document_title: North Cascades

question_text: of what are the north american cascade mountains an example

root

text: North Cascades

text: Geography[edit]

text: The U.S. section of the North Cascades and the adjoining Skagit Range in British Columbia are most notable for their dramatic scenery and challenging mountaineering, both resulting from their steep, rugged topography. While most of the peaks are under 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in elevation, the low valleys provide great local relief, often over 6,000 feet (1,800 m). The summits of the rest of the Canadian Cascades are not glaciated in the same way and feature rock "horns" rising from plateau-like uplands, with the Manning Park and Cathedral Park areas known for their extensive alpine meadows, as is also the case with the eastern flank of the US portion of the range. Portions of the US side of the range are protected as part of North Cascades National Park.

tag: p

text: The large amount of precipitation, much of it in the form of snow, and the resulting glaciation, combine with the regional uplift to create a dramatic landscape in the western part of the range. Deep, U-shaped valleys carved by glaciers in Pleistocene time separate sharp ridges and peaks carved into steep shapes by more recent snow and ice.

text: The eastern and northernmost parts of the range are much more plateau-like in character, though in the case of the northernmost areas graven by deep valleys along the flank of the Fraser Canyon, notably that of the Anderson River.

text: Extent[edit]

text: The Fraser River and the adjoining lowland on its south bank form the northern and northwestern boundary of the range. On the east, the Okanogan River and the Columbia River bound the range in the United States, while the northeastern boundary of the range departs the Thompson via the Nicoamen River and runs via Lawless Creek, the Tulameen River and Copper Creek to the Similkameen River. On the west, the foothills of the range are separated by a narrow coastal plain from Puget Sound except along Chuckanut Drive between Bellingham and Mount Vernon, where they abut the Sound directly.

text: The southern boundary of the North Cascades is less definite. For the purposes of this article, it will be taken as U.S. Highway 2, running over Stevens Pass, or equivalently, the Skykomish River, Nason Creek, and the lower Wenatchee River. This roughly follows Beckey's geologic division in Cascade Alpine Guide.[3] and the definition used by Peakbagger.com.[4] Sometimes the southern boundary is defined by Snoqualmie Pass and the approximate route of Interstate 90.[5] Sometimes the term "North Cascades" or "northern Cascades" is used for the entire range north of the Columbia River.[6]

text: Geologically, the rocks of the North Cascades extend south beyond Stevens Pass and west into the San Juan Islands. The significance of the geologic transitions to the Okanagan Highland to the east and the Interior Plateau and Coast Mountains to the north are less agreed upon.[7]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The climate in the North Cascades varies considerably by location and elevation. The western slope of the range is wet and cool, with 60 to 250 inches (1.5 to 6.4 m) of precipitation per year. This produces a temperate rain forest climate in the low valleys, which then grades into montane and alpine climates on mountain slopes and peaks. Summers are comparatively dry, with far less precipitation than in winter; sometimes the warmer eastern air and cooler western air meet at the Cascades during the summer months, and form thunderstorms. Sometimes, the storms move downwind into lowland cities.[8] The eastern slope lies in the rain shadow of the range, since prevailing winds and most moisture come from the west, and hence is significantly drier than the western side of the main divide, becoming semi-arid in the eastern lowlands.[9][10] As with most mountainous areas, precipitation increases dramatically with increasing elevation. As a result, there is a great deal of winter snow and glaciation in the high North Cascades.

text: The eastern slopes and mountain passes can receive significant snowfall. Cold Arctic air can flow south from British Columbia through the Okanogan River valley into the bowl-like basin east of the Cascades. Cold air damming causes this Arctic air to bank up along the eastern Cascade slopes, especially into the lower passes, such as Snoqualmie Pass and Stevens Pass. The milder, Pacific-influenced air moving east over the Cascades is often forced aloft by the cold air held in place in the passes due to cold air damming. As a result, the passes often receive more snow than higher areas in the Cascades. This effect makes the relatively low elevation ski resorts at Snoqualmie Pass (about 3,000 feet (910 m)) and Stevens Pass (about 4,000 feet (1,200 m)) possible.[11]

text: Subranges[edit]

text:
North Cascades

Skagit Range

Picket Range

Chuckanut Mountains
Entiat Mountains
Chelan Mountains
Methow Mountains (also called Sawtooth Ridge)
Skagit River Group

Canadian Cascades

Skagit Range

Hope Mountains
Cheam Range

Hozameen Range

Bedded Range

Okanagan Range
Coquihalla Range (name is unofficial)

Llamoid Group (name is unofficial)
Anderson River Group (name is unofficial)

tag: ul

text: Geology[edit]

text: The bulk of the North Cascades consists of "deformed and metamorphosed, structurally complex pre-Tertiary rocks".[12] These originated in diverse locations around the globe: the area is built of several ("perhaps ten or more") different terranes of different ages and origins.[13] These terranes are separated by a series of ancient faults, the most significant being the Straight Creek Fault, which runs north-south from north of Yale, British Columbia, through Hope, Marblemount, Washington, and down to Kachess Lake near Snoqualmie Pass. There is evidence of significant strike-slip movement on this fault in the past, with similar rocks on either side of the fault separated by dozens of miles. This is thought to be related to northward tectonic movement of the West Coast relative to the rest of North America.[14]

text: Since about 35 million years ago, oceanic crust from the Pacific Ocean has been subducting under the continental margin, which has formed the current volcanoes as well as a number of igneous intrusions composed of diorite and gabbro.[14][15] The current uplift of the Cascade Range began around 8 million years ago.[16]

text: Rocks similar to those in the North Cascades continue north to the vicinity of Mount Meager in the Coast Mountains, where they abut the Stikinia Terrane of the Omineca-Intermontane Province that dominates the Interior Plateau of British Columbia. This geologic similarity between the North Cascades and Coast Mountains results in a fairly arbitrary boundary between the two.

text: In British Columbia, the western geologic boundary of the North Cascades is defined as the Fraser River as it follows the Straight Creek Fault, while in the United States the western boundary is defined by the Puget Lowlands in the west, although there are significant westward extensions of rocks similar in origin to those in the North Cascades found in the San Juan Islands.[7]

text: The eastern geologic boundary of the North Cascades may be marked by the Chewack-Pasayten Fault. This fault separates the easternmost portion of the North Cascades, the Methow Terrane, from the Quesnellia Terrane, one of the Omineca and Intermontane Belts. The fault also separates the Methow River valley, part of the Methow Terrane, from the Okanagan Range, part of the Quesnellia Terrane. The Columbia River Basalt Group bounds the North Cascades to the southeast.

text: The southern limit of what is geologically considered the "North Cascades" may variously be defined as being the southern limit of exposure of igneous and metamorphic terranes which is generally north of Snoqualmie Pass, Snoqualmie Pass itself, or Naches Pass at the White River Fault Zone.[7][17]

text: Glaciers[edit]

text: While alpine glaciers are a defining feature of the Cascade Range as a whole, this is especially true of the North Cascades. The stratovolcanoes (Mount Baker and Glacier Peak) are the most obviously glaciated peaks and have the largest glaciers, but many of the smaller, nonvolcanic peaks are glaciated as well. For example, the portion of the Cascades north of Snoqualmie Pass (roughly the North Cascades as defined in this article) These glaciers all retreated from 1900-1950. From 1950-1975 many but not all North Cascades glaciers advanced. Since 1975 retreat has become more rapid with all 107 glaciers monitored retreating by 1992. 2015 was an especially damaging year for Cascadian Glaciers, an estimated mass loss of five to ten percent, the single greatest loss in over 50 years.[18]There are approximately 700 glaciers in the range, though some have already disappeared.[19] Since a brief advancing period in the 1950s, most of these glaciers have been retreating. This is a serious concern to water managers in the region, as the glaciers (and the winter snowpack) form a large reservoir of water. As snow and ice melts in the summer, the resulting meltwater compensates for the seasonal decrease in precipitation. As glaciers retreat they will provide less summer runoff.

text: The Cascades north of Snoqualmie Pass have 756 glaciers covering 103 square miles (270 km2) of terrain. For comparison, the entire contiguous United States has about 1,100 glaciers in total, covering 205 square miles (530 km2).[20]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: The North Cascades has a diversity of plant species.[21] It contains more than 1630 vascular plant species[22] There are eight distinct life zones that support thousands of plants separately and in their own way.[22] Traveling west to east through the range, one would intersect a number of distinct ecoregions, first getting higher and colder, then getting warmer, yet drier. Each of these component ecoregions can be described by either a tree indicator species, or by a lack of trees: Western hemlock, silver fir, subalpine mountain hemlock, Alpine tundra, subalpine fir, and grand fir/Douglas-fir.[23]

text: The range also has a rich diversity of animals, including bald eagles, wolves, grizzly bears, mountain lions and black bears.[21] The range is home to at least 75 species of mammals and 200 species of birds that either pass through or use the North Cascades for a breeding area. There are also 11 species of fish on the west side of the Cascades.[21] Examples of amphibian species occurring in the North Cascades include the western toad (Bufo boreas) and the rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa).[24]

text: The biodiversity of the area is threatened by global climate change and invasive exotic plant species.[22] These exotic plants thrive by utilizing manmade structures such as roads and trails.[22] These invasive plants include the diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa) and reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea).[25]

text: History[edit]

text: On the United States side of the border, early inhabitants of the North Cascades included the Nooksack, Skagit, and Sauk-Suiattle tribes on the west, and the Okanagan people on the eastern side, with the Nlaka'pamux people of what is now Canada claiming hunting territory in the heart of the range, south across the border into Washington. The tribes living and using the range on the Canadian side of the border are the Nlaka'pamux, Sto:lo and the Upper and Lower Similkameen subgroups of the Okanagan. A now-extinct group known as the Nicola Athapaskans also inhabited and hunted in the area now occupied by the Similkameen. Many current geographic names in the region are derived from native terms, either by transliteration or translation. Beckey notes that "Many names were derived from Chinook Jargon, mostly applied by the United States Forest Service from 1910 to 1940...."[26]

text: Fur traders entered the area in the first half of the 19th century, coming from Canada and from Astoria on the Columbia River. One of the earliest was Alexander Ross of the North West Company, who crossed the range in the summer of 1814, probably via Cascade Pass.[27] The period of uncertainty surrounding the disputed Oregon Country gave way following partition along the 49th Parallel to a period of tentative U.S. Army exploration in tandem with violent subjugation of Indian tribes on the American side of the frontier in the second half of the century. With the partition, the Hudson's Bay Company was forced to seek an alternative to its older Brigade Trail via the Okanogan River and the construction of a new route over the northern spine of the Canadian Cascades from the area of Spuzzum into the valley of the Coldwater River to connect fort Langley on the lower Fraser with its northern posts in New Caledonia. The route was impracticable and was soon abandoned, though more southerly routes through what is now Manning Park laid the foundations for later routes such as the Dewdney Trail and the modern Crowsnest Highway via Allison Pass, and was later similar to a route via the Coquihalla Pass for its southern mainline. South of the boundary, reconnaissance for possible railroad routes (none of which were viable north of the one eventually put in over Stevens Pass, at the southern edge of the North Cascades) and various mining rushes.

text: Miners dominated the exploration and development of the range from the 1880s through the early 20th century. For example, mines around the boomtown of Monte Cristo, in the southwest portion of the North Cascades, produced "between $1 and $2.7 million in silver and gold".[28] The Holden Mine, on the east side of the main divide, produced 106,000 tons of copper and 600,000 ounces of gold.[29] Discovery of gold by American prospectors on the banks of the Thompson River at its confluence with the Nicoamen River, at the northern tip of the range, helped trigger the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858-1860 which in turn prompted the declaration of the Colony of British Columbia to affirm British possession of territories north of the 49th Parallel. The Fraser rush led to exploration of the Cascades to the east of the canyon and in the valley of the Similkameen River, with minor rushss in the area of Princeton, British Columbia in 1859 through the early 1860s and the creation of non-native towns (on top of much older native ones) at Boston Bar, Lytton and Hope, as well as Princeton.

