document_title: Ultraviolet

question_text: which wavelengths of radiation are likely to cause photokeratitis

question_tokens: which wavelengths of radiation are likely to cause photokeratitis

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text: Ultraviolet

text: Visibility[edit]

text: Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea.[4]  Humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV as whitish-blue or whitish-violet.[5] Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm.[6][7] Near-UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this gives birds "true" UV vision.[8][9]

tag: p

text: Discovery[edit]

text: "Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin ultra, "beyond"), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light.

text:
UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He called them "oxidizing rays" to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays", discovered the previous year at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays" was adopted shortly thereafter, and it remained popular throughout the 19th century, although there were those who held that these were an entirely different sort of radiation from light (notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays"[10][11]). The terms chemical rays and heat rays were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.[12][13]
In 1878 the sterilizing effect of short-wavelength light by killing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm. In 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.[14]

text: The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below 200 nm, named "vacuum ultraviolet" because it is strongly absorbed by the air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann.[15]

text: Subtypes[edit]

text: The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as 10–400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO standard ISO-21348:[16]

text:
Name

Abbreviation

Wavelength(nm)

Photon energy(eV, aJ)

Notes/alternative names

Ultraviolet A

UVA

315–400

3.10–3.94(0.497–0.631)

Long-wave, black light, not absorbed by the ozone layer

Ultraviolet B

UVB

280–315

3.94–4.43(0.631–0.710)

Medium-wave, mostly absorbed by the ozone layer

Ultraviolet C

UVC

100–280

4.43–12.4(0.710–1.987)

Short-wave, germicidal, completely absorbed by the ozone layer and atmosphere

tag: table

text:
Name

Abbreviation

Wavelength(nm)

Photon energy(eV, aJ)

Notes/alternative names

Near ultraviolet

NUV

300–400

3.10–4.13(0.497–0.662)

Middle ultraviolet

MUV

200–300

4.13–6.20(0.662–0.993)

Far ultraviolet

FUV

122–200

6.20–12.4(0.993–1.987)

HydrogenLyman-alpha

H Lyman-α

121–122

10.16–10.25(1.628–1.642)

Spectral line at 121.6 nm, 10.20 eV.Ionizing radiation at shorter wavelengths

text:
Name

Abbreviation

Wavelength(nm)

Photon energy(eV, aJ)

Notes/alternative names

Vacuum ultraviolet

VUV

10–200

6.20–124(0.993–19.867)

Strongly absorbed by atmospheric oxygen,though 150–200 nm wavelengths can propagate through nitrogen

Extreme ultraviolet

EUV

10–121

10.25–124(1.642–19.867)

Entirely ionizing radiation by some definitions;completely absorbed by the atmosphere

text: A variety of solid-state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different parts of the UV spectrum. Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing devices, but these can suffer from unwanted response to visible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV spectrum. Sensitive ultraviolet photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used across the spectrum.[17]

text: Vacuum UV, or VUV, wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in the air, though the longer wavelengths of about 150–200 nm can propagate through nitrogen. Scientific instruments can therefore utilize this spectral range by operating in an oxygen-free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen), without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant examples include 193 nm photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing) and circular dichroism spectrometers.

text: Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many decades. While optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that contaminates the VUV, in general, detectors can be limited by their response to non-VUV radiation, and the development of "solar-blind" devices has been an important area of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum devices with high-cutoff photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes.

text: Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics of interaction with matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wavelengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner-shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV spectrum is set by a prominent He+ spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but it is possible to synthesize multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50 percent of EUV radiation at normal incidence. This technology was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, and it has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging. See also the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) satellite.

text: Some sources use the distinction of "hard UV" and "soft UV" - in the case of astrophysics the boundary may be at the Lyman limit i.e. wavelength 91.2 nm, with "hard UV" being more energetic.[18] The same terms may also used in other fields, such as cosmetology, optoelectronic, etc. - the numerical value of the boundary between hard/soft even within similar scientific fields do not necessarily coincide; for example one applied physics publication used a boundary of 190 nm between hard and soft UV regions.[19]

text: Solar ultraviolet[edit]

text: Very  hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m2 in vacuum.[20]

text: However, at ground level sunlight is 44% visible light, 3% ultraviolet (with the Sun at its zenith), and the remainder infrared.[21][22] Thus, the atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV, almost entirely in the shorter UV wavelengths, when the Sun is highest in the sky (zenith). Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's surface, more than 95% is the longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder UVB. There is essentially no UVC.[23] The fraction of UVB which remains in UV radiation after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. Thick clouds may block up to 90% of UVB radiation,[24] but in "partly cloudy" days, patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue light from those parts of the sky. UV-B also plays a major role in plant development as it affects most of the plant hormones.[25]

text: The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic UV radiation produced by the Sun, are absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.

text: Blockers and absorbers[edit]

text: Ultraviolet absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV radiation to reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a material. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is necessary.

text: In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone[26] and octyl methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or "blockers". They are contrasted with inorganic absorbers/"blockers" of UV radiation such as carbon black, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide.

text: For clothing, the Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPF of approximately 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.

text: Suspended nanoparticles in stained glass prevent UV rays from causing chemical reactions that change image colors. A set of stained glass color reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV present at the surface of Mars.[27]

text: Common soda–lime glass is partially transparent to UVA but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, whereas fused quartz glass, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Ordinary window glass passes about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but blocks over 90% of the light below 300 nm.[28][29][30]

text: Wood's glass is a nickel-bearing form of glass with a deep blue-purple color that blocks most visible light and passes ultraviolet.

text: Artificial sources[edit]

text: "Black lights"[edit]

text: A black light lamp emits long-wave UVA radiation and little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps work similarly to other fluorescent lamps, but use a phosphor on the inner tube surface which emits UVA radiation instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep-bluish-purple Wood's glass optical filter that blocks almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometres.[31] Others use plain glass instead of the more expensive Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating. A black light may also be formed, very inefficiently, by using a layer of Wood's glass in the envelope for an incandescent bulb. Though cheaper than fluorescent UV lamps, only 0.1% of the input power is emitted as usable ultraviolet radiation. Mercury-vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV-emitting phosphor and an envelope of Wood's glass are used for theatrical and concert displays. Black lights are used in applications in which extraneous visible light must be minimized; mainly to observe fluorescence, the colored glow that many substances give off when exposed to UV light.   UVA/UVB emitting bulbs are also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile-keeping.

text: Short-wave ultraviolet lamps[edit]

text: Shortwave UV lamps are made using a lamp tube with no phosphor coating composed of fused quartz, since ordinary glass absorbs UVC. These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UVC band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp, as well as some visible light. From 85% to 90% of the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only 5–10% is at 185 nm.[citation needed] The fused quartz glass tube passes the 253 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UVC power of a regular fluorescent lamp tube. These low-pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately 30–40%, meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the lamp, they will produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV output. These "germicidal" lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food-processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies.

text: Incandescent lamps[edit]

text: Incandescent lamps have been used as ultraviolet sources with a filter coating on the bulb which absorbs most visible light.  Halogen lamps with fused quartz envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light sources in the near UV range, from 400 to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments.  Due to its black-body spectrum a filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a fraction of a percent of its energy as UV.

text: Gas-discharge lamps[edit]

text: Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV radiation at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources, either windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride.[32] These are often the emitting sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for chemical analysis.

text: Other UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps (commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury-xenon arc lamps, and metal-halide arc lamps.

text: The excimer lamp, a UV source developed within the last two decades, is seeing increasing use in scientific fields. It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet.

