for the successful dedication and expansion of new settlements, it would have been necessary. The geography of the Mediterranean made this fairly convenient;[26] at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces.[27] Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony and Octavian–Augustus settled many of their veterans in colonies, in Italy, and the provinces. Those established in Italy up to 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of the achievements of his long reign (Res Gestae), Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE.[28] Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited" – which would thus be the Veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus; The Lex Calpurnia however also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery – as example the 1,000 Socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) or the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana) after Zela. By the time of Augustus the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls.[29] Historian Theodore Mommsen estimated that under Hadrian nearly 1/3 of the eastern Numidia population (roughly modern Tunisia) was descended from Roman veterans.[30]

text: Conversely, the foreign population of Rome was very small. Scientific evidence has shown that non-locals were in the minority, and most came from other parts of Italy or nearby provinces in Southern/Central Europe. Biochemical analysis of 166 skeletons from three non-elite imperial-era cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome revealed that only 1 individual definitely came from outside of Europe (North Africa), and another 2 possibly did, but results are inconclusive.[31][32] Other than that, there was no apparent net inter-regional migration in the imperial period, except perhaps a small continuous resettlement of Easterners in the West.[33]

text: Population[edit]

text: Modern estimates of the population of the Roman Empire derive from the fundamental work of nineteenth-century historian Karl Julius Beloch.[34] His estimates of the area of different components of the empire, based on planimetric estimates by contemporary military cartographers, have not been challenged by any more modern analyst. By providing a check to population densities, these area figures compel a baseline level of plausibility.[35] Beloch's 1886 estimate of the population of the empire in 14 CE has withstood contemporary and more recent criticism, and underlies modern analysis (his 1899 revision of those figures is less esteemed). Only his estimates for Anatolia and Greater Syria required extensive revision; Beloch estimated population figure, 19 million, produced population densities not otherwise achieved in those areas until the 20th century. Bruce Frier, in a recent estimate of the population of the empire, suggested a figure of 12 million as "considerably more plausible".[36] Beloch's figures for Spain and Africa have also been revised downwards.[37]

text: This estimate produces a population density of 13.6 inhabitants per square kilometer, a very low figure by modern standards (the United Kingdom, for example, has a population density of 254.7/km2). The population density in the Greek East was 20.9/km2, twice as dense as the Latin West at 10.6/km2; only the Western provinces of Italy and Sicily had a density comparable to the East.[38]

text:
Estimate of the Population of the Empire

Region
Area
(1000 km2)
14 CE Population
(millions)
14 CE Density
(per km2)
164 CE Population
(millions)
164 CE Density
(per km2)
Population increase
(per cent)

Greek peninsula[notes 4]
267
2.8
10.5
3.0
11.2
7.1

Anatolia
547
8.2
15.0
9.2
16.8
12.2

Greater Syria[notes 5]
109
4.3
39.4
4.8
44.0
11.6

Cyprus
9.5
0.2
21.2
0.2
21.1
–

Egypt[notes 6]
28
4.5
160.7
5.0
178.6
11.1

Libya[notes 7]
15
0.4
26.7
0.6
40.0
50.0

Greek East
975.5
20.4
20.9
22.9
23.5
12.3

Annexations

0.2

Greek East
(with annexations)

23.1

Italy
250
7.0
28.0
7.6
30.4
8.6

Sicily
26
0.6
23.1
0.6
23.1
–

Sardinia and Corsica
33
0.5
15.2
0.5
15.2
–

Maghreb[notes 8]
400
3.5
8.8
6.5
16.3
85.7

Iberia
590
5.0
8.5
7.5
12.7
50.0

Gaul and Germany
635
5.8
9.1
9.0
14.2
55.2

Danube Region[notes 9]
430
2.7
6.3
4.0
9.3
48.1

Latin West
2,364
25.1
10.6
35.7
15.1
42.2

Annexations

2.5

Latin West
(with annexations)

38.2

Roman Empire
3,339.5
45.5
13.6
61.4
15.9
34.9

"Area" includes the client kingdoms taken over soon after 14 CE.
After Frier, "Demography", 812, table 5, 814, table 6.

text: Slaves constituted about 15 percent of the Empire's total population; the proportionate figure would be much higher in Italy and much lower in Africa and Egypt.[40]

text:
Estimated Distribution of Citizenship in the Roman Empire[41]

Region
Citizens
(per cent)
Noncitizen residents
(per cent)
Slaves
(per cent)

Rome
55
15
30

Italy
70
5
25

Spain and Gaul
10
70
20

Other Western Provinces
3
80
17

Greece and Asia Minor
3
70
27

North African Provinces
2
70
28

Other Eastern Provinces
1
80
19

text: There are few recorded population numbers for the whole of antiquity, and those that exist are often rhetorical or symbolic. Unlike the contemporaneous Han Dynasty, no general census survives for the Roman Empire. The late period of the Roman Republic provides a small exception to this general rule: serial statistics for Roman citizen numbers, taken from census returns, survive for the early Republic through the 1st century CE.[42] Only the figures for periods after the mid-3rd century BCE are reliable, however. Fourteen figures are available for the 2nd century BCE (from 258,318 to 394,736). Only four figures are available for the 1st century BCE, and are feature a large break between 70/69 BCE (910,000) and 28 BCE (4,063,000). The interpretation of the later figures—the Augustan censuses of 28 BCE, 8 BCE, and 14 CE—is therefore controversial.[43] Alternate interpretations of the Augustan censuses (such as those of E. Lo Cascio[44]) produce divergent population histories across the whole imperial period.[45]

text:
Population of Italy and the islands in 165 CE

Population
(millions)
Area
(1000 km2)
Density
(per km2)

Standard interpretation
of the Augustan censuses
8–9
310
26–29

Revised interpretation
of the Augustan censuses
12–13
310
39–42

After Scheidel, "Demography", 47 n. 42, 47.

text: The enfranchisement of the Cisalpine provinces and the Italian Allies after the Social War would account for some of the population growth of the 1st century BCE.[46] Alternate readings of the Augustan census both accept the basic accuracy of the figures, but assume different methods on the part of the census-takers. The standard interpretation assumes that the census-takers included all citizens—men, women, and children—in the Augustan censuses; the revised interpretation assumes that the census-takers only counted adult men, as they had during the Republican period. The standard interpretation is not supported by any evidence internal to the text, but reduces the implied population totals for 28 BCE Italy from 10 million to a more plausible 4 million.[47] The high total earns support from recorded conflict over land in the late Republic and other indications of population pressure, but does not accord well with comparative evidence from other periods and other parts of the empire.[48]

text: Estimates[edit]

text: Beloch's 1886 estimate for the population of the empire during the reign of Augustus:[49][50]

text:
Region
Population (in millions)

Total Empire
54

European part
23

Asian part
19.5

North African part
11.5

text: Russell's 1958 estimate for the population of the empire in 350 AD:[50]

text:
Region
Population (in millions)

Total Empire
39.3

European part
18.3

Asian part
16

North African part
5

text: Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak ranging from 70 million (comparable to the contemporaneous and similarly sized Han empire in China), with one-tenth of them located in Italy itself, to more than 100 million.[51]

text: Urbanization[edit]

text: By the standards of pre-modern economies, the Roman Empire was highly urbanized. In 14 CE, the city of Rome had at least 750,000 inhabitants, more than a tenth of Italy's population. It grew beyond 1 million in the 2nd century CE, a total not again equaled by Western cities until the 19th century. As the imperial capital, Rome was sustained by transfers in kind from throughout the empire; no other city could be sustained at this level. Other major cities in the empire (Antioch, Alexandria, later Carthage) had populations of about a few hundred thousand. Of the remaining cities, most were quite small, usually possessing only 10–15,000 inhabitants, most of whom lived outside the walled city centers.

text: The cumulative urban population for the empire is estimated at just above 10%, in peninsular Italy at between 15% and 20%, comparable to urbanization levels in 1800.[52][53]

text: High mortality rates and pre-modern sanitary conditions made urban regions net population sinks, with more local deaths than births. They could only be sustained by constant immigration.[52] The large cities provided a major stimulus to demand, and not only for agricultural products, but for manufactured goods and luxury items as well.[54]

text: Russell (1958) estimated the urban population in Late Antiquity: Estimate for the population of the cities in the empire in the 1st[dubious – discuss] century CE after.[notes 10]