text: Early settlers also arrived in the foothills of the North Cascades in the latter half of the 19th century, and utilized the range in a limited way as a source of timber and grazing land. However, the range is so rugged that this exploitation was less dramatic than in other more gentle landscapes.

text: Early recreational use of the range included expeditions by the local climbing clubs, The Mountaineers and The Mazamas. However even these groups did not fully explore the inner reaches of the range and ascend the most difficult peaks until the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1970s, that most peaks were climbed in the most isolated areas. Making it one of the last explored ranges in the Lower 48.

text: Climbing[edit]

text: The North Cascades are often referred as the "American Alps" by hikers, climbers and mountaineers because of the sea of steep, jagged peaks that span across the range. This range's rugged approaches and exceptional alpine terrain make it a premiere training ground for mountain climbers.[30]


document_title: Jack Hodgins (Bones)

question_text: when does hodgins end up in a wheelchair

text: Jack Hodgins (Bones)

text: Background and family[edit]

text: Jack Hodgins comes from an extremely wealthy family (Angela in season two says she thinks he is Swedish), and is the sole heir to the fictional private corporation known as the Cantilever Group, although he hid his wealth from his coworkers for a long time.[4]

text: Son of the late Jonathan and Anne Hodgins ("The Heiress in the Hill", season 9), Jack Hodgins was thought to have been an only child until he discovered in Season 9 that he had an older brother named Jeffrey who was institutionalized with schizoaffective disorder.[1] It is stated in "The Blonde in the Game", that he had an uncle named Preston. His grandfather served as a "code breaker" under Admiral Chester W. Nimitz during World War II.[5] His family is the single largest donor to the Jeffersonian, although he would rather toil in academia than spend time in the high social society to which his wealth entitles him.[6] In Season 8, after serial killer Christopher Pelant hacks into Hodgins' savings and drains his bank accounts and the accounts of the entire Cantilever Group, he and Angela are forced to scrimp. However, in Season 9, he tells Sweets that he is content as he still has his work at the Jeffersonian and family – the two things which he values the most.[7]

text: Hodgins, like Zack, was bullied in school: in elementary and middle school for being a "rich boy" and in high school for his small physical stature and diminished social skills. It is later noted that he "managed to stand up for himself" on the last day of senior year, which Sweets believes to have given him closure.[8]

text: According to Angela, in "The Truth in the Myth", in season 6, Hodgins is a Virgo, and of course because of this, he would "belittle astrology".  His starsign puts his birthday somewhere between 23 August and 22 September.

text: Hodgins owns an original Mini, which Booth jokingly called a "toy car",[9][10] although in later seasons he was seen driving a Toyota Prius as well.[3] He is an experienced cave diver.[11]

text: Although a noted conspiracy theorist, Hodgins temporarily abandoned his paranoid thoughts and beliefs after it was revealed that his best friend, Zack Addy, had become the most recent apprentice to a cannibalistic serial killer known as "Gormogon", due in part to Hodgins' complaints about secret societies potentially making Zack more susceptible to Gormogon's influence. Devastated by his best friend's poor judgment, as well as his recent break-up with Angela, Hodgins found his beliefs and feelings of paranoia turning into misanthropy. After being repeatedly confronted by Sweets about his behavior in the lab, Hodgins explained during a session that he "hates everybody". Sweets determines that the misanthropy was a way to cope with the overwhelming stresses in his life, and assured him that it will turn into something more pleasant in time.[12]

text: In "Aliens in the Spaceship", in season 2, Hodgins brings up "King of the Lab" for the first time, he and Zack occasionally 'competing' for the title by trying to come up with particularly crucial items of evidence in the investigation. This tradition falls to the side due to the rotating interns of the following seasons, as Cam does not encourage it and Hodgins has varying connections with the interns.

text: Later into season 8, Hodgins lost his money due to the machinations of killer and hacker Christopher Pelant, who hacked Hodgins' accounts while using the same computer system to target a military drone at a school in Afghanistan, forcing Hodgins to sacrifice his money by allowing the computer to keep running so that the team could focus their efforts on hacking the drone and stopping the destruction of the school.  In "The Maiden in the Mushrooms", after using the last of Finn's late grandma's hot sauce, Hodgins figures out the ingredients, and opens a side business called "Opie and Thurston's" Hot sauce.

text: In season 10 in "The Eye in the Sky" Hodgins invents a packaging material and receives an advance of $2 million, restoring him to the ranks of the wealthy.

text: In Season 11 in "The Doom in the Boom", a bomb planted in the body of a police officer causes initially minor damage when Hodgins is caught in the blast, but it is later revealed that Hodgins' injuries have left him paralyzed from the waist down.

text: Work[edit]

text: Hodgins has three doctorates, in entomology, botany, and geology/mineralogy. He is known around the Jeffersonian as the "bug and slime guy" and Booth often calls him "bug boy", a reference to Hodgins' expertise in and affection for all insects in general. During an investigation, he primarily deals with particulates and trace evidence and determines the time of death by examining insect activity.

text: In later seasons, (4th(?) and beyond), Hodgins gets his own lab suite, known as the "Ookey Room", (which used to be Zack's workspace), where he does most of his lab work, keeps his collection of Arthropods, and performs most of his experiments. There is a running gag in the show where he often pleads Cam, his boss, for "permission" to conduct a seemingly pointless and absurd experiment, sometimes to bizarre and amusing effect but still aids the investigation nonetheless. In episode 10 of season 4, "The Bones That Blew", Hodgins stated that his passion to "figure stuff out in amusing ways" was why he chose a career in science. In several episodes he has cooked using the lab apparatus, much to his co-workers' bemusement.[13][14] He also has been known to distill quite palatable spirits using lab apparatus repurposed for the job.

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Hodgins is one of the more sarcastic members of the group, and initially deals with some anger management issues.[15]  He also had some initial difficulty in working with Dr Goodman, the Jeffersonian's administrator, as Dr Goodman frequently used conjecture or imagination to make inferences about the victims of crimes.[16]  He is sometimes "the funny man" with a notable impression of the character Seeley Booth.[17]

text: In his earlier characterization, he was shown as having anger management issues; in the first season and in a flashback in season 5, Hodgins used to twang an elastic band on his wrist.

text: Hodgins is one of the more socially adept "squints" and uses pop culture references and jokes, which Dr. Brennan and Zack Addy often fail to grasp. As such, he has little difficulty "translating" scientific terms into layman terms to Booth and is sometimes exasperated when Zack fails to understand a joke or quip. He and Zack had a friendly competition for distinction of "King of the Lab", awarded to whoever found the best lead in the case.[4]

text: Throughout the series, Hodgins has been known for his "insane conspiracy ravings", as Booth calls it,[18] and in many of the show's early episodes his knowledge of conspiracy theories was demonstrated.[19] In several cases, Booth, despite his disdain for most of Hodgins' conspiracy theories, uses it to his advantage for a case; in the episode "The Girl in Suite 2103" he asks Hodgins to call the FAA with his "craziest" conspiracy theory in order to stall a plane so the FBI can get to it in time to do a search. At the end of the episode when government agents come to take Hodgins away for questioning in relation to the hoax call, Booth declines to intervene telling Dr Brennan that being taken away by "Men in Black" would be his dream come true. Whenever different aspects of the government, such as the Department of Defense or the State Department, become involved in cases, Hodgins will often be the first to suggest that a cover-up is involved.[9][20] In Seasons 9 and 10, his conspiracy theorist side comes to the fore and his theories often aid Booth and the team in finding clues in the major story arc in which the discovery of "The Ghost Killer" and her connections lead the team to uncover a widespread and deeply rooted conspiracy going on in the FBI.[10]

text: Relationships[edit]

text: Romantic[edit]

text: Angela Montenegro

text: After a few episodes of sexual tension, Hodgins takes Angela out on their first date to a park to play on swings.[21] When he was buried alive with Dr. Brennan, Hodgins admitted to being in love with Angela, saying "I'm nuts about Angela. Over the moon, stupid in love with her." [4]  Hodgins proposed to Angela twice before she turned the tables and proposed to him after he told her that love was enough.[22] Their wedding is cut short in the season two finale when a State Department official interrupts the ceremony, having conducted a background on him and Angela as both are federal employees and discovered that Angela is technically married to a Fijian man named Grayson Barasa.[23]

text: Hodgins and Angela hire a private investigator to locate Angela's husband, and the investigator finds Angela's husband, Grayson Barasa, living on No Name Key in Florida. Hodgins and Angela ask Amber to force Grayson to sign the divorce papers. Grayson refuses to sign, claiming he still loves Angela and has even built a house for himself and her. Grayson is initially resistant to signing the divorce papers, which puts a strain on the relationship between Angela and Hodgins.  They realize that they may not fully trust each other, and end their relationship.[24]

text: After their break-up when he learns that Angela's father (ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons) is in town, Hodgins awakes in the middle of a desert with a bandage on his shoulder, which he removes to reveal a tattoo of Angela's face along with the words "Angie Forever".[25]

text: After time apart, it is made clear that Hodgins still has feelings for Angela. After Booth is hospitalized for a brain tumor near the end of Season 4, Hodgins proposes giving his and Angela's relationship a second shot.[26]  While, in Season 5, they seem to be just friends, there are still signs of romantic tension between the two. In the episode "The Tough Man in the Tender Chicken", Angela mentions to Hodgins that her required celibacy period will soon be over and seems to hint that she would like to break it with Hodgins; Hodgins turns her down, despite her insistence that she was implying no such thing. In "The X in the File", when Wendell tells Hodgins of his relationship with Angela, Hodgins is shown to be very upset and hurt. During the next episode, "The Proof in the Pudding", Angela has a pregnancy scare; during this time, Hodgins tells her that he loves her and that he will be there to support her and the baby. While the pregnancy test was revealed to be a false positive at the end of the episode, Angela still tells Hodgins that she is grateful for his support and will never forget it. They were later imprisoned in "The Witch in the Wardrobe" for a variety of minor infractions by a local sheriff, which led to remembrance of their happiness together. They both realized that they regretted breaking up and shared a passionate kiss. When a judge arrived to post their bail, they were finally married in a private ceremony in the jail cell.[3]  They announced their marriage to their colleagues soon after.[27]

text: Upon their return from their honeymoon in Paris, it is revealed that they are expecting their first child, who will be named Temperance, if it's a girl, after Dr. Brennan.[28] Angela's father wants to name their child "Staccato Mamba". It came to him in a song. Hodgins disagrees so he stands up to him and tells him "No".[29] Finally he agrees with Angela and Hodgins on the names Katherine Temperance for a girl and Michael Joseph for a boy. Also in the end of the episode it was revealed that Hodgins got a tattoo of Angela's dad on his other arm which said "Dad". In the episode "The Blackout in the Blizzard" Angela and Hodgins find out they are both carriers of Leber's Congenital Amaurosis, giving their baby a 25 percent chance of blindness. This was a huge devastation for the couple, but in the end they reminded each other that they can handle anything together. Once the child was born, their son was confirmed to not be blind, and the two named him Michael Staccato Vincent Hodgins (named in honor of Vincent Nigel-Murray who was previously killed).