text: Ultraviolet LEDs[edit]

text: Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit radiation in the ultraviolet range. LED efficiency at 365 nm is about 5–8%, whereas efficiency at 395 nm is closer to 20%, and power outputs at these longer UV wavelengths are also better. Such LED arrays are beginning to be used for UV curing applications, and are already successful in digital print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3 W/cm2 (30 kW/m2) are now possible, and this, coupled with recent developments by photoinitiator and resin formulators, makes the expansion of LED-cured UV materials likely.

text: UVC LEDs are beginning to be used in disinfection[33]  and as line sources to replace deuterium lamps in liquid chromatography instruments.[34]

text: Ultraviolet lasers[edit]

text: Gas lasers, laser diodes and solid-state lasers can be manufactured to emit ultraviolet rays, and lasers are available which cover the entire UV range. The nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6.6 nm, wavelength. Another type of high power gas laser is the excimer laser. They are widely used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon-fluoride (ArF) excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar2* excimer laser.

text: Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm.[35] UV diode lasers have been demonstrated using Ce:LiSAF crystals (cerium-doped lithium strontium aluminum fluoride), a process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.[36] Wavelengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially generated in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be made by applying frequency conversion to lower-frequency lasers.

text: Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine (dermatology, and keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free air secure communications, computing (optical storage) and manufacture of integrated circuits.

text: Tunable vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) via sum and difference frequency mixing[edit]

text: The vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) band (100–200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton, hydrogen which are two-photon resonant near 193 nm)[37] or metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable, the VUV can be tuned. If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the VUV production is intensified. However, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing. Difference frequency mixing (lambda1 + lambda2 − lambda3) has an advantage over sum frequency mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning.[37] In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable VUV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm.[37] Practically, the lack of suitable gas/vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride cut-off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm. Tunable VUV wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window-free configurations.[38]

text: Plasma and synchrotron sources of extreme UV[edit]

text: Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (EUV) radiation at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The EUV is not emitted by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an extremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser.[39] This technique does not require a synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X-ray spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of the UV and X-ray spectra at 10 nm.

text: Human health-related effects[edit]

text: The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.[40]

text: Beneficial effects[edit]

text: There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5 to 15 minutes of casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high.

text: UV light causes the body to produce vitamin D (specifically, UVB), which is essential for life. The human body needs some UV radiation in order for one to maintain adequate vitamin D levels; however, excess exposure produces harmful effects that typically outweigh the benefits.[41]

text: Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin. The production of serotonin is in direct proportion to the degree of bright sunlight the body receives.[42]  Serotonin is thought to provide sensations of happiness, well being and serenity to human beings.[43]

text: Skin conditions[edit]

text: UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma.[44][45] In addition, UV light, in particular UVB radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type of skin cell.[46] As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary.[47]

text: Harmful effects[edit]

text: In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute and chronic harmful effects on the eye's dioptric system and retina. The risk is elevated at high altitudes and people living in high latitude countries where snow covers the ground right into early summer and sun positions even at zenith are low, are particularly at risk.[48]  Skin, the circadian and immune systems can also be affected.[49]

text: The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action spectrum.".[50] The action spectrum shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with Caucasians more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265–275 nm, which is in the lower UVC band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UVA and UVB bands.

text: Skin damage[edit]

text: Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.[51]

text: All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin. Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage.[52]

text: UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage.[53] This cancer connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole.

text: The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by DNA damage independent from UVA radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma.[54] Occasional overexposure and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than long-term moderate exposure.[55] UVC is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.[56]

text: In the past, UVA was considered not harmful or less harmful than UVB, but today it is known to contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals such as reactive oxygen species). UVA can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UVA consists mostly of single-strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UVB includes direct formation of thymine dimers or other pyrimidine dimers and double-strand DNA breakage.[57] UVA is immunosuppressive for the entire body (accounting for a large part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for basal cell keratinocytes in skin.[58]

text: UVB photons can cause direct DNA damage. UVB radiation excites DNA molecules in skin cells, causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine bases, producing a dimer. Most UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by the process known as nucleotide excision repair that employs about 30 different proteins.[53] Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can induce a form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors leading to mutation.

text: As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, protecting the skin against both direct and indirect DNA damage from the UV. UVA gives a quick tan that lasts for days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from melanocytes. UVB yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to develop because it stimulates the body to produce more melanin.

text: Sunscreen safety debate[edit]

text: Medical organizations recommend that patients protect themselves from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five sunscreen ingredients have been shown to protect mice against skin tumors. However, some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances if they are illuminated while in contact with living cells.[59][60] The amount of sunscreen that penetrates into the lower layers of the skin may be large enough to cause damage.[61]

text: Sunscreen reduces the direct DNA damage that causes sunburn, by blocking UVB, and the usual SPF rating indicates how effectively this radiation is blocked. SPF is, therefore, also called UVB-PF, for "UVB protection factor".[62] This rating, however, offers no data about important protection against UVA,[63] which does not primarily cause sunburn but is still harmful, since it causes indirect DNA damage and is also considered carcinogenic. Several studies suggest that the absence of UVA filters may be the cause of the higher incidence of melanoma found in sunscreen users compared to non-users.[64][65][66][67][68] Some sunscreen lotions now contain compounds including titanium dioxide, zinc oxide and avobenzone which helps protect against UVA rays.

text: The photochemical properties of melanin make it an excellent photoprotectant. However, sunscreen chemicals cannot dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently as melanin and therefore, if sunscreen ingredients penetrate into the lower layers of the skin, the amount of reactive oxygen species may be increased.[69][59][60][70] The amount of sunscreen that penetrates through the stratum corneum may or may not be large enough to cause damage.

text: In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured in untreated and in sunscreen treated skin. In the first 20 minutes, the film of sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes, however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the sunscreen-treated skin than in the untreated skin.[69] The study indicates that sunscreen must be reapplied within 2 hours in order to prevent UV light from penetrating to sunscreen-infused live skin cells.[69]

text: Aggravation of certain skin conditions[edit]

text: Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions and diseases, including[71] systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren's syndrome, Sinear Usher syndrome, rosacea, dermatomyositis, Darier's disease, and Kindler–Weary syndrome.

text: Eye damage[edit]

text: The eye is most sensitive to damage by UV in the lower UVC band at 265–275 nm. Radiation of this wavelength is almost absent from sunlight but is found in welder's arc lights and other artificial sources. Exposure to these can cause "welder's flash" or "arc eye" (photokeratitis) and can lead to cataracts, pterygium and pinguecula formation. To a lesser extent, UVB in sunlight from 310–280 nm also causes photokeratitis ("snow blindness"), and the cornea, the lens, and the retina can be damaged.[72]

text:
Protective eyewear is beneficial to those exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Since light can reach the eyes from the sides, full-coverage eye protection is usually warranted if there is an increased risk of exposure, as in high-altitude mountaineering. Mountaineers are exposed to higher-than-ordinary levels of UV radiation, both because there is less atmospheric filtering and because of reflection from snow and ice.[73][74]
Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection. Most plastic lenses give more protection than glass lenses, because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UVA and the common acrylic plastic used for lenses is less so. Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inherently block most UV.[75]

text: Degradation of polymers, pigments and dyes[edit]

text: UV degradation is one form of polymer degradation that affects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem appears as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or disintegration. The effects of attack increase with exposure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV absorbers inhibits the effect.

text: Sensitive polymers include thermoplastics and speciality fibers like aramids. UV absorption leads to chain degradation and loss of strength at sensitive points in the chain structure. Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of thermoplastic if it is to retain its strength.