text:
City
Population
(thousands)
Region

Rome
350
Italy

Alexandria
216
Egypt

Antioch
90
Syria

Smyrna
90
Asia Minor

Cadiz
65
Hispania

Ephesus
51
Asia Minor

Carthage
50
Africa

Corinth
50
Greece

Apamea
37
Syria

Capua
36
Italy

Ancyra
34
Asia Minor

Nicomedia
34
Asia Minor

Oxyrhyncus
34
Egypt

Memphis
34
Egypt

Damascus
31
Syria

Bostra
30
Syria

Athens
28
Greece

Tarragona
27
Hispania

Cyzicus
24
Asia Minor

Hermopolis
24
Egypt

Pergamum
24
Asia Minor

Mytilene
23
Asia Minor

Arsinoe
20
Egypt

Cordoba
20
Hispania

Cirta
20
Africa

Hadrumetum
20
Africa

Pisa
20
Italy

Rusicade
20
Africa

Tyre
20
Syria

Catania
18
Italy

Nicaea
18
Asia Minor

Antiochia
17
Asia Minor

Antinoe
16
Egypt

Sicca V.
16
Africa

Mérida
15
Hispania

Miletus
15
Asia Minor

Naples
15
Italy

Heliopolis
14
Egypt

Baalbek
13.5
Syria

Thugga
13
Africa

Isaura
12
Asia Minor

Sidon
12
Syria

Bologna
10
Italy

Cartagena
10
Hispania

Hippo Regis
10
Africa

Jerusalem
10
Syria

Lambraesis
10
Africa

Pamplona
10
Hispania

Thysdrus
10
Africa

Trebizond
10
Asia Minor

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Frier elsewhere quotes material to the effect that cross-class variation in life expectancy in high mortality societies is small.[10]
Jump up ^ "Mortality" is a function predicting the likelihood that a person aged exactly (x) will die before the next indicated interval; "cohort" lists the number of survivors to exact age (x).
Jump up ^ The Gompertz figures are obtained using linear regression on the census figures to create a relational fertility model, producing a probable schedule of true fertility rates. The model uses two values, α and β, that determine the model's relationship to a standard of early marriage and natural fertility. For this dataset, α, which indicates variation from median age of marital maternity, is −0.05, and β, which indicates the degree of fertility concentration, is 0.80. As the standard figure for β is 1.0, the dataset for Roman Egypt shows a wider spread of childbearing than is typical of the standard.[20]
Jump up ^ Roughly includes the southern Balkan peninsula; Greece, Albania, Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo, about half of Bulgaria and European Turkey. Or approximately the Roman provinces of Achaea, Macedonia, Epirus and Thracia.[39]
Jump up ^ Defined to include the modern territories of Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, as well as approximately the western half of Syria (i.e. the coastal Levant).[39]
Jump up ^ Area figure is only the narrow strip of land along the Nile and its delta. Not the vast deserts of Egypt.[39]
Jump up ^ Refers only to the coastal area of Cyrenaica.[39]
Jump up ^ Refers to the coastal area of North Africa. i.e. Northern areas of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and most of coastal Libya (except Cyrenaica).[39]
Jump up ^ Areas generally south of the river Danube. Includes the Roman provinces of Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia Superior, Pannonia Inferior, Illyricum (or Dalmatia) and Moesia (Superior and Inferior). Parts of modern Switzerland, southern Germany and Austria, western Hungary, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro, central Serbia and northern Bulgaria.[39]
Jump up ^ J. C. Russell, Late Ancient and Medieval Population (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1958), 65–83, cited after Maddison, Contours of the World Economy (2007), 42, table 1.6.

tag: ol


document_title: Jesus nut

question_text: what is the jesus nut on a helicopter

question_tokens: what is the jesus nut on a helicopter

root

text: Jesus nut

text: Jesus nut, or Jesus pin, is a slang term for the main rotor retaining nut [1] that holds the main rotor to the mast of some helicopters, such as the UH-1 Iroquois helicopter; or more generally is any component that represents a single point of failure with catastrophic consequences.

tag: p

text: The term jesus nut may have been coined by American soldiers in Vietnam; the Vietnam War was the first war to feature large numbers of soldiers riding in helicopters.

text: If the Jesus pin were to fail in flight, the helicopter would detach from the rotors and the only thing left for the crew to do would be to "pray to Jesus." Real examples of the Jesus pin failing are few and far between. However, the pin must be checked before the flight.[2] Some more recent helicopter systems do not have a Jesus nut.

text: More recently, in generic engineering the concept has widened to include any single component of a system whose failure would cause catastrophic failure of the whole system.

text: In literature the term "Jesus nut" was used in Chickenhawk by Robert Mason, a narrative about his experiences as a pilot in the Vietnam War.

text: Another use for the term is found in rock climbing, in which it refers to the first piece of protection placed on a pitch.[3] This piece must be placed to resist an outward pull as well as a downward pull in order to avoid the possibility of a "zipper", in which the outward pull on the rope from the belayer arresting a falling climber pulls protection pieces from the bottom up. In addition, the Jesus nut prevents the possibility of a factor two fall onto the belay anchor.[4]


document_title: Botswana pula

question_text: when did the currency of botswana first came in circulation

text: Botswana pula

text: History[edit]

text: The pula was introduced in 1976, replacing the South African rand at par. Despite a 12% devaluation in May 2005, the pula remains one of the strongest currencies in Africa.[citation needed]

text: Coins[edit]

text: In 1976, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 25 and 50 thebe and 1 pula. The 1 thebe was struck in aluminium, with the 5 thebe in bronze and the others in cupro-nickel. These coins were round except for the scalloped 1 pula. Bronze, dodecagonal 2 thebe coins were introduced in 1981 and discontinued after 1985. In 1991, bronze-plated steel replaced bronze in the 5 thebe, nickel-plated steel replaced cupro-nickel in the 10, 25 and 50 thebe and the 1 pula changed to a smaller, nickel-brass, equilateral-curve seven-sided coin. A similarly shaped, nickel-brass 2 pula was introduced in 1994. In 2004, the composition was changed to brass-plated steel and the size was slightly reduced.[citation needed]

text: In 1998, following the withdrawal of the 1 and 2 thebe, smaller 5, 10, 25 and 50 thebe coins were introduced, with the 5 and 25 thebe coins being seven-sided and the 10 and 50 thebe coins remaining round. A bimetallic 5 pula depicting a mopane caterpillar and a branch of the mopane tree it feeds on was introduced in 2000 composed of a cupronickel center in a ring made of aluminium-nickel-bronze.[citation needed]

text: A new series of coins was introduced in 2013.[citation needed]

text: Banknotes[edit]

text: On August 23, 1976,[5] the Bank of Botswana introduced notes in denominations of 1, 2, 5, and 10 pula; a 20-pula note followed on February 16, 1978. The 1 and 2 pula notes were replaced by coins in 1991 and 1994, whilst the first 50 and 100 pula notes were introduced on May 29, 1990 and August 23, 1993, respectively.[5] The 5 pula note was replaced by a coin in 2000. The original 1, 2 and 5 pula banknotes were demonetized on 1 July 2011.

text: The previous series of notes was introduced on 23 August 2009[6] and contains for the first time, a 200-pula banknote.

text: The new P10 polymer banknote version was introduced on late November 2017, and released to the public on February 1, 2018.

text:
Banknotes of the Botswana pula (2009 issue)

Image
Value
Main color
Obverse
Reverse
Watermark

10 pula
Green
President Seretse Khama Ian Khama
Parliament building, Gaborone
Rampant zebra and electrotype 10

20 pula
Red
Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete
Mining equipment
Rampant zebra and electrotype 20

50 pula
Brown
President Sir Seretse Khama
Okavango Delta swamps, boat, fish eagle
Rampant zebra and electrotype 50

100 pula
Blue
Three chiefs (Sebele I, Bathoen I, Khama III)
Diamond sorting, open-pit diamond mine
Rampant zebra and electrotype 100

200 pula
Purple
Female teacher and children
Zebras
Rampant zebra and electrotype 200

tag: table

text:
Current BWP exchange rates

From Google Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR

From Yahoo! Finance:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR

From XE:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR

From OANDA:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR

From fxtop.com:
AUD CAD CHF EUR GBP HKD JPY USD ZAR

text: Zimbabwe[edit]

text: Due to hyperinflation in Zimbabwe in 2006 to 2008, the government has allowed circulation of foreign currency since September 2008. Local currency became obsolete on April 12, 2009. Several currencies, including the South African rand and Botswana pula circulate in Zimbabwe,[2] along with the Zimbabwean Bond Coins.

text: Lesotho[edit]

text: The word Pula also serves as part of the national motto of the Kingdom of Lesotho. As in Botswana, it means "rain" in the Sotho language and is considered a synonym for blessing.

text: In literature[edit]

text: The Botswana Pula became widely known internationally through numerous references in the No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency by Alexander McCall Smith, making it possible for readers worldwide to get an idea of the Pula's purchasing power.[citation needed]


document_title: School of Rock (TV series)

question_text: who plays freddie in school of rock nickelodeon

text: School of Rock (TV series)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Set in Austin, Texas, the series follows a group of rule-abiding students who learn to take risks and reach new heights thanks to substitute teacher Dewey Finn, a down-on-his-luck musician who uses the language of rock and roll to inspire his class to form a secret band. Throughout the school year, these middle-school classmates find themselves navigating relationships, discovering their unknown talents and learning lessons on loyalty and friendships.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Tomika (Breanna Yde) is a 12-year-old schoolgirl who is best friends with classmate Summer. She plays the electric bass and is also the lead singer in the band.
Freddy (Ricardo Hurtado) is a 12-year-old schoolboy who is considered the most handsome guy in his class and plays the drums in the band. His best friends are classmates Zack and Lawrence. Unbeknownst to him, Summer has a huge crush on him. At the end of the second season, he begins to have feelings for her.
Summer (Jade Pettyjohn) is a 12-year-old schoolgirl who is best friends with Tomika and plays the tambourine in the band and also is the manager. She has a crush on Freddy.
Zack (Lance Lim) is a 12-year-old schoolboy who is best friends with Lawrence and Freddy. He plays the electric guitar.
Lawrence (Aidan Miner) is a 12-year-old schoolboy who is best friends with Zack and Freddy and is considered the smartest kid in his class. He plays the electronic keyboard.
Mr. Finn (Tony Cavalero) is the new substitute teacher and an ex-rock musician who teaches the kids how to play and work together as a band. In the second season, he is promoted to a regular teacher.
Principal Mullins (Jama Williamson) is the principal of the school. In the first season, she is a recurring character, but is promoted to a main character in the second season.