text: Colleagues[edit]

text: Hodgins' argumentative nature sometimes annoys his co-workers but he is on friendly terms with most of the team, including the interns. He was close to Zack Addy (who lived with Hodgins, renting the apartment above his garage) and would advise him on how to behave in a social setting, sometimes with humorously awkward results.

text: Of the interns, Hodgins is particularly close to Wendell Bray, Finn Abernathy and Arastoo Vaziri. He initially had an awkward relationship with Wendell as the latter once dated Angela for a period of time and Angela had painted Wendell nude once. They later resolve the issue over time.

text: Hodgins adopts a more brotherly approach with Finn given their age difference and calls him "Opie" while Finn calls him "Thurston", a reference to Opie, a young boy in The Andy Griffith Show and crusty old millionaire Thurston Howell III from Gilligan's Island.[30] In Season 8 he unknowingly finishes Finn's favorite hot sauce, later revealed to be the last bottle made by his late grandmother. Feeling guilty, Hodgins attempts to molecularly recreate the sauce. He succeeds and starts a side business with Finn after getting a chef to endorse and market the hot sauce and they named the sauce "Opie & Thurston's Hot Sauce".

text: Hodgins and Arastoo frequently chat about sports, especially basketball and baseball, while examining remains in the lab. When Arastoo admitted to faking his accent as a cover for his religiousness, Hodgins was one of the first to accept him without reservations after Arastoo explained how he reconciles his religion (Islam) with science.

text: When Booth was appointed the FBI liaison to the Jeffersonian, Hodgins, who is anti-bureaucracy, was particularly hostile to him, especially for the early part of Season 1. Booth's military background, position as an FBI agent and patriotism further added to the tension. In "Two Bodies in the Lab" Booth went against protocol and allowed Hodgins to go with him to rescue Dr. Brennan - albeit because Hodgins was the only person available to drive him to help Brennan - and their animosity subsides from then on. Despite their opposing views, they are on friendly terms, with Hodgins expressing genuine regret when a current investigation exposed a military cover-up as he recognized what their discoveries meant for Booth. Hodgins also asked for Booth's advice when he was planning to propose to Angela. Most notably, when Agent Perotta — who was officially working with the squints on a case where Booth was a prime suspect and thus unable to serve as the lead investigator — commented that 'her' people had found some recent evidence in the case, Hodgins, along with intern Wendell automatically corrected her statement by saying that the squints were Booth's people.[31] After Brennan, Hodgins is the 'squint' who has spent the most time out in the field with Booth – discounting Dr. Camille Saroyan, who had prior experience working in law enforcement before joining the Jeffersonian – occasionally accompanying Booth when investigations require on-site particulate analysis.


document_title: The Bold and the Beautiful characters (2017)

question_text: who plays coco spectra on bold and beautiful

text: Sally Spectra[edit]

text:
Sally Spectra

The Bold and the Beautiful character

Portrayed by
Courtney Hope

Duration
2017–

First appearance
January 31, 2017 (2017-01-31)

Introduced by
Bradley Bell and Michael Minnis

Classification
Present; regular

Profile

Occupation

Businesswoman
Lead designer of Spectra Fashions (2017–)

Residence
Los Angeles, California

[show]Family

Sisters
Coco Spectra

Grandparents
Shirley Spectra

tag: table

text: Sally Spectra, played by Courtney Hope, first appeared January 31, 2017.[1][2]

text: Sally is the grandniece of Sally Spectra (Darlene Conley) and the granddaughter of Sally's sister, Shirley Spectra (Patrika Darbo).

text: Bill Spencer, Jr. (Don Diamont) and C.J. Garrison (Mick Cain) make an agreement for him to purchase the land in which Spectra Fashions sat, and to knock the building down for land clearance to build a new Spencer Publications office. This job would take six months to prepare, which gave C.J. enough time to see younger (first cousin once removed) Sally Spectra off, in an attempt to re-open Spectra's doors as a fashion house to rival Forrester Creations, repeating history.

text: Sally hires a team resembling that of the old Spectra Fashions gang, and in the best, most efficient way possible - by hiring their relatives! Joining this also larger-than-life Sally are her grandmother Shirley, Saul Feinberg's grandson Saul Feinberg (Alex Wyse) and Darlita the receptionist, who has no relation to Darla Forrester (Schae Harrison).

text: Shirley Spectra[edit]

text:
Shirley Spectra

The Bold and the Beautiful character

Portrayed by
Patrika Darbo

Duration
2017–

First appearance
February 1, 2017 (2017-02-01)

Introduced by
Bradley Bell and Michael Minnis

Classification
Present; regular

Profile

Occupation

Baker
Businesswoman

Residence
Los Angeles, California

[show]Family

Siblings
Sally Spectra

Grandchildren

Sally Spectra
Coco Spectra

Nieces and nephews

C.J. Garrison
Macy Alexander
Darla Forrester (adoptive)

text: Shirley Spectra, played by Patrika Darbo, first appeared February 1, 2017.[1][2]

text: Shirley is the sister of Sally Spectra (Darlene Conley) and she arrives in Los Angeles to help her granddaughter Sally (Courtney Hope) to re-open Spectra Fashions.

text: Saul Feinberg[edit]

text:
Saul Feinberg

The Bold and the Beautiful character

Portrayed by
Alex Wyse

Duration
2017–

First appearance
February 3, 2017 (2017-02-03)

Introduced by
Bradley Bell and Michael Minnis

Classification
Present; recurring

Profile

Occupation
Tailor at Spectra Fashions

Residence
Los Angeles, California

[show]Family

Grandparents
Saul Feinberg

text: Saul Feinberg, played by Alex Wyse, first appeared February 3, 2017.[1][2]

text: Saul is the grandson of Saul Feinberg, the tailor of Spectra Fashions and friend of Sally Spectra (Darlene Conley). Saul is hired by Sally Spectra (Courtney Hope) as tailor like his grandfather to help re-open Spectra Fashions.

text: Darlita[edit]

text: Darlita, played by Danube Hermosillo, first appeared February 9, 2017.[1][2]

text: Darlita is introduced as the newly-hired receptionist at Spectra Fashions.

text: Coco Spectra[edit]

text:
Coco Spectra

The Bold and the Beautiful character

Portrayed by
Courtney Grosbeck

Duration
2017–

First appearance
February 24, 2017 (2017-02-24)

Introduced by
Bradley Bell and Michael Minnis

Classification
Present; regular

Profile

Occupation

Intern at Forrester Creations (2017–)

Residence
Los Angeles, California

[show]Family

Sisters
Sally Spectra

Grandparents
Shirley Spectra

text: Coco Spectra, played by Courtney Grosbeck, first appeared February 24, 2017.[3]

text: Coco is the teen sister of Sally Spectra (Hope), the grand-niece of Sally Spectra (Conley) and the granddaughter of Sally's sister, Shirley Spectra (Darbo).


document_title: Anne of Green Gables (1985 film)

question_text: where was the movie anne of green gables filmed

text: Anne of Green Gables (1985 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: 13-year-old orphan Anne Shirley is living in servitude with the cruel Hammond family in Nova Scotia. However, when Mr. Hammond dies, Anne is sent to an orphanage where she eventually receives the wonderful news that she has been adopted by a couple on Prince Edward Island (P.E.I). Upon arriving in P.E.I, Anne is met at the train station by the elderly Matthew Cuthbert who is surprised to find a girl there instead of a boy.

text: Matthew and his sister Marilla had requested a boy to help them with the farm chores. He decides that he couldn’t very well just leave the girl at the train station. Matthew takes Anne to meet Marilla and on the buggy ride home becomes completely smitten with the red-haired orphan girl.

text: When Anne Shirley arrives at the Cuthberts' farm, called "Green Gables", she is a precocious, romantic child desperate to be loved and highly sensitive about her red hair and homely looks. In her own unique headstrong manner, Anne manages to insult the town gossip, Rachel Lynde, in a dispute over her looks; smash her slate over Gilbert Blythe’s head when he calls her "Carrots" on her first day of school; and accidentally dyes her hair green in an effort to turn her red hair black and salvage her wounded pride.

text: Marilla Cuthbert is shocked and beside herself to know how she will ever cope with this sensitive, headstrong child so desperate to fit in. But shy, gentle Matthew is always there to defend Anne and hold her up on a pedestal.

text: It seems like Anne is destined to cultivate disaster. She becomes "bosom" friends with Diana Barry from across the pond and succeeds in getting Diana drunk by accidentally serving currant wine instead of raspberry cordial at a tea party. Diana’s mother and Rachel Lynde turn on Marilla for making wine in the first place. Anne moves from one mishap to the next as her wild imagination and far-fetched antics combine to constantly land her in trouble.

text: Anne finds her element in the academic world, ultimately competing neck and neck with Gilbert Blythe who becomes her arch opponent. Anne and Gilbert go on to win the highest academic accolades, constantly vying for honors at every level. Eventually their fierce rivalry turns to a secret affection, which blossoms into love.

text: Marilla tries to prevent Anne from seeing Gilbert because Anne is still quite young and Marilla wants Anne to continue her education. In the end, however, when Matthew dies and forces Marilla into considering selling Green Gables, Gilbert gives Anne his teaching post in nearby Avonlea so she can stay at Green Gables and continue to support Marilla.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Megan Follows – Anne Shirley
Colleen Dewhurst – Marilla Cuthbert
Richard Farnsworth – Matthew Cuthbert
Patricia Hamilton – Rachel Lynde
Marilyn Lightstone – Miss Stacy
Schuyler Grant – Diana Barry
Jonathan Crombie – Gilbert Blythe
Charmion King – Aunt Josephine Barry
Jackie Burroughs – Amelia Evans
Rosemary Radcliffe – Mrs. Barry
Joachim Hansen – John Sadler
Christiane Kruger – Mrs. Allan
Cedric Smith – Rev. Allan
Paul Brown – Mr. Phillips
Miranda de Pencier – Josie Pye
Trish Nettleton – Jane Andrews
Jennifer Inch – Ruby Gillis
Jayne Eastwood – Mrs. Hammond
Dawn Greenhalgh – Mrs. Cadbury
Jack Mather – Station Master
Samantha Langevin – Mrs. Blewett
Vivian Reis – Mrs. Spencer

Mag Ruffman – Alice Lawson
Sean McCann – Dr. O'Reilly
Roxolana Roslak – Madame Selitsky
Robert Haley – Professor
Robert Collins – Mr. Barry
Morgan Chapman – Minne May Barry
David Roberts – Tom
Nancy Beatty – Essie
David Hughes – Thomas Lynde
Wendy Lyon – Prissy Andrews
Zack Ward – Moody Spurgeon MacPherson
Anna Ferguson – Punch Woman
Rex Southgate – Section Head
Julianna Saxton – Pink Woman
Molly Thom – Lace Woman
Jennifer Irwin – Student
Sandra Scott – Mrs. Harrington
Peter Sturgess – Porter
Ray Ireland – Mr. Hammond
Martha Maloney – Fairview Nurse
Stuart Hamilton – Mme. Selitsky's Accompanist

text: Production[edit]

text: Kevin Sullivan adapted the novel into his own screenplay, collaborating with industry veteran Joe Wiesenfeld. Sullivan developed a co-production between the CBC and PBS in order to film Anne of Green Gables. Sullivan amalgamated many of Montgomery’s episodes into the film's plot. While the film diverged from Montgomery’s original, he relied on strong characterizations and visuals in order to render the story for a contemporary audience.

text: Primary locations for filming the movie included Prince Edward Island, Stouffville, Ontario, Jacksons Point, Ontario, and Westfield Heritage Village in the Hamilton, Ontario neighbourhood of Rockton. Filming was done over a consecutive ten-week shoot. Sullivan used several locations as Green Gables farm and combined them to appear as one property.

