document_title: Camera obscura

question_text: who wrote the earliest surviving description of the camera obscura

question_tokens: who wrote the earliest surviving description of the camera obscura

text: Camera obscura

text: Physical explanation[edit]

text: Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color and brightness of the surface of that object. Lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. A small enough opening in a screen only lets through rays that travel directly from different points in the scene on the other side and together form an image of that scene when they are reflected on a surface into the eye of an observer. The human eye as well as those of other animals including birds, fish reptiles etc. works much like a camera obscura with an opening (pupil), a biconvex lens and a surface where the image is formed (retina).

text: Technology[edit]

text: A camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from an external scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted (thus upside-down) and reversed (left to right), but with color and perspective preserved. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce a highly accurate representation.

text: In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, or less.

text: Many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole (as in a pinhole camera) because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus.

text: As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, but the projected image becomes dimmer. With too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction.

text: Using mirrors, as in an 18th-century overhead version, it is possible to project a right-side-up image. Another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright (but still reversed) as viewed from the back.

text: History[edit]

text: 30,000 BCE to 500 BCE: Possible inspiration for prehistoric art and possible use in religious ceremonies, gnomon[edit]

text: There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects (through tiny holes in tents or in screens of animal hide) inspired paleolithic cave paintings. Distortions in the shapes of animals in many paleolithic cave artworks might be inspired by distortions seen when the surface on which an image was projected was not straight or not in the right angle.[4] It is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures.[5][6]

text: Perforated gnomons projecting a pinhole image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings (1046 BCE—256 BCE with material added until circa 220 CE).[7] The location of the bright circle can be measured to tell the time of day and year. In Arab and European cultures its invention was much later attributed to Egyptian astronomer and mathematician Ibn Yunus around 1000 CE.[8]

text: Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in temple worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections.[9][10][11]

text: 500 BCE to 500 CE: Earliest written observations[edit]

text: The earliest known written record of the camera obscura is to be found in Chinese writings called Mozi and dated to the 4th century BCE, traditionally ascribed to and named for Mozi (circa 470 BCE-circa 391 BCE), a Han Chinese philosopher and the founder of Mohist School of Logic. In these writings it is explained how the inverted image in a "collecting-point" or "treasure house"[note 1] is inverted by an intersecting point (a pinhole) that collected the (rays of) light. Light coming from the foot of an illuminated person would partly be hidden below (strike below the pinhole) and partly form the top part of the image. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above (strike above the pinhole) and partly form the lower part of the image. This is a remarkably early correct description of the camera obscura; there are no other examples known that are dated before the 11th century.[11]

text: The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BCE), or possibly a follower of his ideas, touched upon the subject in the work Problems - Book XV, asking:

text: "Why is it that when the sun passes through quadri-laterals, as for instance in wickerwork, it does not produce a figure rectangular in shape but circular?”

text: and further on:

text: “Why is it that an eclipse of the sun, if one looks at it through a sieve or through leaves, such as a plane-tree or other broadleaved tree, or if one joins the fingers of one hand over the fingers of the other, the rays are crescent-shaped where they reach the earth? Is it for the same reason as that when light shines through a rectangular peep-hole, it appears circular in the form of a cone?"

text: Aristotle never found an answer. The oldest known correct answer was given more than 1800 years later in Francesco Maurolico's Photosmi de lumine et umbra (1521). He concluded that the circular shapes on the ground were pinhole images of the sun and thus became crescent-shaped during an eclipse.[12]

text: Euclid is sometimes reported to have mentioned the camera obscura phenomenon as a demonstration that light travels in straight lines in his very influential Optics (circa 300 BCE).[13] However, in common translations[14] no remarks of anything that resembles camera obscura can be found. Claims could be based on later versions, since Ignazio Danti added a description of camera obscura in his 1573 annotated translation.[15]

text: In the 4th century, Greek scholar Theon of Alexandria observed that "candlelight passing through a pinhole will create an illuminated spot on a screen that is directly in line with the aperture and the center of the candle."[16]

text: 500 to 1100: Experiments, study of light[17][edit]

text: In the 6th century, the Byzantine-Greek mathematician and architect Anthemius of Tralles (most famous as co-architect of the Hagia Sophia), experimented with effects related to the camera obscura.[18] Anthemius had a sophisticated understanding of the involved optics, as demonstrated by a light-ray diagram he constructed in 555 CE.[12]

text: In the 9th century, Al-Kindi (Alkindus) demonstrated that "light from the right side of the flame will pass through the aperture and end up on the left side of the screen, while light from the left side of the flame will pass through the aperture and end up on the right side of the screen."[citation needed][17]

text: In the 10th century Yu Chao-Lung supposedly projected images of pagoda models through a small hole onto a screen to study directions and divergence of rays of light.[19]

text: Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (known in the West by the Latinised Alhazen) (965–1039) explained in his Book of Optics (circa 1027) that rays of light travel in straight lines and are distinguished by the body that reflected the rays and then wrote:

text: "Evidence that light and color do not mingle in air or (other) transparent bodies is (found in) the fact that, when several candles are at various distinct locations in the same area, and when they all face a window that opens into a dark recess, and when there is a white wall or (other white) opaque body in the dark recess facing that window, the (individual) lights of those candles appear individually upon that body or wall according to the number of those candles; and each of those lights (spots of light) appears directly opposite one (particular) candle along a straight line passing through that window. Moreover, if one candle is shielded, only the light opposite that candle is extinguished, but if the shielding object is lifted, the light will return."[20]:91#5:p379[6.85], [6.86]

text: He described a 'dark chamber' and did a number of trials of experiments with small pinholes and light passing through them. This experiment consisted of three candles in a row and seeing the effects on the wall after placing a cutout between the candles and the wall.[17]

text: "The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moon-sickle. The image of the sun shows this peculiarity only when the hole is very small. When the hole is enlarged, the picture changes, and the change increases with the added width. When the aperture is very wide, the sickle-form image will disappear, and the light will appear round when the hole is round, square if the hole is square, and if the shape of the opening is irregular, the light on the wall will take on this shape, provided that the hole is wide and the plane on which it is thrown is parallel to it."[21]

text: Al-Haytham also analyzed the rays of sunlight and concluded that they make a conic shape where they meet at the hole, forming another conic shape reverse to the first one from the hole to the opposite wall in the dark room (see illustration). Ibn al-Haytham is reported to have stated about the camera obscura: "We did not invent this".[22] al-Haytam's writings on optics became very influential in Europe through Latin translations since circa 1200. Among the people who he inspired were Witelo, John Peckham, Roger Bacon, Leonardo Da Vinci, René Descartes and Johannes Kepler.[23]

text: In his 1088 book Dream Pool Essays the Song Dynasty Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) compared the focal point of a concave burning-mirror and the "collecting" hole of camera obscura phenomena to an oar in a rowlock to explain how the images were inverted:

text: "When a bird flies in the air, its shadow moves along the ground in the same direction. But if its image is collected (shu)(like a belt being tightened) through a small hole in a window, then the shadow moves in the direction opposite of that of the bird.[...] This is the same principle as the burning-mirror. Such a mirror has a concave surface, and reflects a finger to give an upright image if the object is very near, but if the finger moves farther and farther away it reaches a point where the image disappears and after that the image appears inverted. Thus the point where the image disappears is like the pinhole of the window. So also the oar is fixed at the rowlock somewhere at its middle part, constituting, when it is moved, a sort of 'waist' and the handle of the oar is always in the position inverse to the end (which is in the water)."

text: Shen Kuo also responded to a statement of Duan Chengshi in Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang written in about 840 that the inverted image of a Chinese pagoda tower beside a seashore, was inverted because it was reflected by the sea: "This is nonsense. It is a normal principle that the image is inverted after passing through the small hole."[11]

text: 1100 to 1400: Optical and astronomical tool, entertainment[edit]

text: English statesman and scholastic philosopher Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175 – 9 October 1253) commented on the camera obscura.[24]

text: English philosopher and Franciscan friar Roger Bacon (c. 1219/20 – c. 1292) tried to answer Aristotle's question (see above), but falsely argued that light travels in spherical waves and therefore assumed its natural shape after passing through square holes. He also advised to study solar eclipses safely by observing the rays passing through some round hole and studying the spot of light they form on a surface.[25] Bacon wrote about optics in his work Opus Majus Part five De Scientia Perspectivae (1267) for which he seems to have studied the writings of Al-Kindi and Al-Haytam. Bacon is sometimes thought to have used a camera obscura projection in combination with mirrors, based on a passage in his book which says (translated from Latin):

text: "Mirrors may be so arranged that we may see whatever we choose and anything in the house or in the street, and everyone looking at those things will see them as if they were real, but when they go to the spot they will find nothing. For the mirrors can be hidden from things in such a way that the images will be in the open and will appear in the air at the intersection of the visual rays and the catheti (perpendicular plane), and therefore those looking at them would run up to the places where they appear and would judge that the objects are there when there is in reality nothing except an image."

