document_title: Red River Expedition (1806)

question_text: who led an expedition to the edge of oklahoma

text: Red River Expedition (1806)

text: Planning[edit]

text: Third American President Thomas Jefferson ranked the Red River Expedition second in importance only to the Lewis and Clark Expedition to reach the Pacific Ocean through the Northwest. The Red River stretches west from its confluence with the Mississippi River across what is now the state of Louisiana and part of south-western Arkansas. Further west, the river forms the present-day southern border of Oklahoma where it meets Texas, and is now known to originate in the Texas Panhandle.

text: After acquiring the lands of the Louisiana Purchase in 1804, Jefferson commissioned military groups to explore the unfamiliar territory and to collect scientific data about flora and fauna, topography, and ethnography of the many Native American peoples.[1] By sending a group of explorers up the Red River, Jefferson wanted to verify reports that the river could provide a water route to Santa Fe in New Mexico (then part of New Spain). Other goals were to build trade and political relationships with the various tribes of American Indians, and to locate the Louisiana Purchase’s southwestern and western borders with New Spain.[1]

text: In 1805 and early 1806, the President began to appoint leaders for the expedition. For the scientists, he chose the astronomer/surveyor Thomas Freeman, (who had recently been with Andrew Ellicott on his survey of the southern boundary of the United States) and Peter Custis (the first academically trained naturalist to accompany an expedition, he was still a medical student in Philadelphia.[1] He served as the group’s botanist and ethnographer). Captain Richard Sparks was chosen to lead the military troops.[2] As the departure date of the expedition grew closer, more soldiers were recruited until the group numbered twenty-four in all.

text: President Jefferson persuaded Congress to fund the effort. He worked with foreign diplomats in Washington to convince them that the exploration was for scientific purposes and would not threaten their interests. Both Britain and France accepted the proposal, but Spain objected, as it also still claimed the lands to be explored which it had just been forced to turn the Louisiana territories over briefly to the French Emperor Napoleon I who had suddenly unexpectedly turned and sold the vast interior continental lands to the Americans the year before. It did not want an armed military expedition within or near its remaining territory.[3]

text: Expedition[edit]

text: On April 19, 1806 the now 24-member party (Freeman and his two assistants; Sparks, who commanded the military party, with two officers, seventeen privates, and a servant) pushed off in two flat-bottomed barges and a pirogue from Fort Adams near Natchez, Mississippi, and turned into the Red River to go upstream to the west.[4] The group gradually took on soldiers along the route, in response to rumors of a possible attack by Spanish troops, and soon numbered forty-five.[1] By July 28, the party was 615 miles upriver, near what is now New Boston, Texas, when they heard gunfire in the distance indicating the presence of Spanish troops.[1]

text: "Hoping to provoke an international confrontation for personal gain," the US General James Wilkinson of the Louisiana Territory had secretly notified Spain of the Freeman expedition (he had had separate dealings with them earlier), and they sent two teams of soldiers to intercept the party.[1] The Freeman party was stopped at what has since been called "Spanish Bluff" on the river.[1] The Spanish commander and Freeman undertook a parlay. The Spanish said they were ordered to fire on any foreign armed troops passing through Spanish territory. In response, Freeman demanded the Spanish provide their objections to the team's passage in writing and name the authority under which they were taking action. The Spanish commander asked when they were going to start on their return journey.[5] Freeman’s crew was highly outnumbered, and the president had ordered the expedition to avoid any conflict with the Spanish. The expedition turned back on the next day, and returned downriver to its starting point.

text: The abrupt end of the expedition, and the political embarrassment it caused the Jefferson administration, overshadowed its findings.[6] Over time, it proved to be a success in some aspects. Coupled with Dunbar and Hunter’s expedition in lowland Louisiana, the Red River party demonstrated that exploration of this area was possible; in addition, the scientists reported that the land could support a large population. The border debacle, as it was perceived at the time, received much attention. But, official comments were not taken concerning these events, and a single printed pamphlet was initially the only material published about the journey.[5] Custis' pioneering work in naturalism was not superseded until much later expeditions, but his discoveries became obscured by the more dramatic quantity of material collected by the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[6]

text: (Jefferson commissioned the Pike expedition through Wilkinson, which was also to seek the headwaters of the Red River, as well as exploring the West of the Louisiana Territory along the Arkansas River. Departing from St. Louis in July 1806, the expedition recorded the discovery in November of what became called Pikes Peak in present-day Colorado. Much of the party, led by Captain Zebulon Pike, Jr., were captured in February 1807 by the Spanish after having made mistakes in navigation and being forced to winter in New Mexico. Spain protested officially to the US about the military expedition within its territory but, as the nations were not at war, its troops escorted Pike and most of his men to the Louisiana border and released them later that year.)

text: Results[edit]

text: In present-day Louisiana and Arkansas, the expedition established positive relations with the Caddo and Alabama-Quassarte (Coushatta) villages on the river. Freeman and Custis recorded valuable information about the peoples and ecology of the area.[6] In part because of the diplomatic furor aroused by its interception of the expedition, Spain changed its strategy and opened the Red River country to American traders.

