document_title: The Italian Job

question_text: where was the italian job bus scene filmed

text: The Italian Job

text: Plot[edit]

text: Charlie Croker (Michael Caine) is released from prison with the intention of doing a "big job" in Italy. He soon meets with the widow (Lelia Goldoni) of his friend and fellow thief Roger Beckermann (Rossano Brazzi), who was killed by the Mafia while driving a Lamborghini Miura in the Italian Alps. Mrs Beckermann gives Croker her husband's plans for the robbery that attracted the hostile attention of his killers, which detail a way to steal $4 million in the city of Turin and escape to Switzerland.

text: Croker breaks back into his former prison to convince powerful crime lord Mr. Bridger (Noël Coward) to finance the plan. Bridger, who has bribed almost all of the prison guards to work for him, initially rejects the plan, but changes his mind after he learns Fiat is set to build a new factory in China.

text: With Bridger's backing, Croker recruits computer expert Professor Peach (Benny Hill), his girlfriend Lorna (Maggie Blye) and a team of thieves and drivers. The plan calls for Peach to replace the programme in the computer controlling Turin's traffic control system, creating a paralysing traffic jam that will allow the thieves to escape with the gold in three Mini Cooper S getaway cars.[9]

text: After planning and training, Croker and crew set out for Turin. Mafia boss Altabani (Raf Vallone) and his underlings are waiting in the Alps at the same pass where they killed Beckermann. Altabani warns Croker that the Mafia are aware of the gang's intentions and smashes their Jaguar E-Type cars, sending Croker's personal Aston Martin DB4 drophead off a cliff. Just as Altabani is about to give the order to shoot the gang, Croker tells him that Mr. Bridger will avenge their deaths by attacking the Italian community in Britain. Altabani lets them go, ordering them to return to England. Instead, they proceed with the plan, replacing the traffic control system's magnetic tape data storage reels. On the day of the robbery, Croker sends gang member Birkinshaw, disguised as a football fan, to jam the closed circuit television cameras that monitor traffic. The substitute data reel then causes widespread traffic chaos. The gang converge on the gold convoy, overpower the guards, and tow the armoured car into the entrance hall of the Museo Egizio. There, the gang transfer the gold to the Minis.

text: Altabani recognises that "If they planned this jam, they must have planned a way out." Pursued by the Turin police, the three Minis race through the shopping arcades of the city, speed down stairs, jump between rooftops, and finally escape the traffic jams by a pre-planned route across a weir. The getaway is timed perfectly, and they throw off the police by driving through a large sewer pipe. As Mr. Bridger receives the cheers and adulation of his fellow prison inmates, the gang drive the Minis into the back of a moving customised coach. They then unload the gold and dispose of the Minis by pushing them off the mountainside.

text: The rest of the gang, having sneaked out of the city in a minibus while disguised as football supporters, rendezvous with the coach in the Alps. On the looping mountain roads, driver "Big" William (Harry Baird) loses control of the coach. The back of the bus is left teetering over a cliff and the gold slides towards the rear doors. As Croker attempts to reach the gold, it slips further. The film finishes on a literal cliffhanger with Croker announcing he has a "great idea".

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Michael Caine as Charlie Croker
Noël Coward as Mr. Bridger
Benny Hill as Professor Simon Peach
Raf Vallone as Altabani
Tony Beckley as Camp Freddie
Rossano Brazzi as Roger Beckermann
Maggie Blye as Lorna
Irene Handl as Miss Peach
John Le Mesurier as the Prison Governor
Fred Emney as Birkinshaw
John Clive as Garage manager
Graham Payn as Keats
Michael Standing as Arthur
Stanley Caine as Coco
Barry Cox as Chris
Harry Baird as Big William
George Innes as Bill Bailey
John Forgeham as Frank
Robert Powell as Yellow

Derek Ware as Rozzer
Frank Jarvis as Roger
David Salamone as Dominic
Richard Essame as Tony
Mario Valgoi as Manzo
Renato Romano(in Italian) as Cosca
Franco Norvelli as Altabani's driver
Robert Rietti as Police chief
Timothy Bateson as Dentist
David Kelly as Vicar
Arnold Diamond as Senior computer room official
Simon Dee as Shirtmaker
Alistair Hunter as Warder (cinema)
Lana Gatto as Mrs. Cosca
John Morris as Standin
Louis Mansi as Computer room official
Henry McGee as Tailor
Lelia Goldoni as Mrs Beckermann
Valerie Leon as Hotel Receptionist

text: Noël Coward, who played Bridger, was godfather of the director, Peter Collinson. Bridger's fellow convict and confidant, Keats, was played by Graham Payn, Coward's long-time partner. Lana Gatto was the nom de crédit of Hazel Collinson, otherwise known as Mrs. Peter Collinson. Michael Caine's brother Stanley Caine also appears as one of Croker's gang. The gang also included Robert Powell, in his first film role. Frank Kelly appears as an uncredited prison officer, also in his first film role. American distributors Paramount wanted Robert Redford to play the lead.

text: Ending[edit]

text: According to a "Making Of" documentary,[10] producer Deeley was unsatisfied with the four written endings and conceived the current ending as a literal cliffhanger appropriate to an action film which left an opportunity for a sequel. The documentary describes how helicopters would save the bus seen on the cliff at the end of the first film. The grateful gang would soon discover that it is the Mafia that has saved them, and the sequel would have been about stealing the gold bullion back from them.

text: In interviews in 2003 and 2008, Michael Caine revealed that the ending would have had Croker "crawl up, switch on the engine and stay there for four hours until all the petrol runs out... The van bounces back up so we can all get out, but then the gold goes over."[11] The bus containing the gold would crash at the bottom of the hill where the Mafia would pick it up. The sequel would then have Croker and his men trying to get it back.

text: In 2008, the Royal Society of Chemistry held a competition for a solution that had a basis in science, was to take not more than 30 minutes and did not use a helicopter.[12] The idea was to promote greater understanding of science, and to highlight the 100th anniversary of the periodic table, on which gold is one of the 118 elements.[11] The winning entry, by John Godwin of Surrey, was: Break and remove two large side windows just aft of the pivot point and let the glass fall outside to lose its weight; break two windows over the two front axles, keeping the broken glass on board to keep its weight for balance; let a man out on a rope through the front broken windows (not to rest his weight on the ground) who deflates all the bus's front tyres, to reduce the bus's rocking movement about its pivot point; drain the fuel tank, which is aft of the pivot point, which changes the balance enough to let a man get out and gather heavy rocks to load the front of the bus. Unload the bus. Wait until a suitable vehicle passes on the road, hijack it, and carry the gold away in it.[13]

text: Locations[edit]

text: The opening sequence of the film featuring Beckermann driving his Lamborghini Miura through The Alps was filmed on the Great St Bernard Pass, Aosta, Italy, with the opening scene featuring the Dardanelli Viaduct, which was constructed in 1961. The large house featured momentarily during the sequence is the Maison de Refuge.

text: The tunnel in which Beckermann abruptly meets his demise at the hands of the Mafia was shot at La Thuile on road SS26, Italy.

text: The interior of the prison that held Bridger was Kilmainham Gaol in Dublin, Ireland. The exterior, seen when Croker leaves, is HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs in west London.

