document_title: List of Miss Universe titleholders

question_text: when was last time usa won miss universe

text: List of Miss Universe titleholders

text: Titleholders[edit]

text:
Year
Represented
Titleholder
Age [A]
Height
Hometown
Date

1952
 Finland
Armi Kuusela[1]
17
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Muhos
June 28, 1952

1953
 France
Christiane Martel[2]
21
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Créteil
July 17, 1953

1954
 United States
Miriam Stevenson[3]
21
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Winnsboro
July 24, 1954

1955
 Sweden
Hillevi Rombin[B][4][5]
21
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Alfta
July 22, 1955

1956
 United States
Carol Morris[6]
20
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Ottumwa
July 20, 1956

1957
 Peru
Gladys Zender[7]
18
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Lima
July 19, 1957

1958
 Colombia
Luz Marina Zuluaga[B][8]
19
5 ft 4 in (163 cm)
Pereira
July 26, 1958

1959
 Japan
Akiko Kojima[9]
22
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Tokyo
July 24, 1959

1960
 United States
Linda Bement[10]
18
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Salt Lake City
July 09, 1960

1961
 Germany
Marlene Schmidt[11]
24
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Stuttgart
July 15, 1961

1962
 Argentina
Norma Nolan[12]
24
5 ft 5 in (165 cm)
Buenos Aires
July 14, 1962

1963
 Brazil
Iêda Maria Vargas[13]
18
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Porto Alegre
July 20, 1963

1964
 Greece
Corinna Tsopei[14]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Athens
August 01, 1964

1965
 Thailand
Apasra Hongsakula[15]
18
5 ft 4 in (163 cm)
Bangkok
July 24, 1965

1966
 Sweden
Margareta Arvidsson[16]
18
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Gothenburg
July 16, 1966

1967
 United States
Sylvia Hitchcock[B][17]
21
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Miami
July 15, 1967

1968
 Brazil
Martha Vasconcellos[18]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Salvador
July 13, 1968

1969
 Philippines
Gloria Diaz[19]
18
5 ft 5 in (165 cm)
Aringay
July 19, 1969

1970
 Puerto Rico
Marisol Malaret[20]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
San Juan
July 11, 1970

1971
 Lebanon
Georgina Rizk[21]
18
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Beirut
July 24, 1971

1972
 Australia
Kerry Anne Wells[22]
20
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
Perth
July 29, 1972

1973
 Philippines
Margarita Moran[23]
19
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Manila
July 21, 1973

1974
 Spain
Amparo Muñoz[B][24]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Málaga
July 19, 1974

1975
 Finland
Anne Marie Pohtamo[25]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Helsinki
July 19, 1975

1976
 Israel
Rina Messinger[26]
20
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Kiryat Tiv'on
July 11, 1976

1977
 Trinidad and Tobago
Janelle Commissiong[27]
24
5 ft 5 in (165 cm)
Port of Spain
July 16, 1977

1978
 South Africa
Margaret Gardiner[28]
18
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Cape Town
July 24, 1978

1979
 Venezuela
Maritza Sayalero[29]
18
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Caracas
July 20, 1979

1980
 United States
Shawn Weatherly[30]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Sumter
July 08, 1980

1981
 Venezuela
Irene Sáez[31]
19
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Caracas
July 20, 1981

1982
 Canada
Karen Dianne Baldwin[32]
18
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
London
July 26, 1982

1983
 New Zealand
Lorraine Downes[33]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Auckland
July 11, 1983

1984
 Sweden
Yvonne Ryding[34]
21
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Eskilstuna
July 09, 1984

1985
 Puerto Rico
Deborah Carthy-Deu[35]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
San Juan
July 15, 1985

1986
 Venezuela
Bárbara Palacios[36]
22
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Caracas
July 21, 1986

1987
 Chile
Cecilia Bolocco[37]
22
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Santiago
May 27, 1987

1988
 Thailand
Porntip Nakhirunkanok[38]
20
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Bangkok
May 24, 1988

1989
 Netherlands
Angela Visser[39]
22
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Rotterdam
May 23, 1989

1990
 Norway
Mona Grudt[40]
19
5 ft 6 in (168 cm)
Trondheim
April 15, 1990

1991
 Mexico
Lupita Jones[41]
23
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Mexicali
May 17, 1991

1992
 Namibia
Michelle McLean[42]
19
6 ft 0 in (183 cm)
Windhoek
May 8, 1992

1993
 Puerto Rico
Dayanara Torres[43]
18
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Toa Alta
May 21, 1993

1994
 India
Sushmita Sen[44]
18
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
New Delhi
May 21, 1994

1995
 United States
Chelsi Smith[45]
21
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Deer Park
May 12, 1995

1996
 Venezuela
Alicia Machado[46]
19
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Maracay
May 17, 1996

1997
 United States
Brook Lee[47]
26
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Pearl City
May 16, 1997

1998
 Trinidad and Tobago
Wendy Fitzwilliam[48]
25
6 ft 0 in (183 cm)
Diego Martin
May 12, 1998

1999
 Botswana
Mpule Kwelagobe
19
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Gaborone
May 26, 1999

2000
 India
Lara Dutta[49]
22
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Mumbai
May 12, 2000

2001
 Puerto Rico
Denise Quiñones[50]
20
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Lares
May 11, 2001

2002
 Russia
Oxana Fedorova (Dethroned)
24
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Pskov
May 29, 2002

 Panama
Justine Pasek (Succeeded)[D][51]
23
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Panama City
September 24, 2002

2003
 Dominican Republic
Amelia Vega[52]
18
6 ft 2 in (188 cm)
Santiago de los Caballeros
June 03, 2003

2004
 Australia
Jennifer Hawkins[53]
20
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
Newcastle
June 01, 2004

2005
 Canada
Natalie Glebova[54]
23
5 ft 11 in (180 cm)
Toronto
May 31, 2005

2006
 Puerto Rico
Zuleyka Rivera[55]
18
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Salinas
July 23, 2006

2007
 Japan
Riyo Mori[56]
20
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Shizuoka
May 28, 2007

2008
 Venezuela
Dayana Mendoza[57]
22
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Caracas
July 14, 2008

2009
Stefanía Fernández[58]
18
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Mérida
August 23, 2009

2010
 Mexico
Ximena Navarrete[59]
22
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Guadalajara
August 23, 2010

2011
 Angola
Leila Lopes[60]
25
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Benguela
September 12, 2011

2012
 United States
Olivia Culpo[61]
20
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Cranston
December 19, 2012

2013
 Venezuela
Gabriela Isler
25
5 ft 10 in (178 cm)
Valencia
November 09, 2013

2014
 Colombia
Paulina Vega
22
5 ft 9 in (175 cm)
Barranquilla
January 25, 2015

2015
 Philippines
Pia Wurtzbach
26
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Cagayan de Oro
December 20, 2015

2016
 France
Iris Mittenaere[62]
24
5 ft 8 in (173 cm)
Lille
January 29, 2017

2017
 South Africa
Demi-Leigh Nel-Peters
22
5 ft 7 in (170 cm)
Sedgefield
November 26, 2017

text: Gallery of winners[edit]

text:
Miss Universe 2016
Iris Mittenaere
France

Miss Universe 2015
Pia Wurtzbach
Philippines

Miss Universe 2014
Paulina Vega
Colombia

Miss Universe 2013
Gabriela Isler
Venezuela

Miss Universe 2012
Olivia Culpo
United States

Miss Universe 2011
Leila Lopes
Angola

Miss Universe 2010
Ximena Navarrete
Mexico

Miss Universe 2009
Stefanía Fernández,
Venezuela

Miss Universe 2008
Dayana Mendoza,
Venezuela

Miss Universe 2007
Riyo Mori,
Japan

Miss Universe 2006
Zuleyka Rivera,
Puerto Rico

Miss Universe 2005
Natalie Glebova,
Canada

Miss Universe 2004
Jennifer Hawkins
Australia

Miss Universe 2003
Amelia Vega,
Dominican Republic

Miss Universe 2002
Justine Pasek,
Panama

Miss Universe 2001
Denise Quiñones,
Puerto Rico

Miss Universe 2000
Lara Dutta,
India

Miss Universe 1999
Mpule Kwelagobe,
Botswana

Miss Universe 1997
Brook Lee,
United States

Miss Universe 1994
Sushmita Sen,
India

Miss Universe 1993
Dayanara Torres,
Puerto Rico

Miss Universe 1991
Lupita Jones,
México

Miss Universe 1989
Angela Visser, Netherlands

Miss Universe 1987
Cecilia Bolocco, Chile

Miss Universe 1984
Yvonne Ryding, Sweden

Miss Universe 1980
Shawn Weatherly, United States

Miss Universe 1977
Janelle Commissiong, Trinidad and Tobago

Miss Universe 1976
Rina Mor, Israel

Miss Universe 1967
Sylvia Hitchcock, United States

Miss Universe 1956
Carol Morris, United States

Miss Universe 1953
Christiane Martel, France

Miss Universe 1952
Armi Kuusela, Finland

text: Countries/Territory by winning the title[edit]

text:
Country/Territory
Titles
Year(s)

 United States
8
1954, 1956, 1960, 1967, 1980, 1995, 1997, 2012

 Venezuela
7
1979, 1981, 1986, 1996, 2008, 2009, 2013

 Puerto Rico
5
1970, 1985, 1993, 2001, 2006

 Philippines
3
1969, 1973, 2015

 Sweden
1955, 1966, 1984

 South Africa
2
1978, 2017

 France
1953, 2016

 Colombia
1958, 2014

 Mexico
1991, 2010

 Japan
1959, 2007

 Canada
1982, 2005

 Australia
1972, 2004

 India
1994, 2000

 Trinidad and Tobago
1977, 1998

 Thailand
1965, 1988

 Finland
1952, 1975

 Brazil
1963, 1968

 Angola
1
2011

 Dominican Republic
2003

 Panama
2002[B]