text: Others point out this contains no evidence of camera obscura and think this possibly alludes to projection with concave mirrors.[26]

text: A picture of a three-tiered camera obscura (see illustration) has been attributed to Bacon,[27] but the source for this attribution is not given. A very similar picture is found in Athanasius Kircher's Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae (1646).[28]

text: Polish friar, theologian, physicist, mathematician and natural philosopher Erazmus Ciołek Witelo (also known as Vitello Thuringopolonis and by many different spellings of the name "Witelo") wrote about the camera obscura in his very influential treatise Perspectiva (circa 1270-1278), which was largely based on Ibn al-Haytham's work.

text: English archbishop and scholar John Peckham (circa 1230 – 1292) wrote about the camera obscura in his Tractatus de Perspectiva (circa 1269-1277) and Perspectiva communis (circa 1277-79), falsely arguing that light gradually forms the circular shape after passing through the aperture.[29] His writings were influenced by Roger Bacon.

text: At the end of the 13th century, Arnaldus de Villa Nova is credited with using a camera obscura to project live performances for entertainment.[30][31]

text: French astronomer Guillaume de Saint-Cloud suggested in his 1292 work Almanach Planetarum that the eccentricity of the sun could be determined with the camera obscura from the inverse proportion between the distances and the apparent solar diameters at apogee and perigee.[32]

text: Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī (1267–1319) described in his 1309 work Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir (The Revision of the Optics) how he experimented with a glass sphere filled with water in a camera obscura with a controlled aperture and found that the colors of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light.[33][34]

text: French Jewish philosopher, mathematician, physicist and astronomer/astrologer Levi ben Gershon (1288–1344) (also known as Gersonides or Leo de Balneolis) made several astronomical observations using a camera obscura with a Jacob's staff, describing methods to measure the angular diameters of the sun, the moon and the bright planets Venus and Jupiter. He determined the eccentricity of the sun based on his observations of the summer and winter solstices in 1334. Levi also noted how the size of the aperture determined the size of the projected image. He wrote about his findings in Hebrew in his treatise Sefer Milhamot Ha-Shem (The Wars of the Lord) Book V Chapters 5 and 9.[35]

text: 1450 to 1600: Earliest depiction, lenses, drawing aid, mirrors[edit]

text: Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), familiar with the work of Alhazen in Latin translation[citation needed] and after an extensive study of optics and human vision, wrote the oldest known clear description of the camera obscura in mirror writing in a notebook in 1502, later published in the collection Codex Atlanticus (translated from Latin):

text: If the facade of a building, or a place, or a landscape is illuminated by the sun and a small hole is drilled in the wall of a room in a building facing this, which is not directly lighted by the sun, then all objects illuminated by the sun will send their images through this aperture and will appear, upside down, on the wall facing the hole.

text: You will catch these pictures on a piece of white paper, which placed vertically in the room not far from that opening, and you will see all the above-mentioned objects on this paper in their natural shapes or colors, but they will appear smaller and upside down, on account of crossing of the rays at that aperture. If these pictures originate from a place which is illuminated by the sun, they will appear colored on the paper exactly as they are. The paper should be very thin and must be viewed from the back.[37]

text: These descriptions, however, would remain unknown until Venturi deciphered and published them in 1797.[38] Da Vinci also drew 270 diagrams of the camera obscura in his notebooks.[39]

text: The camera obscura's potential as a drawing aid may have been familiar to artists by as early as the 15th century.[citation needed]

text: The oldest known published drawing of a camera obscura is found in Dutch physician, mathematician and instrument maker Gemma Frisius’ 1545 book De Radio Astronomica et Geometrica, in which he described and illustrated how he used the camera obscura to study the solar eclipse of January 24, 1544[38]

text: Italian polymath Gerolamo Cardano described using a biconvex lens in a camera obscura in his 1550 book De subtilitate, vol. I, Libri I-VII,[40]

text: Sicilian mathematician and astronomer Francesco Maurolico (1494-1575) answered Aristotle's problem how sunlight that shines through rectangular holes can form round spots of light or crescent-shaped spots during an eclipse in his treatise Photismi de lumine et umbra (1521-1554). However this wasn't published before 1611,[41] after Johannes Kepler had published similar findings of his own.

text: Italian polymath Giambattista della Porta described the camera obscura, which he called "obscurum cubiculum", in the 1558 first edition of his book series Magia Naturalis. He suggested to use a convex mirror to project the image onto paper and to use this as a drawing aid. Della Porta compared the human eye to the camera obscura: "For the image is let into the eye through the eyeball just as here through the window". The popularity of Della Porta's books helped spread knowledge of the camera obscura.[42][43]

text: In his 1567 work La Pratica della Perspettiva Venetian nobleman Daniele Barbaro (1513-1570) described using a camera obscura with a biconvex lens as a drawing aid and points out that the picture is more vivid if the lens is covered as much as to leave a circumference in the middle.[40]

text: In his influential and meticulously annotated Latin edition of the works of Al-Haytam and Witelo Opticae thesauru (1572) German mathematician Friedrich Risner proposed a portable camera obscura drawing aid; a lightweight wooden hut with lenses in each of its four walls that would project images of the surroundings on a paper cube in the middle. The construction could be carried on two wooden poles.[44] A very similar setup was illustrated in 1645 in Athanasius Kircher's influential book Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbrae.[45]

text: Around 1575 Italian Dominican priest, mathematician, astronomer, and cosmographer Ignazio Danti designed a camera obscura gnomom and a meridian line for the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence and he later had a massive gnomon built in the San Petronio church in Bologna. The gnomon was used to study the movements of the sun during the year and helped in determining the new Gregorian calendar for which Danti took place in the commission appointed by Pope Gregorius XIII and instituted in 1582.[46]

text: In his 1585 book Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum[47] Venetian mathematician Giambattista Benedetti proposed to use a mirror in a 45 degree angle to project the image upright. This leaves the image reversed, but would become common practice in later camera obscura boxes.[40]

text: Giambattista della Porta added a “lenticular crystal” or biconvex lens to the camera obscura description in the 1589 second edition of Magia Naturalis. He also imagined use of the camera obscura to project hunting scenes, battles, games or anything desired. Real or artificial forests, rivers, mountains as well as animals could be used for scenes on an outside stage and projected into a dark room with spectators.[42][48][49]

text: 1600 to 1650: Name coined, camera obscura telescopy, portable drawing aid in tents and boxes[edit]

text: The earliest use of the term "camera obscura" is found in the 1604 book Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena by German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer Johannes Kepler.[50] Kepler discovered the working of the camera obscura by recreating its principle with a book replacing a shining body and sending threads from its edges through a many-cornered aperture in a table onto the floor where the threads recreated the shape of the book. He also realized that images are "painted" inverted and reversed on the retina of the eye and figured that this is somehow corrected by the brain.[51] In 1607 Kepler studied the sun in his camera obscura and noticed a sunspot, but he thought it was Mercury transiting the sun.[52] In his 1611 book Dioptrice Kepler described how the projected image of the camera obscura can be improved and reverted with a lens. It is believed he later used a telescope with three lenses to revert the image in the camera obscura.[40]

text: In 1611 Frisian/German astronomers David and Johannes Fabricius (father and son) studied sunspots with a camera obscura, after realizing looking at the sun directly with the telescope could damage their eyes.[52] They are thought to have combined the telescope and the camera obscura into camera obscura telescopy.[citation needed]

text: In 1612 Italian mathematician Benedetto Castelli wrote to his mentor, the Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher and mathematician Galileo Galilei about projecting images of the sun through a telescope (invented in 1608) to study the recently discovered sunspots. Galilei wrote about Castelli's technique to the German Jesuit priest, physicist and astronomer Christoph Scheiner.[53]

text: From 1612 to at least 1630 Christoph Scheiner would keep on studying sunspots and constructing new telescopic solar projection systems. He called these "Heliotropii Telioscopici", later contracted to helioscope.[53] For his helioscope studies Scheiner built a box around the viewing/projecting end of the telescope, which can be seen as the oldest known version of a box-type camera obscura. Scheiner also made a portable camera obscura.[54]

text: In his 1613 book Opticorum Libri Sex[55] Belgian Jesuit mathematician, physicist and architect François d'Aguilon described how some charlatans cheated people out of their money by claiming they knew necromancy and would raise the specters of the devil from hell to show them to the audience inside a dark room. The image of an assistant with a devil's mask was projected through a lens into the dark room, scaring the uneducated spectators.[25]

text: By 1620 Kepler used a portable camera obscura tent with a modified telescope to draw landscapes. It could be turned around to capture the surroundings in parts.[56]

text: Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel is thought to have constructed a box-type camera obscura which corrected the inversion of the projected image. In 1622 he sold one to the Dutch poet, composer and diplomat Constantijn Huygens who used it to paint and recommended it to his artist friends.[44] Huygens wrote to his parents (translated from French):

text: I have at home Drebbel's other instrument, which certainly makes admirable effects in painting from reflection in a dark room; it is not possible for me to reveal the beauty to you in words; all painting is dead by comparison, for here is life itself or something more elevated if one could articulate it. The figure and the contour and the movements come together naturally therein and in a grandly pleasing fashion.[57]

text: German Orientalist, mathematician, inventor, poet, and librarian Daniel Schwenter wrote in his 1636 book Deliciae Physico-Mathematicae about an instrument that a man from Pappenheim had shown him, which enabled movement of a lens to project more from a scene through the camera obscura. It consisted of a ball as big as a fist, through which a hole (AB) was made with a lens attached on one side (B). This ball was placed inside two halves of part of a hollow ball that were then glued together (CD), in which it could be turned around. This device was attached to a wall of the camera obscura (EF).[58] This universal joint mechanism was later called a scioptric ball.