text: Many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour, so paintings and textiles may need extra protection both from sunlight and fluorescent bulbs, two common sources of UV radiation. Window glass absorbs some harmful UV, but valuable artifacts need extra shielding. Many museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings and ancient textiles, for example. Since watercolours can have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection from UV. Various forms of picture framing glass, including acrylics (plexiglass), laminates, and coatings, offer different degrees of UV (and visible light) protection.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet radiation has a number of applications. The following table[76] gives some uses of specific wavelength bands in the UV spectrum

text:
13.5 nm: Extreme ultraviolet lithography
30–200 nm: Photoionization, ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, standard integrated circuit manufacture by photolithography
230–365 nm: UV-ID, label tracking, barcodes
230–400 nm: Optical sensors, various instrumentation
240–280 nm: Disinfection, decontamination of surfaces and water (DNA absorption has a peak at 260 nm)
200–400 nm: Forensic analysis, drug detection
270–360 nm: Protein analysis, DNA sequencing, drug discovery
280–400 nm: Medical imaging of cells
300–320 nm: Light therapy in medicine
300–365 nm: Curing of polymers and printer inks
350–370 nm: Bug zappers (flies are most attracted to light at 365 nm)[77]

tag: ul

text: Photography[edit]

text:
Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV-blocking filters are often used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted bluing and overexposure by UV rays. For photography in the near UV, special filters may be used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation.
Digital cameras sensors may have internal filters that block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these internal filters can be removed, or they may be absent, and an external visible-light filter prepares the camera for near-UV photography. A few cameras are designed for use in the UV.

text: Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is useful for medical, scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as widespread as detecting bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work on paintings. Photography of the fluorescence produced by ultraviolet illumination uses visible wavelengths of light.

text: In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical composition of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of stars. Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations are made from space.

text: Electrical and electronics industry[edit]

text: Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide.[78]

text: EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) are erased by exposure to UV radiation. These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in.

text: Fluorescent dye uses[edit]

text: Colorless fluorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present and causes the colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored.

text: UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles either to enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and aesthetic applications.

text: To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery of important documents such as driver's licenses and passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or fluorescent multicolor fibers that are visible under ultraviolet light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that glows under UV rays to permit automatic detection of the stamp and facing of the letter.

text: UV fluorescent dyes are used in many applications (for example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) that is not easily washed off on a pepper-sprayed attacker, which would help police identify the attacker later.[79]

text: In some types of nondestructive testing UV stimulates fluorescent dyes to highlight defects in a broad range of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface-breaking defects by capillary action (liquid penetrant inspection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught in magnetic leakage fields in ferrous materials (magnetic particle inspection).

text: Analytic uses[edit]

text: Forensics[edit]

text:
UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in locating and identifying bodily fluids such as semen, blood, and saliva.[80] For example, ejaculated fluids or saliva can be detected by high-power UV sources, irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface the fluid is deposited upon.[81]
UV-Vis microspectroscopy is also used to analyze trace evidence, such as textile fibers and paint chips, as well as questioned documents.

text: Other applications include the authentication of various collectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit currency. Even materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes may have distinctive fluorescence under UV exposure or may fluoresce differently under short-wave versus long-wave ultraviolet.

text: Enhancing contrast of ink[edit]

text: Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegible papyrus, such as the burned papyri of the Villa of the Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest. The technique involves taking pictures of the illegible document using different filters in the infrared or ultraviolet range, finely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found for distinguishing ink from paper on the papyrus surface.

text: Simple NUV sources can be used to highlight faded iron-based ink on vellum.[82]

text: Sanitary compliance[edit]

text: Ultraviolet aids in the detection of organic material deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning and sanitizing may not have been properly accomplished. It is used in the hotel industry, manufacturing, and other industries where levels of cleanliness or contamination are inspected.[83][84][85][86]

text: Perennial news feature for many television news organizations involves an investigative reporter's using a similar device to reveal unsanitary conditions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such.[87][88]

text: Chemistry[edit]

text: UV/VIS spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the most notable one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used to excite a given sample where the fluorescent emission is measured with a spectrofluorometer. In biological research, UV radiation is used for quantification of nucleic acids or proteins.

text: Ultraviolet lamps are also used in analyzing minerals and gems.

text: In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury, and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil-fired power plants.[89] Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil or by absorbing of UV created by Raman scattering in water.[90]

text: Material science uses[edit]

text: Fire detection[edit]

text: In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid-state device, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium nitride, or a gas-filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and artificial light. A burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185- to 260-nanometer range and only very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas the Sun's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind", meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.

text: UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays used in nondestructive metal testing equipment (though this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can produce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The presence of UV-absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate the UV radiation from a fire, adversely affecting the ability of the detector to detect flames. Likewise, the presence of an oil mist in the air or an oil film on the detector window will have the same effect.

text: Photolithography[edit]

text: Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a procedure wherein a chemical called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed through a mask. The exposure causes chemical reactions to occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted photoresist, a pattern determined by the mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to "etch" away, deposit on or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains.

text: Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated circuit components,[91] and printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to fabricate electronic integrated circuits presently use 193 nm UV and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet lithography.

text: Polymers[edit]

text: Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photovoltaic panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing.

text: Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail "gels".

text: UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and Excimer flash lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require high-intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so high-pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped)-based bulbs are used, energized with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower-power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high-pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to the work area via liquid-filled or fiber-optic light guides.

text: The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.[92]

text: UV radiation is useful in preparing low-surface-energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger.

text: Biology-related uses[edit]

text: Air purification[edit]

text: Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium dioxide and UVC exposure, oxidation of organic matter converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harmless inert byproducts. However, the reaction of titanium dioxide and UVC is not a straight path.  Several hundreds of reactions occur prior to the inert byproducts stage and can hinder the resulting reaction creating formadehyde, aldehyde, and other VOC's en route to a final stage.  Thus, the use of Titanium Dioxide and UVC requires very specific parameters for a successful outcome. The cleansing mechanism of UV is a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor environment are almost entirely organic carbon-based compounds, which break down when exposed to high-intensity UV at 240 to 280 nm. Short-wave ultraviolet radiation can destroy DNA in living microorganisms.[93] UVC's effectiveness is directly related to intensity and exposure time.

text: UV has also been shown to reduce gaseous contaminants such as carbon monoxide and VOCs.[94][95][96] UV lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low concentrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide if the air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber. This arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by passing by a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone produced by the UV lamp.

text: Sterilization and disinfection[edit]

text: Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in biology laboratories and medical facilities. Commercially available low-pressure mercury-vapor lamps emit about 86% of their radiation at 254 nanometers (nm), with 265 nm being the peak germicidal effectiveness curve. UV at these germicidal wavelengths damage a microorganism's DNA so that it cannot reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can be shielded from ultraviolet rays in small cracks and other shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization techniques.

text: UV-C LEDs are relatively new to the commercial market and are gaining in popularity.[97] Due to their monochromatic nature (± 5 nm) these LEDs can target a specific wavelength needed for disinfection. This is especially important knowing that pathogens vary in their sensitivity to specific UV wavelengths. LEDs are mercury free, instant on/off, and have unlimited cycling throughout the day.[98]

text: Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in wastewater treatment applications and is finding an increased usage in municipal drinking water treatment. Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection equipment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection[99] has been researched for cheaply treating contaminated water using natural sunlight. The UV-A irradiation and increased water temperature kill organisms in the water.

text: Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to kill unwanted microorganisms. UV can be used to pasteurize fruit juices by flowing the juice over a high-intensity ultraviolet source.[100] The effectiveness of such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice.

text: Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms on surfaces using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV-C between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light works with xenon flash lamps that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV[101]

text: Biological[edit]

text: Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such as bees, can see near-ultraviolet wavelengths. Many fruits, flowers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the background in ultraviolet wavelengths as compared to human color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green color under UV illumination, thus assisting in the control of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their plumage that are invisible at usual wavelengths but observable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions of some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings, are much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine trails of rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for proper treatment of infested dwellings.