 Russia
2002[A]

 Botswana
1999

 Namibia
1992

 Norway
1990

 Netherlands
1989

 Chile
1987

 New Zealand
1983

 Israel
1976

 Spain
1974

 Lebanon
1971

 Greece
1964

 Argentina
1962

 Germany
1961

 Peru
1957

text:
Notes
A Resigned
B Took over title


document_title: World population

question_text: what percentage of the world's population lives in india

question_tokens: what percentage of the world 's population lives in india

root

text: World population

text: Population by region[edit]

text: Six of the Earth's seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.54 billion inhabitants accounting for 60% of the world population. The world's two most populated countries, China and India, together constitute about 36% of the world's population. Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1.28 billion people, or 16% of the world's population. Europe's 742 million people make up 10% of the world's population as of 2018, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to around 651 million (9%). Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada, has a population of around 363 million (5%), and Oceania, the least-populated region, has about 41 million inhabitants (0.5%).[9] Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population based mainly in polar science stations. This population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries.[10]

tag: p

text: Population by continent[edit]

text:
Population by continent (2016 estimates)

Continent
Density
(inhabitants/km2)
Population
(millions)
Most populous country
Most populous city (metropolitan area)

Asia
96.4
4,436
1,382,300,000[note 1] -  China
35,676,000/13,634,685 -  Greater Tokyo Area/Tokyo Metropolis

Africa
36.7
1,216
0186,987,000 -  Nigeria
21,000,000 -  Lagos

Europe
72.9
738
0145,939,000 -  Russia;
approx. 112 million in Europe)
15,029,231 -  Istanbul[11]

North America[note 2]
22.9
579
0324,991,600 -  United States
23,723,696/8,537,673 -  New York Metropolitan Area/New York City

South America
22.8
422
0209,567,000 -  Brazil
27,640,577/11,316,149 -  Metro Area/São Paulo City

Oceania
4.5
39.9
0024,458,800 -  Australia
5,005,400 -  Sydney

Antarctica
0.0003
(varies)
0.004 in summer
(non-permanent, varies)[10]
N/A[note 3]
1,200 (non-permanent, varies) - McMurdo Station

tag: table

text: History[edit]

text: Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of modernity, possible only since the Age of Discovery. Early estimates for the population of the world[12] date to the 17th century: William Petty in 1682 estimated world population at 320 million (modern estimates ranging close to twice this number); by the late 18th century, estimates ranged close to one billion (consistent with modern estimates).[13] More refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 to 1000 million in the early 1800s and at 800 to 1000 million in the 1840s.[14]

text: Antiquity and Middle Ages[edit]

text: Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million.[15][16] Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a population bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BC, according to the Toba catastrophe theory. By contrast, it is estimated that around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD.[17]

text: The Plague of Justinian, which first emerged during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian, caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between the 6th and 8th centuries AD.[18] The population of Europe was more than 70 million in 1340.[19] The Black Death pandemic of the 14th century may have reduced the world's population from an estimated 450 million in 1340 to between 350 and 375 million in 1400;[20] it took 200 years for population figures to recover.[21] The population of China decreased from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million in 1393,[22] presumably due to a combination of Mongol invasions, famine, and plague.[23]

text: Starting in AD 2, the Han Dynasty of ancient China kept consistent family registers in order to properly assess the poll taxes and labor service duties of each household.[24] In that year, the population of Western Han was recorded as 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households, decreasing to 47,566,772 individuals in 9,348,227 households by AD 146, towards the End of the Han Dynasty.[24] At the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, China's population was reported to be close to 60 million; toward the end of the dynasty in 1644, it may have approached 150 million.[25] England's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500.[26] New crops that were brought to Asia and Europe from the Americas by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 16th century are believed to have contributed to population growth.[27][28][29] Since their introduction to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century,[30] maize and cassava have similarly replaced traditional African crops as the most important staple food crops grown on the continent.[31]

text: The pre-Columbian North American population probably numbered somewhere between 2 million and 18 million.[32] Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.[33] According to the most extreme scholarly claims, as many as 90% of the Native American population of the New World died due to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza.[34] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.[35]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: During the European Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.[38] The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.[39][40] Between 1700 and 1900, Europe’s population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million.[41] Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36% of the world's population in 1900.[42]

text: Population growth in the West became more rapid after the introduction of vaccination and other improvements in medicine and sanitation.[43] Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century.[44] The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006.[45] The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010.[46]

text: The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large-scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths).[47][48] After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia's population declined significantly – from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012[49] – but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted.[50]

text: Many countries in the developing world have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953,[51] and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the Indian subcontinent, which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941;[52] today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about 1.63 billion people.[53] Java had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; its present-day successor, Indonesia, now has a population of over 140 million.[54] In just one hundred years, the population of Brazil decupled (x10), from about 17 million in 1900, or about 1% of the world population in that year, to about 176 million in 2000, or almost 3% of the global population in the very early 21st century. Mexico's population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010.[55][56] Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million.[57]

text: Milestones by the billions[edit]

text:
World population milestones in billions

Population
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Year
1804
1927
1960
1974
1987
1999
2011
2024
2042

Years elapsed
––
123
33
14
13
12
12
13
18

text: It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960.[58] Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in 1987, six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, seven billion in March 2012.[59] The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011.[60][61][62]

text: According to current projections, the global population will reach eight billion by 2024, and will likely reach around nine billion by 2042. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion.[63] Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the fertility variable. Long-range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario", to "high scenarios" of 24.8 billion.[63] One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52.[64][65]

text: There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion" on July 11, 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion" on October 12, 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of 7 Billion" to be October 31, 2011.[66]

text: Global demographics[edit]

text:
80+
  77.5+
  75+
  72.5+
  70+
  67.5+
  65+

  60+
  55+
  50+
  45+
  40+
  less than 40

text: As of 2012, the global sex ratio is approximately 1.01 males to 1 female. The greater number of men is possibly due to the significant sex imbalances evident in the Indian and Chinese populations.[68][69] Approximately 26.3% of the global population is aged under 15, while 65.9% is aged 15–64 and 7.9% is aged 65 or over.[68] The median age of the world's population was estimated to be 29.7 years in 2014,[70] and is expected to rise to 37.9 years by 2050.[71]

text: According to the World Health Organization, the global average life expectancy is 70.5 years as of 2012, with women living an average of 73 years and men approximately 68 years.[67] In 2010, the global fertility rate was estimated at 2.52 children per woman.[65] In June 2012, British researchers calculated the total weight of Earth's human population as approximately 287 million tonnes, with the average person weighing around 62 kilograms (137 lb).[72]

text: The CIA estimated nominal 2013 gross world product at US$74.31 trillion, giving an annual global per capita figure of around US$10,500.[73] Around 1.29 billion people (18.4% of the world population) live in extreme poverty, subsisting on less than US$1.25 per day;[74] approximately 870 million people (12.25%) are undernourished.[75] 83% of the world's over-15s are considered literate.[68] In June 2014, there were around 3.03 billion global Internet users, constituting 42.3% of the world population.[76]

text: The Han Chinese are the world's largest single ethnic group, constituting over 19% of the global population in 2011.[77] The world's most-spoken first languages are Mandarin Chinese (spoken by 12.44% of the world's population), Spanish (4.85%), English (4.83%), Arabic (3.25%) and Hindustani (2.68%).[68] The world's largest religion is Christianity, whose adherents account for 31% of the global population; Islam is the second-largest religion, accounting for 24.1%, and Hinduism the third, accounting for 13.78%.[68] In 2005, around 16% of the global population were reported to be non-religious.[78]

text: Largest populations by country[edit]

text:
10 most populous countries

Rank
Country / Territory
Population
Date
Approx. % of world
population
Source

1
 China[note 4]
1,392,470,000
June 19, 2018
18.2%
[79]

2
 India
1,333,250,000
June 19, 2018
17.5%
[80]

3
 United States
327,335,000
June 19, 2018
4.29%
[81]

4
 Indonesia
261,600,000
October 31, 2016
3.43%
[82]

5
 Pakistan
211,961,000
June 19, 2018
2.78%
[83]

6
 Brazil
209,203,000
June 19, 2018
2.74%
[84]

7
 Nigeria
188,500,000
October 31, 2016
2.47%
[85]

8
 Bangladesh
164,698,000
June 19, 2018
2.16%
[86]

9
 Russia[note 5]
146,773,226
June 1, 2017
1.92%
[87]

10
 Japan
126,670,000
September 1, 2017
1.66%
[88]

text: Approximately 4.3 billion people live in these ten countries, representing around 58% of the world's population as of March 2016. Approximately 3.7 billion people, or half of the world population, live in the six most populous countries.[89]

text: Most densely populated countries[edit]

text: The tables below list the world's most densely populated countries, both in absolute terms and in comparison to their total populations.

text:
10 most densely populated countries (with population above 5 million)

Rank
Country
Population
Area (km2)
Density
(Pop. per km2)

1
 Singapore
5,612,300
710
7,905

2
 Bangladesh
164,700,000
143,998
1,144

3
 Taiwan
23,562,318
36,190
651

4
 South Korea
51,446,201
99,538
517

5
 Lebanon
6,082,000
10,452
582

6
 Rwanda
11,809,295
26,338
448

7
 Netherlands
17,230,000
41,526
415

8
 Haiti
10,911,819
27,065
403

9
 India
1,333,250,000
3,287,240
406

10
 Israel
8,870,000
22,072
402

text:
Countries ranking highly in both total population (more than 20 million people) and population density (more than 250 people per square kilometer):