text: In his 1637 book Dioptrique French philosopher, mathematician and scientist René Descartes suggested placing an eye of a recently dead man (or if a dead man was unavailable, the eye of an ox) into an opening in a darkened room and scraping away the flesh at the back until one could see the inverted image formed on the retina.[59]

text: Italian Jesuit philosopher, mathematician and astronomer Mario Bettini wrote about making a camera obscura with twelve holes in his Apiaria universae philosophiae mathematicae (1642). When a foot soldier would stand in front of the camera, a twelve person army of soldiers making the same movements would be projected.

text: French mathematician, Minim friar, and painter of anamorphic art Jean-François Nicéron (1613-1646) wrote about the camera obscura with convex lenses. He explained how the camera obscura could be used by painters to achieve perfect perspective in their work. He also complained how charlatans abused the camera obscura to fool witless spectators and make them believe that the projections were magic or occult science. These writings were published in a posthumous version of La Perspective Curieuse (1652).[60]

text: 1650 to 1800: Introduction of the magic lantern, popular portable box-type drawing aid, painting aid[edit]

text: German Jesuit scientist Gaspar Schott heard from a traveler about a small camera obscura device he had seen in Spain, which one could carry under one arm and could be hidden under a coat. He then constructed his own sliding box camera obscura, which could focus by sliding a wooden box part fitted inside another wooden box part. He wrote about this in his 1657 Magia universalis naturæ et artis (volume 1 - book 4 "Magia Optica" pages 199-201).

text: By 1659 the magic lantern was introduced and partly replaced the camera obscura as a projection device, while the camera obscura mostly remained popular as a drawing aid. The magic lantern can be seen as a development of the (box-type) camera obscura device.

text: The 17th century Dutch Masters, such as Johannes Vermeer, were known for their magnificent attention to detail. It has been widely speculated that they made use of camerae obscurae, but the extent of their use by artists at this period remains a matter of considerable controversy, recently revived by the Hockney–Falco thesis.[44]

text: German philosopher Johann Sturm published an illustrated article about the construction of a portable camera obscura box with a 45° mirror and an oiled paper screen in his book Collegium experimentale: sive curiosum (1676).[61]

text: Johann Zahn's Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium, published in 1685, contains many descriptions, diagrams, illustrations and sketches of both the camera obscura and the magic lantern. A hand-held device with a mirror reflex mechanism was first proposed by Johann Zahn in 1685, a design that would later be used in photographic cameras.[62]

text: The scientist Robert Hooke presented a paper in 1694 to the Royal Society, in which he described a portable camera obscura. It was a cone-shaped box which fit onto the head and shoulders of its user.[63]

text: From the beginning of the 18th century craftsmen and opticians would make camera obscura devices in the shape of books, which were much appreciated by lovers of optical devices.[25]

text: One chapter in the Conte Algarotti's Saggio sopra Pittura (1764) is dedicated to the use of a camera ottica ("optic chamber") in painting.[64]

text: By the 18th century, following developments by Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke, more easily portable models in boxes became available. These were extensively used by amateur artists while on their travels, but they were also employed by professionals, including Paul Sandby and Joshua Reynolds, whose camera (disguised as a book) is now in the Science Museum in London. Such cameras were later adapted by Joseph Nicephore Niepce, Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot for creating the first photographs.

text: Role in the modern age[edit]

text: While the technical principles of the camera obscura have been known since antiquity, the broad use of the technical concept in producing images with a linear perspective in paintings, maps, theatre setups and architectural and later photographic images and movies started in the Western Renaissance and the scientific revolution. While e.g. Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) had already observed an optical effect and developed a state of the art theory of the refraction of light, he was less interested to produce images with it (compare Hans Belting 2005); the society he lived in was even hostile (compare Aniconism in Islam) towards personal images.[65] Western artists and philosophers used the Arab findings in new frameworks of epistemic relevance.[66] E.g. Leonardo da Vinci used the camera obscura as a model of the eye, René Descartes for eye and mind and John Locke started to use the camera obscura as a metaphor of human understanding per se.[67] The modern use of the camera obscura as an epistemic machine had important side effects for science.[68][69] While the use of the camera obscura has dwindled away, for those who are interested in making one it only requires a few items including: a box, tracing paper, tape, foil, a box cutter, a pencil and a blanket to keep out the light.[70]

text: Examples[edit]

text:
A freestanding room-sized camera obscura at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. A pinhole can be seen to the left of the door.

A freestanding room-sized camera obscura in the shape of a camera. Cliff House, San Francisco

Image of the South Downs of Sussex in the camera obscura of Foredown Tower, Portslade, England

A camera obscura created by Mark Ellis in the style of an Adirondack mountain cabin, Lake Flower, Saranac Lake, NY

A 19th-century artist using a camera obscura to outline his subject

A modern-day camera obscura

A modern-day camera obscura used indoors

text: Public access[edit]

text:
Camera obscuras open to the public

Name
City or Town
Country
Comment
WWW Links

Astronomy Centre
Todmorden
England
80 inches (200 cm) table, 40° field of view, horizontal rotation 360°, vertical adjustment ±15°
Equipment on site#Camera obscura

Bristol Observatory
Bristol
England
View of Clifton Suspension Bridge
Clifton Observatory

Buzza Tower
Hugh Town, Isles of Scilly
England
View of the Isles of Scilly
Scilly Camera Obscura

Photographer's Gallery
London
England
View of Ramillies St
Photographer's Gallery

Constitution Hill
Aberystwyth
Wales
14 inch (356 mm) lens, which is claimed to be the largest in the world
Cliff Railway and Camera Obscura, Aberystwyth
View from Aberystwyth's camera obscura

Camera Obscura, and World of Illusions
Edinburgh
Scotland
Top of Royal Mile, just below Edinburgh Castle. Fine views of the city
Edinburgh's Camera Obscura

Camera Obscura (Greenwich)
Greenwich
England
Royal Observatory, Meridian Courtyard
http://www.rmg.co.uk/see-do/we-recommend/attractions/camera-obscura/

Camera Obscura and museum "Prehistory of Film"
Mülheim
Germany
Claimed to be the biggest “walk-in” Camera Obscura in the world. Installed in Broich Watertower in 1992
http://www.camera-obscura-muelheim.de/cms/the_camera.html

Dumfries Museum
Dumfries
Scotland
In Dumfries Castle. Claims to be oldest working example in the world
Dumfries Museum

Grand Union Camera Obscura
Douglas
Isle of Man
On Douglas Head. Unique Victorian tourist attraction with eleven lenses
Visit Isle of Man

Camera Obscura (Giant Camera)
Golden Gate National Recreation Area, San Francisco, California
United States
Adjacent to the Cliff House below Sutro Heights Park, with views of the Pacific Ocean. In the Sutro Historic District, and on the National Register of Historic Places.
Giant Camera

Santa Monica Camera Obscura
Santa Monica, California
United States
In Palisades Park overlooking Santa Monica Beach, Santa Monica Pier, and the Pacific Ocean. Built in 1898.
Atlas Obscura

Long Island's Camera Obscura
Greenport, Suffolk County, New York
United States
In Mitchell Park overlooking the Peconic Bay and Shelter Island, New York. Built in 2004.
Long Island Camera Obscura

Griffith Observatory
Los Angeles, California
United States
Slowly rotates and gives a panoramic view of the Los Angeles Basin.
Griffith Park Camera Obscura

The Exploratorium's Bay Observatory Terrace
San Francisco, California
United States
Offers a view of San Francisco Bay, Treasure Island, and the Bay Bridge
[1]

Cámara Oscura
Havana
Cuba
Located in Plaza Vieja, Havana. Offers a view of Old Havana

Cloud Chamber for the Trees and Sky
Raleigh, North Carolina
United States
On the campus of the North Carolina Museum of Art
http://ncartmuseum.org/art/detail/cloud_chamber_for_the_trees_and_sky/

Camera Obscura
Grahamstown
South Africa
In the Observatory Museum
http://www.sa-venues.com/things-to-do/easterncape/observatory-museum/

Kirrimuir Camera Obscura

Camera Obscura, Tavira
Tavira
Portugal
Uses a repurposed water tower for the viewing room.
http://family.portugalconfidential.com/camera-obscura-in-the-tower-of-tavira/

Camera Obscura, Lisbon
Lisbon
Portugal
Installed in the Castle of Saint George, Lisbon.