text: Upon his release, Croker stays at the Royal Lancaster Hotel in Bayswater, London. Denbigh Close, Notting Hill, W11, was used as the location for Croker's (Michael Caine) home.[14]

text: The highrise apartment where the Turin job is planned was the penthouse flat at Alembic House (now known as Peninsula Heights) on the Albert Embankment. The property was later seen in films such as Theatre of Blood (1973), A Touch of Class (1973), and Sweeney! (1977). It became the London home of novelist Jeffrey Archer,[citation needed]

text: The training sessions shown for the Mini drivers were at the Crystal Palace race track in Upper Norwood, South London. The attempt to blow the doors off the bullion van, which led to its destruction and Croker's famous line, took place at Crystal Palace Sports Centre. The Crystal Palace transmitter can be seen in the background.

text: The meeting at the misty funeral was filmed in Cruagh Cemetery, in the foothills of the Dublin Mountains.

text: The office block that doubled as the Turin traffic control centre was Apex House, the Hanworth, Middlesex head office of the television rental chain DER.[10]

text: The chase sequences were filmed in Turin, except for the chase through the sewer tunnel, which was shot in the Sowe Valley Sewer Duplication system in the Stoke Aldermoor district of Coventry in the English Midlands, filmed from the back of a Mini Moke.[10] The person on the far side who closes the gate at the end of sewer tunnel is the director, Peter Collinson. Collinson also appeared in the scene on the highway when the ramps get jettisoned, clinging to the right-hand rear door of the coach as the Minis enter at speed.[10]

text: During the getaway the Minis are pursued by police around the rooftop test track of what was then a Fiat factory in the Lingotto building in Turin. The weir the Minis cross in the car chase is just down river from the Ponte Vittorio Emanuele I at the end of Via Po in central Turin.

text: A portion of the car chase was filmed as a dance between the Minis and police cars inside Pier Luigi Nervi's Exhibition Building, with a full orchestra playing 'The Blue Danube'.[10] It was cut from the final version and appears as an extra on the DVD.

text: The final escape from Turin was filmed on the road to Ceresole Reale via Lago Agnel and Colle del Nivolet (the highway does not lead to France or Switzerland because it's a dead end). The bus was left hanging off this corner in the climatic ending.

text: Vehicles[edit]

text: Roger Beckermann's orange Lamborghini Miura in the opening scene is actually two cars. The first was a Miura P400 that was sold as new afterwards. In 2015 it was found and verified, and now belongs to Cheshire Classic Cars.[15] The car tumbled down the chasm by the Mafia bulldozer was another Miura that had been in a serious accident and was not roadworthy.

text: According to the director's commentary on the DVD, despite the publicity the film would give to the Mini, the car's maker, BMC, only provided a token fleet of Minis and the production company had to buy the rest at trade price. Fiat offered the production as many super-charged Fiat cars as they needed, several sports cars for the Mafia confrontation scene, plus $50,000, but the producers turned down the offer because it would have meant replacing the Minis with Fiats.

text: The Minis seen on screen carry registration numbers HMP 729G (Red), GPF 146G (White) and LGW 809G (Blue). As at July 2012, a DVLA query indicates that two of these plates may still be registered; these, however, are not the cars used in the film as the film cars had "future dated" plates to make them current with the release date of the film, and as such would not be road legal. There were also numerous detail differences between the Minis used during filming and the launch of the "G" year suffix. According to the "making of" DVD extra, the Minis used in the chase scenes were all destroyed in accidents while filming the sewer sequence.

text: As Croker walks through the garage where the Minis are being prepared, viewers hear that "Rozzer's having trouble with his differential", and the back of the red Mini Cooper is jacked up where Rozzer is working. This is an inside joke since the Mini has front-wheel drive and does not have a rear differential. In the early 1960s, front-wheel-drive cars were new and asking a car mechanic to repair a Mini's rear differential was a popular snipe hunt.

text: Gold cost $38.69 per troy ounce in 1968;[16] so four million dollars in gold bars would have weighed about 3200 kg (7000 lb), requiring each of the three Minis to carry about 1070 kg (2300 lb) in addition to the driver and passenger. Since a 1968 Mini only weighs 630 kg (1400 lb),[17] each of these vehicles would have had to carry 1½ times its own weight in gold.

text: The coach at the end of the film was a 1964 Bedford VAL with Harrington Legionnaire Body, distinctive for its twin front steering axles. Following the filming, the coach had its improvised rear doors welded and was used on a Scottish school bus route until the mid-1980s when, according to the Legionnaire register, it was scrapped.

text: Charlie Croker picks up his Aston Martin DB4 convertible from a garage after release from prison. The scene was mostly improvised, which caused visible lighting irregularities since the crew did not know where the actors would be. The location of the underground carpark and lift is now part of Park Lane BMW, London.

text: The original DB4 belongs today to a private English collection. According to several sources, the "Aston" pushed off the cliff was a Vignale Lancia Flaminia mocked up as an Aston. The two E-type Jaguars that suffered from the Mafia's revenge were restored to original condition, the red one of which is owned by Phillip Porter, the founder of the Jaguar E-type owners club.

text: The black Fiat Dino coupé of Mafia boss Altabani was bought by Peter Collinson but became so rusty that only its doors remain. The Italian police cars seen around Turin were Alfa Romeo Giulias. The Italian police armoured car which escorts the gold convoy is a conversion of a former Second World War American M8 Greyhound armoured car. The original 37mm gun was removed and replaced with a water cannon.

text: A Land Rover Series IIa Station Wagon, registration BKO 686C, was used to get to the convoy before attacking and was modified with window bars and a towbar.

text: A Ford Thames 400E van was used for the football fans' decorated van; this was referred to as the Dormobile, the name of a common camper-van conversion coachbuilder.

text: The cross-Channel ferry featured in one scene is the MS Free Enterprise I. The ship spent many years as a day cruise ship in Greek waters before being scrapped in 2013.

text: The "Chinese" plane delivering the gold to Turin is a rare Douglas C-74 Globemaster, of which only 14 were built and only four passed into private ownership. It had been abandoned in Milan by its owners and was moved to Turin for filming. It was destroyed by fire in 1970.[18]

text: Music[edit]

text:
Matt Monro – On Days Like These excerpt

An excerpt from Matt Monro's On Days Like These
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: The music for the soundtrack was written by Quincy Jones. The opening theme, "On Days Like These", had lyrics by Don Black and was sung by Matt Monro. The closing theme, "Get a Bloomin' Move On" (AKA "The Self Preservation Society"), was performed by the cast and had lyrics featuring Cockney Rhyming Slang. Many incidental themes are based on British patriotic songs, such as "Rule, Britannia!", "The British Grenadiers" and "God Save the Queen".

text: Release[edit]

text: The film opened at the Plaza Cinema in London on 5th June 1969.[1]

text: Reception and legacy[edit]

text: The film has received generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 85% and an average rating of 7.3/10, based on 26 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "The Italian Job is a wildly fun romp that epitomizes the height of Britannia style."[19] Most positive reviews focus on the climactic car chase and the acting of both Michael Caine and Noël Coward, complimenting Peter Collinson's directing. It is considered highly evocative of 1960s London and the era in Britain as a whole.[20] In a modern review Nik Higgins of Future Movies claims that the film makes Austin Powers's wardrobe appear 'drab and grey'. He compliments Michael Caine's ability to effectively portray the character of Charlie [21] and also praises the music of Quincy Jones. Higgins particularly highlights how the music 'hops between smooth lounges' like the opener "On Days Like These" and the latter "Get a Bloomin' Move On" ('The Self Preservation Society'), which plays near the film's end.