Rank
Country
Population
Area (km2)
Density
(Pop. per km2)
Notes

1
 India
1,333,250,000
3,287,240
406
Growing population

2
 Pakistan
211,960,000
803,940
264
Rapidly growing population

3
 Bangladesh
164,700,000
143,998
1,144
Rapidly growing population

4
 Japan
126,670,000
377,873
335
Declining population[90]

5
 Philippines
106,040,000
300,000
353
Growing population

6
 Vietnam
93,700,000
331,689
282
Growing population

7
 United Kingdom
65,648,100
243,610
269
Slowly growing population

8
 South Korea
51,446,201
99,538
517
Slowly growing population

9
 Taiwan
23,562,318
36,190
651
Steady population

10
 Sri Lanka
21,444,000
65,610
327
Growing population

text: Fluctuation[edit]

text: Population size fluctuates at differing rates in differing regions. Nonetheless, population growth is the long-standing trend on all inhabited continents, as well as in most individual states. During the 20th century, the global population saw its greatest increase in known history, rising from about 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2000. A number of factors contributed to this increase, including the lessening of the mortality rate in many countries by improved sanitation and medical advances, and a massive increase in agricultural productivity attributed to the Green Revolution.[91][92][93]

text: In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.14% (equivalent to around 75 million people),[94] down from a peak of 88 million per year in 1989. By 2000, there were approximately ten times as many people on Earth as there had been in 1700. Globally, the population growth rate has been steadily declining from its peak of 2.19% in 1963, but growth remains high in Latin America, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa.[95]

text:
7–8 children
  6–7 children

  5–6 children
  4–5 children

  3–4 children
  2–3 children

  1–2 children
  0–1 children

text: During the 2010s, Japan and some countries in Europe began to encounter negative population growth (i.e. a net decrease in population over time), due to sub-replacement fertility rates.[90]

text: In 2006, the United Nations stated that the rate of population growth was visibly diminishing due to the ongoing global demographic transition. If this trend continues, the rate of growth may diminish to zero by 2050, concurrent with a world population plateau of 9.2 billion.[96] However, this is only one of many estimates published by the UN; in 2009, UN population projections for 2050 ranged between around 8 billion and 10.5 billion.[97] An alternative scenario is given by the statistician Jorgen Randers, who argues that traditional projections insufficiently take into account the downward impact of global urbanization on fertility. Randers' "most likely scenario" reveals a peak in the world population in the early 2040s at about 8.1 billion people, followed by decline.[98] Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and of sociology, states that "there’s a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world’s agenda, remains a very important issue."[99]

text:
Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC–AD 2000

Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC–AD 2000 (in log y scale)

World population figures, 1950–2000

Estimated global growth rates, 1950–2050

Estimated and projected populations of the world and its continents (except Antarctica) from 1950 to 2100. The shaded regions correspond to the range of projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

tag: ul

text: Population growth by region[edit]

text: The table below shows historical and predicted regional population figures in millions.[100][101][102] The availability of historical population figures varies by region.

text:
World historical and predicted populations (in millions)[103][104][105]

Region
1500
1600
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
1999
2008
2010
2012
2050
2150

World
585
660
710
791
978
1,262
1,650
2,521
6,008
6,707
6,896
7,052
9,725
9,746

Africa
86
114
106
106
107
111
133
221
783
973
1,022
1,052
2,478
2,308

Asia
282
350
411
502
635
809
947
1,402
3,700
4,054
4,164
4,250
5,267
5,561

Europe
168
170
178
190
203
276
408
547
675
732
738
740
734
517

Latin America[Note 1]
40
20
10
16
24
38
74
167
508
577
590
603
784
912

North America[Note 1]
6
3
2
2
7
26
82
172
312
337
345
351
433
398

Oceania
3
3
3
2
2
2
6
13
30
34
37
38
57
51

text:
World historical and predicted populations by percentage distribution[103][104]

Region
1500
1600
1700
1750
1800
1850
1900
1950
1999
2008
2010
2012
2050
2150

World
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

Africa
14.7
17.3
14.9
13.4
10.9
8.8
8.1
8.8
13.0
14.5
14.8
15.2
25.48
23.7

Asia
48.2
53.0
57.9
63.5
64.9
64.1
57.4
55.6
61.6
60.4
60.4
60.3
54.16
57.1

Europe
28.7
25.8
25.1
20.6
20.8
21.9
24.7
21.7
11.2
10.9
10.7
10.5
7.55
5.3

Latin America[Note 1]
6.8
3.0
1.4
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.5
6.6
8.5
8.6
8.6
8.6
8.06
9.4

North America[Note 1]
1.0
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.7
2.1
5.0
6.8
5.2
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.45
4.1

Oceania
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.59
0.5

text: Past population[edit]

text: The following table gives estimates, in millions, of population in the past. The data for 1750 to 1900 are from the UN report "The World at Six Billion"[106] whereas the data from 1950 to 2015 are from a UN data sheet.[8]

text:
Year
World
Africa
Asia
Europe
Latin America & Carib.[Note 1]
North America[Note 1]
Oceania
Notes

70,000 BC
< 0.015

0
0

[107]

10,000 BC
4

[108]

8000 BC
5

6500 BC
5

5000 BC
5

4000 BC
7

3000 BC
14

2000 BC
27

1000 BC
50
7
33
9

[citation needed]

500 BC
100
14
66
16

AD 1
200
23
141
28

1000
400
70
269
50
8
1
2

1500
458
86
243
84
39
3
3

1600
580
114
339
111
10
3
3

1700
682
106
436
125
10
2
3

1750
791
106
502
163
16
2
2

1800
1,000
107
656
203
24
7
3

1850
1,262
111
809
276
38
26
2

1900
1,650
133
947
408
74
82
6

1950
2,525
229
1,394
549
169
172
12.7
[109]

1955
2,758
254
1,534
577
193
187
14.2

1960
3,018
285
1,687
606
221
204
15.8

1965
3,322
322
1,875
635
254
219
17.5

1970
3,682
366
2,120
657
288
231
19.7

1975
4,061
416
2,378
677
326
242
21.5

1980
4,440
478
2,626
694
365
254
23.0

1985
4,853
550
2,897
708
406
267
24.9

1990
5,310
632
3,202
721
447
281
27.0

1995
5,735
720
3,475
728
487
296
29.1

2000
6,127
814
3,714
726
527
314
31.1

2005
6,520
920
3,945
729
564
329
33.4

2010
6,930
1,044
4,170
735
600
344
36.4

2015
7,349
1,186
4,393
738
634
358
39.3

text: Using the above figures, the change in population from 2010 to 2015 was:

text:
World: +420 million
Africa: +142 million
Asia: +223 million
Europe: +3 million
Latin America and Caribbean: +35 million
Northern America: +14 million
Oceania: +2.9 million

text: ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Northern America comprises the northern-most countries and territories of North America: Canada, the United States, Greenland, Bermuda, and St. Pierre and Miquelon. Latin America comprises Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America.

tag: ol

text: Projections[edit]

text: Long-term global population growth is difficult to predict. The United Nations and the US Census Bureau both give different estimates – according to the UN, the world population reached seven billion in late 2011,[100] while the USCB asserted that this occurred in March 2012.[111] The UN has issued multiple projections of future world population, based on different assumptions. From 2000 to 2005, the UN consistently revised these projections downward, until the 2006 revision, issued on March 14, 2007, revised the 2050 mid-range estimate upwards by 273 million.

text: Average global birth rates are declining fast, but vary greatly between developed countries (where birth rates are often at or below replacement levels) and developing countries (where birth rates typically remain high). Different ethnicities also display varying birth rates. Death rates can change rapidly due to disease epidemics, wars and other mass catastrophes, or advances in medicine.

text: 2012 United projections show a continued increase in population in the near future with a steady decline in population growth rate; the global population is expected to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050.[112][113] 2003 UN Population Division population projections for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 billion.[64] One of many independent mathematical models supports the lower estimate,[114] while a 2014 estimate forecasts between 9.3 and 12.6 billion in 2100, and continued growth thereafter.[115][116] Some analysts have questioned the sustainability of further world population growth, highlighting the growing pressures on the environment, global food supplies, and energy resources.[117][118][119]

text:
UN (medium variant – 2012 revision) and US Census Bureau (June 2015) estimates[120][121]

Year
UN est.
(millions)
Difference
USCB est.
(millions)
Difference

2005
6,514
–
6,473
–

2010
6,916
402
6,866
393

2015
7,324
408
7,256
390

2020
7,717
393
7,643
380

2025
8,083
366
8,007
363

2030
8,425
342
8,341
334

2035
8,743
318
8,646
306

2040
9,039
296
8,926
280

2045
9,308
269
9,180
254

2050
9,551
243
9,408
228

text:
UN 2012 estimates and medium variant projections (in millions)[120]

Year
World
Asia
Africa
Europe
Latin America/Caribbean
Northern America
Oceania

2010
6,916
4,165 (60.2%)
1,031 (14.9%)
740 (10.7%)
596 (8.6%)
347 (5.0%)
37 (0.5%)

2015
7,324
4,385 (59.9%)
1,166 (15.9%)
743 (10.1%)
630 (8.6%)
361 (4.9%)
39 (0.5%)

2020
7,717
4,582 (59.4%)
1,312 (17.0%)
744 (9.6%)
662 (8.6%)
376 (4.9%)
42 (0.5%)

2025
8,083
4,749 (58.8%)
1,468 (18.2%)
741 (9.2%)
691 (8.5%)
390 (4.8%)
45 (0.6%)

2030
8,425
4,887 (58.0%)
1,634 (19.4%)
736 (8.7%)
717 (8.5%)
403 (4.8%)
47 (0.6%)

2035
8,743
4,997 (57.2%)
1,812 (20.7%)
730 (8.3%)
739 (8.5%)
415 (4.8%)
50 (0.6%)

2040
9,039
5,080 (56.2%)
1,999 (22.1%)
724 (8.0%)
757 (8.4%)
426 (4.8%)
52 (0.6%)

2045
9,308
5,136 (55.2%)
2,194 (23.6%)
717 (7.7%)
771 (8.3%)
436 (4.7%)
55 (0.6%)

2050
9,551
5,164 (54.1%)
2,393 (25.1%)
709 (7.4%)
782 (8.2%)
446 (4.7%)
57 (0.6%)