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Clark (Ivan Mallon)
Kale (Brec Bassinger, seasons 2–3)
Asher (Will Kindrachuk, seasons 2–3)

text: Production[edit]

text: In August 2014, Nickelodeon announced a TV series adaptation of School of Rock,[2] and the cast was revealed in March 2015.[3] On April 5, 2016, Nickelodeon announced that School of Rock had been renewed for a 13-episode second season,[4] and actress Breanna Yde announced on her Twitter account that production of season two began April 24, 2016.[5] In April 2016, Jama Williamson was promoted to the regular cast for the series' second season.[6] The second season premiered on Nickelodeon on September 17, 2016. Nickelodeon renewed the series for a 20-episode third season on December 2, 2016.[7] The third season premiered on July 8, 2017. On November 15, 2017, Nickelodeon announced that the third season would be the last.[8] Tony Cavalero reported on social media that the series finale was airing on April 8, 2018.[9][10] The last episode of the third season as well as the series aired on April 8, 2018.[11]

text: Release[edit]

text: On June 25, 2018, it was announced that School of Rock will stream on Hulu.[12]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season

Episodes

First aired

Last aired
Avg. viewers(millions)

Date

Viewers(millions)

Date

Viewers(millions)

1

12

March 12, 2016 (2016-03-12)

2.38[13]

June 18, 2016 (2016-06-18)

1.39[14]
1.49

2

13

September 17, 2016 (2016-09-17)

1.34[15]

January 28, 2017 (2017-01-28)

1.18[16]
1.35

3

20

July 8, 2017 (2017-07-08)

1.03[17]

April 8, 2018 (2018-04-08)

0.67[18]
0.78

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Award

Category

Result

Ref.

2016

68th Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Children's Program

Nominated

[19]

2017

28th Producers Guild of America Awards

Outstanding Children's Program

Nominated

[20]

69th Primetime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Children's Program

Nominated

[21]


document_title: South Carolina

question_text: when did south carolina become a royal colony

question_tokens: when did south carolina become a royal colony

text: South Carolina

text: History[edit]

text: Precolonial period[edit]

text: There is evidence of human activity in the area about 40,000 years ago. At the time Europeans arrived, marking the end of the Pre-Columbian era around 1600, there were many separate Native American tribes, the largest being the Cherokee, and the Catawba, and the total population being up to 20,000.[8]

text: Up the rivers of the eastern coastal plain lived about a dozen tribes of Siouan background. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee. Further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their primary food source.[8] The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, roofed with wood or thatched grass.[9]

text: About a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles (80 km) mostly by canoe, they wintered on the coastal plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts and fruit. The names of these tribes survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island, and the Ashepoo River.[8]

text: Exploration[edit]

text: The Spanish are the first Europeans in the area, exploring from June 24 to July 14, 1521 a land around Winyah Bay named, according to the captive Francisco, Chicora, in struggle with nineteen other neighboring peoples whose names have been also transmitted without it being possible to identify them with certainty. They found in October 8, 1526 San Miguel de Gualdape, near what is now Georgetown, South Carolina. It is the first European settlement in what is now mainland USA. Established with five hundred settlers, it was abandoned eight months later by one hundred and fifty survivors. In 1540, Hernando de Soto explored the region and the maintown of Cofitachequi, where he captured the queen of the Maskoki and the Chelaque who had welcomed him.

text: In 1562 French Huguenots established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island. The garrison lacks supplies and the soldiers, as in the same time in the France Antarctique, run away, some settlers preferring the savagering and a « natural » life far from the « civilization » and the atrocities of the Wars of Religion. In May 1564, a second expedition explore the shore from « Jordan River » up to « Dolphins river » and takes possession of the territory from the coast to the « Palassi Mountains », middle French transcription of Appalachian Mountains. On June 20, 1564, they founded Fort Caroline, so called in honour of the King of France Charles IX.

text: On August 28, 1565, the Spanish built a fort on the site of St. Augustine and, few days later, exterminate the French colonists on the shore of the « Massacre's river ». Because they are not Catholic, the two hundred men left to guard Fort Caroline are executed on September 20, 1565. Three years later, a punitive expedition led by Dominique de Gourgue provokes a general insurrection of the natives which permanently expelled the Spaniards from the Piedmont and the Cumberland region, that they had begun to invest from Joara. Confined to St. Augustine, they are then confronted with hostilities of the English navy.[8]

text: Colonization[edit]

text: Sixty years later, in 1629, King of England Charles I established the Province of Carolina, an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. In 1663, Charles II granted the land to eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660.[10] Anthony Ashley Cooper plans the Grand Model for the Province of Carolina and writes the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina.[11] His utopia is inspired by John Locke, the major investor in the English slave-trade through the Royal African Company.

text: In the 1670s, English planters from Bermuda established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line. Settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720.[12] Another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas.

text: Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by small farmers and traders, who displaced Native American tribes westward. Colonists overthrew the proprietors' (absentee English landowners) rule, seeing more direct representation. In 1719, the colony was officially made a crown colony. In 1729 North Carolina was split off into a separate colony.

text: Southern Carolina prospered from the fertility of the Low Country and the harbors, such as that at Charleston. It allowed religious toleration, encouraging Settlements spread, and trade in deerskin, lumber, and beef thrived. Rice cultivation was developed on a large scale.

text: By the second half of the 1700s South Carolina was one of the richest of what were about to become the Thirteen Colonies.[12]

text: The Regulators[edit]

text: The most notable moment in South Carolina's history was no doubt the creation of the Regulators. Perhaps the first organized militia in American history, this movement, organized in the 1760s, was the first notable catalyst in the American Revolution. The movement is at par with the creation of the first Minor League Baseball stadium, Duncan Park, and the discovery of the first boll weevil in South Carolina as the most important moments in the states history.[13]

text: The American Revolution[edit]

text: On March 26, 1776, the colony adopted the Constitution of South Carolina,[14] electing John Rutledge as the state's first president. In February, 1778, South Carolina became the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation,[15] the initial governing document of the United States, and in May 1788, South Carolina ratified the United States Constitution, becoming the eighth state to enter the union.

text: During the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), about a third of combat action took place in South Carolina,[16] more than in any other state.[12] Inhabitants of the state endured being invaded by English forces and an ongoing civil war between loyalists and partisans that devastated the backcountry.[16] It is estimated that 25,000 slaves (30% of those in South Carolina) fled, migrated or died during the war.[17]

text: Antebellum[edit]

text: America's first census in 1790 put the state's population at nearly 250,000. By the 1800 census the population had increased 38 per cent to nearly 340,000 of which 146,000 were slaves. At that time South Carolina had the largest population of Jews in the 16 United States, mostly based in Savannah and Charleston,[18] the latter being the country's fifth largest city.[19]

text: In the Antebellum period (before the Civil War) the state's economy and population grew. Cotton became an important crop after the invention of the cotton gin. While nominally democratic, from 1790 until 1865, wealthy male landowners were in control of South Carolina. For example, a man was not eligible to sit in the State House of Representatives unless he possessed an estate of 500 acres of land and 10 Negroes, or at least 150 pounds sterling.[20]

text: Columbia, the new state capital was founded in the center of the state, and the State Legislature first met there in 1790. The town grew after it was connected to Charleston by the Santee Canal in 1800, one of the first canals in the United States.

text: As dissatisfaction with the federal government grew, in the 1820s John C. Calhoun became a leading proponent of states' rights, limited government, nullification of the US Constitution, and free trade. In 1832, the Ordinance of Nullification declared federal tariff laws unconstitutional and not to be enforced in the state, leading to the Nullification Crisis. The federal Force Bill was enacted to use whatever military force necessary to enforce federal law in the state, bringing South Carolina back into line.

text: In the United States presidential election of 1860 voting was sharply divided, with the south voting for the Southern Democrats and the north for Abraham Lincoln's Republican Party. Lincoln was anti-slavery, did not acknowledge the right to secession, and would not yield federal property in Southern states. Southern secessionists believed Lincoln's election meant long-term doom for their slavery-based agrarian economy and social system.[21]

text: Lincoln was elected president on 6 November 1860. The state House of Representatives immediately passed the "Resolution to Call the Election of Abraham Lincoln as U.S. President a Hostile Act, 9 November 1860",[22] and within weeks South Carolina became the first state to declare secession from the US.[12]

text: Civil War 1861–1865[edit]

text: On April 12, 1861, Confederate (southern) batteries began shelling the Union (federal, northern, or US) Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, after US troops refusal to leave the fort peacefully, and the American Civil War began. In November of that year the Union attacked Port Royal Sound and soon occupied Beaufort County and the neighboring Sea Islands. For the rest of the war this area served as a Union base and staging point for other operations. Whites abandoned their plantations,[23] leaving behind about 10,000 slaves. Several Northern charities partnered with the federal government to help these people run the cotton farms themselves under the Port Royal Experiment. Workers were paid by the pound harvested and thus became the first former slaves freed by the Union forces to earn wages.[24]

text: Although the state was not a major battleground, the war ruined the economy. Under conscription, all men aged 18–35 (later 45) were drafted for Confederate service. More than 60,000 served,[23] and the state lost nearly one-third of the white male population of fighting age.[25]

text: At the end of the war in early 1865, the troops of General William Tecumseh Sherman marched across the state devastating plantations and most of Columbia.

text: Reconstruction 1865–1877[edit]

text: After the war, South Carolina was restored to the United States during Reconstruction. Under presidential Reconstruction (1865–66), freedmen (former slaves) were given limited rights. Under Radical reconstruction (1867–1877), a Republican coalition of freedmen, carpetbaggers and scalawags was in control, supported by Union Army forces. They established public education, welfare institutions, and home rule for counties, expanding democracy.[citation needed]

text: In Texas vs. White (1869), the Supreme Court ruled that the ordinances of secession (including that of South Carolina) were invalid, and thus those states had never left the Union. However, South Carolina did not regain representation in Congress until that date.