text: Butterflies use ultraviolet as a communication system for sex recognition and mating behavior. For example, in the Colias eurytheme butterfly, males rely on visual cues to locate and identify females. Instead of using chemical stimuli to find mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet-reflecting color of female hind wings.[102]  In Pieris napi butterflies it was shown that females in northern Finland with less UV-radiation present in the environment possessed stronger UV signals to attract their males than those occurring further south. This suggested that it was evolutionarily more difficult to increase the UV-sensitivity of the eyes of the males than to increase the UV-signals emitted by the females.[103]

text: Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions from celestial objects as references for flight navigation. A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navigation process and will eventually attract the flying insect.

text: The green fluorescent protein (GFP) is often used in genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as proteins, have significant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet that are of interest in biochemistry and related fields. UV-capable spectrophotometers are common in such laboratories.

text: Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to eliminate various small flying insects. They are attracted to the UV and are killed using an electric shock, or trapped once they come into contact with the device. Different designs of ultraviolet radiation traps are also used by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during faunistic survey studies.

text: Therapy[edit]

text: Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to UVA, while the skin is hyper-photosensitive, by taking psoralens is an effective treatment for psoriasis. Due to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver, PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of times over a patient's lifetime.

text: UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the therapeutic benefit; only the exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used in conjunction with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and vitamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such as methotrexate and Soriatane.[104]

text: Herpetology[edit]

text: Reptiles need UVB for biosynthesis of vitamin D, and other metabolic processes.  Specifically cholecalciferol (vitamin D3),  which is needed to for basic cellular / neural functioning as well as the utilization calcium for bone and egg production. The UVA wavelength is also visible to many reptiles and might play a signifiant role in their ability survive in the wild as well as visual communication between individuals.  Therefore, in a typical reptile enclosure, a fluorescent UV a/b source (at the proper strength / spectrum for the species),  must be available for many captive species to survive.  Simple supplementation with cholecalciferol  (Vitamin D3) will not be enough as there's a complete biosynthetic pathway that is "leapfrogged"  (risks of possible overdoses), the intermediate molecules and metabolites also place important functions in the animals health.  Natural sunlight in the right levels is always going to be superior to artificial sources, but this might be possible for keepers in different parts of the world.

text: It is a known problem that high levels of output of the UVa part of the spectrum can both cause cellular and DNA damage to sensitive parts of their bodies - especially the eyes were blindness is the result from an improper UVa/b source use and placement photokeratitis.   For many keepers there must also be a provision for an adequate heat source this has resulted in the marketing of heat and light "combination" products.   Keepers should be careful of these "combination' light/ heat and UVa/b generators, they typically emit high levels of UVa with lower levels of UVb that are set and difficult to control so that animals can have their needs met.   A better strategy is to use individual sources of these elements and so they can be placed and controlled by the keepers for the max benefit of the animals.[105]

text: Evolutionary significance[edit]

text: The evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is attributed in modern models of evolutionary theory to ultraviolet radiation. UVB causes thymine base pairs next to each other in genetic sequences to bond together into thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproductive enzymes cannot copy. This leads to frameshifting during genetic replication and protein synthesis, usually killing the cell. Before formation of the UV-blocking ozone layer, when early prokaryotes approached the surface of the ocean, they almost invariably died out. The few that survived had developed enzymes that monitored the genetic material and removed thymine dimers by nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Many enzymes and proteins involved in modern mitosis and meiosis are similar to repair enzymes, and are believed to be evolved modifications of the enzymes originally used to overcome DNA damages caused by UV.[106]


document_title: David

question_text: in the bible who was david's father

question_tokens: in the bible who was david 's father

text: David

text: Biblical account[edit]

text: Family[edit]

text: The first book of Samuel portrays David as the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse of Bethlehem. His mother is not named in any book of the Bible, but the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet daughter of Adael.[2] When the story was retold in 1 Chronicles (4th century BCE) he was made the youngest of seven sons and given two sisters, Zeruiah and Abigail. The Book of Ruth (possibly also 4th century BCE) traces his ancestry back to Ruth the Moabite.

text: David is described as cementing his relations with various political and national groups through marriage.[3] He is described as having eight wives: Michal, the second daughter of King Saul; Ahinoam the Jezreelite; Abigail the Carmelite, previously wife of Nabal; Maachah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; Eglah; and Bathsheba.

text: The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his various wives and concubines. In Hebron, David had six sons: Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah.[4] By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan and Solomon. David's sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada.[5] Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11:18. His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is a key character in the incident of her rape by one of her half-brothers.

text: Narrative[edit]

text: God is angered when Saul, Israel's king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice[6] and later disobeys a divine instruction to not only kill all of the Amalekites, but to destroy also their confiscated property.[7] Consequently, God sends the prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king instead.[8]

text: God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul. Saul's courtiers recommend that he send for David, a man skillful on the lyre, wise in speech, and brave in battle. So David enters Saul's service as one of the royal armour-bearers, and plays the lyre to soothe the king.[9]

text: War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat.[10] David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul's army, declares that he can defeat Goliath.[11] Refusing the king's offer of the royal armour,[12] he kills Goliath with his sling.[13] Saul inquires the name of the young hero's father.[14]

text: Saul sets David over his army. All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ("What else can he wish but the kingdom?").[15] Saul plots his death, but Saul's son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his father's schemes and David flees. He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath's sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek refuge with King Achish there. Achish's servants or officials question his loyalty, and David sees that he is in danger there.[16] He goes next to the cave of Adullam, where his family join him.[17] From there he goes to seek refuge with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth,[18] and then to Keilah, where he is involved in a further battle with the Philistines. Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, so David leaves the city in order to protect its inhabitants.[19] From there he takes refuge in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph.[20]

text: Jonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king. The people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking refuge in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some respite at Ein Gedi.[21] Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David and enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding, "to attend to his needs". David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but this is not his intention: he secretly cuts off a corner of Saul's robe and when Saul has left the cave he comes out to pay homage to Saul as the king and to demonstrate, using the piece of robe, that he holds no malice towards Saul. The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor.[22]

text: Alternatively, or (in the opinion of some commentators) subsequently,[23] Saul and David were reconciled following a similar occurrence when David was able to infiltrate Saul's camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of water from his side while he and his guards lay asleep. In this account (1 Samuel 26), David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not "stretch out [his] hand against the Lord’s anointed".[24] David shows, by removing Saul's spear, that he had chance to take Saul's life but did not do so. Saul confesses that he has been wrong to pursue David, blesses him and promises that he "will do great things and surely triumph".[25] David prays that his own protection will be like his protection of Saul. The New King James Version and the New International Version both identify this episode as a second reconciliation between Saul and David[26] (with no account of any intervening dispute) but theologian Albert Barnes says the incident "is of a nature unlikely to have occurred more than once". This, it seems, was their last interview; after this they saw each other no more.[27]

text: A different tradition is recalled in 1 Samuel 27:1–4, namely that Saul ceased to pursue David because David took refuge a second time with Achish, the Philistine king of Gath.[28] Robert Jamieson, in the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary, suggests that Saul and David had "become irreconcilable" despite the reconciliations described in 1 Samuel 24 and 1 Samuel 26.[29] Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the border between Gath and Judea, from where he leads raids against the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, but leads Achish to believe he is attacking the Israelites in Judah, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites. Achish believes that David had become a loyal vassal, but he never wins the trust of the princes or lords of Gath and at their request Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul.[30] David returns to Ziklag.[31] Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle,[32] and David is anointed king over Judah.[33] In the north, Saul's son Ish-Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish-Bosheth is murdered.[34]

text: With the death of Saul's son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel.[35] He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital.[36] He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city,[37] intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of his sons.[38] Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David stating, "your throne shall be established forever".[39] David wins additional victories over the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram-Zobah, after which they become tributaries.[40]

text:
During a siege against the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem. He spies a woman, Bathsheba, bathing on a nearby rooftop and summons her; she becomes pregnant.[41][42][43] The text in the Bible does not explicitly state whether Bathsheba consented to sex.[44][45][46]  David calls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, back from the battle to rest, hoping that he will go home to his wife and the child will be presumed to be his. Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the heat of battle. David then marries the widowed Bathsheba.[47] In response, Nathan prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating "the sword shall never depart from your house."[48] When David acknowledges that he has sinned,[49] Nathan advises him that his sin is forgiven and he will not die,[50] but the child will.[51]