2055
9,766
5,168 (52.9%)
2,595 (26.6%)
700 (7.2%)
788 (8.1%)
456 (4.7%)
59 (0.6%)

2060
9,957
5,152 (51.7%)
2,797 (28.1%)
691 (6.9%)
791 (7.9%)
465 (4.7%)
61 (0.6%)

2065
10,127
5,120 (50.6%)
2,998 (29.6%)
681 (6.7%)
791 (7.8%)
474 (4.7%)
63 (0.6%)

2070
10,277
5,075 (49.4%)
3,195 (31.1%)
673 (6.5%)
788 (7.6%)
482 (4.7%)
64 (0.6%)

2075
10,409
5,019 (48.2%)
3,387 (32.5%)
665 (6.4%)
783 (7.5%)
490 (4.7%)
66 (0.6%)

2080
10,524
4,957 (47.1%)
3,570 (33.9%)
659 (6.3%)
776 (7.4%)
496 (4.7%)
67 (0.6%)

2085
10,626
4,894 (46.1%)
3,742 (35.2%)
653 (6.1%)
767 (7.2%)
502 (4.7%)
68 (0.6%)

2090
10,717
4,833 (45.1%)
3,903 (36.4%)
649 (6.1%)
757 (7.1%)
506 (4.7%)
69 (0.6%)

2095
10,794
4,773 (44.2%)
4,051 (37.6%)
644 (6.0%)
747 (6.9%)
510 (4.7%)
69 (0.6%)

2100
10,854
4,712 (43.4%)
4,185 (38.6%)
639 (5.9%)
736 (6.8%)
513 (4.7%)
70 (0.6%)

text: Mathematical approximations[edit]

text: In 1975, Sebastian von Hoerner proposed a formula for population growth which represented hyperbolic growth with an infinite population in 2025.[122] The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the carrying capacity of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth's carrying capacity for people, and so on.[123] The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition.

text: According to the Russian demographer Sergey Kapitsa,[124] the world population grew between 67,000 BC and 1965 according to the following formula:

text: where

text:
N is current population
T is the current year
C = (1.86±0.01)·1011
T0 = 2007±1

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

 = 42±1

text: Years for world population to double[edit]

text: According to linear interpolation and extrapolation of UNDESA population estimates, the world population has doubled, or will double, in the years listed in the tables below (with two different starting points). During the 2nd millennium, each doubling took roughly half as long as the previous doubling, fitting the hyperbolic growth model mentioned above. However, after 2024, it is unlikely that there will be another doubling of the global population in the 21st century.[125]

text:
Starting at 500 million

Population
(in billions)
0.5
1
2
4
8

Year
1500
1804
1927
1974
2024

Years elapsed
304
123
47
50

text:
Starting at 375 million

Population
(in billions)
0.375
0.75
1.5
3
6

Year
1171
1715
1881
1960
1999

Years elapsed
544
166
79
39

text: Overpopulation[edit]

text: Predictions of scarcity[edit]

text: In his 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population, the British scholar Thomas Malthus incorrectly predicted that continued population growth would exhaust the global food supply by the mid-19th century. Malthus wrote the essay to refute what he considered the unattainable utopian ideas of William Godwin and Marquis de Condorcet, as presented in Political Justice and The Future Progress of the Human Mind. In 1968, Paul R. Ehrlich reprised Malthus' argument in The Population Bomb, predicting that mass global famine would occur in the 1970s and 1980s.[127]

text: The predictions of Ehrlich and other neo-Malthusians were vigorously challenged by a number of economists, notably Julian Lincoln Simon, and advances in agriculture, collectively known as the Green Revolution, forestalled any potential global famine in the late 20th century. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250%.[128] The world population has grown by over four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution, but food production has so far kept pace with population growth. Most scholars believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater levels of famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents.[129] However, neo-Malthusians point out that fossil fuels provided the energy for the Green Revolution, in the form of natural gas-derived fertilizers, oil-derived pesticides, and hydrocarbon-fueled irrigation, and that many crops have become so genetically uniform that a crop failure in any one country could potentially have global repercussions.[130]

text: In 2004, a meta-analysis of 70 quantitative studies estimating a sustainable limit to the world population generated a meta-estimate of 7.7 billion people.[131]

text: In May 2008, the price of grain was pushed up severely by the increased cultivation of biofuels, the increase of world oil prices to over $140 per barrel ($880/m3),[132] global population growth,[133] the effects of climate change,[134] the loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development,[135][136] and growing consumer demand in the population centres of China and India.[137][138] Food riots subsequently occurred in some countries.[139][140] However, oil prices then fell sharply. Resource demands are expected to ease as population growth declines, but it is unclear whether mass food wastage and rising living standards in developing countries will once again create resource shortages.[141][142]

text: David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, estimates that the sustainable agricultural carrying capacity for the United States is about 200 million people; its population as of 2015 is over 300 million.[143] In 2009, the UK government's chief scientific advisor, Professor John Beddington, warned that growing populations, falling energy reserves and food shortages would create a "perfect storm" of shortages of food, water, and energy by 2030.[126][144] According to a 2009 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the world will have to produce 70% more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people.[145]

text: The observed figures for 2007 showed an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, with 923 million undernourished in 2007, versus 832 million in 1995.[146] The 2009 FAO estimates showed an even more dramatic increase, to 1.02 billion.[147]

text: Environmental impacts[edit]

text: A number of scientists have argued that the current global population expansion and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world's ecosystem.[148][149] The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented" population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution.[150] Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation's most serious impact is its effect on the environment.[118] The situation has continued to worsen, as at the time of the 1994 IAP statement, the world population stood at 5.5 billion and lower-bound scenarios predicted a peak of 7.8 billion by 2050, a number that current estimates state will be reached in the late 2020s.

text: Scientists contend that human overpopulation, continued human population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, are the primary drivers of mass species extinction.[151][152][153][154] By 2050 population growth, along with profligate consumption, could result in oceans containing more plastic than fish by weight.[153] In November 2017, a statement by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries asserted that rapid human population growth is the "primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats."[155]

text: A July 2017 study published in Environmental Research Letters argued that the most significant way individuals could mitigate their own carbon footprint is to have fewer children, followed by living without a vehicle, forgoing air travel and adopting a plant-based diet.[156]

text: Population control[edit]

text: Human population control is the practice of intervening to alter the rate of population growth. Historically, human population control has been implemented by limiting a region's birth rate, by voluntary contraception or by government mandate. It has been undertaken as a response to factors including high or increasing levels of poverty, environmental concerns, and religious reasons. The use of abortion in some population control strategies has caused controversy,[157] with religious organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church explicitly opposing any intervention in the human reproductive process.[158]

text: The University of Nebraska publication Green Illusions argues that population control to alleviate environmental pressures need not be coercive. It states that "Women who are educated, economically engaged, and in control of their own bodies can enjoy the freedom of bearing children at their own pace, which happens to be a rate that is appropriate for the aggregate ecological endowment of our planet."[159] The book Fatal Misconception by Matthew Connelly similarly points to the importance of supporting the rights of women in bringing population levels down over time.[160]


document_title: 2018 PGA Tour

question_text: how many pga tour events are there in a year

text: 2018 PGA Tour

text: Schedule[edit]

text: The following table lists official events for 2017–18.[1]

text: The schedule contains 48 events, including two new ones: The CJ Cup in South Korea and the Corales Puntacana Resort and Club Championship, a former event on the Web.com Tour based out of the Dominican Republic. The Barbasol Championship will be played in Kentucky, the first non-major PGA Tour event in the state since 1959. The Puerto Rico Open became an unofficial charity event in the wake of Hurricane Maria.

text:
Date
Tournament
Location
Winner
OWGRpoints
Purse ($)
Winner'sshare ($)
Notes

Oct 8

Safeway Open

California

 Brendan Steele (3)

26

6,200,000

1,116,000

Oct 15

CIMB Classic

Malaysia

 Pat Perez (3)

48

7,000,000

1,260,000

Co-sanctioned with the Asian Tour

Oct 22

CJ Cup

South Korea

 Justin Thomas (7)

50

9,250,000

1,665,000

New tournament

Oct 29

WGC-HSBC Champions

China

 Justin Rose (8)

64

9,750,000

1,660,000

World Golf Championships

Oct 29

Sanderson Farms Championship

Mississippi

 Ryan Armour (1)

24

4,300,000

774,000

Alternate event

Nov 5

Shriners Hospitals for Children Open

Nevada

 Patrick Cantlay (1)

30

6,800,000

1,224,000

Nov 12

OHL Classic at Mayakoba

Mexico

 Patton Kizzire (1)

32

7,100,000

1,278,000

Nov 19

RSM Classic

Georgia

 Austin Cook (1)

30

6,200,000

1,116,000

Jan 7

Sentry Tournament of Champions

Hawaii

 Dustin Johnson (17)

56

6,300,000

1,260,000

Winners-only event

Jan 14

Sony Open in Hawaii

Hawaii

 Patton Kizzire (2)

48

6,200,000

1,116,000

Jan 21

CareerBuilder Challenge

California

 Jon Rahm (2)

40

5,900,000

1,062,000

Celebrity pro-am

Jan 29[n 1]

Farmers Insurance Open

California

 Jason Day (11)

54

6,900,000

1,242,000

Feb 4

Waste Management Phoenix Open

Arizona

 Gary Woodland (3)

60

6,900,000

1,242,000

Feb 11

AT&T Pebble Beach Pro-Am

California

 Ted Potter Jr. (2)

54

7,400,000

1,332,000

Celebrity pro-am

Feb 18

Genesis Open

California

 Bubba Watson (10)

62

7,200,000

1,296,000

Feb 25

The Honda Classic

Florida

 Justin Thomas (8)

52

6,600,000

1,188,000

Mar 4

WGC-Mexico Championship

Mexico

 Phil Mickelson (43)