text: Until the 1868 presidential election, South Carolina's legislature, not the voters, chose the state's electors for the presidential election. South Carolina was the last state to choose its electors in this manner. On October 19, 1871 President Ulysses S. Grant suspended habeas corpus in nine South Carolina counties under the authority of the Ku Klux Klan Act.[26] Led by Grant's Attorney General Amos T. Akerman, hundreds of Klansmen were arrested while 2000 Klansmen fled the state.[26] This was done in order to suppress Klan violence against African-American and white voters in the South.[26] In the mid to late 1870s, white Democrats used paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts to intimidate and terrorize black voters. They regained political control of the state under conservative white "Redeemers" and pro-business Bourbon Democrats. In 1877, the federal government withdrew its troops as part of the Compromise of 1877 that ended Reconstruction.

text: Populist and agrarian movements[edit]

text: The state became a hotbed of racial and economic tensions during the Populist and Agrarian movements of the 1890s. A Republican-Populist biracial coalition took power away from White Democrats temporarily. To prevent that from happening again, Democrats gained passage of a new constitution in 1895 that effectively disfranchised almost all blacks and many poor whites by new requirements for poll taxes, residency, and literacy tests that dramatically reduced the voter rolls. By 1896, only 5,500 black voters remained on the voter registration rolls, although they constituted a majority of the state's population.[27] The 1900 census demonstrated the extent of disenfranchisement: the 782,509 African American citizens comprised more than 58% of the state's population, but they were essentially without any political representation in the Jim Crow society.[28]

text: The 1895 constitution overturned local representative government, reducing the role of the counties to agents of state government, effectively ruled by the General Assembly, through the legislative delegations for each county. As each county had one state senator, that person had considerable power. The counties lacked representative government until home rule was passed in 1975.[29]

text: Governor "Pitchfork Ben Tillman", a Populist, led the effort to disenfranchise the blacks and poor whites, although he controlled Democratic state politics from the 1890s to 1910 with a base among poor white farmers. During the constitutional convention in 1895, he supported another man's proposal that the state adopt a one-drop rule, as well as prohibit marriage between whites and anyone with any known African ancestry.

text: Some members of the convention realized that prominent white families with some African ancestry could be affected by such legislation. In terms similar to a debate in Virginia in 1853 on a similar proposal (which was dropped), George Dionysius Tillman said the following in opposition:

text: If the law is made as it now stands respectable families in Aiken, Barnwell, Colleton, and Orangeburg will be denied the right to intermarry among people with whom they are now associated and identified. At least one hundred families would be affected to my knowledge. They have sent good soldiers to the Confederate Army, and are now landowners and taxpayers. Those men served creditably, and it would be unjust and disgraceful to embarrass them in this way. It is a scientific fact that there is not one full-blooded Caucasian on the floor of this convention. Every member has in him a certain mixture of… colored blood. The pure-blooded white has needed and received a certain infusion of darker blood to give him readiness and purpose. It would be a cruel injustice and the source of endless litigation, of scandal, horror, feud, and bloodshed to undertake to annul or forbid marriage for a remote, perhaps obsolete trace of Negro blood. The doors would be open to scandal, malice and greed; to statements on the witness stand that the father or grandfather or grandmother had said that A or B had Negro blood in their veins. Any man who is half a man would be ready to blow up half the world with dynamite to prevent or avenge attacks upon the honor of his mother in the legitimacy or purity of the blood of his father.[30][31][32][33]

text: The state postponed such a one-drop law for years. Virginian legislators adopted a one-drop law in 1924, forgetting that their state had many people of mixed ancestry among those who identified as white.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Early in the 20th century, South Carolina developed a thriving textile industry. The state also converted its agricultural base from cotton to more profitable crops; attracted large military bases through its powerful Democratic congressional delegation, part of the one-party South following disfranchisement of blacks at the turn of the century; and created tourism industries. During the early part of the 20th century, thousands of African Americans left South Carolina and other southern states for jobs and better opportunities in northern, Midwestern and western cities. In total from 1910 to 1970, 6.5 million blacks left the South in the Great Migration. By 1930 South Carolina had a white majority[34] for the first time since 1708.

text: The struggle of the Civil Rights Movement took place in South Carolina as well as other places in the South.

text: South Carolina was one of several states that initially rejected the Nineteenth Amendment (1920) giving women the right to vote. The South Carolina legislature later ratified the amendment on July 1, 1969.

text: 21st century[edit]

text: As of 2015, South Carolina had one of the lowest percentages among all states of women in state legislature, at 13.5% (only Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Wyoming had a lower percentage; the national average is 24.3%; with the highest percentage being in Colorado at 41%).[35] In 2011, South Carolina ranked first in the country in the rate of women killed by men.[36]

text: As the 21st century progresses, South Carolina attracts new business by having a 5% corporate income tax rate, no state property tax, no local income tax, no inventory tax, no sales tax on manufacturing equipment, industrial power or materials for finished products; no wholesale tax, no unitary tax on worldwide profits.[37]

text: Starting January 1, 2013, South Carolina was one of the first states that no longer pays for 'early elective' deliveries of babies, under either Medicaid and private insurance. The term early elective is defined as a labor induction or Cesarean section between 37–39 weeks that is not medically based. This change is intended to result in healthier babies and fewer unnecessary costs for South Carolina.[38]

text: On November 20, 2014, South Carolina became the 35th state to legalize same-sex marriages, when a federal court ordered the change.[39] For further information see: Same-sex marriage in South Carolina.

text: Geography[edit]

text: The state can be divided into three geographic areas. From east to west: the Atlantic coastal plain, the Piedmont, and the Blue Ridge Mountains. Locally, the coastal plain is referred to as the Low Country and the other two regions as Up Country.[40] The Atlantic Coastal Plain makes up two-thirds of the state. Its eastern border is the Sea Islands, a chain of tidal and barrier islands. The border between the low country and the up country is defined by the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, which marks the limit of navigable rivers.

text: The state's coastline contains many salt marshes and estuaries, as well as natural ports such as Georgetown and Charleston. An unusual feature of the coastal plain is a large number of Carolina bays, the origins of which are uncertain. The bays tend to be oval, lining up in a northwest to southeast orientation. The terrain is flat and the soil is composed entirely of recent sediments such as sand, silt, and clay. Areas with better drainage make excellent farmland, though some land is swampy. The natural areas of the coastal plain are part of the Middle Atlantic coastal forests ecoregion.[41]

text: Just west of the coastal plain is the Sandhills region. The Sandhills are remnants of coastal dunes from a time when the land was sunken or the oceans were higher.

text: The Upstate region contains the roots of an ancient, eroded mountain chain. It is generally hilly, with thin, stony clay soils, and contains few areas suitable for farming. Much of the Piedmont was once farmed. Due to the changing economics of farming, much of the land is now reforested in Loblolly pine for the lumber industry. These forests are part of the Southeastern mixed forests ecoregion.[41] At the southeastern edge of the Piedmont is the fall line, where rivers drop to the coastal plain. The fall line was an important early source of water power. Mills built to harness this resource encouraged the growth of several cities, including the capital, Columbia. The larger rivers are navigable up to the fall line, providing a trade route for mill towns.

text: The northwestern part of the Piedmont is also known as the Foothills. The Cherokee Parkway is a scenic driving route through this area. This is where Table Rock State Park is located.

text: Highest in elevation is the Blue Ridge Region, containing an escarpment of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which continue into North Carolina and Georgia, as part of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Sassafras Mountain, South Carolina's highest point at 3,560 feet (1,090 m), is located in this area.[42] Also located in this area is Caesars Head State Park. The environment here is that of the Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests ecoregion.[41] The Chattooga River, located on the border between South Carolina and Georgia, is a favorite whitewater rafting destination.

text: Lakes[edit]

text: South Carolina has several major lakes covering over 683 square miles (1,770 km2). The following are the lakes listed by size.[43]

text:
Lake Marion 110,000 acres (450 km2)
Lake Strom Thurmond (also known as Clarks Hill Lake) 71,100 acres (290 km2)
Lake Moultrie 60,000 acres (240 km2)
Lake Hartwell 56,000 acres (230 km2)
Lake Murray 50,000 acres (200 km2)
Russell Lake 26,650 acres (110 km2)
Lake Keowee 18,372 acres (70 km2)
Lake Wylie 13,400 acres (50 km2)
Lake Wateree 13,250 acres (50 km2)
Lake Greenwood 11,400 acres (50 km2)
Lake Jocassee 7,500 acres (30 km2)
Lake Bowen

text: Earthquakes[edit]

text: Earthquakes in South Carolina demonstrate the greatest frequency along the central coastline of the state, in the Charleston area. South Carolina averages 10–15 earthquakes a year below magnitude 3 (FEMA). The Charleston Earthquake of 1886 was the largest quake ever to hit the Southeastern United States. This 7.2 magnitude earthquake killed 60 people and destroyed much of the city.[44] Faults in this region are difficult to study at the surface due to thick sedimentation on top of them. Many of the ancient faults are within plates rather than along plate boundaries.

text: Climate[edit]

text: South Carolina has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), although high-elevation areas in the Upstate area have fewer subtropical characteristics than areas on the Atlantic coastline. In the summer, South Carolina is hot and humid, with daytime temperatures averaging between 86–93 °F (30–34 °C) in most of the state and overnight lows averaging 70–75 °F (21–24 °C) on the coast and from 66–73 °F (19–23 °C) inland. Winter temperatures are much less uniform in South Carolina.