text: It has also received some negative reviews, focusing on what is perceived as a predictable chase[22] and a lack of real emotion.[23] Vincent Canby, writing at the time of the film's release, felt that the caper film had been made before and much better as well. He complimented the film's technological sophistication, only criticising what he saw as an 'emotionally retarded' plot. Canby also expressed concern that Coward's appearance in the film, although intended to be kind, 'exploits him in vaguely unpleasant ways' by surrounding his character with images of the royal family, which had not knighted him at the time. A contemporary review in Time magazine felt that the film spent too much time focusing on the film's caper as opposed to building the characters; it also criticised the car chases as 'dull and deafening'.[24]

text: Although it received a Golden Globe nomination for "Best English-Language Foreign Film", the film was not a success in America. Caine blamed its failure on unattractive and misleading advertising.[25] As a result, plans for a sequel were shelved.

text: The movie was the 14th most popular at the UK box office in 1969.[26]

text: The film remains popular, however, and is considered one of the greatest British films in modern polls.[27] James Travers of Films de France believes that the film's enduring appeal rests in the 'improbable union' of Michael Caine, Noël Coward and Benny Hill, whom he considers "three of the best known [British] performers... in the late 1960s". He states that the film has a cult status and stands as a 'classic of its genre'.[20]

text: A novelisation of the film, written by Troy Kennedy Martin and Ken Wlaschin, was published by Sphere Books in 1969. The book contains numerous differences to the film: for example there is a rival group of German gangsters called the Hamburg Syndicate who try to obtain Beckerman's plans for the robbery, Croker and the three minis travel to Italy by yacht, and Professor Peach is rescued by the gang after he is arrested. The ending of the novel is also significantly different. The bus successfully crosses the border into Switzerland and two days later the gang and the gold arrive on a beach near Dover in a landing craft where they are met by Mr. Bridger and Luigi Altabani. Mr. Bridger tells Charlie Croker that they have come to an agreement to "divide Europe" and that the gold must be given back to the Italians.

text: Since 2000, there have been two remakes of the film. The first was released in 2003 and also called The Italian Job, set in Los Angeles and starring Mark Wahlberg as Charlie Croker. It features Donald Sutherland as John Bridger, played as more of a father figure to Croker. It employs the updated Mini Cooper for a chase towards the end. An official Bollywood remake of the 2003 film, called Players, was released in 2012.[28]

text: There is a video game based on the 1969 film, released for the PlayStation game console in 2001 and Microsoft Windows in 2002 and published by Rockstar Games.

text: Michael Caine's performance and 'bloody doors' line has been parodied in several British comedies, and in a music video for Pick a Part That's New by Stereophonics.

text: Large portions of the car chase scenes were lifted directly from the film for use in the MacGyver episode "Thief of Budapest" (Series 1, Ep 3) with the main characters setting up the story with three Minis visible at the start of the episode. Most of the end of the episode is footage from The Italian Job.[29]

text: The film was also the subject of a play, Bill Shakespeare's "The Italian Job", written by Malachi Bogdanov, who used lines from Shakespeare plays to tell the story. It was performed in 2003 at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.[30]

text: As part of a celebration of British culture at 2012 Summer Olympics, which were held in Great Britain, a replica of the bus was made and was exhibited balanced on the edge of the roof of The De La Warr Pavilion in Bexhill-on-Sea.[31] The famous dialogue and car blowing up scene were shown at the closing ceremony.[32]

text: In September 2016, NBC and Paramount Television will make a TV series inspired by the original and the remake.[33]


document_title: Gold standard

question_text: when was the dollar removed from the gold standard

question_tokens: when was the dollar removed from the gold standard

root

text: Gold standard

text: History

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Origin

text: The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency.[5] Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form.[6] Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.[citation needed]

tag: p

text: The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.[7]

text: During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean.  However, as the Byzantine Empire's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant.[8]  In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.[citation needed]

text: Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa 757–796 CE.[9] Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros, circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545.[10] International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and, later, the United States trade dollar.[citation needed]

text: In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.[11][self-published source]

text: A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1854, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold.  The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.[12]

text: Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin.[13] Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia's rich gold deposits.[citation needed]

text: The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.[citation needed]

text: Silver

text: From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States.  Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.

text: United Kingdom

text: In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token" silver coins and overstruck foreign coins.  With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half-crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821.  The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.

text: The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged.  In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard.  According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.

text: United States

text: In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both.[14] The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.

text: International

text: From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.

text: The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.

text: Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.

text: Japan

text: Following Germany's decision after the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.[15]

text: Bimetallic standard

text: US: Pre-Civil War

text: In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver.[14] Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.

text: The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations.  A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay/receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money.[16] Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard-money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.

text: Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended  payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks".[16]

text: US: Post-Civil War

text: After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ‘73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People's Party and the  Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.[16]

text: Fluctuations in the US gold stock, 1862–1877

text:
US gold stock

1862
59 tons

1866
81 tons

1875
50 tons

1878
78 tons

text: The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862–1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased.  The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.[17]

text: Gold exchange standard

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.

text: Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso/dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903.[18] Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.

text: When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria-Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.

text: Impact of World War I

text: Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly" according to economist Richard Lipsey.[5]

text: By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it.[19] According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard’s failure to resume its previous position after World War I was “the Bank of England's precarious liquidity position and the gold-exchange standard.” A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before.[20] In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America’s. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.[21]

text: Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.[5]

text: For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.

text: The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war.  The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to “sterilize”[vague] some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money.[citation needed] By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard.[16] As a result of World War I the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.[22]

text: Abandonment of the gold standard

text: The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns.  Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.

text: The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy [12 kg] of fine gold".[23][24] John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard.[25] By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86,[clarification needed] Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake".[26]

text: Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation.[27] This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929–1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic.[28][29][30] The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.

text: The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.[31]

text: In May 1931 a run on Austria's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.

text: Depression and World War II

text: Great Depression

text: Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade.[33] In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump" for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40% of its demand notes.[34] Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize-winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard.[35] They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs.[36] The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.[37]

text: Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks.  Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system.  Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks.[38] As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply.[39] Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.[40]

text: The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation-adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy.[41] Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.[42]

text: In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.[38]

text: Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40%.

text: Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot–Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain,[43] the failure of central banks to act responsibly,[44] government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis–Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits[45] and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25% to 63% in 1932 and to 79% in 1936,[46] while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from .375% in 1929 to 4% in 1932.[47] The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.

text: The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust.[48] Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder" any remaining confidence in the banking system.[49] Financial historian  Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly 'great' was the European banking crisis of 1931.[50] According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.[51]

text: World War II

text: Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries’ currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.[16]

text: Bretton Woods

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard" was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.[5]

text: Starting in the 1959–1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock").

text: This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement" was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.

text: Production of gold

text: An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.[52]

text: World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth (i.e. a doubling in this period)[53] although it has lagged behind world economic growth (approximately 8-fold increase since the 1950s[54], and 4x since 1980[55]).

text: Theory

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.

text: Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification,[56] often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.[citation needed]

text: Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.

text: Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.

text: Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.[57]

text: Variations

text: A full or 100%-reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold.[citation needed] Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income."[58] While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.[59]

text: In an international gold-standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned),[60] gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.