In fulfillment of Nathan's words, David's son Absalom, fueled by vengeance and lust for power, rebels.[52] Absalom's forces are routed at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, contrary to David's order, he is killed by Joab, the commander of David's army.[53] David laments the death of his favourite son: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!"[54] until Joab persuades him to recover from "the extravagance of his grief"[55] and to fulfil his duty to his people.[56] David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.[57]

text: When David is old and bedridden, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king.[58] Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba's son Solomon as king, according to David's earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down.[59] David dies at the age of 70 after reigning for 40 years,[60] and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies.[61]

text: Intertextuality in the Hebrew Bible[edit]

text: The Book of Samuel calls David a skillful harp (lyre) player[63] and "the sweet psalmist of Israel."[64] Yet, while almost half of the Psalms are headed "A Psalm of David" (also translated as "to David" or "for David") and tradition identifies several with specific events in David’s life (e.g., Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142),[65] the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty.[66]

text: Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from Abimelech (or King Achish) by pretending to be insane.[67] According to the parallel narrative in 1 Samuel 21, instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to depart, exclaiming, "Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me? Must this man come into my house?"[68]

text: History and archeology[edit]

text:
The Tel Dan Stele, an inscribed stone erected by a king of Damascus in the late 9th/early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate his victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase ביתדוד, bytdwd, which most scholars translate as "House of David".[69] Other scholars, such as Anson Rainey have challenged this reading,[70][71]
but it is likely that this is a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David.[69] The Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from approximately the same period, may also contain the name David in two places, although this is less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription.[72]

text: Besides the two steles, bible scholar and egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen suggests that David's name also appears in a relief of Pharaoh Shoshenq (usually identified with Shishak in the Bible, 1 Kings 14:25-27).[73] The relief claims that Shoshenq raided places in Palestine in 925 BCE, and Kitchen interprets one place as "Heights of David", which was in Southern Judah and the Negev  where the Bible says David took refuge from Saul. The relief is damaged and interpretation is uncertain.[73]

text: Apart from these, all that is known of David comes from the biblical literature. The Books of Samuel were substantially composed during the time of King Josiah at the end of the 7th century BCE, extended during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), and substantially complete by about 550 BCE, although further editing was done even after then—the silver quarter-shekel which Saul's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 "almost certainly fixes the date of the story in the Persian or Hellenistic period".[74] The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the "history of David's rise" (1 Samuel 16:14–2 Samuel 5:10), and the "succession narrative" (2 Samuel 9–20 and 1 Kings 1–2).[75] The Book of Chronicles, which tells the story from a different point of view, was probably composed in the period 350–300 BCE, and uses Samuel as its source.[76]

text:
The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles did not aim to record history, but to promote David's reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed.[77]
The archaeological evidence indicates that in the 10th century BCE, the time of David, Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem was no more than a small village; over the following century it slowly evolved from a highland chiefdom to a kingdom, but always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north.[78] The biblical evidence likewise indicates that David's Judah was something less than a full-fledged monarchy: it often calls him negid, for example, meaning "prince" or "chief", rather than melek, meaning "king"; the biblical David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs (even his army is made up of volunteers), and his followers are largely related to him and from his small home-area around Hebron.[79]

text: Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available. The late John Bright, in his History of Israel (1981), takes Samuel at face value. Donald B. Redford, however, sees all reconstructions from biblical sources for the United Monarchy period as examples of "academic wishful thinking".[80] Thomas L. Thompson rejects the historicity of the biblical narrative: "The history of Palestine and of its peoples is very different from the Bible's narratives, whatever political claims to the contrary may be. An independent history of Judea during the Iron I and Iron II periods has little room for historicizing readings of the stories of I-II Samuel and I Kings."[81] Amihai Mazar however, concludes that based on recent archeological findings, like those in City of David, Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tel Dan, Tel Rehov, Khirbet en-Nahas and others "the deconstruction of United Monarchy and the devaluation of Judah as a state in 9th century is unacceptable interpretation of available historic data". According to Mazar, based on archeological evidences, the United Monarchy can be described as a "state in development".[82]

text: Some studies of David have been written: Baruch Halpern has pictured David as a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath;[83] Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have identified as the oldest and most reliable section of Samuel those chapters which describe David as the charismatic leader of a band of outlaws who captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital.[84] Steven McKenzie, Associate Professor of the Hebrew Bible at Rhodes College and author of King David: A Biography, states the belief that David actually came from a wealthy family, was "ambitious and ruthless" and a tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his own sons.[66]

text: Critical Bible scholarship holds that the biblical account of David's rise to power is a political apology—an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his involvement in murders and regicide.[85]

text: Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman reject the idea that David ruled over a united monarchy, suggesting instead that he ruled only as a chieftain over the southern kingdom of Judah, much smaller than the northern kingdom of Israel at that time.[86] They posit that Israel and Judah were still polytheistic in the time of David and Solomon, and that much later seventh-century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs.[87] They note a lack of archeological evidence for David's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria, capital of Israel.[88][89][90]

text: Jacob L. Wright, Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible at Emory University, has written that the most popular legends about David, including his killing of Goliath, his affair with Bathsheba, and his ruling of a United Kingdom of Israel rather than just Judah, are the creation of those who lived generations after him, in particular those living in the late Persian or Hellenistic periods.[91]

text: History of interpretation in the Abrahamic religions[edit]

text: Rabbinic Judaism[edit]

text: David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism. Many legends have grown around the figure of David. According to one Rabbinic tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school.

text: David's adultery with Bathsheba was only an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and the Talmud states that it was not adultery at all, quoting a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle. Furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, the death of Uriah was not to be considered murder, on the basis that Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King.[92] However, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness.  God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture.[93]

text: According to midrashim, Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David.[94] Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks). His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven.

text: Christianity[edit]

text:
King David the Prophet
King David in Prayer, by Pieter de Grebber (c. 1640)Holy Monarch, Prophet, Reformer, Spiritual Poet and Musician, Vicegerent of God, Psalm-ReceiverBorn
BethlehemDied
JerusalemVenerated in
JudaismChristianityIslamFeast
December 29 – Roman CatholicismAttributes
Psalms, Harp, Head of Goliath

text: The concept of the Messiah is important in Christianity. Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ("the anointed one", as the title Messiah had it), the "son of David" became in the last two pre-Christian centuries the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus "by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest-king and in which he was the mediator between God and man".[95] The early Church believed that "the life of David [foreshadowed] the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Achitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ's Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messiah."[96] In the Middle Ages, "Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a 'new David'. [This was] not in itself a new idea, but [one whose] content and significance were greatly enlarged by him".[97] The linking of David to earthly kingship was reflected in later Medieval cathedral windows all over Europe through the device of the Tree of Jesse, its branches demonstrating how divine kingship descended from Jesse, through his son David, to Jesus.

text: Western Rite churches (Lutheran, Roman Catholic) celebrate his feast day on 29 December, Eastern-rite on 19 December.[98] The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the "Holy Righteous Prophet and King David" on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord.