text: Coastal areas of the state have very mild winters, with high temperatures approaching an average of 60 °F (16 °C) and overnight lows around 40 °F (5–8 °C). Inland, the average January overnight low is around 32 °F (0 °C) in Columbia and temperatures well below freezing in the Upstate. While precipitation is abundant the entire year in almost the entire state, the coast tends to have a slightly wetter summer, while inland, March tends to be the wettest month and winter the driest season, with November being the driest month. The highest recorded temperature is 113 °F (45 °C) in Johnston and Columbia on June 29, 2012, and the lowest recorded temperature is −19 °F (−28 °C) at Caesars Head on January 21, 1985.

text: Snowfall in South Carolina is somewhat uncommon in most of the state, while coastal areas receive less than an inch (2.5 cm) annually on average. It is not uncommon for areas along the coast (especially the southern coast) to receive no recordable snowfall in a given year. The interior receives a little more snow, although nowhere in the state averages more than 12 inches (30 cm) of snow annually. The mountains of extreme northwestern South Carolina tend to have the most substantial snow accumulation. Freezing rain and ice tend to be more common than snow in many areas of the state. Road bridges in South Carolina are commonly marked, "Bridge ices before road."

text: South Carolina is also prone to tropical cyclones and tornadoes. Two of the strongest hurricanes to strike South Carolina in recent history were Hurricane Hazel (1954) and Hurricane Hugo (1989).

text:
[show]Monthly normals and extremes for various South Carolina cities

Greenville

Columbia

Charleston

Greenville

[hide]Climate data for Greenville, South Carolina (Greenville–Spartanburg Int'l), 1981–2010 normals,[a] extremes 1884–present[b]

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
82
(28)
81
(27)
91
(33)
94
(34)
100
(38)
105
(41)
107
(42)
105
(41)
101
(38)
97
(36)
86
(30)
79
(26)
107
(42)

Mean maximum °F (°C)
69.4
(20.8)
72.5
(22.5)
80.8
(27.1)
86.0
(30)
90.2
(32.3)
95.1
(35.1)
97.3
(36.3)
95.9
(35.5)
91.1
(32.8)
84.4
(29.1)
77.1
(25.1)
69.5
(20.8)
98.6
(37)

Average high °F (°C)
52.4
(11.3)
56.6
(13.7)
64.5
(18.1)
72.8
(22.7)
80.2
(26.8)
87.5
(30.8)
90.3
(32.4)
88.6
(31.4)
82.2
(27.9)
72.8
(22.7)
63.5
(17.5)
54.1
(12.3)
72.1
(22.3)

Average low °F (°C)
32.0
(0)
34.9
(1.6)
41.2
(5.1)
48.3
(9.1)
57.2
(14)
65.8
(18.8)
69.4
(20.8)
68.7
(20.4)
61.8
(16.6)
50.4
(10.2)
41.3
(5.2)
34.0
(1.1)
50.4
(10.2)

Mean minimum °F (°C)
14.6
(−9.7)
19.0
(−7.2)
24.2
(−4.3)
32.6
(0.3)
42.7
(5.9)
55.0
(12.8)
61.7
(16.5)
60.7
(15.9)
47.9
(8.8)
34.1
(1.2)
26.0
(−3.3)
18.1
(−7.7)
11.8
(−11.2)

Record low °F (°C)
−6
(−21)
−5
(−21)
11
(−12)
22
(−6)
27
(−3)
40
(4)
53
(12)
50
(10)
32
(0)
25
(−4)
11
(−12)
3
(−16)
−6
(−21)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.82
(97)
3.97
(100.8)
4.52
(114.8)
3.36
(85.3)
3.76
(95.5)
3.80
(96.5)
4.80
(121.9)
4.48
(113.8)
3.43
(87.1)
3.44
(87.4)
3.70
(94)
4.11
(104.4)
47.19
(1,198.6)

Average snowfall inches (cm)
2.3
(5.8)
1.0
(2.5)
0.9
(2.3)
trace
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0.1
(0.3)
0.4
(1)
4.7
(11.9)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
10.2
9.2
9.6
9.0
9.7
10.4
11.7
10.4
8.1
7.2
8.9
9.8
114.2

Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)
1.2
0.7
0.3
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.1
0.4
2.8

Average relative humidity (%)
65.8
62.6
62.1
60.7
68.5
70.5
74.0
75.6
75.8
70.9
68.2
67.7
68.5

Mean monthly sunshine hours
176.6
182.7
236.2
264.7
269.2
270.8
267.8
253.9
229.2
235.2
184.3
169.4
2,740

Percent possible sunshine
56
60
64
68
62
62
61
61
62
67
59
55
62

Source: NOAA (relative humidity 1962–1990, sun 1961–1990)[45][46][47]

Columbia

[hide]Climate data for Columbia, South Carolina (Columbia Airport), 1981–2010 normals,[c] extremes 1887–present[d]

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
84
(29)
84
(29)
93
(34)
96
(36)
101
(38)
109
(43)
107
(42)
107
(42)
106
(41)
101
(38)
90
(32)
83
(28)
109
(43)

Mean maximum °F (°C)
73.7
(23.2)
77.6
(25.3)
83.9
(28.8)
89.3
(31.8)
94.0
(34.4)
98.5
(36.9)
100.2
(37.9)
98.9
(37.2)
94.5
(34.7)
88.2
(31.2)
80.9
(27.2)
75.3
(24.1)
101.6
(38.7)

Average high °F (°C)
56.0
(13.3)
60.3
(15.7)
68.2
(20.1)
76.3
(24.6)
83.8
(28.8)
90.0
(32.2)
92.7
(33.7)
90.7
(32.6)
85.2
(29.6)
76.1
(24.5)
67.3
(19.6)
58.2
(14.6)
75.4
(24.1)

Average low °F (°C)
33.7
(0.9)
36.8
(2.7)
43.0
(6.1)
50.4
(10.2)
59.5
(15.3)
68.2
(20.1)
71.6
(22)
71.0
(21.7)
64.2
(17.9)
52.1
(11.2)
42.3
(5.7)
35.3
(1.8)
52.3
(11.3)

Mean minimum °F (°C)
16.4
(−8.7)
20.6
(−6.3)
25.5
(−3.6)
33.2
(0.7)
44.1
(6.7)
56.6
(13.7)
63.5
(17.5)
62.0
(16.7)
49.0
(9.4)
34.4
(1.3)
26.2
(−3.2)
19.1
(−7.2)
14.7
(−9.6)

Record low °F (°C)
−1
(−18)
−2
(−19)
4
(−16)
26
(−3)
34
(1)
44
(7)
54
(12)
53
(12)
40
(4)
23
(−5)
12
(−11)
4
(−16)
−2
(−19)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.58
(90.9)
3.61
(91.7)
3.73
(94.7)
2.62
(66.5)
2.97
(75.4)
4.69
(119.1)
5.46
(138.7)
5.26
(133.6)
3.54
(89.9)
3.17
(80.5)
2.74
(69.6)
3.22
(81.8)
44.59
(1,132.6)

Average snowfall inches (cm)
0.8
(2)
0.5
(1.3)
0.1
(0.3)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0.1
(0.3)
1.5
(3.8)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.9
9.1
8.6
8.0
7.7
10.5
11.8
10.5
7.3
7.0
7.3
9.0
106.7

Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)
0.5
0.3
0.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.1
1.0

Average relative humidity (%)
69.2
65.8
64.6
62.1
68.2
70.8
73.4
76.5
75.9
73.0
71.6
70.7
70.2

Mean monthly sunshine hours
172.7
180.7
237.3
269.6
292.9
280.0
286.0
263.3
239.8
235.0
193.8
175.0
2,826.1

Percent possible sunshine
55
59
64
69
68
65
65
63
64
67
62
57
64

Source: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961−1990)[48][49][50]

Charleston

[hide]Climate data for Charleston Int'l, South Carolina (1981–2010 normals,[51] extremes 1938–present)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
83
(28)
87
(31)
90
(32)
95
(35)
99
(37)
103
(39)
104
(40)
105
(41)
99
(37)
94
(34)
88
(31)
83
(28)
105
(41)

Mean maximum °F (°C)
75.3
(24.1)
78.1
(25.6)
83.5
(28.6)
88.5
(31.4)
92.7
(33.7)
96.8
(36)
98.0
(36.7)
96.5
(35.8)
92.6
(33.7)
87.1
(30.6)
81.9
(27.7)
76.8
(24.9)
99.2
(37.3)

Average high °F (°C)
59.0
(15)
62.8
(17.1)
69.6
(20.9)
76.4
(24.7)
83.2
(28.4)
88.4
(31.3)
91.1
(32.8)
89.5
(31.9)
84.8
(29.3)
77.1
(25.1)
69.8
(21)
61.6
(16.4)
76.1
(24.5)

Average low °F (°C)
37.5
(3.1)
40.6
(4.8)
46.7
(8.2)
53.3
(11.8)
61.8
(16.6)
69.6
(20.9)
73.0
(22.8)
72.3
(22.4)
67.2
(19.6)
56.8
(13.8)
47.5
(8.6)
40.1
(4.5)
55.5
(13.1)

Mean minimum °F (°C)
21.4
(−5.9)
25.5
(−3.6)
30.4
(−0.9)
38.6
(3.7)
49.5
(9.7)
61.1
(16.2)
67.5
(19.7)
66.0
(18.9)
55.6
(13.1)
41.0
(5)
32.6
(0.3)
24.0
(−4.4)
18.8
(−7.3)

Record low °F (°C)
6
(−14)
12
(−11)
15
(−9)
29
(−2)
36
(2)
50
(10)
58
(14)
56
(13)
42
(6)
27
(−3)
15
(−9)
8
(−13)
6
(−14)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.71
(94.2)
2.96
(75.2)
3.71
(94.2)
2.91
(73.9)
3.02
(76.7)
5.65
(143.5)
6.53
(165.9)
7.15
(181.6)
6.10
(154.9)
3.75
(95.3)
2.43
(61.7)
3.11
(79)
51.03
(1,296.2)