text: Advantages

text:
Long-term price stability has been described as one of the virtues of the gold standard.[61] The gold standard makes it difficult for governments to inflate prices through expanding the money supply. Under the gold standard, significant inflation is rare, and hyperinflation is essentially impossible because the money supply can only grow at the rate that the gold supply increases. High inflation under a gold standard is seen only when warfare destroys a large part of an economy, reducing the production of goods, or when a major new gold source becomes available.[62] In the U.S., inflation occurred during the Civil War, which destroyed the economy of the South.[63] Inflation also followed the California Gold Rush that made large amounts of gold available for minting.[64] Historical data shows that the magnitude of short run swings in prices were far higher under the gold standard.[65][61]
The gold standard provides fixed international exchange rates between participating countries and thus reduces uncertainty in international trade. Historically, imbalances between price levels were offset by a balance-of-payment adjustment mechanism called the "price–specie flow mechanism".[62] Gold used to pay for imports reduces the money supply of importing nations, causing deflation, which makes them more competitive, while the importation of gold by net exporters serves to increase their money supply, causing inflation, making them less competitive.[66]
A gold standard does not allow some types of financial repression.[67] Financial repression acts as a mechanism to transfer wealth from creditors to debtors, particularly the governments that practice it. Financial repression is most successful in reducing debt when accompanied by inflation and can be considered a form of taxation.[68][69] In 1966 Alan Greenspan wrote "Deficit spending is simply a scheme for the confiscation of wealth. Gold stands in the way of this insidious process. It stands as a protector of property rights. If one grasps this, one has no difficulty in understanding the statists' antagonism toward the gold standard."[70]

tag: ul

text: Disadvantages

text:
The unequal distribution of gold deposits makes the gold standard more advantageous for those countries that produce gold.[71] In 2010 the largest producers of gold, in order, were China, Australia, U.S., South Africa and Russia.[72] The country with the largest unmined gold deposits is Australia.[73]
Some economists believe that the gold standard acts as a limit on economic growth. "As an economy's productive capacity grows, then so should its money supply. Because a gold standard requires that money be backed in the metal, then the scarcity of the metal constrains the ability of the economy to produce more capital and grow."[74]
Mainstream economists believe that economic recessions can be largely mitigated by increasing the money supply during economic downturns.[75] A gold standard means that the money supply would be determined by the gold supply and hence monetary policy could no longer be used to stabilize the economy.[76] The gold standard is often blamed for prolonging the Great Depression, as under the gold standard, central banks could not expand credit at a fast enough rate to offset deflationary forces.[77]
Although the gold standard brings long-run price stability, it is historically associated with high short-run price volatility.[61][78] It has been argued by Schwartz, among others, that instability in short-term price levels can lead to financial instability as lenders and borrowers become uncertain about the value of debt.[78]
Deflation punishes debtors.[79][80] Real debt burdens therefore rise, causing borrowers to cut spending to service their debts or to default. Lenders become wealthier, but may choose to save some of the additional wealth, reducing GDP.[81]
The money supply would essentially be determined by the rate of gold production. When gold stocks increase more rapidly than the economy, there is inflation and the reverse is also true.[61][82] The consensus view is that the gold standard contributed to the severity and length of the Great Depression.[83][84]
Hamilton contended that the gold standard is susceptible to speculative attacks when a government's financial position appears weak. Conversely, this threat discourages governments from engaging in risky policy (see moral hazard). For example, the U.S. was forced to contract the money supply and raise interest rates in September 1931 to defend the dollar after speculators forced the UK off the gold standard.[84][85][86][87]
Devaluing a currency under a gold standard would generally produce sharper changes than the smooth declines seen in fiat currencies, depending on the method of devaluation.[88]
Most economists favor a low, positive rate of inflation of around 2%. This reflects fear of deflationary shocks and the belief that active monetary policy can dampen fluctuations in output and unemployment. Inflation gives them room to tighten policy without inducing deflation.[89]
A gold standard provides practical constraints against the measures that central banks might otherwise use to respond to economic crises.[90] Creation of new money reduces interest rates and thereby increases demand for new lower cost debt, raising the demand for money.[91]

text: Advocates

text: A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support.[92] In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24-carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations.  This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt-backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest.[93] As of  2013[update] the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.[94]

text: Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority" within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard.[95] In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom", Greenspan argued the case for returning to a 'pure' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists" intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending.[96] More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard", rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.[97]

text: Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution"  is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes—for example, a gold standard, some other commodity-based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money—is considerably less important.[98]

text: The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free-market libertarians and some supply-siders.[99]

text: US politics

text: In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold-standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional-reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy-based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.

text: Former congressman Ron Paul is a long-term, high-profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.[100]

text: In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes.[101] As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states.[102] The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.[103]

text: In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.[104]

text: In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve’s attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.[105]

text: Critics

text: In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them believed returning to the gold standard would result in "price-stability and employment outcomes [that] would be better for the average American." The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well-known research universities. (The specific statement with which the economists were asked to agree or disagree was as follows: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a 'dollar' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price-stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American.")[3]

text: The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul's advocacy of the gold standard from the 1970s onward.  He sometimes summarized his opposition by stating simply, "[W]e don’t have the gold standard. It’s not because we don’t know about the gold standard, it’s because we do."[106]


document_title: The Glass Castle

question_text: what was jeanette's favorite book in the glass castle

question_tokens: what was jeanette 's favorite book in the glass castle

text: The Glass Castle

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: This article's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Jeannette Walls is the second oldest of four children. Her father, Rex, is an alcoholic, and her mother, Rose Mary, a painter and artist. Until Jeannette is six, the family moves around Arizona and California every few months when Rex's and Rose Mary's debts grow too numerous. When Jeannette is seven, the family moves to Battle Mountain, Nevada where they enjoy stability for the first time as Rex works for a mining company and the family lives in a converted railway station. Eventually Rex loses his job and the children grow hungry. Rose Mary, who has a teaching certificate, gets a job teaching at the local school, but Rex quickly siphons away her paycheck. Even so, the family is happy there until a young boy develops a fixation on Jeannette and attacks her with a BB gun when the children are home alone. Jeannette's older sister Lori retrieves their father's pistol to scare him away but the police are called and when Rex and Rose Mary learn that the children might be taken away from them, they decide to flee to Phoenix, Arizona. Jeannette initially believes they are moving to live with her maternal grandmother, but on the way she is informed Grandma Smith has passed away and that they are going to live on the property Rose Mary has inherited from her mother.

text: At first, life is happy for the children. Their mother's house is big, and Grandma Smith also left her a significant amount of money. However, the money quickly disappears and the house falls into a state of disrepair. Rex asks Jeannette what she would like for her 10th birthday, and Jeannette says she would like him to stop drinking. He ties himself to a bed for a week to overcome his addiction to alcohol, then decides to take the family on a trip to the desert. When their car breaks down in the desert, a woman who picks them up and takes them to the city refers to them as "poor", causing Rex to relapse. Rose Mary decides that since they have no money it is time to move again, and she takes the family to their paternal grandparents's in Welch, West Virginia.

text: In Welch the children meet their paternal grandparents and uncle for the first time. They are enrolled in school; however, since Rose Mary abandoned their records, and the children have accents unfamiliar to the locals, they are placed in a class for challenged children. Jeannette is repeatedly beat up by local girls, but when she helps the neighbor of the lead bully, she is no longer targeted. Rex and Rose Mary decide to return to Phoenix to retrieve some valuable items they abandoned. While they are gone, Jeannette walks in on her grandmother molesting Brian. Lori gets into a physical altercation with their grandmother, and she and Brian realize their father was probably molested as well. When Rex returns, he admonishes his children rather than defending them, but the family is told to leave. They relocate to a small rotting house with no indoor plumbing, on land that Rex acquires with the intention of building his dream house, a glass castle.