text: The original film and sequels (including Road to Avonlea and the animated Anne films and series covering over 130 hours of production) have been seen in almost every country around the world. The films have now been translated and seen in more places than even the original novels.

text: During filming of the original movies an open casting call was held throughout Canada in order to find a young actress to play Anne Shirley. Katharine Hepburn recommended that her great niece, Schuyler Grant, play the role of Anne Shirley. Director Kevin Sullivan liked Grant’s performance and wanted to give her the role. However, broadcast executives were resistant to cast an American as a Canadian icon. Schuyler Grant ended up playing Anne’s best friend, Diana, and Anne Shirley was ultimately played by Megan Follows.

text: In her first audition, Megan Follows came highly recommended. But, she was quickly dismissed by Kevin Sullivan. For her second audition, after a turbulent morning leading up to her audition, a frantic Megan made a much better impression and was given the role.[1]

text: Sequels and spin-off TV series[edit]

text: Film series[edit]

text: Anne of Green Gables is the first film in a series of four based on the titular character. In 1987, the film's sequel, Anne of Avonlea, was released. (It was subsequently retitled Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel on home video.) The final movie, Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story, was aired on March 5, 2000 in Canada and on July 23, 2000 in the United States. The final film passed over Anne's House of Dreams – the corresponding Anne novel – in favor of a plot not featured in Montgomery's series, and did not receive the same critical praise as the first two films. In 2008, the fourth in the series, titled Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning was completed. The film stars Barbara Hershey, Shirley MacLaine, and Rachel Blanchard and it introduces Hannah Endicott Douglas as the new Anne Shirley. The film is both a sequel and a prequel to Sullivan's trilogy.

text: TV series[edit]

text: The first two Anne films generated a spin-off television series which aired from 1989 to 1996 and starred Sarah Polley. The Road to Avonlea series featured characters and episodes from several of Montgomery's books. Anne herself did not appear in the episodes, but Gilbert Blythe, Marilla Cuthbert, and other characters from the Anne books were included.

text: Other productions[edit]

text: In 2000 – 2001, Sullivan Animation produced Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series consisting of 26 half-hour episodes. The series was developed for PBS and each episode contained an educational and/or moral component. In 2005, Sullivan Animation also produced the feature-length animated film Anne: Journey to Green Gables which is an imaginative, whimsical prequel to Sullivan's live action Anne of Green Gables film.

text: A year after the mini-series originally aired, Canadian comedy duo Wayne and Shuster created and starred in a parody entitled Sam of Green Gables, in which a curmudgeonly old man named Sam is sent to Green Gables instead of Anne.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: The film swept the 1986 Gemini Awards, winning the following:

text:
Best Dramatic Miniseries
Best Actress in a Single Dramatic Program or Miniseries: Megan Follows
Best Supporting Actor: Richard Farnsworth
Best Supporting Actress: Colleen Dewhurst
Best Writing (TV Adaptation): Kevin Sullivan and Joe Wiesenfeld
Best Music Composition: Hagood Hardy
Best Costume Design: Martha Mann
Best Photography: René Ohashi
Best Production Design/Art Direction: Carol Spier
Most Popular Program

text: The film was also nominated for Best Direction in a Dramatic Program or Mini-Series and Best Picture Editing in a Dramatic Program or Series.

text: The series also won an Emmy Award in 1986, for Outstanding Children's Program.

text: Other Awards

text:
Peabody Award – to Kevin Sullivan for Outstanding Contribution to Broadcasting in the United States, 1986
Prix Jeunesse: Best Drama, 1988 (Germany)
TV Guide Award: Most Popular Program, 1986
Grand Award – International Film and Television, New York
Emily Award – American Film and Video Festival, 1986
Macleans Medal of Merit – Macleans Magazine, 1986
Chris Award – Columbus International Film Festival, 1986
Silver Hugo Award – Chicago International Film Festival, 1986
International TV Movie Festival: Nomination for Movie of the Year, 1986
American TV Critics Award: Best Drama, 1986
Grant Award: Best TV Program, Houston International Film Festival, 1987
Golden Gate Award – San Francisco Film Festival, 1986
CRTA Award: Outstanding Personal Achievement in TV, 1986
Ohio State Award – Performing Arts and Humanities Award, 1987
First Prize – Odyssey Institute Media Award, 1987
The Ruby Slipper: Best Television Special, 1987
Parents Choice Award – Parents Choice for TV Programmings, 1987
Excellence in Programming – Award from Association of Catholic Communications in Canada, 1987
Golden Apple Award – Best of National Educational Film and Video Festival, 1987

text: Home media[edit]

text: The Anne of Green Gables series was released on DVD in a collector's edition set on February 5, 2008 in the U.S., April 29, 2008 in Canada and Japan and on September 22, 2010 in Hungary. The set is the most comprehensive edition of all three movies ever released. In addition to the series, it also includes several DVD extras such as feature length commentary from director Kevin Sullivan and Stefan Scaini, 2 New Documentaries: L.M. Montgomery's Island and Kevin Sullivan's Classic featuring new cast and crew interviews, missing scenes, lost footage and a condensed, 10-minute version of the missing "Road to Avonlea" episode "Marilla Cuthbert's Death".

text: In 2016, Sullivan Entertainment announced it would launch their own streaming service called Gazebo TV. It will feature the Anne of Green Gables series among other titles produced by the company. It is slated to launch in early 2017.[2]

text: Lawsuits[edit]

text: In 1908 Lucy Maude Montgomery signed a contract with the LC Page Co. in Boston that permitted them to publish all of her books for 5 years on the same terms: the main terms were a 10% royalty and world rights to all of the author's books;part it also included the right to publish all of her future works. The relationship with Pageant actually spanned nearly ten years and resulted in the publication of nine novels and collections of short stories. However, when Montgomery contracted with a Canadian publisher (McClelland, Goodchild and Stewart), LC Page claimed that they had the exclusive rights to her new books and threatened to sue her. Montgomery instead took LC Page to court to recover withheld royalties.[3]

text: The lawsuit resulted in a settlement in 1919 whereby LC Page bought out all of Montgomery's rights to all of her novels published by them. The settlement excluded any reversionary rights that might become due for the benefit of either her or her heirs if such rights were to become enacted.[4][5] The settlement paid Montgomery a flat sum of $18,000; at the time an amount she would have expected to see earned from her works during her lifetime.[3]

text: Sullivan purchased dramatic rights from the Montgomery's heirs in 1984, believing that they owned reversionary rights that had come into place as a result of changes to the copyright act subsequent to Montgomery's death.[6]

text: After Sullivan's films were successful around the world and brought legions of tourists to Prince Edward Island the Montgomery heirs established an Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority with the Province of Prince Edward Island to control trademarks to preserve Montgomery's works, through the mechanism of official trademarks.[3][7] The heirs and the AGGLA became successful at asserting control over the booming Anne-themed tourist industry that the province enjoyed, because of the lack of clarity about the different protections afforded by copyright, trademark and official marks in Canada.[7]

text: AGGLA and the heirs tried to assert control over trademarks Sullivan had established to their various Anne movies (Anne of Green Gables, Anne of Avonlea, Anne of Green Gables—the Continuing Story) and Road to Avonlea properties both in Canada, the US and Japan.[7]

text: A Japanese court then determined that the heirs were not entitled to the reversionary rights that they claimed they had sold to Sullivan and that the AGGLA was set up for pursuing private interests and not for serving public interests such as maintaining or managing the value, fame or reputation of the literary work, the author or even the main character of Anne. The Court determined that the AGGLA was the heirs' private profit-seeking enterprise as far as its activities were concerned.[4][5]

text: Sullivan and the heirs came into further conflict during the 1990s. Sullivan was sued by the heirs. Their contractual agreement with Sullivan said that he would pay them a flat $425,000 (CAD) fee for the right to adapt the first book (and another $100,000 to do the second movie, Anne of Avonlea), plus 10% of the profits of Anne 1 and 5% of the profits of Anne 2. The contract also gave them the right to examine Sullivan Entertainment's financial records. However, when Sullivan claimed that neither of the movies had earned a net profit and (the heirs assert) refused to allow them to audit his books[citation needed], they served a claim against him.[8][9] Sullivan argued that the heirs and the AGGLA had enjoined the films by usurping the Sullivan trademarks and drastically reduced the profitability of the ventures.[7][9] The heirs staged a press conference in 1998 at exactly the time when Sullivan was about to close a public offering to take his company public, to force Sullivan to pay them further receipts. The offering however was pulled by the underwriters and Sullivan counter-sued for libel, insisting that the heirs should pay damages of $55 million to all parties involved.[8][9] A Superior Court of Ontario judge dismissed his suit on January 19, 2004.[10][11][12] The Montgomery heirs subsequently dropped their claim for Sullivan to pay them any royalties however a settlement between Sullivan, the Montgomery heirs and the AGGLA was reached in 2006 to deal with all of their outstanding disagreements.[5] Although Kevin Sullivan's works were initially based upon the works of Montgomery, Sullivan developed most of his successful Anne-related film properties (Anne of Avonlea, Anne -the Continuing Story, Anne – A New Beginning and Road to Avonlea) based on original material, not directly adapted from Montgomery's books.[3] Many questions have been raised in court as to the author’s heirs’ rights in her copyright. The heirs have tried to extend the copyright in Montgomery's unpublished works until 2017 but lost that opportunity in 2004 when the Canadian Parliament rejected the provision they had pursued so ardently for the unpublished works of dead authors.[13] In a Japanese court decision which addressed the heir’s challenge to the validity of Sullivan’s ownership of Japanese trademark’s in the movie property, the Japanese High Court commented on the heirs' entitlement to reversionary copyright which formed the basis of the rights that the family claimed to have sold to Sullivan. The Court stated that the heirs' reversionary copyright was non-existent and that there was no need for Sullivan or any other entity to account to the heirs for the use of the trademark in Japan.[4][5]

text: The Court stated: "It is not clear from a legal point of view why permission from the heirs of the author or its related entity the Anne of Green Gables Licensing (AGGLA) authority was necessary."[4]

text: The Japanese Court also extensively scrutinized whether the copyright in the book Anne of Green Gables had ever devolved to the heirs and called for extensive filing of evidence on this point. Sullivan filed an original 1919 agreement between Montgomery and L.C. Page & Co. which specifically excluded the heirs’ reversionary claims. Montgomery sold all of her publishing and copyright to her series of novels, in perpetuity, to her original American publisher in 1919, to the exclusion of her heirs.[4][5]

text: The Court further questioned whether the heirs' licensing authority was engaged in activities of sufficient public interest as to qualify as a controlling body of Montgomery's works. The Court stated: "...the possibility cannot be denied that the Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority is the heirs' private profit-seeking enterprise as far as the activities with which the heirs of the subject case are involved are concerned. It is not proved from the evidence submitted in the subject case that the Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority is involved in activities of public interest that are sufficient for the Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority to be qualified as the owner of the registration of the subject mark as a controlling body of the subject literary work."[4][5]

text: Trademark and copyright[edit]

text: After recent speculation as to who owned the copyrights and trademarks concerning Anne of Green Gables today, there are principally two entities that control rights relating to Anne of Green Gables. The Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority (AGGLA – which includes Lucy Maude Montgomery’s heirs and the Province of Prince Edward Island)[14] and Sullivan Entertainment (the producers of the well-known films and TV series based on Montgomery’s novels).[15]

text: The Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority controls certain exclusive trademarks relating to Anne of Green Gables commercial merchandise and service related to Montgomery's literary works and any copyright in the Montgomery books which have not reverted to the public domain.[14]

text: Sullivan Entertainment Inc, under agreement with the Anne of Green Gables Licensing Authority, retains all of the dramatic copyright and motion picture copyright in over 125 hours of their original movies, mini-series and television series based on both the Anne and Avonlea series of novels and certain trade-marks relating to Sullivan sourced Anne of Green Gables merchandise and services. Sullivan's use of the Anne of Green Gables trademarks extends from motion picture products and books, DVDs, CDs etc. to all commercial merchandise related to Sullivan’s films and television series based on their visual images, costume and production designs, settings, themes and original characters. Sullivan Entertainment also solely controls the commercial trademarks to Anne of Avonlea, Anne of the Island, and Road to Avonlea.[16]


document_title: List of Olympic medalists in bobsleigh

question_text: who won the most gold medals in bobsledding

text: List of Olympic medalists in bobsleigh

text: Four man[edit]

text: The numbers in brackets denotes bobsledders who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time. Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines.