72

10,000,000

1,700,000

World Golf Championships

Mar 11

Valspar Championship

Florida

 Paul Casey (2)

52

6,500,000

1,170,000

Mar 18

Arnold Palmer Invitational

Florida

 Rory McIlroy (14)

58

8,900,000

1,602,000

Invitational

Mar 25

WGC-Dell Technologies Match Play

Texas

 Bubba Watson (11)

74

10,000,000

1,700,000

World Golf Championships

Mar 25

Corales Puntacana Resortand Club Championship

Dominican Republic

 Brice Garnett (1)

24

3,000,000

540,000

New to the PGA TourAlternate event

Apr 1

Houston Open

Texas

 Ian Poulter (3)

48

7,000,000

1,260,000

Apr 8

Masters Tournament

Georgia

 Patrick Reed (6)

100

11,000,000

1,980,000

Major championship

Apr 15

RBC Heritage

South Carolina

 Satoshi Kodaira (1)

52

6,700,000

1,206,000

Invitational

Apr 22

Valero Texas Open

Texas

 Andrew Landry (1)

40

6,200,000

1,116,000

Apr 29

Zurich Classic of New Orleans

Louisiana

 Billy Horschel (5) &  Scott Piercy (4)

n/a

7,200,000

1,036,800(each)

Team event

May 6

Wells Fargo Championship

North Carolina

 Jason Day (12)

60

7,700,000

1,386,000

May 13

The Players Championship

Florida

 Webb Simpson (5)

80

11,000,000

1,980,000

Flagship event

May 20

AT&T Byron Nelson

Texas

 Aaron Wise (1)

34

7,700,000

1,386,000

May 27

Fort Worth Invitational

Texas

 Justin Rose (9)

56

7,100,000

1,278,000

Invitational

Jun 3

The Memorial Tournament

Ohio

 Bryson DeChambeau (2)

70

8,900,000

1,602,000

Invitational

Jun 10

FedEx St. Jude Classic

Tennessee

 Dustin Johnson (18)

36

6,600,000

1,188,000

Jun 17

U.S. Open

New York

 Brooks Koepka (3)

100

12,000,000

2,160,000

Major championship

Jun 24

Travelers Championship

Connecticut

 Bubba Watson (12)

58

7,000,000

1,260,000

Jul 1

Quicken Loans National

Maryland

 Francesco Molinari (1)

34

7,100,000

1,278,000

Invitational

Jul 8

A Military Tribute at The Greenbrier

West Virginia

 Kevin Na (2)

34

7,300,000

1,314,000

Jul 15

John Deere Classic

Illinois

 Michael Kim (1)

24

5,800,000

1,044,000

Jul 22

The Open Championship(British Open)

Scotland

 Francesco Molinari (2)

100

10,500,000

1,890,000

Major championship

Jul 23[n 2]

Barbasol Championship

Kentucky

 Troy Merritt (2)

24

3,500,000

630,000

Alternate event

Jul 29

RBC Canadian Open

Ontario

 Dustin Johnson (19)

46

6,200,000

1,116,000

Aug 5

WGC-Bridgestone Invitational

Ohio

 Justin Thomas (9)

74

10,000,000

1,700,000

World Golf Championships

Aug 5

Barracuda Championship

Nevada

 Andrew Putnam (1)

24

3,400,000

612,000

Alternate event

Aug 12

PGA Championship

Missouri

 Brooks Koepka (4)

100

11,000,000

1,980,000

Major championship

Aug 19

Wyndham Championship

North Carolina

 Brandt Snedeker (9)

34

6,000,000

1,080,000

Aug 26

The Northern Trust

New Jersey

 Bryson DeChambeau (3)

76

9,000,000

1,620,000

FedEx Cup Playoffs

Sep 3

Dell Technologies Championship

Massachusetts

 Bryson DeChambeau (4)

76

9,000,000

1,620,000

FedEx Cup Playoffs

Sep 10[n 2]

BMW Championship

Pennsylvania

 Keegan Bradley (4)

72

9,000,000

1,620,000

FedEx Cup Playoffs

Sep 23

Tour Championship

Georgia

 Tiger Woods (80)

62

9,000,000

1,620,000

FedEx Cup Playoffs

text:
Jump up ^ Finished on Monday due to darkness.

^ Jump up to: a b Finished on Monday due to weather.

text: Unofficial events[edit]

text: The following events do not carry FedEx Cup points or official money, although some do give out OWGR points.

text:
Date
Tournament
Location
Winner(s)
OWGRpoints
Purse ($)
Winner'sshare ($)
Notes

Dec 3

Hero World Challenge

Bahamas

 Rickie Fowler

48

3,500,000

1,000,000

18-player field

Dec 10

QBE Shootout

Florida

 Sean O'Hair & Steve Stricker

n/a

3,300,000

410,000(each)

12 two-player teams

Dec 17

PNC Father-Son Challenge

Florida

 Ángel Cabrera & Ángel Cabrera Jr

n/a

1,085,000

200,000

20 two-player teams

Mar 4

Puerto Rico Open Charity Day

Puerto Rico

 Cheyenne Woods & George McNeill

n/a

3,000,000

540,000

Hurricane Maria relief tournament

Jun 25

CVS Health Charity Classic

Rhode Island

 Billy Andrade, Keegan Bradley, & Brooke Henderson

n/a

1,500,000

140,000(each)

Six three-player teams

Sep 30

Ryder Cup

France

 Team Europe

n/a

Two 12-man teams

text: Money leaders[edit]

text: This section shows the final money leaders table.

text:
Rank
Player
Country
Events
Prize money ($)

1
Justin Thomas
 United States
23
8,694,821

2
Dustin Johnson
 United States
20
8,457,352

3
Justin Rose
 England
18
8,130,678

4
Bryson DeChambeau
 United States
26
8,094,489

5
Brooks Koepka
 United States
17
7,094,047

6
Bubba Watson
 United States
24
5,793,748

7
Tony Finau
 United States
28
5,620,138

8
Tiger Woods
 United States
18
5,443,841

9
Webb Simpson
 United States
26
5,376,417

10
Jason Day
 Australia
20
5,087,461

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Award
Winner
Country

PGA Tour Player of the Year (Jack Nicklaus Trophy)
Brooks Koepka
 United States

PGA Player of the Year
Brooks Koepka
 United States

Money winner (Arnold Palmer Award)
Justin Thomas
 United States

Scoring leader (PGA – Vardon Trophy)
Dustin Johnson
 United States

Scoring leader (PGA Tour – Byron Nelson Award)
Dustin Johnson
 United States

Rookie of the Year
Aaron Wise
 United States

FedEx Cup
Justin Rose
 England


document_title: Geography of Egypt

question_text: which two bodies of water give the sinai peninsula its triangular shape

text: Geography of Egypt

text: Governorates[edit]

text: Egypt is divided into 27 governorates, which include two city-governorates: Alexandria (Alexandria Governorate) and Cairo (Cairo Governorate). There are nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region, ten of Upper Egypt along the Nile river south from Cairo to Aswan and five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile rive

text: Natural regions[edit]

text: Egypt is predominantly desert. 35,000 km2 - 3.5% - of the total land area is cultivated and permanently settled. Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches eastwards from Africa's Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia.

text: Egypt's geological history has produced four major physical regions:

text:
Nile Valley and Nile Delta
Western Desert (from the Nile west to the Libyan border)
Eastern Desert (extends from the Nile Valley all the way to the Red Sea coast)
Sinai Peninsula

text: Despite covering only about 6.5% of the total area of Egypt; the Nile Valley and Nile Delta are the most important regions, being the country's only cultivable regions and supporting about 99% of the population. The Nile valley extends approximately 800 km from Aswan to the outskirts of Cairo. The Nile Valley is very cool and known as Upper Egypt, while the Nile Delta region is known as Lower Egypt. Steep rocky cliffs rise along the banks of the Nile in some stretches, while other areas along the Nile are flat, with space for agricultural production. In the past, flooding of the Nile during the summer provided silt and water to make agriculture possible on land that is otherwise very dry. Since construction of the Aswan Dam, agriculture in the Nile valley depends on irrigation. The Nile delta consists of flat, low-lying areas. Some parts of the delta are marshy and water-logged, and thus not suitable for agriculture. Other areas of the delta are used for agriculture.[1]

text: Nile Valley and Delta[edit]

text: The Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world's longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources. Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow across the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert. The length within Egypt of the River Nile in its northwards course from three central African sources – the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara – totals some 1,600 km.

text: The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28% of the Nile's Egyptian waters. In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in South Sudan, the White Nile's channel drops more than 600 m. In its 1,600-km course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan's capital, the river descends just 75 m. In South Sudan, the White Nile passes through the Sudd, a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to the point of stagnation.

text: The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides on average some 58% of the Nile's Egyptian waters. This river has a steeper gradient and therefore flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum. Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment. For several kilometres north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river, coming from the Blue Nile, is visibly muddy, while that closer to the western bank, and coming from the White Nile, is clearer.

text: The much shorter Atbarah River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14% of the Nile's waters in Egypt. During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools. But, in late-summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian Highlands, the Atbarah provides 22% of the Nile's flow.

text: The Blue Nile has a similar pattern. It contributes 17% of the Nile's waters in the low-water season and 68% during the high-water season. In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10% of the Nile's waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80% during the low-water period. Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields. The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January.

text: The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam. As a result of the dam's construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends southwards from the dam for 320 km to the border and for an additional 158 km within Sudan. Lake Nasser's waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow canyon between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries.

text: Below Aswan the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty km. North of Isna (160 km north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises to as much as 550 m above sea level; at Qina (some 90 km north of Isna) the 300-m limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course towards the southwest for about 60 km before it turns northwest for about 160 km to Asyut. Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of 22 km.