text: Rex assures his children that their situation is temporary, but they live at the house for years as it falls further into disarray and Rex refuses to repair it. Their only money comes from the odd jobs Rex finds, and the infrequent checks Rose Mary receives from an oil company leasing a piece of property she owns. The children resort to dumpster diving to survive. Jeannette begs her mother to leave her father so they can go on welfare, but her mother refuses. Eventually Rose Mary takes a teaching job after a man from child protective services pays them a visit. The children believe their lives will change after their mother has work, but their money continues to evaporate and their mother suffers nervous breakdowns from the stresses of teaching.

text: The summer Jeanette is thirteen, her mother leaves to take teaching classes and her sister is away on scholarship. Jeanette gives her father some of the money her mother has left her to run the household. She ends up unwittingly working with her father in a pool hustling scam where she is groped and nearly raped by a much older man, then refuses to participate in any more of her father's schemes. In an effort to find money, she lands her first real job, working at a jewelry store.

text: When Rose Mary returns from her teaching seminar, she decides to quit teaching to refocus on her art. Disgusted, Lori and Jeannette hatch a plan for Lori to move to New York City with Jeannette following shortly thereafter. Lori, Jeannette and Brian work for the better part of a year to accumulate money for the move. Shortly before Lori is set to move, Jeannette discovers Rex has stolen their money. Lori is disheartened, but Jeannette gets an offer to babysit for the summer. She asks the couple to hire Lori instead, and to buy her a ticket to New York in payment.

text: Jeannette begins making plans to go to college in New York City, and realizes she can leave a year early and complete 12th grade there. Rose Mary is indifferent to her leaving, but Rex seems heartbroken and accompanies her to the bus station. After graduating from college in New York, Jeannette gets an internship at a newspaper. She encourages Brian to join her and Lori in New York, and he agrees. When her youngest sister Maureen is twelve, Lori asks her to move in with them as the house in Welch is on the verge of being condemned; Maureen readily agrees. A short while later, Jeannette gets a call from Rose Mary who tells her that she and Rex have moved to the city to be with their children. Though Lori and Brian try to help their parents, they must eventually ban them from their apartments. The parents become homeless and end up living in abandoned buildings. When Maureen enters her twenties, she moves back in with them. A fight eventually breaks out between Maureen and Rose Mary, and Maureen tries to stab Rose Mary. She is arrested and forced to spend a year in a mental institution. When she is released, she decides to move to California.

text: A few years later, Rex calls Jeannette and tells her that he is dying. He dies a few weeks later. Years later, the family gathers on Thanksgiving where they toast Rex.

text: Reception[edit]

text: In The New York Times Book Review, critic and novelist Francine Prose wrote, "What's best is the deceptive ease with which Walls makes us see just how she and her siblings were convinced that their turbulent life was a glorious adventure. In one especially lovely scene, Rex takes his daughter to look at the starry desert sky and persuades her that the bright planet Venus is his Christmas gift to her. Even as she describes how their circumstances degenerated, how her mother sank into depression and how hunger and cold — and Rex's increasing irresponsibility, dishonesty and abusiveness — made it harder to pretend, Walls is notably evenhanded and unjudging...'The Glass Castle' falls short of being art, but it's a very good memoir. At one point, describing her early literary tastes, Walls mentions that 'my favorite books all involved people dealing with hardships.' And she has succeeded in doing what most writers set out to do — to write the kind of book they themselves most want to read."[4]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: Paramount bought the film rights to The Glass Castle,[5] and in March 2013 announced that actress Jennifer Lawrence would play Jeannette Walls in the movie adaptation.[6] In August 2014, it was announced that Destin Daniel Cretton was set to direct.[7] On October 9, 2015, it was reported that Lawrence withdrew from the film. Lionsgate acquired the film rights from Paramount and Brie Larson was set to play Jeannette Walls. Naomi Watts and Woody Harrelson will play Rose Mary and Rex Walls, respectively, with Gil Netter producing. Filming began May 20, 2016 in Welch, West Virginia.


document_title: Charmed (season 6)

question_text: when does chris reveal he is piper's son

question_tokens: when does chris reveal he is piper 's son

text: Charmed (season 6)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Alyssa Milano as Phoebe Halliwell
Rose McGowan as Paige Matthews
Holly Marie Combs as Piper Halliwell
Brian Krause as Leo Wyatt
Drew Fuller as Chris Halliwell[a]
Dorian Gregory as Darryl Morris[b]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Jennifer Rhodes as Penny Halliwell
James Read as Victor Bennett
Rebecca Balding as Elise Rothman
Sandra Prosper as Sheila Morris
Eric Dane as Jason Dean
Balthazar Getty as Richard Montana
Christopher Neiman as Sigmund
Betsy Randle as Mrs. Winterbourne
Gildart Jackson as Gideon
Billy Drago as Barbas
Jenya Lano as Inspector Sheridan

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Melissa George as Freyja
Ivana Miličević as Mist
Evan Marriott as Oscar
Jenny McCarthy as Mitzy Stillman
Rachelle Lefevre as Olivia Callaway
Michael Muhney as Seth
Mako as Potion Sorcerer
Gina Ravera as Mary
Kathryn Joosten as Old Magician's Wife
Keith Szarabajka as Zahn
Marisol Nichols as Bianca
Jake Busey as Nigel
Patrick Cassidy as Allen Halliwell
Eduardo Verástegui as Mr. Right
Sarah Rafferty as  Carol
Scott Adsit as Transformed Male Nymph
Ian Abercrombie as Aramis
Ken Page as Adair
Gabriel Olds as Vincent Right / Vincent Wrong
Elaine Hendrix as Clea
David Ramsey as Upper-Level Demon

text: Special Musical Guest[edit]