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1924 Chamonix
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[2]
Eduard Scherrer
Alfred Neveu
Alfred Schläppi
Heinrich Schläppi
 Great Britain (GBR)[3]
Ralph Broome
Thomas Arnold
Alexander Richardson
Rodney Soher
 Belgium (BEL)[4]
Charles Mulder
René Mortiaux
Paul Van den Broeck
Victor Verschueren
Henri Willems

1928 St. Moritz
details
 United States (USA)[5]
William Fiske
Nion Tocker
Geoffrey Mason
Clifford Gray
Richard Parke
 United States (USA)[5]
Jennison Heaton
David Granger
Lyman Hine
Thomas Doe
Jay O'Brien
 Germany (GER)[6]
Hanns Kilian
Hans Hess
Sebastian Huber
Valentin Krempl
Hanns Nägle

1932 Lake Placid
details
 United States (USA)[7]
William Fiske (2)
Eddie Eagan
Clifford Gray (2)
Jay O'Brien
 United States (USA)[7]
Henry Homburger
Percy Bryant
Francis Stevens
Edmund Horton
 Germany (GER)[8]
Hans Mehlhorn
Max Ludwig
Hanns Kilian
Sebastian Huber

1936 Garmisch-
Partenkirchen
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[9]
Pierre Musy
Arnold Gartmann
Charles Bouvier
Joseph Beerli
 Switzerland (SUI)[9]
Reto Capadrutt
Hans Aichele
Fritz Feierabend
Hans Bütikofer
 Great Britain (GBR)[10]
Frederick McEvoy
James Cardno
Guy Dugdale
Charles Green

1948 St. Moritz
details
 United States (USA)[11]
Francis Tyler
Patrick Martin
Edward Rimkus
William D'Amico
 Belgium (BEL)[12]
Max Houben
Freddy Mansveld
Louis-Georges Niels
Jacques Mouvet
 United States (USA)[11]
James Bickford
Thomas Hicks
Donald Dupree
William Dupree

1952 Oslo
details
 Germany (GER)[13]
Andreas Ostler
Friedrich Kuhn
Lorenz Nieberl
Franz Kemser
 United States (USA)[14]
Stanley Benham
Patrick Martin
Howard Crossett
James Atkinson
 Switzerland (SUI)[15]
Fritz Feierabend
Albert Madörin
André Filippini
Stephan Waser

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[16]
Franz Kapus
Gottfried Diener
Robert Alt
Heinrich Angst
 Italy (ITA)[17]
Eugenio Monti
Ulrico Girardi
Renzo Alverà
Renato Mocellini
 United States (USA)[18]
Arthur Tyler
William Dodge
Charles Butler
James Lamy

1960 Squaw Valley
not competed at these Games

1964 Innsbruck
details
 Canada (CAN)[19]
Vic Emery
Peter Kirby
Douglas Anakin
John Emery
 Austria (AUT)[20]
Erwin Thaler
Adolf Koxeder
Josef Nairz
Reinhold Durnthaler
 Italy (ITA)[21]
Eugenio Monti
Sergio Siorpaes
Benito Rigoni
Gildo Siorpaes

1968 Grenoble
details
 Italy (ITA)[22]
Eugenio Monti
Luciano de Paolis
Roberto Zandonella
Mario Armano
 Austria (AUT)[23]
Erwin Thaler
Reinhold Durnthaler
Herbert Gruber
Josef Eder
 Switzerland (SUI)[24]
Jean Wicki
Hans Candrian
Willi Hofmann
Walter Graf

1972 Sapporo
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[25]
Jean Wicki
Edy Hubacher
Hans Leutenegger
Werner Carmichel
 Italy (ITA)[26]
Nevio de Zordo
Gianni Bonichon
Adriano Frassinelli
Corrado dal Fabbro
 West Germany (FRG)[27]
Wolfgang Zimmerer
Peter Utzschneider
Stefan Gaisreiter
Walter Steinbauer

1976 Innsbruck
details
 East Germany (GDR)[28]
Meinhard Nehmer
Jochen Babock
Bernhard Germeshausen
Bernhard Lehmann
 Switzerland (SUI)[29]
Erich Schärer
Ulrich Bächli
Rudolf Marti
Joseph Benz
 West Germany (FRG)[30]
Wolfgang Zimmerer
Peter Utzschneider
Bodo Bittner
Manfred Schumann

1980 Lake Placid
details
 East Germany (GDR)[31]
Meinhard Nehmer (2)
Bogdan Musiol
Bernhard Germeshausen (2)
Hans-Jürgen Gerhardt
 Switzerland (SUI)[32]
Erich Schärer
Ulrich Bächli
Rudolf Marti
Joseph Benz
 East Germany (GDR)[31]
Horst Schönau
Roland Wetzig
Detlef Richter
Andreas Kirchner

1984 Sarajevo
details
 East Germany (GDR)[33]
Wolfgang Hoppe
Roland Wetzig
Dietmar Schauerhammer
Andreas Kirchner
 East Germany (GDR)[33]
Bernhard Lehmann
Bogdan Musiol
Ingo Voge
Eberhard Weise
 Switzerland (SUI)[34]
Silvio Giobellina
Heinz Stettler
Urs Salzmann
Rico Freiermuth

1988 Calgary
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[35]
Ekkehard Fasser
Kurt Meier
Marcel Fässler
Werner Stocker
 East Germany (GDR)[36]
Wolfgang Hoppe
Dietmar Schauerhammer
Bogdan Musiol
Ingo Voge
 Soviet Union (URS)[37]
Jānis Ķipurs
Guntis Osis
Juris Tone
Vladimir Koslov

1992 Albertville
details
 Austria (AUT)[38]
Ingo Appelt
Harald Winkler
Gerhard Haidacher
Thomas Schroll
 Germany (GER)[39]
Wolfgang Hoppe
Bogdan Musiol
Axel Kühn
René Hannemann
 Switzerland (SUI)[40]
Gustav Weder
Donat Acklin
Lorenz Schindelholz
Curdin Morell

1994 Lillehammer
details
 Germany (GER)[41]
Harald Czudaj
Karsten Brannasch
Olaf Hampel
Alexander Szelig
 Switzerland (SUI)[42]
Gustav Weder
Donat Acklin
Kurt Meier
Domenico Semeraro
 Germany (GER)[41]
Wolfgang Hoppe
Ulf Hielscher
René Hannemann
Carsten Embach

1998 Nagano
details
 Germany (GER)[43]
Christoph Langen
Markus Zimmermann
Marco Jakobs
Olaf Hampel (2)
 Switzerland (SUI)[44]
Marcel Rohner
Markus Nüssli
Markus Wasser
Beat Seitz
 France (FRA)[45]
Bruno Mingeon
Emmanuel Hostache
Éric Le Chanony
Max Robert

 Great Britain (GBR)[46]
Sean Olsson
Dean Ward
Courtney Rumbolt
Paul Attwood

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Germany (GER)[47]
André Lange
Enrico Kühn
Kevin Kuske
Carsten Embach
 United States (USA)[48]
Todd Hays
Randy Jones
Bill Schuffenhauer
Garrett Hines
 United States (USA)[48]
Brian Shimer
Mike Kohn
Doug Sharp
Dan Steele

2006 Turin
details
 Germany (GER)[49]
André Lange (2)
René Hoppe
Kevin Kuske (2)
Martin Putze
 Russia (RUS)[50]
Alexandr Zubkov
Filipp Yegorov
Alexei Seliverstov
Alexey Voyevoda
 Switzerland (SUI)[51]
Martin Annen
Thomas Lamparter
Beat Hefti
Cedric Grand

2010 Vancouver
details
 United States (USA)[52]
Steven Holcomb
Steve Mesler
Curt Tomasevicz
Justin Olsen
 Germany (GER)[53]
André Lange
Kevin Kuske
Alexander Rödiger
Martin Putze
 Canada (CAN)[54]
Lyndon Rush
David Bissett
Lascelles Brown
Chris le Bihan

2014 Sochi
details
vacant
 Latvia (LAT)
Oskars Melbārdis
Arvis Vilkaste
Daumants Dreiškens
Jānis Strenga
 United States (USA)
Steven Holcomb
Steven Langton
Curtis Tomasevicz
Christopher Fogt

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Germany (GER)
Francesco Friedrich
Candy Bauer
Martin Grothkopp
Thorsten Margis
 Germany (GER)
Nico Walther
Kevin Kuske
Alexander Rödiger
Eric Franke
None awarded

 South Korea (KOR)
Won Yun-jong
Jun Jung-lin
Seo Young-woo
Kim Dong-hyun

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Germany
6
3
3
12

2
  Switzerland
5
5
5
15

3
 United States
4
4
4
12

4
 East Germany
3
2
1
6

5
 Italy
1
2
1
4

6
 Austria
1
2
0
3

7
 Canada
1
0
1
2

8
 Great Britain
0
1
2
3

9
 Belgium
0
1
1
2

10
 Latvia
0
1
0
1

 Russia
0
1
0
1

 South Korea
0
1
0
1

13
 West Germany
0
0
2
2

14
 France
0
0
1
1

 Soviet Union
0
0
1
1

Total
21
23
22
66

text: Two man[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

1932 Lake Placid
details
 United States (USA)[7]
Hubert Stevens
and Curtis Stevens
 Switzerland (SUI)[55]
Reto Capadrutt
and Oscar Geier
 United States (USA)[7]
John Heaton
and Robert Minton

1936 Garmisch-
Partenkirchen
details
 United States (USA)[56]
Ivan Brown
and Alan Washbond
 Switzerland (SUI)[9]
Fritz Feierabend
and Joseph Beerli
 United States (USA)[56]
Gilbert Colgate
and Richard Lawrence

1948 St. Moritz
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[57]
Felix Endrich
and Friedrich Waller
 Switzerland (SUI)[57]
Fritz Feierabend
and Paul Eberhard
 United States (USA)[11]
Frederick Fortune
and Schuyler Carron

1952 Oslo
details
 Germany (GER)[13]
Andreas Ostler
and Lorenz Nieberl
 United States (USA)[14]
Stanley Benham
and Patrick Martin
 Switzerland (SUI)[15]
Fritz Feierabend
and Stephan Waser

1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
details
 Italy (ITA)[17]
Lamberto Dalla Costa
and Giacomo Conti
 Italy (ITA)[17]
Eugenio Monti
and Renzo Alverà
 Switzerland (SUI)[16]
Max Angst
and Harry Warburton

1960 Squaw Valley
not competed at these Games

1964 Innsbruck
details
 Great Britain (GBR)[58]
Anthony Nash
and Robin Dixon
 Italy (ITA)[21]
Sergio Zardini
and Romano Bonagura
 Italy (ITA)[21]
Eugenio Monti
and Sergio Siorpaes