text: At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary, subsequently filled by silt deposits to form what is now a fertile, fan-shaped delta some 250 km wide at its seaward extremity and extending about 160 km from north to south. The Nile Delta covers approximately 22,000 km2 (roughly equivalent in area to that of Massachusetts). According to historical accounts from the first century AD, seven branches of the Nile once ran through the delta. According to later accounts, the Nile had, by around the twelfth century, just six branches.

text: Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also seen as Dumyat; 240 km long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 km long). Both outlets are named after the ports located at their respective mouths. A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets. In the north, near the coast, the Nile delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes, the most notable among which are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah.

text: The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depends largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters. Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe. The timing and the amount of annual flow were always unpredictable. Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion m3 and as high as 4.25 billion m3 have been recorded. For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of these flows and thereby moderate the severity of floods.

text: The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch. Lake Nasser, the world's largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa. The dams have also affected the Nile Valley's fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water.

text: Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago. The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley amounted to some nine metres. Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year.

text: Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, now retained in Lake Nasser. The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river's banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.

text: Western Desert[edit]

text: The Western Desert covers an area of some 700,000 km2, thereby accounting for around two-thirds of Egypt's total land area. This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea southwards to the Sudanese border. The desert's Jilf al Kabir Plateau, at a mean altitude of some 1000 m, constitutes an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert's plain and extends from the Siwa Oasis to Jilf al Kabir. Escarpments (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area.

text: The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south. There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty. The Qattara Depression, which includes the country's lowest point, encompasses 19,605 square kilometers (7,570 sq mi), which is similar to the size of Lake Ontario. It is largely below sea level and is 133 meters (436 ft) below sea level at the lowest. Badlands, salt marshes, and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression.

text: Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater. The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa's cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era.

text: The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Faiyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies 60 kilometers (37 mi) southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahariya, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country's largest oasis, Kharijah. A brackish lake, Birket Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times. For centuries sweet water artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over 1,800 square kilometers (695 sq mi).

text: Eastern Desert[edit]

text: The topographic features of the desert region east of the Nile differ from those to the west of the Nile. The Eastern Desert is relatively mountainous. The elevation rises abruptly from the Nile, and a downward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 km to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta. The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 m.

text: The region's most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile. The desert environment extends all the way to the Red Sea coast.

text: Sinai Peninsula[edit]

text: The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular-shaped peninsula, about 61,100 km2 in area (slightly smaller than the U.S. state of West Virginia). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point, at 2,642 m above sea-level. The Red Sea may have been named after these mountains, which are red.

text: The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The elevation of Sinai's southern rim is about 1,000 m. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases. The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel.

text: Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula. By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates. North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in Artt Turkishy.

text: The abundance of life in the Sinai Peninsula may not be immediately apparent. This again has its roots in the way in which the animals of the desert have adapted to life here. Many species, mammals especially, but also reptiles and even birds such as owls, are nocturnal. They spend the daylight hours in the relative cool of burrows, under boulders or in crevices and cracks in the rock. Many of these creatures will only be apparent from their tracks and trails or from a fleeting glimpse of a diminutive gerbil, or zig-zigging hare, in the car headlights at night. Even those animals that do brave the heat of the day are normally only active in the early morning or evening.

text: With only sparse vegetation in which to hide, many desert species rely on camouflage as protection. Some, like the desert lark or the gerbils, are coloured in browns and beiges and russets to match the landscape. Others, such as Burton's Carpet Viper or the Sinai Leopard are strikingly patterned, but when seen against their natural desert backdrop that pattern breaks up the outline of the animal and it becomes difficult to distinguish. Even such large animals as the Nubian Ibex can be very hard to see against a cliff face as their initial response to a threat is to freeze. Unless they move they are virtually impossible to find. The few desert inhabitants that are boldly marked, generally in black and white ( like the Wheatears ), can be mistaken for a shadow. Very few of the desert animals are brightly coloured, one prominent exception in St Catherine being the bright blue Sinai Agama. In this case the objective is to be seen as the male agama is holding a territory against other males.

text: Urban and rural areas[edit]

text: In the 1970 census, 57 percent of Egypt's population was counted as rural, including those residing in agricultural areas in the Nile Valley and Delta, as well as the much smaller number of persons living in desert areas. Rural areas differ from the urban in terms of poverty, fertility rates, and other social factors. Agriculture is a key component of the economy in rural areas, though some people are employed in the tourist industry or other non-farm occupations. In 1992, the percentage of Egypt's population employed in agriculture was 33 percent. The agricultural industry is dependent on irrigation from the Nile river.[2]

text: Extreme points[edit]

text: This is a list of the extreme points of Egypt, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.

text:
Northernmost point – unnamed headland immediately north-west of Sidi Barrani, Matruh Governorate
Easternmost point – Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba), Red Sea Governorate*
Southernmost point - Jabal Bartazuga on the Sudanese border, Red Sea Governorate **
Westernmost point - unnamed point on the border with Libya immediately east of the ruin of Qasr al Qarn in Libya, Matruh Governorate
* Ras Hadarba lies within the Hala'ib triangle which is claimed by Sudan but occupied by Egypt. If it is excluded, then Egypt's easternmost point is the Ras Banas peninsula on the mainland or, including islands, Mukawwa Island
** Egypt's southernmost point lies in the Bir Tawil region, an area that is commonly included as part of Egypt but is not claimed by it. If this area is excluded then Egypt has no southernmost point, its southern border being formed by the 22nd parallel north.

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Rosalie, David (1997). "The Geography and Historical Background". Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce. Routledge. p. 14.
Jump up ^ Hopkins, Nicholas and Kirsten Westergaard (1998). Directions of Change in Rural Egypt. American University in Cairo. pp. 2–4.


document_title: Duodenum

question_text: where does the common bile duct enter the duodenum

text: Duodenum

text: Structure[edit]

text: The duodenum is a 25–30 cm (10-12 inch) C-shaped structure lying adjacent to the stomach. It is divided anatomically into four sections. The first part of the duodenum lies within the peritoneum but its other parts are retroperitoneal.[8]:273

text: First part[edit]

text: The first part, or superior part, of the duodenum is a continuation from the pylorus to transpyloric plane. It is superior to the rest of the segments, at the vertebral level of L1. The duodenal bulb about 2 cm long, is the very first part of the duodenum and is slightly dilated. The duodenal bulb is a remnant of the mesoduodenum, a mesentery which suspend the organ from the posterior abdominal wall in fetal life.[9] The first part of the duodenum is mobile, and connected to the liver by the hepatoduodenal ligament of the lesser omentum. The first part of the duodenum ends at the corner, the superior duodenal flexure.[8]:273

text: Relations:[citation needed]

text:
Anterior

Gallbladder
Quadrate lobe of liver

Posterior

Bile duct
Gastroduodenal artery
Portal vein
Inferior vena cava
Head of pancreas

Superior

Neck of gallbladder
Hepatoduodenal ligament (lesser omentum)

Inferior

Neck of pancreas
Greater omentum
Head of pancreas

text: Second part[edit]

text: The second part, or descending part, of the duodenum begins at the superior duodenal flexure. It goes inferior to the lower border of vertebral body L3, before making a sharp turn medially into the inferior duodenal flexure, the end of the descending part.[8]:274

text: The pancreatic duct and common bile duct enter the descending duodenum, through the major duodenal papilla. The second part of the duodenum also contains the minor duodenal papilla, the entrance for the accessory pancreatic duct. The junction between the embryological foregut and midgut lies just below the major duodenal papilla.[8]:274

text: Third part[edit]

text: The third part, or horizontal part or inferior part of the duodenum begins at the inferior duodenal flexure and passes transversely to the left, passing in front of the inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta and the vertebral column. The superior mesenteric artery and vein are anterior to the third part of duodenum.[8]:274 This part may be compressed between the aorta and SMA causing superior mesenteric artery syndrome.

text: Fourth part[edit]

text: The fourth part, or ascending part, of the duodenum passes upward, joining with the jejunum at the duodenojejunal flexure. The fourth part of the duodenum is at the vertebral level L2, and may pass directly on top of, or slightly left to, the aorta.[8]:274

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The duodenum receives arterial blood from two different sources. The transition between these sources is important as it demarcates the foregut from the midgut. Proximal to the 2nd part of the duodenum (approximately at the major duodenal papilla – where the bile duct enters) the arterial supply is from the gastroduodenal artery and its branch the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery. Distal to this point (the midgut) the arterial supply is from the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), and its branch the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery supplies the 3rd and 4th sections. The superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries (from the gastroduodenal artery and SMA respectively) form an anastomotic loop between the celiac trunk and the SMA; so there is potential for collateral circulation here.

text: The venous drainage of the duodenum follows the arteries. Ultimately these veins drain into the portal system, either directly or indirectly through the splenic or superior mesenteric vein.

text: Lymphatic drainage[edit]

text: The lymphatic vessels follow the arteries in a retrograde fashion. The anterior lymphatic vessels drain into the pancreatoduodenal lymph nodes located along the superior and inferior pancreatoduodenal arteries and then into the pyloric lymph nodes (along the gastroduodenal artery). The posterior lymphatic vessels pass posterior to the head of the pancreas and drain into the superior mesenteric lymph nodes. Efferent lymphatic vessels from the duodenal lymph nodes ultimately pass into the celiac lymph nodes.

text: Histology[edit]

text: Under microscopy, the duodenum has a villous mucosa. This is distinct from the mucosa of the pylorus, which directly joins to the duodenum. Like other structures of the gastrointestinal tract, the duodenum has a mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and adventitia. Glands line the duodenum, known as Brunner's glands, which secrete mucus and bicarbonate in order to neutralise stomach acids. These are distinct glands not found in the ileum or jejunum, the other parts of the small intestine.[10] :274–275

text:
Dog Duodenum 100X

Duodenum with amyloid deposition in lamina propria

Section of duodenum of cat. X 60

Micrograph showing giardiasis on a duodenal biopsy (H&E stain)