text:
Smash Mouth
Steadman
Ziggy Marley
Andy Stochansky

text: Episode list[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.codeUS viewers(millions)11211312"Valhalley of the Dolls"James L. ConwayBrad KernSeptember 28, 2003 (2003-09-28)430111243011136.3[1]
Even though Leo is gone, Piper is in a surprisingly good 'chipper' mood, leading Paige to suspect that Leo altered Piper's memory. However, Paige's spell to restore Piper's memory clashes with Leo's and causes total amnesia. When calling upon Leo for help, Phoebe and Paige discover that he is being held captive on the Island of Valhalla, a mythical place ruled by warrior-maidens known as Valkyries. Phoebe also discovers she is an empath, where she can feel people's emotions, much to the worry of Chris. The Charmed Ones disguise themselves as Valkyries and infiltrate Valhalla to try to rescue Leo. In order for them to get close to him, they must convince the Valkyries that they are one of them. While Phoebe and Paige go to Darryl to borrow his soul, Chris killed a Valkyrie by crushing her heart through his telekinetic power, to possess a Valkyrie's necklace. The sight of Leo causes Piper's pain to come flooding back, prompting her to stay behind on the island to forget the pain while everyone else escapes.Three fallen warriors follow Paige and Phoebe across dimensions to San Francisco and wreak havoc on the city. Phoebe has to control her new power in order to convince Piper that she belongs with her sisters, not the Valkyries. Meanwhile, Paige takes a job as a dog walker and is amazed when one of her dogs is transformed back into a man. Leo later uncovered evidence that Chris had killed two Valkyries but opted not to use it because Chris had finally earned the Charmed Ones' trust.
1143"Forget Me... Not"John T. KretchmerHenry Alonso MyersOctober 5, 2003 (2003-10-05)43011145.8[2]
When Wyatt inadvertently brings a dragon to life, the Cleaners, a neutral group dedicated to protecting magic from being exposed, take him away and erase all signs and memories of his existence. Aware that they are forgetting something important but not sure of what it is, Piper, Phoebe, and Paige cast a spell to return their memory. The sisters then set out to expose magic, to strike up a deal with the Cleaners.
1154"The Power of Three Blondes"John BehringDaniel CeroneOctober 12, 2003 (2003-10-12)43011155.4[3]
When three evil sisters magically steal the Charmed Ones' identities and powers, Piper, Phoebe, and Paige must convince Chris that they are the real Charmed Ones in order to get their lives back. Meanwhile, Piper realizes that Wyatt needs time with Leo, who continues on his quest to find out who put him on the Island of Valhalla.
1165"Love's a Witch"Stuart GillardJeannine RenshawOctober 19, 2003 (2003-10-19)43011165.4[4]
When Paige's latest temp job puts her in the middle of an ongoing feud between two magical families, the Montanas and the Callaways, she falls for Richard Montana and urges both families to consider a truce. Paige, Phoebe, and Piper hold a séance with both families and everyone is stunned to learn that Richard's first love, Olivia Callaway, is the one who has been escalating the feud to avenge her death. Paige becomes possessed by Olivia's spirit, and Phoebe and Piper must banish Olivia in order to save Paige and the two families. However, Paige's abduction of Richard while possessed and the near death of his mother, cause the families to end the feud, having decided they want no more death. Olivia's dad and Richard's mom lead Phoebe and Piper to Olivia's grave where Paige tries to attack, but is prevented by Piper. Phoebe and Piper go to vanquish her but are stopped by Paige who felt Olivia's intense pain while possessed by her and Paige and Richard are able to convince her to move on peacefully. Meanwhile, Leo is suspicious when Chris travels to The Underworld in search of a potion and trails him in secret. The potion turns out to be an empath blocking potion, and Piper and Paige are able to use it to block Phoebe's new power on them, however, when they are gone, Chris secretly uses it on himself too.
1176"My Three Witches"Joel J. FeigenbaumScott Lipsey & Whip LipseyOctober 26, 2003 (2003-10-26)43011175.5[5]
Worried that the Charmed Ones are drifting apart by putting their personal lives before their "Charmed" duties, Chris tries to teach them a lesson by enlisting the help of the demon Gith, who creates an alternate reality for the sisters by tapping into their secret desires. Piper's secret desire is to live a normal life, Phoebe feels her boyfriend's, Jason Dean, desire, for her to be a famous celebrity and have her own television show, and Paige's is to not have to hide her magic. Chris tries to kill Gith, but is prevented by when he is shot with a Darklighter arrow. Wyatt ends up becoming seriously ill and when Piper tries to get him to the hospital, she ends up in a car crash while Paige gets attacked by multiple demons and insane fans try to kill Phoebe. Chris manages to put Phoebe into Paige's world and together they manage to channel themselves into Piper's. Gith, desperate, transports himself to Piper's world, but Phoebe fights him off. Gith is vanquished when Piper's SVU explodes and he is consumed in the explosion. His vanquish frees the sisters and Wyatt and they discover a near-death Chris. Piper quickly calls for Leo who heals Wyatt of his illness and Chris of his wound and they return home where the sisters have learned their lesson.
1187"Soul Survivor"Mel DamskiCurtis KheelNovember 2, 2003 (2003-11-02)43011185.2[6]
In an attempt to save her boss' soul, Paige goes behind her sisters backs and makes a deal with a demon. Meanwhile, Piper learns that Wyatt has been sabotaging her dates. Phoebe gets a new writing partner, and Chris and Leo accidentally travel back in time.
1198"Sword and the City"Derek JohansenDavid SimkinsNovember 9, 2003 (2003-11-09)43011195.2[7]
The Lady of the Lake appears before the Charmed Ones, pleading for their help in protecting Excalibur, the legendary Sword in the Stone. A dozen magical beings arrive at the manor to try their hand at pulling the sword from the stone, but it is Piper who pulls Excalibur out, causing a whirlwind that coalesces into a mysterious figure called Mordaunt. Piper is unaware that she is meant to pass it on to Wyatt, heir of Excalibur and the next King Arthur. Richard realizes that Mordaunt cannot be trusted, but before he can intervene, Mordaunt tricks Piper into relinquishing the sword and its power to him.
1209"Little Monsters"James L. ConwayJulie HessNovember 16, 2003 (2003-11-16)43011205.3[8]
After vanquishing a Manticore demon, Piper, Phoebe, and Paige become foster parents to its orphaned half-breed infant, whose human father Derek (Seth Peterson) holds Piper hostage until his son is returned. Upon Chris' plea to vanquish the child, the sisters come to believe that, by raising the child with love, they can change its destiny. Meanwhile, Phoebe surprises her boyfriend Jason when she responds to feelings he has not expressed yet, and Paige gives Darryl a superpower.
12110"Chris-Crossed"Joel J. FeigenbaumCameron LitvackNovember 23, 2003 (2003-11-23)43011216.0[9]
A mysterious woman from the future named Bianca arrives to take Chris' powers and bring him back with her forcefully. Piper feels that being witches is stopping her sisters from having the life they want, and advises them to move out and follow their hearts. Bianca is revealed to actually be Chris' fiancée who only came back as "he" would have sent someone else if she had not come. Bianca is revealed to have helped Chris come back in time in the first place and apparently met him after the unnamed evil that rules their future sent her to kill him. Chris also reveals some truth about himself after Piper tries to freeze him and Bianca and fails: he is not a true Whitelighter, he is half-Whitelighter, half-witch like Paige and Wyatt. Bianca strips his powers and brings him back to his terrible future where the evil who rules confronts Chris and Bianca alone; an evil Wyatt. Future Wyatt tries to convince Chris to join him, offering to spare his life if he does. Chris refuses and Wyatt tries to kill him, but he is saved by Bianca who switches back to his side to protect him. Using a spell the sisters left in the attic in the present, Chris reclaims his powers and defeats Wyatt temporarily, but Bianca is mortally wounded and dies. Chris manages to open a time portal and escapes as Wyatt recovers, taking the spell with him so that Wyatt cannot send another assassin back in time. In the present, the sisters forgive him and he remains their Whitelighter, but he swears that if he can't prevent Baby Wyatt from becoming evil, then he will stop him permanently.
12211"Witchstock"James A. ContnerDaniel CeroneJanuary 11, 2004 (2004-01-11)43011225.3[10]
After trying on a pair of her Grams' go-go boots, Paige finds herself transported back in time to an era of free love and free magic. She discovers Grams, a peace-loving hippie, who is on a crusade to rid the world of evil through the magical power of love, preparing for a "magical be-in" at the manor. Meanwhile in present time a magic-sucking slime attacks the manor.
12312"Prince Charmed"David JacksonHenry Alonso MyersJanuary 18, 2004 (2004-01-18)43011233.9[11]
After vanquishing a demon from Wyatt's room, Piper has an epiphany and decides to swear off men so that she can devote the rest of her life to raising and protecting Wyatt. Unable to handle Piper's revelation, Paige and Phoebe decide to remind Piper of the importance of love by conjuring up a "Mr. Right" as Piper's birthday present. The Order, a demonic brotherhood, manage to kidnap Wyatt after Chris' meddling with "Prince Charmed's" attractiveness backfires, turning a birthday dinner party into a food fight. The sisters vanquish the Order and with Chris' help restore Wyatt to normal. Doing so apparently earns Wyatt's trust for Chris and Leo confirms later that he still trusts Chris, but Chris needs to earn back the sisters' trust.
12413"Used Karma"John T. KretchmerJeannine RenshawJanuary 25, 2004 (2004-01-25)43011244.2[12]
Piper, Phoebe, and Paige inadvertently expose themselves as witches in front of Jason, causing him to leave Phoebe. Richard casts a spell to free himself of his family's negative karma, but accidentally channels the spirit of Mata Hari, a double agent for Germany and France during WWI, into Phoebe. Phoebe decides to get revenge on Jason by arranging for a demonic firing squad to kill him. Meanwhile, Piper and Paige try to vanquish a group of Swarm Demons, the last on Chris' list of the most significant threats to Wyatt.
12514"The Legend of Sleepy Halliwell"Jon ParéCameron LitvackFebruary 8, 2004 (2004-02-08)43011254.8[13]
The three sisters are railing at the complications and deleterious impact magic has on their lives when a portal opens in the middle of their stairway landing. An Elder named Gideon, Leo's old mentor at Magic School, calls upon Piper, Phoebe, and Paige to find out who cast the spell of darkness upon the school and conjured up the Headless Horseman, who has been beheading the teachers. While Piper and Paige tackle a group of surly teenagers, Piper becomes the horseman's next victim and become a functioning head on a table. Meanwhile, Phoebe is sent on a vision quest by a student Enola, who is a young shaman, and gets a glimpse into the demon free future, where she discovers she will have a child and she sees an older Wyatt and a brunette boy. Piper refers to the brunette as Wyatt's little brother. The little boy asks her for help and the vision ends and she sees Chris asking the same question which gives her a revelation. Questioning whether such a future is even possible, she is told she must be herself and accept her bad with the good about who she is and then it can happen—the advice the three sisters give the youth terrorizing the teaching staff. It is revealed that Zachary, a desperately unhappy telepath, is behind the attacks by using his power to tap into others powers. The sisters vanquish the Headless Horseman and convince Zachary to stop. Later at P3, Phoebe confronts Chris about who he really is and asks is he is really Wyatt's brother and thus Piper and Leo's son. For once Chris doesn't lie and confirms this,but only if he can get Piper and Leo back together in time.