Average snowfall inches (cm)
trace
0.2
(0.5)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0
(0)
0.3
(0.8)
0.5
(1.3)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.6
8.6
7.9
7.7
7.8
11.9
13.0
13.2
10.0
7.3
7.0
8.7
112.7

Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in)
0.1
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0.5

Average relative humidity (%)
69.8
67.4
68.1
67.5
72.5
75.1
76.6
78.9
78.2
74.1
72.7
71.6
72.7

Mean monthly sunshine hours
179.3
186.7
243.9
275.1
294.8
279.5
287.8
256.7
219.7
224.5
189.5
171.3
2,808.8

Percent possible sunshine
56
61
66
71
69
65
66
62
59
64
60
55
63

Source: NOAA (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990)[52][53][54]

[hide]Climate data for Charleston, South Carolina (Downtown), 1981–2010 normals,[51] extremes 1893–present

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
82
(28)
83
(28)
94
(34)
94
(34)
99
(37)
104
(40)
103
(39)
103
(39)
100
(38)
95
(35)
87
(31)
81
(27)
104
(40)

Mean maximum °F (°C)
71.3
(21.8)
74.6
(23.7)
79.7
(26.5)
84.6
(29.2)
90.0
(32.2)
94.0
(34.4)
96.2
(35.7)
94.2
(34.6)
91.2
(32.9)
85.2
(29.6)
79.0
(26.1)
73.9
(23.3)
97.4
(36.3)

Average high °F (°C)
56.7
(13.7)
59.6
(15.3)
65.0
(18.3)
72.0
(22.2)
78.7
(25.9)
84.5
(29.2)
87.6
(30.9)
86.4
(30.2)
82.0
(27.8)
74.6
(23.7)
67.3
(19.6)
59.5
(15.3)
72.8
(22.7)

Average low °F (°C)
42.8
(6)
45.5
(7.5)
51.6
(10.9)
58.8
(14.9)
67.1
(19.5)
74.0
(23.3)
76.9
(24.9)
76.1
(24.5)
71.8
(22.1)
62.5
(16.9)
53.6
(12)
45.6
(7.6)
60.5
(15.8)

Mean minimum °F (°C)
27.5
(−2.5)
31.6
(−0.2)
36.4
(2.4)
44.8
(7.1)
55.6
(13.1)
66.5
(19.2)
71.0
(21.7)
69.8
(21)
61.6
(16.4)
48.1
(8.9)
39.1
(3.9)
30.2
(−1)
24.8
(−4)

Record low °F (°C)
10
(−12)
7
(−14)
22
(−6)
36
(2)
45
(7)
52
(11)
61
(16)
59
(15)
50
(10)
37
(3)
17
(−8)
12
(−11)
7
(−14)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
2.94
(74.7)
2.51
(63.8)
3.30
(83.8)
2.53
(64.3)
2.16
(54.9)
4.65
(118.1)
5.40
(137.2)
6.71
(170.4)
5.76
(146.3)
3.67
(93.2)
2.19
(55.6)
2.60
(66)
44.42
(1,128.3)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
9.0
8.0
7.8
6.9
6.6
10.0
11.3
11.3
8.9
6.6
6.3
8.6
101.3

Source: NOAA[52][55]

text: Hurricanes and tropical cyclones[edit]

text: The state is occasionally affected by tropical cyclones. This is an annual concern during hurricane season, which lasts from June 1 to November 30. The peak time of vulnerability for the southeast Atlantic coast is from early August to early October, during the Cape Verde hurricane season. Memorable hurricanes to hit South Carolina include Hazel (1954) and Hugo (1989), both Category 4 hurricanes.[56]

text: South Carolina averages around 50 days of thunderstorm activity a year. This is less than some of the states further south, and it is slightly less vulnerable to tornadoes than the states which border on the Gulf of Mexico. Some notable tornadoes have struck South Carolina, and the state averages around 14 tornadoes annually. Hail is common with many of the thunderstorms in the state, as there is often a marked contrast in temperature of warmer ground conditions compared to the cold air aloft.[56]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Demographics[edit]

text: The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of South Carolina was 4,896,146 on July 1, 2015, a 5.85% increase since the 2010 United States Census.[57]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1790
249,073

—

1800
345,591

38.8%

1810
415,115

20.1%

1820
502,741

21.1%

1830
581,185

15.6%

1840
594,398

2.3%

1850
668,507

12.5%

1860
703,708

5.3%

1870
705,606

0.3%

1880
995,577

41.1%

1890
1,151,149

15.6%

1900
1,340,316

16.4%

1910
1,515,400

13.1%

1920
1,683,724

11.1%

1930
1,738,765

3.3%

1940
1,899,804

9.3%

1950
2,117,027

11.4%

1960
2,382,594

12.5%

1970
2,590,516

8.7%

1980
3,121,820

20.5%

1990
3,486,703

11.7%

2000
4,012,012

15.1%

2010
4,625,364

15.3%

Est. 2016
4,961,119

7.3%

Source: 1910–2010[58]
2016 estimate[57]

text: As of the 2013 census estimate, the racial make up of the state is 68.3% White (63.9% non-Hispanic white), 27.9% Black or African American, 0.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 1.7% from two or more races. 5.3% of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin of any race.[59]

text:
South Carolina Racial Breakdown of Population

[hide]Racial composition
1990[60]
2000[61]
2010[62]
2015[63]

White
69.0%
67.2%
66.2%
68.4%

Black
29.8%
29.5%
27.9%
27.6%

Asian
0.6%
0.9%
1.3%
1.6%

Native American
0.2%
0.3%
0.4%
0.5%

Native Hawaiian and
other Pacific Islander
–
–
0.1%
0.1%

Two or more races
–
1.0%
1.7%
1.8%

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, as of 2014, South Carolina had an estimated population of 4,896,146, which is an increase of 63,664 from the prior year and an increase of 270,782, or 5.85%, since the year 2010. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 36,401 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 115,084 people. According to the University of South Carolina's Arnold School of Public Health, Consortium for Latino Immigration Studies, South Carolina's foreign-born population grew faster than any other state between 2000 and 2005.[64][65]

text: An August 2011 Public Policy Polling survey found that 21% of South Carolina voters thought that same-sex marriage should be legal, while 69% thought it should be illegal and 10% were not sure. A separate question on the same survey found that 48% of South Carolina voters supported the legal recognition of same-sex couples, with 19% supporting same-sex marriage, 29% supporting civil unions but not marriage, 51% favoring no legal recognition and 2% not sure.[66]

text: Religion[edit]

text: Religion in South Carolina[67]

text: According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), in 2010 the largest denominations were the Southern Baptist Convention with 913,763 adherents, the United Methodist Church with 274,111 adherents, and the Roman Catholic Church with 181,743 adherents. Fourth largest is the African Methodist Episcopal Church with 564 congregations and 121,000 members and fifth largest is the Presbyterian Church (USA) with 320 congregations and almost 100,000 members.[68]

text: As of 2010, South Carolina is the American state with the highest per capita proportion of Baha'is with 17,559 adherents,[69] making the Baha'i Faith the second largest religion in the state.[70]

text: Major cities[edit]

text: In 2016, the US Census Bureau released 2015 population estimates for South Carolina's most populous cities.[71]

text:
v
t
e

Largest cities or towns in South Carolina
Source:[72]

Rank
Name
County
Pop.
Rank
Name
County
Pop.

Charleston

Columbia
1
Charleston
Charleston
134,385
11
Florence
Florence
38,317

North Charleston

Mount Pleasant

2
Columbia
Richland
134,309
12
Spartanburg
Spartanburg
37,876

3
North Charleston
Charleston
108,304
13
Myrtle Beach
Horry
32,240

4
Mount Pleasant
Charleston
81,317
14
Aiken
Aiken
30,937

5
Rock Hill
York
72,937
15
Greer
Greenville and Spartanburg
29,000

6
Greenville
Greenville
67,453
16
Mauldin
Greenville
25,188

7
Summerville
Dorchester
48,848
17
Hanahan
Berkeley
23,439

8
Sumter
Sumter
40,816
18
North Augusta
Aiken and Edgefield
22,932

9
Goose Creek
Berkeley
40,633
19
Simpsonville
Greenville
21,314

10
Hilton Head Island
Beaufort
40,512
20
Lexington
Lexington
20,988

text: Population centers[edit]

text:
Rank
Metropolitan Area
Population
Counties

1
Greenville-Anderson-Mauldin
884,975
Greenville, Anderson, Laurens, Pickens

2
Columbia
810,068
Calhoun, Kershaw, Fairfield, Richland, Lexington, Saluda

3
Charleston-North Charleston-Summerville SC MSA
744,526
Charleston, Dorchester, Berkeley

4
Charlotte-Gastonia-Concord NC-SC MSA
251,195
Mecklenburg, Union, Gaston, Cabarrus, Anson, York

5
Myrtle Beach-Conway-North Myrtle Beach SC MSA
309,199
Horry, Georgetown, Brunswick

6
Florence
206,448
Florence, Darlington

7
Sumter, SC MSA
107,480
Sumter

8
Hilton Head Island-Bluffton-Beaufort, SC metropolitan area
207,413
Beaufort, Jasper

9
Spartanburg, SC MSA
297,302
Spartanburg

Total
3,818,606

text: Economy[edit]