text: Cultural references[edit]

text:
In the 2003 film Girl with a Pearl Earring, Colin Firth's character uses a camera obscura to help him paint. The scene begins around 32 minutes into the film when he shows Scarlett Johansson's character that what she sees inside of the box is an image or a "picture made of light".
The 1966 film Andrei Rublev by Russian director Tarkovsky includes a scene with a pinhole image via a hole in the door of a medieval room.
In the 1997 film Addicted to Love Matthew Broderick's character sets up a camera obscura in an abandoned building opposite his ex-girlfriend's apartment.
Camera Obscura is the title of several novels: an 1839 Dutch novel by Nicolaas Beets, the 1932 Russian novel by Vladimir Nabokov known in English as Laughter in the Dark, a 2002 novel by Lloyd Rose in the BBC Books Doctor Who series, a 2006 Slovenian novel by Nejc Gazvoda and a 2011 novel by Israeli-born writer Lavie Tidhar
Camera Obscura was the name of an English new wave/synthpop duo formed in 1982.
Camera Obscura (album) is the title of a 1985 album by German singer Nico.
Camera Obscura is the name of a Scottish indie pop band formed in 1996.
Camera Obscura is the title of a track on the 2000 album The Screen Behind the Mirror by German musical project Enigma.
In the Fatal Frame video game series, started in 2002, the Camera Obscura can be used to damage and pacify attacking ghosts.
In A Matter of Life and Death (film) 1946, Dr. Frank Reeves, Roger Livesey, uses a camera obscura to view the village around his home.
Burkhard Walther, Przemek Zajfert: Camera Obscura Heidelberg. Black-and-white photography and texts. Historical and contemporary literature. edition merid, Stuttgart, 2006, ISBN 3-9810820-0-1


document_title: Honey Don't

question_text: who sings honey don't by the beatles

question_tokens: who sings honey do n 't by the beatles

root

text: Honey Don't

text: Background[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: According to David McGee, author of Go, Cat, Go! The Life and Times of Carl Perkins, the King of Rockabilly, Carl Perkins first brought the song to a rehearsal with his band which at the time comprised the Perkins brothers and W.S. Holland:

tag: p

text:
Carl Perkins – lead guitar and vocals
Jay Perkins – acoustic guitar and backing vocals
Clayton Perkins – standup bass
W. S. Holland – drums

tag: ul

text: When Carl first played the song to Jay, Jay protested what sounded to him like an odd chord choice, going to a C7 chord after the E instead of the natural blues progression choice of A. At first, Jay refused to go along, but Carl convinced him it was something different, and today the chord choice is one of the most interesting aspects of the song.

text: Perkins and his band performed the song, along with "Blue Suede Shoes", during their television debut on ABC-TV's Ozark Jubilee on March 17, 1956.

text: The Beatles version[edit]

text:
"Honey Don't"Song by the Beatlesfrom the album Beatles for SaleReleased
4 December 1964 (mono and stereo)Recorded
26 October 1964, EMI Studios, LondonGenre
RockabillyLength
2:55Label
ParlophoneSongwriter(s)
Carl PerkinsProducer(s)
George Martin

text: The Beatles recorded their version on 26 October 1964[5] one of the last songs recorded for Beatles for Sale, which was released in the United Kingdom on 4 December 1964.[6] The North American release was on 15 December on Beatles '65.[7]

text: Although John Lennon had previously sung the song live, Ringo Starr performed it for the album,[1] his usual one lead vocal per album (although he sang two lead vocals on The Beatles double album and none on A Hard Day's Night, Magical Mystery Tour, and Let It Be).[5] During the song, he makes self-referential remarks leading into George Harrison's guitar riffs, saying, "Rock on George, one time for me!" and then "Rock on, George, for Ringo one time!" The Monkees referenced the latter remark leading into the instrumental break of their song "No Time" from their 1967 album Headquarters.

text: The Beatles performed the song twice for the BBC for the From Us To You and Top Gear programs.[8]  A version sung by Lennon is available on Live at the BBC.[9] and a version sung by Starr was released on On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2.

text: Starr performed a live version of the song, as a tribute to Harrison for their fondness of Perkins, at the Concert for George at London's Royal Albert Hall in 2002.

text: Paul McCartney's publishing company MPL Communications administers the rights to the song, originally published by Hi Lo Music, Inc., BMI.

text: Along with "Matchbox", "Honey Don't" is one of the rare songs that all four Beatles have recorded or performed on stage (see section below).

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Ringo Starr – lead vocal, drums, tambourine
George Harrison – lead guitar
John Lennon – acoustic rhythm guitar
Paul McCartney – bass guitar

text: Other covers[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Johnzo West recorded the song for the 2014 Perfect Sisters movie soundtrack.
Ronnie Hawkins on Mr. Dynamo album, 1960.
Billy "Crash" Craddock covered the song on his 1986 album Crash Craddock.
Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band, 1989, Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band 1990 live album, 1995, 2003, 2006, 2010-2011 tours, Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session, 1985, and The Concert For George, 2003.[11]
Johnny Rivers covered the song on his album Memphis Sun Recordings, released in 1991.
Gene Summers performed "Honey Don't", during a live concert, that was filmed and broadcast by Warner Amex Television in 1983.
Ben Folds Five on the collection Vault Volume II (1998-2003).
Raul Seixas covered the song on his 1975 album Novo Aeon.
T. Rex featuring Marc Bolan recorded the song in 1971; Electric Warrior Sessions album, 1997.
Wanda Jackson covered the song on her 1964 album Two Sides of Wanda Jackson.
John Lennon recorded the song in the 1970s, released on the 2010 remasters collection, John Lennon Signature Box.
Lee Rocker on the 2012 album Night Train to Memphis.
Homer and the Dont's on the 1965 album Shindig, as "Homer Don't".
Shakin' Stevens and The Sunsets, CBS single, I'm No J.D. album, 1971
Glen Glenn and The Maddox Brothers live on the Squeakin' Deacon Show in 1957.
Vince Taylor recorded the song in 1965.
Rhythm and Blues, Inc. released the song in 1964 as a B side single on Fontana.
Tyrone Schmidling released the song as a 45 single in 1958 on Andex, 3-4022.
George Harrison performed the song live on stage in 1987 with the Silver Wilburys at the Palomino Club in Hollywood and with Carl Perkins in 1988.
Paul McCartney has performed the song in sound checks during the On the Run Tour in 2011.
Eugene Chadbourne, There'll Be No Tears Tonight album, 1980.
Memphis Rockabilly, Boston Does The Beatles, 1988
Skitzo, Terminal Damage, 1988
Blinkit on the 2000 album Rock Billy Boogie!
Johnny Devlin on the Prestige album How Would Ya Be.
Mac Curtis in 1970 as a 45 single on Epic Records, 5-10574.
Elvis Costello performed it with Ricky Skaggs, Brian Setzer, and Marty Stuart at a 1997-02-05 taping for Ricky Skaggs' TV show on TNN.
Joe Walsh with Steve Earle for the motion picture The Beverly Hillbillies, 1993

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c Carl Perkins interviewed on the Pop Chronicles (1969)

Jump up ^ ""Blue Suede Shoes" story". Rockabillyhall.com. Retrieved 2011-08-21.

Jump up ^ Dahl, Bill. "Review of "Honey Don't"". Allmusic. Retrieved 2007-03-16.

Jump up ^ Dahl, Bill. "All performers for "Honey Don't"". Allmusic. Retrieved 2007-03-16.

^ Jump up to: a b Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Beatles Recording Sessions. New York: Harmony Books. p. 51. ISBN 0-517-57066-1.

Jump up ^ Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Beatles Recording Sessions. New York: Harmony Books. p. 53. ISBN 0-517-57066-1.

Jump up ^ Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Beatles Recording Sessions. p. 201.

Jump up ^ Honey Don't. About.com.

Jump up ^ Live at the BBC (booklet). The Beatles. London: Apple Records. 1996. p. 46. 34448.

Jump up ^ MacDonald, Ian (2005). Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties (Second Revised ed.). London: Pimlico (Rand). p. 141. ISBN 1-84413-828-3.

Jump up ^ Concert for George (booklet). Various artists. Los Angeles: Warner Brothers. 2003. p. 25. R2 74546.

tag: ol

text:
hidevteBeatles for SaleSongsSide one
"No Reply"
"I'm a Loser"
"Baby's in Black"
"Rock and Roll Music"
"I'll Follow the Sun"
"Mr. Moonlight"
"Kansas City"/"Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey"
Side two
"Eight Days a Week"
"Words of Love"
"Honey Don't"
"Every Little Thing"
"I Don't Want to Spoil the Party"
"What You're Doing"
"Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby"
Non-album single
"I Feel Fine"
"She's a Woman"
Outtakes
"Leave My Kitten Alone"
Related articles
Beatles for Sale (EP)
Beatles for Sale No. 2
Beatles '65
Beatles VI
The Beatles discography

Please Please Me
With the Beatles
A Hard Day's Night
Beatles for Sale
Help!
Rubber Soul
Revolver
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Magical Mystery Tour
The Beatles (White Album)
Yellow Submarine
Abbey Road
Let It Be
Past Masters

text: Rockabilly songsThe Beatles songsCarl Perkins songsSong recordings produced by George MartinBilly "Crash" Craddock songsGene Summers songsSongs written by Carl PerkinsSong recordings produced by Sam Phillips

text: Articles with hAudio microformatsArticles needing additional references from January 2018All articles needing additional references


question_text: where is the source address located in an ipv4 header

question_tokens: where is the source address located in an ipv4 header

text: Addressing [edit]

text: IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232) addresses.

text: IPv4 reserves special address blocks for private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addresses (~270 million addresses).