12615"I Dream of Phoebe"John T. KretchmerCurtis KheelFebruary 15, 2004 (2004-02-15)43011264.1[14]
Phoebe frees a genie, Jinny (Saba Homayoon), from a bottle, only to find that Jinny is a demon that has tricked her into becoming a genie herself. Anxious to get Leo and Piper back together so he can be conceived, Chris uses Phoebe to make his wish come true, but she takes his instructions too literally. When Chris reveals to Paige that he made the wish to make Piper and Leo sleep together, she calls him a pervert, and he reveals to her that Piper and Leo are his parents and that Piper needs to get pregnant within a few weeks or he will perish. Feeling that he is losing Paige, Richard opportunistically covets the genie's magic and steals the bottle so he can wish Paige back into his life. Paige and Richard reconciled to permanent separation, but Richard must drink a power-stripping potion for his own good.
12716"The Courtship of Wyatt's Father"Joel J. FeigenbaumBrad KernFebruary 22, 2004 (2004-02-22)43011275.0[15]
A Darklighter named Damien sends both Leo and Piper into a trap on the ghostly plane where they are without powers and wounds Leo with his Darklighter crossbow, leaving Phoebe and Paige to fear that they are dead. Meanwhile, Chris is obsessing over the fact that he is out of time, for he must be conceived by Piper and Leo sometime in the next day before he disappears forever having never been conceived. An Angel of Death comes for Chris even as he begins fading but he manages to resist and make a communication bridge between Phoebe and Piper.. The two consult with Gideon who is convinced Leo is doomed, provides a way to access the dimension to rescue Piper thinking Leo will be dead. At the end he convinces Leo to act as an Elder and sunder himself from his family, and Gideon is revealed to have plotted the cross dimensional attack to rid himself of Leo, and to have ill intentions towards Wyatt, his real target. By being trapped on the ghostly plane causes Piper and Leo to temporarily rekindle their relationship and sleep together, conceiving Chris. Piper learns at the end of the episode that Chris is her son and that she is pregnant from Phoebe and Paige who realize what happened as Chris returns to existence.
12817"Hyde School Reunion"Jonathan WestDavid SimkinsMarch 14, 2004 (2004-03-14)43011284.8[16]
While preparing for her high school reunion, Phoebe's wild teenage personality takes over her body when she inadvertently casts a spell on herself reading a rhyme she had inscribed in her high school year book. At the reunion, aggravated by an old rival, the teenage Phoebe persona takes over, reconnects with her former gang and finds herself following a suggestion to use her magic to visit another old gang member Rick, who is in jail awaiting trial. Rick, takes advantage of their visit to break out of jail, and uses Phoebe's magic to aid his plans of fleeing justice. Meanwhile, Scabber demons requiring the Power of Three to vanquish are closing in on Chris. Earlier that evening, Piper being increasingly concerned that Chris is staying distant, had asked her father Victor to talk to him. Chris explains that Piper dies when he turns fourteen, and he has been distancing himself from his mother because he believes that to bond with her only to return to a future where she is dead would be too painful. Victor convinces Chris that he needs to spend as much time with Piper as possible so he has more fond memories of her when he goes back. All the while Phoebe is under the dual pressures of knowing one high school friend is seriously, perhaps even grievously wounded, and Rick has hidden one of their female classmates where no-one can ever find her. Both parties arrive back at the manor where Paige casts the appearance changing spell to make him look like Chris. The Scabber Demons spit their acid at what looks like Chris and Rick is melted, but not before he gives up the information on where to find the others.
12918"Spin City"Mel DamskiAndy Reaser & Doug E. JonesApril 18, 2004 (2004-04-18)4560063.8[17]
Piper is kidnapped and cocooned by the Spider Demon, a creature that emerges every hundred years to feed off a powerful magical being. During the attack, Chris is infected with the demon's venom, causing him to mutate into a spider demon himself. In need of desperate help, Paige calls Leo. Phoebe then reveals to Leo that Chris is his son. While trying to save him, Chris attacks Leo and starts repeatedly punching Leo, yelling that Leo does not know him. Later, Leo finds Chris on the Golden Gate bridge and begs him to tell him why he hates him so much. Chris replies that Leo was never there for him, but he was there for Piper, Wyatt, and half the world. Leo tells him that maybe he did not come back just to save Wyatt, but to save their relationship as well.
13019"Crimes and Witch Demeanors"John T. KretchmerHenry Alonso MyersApril 25, 2004 (2004-04-25)43011303.4[18]
When Phoebe and Paige are caught on tape using their powers by SFPD Inspector Sheridan, the Cleaners, beings who prevent the exposure of magic, cover up the situation by implicating their friend, Detective Darryl Morris, as a murderer and in a huge time jump, end up sending him to death row to cover up the exposure of magic. The Halliwells fight to have the outcome reversed, initially summoning the Cleaners by deliberate acts that would expose magic if left unfixed. Their confrontation proves inconclusive, and they learn that their only recourse is to have a hearing in front of the mysterious Tribunal, which is a council that oversees all magic and made up of demons and Elders with Barbas (Billy Drago) empaneled as the prosecutor. He turns the proceedings around on their head and puts the sisters on trial for recklessly abusing their powers.Meanwhile, Inspector Sheridan, nudged magically by Barbas, takes aim at the sisters with her partner Inspector Miles and begins looking into the trail of disappearances and odd happenings over the last half decade starting with the collection of unsolved homicides SFPD Internal Affairs had harassed Andy Trudeau about. Meanwhile, Leo and Chris work together to help free the sisters and Darryl, but the outcome leaves Phoebe stripped of her active powers as penance for occasional lapses in the past where she used magic to benefit herself.
13120"A Wrong Day's Journey into Right"Cameron LitvackMay 2, 2004 (2004-05-02)43011314.1[19]
With Piper away at Magic School and Phoebe without her powers, an overworked Paige re-conjures "Mr. Right" for stress relief, but unknowingly releases his evil twin, a demon called Vincent who immediately hatches a plot to separate the sisters while sending assassins after witches. Appealing to Paige's dark side, Mr. Wrong / Vincent uses his pheromones to trick her into realizing that the only way to achieve her secret desire is to be free and use her magic without fear of consequence, eventually killing her sisters. Chris accidentally gets arrested for stealing a car to chase Vincent and Darryl will not cover. To prevent Paige from executing his plan, Phoebe goes undercover as one of Mr. Wrong's Demonatrix assassins. Paige and Phoebe try to keep Piper out of the situation, but that backfires when Paige, under Vincent's control, kidnaps her so that the Demonatrix assassins can kill her. Phoebe regains confidence in herself when she makes Mr. Right real to test a potion that will make Vincent real so he can be vanquished and infiltrates the Demonatrixes. As the Demonatrixes are about to kill a confused Piper, Phoebe saves her and together they vanquish them. They go after Vincent who is confident they cannot harm him as they do not have the potion to make him real, but Phoebe takes the chance that making Mr. Right real will turn him real too. She proves to be right and Vincent is easily vanquished which breaks his hold over Paige. Later, Leo erases the memory of the car dealership manager to save Chris from having to go to jail.
13221"Witch Wars"David JacksonKrista VernoffMay 9, 2004 (2004-05-09)43011322.7[20]
Aware that Piper, Phoebe and Paige are on the verge of discovering that he is after Wyatt, Gideon conspires with two demons to make the girls part of Witch Wars, a new demonic reality television show where demon contestants compete to hunt down the Charmed Ones, with the winning demon acquiring the witches' powers. Gideon makes the girls believe that the game masters, Corr and Clea, are the ones after Wyatt in order to protect himself and his own agenda. In the end they find out, but the two demons grow extremely powerful due to them absorbing the powers of vanquished demon contestants. Phoebe comes up with a plan to vanquish them without the Power of Three as they do not want to risk Piper. Leo vanquishes Clea with a power-sucking athame and Phoebe takes Clea's powers for herself. Using her new powers, Phoebe shimmers to the attic and vanquishes Corr with an energy ball. She then shimmers to a demonic bar where demons have been watching Witch Wars and vanquishes many with energy balls to make a point while the rest flee before she returns home. Paige stabs her with the athame to remove the demonic powers. Later, the group celebrates the victory and believe the threat to Wyatt over. Meanwhile, Gideon's assistant has second thoughts about their plan and goes to tell the sisters the truth, but is murdered by Gideon before he can.
1331342223"It's a Bad, Bad, Bad, Bad World"Jon ParéJeannine RenshawCurtis KheelMay 16, 2004 (2004-05-16)430113343011344.7[21]
Under the guise of sending Chris back to the future, Gideon creates a portal that puts Chris and Leo in a mirrored world where evil prevails. Phoebe and Paige travel to the parallel universe to rescue Chris and Leo, only to find themselves in a battle with their evil counterparts. Unable to vanquish one another, both sets of sisters realize that Wyatt is unprotected and in danger from Gideon.Upon returning to their own world, Phoebe and Paige realize that their world is now too good, and every little infraction is a capital offense. The shift between universes causes Piper's memory to be erased, and Gideon tricks Piper into casting a spell on Phoebe and Paige so that they too, forget Gideon's evil intentions. With the Charmed sisters under the spell, and Piper having a complicated delivery, only Leo and Chris are left to stop Gideon from completing his plan. When Chris is left alone with Wyatt in the attic, Gideon attacks just as Chris goes to orb Wyatt out after suspecting something was not right. Gideon summons an athame and disappears. Chris rushes to grab Wyatt, but Gideon reappears and he stabs Chris in the stomach. While Chris lies there wounded, Gideon takes Wyatt to the Underworld. Chris calls out to Leo. When Leo arrives he tries to heal him, but Chris tells him that it will not work because it was Gideon's magic and only he can stop it. He tells Leo to find Gideon and save Wyatt. Unfortunately, Chris dies, sending Leo into a rage. He discovers the inter-dimensional mirror, meets with his analog self and realizes to return balance, a great evil needs to be done in the Charmed One's universe, and when he goes to save Wyatt he kills Gideon while his other self looks on through the mirror which at the end they both destroy, so the universes cannot be linked again in the future. Wyatt is safe, and though future Chris is dead, baby Chris is born healthy.