text: According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, South Carolina's gross state product (GSP) in current dollars was $97 billion in 1997 and $153 billion in 2007. Its per-capita real gross domestic product (GDP) in chained 2000 dollars was $26,772 in 1997 and $28,894 in 2007; that represents 85% of the $31,619 per-capita real GDP for the United States overall in 1997, and 76% of the $38,020 for the U.S. in 2007. The state debt in 2012 was calculated by one source to be $22.9bn, or $7,800 per taxpayer.[73]

text: Major agricultural outputs of the state are tobacco, poultry, cotton, cattle, dairy products, soybeans, hay, rice, and swine. Industrial outputs include textile goods, chemical products, paper products, machinery, automobiles, automotive products and tourism.[74][75] According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of March 2012, South Carolina had 1,852,700 nonfarm jobs of which 12% are in manufacturing, 11.5% are in leisure and hospitality, 19% are in trade, transportation, and utilities, and 11.8% are in education and health services. The service sector accounts for 83.7% of the South Carolina economy.[76]

text: During the economic downturn in the Late 2000s Recession, South Carolina's Unemployment Rate peaked at 12.0% in November and December 2009. It is continuing a steady decline with an unemployment rate of 8.9% as of March 2012.[77]

text: Many large corporations have moved their locations to South Carolina. Boeing opened an aircraft manufacturing facility in Charleston in 2011, which serves as one of two final assembly sites for the 787 Dreamliner. South Carolina is a right-to-work state[78] and many businesses utilize staffing agencies to temporarily fill positions. Domtar, located in Rock Hill, is the only Fortune 500 company headquartered in South Carolina.[79] The Fortune 1000 list includes SCANA, Sonoco Products and ScanSource.

text: South Carolina also benefits from foreign investment. There are 1,950 foreign-owned firms operating in South Carolina employing almost 135,000 people.[80] Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) brought 1.06 billion dollars to the state economy in 2010.[81] Since 1994, BMW has had a production facility in Spartanburg County near Greer.

text: Media[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2017)

text: The arts[edit]

text: South Carolina has many venues for visual and performing arts. The Gibbes Museum of Art in Charleston, the Greenville County Museum of Art, the Columbia Museum of Art, Spartanburg Art Museum, and the South Carolina State Museum in Columbia among others provide access to visual arts to the state. There are also numerous historic sites and museums scattered throughout the state paying homage to many events and periods in the state's history from Native American inhabitation to the present day.

text: South Carolina also has performing art venues including the Peace Center in Greenville, the Koger Center for the Arts in Columbia, and the Newberry Opera House, among others to bring local, national, and international talent to the stages of South Carolina. There are several large venues in the state that can house major events, such as Colonial Life Arena in Columbia, Bon Secours Wellness Arena in Greenville, and North Charleston Coliseum.

text: One of the nation's major performing arts festivals, Spoleto Festival USA, is held annually in Charleston. There are also countless local festivals throughout the state highlighting many cultural traditions, historical events, and folklore.

text: According to the South Carolina Arts Commission, creative industries generate $9.2 billion annually and support over 78,000 jobs in the state.[82] A 2009 statewide poll by the University of South Carolina Institute for Public Service and Policy Research found that 67% of residents had participated in the arts in some form during the past year and on average citizens had participated in the arts 14 times in the previous year.

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Road[edit]

text: The state has the fourth largest state-maintained system in the country, consisting of 11 Interstates, numbered highways, state highways, and secondary roads, totalling approximately 41,500 miles.[83]

text: On secondary roads, South Carolina uses a numbering system to keep track of all non-interstate and primary highways that are maintained by the South Carolina Department of Transportation. Secondary roads are numbered by the number of the county followed by a unique number for the particular road.

text: Rail[edit]

text: Passenger[edit]

text: Amtrak operates four passenger routes in South Carolina: the Crescent, the Palmetto, the Silver Meteor, and the Silver Star. The Crescent route serves the Upstate cities, the Silver Star serves the Midlands cities, and the Palmetto and Silver Meteor routes serve the low country cities.

text: Station stops[edit]

text:
Station
Connections

Camden

  Silver Star

North Charleston

  Palmetto
  Silver Meteor

Columbia

  Silver Star

Clemson

  Crescent

Denmark

  Silver Star

Dillon

  Palmetto

Florence

  Palmetto
  Silver Meteor

Greenville

  Crescent

Kingstree

  Palmetto
  Silver Meteor

Spartanburg

  Crescent

Yemassee

  Palmetto
  Silver Meteor

text: Freight[edit]

text: CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern are the only Class I railroad companies in South Carolina, as other freight companies in the state are short lines.

text: Major and regional airports[edit]

text: There are seven significant airports in South Carolina, all of which act as regional airport hubs. The busiest by passenger volume is Charleston International Airport.[84] Just across the border in North Carolina is Charlotte/Douglas International Airport, the 30th busiest airport in the world, in terms of passengers.[85]

text:
Columbia Metropolitan Airport – Columbia
Charleston International Airport – North Charleston
Greenville-Spartanburg International Airport – Greenville/Spartanburg
Florence Regional Airport – Florence
Myrtle Beach International Airport – Myrtle Beach
Hilton Head Airport – Hilton Head Island/Beaufort
Rock Hill/York County Airport – Rock Hill

text: Government and politics[edit]

text: South Carolina's state government consists of the Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches. Also relevant are the state constitution, law enforcement agencies, federal representation, state finances, and state taxes.

text: South Carolina has historically had a weak executive branch and a strong legislature. Before 1865, governors in South Carolina were appointed by the General Assembly, and held the title "President of State." The 1865 Constitution changed this process, requiring a popular election. Local governments were also weak. But, the 1867 Constitution, passed during the Reconstruction era, extended democratization by establishing home rule for counties, which were established from the former designated districts of the state.

text: The 1895 state constitution overturned this, reducing the role of counties and strengthening the relative role of the state legislature; essentially the counties were agents of the state and ruled by the General Assembly through the legislative delegation for each county.[29] They are geographically comprehensive; all areas of the state are included in counties. As each county had one state senator, that position was particularly powerful. This status continued until 1973, when the state constitution was amended to provide for home rule for the counties. During this time the state had changed, with increasing urbanization, but rural counties retained proportionally more power as the legislature was based in representatives elected from counties rather than population districts.[86]

text: The federal court case, Reynolds v. Sims (1964), "established the one-man, one-vote concept for electoral representation at the state level. Legislators were now supposed to represent more or less equal numbers of people."[86] Residents of urban areas had been found to be markedly underrepresented in the legislature under the county-based system. Reapportionment made obvious the need for other changes to county structure, leading to the legislature passing the constitutional amendment. The Home Rule Act of 1975 implemented the amendment giving more power to the counties. With urbanization their governments have become increasingly important in the state.[86]

text: Several changes to the state constitution have affected the office of the governor and the cabinet. In 1926 the governor's term was extended from two to four years; in 1982 the governor was allowed to run for a second succeeding term. In 1993, the state passed an amendment requiring a limited cabinet (all of whom must be popularly elected).

text: As of January 2, 2016, there were 2,948,772 registered voters.[87][88]

text: Education[edit]

text: As of 2010, South Carolina is one of three states that has not agreed to use competitive international math and language standards.[89]

text: In 2014, the South Carolina Supreme Court ruled that the state had failed to provide a "minimally adequate" education to children in all parts of the state as required by the state's constitution.[90]

text: South Carolina has 1,144 K–12 schools in 85 school districts with an enrollment of 712,244 as of fall 2009.[91][92] As of the 2008–2009 school year, South Carolina spent $9,450 per student which places it 31st in the country for per student spending.[93]

text: In 2015, the national average SAT score was 1490 and the South Carolina average was 1442, only around 50 points lower than the national average.[94]

text: South Carolina is the only state which owns and operates its own statewide school bus system. As of December 2016, the state maintains a 5,582 bus fleet with the average vehicle in service being 15 years old with 236,000 miles, compared to the national average of 6 years.[95] Half of the state's school buses are more than 15 years old and some are reportedly up to 30 years old. In 2017 in the budget proposal, Superintendent of Education Molly Spearman requested that the state lease to purchase 1,000 buses to replace the most decrepit vehicles. An additional 175 buses could be purchased immediately through the State Treasurer's master lease program.[96] On January 5, 2017, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency awarded South Carolina more than $1.1 million to replace 57 school buses with new cleaner models through its Diesel Emissions Reduction Act program.[97]

text: Institutions of higher education[edit]

text: South Carolina has a diverse group of institutions of higher education, from large state-funded research universities to small colleges that cultivate a liberal arts, religious or military tradition, including the following:

text:
The College of Charleston, founded in 1770 and chartered in 1785, is the oldest institution of higher learning in South Carolina, the 13th oldest in the United States, and the first municipal college in the country. The college is in company with the Colonial Colleges as one of the original and foundational institutions of higher education in the United States. Its founders include three signers of the United States Declaration of Independence and three signers of the United States Constitution. The college's historic campus, which is listed on the U.S. Department of the Interior's National Register of Historic Places, forms an integral part of Charleston's colonial-era urban center. The Graduate School of the College of Charleston offers a number of degree programs and coordinates support for its nationally recognized faculty research efforts.
The University of South Carolina, located in Columbia, is a flagship, public, co-educational, research university with seven satellite campuses. The institution was founded in 1801 as South Carolina College, and its original campus, The Horseshoe, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The university's main campus covers over 359 acres (1.5 km2) in the urban core less than one city block from the South Carolina State House. The University of South Carolina maintains an enrollment of over 32,800 students on the Columbia campus.