Duodenum with brush border (microvillus)

text: Variation[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2013)

text: Function[edit]

text: The duodenum is largely responsible for the breakdown of food in the small intestine, using enzymes. The villi of the duodenum have a leafy-looking appearance, which is a histologically identifiable structure. Brunner's glands, which secrete mucus, are found in the duodenum only. The duodenum wall is composed of a very thin layer of cells that form the muscularis mucosae. The duodenum is almost entirely retroperitoneal. It has three parts and each part has its own significance.

text: The duodenum also regulates the rate of emptying of the stomach via hormonal pathways. Secretin and cholecystokinin are released from cells in the duodenal epithelium in response to acidic and fatty stimuli present there when the pylorus opens and releases gastric chyme into the duodenum for further digestion. These cause the liver and gall bladder to release bile, and the pancreas to release bicarbonate and digestive enzymes such as trypsin, lipase and amylase into the duodenum as they are needed.

text: Gene and protein expression[edit]

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum.[11][12] Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the duodenum. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in the duodenal mucosa and many of these are also expressed in the small intestine, such as ANPEP, a digestive enzyme, ACE an enzyme involved in control of blood pressure, and RBP2 a protein involved in the uptake of vitamin A.[13]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Ulceration[edit]

text: Ulcers of the duodenum commonly occur because of infection by the bacteria Helicobacter pylori. These bacteria, through a number of mechanisms, erode the protective mucosa of the duodenum, predisposing it to damage from gastric acids. The first part of the duodenum is the most common location of ulcers as it is where the acidic chyme meets the duodenal mucosa before mixing with the alkaline secretions of the duodenum.[14] Duodenal ulcers may cause recurrent abdominal pain and dyspepsia, and are often investigated using a urea breath test to test for the bacteria, and endoscopy to confirm ulceration and take a biopsy. If managed, these are often managed through antibiotics that aim to eradicate the bacteria, and PPIs and antacids to reduce the gastric acidity.[15]

text: Celiac disease[edit]

text: The British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) guidelines specify that a duodenal biopsy is required for the diagnosis of adult celiac disease. The biopsy is ideally performed at a moment when the patient is on a gluten-containing diet.[16]

text: Other[edit]

text: Other causes of disease include:

text:
Inflammation of the duodenum, known as duodenitis.
Cancer of the duodenum, known as duodenal cancer.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Sections of the small intestine

The celiac artery and its branches; the stomach has been raised and the peritoneum removed

Superior and inferior duodenal fossæ

Duodenojejunal fossa

The pancreas and duodenum from behind

Transverse section through the middle of the first lumbar vertebra, showing the relations of the pancreas

The pancreatic duct

Region of pancreas

Duodenum

Duodenum

Duodenum


document_title: Nepal Red Cross Society

question_text: who was the founder of nepal red cross society

text: Nepal Red Cross Society

text: History[edit]

text: Nearly after 100 years of establishment of red cross in the world. By observing the need of establishment of the Red Cross in Nepal, in the chairmanship of then Health Minister Dr. Nageshwar Prasad Singh a meeting was called at Singha Durbar, after Nepal Government acceded to the Geneva Conventions. Nepal Red Cross Society came into being on 4 September 1963. Princess Princep Shah of Nepal helped found the Nepal Red Cross and was its first President.

text: Chairpersons[edit]

text:
Princess Princep Shah[2]
Princess Helen Shah of Nepal[3][better source needed]
Mr. Ramesh Kumar Sharma
Mr. Sanjiv Thapa[4]

text: Organizational structure[edit]

text: Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS) has District Chapters (DC) in each district of the country. Which receives organizational support from Sub-Chapters, Youth/Junior Red Cross Circles and Co-operation Committees under them.

text:
National Assembly    → Central Executive Committee
District Assembly    → District Executive Committee
Sub-Chapter Assembly → Sub-Chapter Executive Committee

text: National Committees[edit]

text:
National Disaster & Crisis Management Committee
National Health & Community Resilience Committee
National Humanitarian Principles & Diplomacy Committee
National Organization & Capacity Development Committee

text: Central Committees provide guidance to bringing effectiveness in programme having National Network.

text: Central Committees[edit]

text:
Central Junior/Youth RC Committee
Central Health Service Committee
Central Community Development Committee
Central Finance Development Committee
Central Gender & Inclusion Committee
Central Blood Transfusion Management Committee

text: There are five regional committees and other committees related to management and technical areas. District chapter and sub-chapter have separate committees working in local level.

text: Regional Coordination Committees[edit]

text: Nepal Red Cross Society has Regional Coordination Committees in each 5 development regions.

text:
Central
Western
Eastern
Mid-Western
Far-Western

text: Provincial Level Assembly[edit]

text: The first provincial assembly elections in Nepal was held in two phase on 26 November 2017 and on 7 December 2017. As the government changed its structure through the constitution of Nepal. Nepal Red Cross Society also needed to change its structure as per the government's setup. Thus, NRCS reformed its statute on 47th General Convention of the central assembly held at Biratnagar. As per the new statue NRCS has changed its structure into four levels – local, district, provincial and central levels.[5]

text: District Level Committees[edit]

text: Nepal Red Cross Society has district chapters in all 77 districts of the country. These district chapters receive organizational support from Sub-Chapters at local level, Junior/ Youth Red Cross Circles in district level and coordinating committees under them.

text: Sub-Chapter Level Committees[edit]

text: Sub-Chapters are the local level committees reaching every ward of the district. The working area of sub-chapters are divided into various wards of the Village / Municipality / Metropolitan City. These sub-chapters receives organizational support from Junior/ Youth Red Cross Circles based on schools and coordinating committees at communities.

text: Structure[edit]

text: NRCS has District Chapter in each district within the country. And more than 10 Sub-Chapters are established in each district.

text:
Region

zone

District Chapters

Eastern

Mechi

Illam

Jhapa

Taplejung

Panchthar

Koshi

Terathum

Dhankuta

Morang

Bhojpur

Sankhuwabash

Sunsari

Sagarmatha

Okhaldhunga

Udayapur

Khotang

Saptari

Siraha

Solukhumbu

Middle

Janakpur

Dolakha

Dhanusha

Mohattari

Ramechap

Sarlahi

Sindhuli

Bagmati

Kathmandu

Kabrepalanchowk

Dhading

Nuwakot

Bhaktapur

Rasuwa

Lalitpur

Sindhupalanchowk

Narayani

Makwanpur

Chitwan

Parsa

Bara

Rautahat

Western

Gandaki

Kaski

Gorakha

Tanahun

Manang

Lamjung

Syngjaya

Lumbini

Argakhanchi

Kapilvastu

Gulmi

Nawalparasi

Palpa

Rupendehi

Dhaulagiri

Parvat

Baglung

Mustang

Myagdi

Mid-Western

Rapti

Dang

Pyuthan

Rukum

Rolpa

Salyan

Bheri

Jajarkot

Dailekh

Bardia

Banke

Surkhet

Karnali

Kailkot

Dolpa

Jumla

Mugu

Humla

Far-Western

Seti

Achham

Kailali

Doti

Bhajhang

Bajura

Mahakali

Kanchanpur

Dadeldhura

Darchula

Baitadi

text: Blood Service[edit]

text: Blood Transfusion Service of Nepal Red Cross Society was established in the year 1966 i.e. 3 years after the inception of the Society itself. The government of Nepal, in its policy declaration of 1991, has mandated Nepal Red Cross Society as the sole authority in conducting blood programmes in Nepal.

text: Central level[edit]

text: The Central Blood Transfusion Service Center (CBTSC) in Kathmandu is responsible for management of services in the Kathmandu valley, and for supervising and monitoring the technical standards of the district centers, providing guidance to ensure the collection and supply of safe blood.

text: Regional level[edit]

text: Four of the five regions have blood transfusion service centers at Biratnagar, Pokhra, Nepalganj and Chitwan. Those provide local services, and thus there is no distinct functioning management structure at the regional level.

text: District level[edit]

text: The district BTSCs are managed by NRCS district chapters. These centres are supposed to comply with guidelines provided under the 1983 NRCS regulations and the 1998 Standard Operating Procedures.

text: Eye Hospital[edit]

text: Nepal Red Cross Society has been managing eye care services as a key component of health service in Mid-West Region (Province no 6) since 1990s through eye care centers (Surkhet, Dailekh, Jajarkot and Bardia) and outreach program with the support of Swiss Red Cross. NRCS is operating 2 eye hospitals and extended eye care centers within the country.

text:
S.N

Name of Hospital

District

1

Nepal Red Cross Surkhet Eye Hospital

Surkhet

2

Nepal Red Cross Janaki Eye Hospital

Dhanusha

text: Training Center[edit]

text: The Nepal Red Cross Society has its National Training Center, Human Resource Development Institute (HRDI) at Budol, Banepa, Kavre, Nepal.


document_title: Ampersand

question_text: when was the ampersand removed from the alphabet

text: Ampersand

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word ampersand is a corruption of the phrase "and per se & (and)", meaning "and by itself and (represented by the symbol &)".[2]

text: Traditionally, when reciting the alphabet in English-speaking schools, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself ("A", "I", and, at one point, "O") was repeated with the Latin expression per se ("by itself").[3][4][5] This habit was useful in spelling where a word or syllable was repeated after spelling; e.g. "d, o, g—dog" would be clear but simply saying "a—a" would be confusing without the clarifying "per se" added. It was also common practice to add the "&" sign at the end of the alphabet as if it were the 27th letter, pronounced as the Latin et or later in English as and. As a result, the recitation of the alphabet would end in "X, Y, Z, and per se and". This last phrase was routinely slurred to "ampersand" and the term had entered common English usage by 1837.[4][6][7] However, in contrast to the 26 letters, the ampersand does not represent a speech sound—although other characters that were dropped from the English alphabet did, such as the Old English thorn, wynn, and eth.