text: Address representations[edit]

text: IPv4 addresses may be represented in any notation expressing a 32-bit integer value. They are most often written in the dot-decimal notation, which consists of four octets of the address expressed individually in decimal numbers and separated by periods. The CIDR notation standard combines the address with its routing prefix in a compact format, in which the address is followed by a slash character (/) and the count of consecutive 1 bits in the routing prefix (subnet mask).

text: For example, the quad-dotted IP address 192.0.2.235 represents the 32-bit decimal number 3221226219, which in hexadecimal format is 0xC00002EB. This may also be expressed in dotted hex format as 0xC0.0x00.0x02.0xEB, or with octal byte values as 0300.0000.0002.0353.

text: Allocation[edit]

text: In the original design of IPv4, an IP address was divided into two parts: the network identifier was the most significant (highest order) octet of the address, and the host identifier was the rest of the address. The latter was also called the rest field. This structure permitted a maximum of 256 network identifiers, which was quickly found to be inadequate.

text: To overcome this limit, the most-significant address octet was redefined in 1981 to create network classes, in a system which later became known as classful networking. The revised system defined five classes. Classes A, B, and C had different bit lengths for network identification. The rest of the address was used as previously to identify a host within a network, which meant that each network class had a different capacity for addressing hosts. Class D was defined for multicast addressing and Class E was reserved for future applications.

text: Starting around 1985, methods were devised to subdivide IP networks. One method that has proved flexible is the use of the variable-length subnet mask (VLSM).[2][3] Based on the IETF standard RFC 1517 published in 1993, this system of classes was officially replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), which expressed the number of bits (from the most significant) as, for instance, /24, and the class-based scheme was dubbed classful, by contrast. CIDR was designed to permit repartitioning of any address space so that smaller or larger blocks of addresses could be allocated to users. The hierarchical structure created by CIDR is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and the regional Internet registries (RIRs). Each RIR maintains a publicly searchable WHOIS database that provides information about IP address assignments.

text: Special-use addresses[edit]

text: The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) have restricted from general use various reserved IP addresses for special purposes. Some are used for maintenance of routing tables, for multicast traffic, operation under failure modes, or to provide addressing space for public, unrestricted uses on private networks.

text:
Reserved address blocks

Range
Description
Reference

0.0.0.0/8
Current network (only valid as source address)
RFC 6890

10.0.0.0/8
Private network
RFC 1918

100.64.0.0/10
Shared Address Space
RFC 6598

127.0.0.0/8
Loopback
RFC 6890

169.254.0.0/16
Link-local
RFC 3927

172.16.0.0/12
Private network
RFC 1918

192.0.0.0/24
IETF Protocol Assignments
RFC 6890

192.0.2.0/24
TEST-NET-1, documentation and examples
RFC 5737

192.88.99.0/24
IPv6 to IPv4 relay (includes 2002::/16)
RFC 3068

192.168.0.0/16
Private network
RFC 1918

198.18.0.0/15
Network benchmark tests
RFC 2544

198.51.100.0/24
TEST-NET-2, documentation and examples
RFC 5737

203.0.113.0/24
TEST-NET-3, documentation and examples
RFC 5737

224.0.0.0/4
IP multicast (former Class D network)
RFC 5771

240.0.0.0/4
Reserved (former Class E network)
RFC 1700

255.255.255.255
Broadcast
RFC 919

text: Private networks[edit]

text: Of the approximately four billion addresses defined in IPv4, three ranges are reserved for use in private networks. Packets addresses in these ranges are not routable in the public Internet, because they are ignored by all public routers. Therefore, private hosts cannot directly communicate with public networks, but require network address translation at a routing gateway for this purpose.

text:
Name
Address range
Number of addresses
Classful description
Largest CIDR block

24-bit block
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
16777216
Single Class A
10.0.0.0/8

20-bit block
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
1048576
Contiguous range of 16 Class B blocks
172.16.0.0/12

16-bit block
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
65536
Contiguous range of 256 Class C blocks
192.168.0.0/16

text: Since two private networks, e.g., two branch offices, cannot directly interoperate via the public Internet, the two networks must be bridged across the Internet via a virtual private network (VPN) or an IP tunnel, which encapsulate the packet in a protocol layer during transmission across the public network. Additionally, encapsulated packets may be encrypted for the transmission across public networks to secure the data.

text: Link-local addressing[edit]

text: RFC 3927 defines the special address block 169.254.0.0/16 for link-local addressing. These addresses are only valid on links (such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection) connected to a host. These addresses are not routable. Like private addresses, these addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the internet. These addresses are primarily used for address autoconfiguration (Zeroconf) when a host cannot obtain an IP address from a DHCP server or other internal configuration methods.

text: When the address block was reserved, no standards existed for address autoconfiguration. Microsoft created an implementation called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA), which was deployed on millions of machines and became a de facto standard. Many years later, in May 2005, the IETF defined a formal standard in RFC 3927, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.

text: Loopback[edit]

text: The class A network 127.0.0.0 (classless network 127.0.0.0/8) is reserved for loopback. IP packets whose source addresses belong to this network should never appear outside a host. The modus operandi of this network expands upon that of a loopback interface:

text:
IP packets whose source and destination addresses belong to the network (or subnetwork) of the same loopback interface are returned to that interface;
IP packets whose source and destination addresses belong to networks (or subnetworks) of different interfaces of the same host, one of them being a loopback interface, are forwarded regularly.

text: Addresses ending in 0 or 255[edit]

text: Networks with subnet masks of at least 24 bits, i.e. Class C networks in classful networking, and networks with CIDR suffixes /24 to /32 (255.255.255.0–255.255.255.255) may not have an address ending in 0 or 255.

text: Classful addressing prescribed only three possible subnet masks: Class A, 255.0.0.0 or /8; Class B, 255.255.0.0 or /16; and Class C, 255.255.255.0 or /24. For example, in the subnet 192.168.5.0/255.255.255.0 (192.168.5.0/24) the identifier 192.168.5.0 commonly is used to refer to the entire subnet. To avoid ambiguity in representation, the address ending in the octet 0 is reserved.

text: A broadcast address[1] is an address that allows information to be sent to all interfaces in a given subnet, rather than a specific machine. Generally, the broadcast address is found by obtaining the bit complement of the subnet mask and performing a bitwise OR operation with the network identifier. In other words, the broadcast address is the last address in the address range of the subnet. For example, the broadcast address for the network 192.168.5.0 is 192.168.5.255. For networks of size /24 or larger, the broadcast address always ends in 255.

text: However, this does not mean that every address ending in 0 or 255 cannot be used as a host address. For example, in the /16 subnet 192.168.0.0/255.255.0.0, which is equivalent to the address range 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255, the broadcast address is 192.168.255.255. One can use the following addresses for hosts, even though they end with 255: 192.168.1.255, 192.168.2.255, etc. Also, 192.168.0.0 is the network identifier and must not be assigned to an interface.[4] The addresses 192.168.1.0, 192.168.2.0, etc., may be assigned, despite ending with 0.

text: In the past, conflict between network addresses and broadcast addresses arose because some software used non-standard broadcast addresses with zeros instead of ones.[5]

text: In networks smaller than /24, broadcast addresses do not necessarily end with 255. For example, a CIDR subnet 203.0.113.16/28 has the broadcast address 203.0.113.31.

text: Address resolution[edit]

text: Hosts on the Internet are usually known by names, e.g., www.example.com, not primarily by their IP address, which is used for routing and network interface identification. The use of domain names requires translating, called resolving, them to addresses and vice versa. This is analogous to looking up a phone number in a phone book using the recipient's name.

text: The translation between addresses and domain names is performed by the Domain Name System (DNS), a hierarchical, distributed naming system which allows for subdelegation of name spaces to other DNS servers.

text: Address space exhaustion[edit]

text: Since the 1980s, it was apparent that the pool of available IPv4 addresses was being depleted at a rate that was not initially anticipated in the original design of the network address system.[6] The main market forces which accelerated IPv4 address depletion included:

text:
Rapidly growing number of Internet users
Always-on devices — ADSL modems, cable modems
Mobile devices — laptop computers, PDAs, mobile phones.

text: The threat of exhaustion motivated the introduction of a number of remedial technologies, such as classful networks, Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) methods, network address translation (NAT) and strict usage-based allocation policies. To provide a long-term solution to the pending address exhaustion, IPv6 was created in the 1990s, which made many more addresses available by increasing the address size to 128 bits. IPv6 has been in commercial deployment since 2006.

text: The primary address pool of the Internet, maintained by IANA, was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last 5 blocks were allocated to the 5 RIRs.[7][8] APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6, which will be allocated under a much more restricted policy.[9]

text: The accepted and standard long term solution is to use IPv6 which increased the address size to 128 bits, providing a vastly increased address space that also allows improved route aggregation across the Internet and offers large subnetwork allocations of a minimum of 264 host addresses to end-users. However IPv4-only hosts cannot directly communicate with IPv6-only hosts so IPv6 alone does not provide an immediate solution to the IPv4 exhaustion problem. Migration to IPv6 is in progress but completion is expected to take considerable time.[citation needed]

text: Packet structure[edit]

text: An IP packet consists of a header section and a data section.