1968 Grenoble
details
 Italy (ITA)[22]
Eugenio Monti
and Luciano de Paolis
 West Germany (FRG)[59]
Horst Floth
and Pepi Bader
 Romania (ROU)[60]
Ion Panţuru
and Nicolae Neagoe

1972 Sapporo
details
 West Germany (FRG)[27]
Wolfgang Zimmerer
and Peter Utzschneider
 West Germany (FRG)[27]
Horst Floth
and Pepi Bader
 Switzerland (SUI)[25]
Jean Wicki
and Edy Hubacher

1976 Innsbruck
details
 East Germany (GDR)[28]
Meinhard Nehmer
and Bernhard Germeshausen
 West Germany (FRG)[30]
Wolfgang Zimmerer
and Manfred Schumann
 Switzerland (SUI)[29]
Erich Schärer
and Joseph Benz

1980 Lake Placid
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[32]
Erich Schärer
and Joseph Benz
 East Germany (GDR)[31]
Bernhard Germeshausen
and Hans-Jürgen Gerhardt
 East Germany (GDR)[31]
Meinhard Nehmer
and Bogdan Musiol

1984 Sarajevo
details
 East Germany (GDR)[33]
Wolfgang Hoppe
and Dietmar Schauerhammer
 East Germany (GDR)[33]
Bernhard Lehmann
and Bogdan Musiol
 Soviet Union (URS)[61]
Zintis Ekmanis
and Vladimir Aleksandrov

1988 Calgary
details
 Soviet Union (URS)[37]
Jānis Ķipurs
and Vladimir Koslov
 East Germany (GDR)[36]
Wolfgang Hoppe
and Bogdan Musiol
 East Germany (GDR)[36]
Bernhard Lehmann
and Mario Hoyer

1992 Albertville
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[40]
Gustav Weder
and Donat Acklin
 Germany (GER)[39]
Rudolf Lochner
and Markus Zimmermann
 Germany (GER)[39]
Christoph Langen
and Günther Eger

1994 Lillehammer
details
 Switzerland (SUI)[42]
Gustav Weder (2)
and Donat Acklin (2)
 Switzerland (SUI)[42]
Reto Götschi
and Guido Acklin
 Italy (ITA)[62]
Günther Huber
and Stefano Ticci

1998 Nagano
details
 Canada (CAN)[63]
Pierre Lueders
and David MacEachern
None awarded
 Germany (GER)[43]
Christoph Langen
and Markus Zimmermann

 Italy (ITA)[64]
Günther Huber
and Antonio Tartaglia

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 Germany (GER)[47]
Christoph Langen
and Markus Zimmermann
 Switzerland (SUI)[65]
Christian Reich
and Steve Anderhub
 Switzerland (SUI)[65]
Martin Annen
and Beat Hefti

2006 Turin
details
 Germany (GER)[49]
André Lange
and Kevin Kuske
 Canada (CAN)[66]
Pierre Lueders
and Lascelles Brown
 Switzerland (SUI)[51]
Martin Annen
and Beat Hefti

2010 Vancouver
details
 Germany (GER)[53]
André Lange (2)
and Kevin Kuske (2)
 Germany (GER)[53]
Thomas Florschütz
and Richard Adjei
 Russia (RUS)[67]
Alexandr Zubkov
and Alexey Voyevoda

2014 Sochi
details
vacant
 Switzerland (SUI)
Beat Hefti
and Alex Baumann
 United States (USA)
Steven Holcomb
and Steven Langton

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Canada (CAN)
Justin Kripps
and Alexander Kopacz
None awarded
 Latvia (LAT)
Oskars Melbārdis
and Jānis Strenga

 Germany (GER)
Francesco Friedrich
and Thorsten Margis

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Germany
5
2
2
9

2
  Switzerland
4
6
6
16

3
 Italy
3
2
2
7

4
 East Germany
2
3
2
7

5
 United States
2
1
4
7

6
 Canada
2
1
0
3

7
 West Germany
1
3
0
4

8
 Soviet Union
1
0
1
2

9
 Great Britain
1
0
0
1

10
 Latvia
0
0
1
1

 Romania
0
0
1
1

 Russia
0
0
1
1

Total
21
18
20
59

text: Two woman[edit]

text:
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze

2002 Salt Lake City
details
 United States (USA)[48]
Jill Bakken
and Vonetta Flowers
 Germany (GER)[47]
Sandra Prokoff
and Ulrike Holzner
 Germany (GER)[47]
Susi Erdmann
and Nicole Herschmann

2006 Turin
details
 Germany (GER)[49]
Sandra Kiriasis
and Anja Schneiderheinze
 United States (USA)[68]
Shauna Rohbock
and Valerie Fleming
 Italy (ITA)[69]
Gerda Weissensteiner
and Jennifer Isacco

2010 Vancouver
details
 Canada (CAN)[54]
Kaillie Humphries
and Heather Moyse
 Canada (CAN)[54]
Helen Upperton
and Shelley-Ann Brown
 United States (USA)[52]
Erin Pac
and Elana Meyers

2014 Sochi
details
 Canada (CAN)
Kaillie Humphries (2)
and Heather Moyse (2)
 United States (USA)
Elana Meyers
and Lauryn Williams
 United States (USA)
Jamie Greubel
and Aja Evans

2018 Pyeongchang
details
 Germany (GER)
Mariama Jamanka
and Lisa Buckwitz
 United States (USA)
Elana Meyers Taylor
and Lauren Gibbs
 Canada (CAN)
Kaillie Humphries
and Phylicia George

text: Medals:

text:
[show]Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Canada
2
1
1
4

 Germany
2
1
1
4

3
 United States
1
3
2
6

4
 Italy
0
0
1
1

Total
5
5
5
15

text: Statistics[edit]

text: Medal table[edit]

text:
Rank
Nation
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 Germany
13
6
6
25

2
  Switzerland
9
11
11
31

3
 United States
7
8
10
25

4
 East Germany
5
5
3
13

5
 Canada
5
2
2
9

6
 Italy
4
4
4
12

7
 West Germany
1
3
2
6

8
 Austria
1
2
0
3

9
 Great Britain
1
1
2
4

10
 Soviet Union
1
0
2
3

11
 Belgium
0
1
1
2

 Latvia
0
1
1
2

 Russia
0
1
1
2

14
 South Korea
0
1
0
1

15
 France
0
0
1
1

 Romania
0
0
1
1

TOTAL
47
46
47
140

text: Bobsledders medal leaders[edit]

text:
Biathlete
Nation
Olympics *
Status **
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Musiol, BogdanBogdan Musiol
 East Germany (GDR)
 Germany (GER)
1980–1994
B
1
5
1
7

Kuske, KevinKevin Kuske
 Germany (GER)
2002–2018
B
4
2
0
6

Hoppe, WolfgangWolfgang Hoppe
 East Germany (GDR)
 Germany (GER)
1984–1994
P
2
3
1
6

Monti, EugenioEugenio Monti
 Italy (ITA)
1956, 1964–1968
P
2
2
2
6

Lange, AndréAndré Lange
 Germany (GER)
2002–2010
P
4
1
0
5

Feierabend, FritzFritz Feierabend
 Switzerland (SUI)
1936, 1948–1952
B/P
0
3
2
5

Germeshausen, BernhardBernhard Germeshausen
 East Germany (GDR)
1976–1980
B/P
3
1
0
4

Nehmer, MeinhardMeinhard Nehmer
 East Germany (GDR)
1976–1980
P
3
0
1
4

Acklin, DonatDonat Acklin
 Switzerland (SUI)
1988–1994
B
2
1
1
4

Weder, GustavGustav Weder
 Switzerland (SUI)
1988–1994
P
2
1
1
4

Zimmermann, MarkusMarkus Zimmermann
 Germany (GER)
1992–2002
B
2
1
1
4

Langen, ChristophChristoph Langen
 West Germany (FRG)
 Germany (GER)
1988–1992,
1998–2002
B/P
2
0
2
4

Benz, JosephJoseph Benz
 Switzerland (SUI)
1976–1980
B
1
2
1
4

Lehmann, BernhardBernhard Lehmann
 East Germany (GDR)
1976, 1984–1988
B/P
1
2
1
4

Schärer, ErichErich Schärer
 Switzerland (SUI)
1976–1980
P
1
2
1
4

Zimmerer, WolfgangWolfgang Zimmerer
 West Germany (FRG)
1968–1976
P
1
1
2
4

Hefti, BeatBeat Hefti
 Switzerland (SUI)
2002–2014
B/P
0
1
3
4

text:
Biathlete
Nation
Olympics *
Status **
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

Humphries, KaillieKaillie Humphries
 Canada (CAN)
2010–2018
P
2
0
1
3

Meyers Taylor, ElanaElana Meyers Taylor
 United States (USA)
2010–2018
B/P
0
2
1
3

Moyse, HeatherHeather Moyse
 Canada (CAN)
2006–2018
B
2
0
0
2

Kiriasis (Prokoff), SandraSandra Kiriasis (Prokoff)
 Germany (GER)
2002–2014
P
1
1
0
2

text:
* denotes all Olympics in which mentioned biathletes took part. Boldface denotes latest Olympics.
** Status: B - participated at Olympics as brakeman, P - participated at Olympics as pilot, B/P - participated at Olympics both as brakeman and as pilot.

text: Most successful bobsledders[edit]

text: Top 10 most successful bobsledders (by number of victories) at the Winter Olympics are listed below. Boldface denotes active bobsledders and highest medal count among all bobsledders (including these who not included in these tables) per type.

text: Men[edit]

text:
Rank
Bobsledder
Country
From *
To *
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Status **

1
Kevin Kuske
 Germany
2002
2018
4
2
-
6
B

2
André Lange
 Germany
2002
2010
4
1
-
5
P

3
Bernhard Germeshausen
 East Germany
1976
1980
3
1
-
4
B/P

4
Meinhard Nehmer
 East Germany
1976
1980
3
-
1
4
P

5
Wolfgang Hoppe
 East Germany
 Germany
1984
1994
2
3
1
6
P

6
Eugenio Monti
 Italy
1956
1968
2
2
2
6
P

7
Donat Acklin
  Switzerland
1992
1994
2
1
1
4
B

Gustav Weder
  Switzerland
1992
1994
2
1
1
4
P

Markus Zimmermann
 Germany
1992
2002
2
1
1
4
B

10
Dietmar Schauerhammer
 East Germany
1984
1988
2
1
-
3
B

text: Women[edit]

text:
Rank
Bobsledder
Country
From *
To *
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Status **

1
Kaillie Humphries
 Canada
2010
2018
2
-
1
3
P

2
Heather Moyse
 Canada
2010
2014
2
-
-
2
B

3
Sandra Kiriasis (Prokoff)
 Germany
2002
2006
1
1
-
2
P

4
Jill Bakken
 United States
2002
2002
1
-
-
1
P

Lisa Buckwitz
 Germany
2018
2018
1
-
-
1
B

Vonetta Flowers
 United States
2002
2002
1
-
-
1
B

Mariama Jamanka
 Germany
2018
2018
1
-
-
1
P

Anja Schneiderheinze
 Germany
2006
2006
1
-
-
1
B

9
Elana Meyers Taylor
 United States
2010
2018
-
2
1
3
B/P

10
Shelley-Ann Brown
 Canada
2010
2010
-
1
-
1
B

Valerie Fleming
 United States
2006
2006
-
1
-
1
B

Lauren Gibbs
 United States
2018
2018
-
1
-
1
B

Ulrike Holzner
 Germany
2002
2002
-
1
-
1
B

Shauna Rohbock
 United States
2006
2006
-
1
-
1
P

Helen Upperton
 Canada
2010
2010
-
1
-
1
P

Lauryn Williams
 United States
2014
2014
-
1
-
1
B

text:
* denotes only those Olympics at which mentioned biathletes won at least one medal
** Status: B - won Olympic medals as brakeman, P - won Olympic medals as Olympics as pilot, B/P - won Olympic medals both as brakeman and as pilot.