text: Reception[edit]

text: In 2016, Gavin Hetherington of SpoilerTV ran a series of Charmed articles in the run-up to the 10th anniversary of the series finale. The sixth was a complete season review of season six, in which Gavin comments that the season is his "least favourite".[22] Critical of the season as a whole, Gavin did note the importance of the inclusion of Chris, who called him an "exceptional addition to the cast", and he "helped make a sucky season a lot better".

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Fuller is only credited for the episodes he appears in.

Jump up ^ Gregory is only credited for the episodes he appears in.

tag: ol


document_title: Snipping Tool

question_text: what is the snipping tool used for in windows 7

text: Snipping Tool

text: This is the current revision of this page, as edited by Hayman30 (talk | contribs) at 07:49, 17 July 2017 (Reverted edits by 49.176.30.194 (talk) (HG) (3.2.0)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.

text:
Snipping Tool

A component of Microsoft Windows

Snipping Tool in Windows 10

Details

Type
Screenshot software

Included with

Windows Vista
Windows Server 2008
Windows 7 (excluding Basic and Starter editions),[1]
Windows Server 2008 R2
Windows Home Server 2011
Windows 8
Windows Server 2012
Windows 10

Also available for
Windows XP Tablet PC Edition

text: Snipping Tool is a screenshot utility included in Windows Vista and later. It can take screenshots of an open window, rectangular areas, a free-form area, or the entire screen. Snips can then be annotated using a mouse or a tablet, stored as an image file (PNG, GIF, or JPEG file) or an MHTML file, or e-mailed. Snipping Tool allows for basic image editing of the snapshot, with different colored pens, an eraser, and a highlighter.

text: Before Windows Vista, Snipping Tool was included in Experience Pack for Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005. It was originally released as a PowerToy for the Microsoft Tablet PC launch on November 7, 2002.

text: Windows 10 adds a new "Delay" function, which allows for timed capture of screenshots.[2]