text: Through popular etymology, it has been falsely claimed that André-Marie Ampère used the symbol in his widely read publications and that people began calling the new shape "Ampère's and".[8]

text: History[edit]

text: The ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century A.D. and the Old Roman cursive, in which the letters E and T occasionally were written together to form a ligature (figure 1). In the later and more flowing New Roman Cursive, ligatures of all kinds were extremely common; figures 2 and 3 from the middle of 4th century are examples of how the et-ligature could look in this script. During the later development of the Latin script leading up to Carolingian minuscule (9th century) the use of ligatures in general diminished. The et-ligature, however, continued to be used and gradually became more stylized and less revealing of its origin (figures 4–6).[9]

text: The modern italic type ampersand is a kind of "et" ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands. Since the ampersand's roots go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it.

text: The ampersand often appeared as a letter at the end of the Latin alphabet, as for example in Byrhtferð's list of letters from 1011.[10] Similarly, & was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as used by children (in the US)[citation needed]. An example may be seen in M. B. Moore's 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks.[11] In her 1859 novel Adam Bede, George Eliot refers to this when she makes Jacob Storey say: "He thought it [Z] had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like; though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could see."[12] The popular Apple Pie ABC finishes with the lines "X, Y, Z, and ampersand, All wished for a piece in hand".

text: The ampersand should not be confused with the Tironian "et" ("⁊"), which is a symbol similar to the numeral 7. Both symbols have their roots in the classical antiquity, and both signs were used up through the Middle Ages as a representation for the Latin word "et" ("and"). However, while the ampersand was in origin a common ligature in the everyday script, the Tironian "et" was part of a highly specialised stenographic shorthand.[13] The Tironian "et" ("⁊") is found in old Irish language script, a Latin-based script generally only used for decorative purposes today, where it signifies agus ("and") in Irish. This symbol may have entered the script language by way of monastic influence in the time of the early Christian church in Ireland.

text: Writing the ampersand[edit]

text: In everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes simplified in design as a large lowercase epsilon (Ɛ) or a backwards numeral 3 superimposed by a vertical line. The ampersand is also often shown as a backwards 3 with a vertical line above and below it or a dot above and below it.

text: The + sign (itself based on an et-ligature[14]) is often informally used in place of an ampersand, sometimes with an added loop and resembling ɬ.

text:
First example of an ampersand in common handwriting[15]

Second example of an ampersand in common handwriting[15]

Example of a handwritten plus sign used, like ampersand, to mean 'and'

text: Usage[edit]

text: Ampersands are commonly seen in business names formed from partnership of two or more people, such as Johnson & Johnson, Dolce & Gabbana, Marks & Spencer, A&P (supermarkets), and Tiffany & Co., as well as some abbreviations containing the word and, such as AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph), R&D (research and development), R&B (rhythm and blues), B&B (bed and breakfast), and P&L (profit and loss).[16][17]

text: In film credits for stories, screenplays, etc., & indicates a closer collaboration than and. The ampersand is used by the Writers Guild of America to denote two writers collaborating on a specific script, rather than one writer rewriting another's work. In screenplays, two authors joined with & collaborated on the script, while two authors joined with and worked on the script at different times and may not have consulted each other at all.[18][19] In the latter case, they both contributed enough significant material to the screenplay to receive credit but did not work together.

text: In APA style, the ampersand is used when citing sources in text such as (Jones & Jones, 2005). In the list of references, an ampersand precedes the last author's name when there is more than one author.[20] (This does not apply to MLA style, which calls for the "and" to be spelled.[21])

text: The phrase et cetera ("and so forth"), usually written as etc. can be abbreviated &c. representing the combination et + c(etera).

text: The ampersand can be used to indicate that the "and" in a listed item is a part of the item's name and not a separator (e.g. "Rock, pop, rhythm & blues, and hip hop").

text: The ampersand may still be used as an abbreviation for "and" in informal writing regardless of how "and" is used.

text: Computing[edit]

text: Encoding and display[edit]

text: The character in Unicode is U+0026 & ampersand (HTML & · &); this is inherited from the same value in ASCII.

text: Apart from this, Unicode also has the following variants:

text:
U+FE60 ﹠ SMALL AMPERSAND (HTML ﹠)
U+FF06 ＆ FULLWIDTH AMPERSAND (HTML ＆ ·  in block Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms)
U+214B ⅋ TURNED AMPERSAND (HTML ⅋)
U+1F670 🙰 SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT (HTML 🙰)
U+1F671 🙱 HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT (HTML 🙱)
U+1F672 🙲 LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT (HTML 🙲)
U+1F673 🙳 HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT (HTML 🙳)
U+1F674 🙴 HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT (HTML 🙴)
U+1F675 🙵 SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT (HTML 🙵)

text: The last six of these are carryovers from the Wingdings fonts, and are meant only for backward compatibility with those fonts.

text: On the QWERTY keyboard layout, the ampersand is ⇧ Shift+7. It is almost always available on keyboard layouts, sometimes on ⇧ Shift+6 or ⇧ Shift+8. On the AZERTY keyboard layout, & is an unmodified keystroke, positioned above A.

text: In URLs, the ampersand must be replaced by %26 when representing a string character to avoid interpretation as a URL syntax character.

text: Programming languages[edit]

text: In the 20th century, following the development of formal logic, the ampersand became a commonly used logical notation for the binary operator or sentential connective AND. This usage was adopted in computing.

text: Many languages with syntax derived from C, including C++, Perl,[22] and more differentiate between:

text:
& for bitwise AND. (4 & 2) is zero, (4 & 5) is 4.
&& for short-circuit logical AND. (4 && 2) is true.

text: In C, C++, and Go, a prefix "&" is a unary operator denoting the address in memory of the argument, e.g. &x, &func, &a[3].

text: In C++ and PHP, unary prefix & before a formal parameter of a function denotes pass-by-reference.

text: In Fortran, the ampersand forces the compiler to treat two lines as one. This is accomplished by placing an ampersand at the end of the first line and at the beginning of the second line.[23]

text: In Common Lisp, the ampersand is the prefix for lambda list keywords.[24]

text: Ampersand is the string concatenation operator in many BASIC dialects, AppleScript, Lingo, HyperTalk, and FileMaker. In Ada it applies to all one-dimensional arrays, not just strings.

text: BASIC-PLUS on the DEC PDP-11 uses the ampersand as a short form of the verb PRINT.

text: Applesoft BASIC used the ampersand as an internal command, not intended to be used for general programming, that invoked a machine language program in the computer's ROM.

text: In some versions of BASIC, unary suffix & denotes a variable is of type long, or 32 bits in length.

text: The ampersand is occasionally used as a prefix to denote a hexadecimal number, such as &FF for decimal 255, for instance in BBC BASIC. Some other languages, such as the Monitor built into ROM on the Commodore 128, used it to indicate octal instead, a convention that spread throughout the Commodore community and is now used in the VICE emulator.

text: In MySQL the '&' has dual roles. As well as a logical AND, it additionally serves as the bitwise operator of an intersection between elements.

text: In more recent years, the ampersand has made its way into the Haskell standard library, representing flipped function application: x & f means the same thing as f x.

text: The ampersand character is used as a special character in at least some versions of the database software originally created in Denmark under the name Navision (the software has since been acquired by Microsoft). Using this character in either "Text" or "Code" fields could create difficulties for performing certain tasks in Navision, such as filtering records (either by the user or by programming). It is also used as described below to indicate shortcuts in menu items and labels.

text: Perl uses the ampersand as a sigil to refer to subroutines:

text:
In Perl 4 and earlier, it was effectively required to call user-defined subroutines[25]
In Perl 5, it can still be used to modify the way user-defined subroutines are called[26]
In Perl 6, the ampersand sigil is only used when referring to a subroutine as an object, never when calling it[27]

text: In MASM 80x86 Assembly Language, & is the Substitution Operator, which tells the assembler to replace a macro parameter or text macro name with its actual value[28].

text: Ampersand is the name of a programming language, which uses relation algebra to specify information systems.[29]

text: Text markup[edit]

text: In SGML, XML, and HTML, the ampersand is used to introduce an SGML entity. The HTML and XML encoding for the ampersand character is the entity "&".[30] This can create a problem known as delimiter collision when converting text into one of these markup languages. For instance, when putting URLs or other material containing ampersands into XML format files such as RSS files the & must be replaced with & or they are considered not well formed, and computers will be unable to read the files correctly. SGML derived the use from IBM Generalized Markup Language, which was one of many IBM-mainframe languages to use the ampersand to signal a text substitution, eventually going back to System/360 macro assembly language.

text: In the plain TeX markup language, the ampersand is used to mark tabstops. The ampersand itself can be applied in TeX with \&. The Computer Modern fonts replace it with an "E.T." symbol in the cmti#(text italic) fonts, so it can be entered as {\it\&} in running text when using the default (Computer Modern) fonts.[31]

text: In Microsoft Windows menus, labels, and other captions, the ampersand is used to denote the keyboard shortcut for that option (Alt + that letter, which appears underlined). A double ampersand is needed in order to display a real ampersand. This convention originated in the first WIN32 api, and is used in Windows Forms,[32] and is also copied into many other tookits on multiple operating systems.

text: Unix shells[edit]

text: Some Unix shells use the ampersand as a metacharacter:

text: Some Unix shells, like the POSIX standard sh shell, use the ampersand to execute a process in the background and to duplicate file descriptors.

text: In Bash, the ampersand can separate words, control the command history, duplicate file descriptors, perform logical operations, control jobs, and participate in regular expressions.[33]

text: Web standards[edit]

text: The generic URL (Uniform Resource Locator) syntax allows for a query string to be appended to a file name in a web address so that additional information can be passed to a script; the question mark, or query mark, ?, is used to indicate the start of a query string.[34] A query string is usually made up of a number of different name–value pairs, each separated by the ampersand symbol, &. For example, http://www.example.com/login.php?username=test&password=blank.