text: Medals per year[edit]

text:
×
NOC did not exist or did not participate in bobsleigh events
#
Number of medals won by the NOC
–
NOC did not win any medals

text: bolded numbers indicate the highest medal count at that year's Olympic Games.

text:
NOC
24
28
32
36
48
52
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
94
98
02
06
10
14
18
Total

 Austria (AUT)
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
×
0 !–
0 !–
×
1
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
3

 Belgium (BEL)
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
0 !–
0 !–
×
0 !–
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
2

 Canada (CAN)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
0 !–
1
3
1
2
9

 France (FRA)
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
×
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
×
0 !–
×
0 !–
0 !–
1
0 !–
0 !–
×
0 !–
0 !–
1

 East Germany (GDR)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
2
4
4
3
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
13

 West Germany (FRG)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
1
3
2
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
6

 Germany (GER)
×
1
1
0 !–
×
2
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
3
2
2
4
3
3
0 !–
4
25

 Great Britain (GBR)
1
0 !–
×
1
0 !–
×
0 !–
×
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
4

 Italy (ITA)
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
3
×
3
2
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
1
0 !–
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
12

 Latvia (LAT)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
1
2

 Romania (ROU)
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
×
×
0 !–
×
0 !–
1
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1

 Russia (RUS)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
1
1
0 !2
×
2

 South Korea (KOR)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
0 !–
0 !–
1
1

 Soviet Union (URS)
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
1
2
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
×
3

 Switzerland (SUI)
1
0 !–
1
3
2
2
2
×
0 !–
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
3
1
2
2
0 !–
1
0 !–
31

 United States (USA)
×
2
4
2
3
2
1
×
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
0 !–
3
1
2
4
1
25


document_title: Brooklyn Bridge

question_text: who led 21 elephants across the brooklyn bridge in 1884

text: Brooklyn Bridge

text: Design[edit]

text: Although the Brooklyn Bridge is technically a suspension bridge,[12] it uses a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge design. The towers are built of limestone, granite, and Rosendale cement. The limestone was quarried at the Clark Quarry in Essex County, New York.[13] The granite blocks were quarried and shaped on Vinalhaven Island, Maine, under a contract with the Bodwell Granite Company, and delivered from Maine to New York by schooner.[14]

text: The bridge was built with numerous passageways and compartments in its anchorages. New York City rented out the large vaults under the bridge's Manhattan anchorage in order to fund the bridge. Opened in 1876, the vaults were used to store wine, as they were always at 60 °F (16 °C).[15] This was called the "Blue Grotto" because of a shrine to the Virgin Mary next to an opening at the entrance. When New York magazine visited one of the cellars about 102 years later, in 1978, it discovered, on the wall, a "fading inscription" reading: "Who loveth not wine, women and song, he remaineth a fool his whole life long."[16]

text: History[edit]

text: Construction[edit]

text:
External video

 Presentation by David McCullough on The Great Bridge, September 17, 2002, C-SPAN

text: Construction of the bridge began in 1869.[12] The bridge was designed by German immigrant John Augustus Roebling, who had previously designed and constructed shorter suspension bridges, such as Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct in Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, the Waco Suspension Bridge[17] and the John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge between Cincinnati, Ohio, and Covington, Kentucky. While conducting surveys for the bridge project, Roebling sustained a crush injury to his foot when a ferry pinned it against a piling. After amputation of his crushed toes he developed a tetanus infection which left him incapacitated and soon resulted in his death in 1869, not long after he had placed his 32-year-old son Washington Roebling in charge of the project.[18]

text: The bridge's two towers were built by floating two caissons, giant upside-down boxes made of southern yellow pine, in the span of the East River, and then beginning to build the stone towers on top of them until they sank to the bottom of the river. Compressed air was pumped into the caissons, and workers entered the space to dig the sediment, until the caissons sank to the bedrock. The whole weight of the bridge still sits upon a 15-foot thickness of southern yellow pine wood under the sediment.[19]

text: Many workers became sick with the bends in this work.[20] This condition was unknown at the time, and was first called "caisson disease" by the project physician Andrew Smith.[21][22] Washington Roebling also suffered a paralyzing injury as a result of decompression sickness shortly after ground was broken for the Brooklyn tower foundation on January 3, 1870.[23] Roebling's debilitating condition left him unable to physically supervise the construction firsthand.

text: As Chief Engineer, Roebling supervised the entire project from his apartment with a view of the work, designing and redesigning caissons and other equipment. He was aided by his wife Emily Warren Roebling who provided the critical written link between her husband and the engineers on site.[24] Under her husband's guidance, Emily studied higher mathematics, the calculations of catenary curves, the strengths of materials, bridge specifications, and the intricacies of cable construction.[25][24][26] She spent the next 11 years assisting Washington Roebling, helping to supervise the bridge's construction. When iron probes underneath the caisson for the Manhattan tower found the bedrock to be even deeper than expected, Roebling halted construction due to the increased risk of decompression sickness. He later deemed the aggregate overlying the bedrock 30 feet (9.1 m) below it to be firm enough to support the tower base, and construction continued.[27]

text: The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge is detailed in the 1972 book The Great Bridge by David McCullough[24] and Brooklyn Bridge (1981), the first PBS documentary film by Ken Burns.[28] Burns drew heavily on McCullough's book for the film and used him as narrator.[29] It is also described in Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a BBC docudrama series with accompanying book.

text: Opening[edit]

text: The bridge—originally referred to as the New York and Brooklyn Bridge[30] and as the East River Bridge[31]— was opened for use on May 24, 1883. Thousands of people attended the opening ceremony and many ships were present in the East Bay for the occasion. President Chester A. Arthur and Mayor Franklin Edson crossed the bridge to celebratory cannon fire and were greeted by Brooklyn Mayor Seth Low when they reached the Brooklyn-side tower. Arthur shook hands with Washington Roebling at the latter's home, after the ceremony. Roebling was unable to attend the ceremony (and in fact rarely visited the site again), but held a celebratory banquet at his house on the day of the bridge opening. Further festivity included the performance of a band, gunfire from ships, and a fireworks display.[32]

text: On that first day, a total of 1,800 vehicles and 150,300 people crossed what was then the only land passage between Manhattan and Brooklyn. Emily Warren Roebling was the first to cross the bridge. The bridge's main span over the East River is 1,595 feet 6 inches (486.3 m). The bridge cost US$15.5 million in 1883 dollars (about US$385,554,000 in today's dollars) to build and an estimated 27 people died during its construction.[33]

text: On May 30, 1883, six days after the opening, a lady falling down the stairway caused a stampede, which was responsible for at least twelve people being crushed and killed.[34] On May 17, 1884, P. T. Barnum helped to squelch doubts about the bridge's stability—while publicizing his famous circus—when one of his most famous attractions, Jumbo, led a parade of 21 elephants over the Brooklyn Bridge.[35][36][37][38]

text: At the time it opened, and for several years, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world—50% longer than any previously built—and it has become a treasured landmark. Since the 1980s, it has been floodlit at night to highlight its architectural features. The architectural style is neo-Gothic, with characteristic pointed arches above the passageways through the stone towers. The paint scheme of the bridge is "Brooklyn Bridge Tan" and "Silver", although it has been argued that the original paint was "Rawlins Red".[39]

text: At the time the bridge was built, engineers had not discovered the aerodynamics of bridge construction. Bridges were not tested in wind tunnels until the 1950s, well after the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge, known as Galloping Gertie, in 1940. It is therefore fortunate that the open truss structure supporting the deck is by its nature less subject to aerodynamic problems. Roebling designed a bridge and truss system that was six times as strong as he thought it needed to be. Because of this, the Brooklyn Bridge is still standing when many of the bridges built around the same time have vanished into history and been replaced. This is also in spite of the substitution of inferior quality wire in the cabling supplied by the contractor J. Lloyd Haigh—by the time it was discovered, it was too late to replace the cabling that had already been constructed. Roebling determined that the poorer wire would leave the bridge four rather than six times as strong as necessary, so it was eventually allowed to stand, with the addition of 250 cables. Diagonal cables were installed from the towers to the deck, intended to stiffen the bridge. They turned out to be unnecessary, but were kept for their distinctive beauty.[citation needed]

text: Renovation[edit]

text: After the 2007 collapse of the I-35W highway bridge in Minneapolis, increased public attention has focused on the condition of bridges across the US. The New York Times reported that the Brooklyn Bridge approach ramps received a rating of "poor" during its last inspection the prior year.[40] According to a NYC Department of Transportation spokesman, the poor rating did not indicate a dangerous state, but rather implied it required renovation. A US$508 million project (equivalent to US$558 million in 2016)[41] to renovate the approaches began in 2010, with the full bridge renovation beginning in spring 2011 which was originally scheduled to run until 2014, however the project did not finish until April 2015.[42][43]

text: Work included widening two approach ramps from one to two lanes by re-striping a new prefabricated ramp; raising clearance over the eastbound Interstate 278 at York Street, on the double-deck Brooklyn-Queens Expressway; and seismic retrofitting, replacement of rusted railings and safety barriers, and road deck resurfacing.[44] The nature of the work necessitated detours for four years.[45]

text: In August 2016, after the renovation of the bridge had already been completed, the New York City Department of Transportation announced that it would conduct a seven-month, US$370,000 study to verify if the bridge could support a heavier upper deck that consisted of an expanded bicycle and pedestrian path. As of 2016[update], about 10,000 pedestrians and 3,500 bikers use the pathway on an average weekday.[46] The pedestrian entrance on the Brooklyn side was under construction as of May 2017[update].[47]

text: Notable events[edit]

text: In 1915, the city government officially named the structure the Brooklyn Bridge,[48] a name first mentioned in print in a January 1867 letter to the editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle.[49]

text: In 1919, Giorgio Pessi piloted what was then one of the world's largest airplanes, the Caproni Ca.5, under the bridge.[50]

text: In 1964, the bridge was designated a National Historic Landmark, having become an icon of New York City since its opening,[9][10] and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.[11]

text: The centennial celebrations on May 24, 1983, saw a cavalcade of cars crossing the bridge, led by President Ronald Reagan. A flotilla of ships visited the harbor, parades were held, and in the evening the sky over the bridge was illuminated by Grucci Fireworks.[51] The Brooklyn Museum exhibited a selection of the original drawings made for the bridge's construction, some by Washington Roebling himself. Media coverage of the centennial was declared "the public relations triumph of 1983" by Inc.[52]

text: In June 1993, following 13 reconnoiters inside the metal structure, and with the help of a mountain guide, Thierry Devaux performed (illegally) eight acrobatic bungee jumps above the East River close to the Brooklyn-side pier, in the early morning. He used an electric winch between each acrobatic figure.[53]

text: On March 1, 1994, Lebanese-born Rashid Baz opened fire on a van carrying members of the Chabad-Lubavitch Orthodox Jewish Movement, striking 16-year-old student Ari Halberstam and three others traveling on the bridge.[54] Halberstam died five days later from his wounds. Baz was apparently acting out of revenge for the Hebron massacre of 29 Palestinian Muslims by Baruch Goldstein that had taken place a few days earlier on February 25, 1994. Baz was convicted of murder and sentenced to a 141-year prison term. After initially classifying the murder as one committed out of road rage, the Justice Department reclassified the case in 2000 as a terrorist attack. The entrance ramp to the bridge on the Manhattan side was named the Ari Halberstam Memorial Ramp in memory of the victim.[55]