text: An IP packet has no data checksum or any other footer after the data section. Typically the link layer encapsulates IP packets in frames with a CRC footer that detects most errors, and typically the end-to-end TCP layer checksum detects most other errors.[10]

text: Header[edit]

text: The IPv4 packet header consists of 14 fields, of which 13 are required. The 14th field is optional and aptly named: options. The fields in the header are packed with the most significant byte first (big endian), and for the diagram and discussion, the most significant bits are considered to come first (MSB 0 bit numbering). The most significant bit is numbered 0, so the version field is actually found in the four most significant bits of the first byte, for example.

text:
IPv4 Header Format

Offsets
Octet
0
1
2
3

Octet
Bit
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

0
0
Version
IHL
DSCP
ECN
Total Length

4
32
Identification
Flags
Fragment Offset

8
64
Time To Live
Protocol
Header Checksum

12
96
Source IP Address

16
128
Destination IP Address

20
160
Options (if IHL > 5)

24
192

28
224

32
256

text:
bit 0: Reserved; must be zero.[note 1]
bit 1: Don't Fragment (DF)
bit 2: More Fragments (MF)

text: When a packet arrives at a router, the router decreases the TTL field. Consequently, the router must calculate a new checksum. RFC 791 defines the checksum calculation:

text: The checksum field is the 16-bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16-bit words in the header. For purposes of computing the checksum, the value of the checksum field is zero.

text: For example, consider hex 7019184467440737095♠4500003044224000800600008C7C19ACAE241E2B16 (20 bytes IP header), using a machine which uses standard two's complement arithmetic:

text:
7004176640000000000♠450016 + 7001480000000000000♠003016 + 7004174420000000000♠442216 + 7004163840000000000♠400016 + 7004327740000000000♠800616 + 5000000000000000000♠000016 + 7004359640000000000♠8C7C16 + 7003657200000000000♠19AC16 + 7004445800000000000♠AE2416 + 7003772300000000000♠1E2B16 = 0002BBCF (32-bit sum)
7000200000000000000♠000216 + 7004480790000000000♠BBCF16 = 7004480810000000000♠BBD116 = 7004480810000000000♠10111011110100012 (1's complement 16-bit sum, formed by "end around carry" of 32-bit 2's complement sum)
~7004480810000000000♠BBD116 = 7004174540000000000♠01000100001011102 = 7004174540000000000♠442E16 (1's complement of 1's complement 16-bit sum)

text: To validate a header's checksum the same algorithm may be used – the checksum of a header which contains a correct checksum field is a word containing all zeros (value 0):

text:
7004176640000000000♠450016 + 7001480000000000000♠003016 + 7004174420000000000♠442216 + 7004163840000000000♠400016 + 7004327740000000000♠800616 + 7004174540000000000♠442E16 + 7004359640000000000♠8C7C16 + 7003657200000000000♠19AC16 + 7004445800000000000♠AE2416 + 7003772300000000000♠1E2B16 = 7005196605000000000♠2FFFD16
7000200000000000000♠000216 + 7004655330000000000♠FFFD16 = 7004655350000000000♠FFFF16
~7004655350000000000♠FFFF16 = 5000000000000000000♠000016

text:
Field
Size (bits)
Description

Copied
1
Set to 1 if the options need to be copied into all fragments of a fragmented packet.

Option Class
2
A general options category. 0 is for "control" options, and 2 is for "debugging and measurement". 1, and 3 are reserved.

Option Number
5
Specifies an option.

Option Length
8
Indicates the size of the entire option (including this field). This field may not exist for simple options.

Option Data
Variable
Option-specific data. This field may not exist for simple options.

text:
Note: If the header length is greater than 5 (i.e., it is from 6 to 15) it means that the options field is present and must be considered.
Note: Copied, Option Class, and Option Number are sometimes referred to as a single eight-bit field, the Option Type.

text: Packets containing some options may be considered as dangerous by some routers and be blocked.[13]

text: Data[edit]

text: The data portion of the packet is not included in the packet checksum. Its contents are interpreted based on the value of the Protocol header field.

text: Some of the common protocols for the data portion are listed below:

text:
Protocol Number
Protocol Name
Abbreviation

1
Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP

2
Internet Group Management Protocol
IGMP

6
Transmission Control Protocol
TCP

17
User Datagram Protocol
UDP

41
IPv6 encapsulation
ENCAP

89
Open Shortest Path First
OSPF

132
Stream Control Transmission Protocol
SCTP

text: See List of IP protocol numbers for a complete list.

text: Fragmentation and reassembly[edit]

text: The Internet Protocol enables networks to communicate with one another. The design accommodates networks of diverse physical nature; it is independent of the underlying transmission technology used in the Link Layer. Networks with different hardware usually vary not only in transmission speed, but also in the maximum transmission unit (MTU). When one network wants to transmit datagrams to a network with a smaller MTU, it may fragment its datagrams. In IPv4, this function was placed at the Internet Layer, and is performed in IPv4 routers, which thus only require this layer as the highest one implemented in their design.

text: In contrast, IPv6, the next generation of the Internet Protocol, does not allow routers to perform fragmentation; hosts must determine the path MTU before sending datagrams.

text: Fragmentation[edit]

text: When a router receives a packet, it examines the destination address and determines the outgoing interface to use and that interface's MTU. If the packet size is bigger than the MTU, and the Do not Fragment (DF) bit in the packet's header is set to 0, then the router may fragment the packet.

text: The router divides the packet into fragments. The max size of each fragment is the MTU minus the IP header size (20 bytes minimum; 60 bytes maximum). The router puts each fragment into its own packet, each fragment packet having following changes:

text:
The total length field is the fragment size.
The more fragments (MF) flag is set for all fragments except the last one, which is set to 0.
The fragment offset field is set, based on the offset of the fragment in the original data payload. This is measured in units of eight-byte blocks.
The header checksum field is recomputed.

text: For example, for an MTU of 1,500 bytes and a header size of 20 bytes, the fragment offsets would be multiples of (1500–20)/8 = 185. These multiples are 0, 185, 370, 555, 740, ...

text: It is possible for a packet to be fragmented at one router, and for the fragments to be fragmented at another router. For example, consider a Transport layer segment with size of 4,500 bytes, no options, and IP header size of 20 bytes. So the IP packet size is 4,520 bytes. Assume that the packet travels over a link with an MTU of 2,500 bytes. Then it will become two fragments:

text:
Fragment
Total bytes
Header bytes
Data bytes
"More fragments" flag
Fragment offset (8-byte blocks)

1
2500
20
2480
1
0

2
2040
20
2020
0
310

text: Note that the fragments preserve the data size: 2480 + 2020 = 4500.

text: Note how we get the offsets from the data sizes:

text:
0.
0 + 2480/8 = 310.

text: Assume that these fragments reach a link with an MTU of 1,500 bytes. Each fragment will become two fragments:

text:
Fragment
Total bytes
Header bytes
Data bytes
"More fragments" flag
Fragment offset (8-byte blocks)

1
1500
20
1480
1
0

2
1020
20
1000
1
185

3
1500
20
1480
1
310

4
560
20
540
0
495

text: Note that the fragments preserve the data size: 1480 + 1000 = 2480, and 1480 + 540 = 2020.

text: Also in this case, the More Fragments bit remains 1 for ALL the fragments that came with 1 in them and for the last fragment that arrives, it works as usual, that is the MF bit is set to 0 only in the last one. And of course, the Identification field continues to have the same value in all re-fragmented fragments. This way, even if fragments are re-fragmented, the receiver knows they have initially all started from the same packet.

text:
0.
0 + 1480/8 = 185
185 + 1000/8 = 310
310 + 1480/8 = 495

text: We can use the last offset and last data size to calculate the total data size: 495*8 + 540 = 3960 + 540 = 4500.

text: Reassembly[edit]

text: A receiver knows that a packet is a fragment if at least one of the following conditions is true:

text:
The "more fragments" flag is set. (This is true for all fragments except the last.)
The "fragment offset" field is nonzero. (This is true for all fragments except the first.)

text: The receiver identifies matching fragments using the foreign and local internet address, the protocol ID, and the identification field. The receiver will reassemble the data from fragments with the same ID using both the fragment offset and the more fragments flag. When the receiver receives the last fragment (which has the "more fragments" flag set to 0), it can calculate the length of the original data payload, by multiplying the last fragment's offset by eight, and adding the last fragment's data size. In the example above, this calculation was 495*8 + 540 = 4500 bytes.

text: When the receiver has all the fragments, it can put them in the correct order, by using their offsets. It can then pass their data up the stack for further processing.

text: Assistive protocols[edit]

text: The Internet Protocol is the protocol that defines and enables internetworking at the Internet Layer and thus forms the Internet. It uses a logical addressing system. IP addresses are not tied in any permanent manner to hardware identifications and, indeed, a network interface can have multiple IP addresses. Hosts and routers need additional mechanisms to identify the relationship between device interfaces and IP addresses, in order to properly deliver an IP packet to the destination host on a link. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) performs this IP-address-to-hardware-address translation for IPv4. (A hardware address is also called a MAC address.) In addition, the reverse correlation is often necessary. For example, when an IP host is booted or connected to a network it needs to determine its IP address, unless an address is preconfigured by an administrator. Protocols for such inverse correlations exist in the Internet Protocol Suite. Currently used methods are Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) and, infrequently, reverse ARP.