text:
Furman University is a private, coeducational, non-sectarian, liberal arts university in Greenville. Founded in 1826, Furman enrolls approximately 2,600 undergraduate and 500 graduate students. Furman is the largest private institution in South Carolina. The university is primarily focused on undergraduate education (only two departments, education and chemistry, offer graduate degrees).
Erskine College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college located in Due West, South Carolina. The college was founded in 1839 and is affiliated with the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church, which maintains a theological seminary on the campus.
The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina is a state-supported, comprehensive college located in Charleston. Founded in 1842, the college is best known for its undergraduate Corps of Cadets military program for men and women, which combines academics, physical challenges and military discipline. In addition to the cadet program, civilian programs are offered through The Citadel Graduate College with its evening certificate, undergraduate and graduate programs. The Citadel enrolls 2,200 undergraduate cadets in its residential military program and 1,200 civilian students in the evening programs.
Wofford College is a small liberal arts college located in Spartanburg. Wofford was founded in 1854 with a bequest of $100,000 from the Rev. Benjamin Wofford (1780–1850), a Methodist minister and Spartanburg native who sought to create a college for "literary, classical, and scientific education in my native district of Spartanburg." Wofford is one of the few four-year institutions in the southeastern United States founded before the American Civil War and still operating on its original campus.
Newberry College is a small liberal arts college located in Newberry.Newberry was founded in 1856 and is a co-educational, private liberal-arts college of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) located on a historic 90-acre (36 ha) campus in Newberry, South Carolina. The college has 1,042 students and a 14:1 student-teacher ratio. According to U.S. News & World Report's America's Best Colleges, Newberry College ranks among the nation's top colleges in the southern region.
Claflin University, founded in 1869 by the American Missionary Association, is the oldest historically black college in the state. After the Democratic-dominated legislature closed the university in 1877, before passing a law to restrict admission to whites, it designated Claflin as the only state college for blacks.
Lander University is a public liberal arts university located in Greenwood. Lander was founded in 1872 as Willamston Female College.[98] The school relocated to Greenwood in 1904 and was renamed Lander College in honor of its founder, Samuel Lander. In 1973 Lander became part of the state's higher education system and is now a co-educational institution. The university is focused on undergraduate education and currently enrolls approximately 2,800 undergraduates.
Presbyterian College (PC) is a private liberal arts college founded in 1880 in Clinton. Presbyterian College is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church USA, and enrolls around 1300 undergraduate students. In 2007, Washington Monthly ranked PC as the No. 1 Liberal Arts College in the nation.[99]
Winthrop University, founded in 1886 as an all-female teaching school in Rock Hill, became a co-ed institution in 1974. Winthrop is now a public university that has an enrollment of just over 6,000 students. It is one of the fastest growing universities in the state, with several new academic and recreational buildings being added to the main campus in the past five years, as well as several more planned for the near future. The Richard W. Riley College of Education is still the school's most well-known area of study.
Clemson University, founded in 1889, is a public, coeducational, land-grant research university located in Clemson. The school currently enrolls more than 18,000 students from all 50 states and from more than 70 countries. Clemson is also the home to the South Carolina Botanical Garden.
North Greenville University, founded in 1891, is a comprehensive university located in Tigerville. It is affiliated with South Carolina Baptist Convention and the Southern Baptist Convention, and is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. It has a current enrollment of around 2260 undergraduates.
South Carolina State University, founded in 1896, is a historically black university located in Orangeburg. SCSU has a current enrollment of nearly 5,000, and offers undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate degrees. SCSU boasts the only Doctor of Education program in the state.
Anderson University, founded in 1911, is a selective comprehensive university located in Anderson, offering bachelor's and master's degrees in approximately 50 areas of study. Anderson University currently enrolls around 2,300 students.
Webster University, founded in 1915 in St. Louis, MO, with 5 extended campuses in SC, offers undergraduate and graduate degrees.
Bob Jones University, founded in 1927, is a non-denominational University founded on fundamentalist Christian beliefs (e.g., inspiration and inerrancy of the Scriptures, the creation of man by the direct act of God, the fall of man, the "young earth" and flood geology, and man's need for personal faith in the finished work of the Lord Jesus Christ). BJU also offers over 60 undergraduate majors and has over 70 graduate programs.[100]
Coastal Carolina University, founded in 1954, became an independent state-supported liberal arts university in 1993. The university enrolls approximately 10,000 students on its 307-acre (1.24 km2) campus in Conway, part of the Myrtle Beach metropolitan area. Baccalaureate programs are offered in 51 major fields of study, along with graduate programs in education, business administration (MBA), and coastal marine and wetland studies.
Charleston Southern University, founded in 1969, is a liberal arts university, and is affiliated with the South Carolina Baptist Convention. Charleston Southern (CSU) is located on 300 acres, formerly the site of a rice and indigo plantation, in the City of North Charleston one of South Carolina's largest accredited, independent universities, enrolling approximately 3,200 students.
Francis Marion University,(formerly Francis Marion College), is a state-supported liberal arts university located near Florence, South Carolina. It was founded in 1970. It achieved its university status in 1992.

text: Universities and colleges ranked by endowment, 2010[edit]

text:
State
Rank
National
Rank
Institution
Location
Public or
Private
Endowment Funds
Percentage Change YOY

1
142
Furman University
Greenville
Private
$650,000,000
7.8%

2
151
University of South Carolina
Columbia &
regional campuses
Public
$625,186,000
6.0%

3
153
Clemson University
Clemson
Public
$623,200,000
9.5%

4
236
Medical University of South Carolina
Charleston
Public
$272,319,000
13.7%

5
270
The Citadel
Charleston
Public
$244,000,000
8.1%

6
324
Wofford College
Spartanburg
Private
$166,619,000
10.2%

7
447
Presbyterian College
Clinton
Private
$97,590,000
11.0%

8
530
Converse College
Spartanburg
Private
$78,240,000
6.4%

9
782
Winthrop University
Rock Hill
Public
$43,600,000
13.6%

10
658
Coker College
Hartsville
Private
$37,660,000
4.9%

text: Health care[edit]

text: For overall health care, South Carolina is ranked 33rd out of the 50 states, according to the Commonwealth Fund, a private health foundation working to improve the health care system.[102] The state's teen birth rate was 53 births per 1,000 teens, compared to the average of 41.9 births for the US, according to the Kaiser Family Foundation.[103] The state's infant mortality rate was 9.4 deaths per 1,000 births compared to the US average of 6.9 deaths.[104]

text: There were 2.6 physicians per 1,000 people compared to the US average of 3.2 physicians.[105] There was $5,114 spent on health expenses per capita in the state, compared to the US average of $5,283.[106] There were 26 percent of children and 13 percent of elderly living in poverty in the state, compared to 23 percent and 13 percent, respectively, doing so in the US.[107] And, 34 percent of children were overweight or obese, compared to the US average of 32 percent.[108]

text: Sports[edit]

text: Although no major league professional sports teams are based in South Carolina, the Carolina Panthers do have training facilities in the state and played their Inaugural Season's home games at Clemson's Memorial Stadium. The Panthers consider themselves "The Carolinas' Team" and refrained from naming themselves after Charlotte or either of the Carolinas. The state is also home to numerous minor league professional teams. College teams represent their particular South Carolina institutions, and are the primary options for football, basketball and baseball attendance in the state. South Carolina is also a top destination for golf and water sports.

text: South Carolina is also home to one of NASCAR's first tracks and its first paved speedway, Darlington Raceway northwest of Florence.

text: Federal lands in South Carolina[edit]

text:
Charles Pinckney National Historic Site at Mt. Pleasant
Congaree National Park in Hopkins
Cowpens National Battlefield near Chesnee
Fort Moultrie National Monument at Sullivan's Island
Fort Sumter National Monument in Charleston Harbor
Kings Mountain National Military Park at Blacksburg
Ninety Six National Historic Site in Ninety Six
Overmountain Victory National Historic Trail
Fort Jackson near Columbia
Joint Base Charleston near Charleston
Shaw Air Force Base near Sumter

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
A cotton farmer and his children pose before taking their crop to a cotton gin, ca. 1870.

Arcadia Plantation, circa 1893, Georgetown County

Beachcombers at Myrtle Beach photographed from the ninth floor of a resort hotel

Midlands Mountain trail during winter, in Harbison State Forest

Access to Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor, where the American Civil War began in 1861, requires a half-hour ferry ride each way.

An historic home on "The Battery", a neighborhood/park area in the Downtown historic district of the peninsula of Charleston, South Carolina.

Coastal towns and cities often have hurricane-resistant Live oaks overarching the streets in historic neighborhoods, such as these on East Bay Street, Georgetown.

The Pink House, the oldest stone building in Charleston.


document_title: List of attacks on U.S. territory

question_text: when was the last time there was a war on american soil

text: List of attacks on U.S. territory

text: Attacks on mainland U.S. or organized incorporated U.S. territories[edit]

text:
American Revolutionary War 1775–1780
American Indian Wars 1775–1918
War of 1812 1812–1815
Thornton Affair April 26, 1846
Mexican–American War 1846–1848
American Civil War 1861-1865
Black Tom explosion July 30, 1916
Battle of Columbus 1916
Bombardment of Orleans 1918
Battle of Ambos Nogales 1918
Attack on Pearl Harbor December 7, 1941
American Theater (World War II) 1941–1945
1993 shootings at CIA Headquarters January 25, 1993
1993 World Trade Center bombing February 26, 1993
Oklahoma City bombing April 19, 1995
September 11 attacks by Al-Qaeda on New York City, New York; Arlington, Virginia; and Shanksville, Pennsylvania September 11, 2001

text: Attacks on U.S. unincorporated territories[edit]

text:
Japanese invasion of the Philippines 1941–1945
Battle of Guam 1941
Battle of Wake 1941
Battle of Midway 1942