text: In 2003, truck driver Iyman Faris was sentenced to about 20 years in prison for providing material support to Al-Qaeda, after an earlier plot to destroy the bridge by cutting through its support wires with blowtorches was thwarted through information the National Security Agency uncovered through wiretapped phone conversations and interrogation of Al-Qaeda militants.[56]

text: In 2006, workers found a Cold War-era fallout shelter during a structural inspection beneath the Manhattan approach. The abandoned space in one of the masonry arches still contained the emergency survival supplies for a potential nuclear attack by the Soviet Union.[57]

text: Beginning on May 22, 2008, five-days of festivities celebrated the 125th anniversary of the bridge's opening. The events kicked-off with a live performance of the Brooklyn Philharmonic in Empire–Fulton Ferry State Park, followed by special lighting of the bridge's towers and a fireworks display.[58] Other events held during the 125th anniversary celebrations, which coincided with the Memorial Day weekend, included a film series, historical walking tours, information tents, a series of lectures and readings, a bicycle tour of Brooklyn, a miniature golf course featuring Brooklyn icons, and other musical and dance performances.[59] Just before the anniversary celebrations, artist Paul St George installed the Telectroscope, a video link between New York and London, on the Brooklyn side of the bridge. The installation lasted for a few weeks and permitted viewers in New York to see people looking into a matching telectroscope near London's Tower Bridge.[60] A newly renovated pedestrian connection to the DUMBO neighborhood was also unveiled before the anniversary celebrations.[61]

text: On October 1, 2011, police arrested more than 700 protesters with the Occupy Wall Street movement who attempted to march across the bridge on the roadway.[62]

text: Early in the morning on July 22, 2014, the two American flags attached to poles atop each tower were found to have been replaced by American flags that had been bleached white. It is believed that several individuals covered the lights that illuminate the flags, then climbed the cables to the top of the two bridge towers.[63][64] Authorities reviewed evidence including surveillance footage and DNA taken from the bridge, and by August 1, 2014, they found up to nine "persons of interest" with a possible motive being cannabis activism.[65][66] [67] However, on August 12, 2014, two Berlin artists claimed responsibility for hoisting the two white flags, causing the security panic and investigation by New York police. Mischa Leinkauf and Matthias Wermke said the flags were meant to celebrate "the beauty of public space" and the anniversary of the death of German-born John Roebling, who designed the famous bridge. The artists say they hand-sewed the two flags into all-white replicas of an American flag and had the original flags ready to return. "This was not an anti-American statement," Wermke said.[68][69][70]

text: There have been several notable jumpers as well. The first person to jump from the bridge was Robert Emmet Odlum, brother of women's rights activist Charlotte Odlum Smith, on May 19, 1885.[71][72] He struck the water at an angle and died shortly thereafter from internal injuries.[73] Steve Brodie dropped from underneath the bridge in July 1886, although there is some doubt about this. Larry Donovan made a slightly higher jump from the railing a month later and went on to an international bridge jumping career. Cartoonist Otto Eppers jumped and survived in 1910, and was then tried and acquitted for attempted suicide.[74] A lesser known early jumper was James Duffy of County Cavan, Ireland, who, on April 15, 1895, asked several men to watch him jump from the bridge. Duffy jumped and was not seen again.[75]

text: Pedestrian and vehicular access[edit]

text: The bridge originally carried horse-drawn and rail traffic, with a separate elevated walkway along the centerline for pedestrians and bicycles. Since 1950, the main roadway has carried six lanes of automobile traffic. Due to the roadway's height (11 ft (3.4 m) posted) and weight (6,000 lb (2,700 kg) posted) restrictions, commercial vehicles and buses are prohibited from using this bridge. The two inside traffic lanes once carried elevated trains of the BMT from Brooklyn points to a terminal at Park Row via Sands Street. Streetcars ran on what are now the two center lanes (shared with other traffic) until the elevated lines stopped using the bridge in 1944, when they moved to the protected center tracks. In 1950, the streetcars also stopped running, and the bridge was rebuilt to carry six lanes of automobile traffic.

text: The Brooklyn Bridge is accessible to vehicles from the Brooklyn entrances of Tillary/Adams Streets, Sands/Pearl Streets, and Exit 28B of the eastbound Brooklyn-Queens Expressway. In Manhattan, cars can enter from either direction of the FDR Drive, Park Row, Chambers/Centre Streets, and Pearl/Frankfort Streets. Pedestrian and bicycle access to the bridge from the Brooklyn side is from either Tillary/Adams Streets (in between the vehicular entrance/exit) or a staircase on Prospect Street between Cadman Plaza East and West. In Manhattan, the pedestrian walkway is accessible from the end of Centre Street or through the unpaid south staircase of Brooklyn Bridge – City Hall / Chambers Street subway station complex.

text: The Brooklyn Bridge has a wide pedestrian walkway open to walkers and cyclists in the center of the bridge above the automobile lanes. In 1971, a center line was painted to separate cyclists from pedestrians, creating one of the City's first dedicated bike lanes.[76] More than 4,000 pedestrians and 3,100 cyclists cross the Brooklyn Bridge each day.[77] While the bridge has always permitted the passage of pedestrians across its span, its role in allowing thousands to cross takes on a special importance in times of difficulty when usual means of crossing the East River have become unavailable.

text: During transit strikes by the Transport Workers Union in 1980 and 2005, people commuting to work used the bridge joined by Mayors Koch and Bloomberg who crossed as a gesture to the affected public.[78][79]

text: Following the 1965, 1977, and 2003 blackouts and most famously after the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, people leaving Manhattan used the bridge after MTA suspended subway service. During the 2003 event, many crossing the bridge reported a swaying motion.[80] The higher than usual pedestrian load caused this swaying coupled with the tendency of pedestrians to synchronize their footfalls with a sway, amplifying the motion.[81] Several engineers expressed concern about how this would affect the bridge, although others noted that the bridge did withstand the event and that the redundancies in its design—the inclusion of the three support systems – suspension system, diagonal stay system, and stiffening truss—make it "probably the best secured bridge against such movements going out of control".[80] Previously, bridge designer John Roebling had stated that due to such redundancies, the bridge would sag, yet not fall, even if one of these structural systems were to fail altogether.[24]

text: Vehicular access[edit]

text: Vehicular access to the bridge is provided by a complex series of ramps on both the Manhattan and Brooklyn sides of the bridge.

text:
Borough
Location
mi[82]
km
Destinations
Notes

Brooklyn
Brooklyn Heights
0.00
0.00
Tillary Street / Adams Street south
At-grade intersection; no turns from inner roadway

0.30
0.48
Sands Street
Northbound entrance only

0.40
0.64
 I-278 (Brooklyn–Queens Expressway) / Cadman Plaza West
Southbound exit and northbound entrance; exit 28B on I-278

East River
0.70–
1.00
1.13–
1.61
Suspension span

Manhattan
Two Bridges
1.30
2.09
 FDR Drive / Pearl Street
Northbound exit and southbound entrance; exit 2 on FDR Drive

Financial District
1.40
2.25
Park Row south
Northbound exit and southbound entrance

1.50
2.41
 Chambers Street west / Centre Street north to NY 9A

1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi

text: Cultural significance[edit]

text: Contemporaries marveled at what technology was capable of, and the bridge became a symbol of the optimism of the time. John Perry Barlow wrote in the late 20th century of the "literal and genuinely religious leap of faith" embodied in the Brooklyn Bridge — "the Brooklyn Bridge required of its builders faith in their ability to control technology".[83]

text: References to "selling the Brooklyn Bridge" abound in American culture, sometimes as examples of rural gullibility but more often in connection with an idea that strains credulity. For example, "If you believe that, I've got a bridge to sell you." George C. Parker and William McCloundy are two early 20th-century con-men who had (allegedly) successfully perpetrated this scam on unwitting tourists.[84] The 1949 Bugs Bunny cartoon "Bowery Bugs" is also a joking reference to Bugs "selling" a story of the Brooklyn Bridge to a naive tourist.

text: A bronze plaque is attached to one of the bridge's anchorages, which was constructed on a piece of property occupied by a mansion, the Osgood House, at 1 Cherry Street in Manhattan. It served as the first Presidential Mansion, housing George Washington, his family, and household staff from April 23, 1789 to February 23, 1790, when New York City was the national capital. Its owner, Samuel Osgood, a Massachusetts politician and lawyer, married Maria Bowne Franklin, widow of Walter Franklin, the New York merchant who built it in 1770.[85] Washington occupied the structure a week before his 1789 inauguration as first President of the United States. In addition to living quarters, the Osgood House contained the President's private office and the public business office, making it the first seat of the executive branch of the federal government.

text: "Love locks" is a practice by which a couple inscribes a date and their initials onto a lock, attach it to the bridge, and throw the key into the water as a sign of their "everlasting love". Although the origin of the practice is unknown, it is more popular in Europe, where more than 20 countries have at least one city with a similar location. It has reportedly caused damage to certain bridges and is officially illegal in New York City. Workers periodically remove the love locks from the bridge.[86]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
The bridge is often featured in wide shots of the New York City skyline in television and film. It has been shown in films such as Annie Hall, Gangs of New York, Kate & Leopold, It Happened in Brooklyn, Independence Day, I Am Legend, The Dark Knight Rises, Once Upon a Time in America, Oliver & Company (in which the bridge has a subway track), The Avengers, Enchanted and Godzilla (in which the bridge is completely destroyed). It has also been prominently featured in various television series (especially those set in New York City), such as CSI: NY.
Cuban poet José Martí wrote an article titled "The Bridge of Brooklyn" for the magazine La América, published in June 1883, shortly after the bridge opened to the public.[87] The article was published in his book "Escenas norteamericanas".[88] In the article, Martí made comparisons between certain animals (like snakes) and the structure of the bridge.[87]
American Modernist poet Hart Crane used the Brooklyn Bridge as a central metaphor and organizing structure for his second and most important book of poetry, The Bridge. This book takes the form of a long poem spanning eight parts, beginning with an ode ("Proem: To Brooklyn Bridge") and ending with a transfigured vision of the bridge as the unifying symbol of America ("Atlantis"). Crane briefly lived in an apartment overlooking the bridge that, he later learned, once housed Washington Roebling, the Brooklyn Bridge's builder and son of its architect, John A. Roebling.
Black American writer Samuel R. Delany makes extensive use of the Brooklyn Bridge in ATLANTIS: THREE TALES (1995), a collection of short stories. The first of these stories, "Atlantis: Model 1924" places the main character Sam (based on Delany's own father) on the bridge, where he coincidentally meets Hart Crane.[89]
American playwright Mark Violi[90] has penned the drama Roebling: The Story of the Brooklyn Bridge.[91] This stage play focuses on the dramatic events of the Roebling family as they endeavor to build the Brooklyn Bridge. Tagline for the play reads: "A drama about the men who built the Brooklyn Bridge–and the woman who finished it."[91]

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Under construction, c. 1872 – c. 1887

Brooklyn Bridge, looking west from Brooklyn, July 1899

Brooklyn Bridge, looking east from Manhattan, July 1899

Painters working on the bridge, October 1914 (Eugene de Salignac)

Base of Brooklyn tower

Flag atop the bridge

Pedestrian walkway

Pedestrian walkway between towers

View of the support structure over the Brooklyn Bridge roadway

Westbound roadway, looking east at the bridge

View from Brooklyn

View from Manhattan

Brooklyn Bridge at night taken from Brooklyn Bridge Park

A bird soars over the Brooklyn Bridge