document_title: The Post (film)

question_text: when did the movie the post go into production

text: The Post (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1966 Vietnam, State Department military analyst Daniel Ellsberg accompanies U.S. troops in combat, documenting the progress of U.S. military activities in the region for Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. On the return flight home, McNamara expresses to Ellsberg and William Macomber his view that the war in Vietnam is hopeless, yet, upon landing, McNamara expresses to the press his confidence in the war effort. Ellsberg overhears this, and becomes disillusioned. Years later, now working for the RAND Corporation, a civilian military contractor, Ellsberg surreptitiously photocopies classified reports documenting the country's decades-long involvement in the conflict in Vietnam, dating back to the Truman administration. Ellsberg then leaks these documents to reporters at The New York Times.

text: Newspaper heiress Katharine Graham tries to balance her social life with her responsibility as owner and publisher of The Washington Post, following the deaths of her husband, and her father. She is troubled over preparations for the newspaper's stock market launch, a move she recognizes as important for strengthening the paper's economic stability. Graham lacks experience and is frequently overruled by more assertive men who advise or work for her, such as editor-in-chief Ben Bradlee, and board member Arthur Parsons. Bradlee tries in vain to match The New York Times's ability to get scoops. Meanwhile, McNamara, Graham's longtime friend, confides in her that he is to be the subject of unflattering coverage by the Times. The story turns out to be an exposé of the government's long-running deception of the American public. However, the series is halted by a court injunction against further publication by the Times.

text: Post assistant editor Ben Bagdikian tracks down Ellsberg as the source for the leak, who provides Bagdikian with copies of the same material given to the Times. A hand-picked team of Post reporters sorts through the piles of papers, searching for the headline stories. The lawyers for the Post advise against publishing the material, lest the Nixon administration bring criminal charges against them. Graham talks to McNamara, Bradlee, and trusted Post chairman Fritz Beebe, agonizing over the decision of whether to publish. The situation is made even more complicated when the Post's lawyers discover that Bagdikian's source is the same as the Times's, possibly putting Graham in contempt of court. If charges are brought against the company, Graham could destroy the newspaper she sees as a family legacy. Alternately, if she were to win any legal challenge, the Post could instead establish itself as an important journalistic institution. She chooses to run the story.

text: The White House retaliates, and in short order the Post and Times appear together before the Supreme Court to plead their First Amendment argument for the right to publish the material. Meanwhile, newspapers across the country pick up the story in solidarity with the Post and Times. The court rules 6–3 in the newspapers' favor, vindicating Graham's decision. Nixon demands that the Post should be barred from the White House. One year later, a security guard discovers a break-in in progress at the Watergate complex.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham
Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee
Sarah Paulson as Antoinette "Tony" Pinchot Bradlee
Bob Odenkirk as Ben Bagdikian
Tracy Letts as Fritz Beebe
Bradley Whitford as Arthur Parsons
Bruce Greenwood as Robert McNamara
Matthew Rhys as Daniel Ellsberg
Alison Brie as Lally Graham
Carrie Coon as Meg Greenfield
Jesse Plemons as Roger Clark
David Cross as Howard Simons
Michael Stuhlbarg as A. M. Rosenthal
Zach Woods as Anthony Essaye
Pat Healy as Philip L. Geyelin
John Rue as Gene Patterson
Rick Holmes as Murrey Marder
Philip Casnoff as Chalmers Roberts
Jessie Mueller as Judith Martin
Stark Sands as Donald E. Graham
Michael Cyril Creighton as Jake
Brent Langdon as Paul Ignatius
Christopher Innvar as James L. Greenfield
James Riordan as Vice Admiral Joseph Francis Blouin
Kelly AuCoin as Assistant Attorney General Maroney
Cotter Smith as William Macomber
Jennifer Dundas as Liz Hylton

text: Production[edit]

text: In October 2016 Amy Pascal won a bid for the rights to the screenplay The Post, written by Liz Hannah.[14] In February 2017, Steven Spielberg had halted pre-production on The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara after a casting setback, and consequently opened his schedule to other potential films to direct.[4] The following month, it was announced that Spielberg was in negotiations to direct and produce the film, with Meryl Streep and Tom Hanks in talks for the roles of Katharine Graham and Ben Bradlee, respectively.[15] The Post is the first time that Spielberg, Streep, and Hanks had all worked together on a film.[16][17]

text: Spielberg read the screenplay and decided to direct the film as soon as possible, citing that "when I read the first draft of the script, this wasn't something that could wait three years or two years — this was a story I felt we needed to tell today."[18] Spielberg worked on The Post while post-production work continued on the visual-effects-heavy Ready Player One, a situation familiar to him from concurrently producing, in the early 1990s, Jurassic Park and Schindler's List.[19] Josh Singer was hired to re-write the screenplay ten weeks before filming.[20]

text: As filming commenced, a number of New York Times figures who were associated with the Pentagon Papers case—among them James Greenfield, James Goodale, Allan Siegal, and Max Frankel—objected to the film's production due to the script's lack of emphasis on the Times' role in breaking the story.[21] Goodale, who was at the time the Times's in-house counsel, later called the film "a good movie but bad history."[22]

text: Filming[edit]

text: The film began principal photography in New York on May 30, 2017.[23] On June 6, 2017, it was announced that the project, retitled The Papers, would also star Alison Brie, Carrie Coon, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Tracy Letts, Bob Odenkirk, Sarah Paulson, Jesse Plemons, Matthew Rhys, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bradley Whitford, and Zach Woods.[24] On August 25, 2017, the film's title reverted to The Post.[25] Spielberg finished the final cut of the film on November 6, 2017, with the final sound mix also completed along with the musical score a week later, on November 13.[26]

text: Costume design[edit]

text: Writing for The New York Times, Manogla Dargis indicated some high points in the costume design used in the film stating, "The costume designer Ann Roth subtly brightens Katharine, taking her from leaden gray to free-flowing gold.".[27]

text: Music[edit]

text:
When Steven first approached me about [The Post], we talked about Kay Graham and Ben Bradlee and what opportunities the film might present for me. When I've thought about it, I've never been in a newsroom – you know, with the clattering of a thousand typewriters in those days... Now no one's using them, it's all silent. But it must have been quite a noisy environment, really – everyone running back and forth. So I thought, "Well, how are you gonna get any music in a newsroom?"

—John Williams on composing the score

tag: div

text: The score for the film was written by John Williams; it is his 28th collaboration with Spielberg.[28] The music is a combination of traditional orchestral instrumentation and what Williams has called "very light, computerised electronic effects."[29] Williams was originally attached to write the music for Spielberg's Ready Player One, but, because both films had similar post-production schedules, Williams chose to work on The Post, while Alan Silvestri composed for Ready Player One. [29] Spielberg has said that The Post was a rare instance in which he went to the recording sessions "having not heard a note" in advance.[30]

text: Recording began on October 30, 2017 in Los Angeles.[31] The soundtrack was released digitally by Sony Classical Records on December 22, 2017 and in physical form on January 12, 2018.[32]

text:
The Post (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)

Film score by John Williams

Released

December 22, 2017 (2017-12-22) (Digital)
January 12, 2018 (2018-01-12) (Physical)

Genre
Soundtrack

Length
40:10

Label
Sony Classical

Producer
John Williams

John Williams chronology

Star Wars:
The Last Jedi
(2017)String Module Error: Match not found2017
The Post
(2017)

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"The Papers"
3:56

2.
"The Presses Roll"
5:01

3.
"Nixon's Order"
1:47

4.
"The Oak Room, 1971"
1:46

5.
"Setting the Type"
2:34

6.
"Mother and Daughter"
3:23

7.
"Scanning the Papers"
2:23

8.
"Two Martini Lunch"
2:34

9.
"Deciding to Publish"
5:42

10.
"The Court's Decision and End Credits"
11:04

Total length:
40:10

text: Release[edit]

text: The Post premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017.[33] It began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 22, 2017, and a wide release on January 12, 2018.[34] The film is distributed internationally through Amblin Partners' distribution agreements with Universal Pictures, Reliance Entertainment, and Entertainment One Films.[35] The film was released by Reliance in India.[36] Tom Hanks has expressed disinterest in appearing at a potential White House screening for Donald Trump.[37]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The first official image from The Post was released on October 31, 2017.[38] The trailer for The Post premiered exclusively on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, on November 7, 2017,[39] and the film's poster, designed by BLT Communications, was released the next day.[40][41] The first TV spot, titled "Uncover the Truth", was released on November 21, 2017.[42][43]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of April 1, 2018[update], The Post has grossed $81.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $87 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $168.7 million, against a production budget of $50 million.[5]