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status. This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised firstly through literature, and was thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors.

text: David was considered as a model ruler and a symbol of divinely-ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom. David was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name "New David" was used as an honorific reference to these rulers.[100] The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed a direct biological descent from him.[101] Likewise, the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David; Charlemagne himself occasionally used the name of David as his pseudonym.[100]

text: Islam[edit]

text: David (Arabic داود, Dāwūd) is an important figure in Islam as one of the major prophets sent by God to guide the Israelites. David is mentioned several times in the Quran, often with his son Solomon. The actual Arabic equivalent to the Hebrew Davīd is Dawūd. In the Qur'an: David killed Goliath (2:251), a giant soldier in the Philistine army. When David killed Goliath, God granted him kingship and wisdom and enforced it (38:20). David was made God's "vicegerent on earth" (38:26) and God further gave David sound judgment (21:78; 37:21–24, 26) as well as the Psalms, regarded as books of divine wisdom (4:163; 17:55). The birds and mountains united with David in uttering praise to God (21:79; 34:10; 38:18), while God made iron soft for David (34:10), God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain-mail out of iron (21:80); an indication of the first use of wrought iron, this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron-armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact. Together with Solomon, David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields (21:78) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber (38:21–23). Since there is no mention in the Qur'an of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative.[102]

text: Muslim tradition and the hadith stress David's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting.[103] Qur'an commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David's concise Qur'anic narratives and specifically mention David's gift in singing his Psalms as well as his musical and vocal talents. His voice is described as having had a captivating power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God.[104]

text: Art and literature[edit]

text: Literature[edit]

text: Literary works about David include:

text:
1681–82 Dryden's long poem Absalom and Achitophel is an allegory that uses the story of the rebellion of Absalom against King David as the basis for his satire of the contemporary political situation, including events such as the Monmouth Rebellion (1685), the Popish Plot (1678) and the Exclusion Crisis.
1893 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle may have used the story of David and Bathsheba as a foundation for the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Crooked Man. Holmes mentions "the small affair of Uriah and Bathsheba" at the end of the story.[105]
1928 Elmer Davis's novel Giant Killer retells and embellishes the biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the "dirty work" of heroism and kingship. In the novel, Elhanan in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and Joab, David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead.
1936 William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! refers to the story of Absalom, David's son; his rebellion against his father and his death at the hands of David's general, Joab. In addition it parallels Absalom's vengeance for the rape of his sister Tamar by his half-brother, Amnon.
1946 Gladys Schmitt's novel David the King was a richly embellished biography of David's entire life. The book took a risk, especially for its time, in portraying David's relationship with Jonathan as overtly homoerotic, but was ultimately panned by critics as a bland rendition of the title character.
1966 Juan Bosch, a Dominican political leader and writer, wrote David: Biography of a King, as a realistic portrayal of David's life and political career.
1970 Dan Jacobson's The Rape of Tamar is an imagined account, by one of David's courtiers Yonadab, of the rape of Tamar by Amnon.
1972 Stefan Heym wrote The King David Report in which the historian Ethan compiles upon King Solomon's orders "a true and authoritative report on the life of David, Son of Jesse"—the East German writer's wry depiction of a court historian writing an "authorized" history, many incidents clearly intended as satirical references to the writer's own time.
1974 In Thomas Burnett Swann's biblical fantasy novel How are the Mighty Fallen, David and Jonathan are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly nephilim), one of several such races coexisting with humanity but often persecuted by it.
1980 Malachi Martin's factional novel King of Kings: A Novel of the Life of David relates the life of David, Adonai's champion in his battle with the Philistine deity Dagon.
1984 Joseph Heller wrote a novel based on David called God Knows, published by Simon & Schuster. Told from the perspective of an aging David, the humanity—rather than the heroism—of various biblical characters is emphasized. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th-century interpretation of the events told in the Bible.
1993 Madeleine L'Engle's novel Certain Women explores family, the Christian faith, and the nature of God through the story of King David's family and an analogous modern family's saga.
1995 Allan Massie wrote King David, a novel about David's career that portrays the king's relationship to Jonathan as sexual.[106]
2015 Geraldine Brooks wrote a novel about King David, The Secret Chord , told from the point of view of the prophet Nathan.[107][108]

text: Paintings[edit]

text:
1599 Caravaggio David and Goliath
1616 Peter Paul Rubens David Slaying Goliath
c. 1619 Caravaggio, David and Goliath

text: Sculptures[edit]

text:
1440? Donatello David
1501–04 Michelangelo, David
1623-24 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, David

text: Film[edit]

text: David has been depicted several times in films; these are some of the best-known:

text:
1951 In David and Bathsheba, directed by Henry King, Gregory Peck played David.
1959 In Solomon and Sheba, directed by King Vidor, Finlay Currie played an aged King David.
1961 In A Story of David, directed by Bob McNaught, Jeff Chandler played David.
1985 In King David, directed by Bruce Beresford, Richard Gere played King David.
1996 In Dave and the Giant Pickle
2016 In Of Kings and Prophets

text: Music[edit]

text:
The traditional birthday song Las Mañanitas mentions King David as the original singer in its lyrics.
1738 George Frideric Handel's oratorio Saul features David as one of its main characters.[109]
1921 Arthur Honegger's oratorio Le Roi David with a libretto by René Morax, instantly became a staple of the choral repertoire.
1983 Bob Dylan refers to David in his song "Jokerman" ("Michelangelo indeed could've carved out your features").[110]
1984 Leonard Cohen's song "Hallelujah" has references to David ("there was a secret chord that David played and it pleased the Lord", "The baffled king composing Hallelujah") and Bathsheba ("you saw her bathing on the roof") in its opening verses.
1990 The song "One of the Broken" by Paddy McAloon, performed by Prefab Sprout on the album Jordan: The Comeback, has a reference to David ("I remember King David, with his harp and his beautiful, beautiful songs, I answered his prayers, and showed him a place where his music belongs").
1991 "Mad About You", a song on Sting's the album The Soul Cages, explores David's obsession with Bathsheba from David's perspective.[111]
2000 The song "Gimme a Stone" appears on the Little Feat album Chinese Work Songs chronicles the duel with Goliath and contains a lament to Absalom as a bridge.[112]

text: Musical theater[edit]

text: 1997 King David, sometimes described as a modern oratorio, with a book and lyrics by Tim Rice and music by Alan Menken.

text: Television[edit]

text:
1997 David, a TV-film with Nathaniel Parker as King David and Leonard Nimoy as the Prophet Samuel.[113]
1997 Max von Sydow portrayed an older King David in the TV-film Solomon, a sequel to David.[114]
2009 Christopher Egan played David on Kings, a re-imagining loosely based on the biblical story.[115]
King David is the focus of the second episode of History Channel's Battles BC  documentary, which detailed all of his military exploits in the bible.[116]
2013 Langley Kirkwood portrayed King David in the miniseries The Bible.

text: Playing cards[edit]

text: For a considerable period, starting in the 15th century and continuing until the 19th, French playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology.  In this context, the King of Spades was often known as "David".[117][118]

text: Image gallery[edit]

text:
Study of King David, by Julia Margaret Cameron. Depicts Sir Henry Taylor, 1866.

Miniature from the Paris Psalter: David in the robes of a Byzantine emperor.

Matteo Rosselli The triumphant David.

Rembrandt, c. 1650: Saul and David.

Arnold Zadikow, 1930: The Young David displayed in the entrance of Berlin's Jewish Museum from 1933 until its loss during the Second World War.

King David, stained glass windows from the Romanesque Augsburg Cathedral, late 11th century.


document_title: Soul Surfer (film)

question_text: who plays bethany hamilton in the movie soul surfer

text: Soul Surfer (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 2003, teenager Bethany Hamilton lives in Kauai, Hawaii with her parents Tom and Cheri, and two brothers, Noah and Timmy. All are surfers, but she and her best friend Alana Blanchard have grown up with a passion for the sport and enter a competition. Her church youth ministry leader, Sarah Hill, is disappointed when she has to withdraw from a planned mission trip to Mexico because of the contest.

text: In the competition, Bethany and Alana place first and third, respectively. The following day, Tom goes to the hospital for knee surgery, and the girls go surfing with Alana's father Holt and brother Byron. As Bethany dangles her left arm in the water, a tiger shark is swimming just under her surfboard and notices her arm floating in the water. It unexpectedly attacks, ripping off her arm below the shoulder. Holt, Alana, and Byron get her out of the water where Holt makes a tourniquet out of his swimshirt to put on her while Byron calls 911 as Cheri is also informed. An ambulance meets them on the way to the hospital. Just before starting Tom's knee surgery, Dr. David Rovinsky is called to the emergency room to treat Bethany. Besides losing her left arm, she also lost 60% of her blood and Dr. Rovinsky calls her survival a miracle.

text: The onslaught of paparazzi also proves to be a great strain on her family and their privacy. The Hamiltons are grateful to Holt for his quick and active thinking and decisive action that saved her life. Her injury prevents her from participating in the Rip Curl photo shoots, but she wishes Alana well.

text: Bethany perseveres and after a recuperation period, gets back in the water, and learns to surf with one arm. Inside Edition offers to provide a prosthetic one that is cosmetically perfect and has bendable joints, in exchange for an interview. She angrily rejects it when she learns it will not help her surf as it is not weight bearing, as a result of the size of her arm stump.

text: Bethany eventually re-enters the competition, telling rival Malina not to go easy on her, and rejects a five-minute head start offered by the judges. She does not perform well because she cannot stay on the board long enough to go out and catch a competitive wave so Malina wins. Disappointed at this loss, she decides to give up competitive surfing and her friendship with Alana is strained following an argument.

text: Bethany decides to surprise Sarah by joining the youth group on another mission trip to help the people of Phuket, Thailand who were devastated by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Despite her recent tragedy, she joins her youth group to help the Thai children get over their fear of the ocean. They are understandably afraid of the water, including a little boy. She decides to go into it with a surfboard, hoping this will coax him into it. It works, and the realization that she can use her gift to inspire people motivates her to take up surfing again.

text: Tom, who believes that Bethany possesses a great surfer's instinct for sensing when the best waves will form, rigs a handle on her surfboard which she can use to prevent falling off while paddling out to the waves, which is not prohibited by the competition's rules. Bethany trains for the competition while rekindling her friendship with Alana. She enters the national championship. During the competition, she performs respectably, though she is still chasing third place. Suddenly, with only minutes left on the clock, the waves die down and all the surfers can only loiter, waiting for the waves to start back up. Tom's belief in his daughter's instinct is proven when she is the only one to sense a big wave forming, and she alone paddles out. When it forms, the others cannot get out in time and she catches it just as the horn sounds. If it is in time, she will win, but the judges rule that the time has expired. Malina is the winner, but she has finally gotten over her differences with Bethany, inviting her up on the platform to share first place.

text: Subsequently, Bethany lets the reporters interview her. One asks her what she would do if given the chance to undo the loss of her arm. She says that she would still lose it because she can embrace more people now than she ever could with both.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
AnnaSophia Robb as Bethany Hamilton
Helen Hunt as Cheri Hamilton
Dennis Quaid as Tom Hamilton
Carrie Underwood as Sarah Hill
Kevin Sorbo as Holt Blanchard
Ross Thomas as Noah Hamilton
Chris Brochu as Timmy Hamilton
Lorraine Nicholson as Alana Blanchard
Jeremy Sumpter as Byron Blanchard
Sonia Balmores Chung as Malina Birch, Bethany's rival
Craig T. Nelson as Dr. David Rovinsky
Cody Gomes as Keoki
Branscombe Richmond as Ben
Bethany Hamilton as Herself (archive footage)
Alana Blanchard as Herself (archive footage)
Sean McNamara cameos as a Rip Curl executive.

text: Production[edit]

text: Plans for a biopic film about Hamilton have existed since months after her shark attack and her subsequent recovery in 2004. During Hamilton's media attention, the father of Bethany's friends Chantilly and Tiffany, Roy "Dutch" Hofstetter, became the Hamilton family's media manager. Hofstetter, in February 2004, envisioned a film based on Bethany's experience, provisionally titled The Bethany Hamilton Story.[2] Bethany published her biographical book Soul Surfer in 2004,[3] and BBC reported that a film about her life was scheduled to begin filming in January 2005.[4] Production did not begin as anticipated, and Time reported in July 2006 that production was scheduled for later in the year.[5] Variety reported that the project at one point had an investment of $7.5 million and the backing of Peter Schlessel, a Sony Pictures executive.[6]

text: Though production had not begun by the end of 2006, in January 2007 Sean McNamara was announced to be directing the biographical film.[7] While Hamilton had a series of surfing successes, turning pro in 2007, McNamara and producer David Brookwell with her manager Roy "Dutch" Hofstetter sought more material for the film. The book was considered "a straightforward account" that was targeted to Christian readers, so the filmmakers met with the Hamilton family to determine if there were any unpublished conflicts that could be highlighted in the film. They discovered that the incident had strained the family, that family members questioned their Christian faith, and that Bethany Hamilton struggled with her physical appearance and how boys would perceive her. The media attention on the family was described by Brookwell as "a second shark attack" that had made their lives uncomfortably public.[6]

text:
"She was actually my suggestion. I'd seen her in several films like Bridge to Terabithia and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and thought she could play me really well. She visited me in Hawaii and my surf coach and I taught her how to surf, so she at least looked like she knew what she was doing!"

— Bethany Hamilton on suggesting AnnaSophia Robb to portray her[8]

tag: div

text: McNamara, Brookwell, Hofstetter and Douglas Schwartz spent several years raising money for production.[6] The director wrote an adapted screenplay with Michael Berk, Douglas Schwartz and Deborah Schwartz. Additional uncredited writing was performed by Ron Bass, Jen Smolka and Kara Holden. Before the film entered production, Sony Pictures Worldwide Acquisitions acquired distribution rights for North America and most other territories. The production companies Mandalay Vision, Brookwell McNamara Entertainment and Life's a Beach Entertainment collaborated for the production, with Enticing Entertainment and Island Film Group providing financing.[9] Bethany Hamilton chose with her mother AnnaSophia Robb to portray her, as well as Sonia Balmores Chung and Jeremy Sumpter to play Malina and Alana's brother, Byron.[10] In February 2010, Robb was announced to be part of the film as Bethany Hamilton, along with Dennis Quaid and Helen Hunt who were cast as Bethany's parents.[11] Singer Carrie Underwood, in her feature film debut, was cast as a church youth leader.[11] All the surfing scenes after the shark attack were done by Hamilton herself.[8] Filming began the same month in Hawaii.[11] Principal photography and second-unit aerial work took place for 40 days; cinematographer John R. Leonetti shot on 35mm film. During filming, Robb wore a green sleeve on her arm so visual effects could be included later.[6] Though McNamara was editing the film by May 2010,[12] additional filming took place in August 2010 in Tahiti. During post-production, the VFX company Engine Room worked on 450 arm-removal shots, digitally inserting the upper arm residuum in place of Robb's green sleeve.[6] The Hamilton family was involved in the choice of music.[10] Ultimately, the film's production budget was $18 million.[13]

text: Release[edit]

text: In July 2010, USA Today reported Soul Surfer as one of several faith-based films similar to The Blind Side, Get Low, Like Dandelion Dust, and Jumping the Broom.[14] In September 2010, independent studio FilmDistrict was launched, and the company formed a partnership with TriStar Pictures to release Soul Surfer.[9] FilmDistrict originally committed to release the film at 300 theaters, but when executives saw the final product, they invested $26 million in a print and advertising commitment with the goal of releasing Soul Surfer in 2,000 theaters.[6]

text: Prior to the film's commercial release, it was screened for religious leaders. A scene in which Dennis Quaid's character reads the Bible in the hospital at his daughter's bedside had the words "Holy Bible" digitally removed from the cover. Bethany Hamilton's father said that David Zelon, an executive at Mandalay Pictures, lobbied to reduce the Soul Surfer's Christian elements so the film could appeal more to non-Christian audiences. The Hamilton family objected, and the words "Holy Bible" were restored in the scene in a follow-up screening. Another debated scene was one in which Carrie Underwood's character, a church youth leader, quotes biblical scripture (Jeremiah 29:11[15]). While those involved with the film were fine with the verse, they did not want the scene to explicitly indicate that its origin was the Bible. Their stance was challenged, and the scene indicates the verse being from the Bible. The Hollywood Reporter cited the dust-up as an example of Hollywood learning to appeal to the faith-based community while still attracting secular audiences. The Blind Side, which accomplished both, had grossed $256 million in the United States and Canada.[16]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was released in 2,214 theaters in the United States and Canada on April 8, 2011. It grossed $10.6 million over its opening weekend, ranking fourth at the box office.[1] Sony Pictures reported that 80% of the audience was female and that 56% were under 25 years old.