text: During The Post's limited opening weekend, December 22 to 24, it grossed $526,011 (and a total of $762,057 over the four-day Christmas weekend) from nine theaters. The following weekend, the film grossed $561,080 for a per-theater average of $62,342, one of the highest of 2017.[44] The film had its wide release alongside the openings of The Commuter, Paddington 2 and Proud Mary, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 2,819 theaters over the weekend.[45] It made $5.9 million on its first day and $18.6 million over the weekend (and a four-day MLK weekend total of $23.4 million), finishing second at the box office behind holdover Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle.[46] 66% of its opening weekend audience was over the age of 35.[47] It dropped 37% the following weekend to $12.2 million, finishing 4th behind Jumanji and newcomers 12 Strong and Den of Thieves.[48] It dropped to 5th in its third week of wide release, grossing $8.9 million.[49]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 321 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The Post's period setting belies its bitingly timely themes, brought compellingly to life by director Steven Spielberg and an outstanding ensemble cast."[50] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[51] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale,[46][52] while PostTrak reported 63% of audience members gave the film a "definite recommend".[47]

text: Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the acting and Spielberg's direction, though noted the script as being too on-the-nose at times, saying, "The Post passes the trickiest tests of a historical drama: It makes us understand that decisions that have been validated by the lens of history were difficult ones to make in the moment, and it generates suspense over how all the pieces fell into place to make those decisions come to fruition."[53] David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film an A– and wrote: "Nobody needs to be reminded that history tends to go in circles, but The Post is so vital because it captures the ecstasy of trying to break the chain and bend things towards justice; defending the fundamental tenets of the Constitution hasn't been this much fun since Hamilton."[54]

text: Chris Nashawaty, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the film a positive review, but also compared it with previous journalism films such as All the President's Men and stating: "Spielberg makes these crucial days in American history easy to follow. But if you look at The Post next to something like All the President's Men, you see the difference between having a story passively explained to you and actively helping to untangle it. That's a small quibble with an urgent and impeccably acted film. But it's also the difference between a very good movie and a great one."[55]

text: Manohla Dargis of The New York Times awarded the film an NYT Critic's Pick with a strong acknowledgment of Spielberg as director stating, "Mostly, (the Post decision to publish) went down fast, a pace that Mr. Spielberg conveys with accelerated rhythms, flying feet, racing cameras and an enjoyably loose approach to the material. With his virtuosic, veteran crew, Mr. Spielberg paints the scene vividly and with daubs of beauty; most notably, he creates distinct visual realms for the story’s two main overlapping, at times colliding worlds. Katharine reigns over one; at first she’s all but entombed in her darkly lighted, wood-paneled empire. Ben rules the other, overseeing the talking and typing warriors of the glaring, noisily freewheeling newsroom".[56]

text: Matt Bobkin, writing for Exclaim!, gave the film a 6 out of 10 score, saying the film "has all the makings of an awards season hit, but is too calculated to reflect today's ragged, tenuous sociopolitical climate."

text: Portrayal of The New York Times[edit]

text: The film downplays the role that journalists from The New York Times had in the leak of the Pentagon Papers and emphasizes The Washington Post's involvement.[57][58] In an interview with the Columbia Journalism Review, former New York Times associates James Greenfield, who coordinated the Pentagon Papers project as the Times’ foreign editor; James Goodale, the Times’ general counsel at the time; and Max Frankel, the Times' Washington bureau chief when the Papers were published, criticized the film's more minor portrayal of the paper.[59] The New York Times had not only published the Pentagon Papers before The Washington Post, but had also set the stage for the major legal battle between the press and the United States government.[57] The newspaper also won the 1972 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its contributions. The 1972 Pulitzer jury of journalists noted in their recommendation not only the significance of Daniel Ellsberg's Pentagon Papers leak, but also that of Times reporters Neil Sheehan, Hedrick Smith, Fox Butterfield and E. W. Kenworthy, and stated that their effort was “a combination of investigative reporting, analysis, research, and writing — all of which added to a distinctly meritorious public service, not only for readers of The Times but also for an entire nation.”[58] Goodale noted in an article for The Daily Beast that the Times published the Papers after Ellsberg had leaked them to Sheehan, and further stated that the film "creates a false impression that the Post was a major player in such publication. It’s as though Hollywood had made a movie about the Times’ triumphant role in Watergate."[22] On PBS NewsHour, Goodale further said, “Although a producer has artistic license, I think it should be limited in a situation such as this, so that the public comes away with an understanding of what the true facts are in this case . . . And I think that if you’re doing a movie now, when [President Donald] Trump is picking on the press for ‘fake news’, you want to be authentic. You don’t want to be in any way fake.”[60]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
Ref.

AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards
February 5, 2018
Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated
[61]
[62]

Best Actor
Tom Hanks
Nominated

Best Director
Steven Spielberg
Nominated

Best Time Capsule
The Post
Nominated

Readers' Choice Poll
The Post
Nominated

Academy Awards
March 4, 2018
Best Picture
Amy Pascal, Steven Spielberg and Kristie Macosko Krieger
Nominated
[63]
[64]

Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated

Alliance of Women Film Journalists
January 9, 2018
Best Ensemble Cast – Casting Director
Ellen Lewis
Nominated
[65]

Best Woman Screenwriter
Liz Hannah and Josh Singer
Nominated

American Cinema Editors
January 26, 2018
Best Edited Feature Film – Dramatic
Michael Kahn and Sarah Broshar
Nominated
[66]

American Film Institute
January 5, 2018
Top Ten Films of the Year
The Post
Won
[67]

Art Directors Guild
January 27, 2018
Excellence in Production Design for a Period Film
Rick Carter
Nominated
[68]

Casting Society of America
January 18, 2018
Big Budget – Drama
Rori Bergman, Karlee Fomalont, Ellen Lewis and Kate Sprance
Nominated
[69]

Cinema For Peace Awards
February 19, 2018
Most Valuable Film of the Year
The Post
Won
[70]

Critics' Choice Movie Awards
January 11, 2018
Best Acting Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Nominated
[71]

Best Actor
Tom Hanks
Nominated

Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated

Best Director
Steven Spielberg
Nominated

Best Editing
Michael Kahn and Sarah Broshar
Nominated

Best Original Screenplay
Liz Hannah and Josh Singer
Nominated

Best Picture
The Post
Nominated

Best Score
John Williams
Nominated

Dallas–Fort Worth Film Critics Association
December 13, 2017
Best Film
The Post
2nd Place
[72]

Best Director
Steven Spielberg
4th Place

Best Actor
Tom Hanks
5th Place

Best Actress
Meryl Streep
5th Place

Detroit Film Critics Society
December 7, 2017
Best Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Won
[73]

Best Screenplay
Liz Hannah and Josh Singer
Nominated

Florida Film Critics Circle
December 23, 2017
Best Cinematography
Janusz Kamiński
Nominated
[74]
[75]

Georgia Film Critics Association
January 12, 2018
Best Production Design
Rick Carter, Kim Jennings and Deborah Jensen
Nominated
[76]

Best Original Score
John Williams
Nominated

Best Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Nominated

Gold Derby Awards
February 1, 2018
Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated
[77]

Golden Globe Awards
January 7, 2018
Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama
Tom Hanks
Nominated
[78]

Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama
Meryl Streep
Nominated

Best Director
Steven Spielberg
Nominated

Best Motion Picture – Drama
The Post
Nominated

Best Original Score
John Williams
Nominated

Best Screenplay
Liz Hannah and Josh Singer
Nominated

Houston Film Critics Society
January 6, 2018
Best Director
Steven Spielberg
Nominated
[79]

Best Original Screenplay
Liz Hannah and Josh Singer
Nominated

Best Picture
The Post
Nominated

Best Score
John Williams
Nominated

Humanitas Prize
February 16, 2018
Feature – Drama
Liz Hannah and Josh Singer
Nominated
[80]

IndieWire Critics Poll
December 19, 2017
Best Picture
The Post
10th Place
[81]

National Board of Review
January 4, 2018
Best Actor
Tom Hanks
Won
[82]
[83]

Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Won

Best Film
The Post
Won

National Society of Film Critics
January 6, 2018
Best Supporting Actor
Michael Stuhlbarg
2nd Place[a]
[84]

New York Film Critics Online
December 10, 2017
Top 10 Films
The Post
Won
[85]

Online Film Critics Society
December 28, 2017
Best Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Nominated
[86]
[87]

Producers Guild of America Awards
January 20, 2018
Best Theatrical Motion Picture
Amy Pascal, Steven Spielberg and Kristie Macosko Krieger
Nominated
[88]

San Diego Film Critics Society
December 11, 2017
Best Editing
Michael Kahn and Sarah Broshar
Nominated
[89]

Best Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Nominated

San Francisco Film Critics Circle
December 10, 2017
Best Editing
Michael Kahn
Nominated
[90]

Saturn Awards
June 2018
Best Thriller Film
The Post
Pending
[91]

Seattle Film Critics Society
December 18, 2017
Best Picture of the Year
The Post
Nominated
[92]

Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated

Best Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Nominated

St. Louis Film Critics Association
December 17, 2017
Best Actor
Tom Hanks
Nominated
[93]

Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated

Best Director
Steven Spielberg
Nominated

Best Editing
Michael Kahn and Sarah Broshar
Nominated

Best Original Score
John Williams
Nominated

Best Picture
The Post
Runner-up

Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association
December 8, 2017
Best Actress
Meryl Streep
Nominated
[94]

Best Ensemble
The cast of The Post
Nominated

Best Portrayal of Washington D.C.
The Post
Won

Women Film Critics Circle
December 17, 2017
Karen Morley Award
The Post
Nominated
[95]
[96]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Also nominated for Call Me by Your Name and The Shape of Water