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Soul Surfer has received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 46% based on reviews from 101 critics, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's consensus is: "There's an amazing true story at the heart of Soul Surfer -- and unfortunately, it's drowned by waves of Hollywood cheese."[17] CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare "A+" grade.[18]

text:
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times was mildly positive in his review, giving the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and writing "Soul Surfer is a wholesome movie, intended as inspirational. Whether it will cheer viewers who are not as capable as Bethany is an excellent question. AnnaSophia Robb is a convincing, cheerful heroine. Dennis Quaid and Helen Hunt, as Bethany's parents, are stalwart and supportive, although the script indeed leaves them with no other choice."[19]
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B grade, writing "[t]he more cynical viewers out there may say, 'Not for me.' But Soul Surfer, while formulaic in design, is an authentic and heartfelt movie."[20] S. Jhoanna Robledo of Common Sense Media gave the film three stars out of five, writing "Yes, it's a message movie, but the message burrows deep enough under your skin to make the movie, given its utter conventionality, unexpectedly stirring."[21]

text: Despite mixed critical reception, it was a hit among audiences; CinemaScore polls reports that the average grade moviegoers gave it was a rare A+.[22]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Soul Surfer was released on DVD and Blu-ray on August 2, 2011 by TriStar Pictures and FilmDistrict.

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Awards and nominations

Association

Category

Nominee(s)

Result

Ref.

Casting Society of America

Outstanding Achievement in Casting: Feature – Studio or Independent Comedy

Joey Paul Jensen

Nominated

[23]

Crystal Dove Seal Award

Best Drama

Soul Surfer

Won

[24]

ESPY Awards

Best Sports Movie

Soul Surfer

Nominated

[25]

Movieguide Awards

Best Film for Family Audiences

Soul Surfer

Won

[26]

Movieguide Awards

Most Inspiring Performance in Movies in 2011

Dennis Quaid, AnnaSophia Robb, Kevin Sorbo

Nominated

[26]

People's Choice Awards

Favorite Book Adaptation

Soul Surfer

Nominated

Satellite Awards

Best Original Score

Marco Beltrami

Won

[27]

Teen Choice Awards

Choice Movie Drama

Soul Surfer

Nominated

[28]

Choice Movie Drama Actress

AnnaSophia Robb

Nominated

[29]

Women Film Critics Circle

Best Female Images in a Movie

Soul Surfer

Nominated

[30]

text: Further reading[edit]

text: Hamilton, Bethany; Berk, Sheryl; Bundschuh, Rick (2006). Soul Surfer: A True Story of Faith, Family, and Fighting to Get Back on the Board. MTV. ISBN 978-1-4165-0346-0.


document_title: List of NBA players with most championships

question_text: how many nba championship rings does kobe bryant have

text: List[edit]

text:
Pos

G
Guard

F
Forward

C
Center

*

Denotes players who have been inducted to the Basketball Hall of Fame

^

Denotes players who are currently active in the NBA

text:
Rank

Player

Pos

Seasons played

Total won

Championship teams

Ref.

1

Bill Russell*

C

13

11

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[26]

2

Sam Jones*

G

12

10

Boston Celtics (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[9]

3

Tom Heinsohn*[a]

F/C

9

8

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965)

[10]

K. C. Jones*[b]

G

9

8

Boston Celtics (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966)

[11]

Tom "Satch" Sanders*[c]

F

13

8

Boston Celtics (1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[12]

John Havlicek*

F/G

16

8

Boston Celtics (1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1976)

[13]

7

Jim Loscutoff

F

9

7

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960[d], 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964)

[14]

Frank Ramsey*

F/G

9

7

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964)

[15]

Robert Horry

F

16

7

Houston Rockets (1994, 1995)Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002)San Antonio Spurs (2005, 2007)

[16]

10

Bob Cousy*

G

14

6

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963)

[17]

Kareem Abdul-Jabbar* (formerly Lew Alcindor)[e]

C

20

6

Milwaukee Bucks (1971)Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[18]

Michael Jordan*

G

15

6

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)

[19]

Scottie Pippen*

F

17

6

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998)

[20]

14

George Mikan*

C

7

5

Minneapolis Lakers (1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)

[27]

Jim Pollard*

F/C

7

5

Minneapolis Lakers (1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)

[28]

Slater Martin*

G

11

5

Minneapolis Lakers (1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)St. Louis Hawks (1958)

[29]

Larry Siegfried

F

9

5

Boston Celtics (1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969)

[30]

Don Nelson*[f]

G

14

5

Boston Celtics (1966, 1968, 1969, 1974, 1976)

[31]

Michael Cooper

G/F

12

5

Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[32]

Earvin "Magic" Johnson*

G

13

5

Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[33]

Dennis Rodman*

F

14

5

Detroit Pistons (1989, 1990)Chicago Bulls (1996, 1997, 1998)

[34]

Ron Harper

G

15

5

Chicago Bulls (1996, 1997, 1998)Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001)

[35]

Steve Kerr[g]

G

15

5

Chicago Bulls (1996, 1997, 1998)San Antonio Spurs (1999, 2003)

[25]

Kobe Bryant

G

20

5

Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010)

[36]

Derek Fisher

G

18

5

Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010)

[37]

Tim Duncan

F/C

19

5

San Antonio Spurs (1999, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2014)

[38]

27

Vern Mikkelsen*

F/C

10

4

Minneapolis Lakers (1950, 1952, 1953, 1954)

[39]

Frank Saul

G/F

6

4

Rochester Royals (1951)Minneapolis Lakers (1952, 1953, 1954)

[24]

Bill Sharman*[h]

G

11

4

Boston Celtics (1957, 1959, 1960, 1961)

[40]

Jamaal Wilkes*

G/F

12

4

Golden State Warriors (1975)Los Angeles Lakers (1980, 1982, 1985[i])

[41]

Kurt Rambis

F

14

4

Los Angeles Lakers (1982, 1985, 1987, 1988)

[42]

Robert Parish*

C

21

4

Boston Celtics (1981, 1984, 1986)Chicago Bulls (1997)

[43]

Will Perdue

C

13

4

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993)San Antonio Spurs (1999)

[44]

John Salley

F/C

11

4

Detroit Pistons (1989, 1990)Chicago Bulls (1996)Los Angeles Lakers (2000)

[22]

Horace Grant

F/C

17

4

Chicago Bulls (1991, 1992, 1993)Los Angeles Lakers (2001)

[45]

Shaquille O'Neal*

C

19

4

Los Angeles Lakers (2000, 2001, 2002)Miami Heat (2006)

[46]

Manu Ginóbili^

G

16

4

San Antonio Spurs (2003, 2005, 2007, 2014)

[47]

Tony Parker^

G

17

4

San Antonio Spurs (2003, 2005, 2007, 2014)

[48]