text: Given the limited duration of the expedition, the scientists gathered little material compared to the major discoveries of Lewis and Clark. But, Freeman's journal and Custis' pioneering natural history report had valuable information about the American Indian peoples and other aspects of the Red River country. Custis' work was published two decades before the expeditions of Thomas Nutall, Edwin James and Thomas Say but it was overlooked for some time.[6]

text: An American explorer, Randolph B. Marcy, finally located the headwaters of the Red River in 1852.


document_title: Timeline of The Walt Disney Company

question_text: what was the first disney film ever made

root

text: Timeline of The Walt Disney Company

text: The Walt Disney Company was founded in 1923, and found much success under Walt Disney's leadership through his death in 1966.

tag: p

text:
Year

Notable Business Events

Notable Theatrical Releases

Notable Theme Park/destination Openings

Other Premieres

1923

Walt Disney signed a contract with M.J. Winkler to produce a series of Alice Comedies, beginning the Disney company under its original name "Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio", with brothers Walt and Roy Disney, as equal partners.[1]

First Alice's comedy, Alice's Wonderland, was released

1926

"Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio" changes name to "The Walt Disney Studio" shortly after moving into the new studio on Hyperion Avenue in the Silver Lake district.

1927

Oswald the Lucky Rabbit debuts.

1928

Walt loses the Oswald's series contract.
Walt and Roy come up with Mickey and Minnie Mouse.

Mickey Mouse debuts in Plane Crazy
Steamboat Willie (the first synchronized sound cartoon)

1929

On December 16, "The Walt Disney Studio" is replaced by "Walt Disney Productions, Ltd". Three other companies, "Walt Disney Enterprises", "Disney Film Recording Company", and "Liled Realty and Investment Company", are also formed.

The Skeleton Dance (the first Silly Symphonies cartoon)

1930

Distribution moved to Columbia Pictures

The Mickey Mouse comic strips by Floyd Gottfredson

1931

1932

Distribution moved from Columbia Pictures to United Artists

Flowers and Trees (the first Technicolor cartoon and first animated short to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film of 1932)
Mickey's Revue (which features the premiere of Goofy, originally called "Dippy Dawg")

1933

Three Little Pigs (winner of Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film of 1933)

1934

The Wise Little Hen (which features the premiere of Donald Duck)
The Tortoise and the Hare (Winner of Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film of 1934)

1936

Distribution moved from United Artists to RKO Radio Pictures.

1937

Walt Disney's first feature film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs

1938

On September 29, "Walt Disney Enterprises", "Disney Film Recording Company", and "Liled Realty and Investment Company" and "Walt Disney Productions, Ltd." are merged to form "Walt Disney Productions".

1940

Studio moves to Burbank, California
Company goes public

Pinocchio
Fantasia

1941

A bitter animators' strike occurs
The studio begins making morale-boosting propaganda films for the United States during World War II

Dumbo

1942

Bambi

Donald Duck comics by Carl Barks

1943

Saludos Amigos

1944

The company is short on money; a theatrical re-release of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs generates much-needed revenue and begins a reissue pattern for the animated feature films.

1945

The Three Caballeros (The first live action/cartoons Disney film)

1946

Make Mine Music
Song of the South

1947

Fun and Fancy Free

1948

The True-Life Adventures nature film series begins; it lasts until 1960.

Melody Time
Seal Island

1949

The studio begins production on its first all-live action feature, Treasure Island

The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad

licensed Ice Capades Disney segment[2]

1950

Cinderella
Treasure Island (Disney's first live-action film)

1951

Alice in Wonderland

1952

Uncle Scrooge comics by Carl Barks

1953

"WED Enterprises" is formed to control the rights to "Disney" and hold the Disneyland design team. It will later own and operate several attractions inside Disneyland, including the Disneyland Monorail System and the Disneyland Railroad.
Disney makes the Disneyland programming deal with American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres to fund Disneyland.[3]
Other Disneyland investors were Walt Disney/WED and Western Publishing[4]

Peter Pan

1954

The studio ends its distribution deal with RKO Radio Pictures and founds Buena Vista Film Distribution Company, Inc. to distribute its feature films.

20,000 Leagues Under the Sea

Disneyland anthology TV series on ABC (First Disney TV program & Disneyland funding program)

1955

Lady and the Tramp

Disneyland opens in Anaheim, California.

The Mickey Mouse Club (ABC-TV)
Magic Kingdom (ABC Radio)[5]

1957

Old Yeller

Zorro  (ABC)

1959

Sleeping Beauty
The Shaggy Dog
Darby O'Gill and the Little People

1960

Pollyanna
Swiss Family Robinson

1961

The studio purchases the film and merchandise rights to A.A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh books, which are a huge source of revenue (as well as litigation issues) to this day.[6]

One Hundred and One Dalmatians
The Absent-Minded Professor
The Parent Trap

1963

The Sword in the Stone

Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room opens at Disneyland. This is the first attraction to feature audio-animatronics.

1964

Mary Poppins (the first Disney film to receive a Best Picture Academy Award nomination)

1965

Disney News begins publication

1966

September: Walt Disney is diagnosed with lung cancer; died on December 15.

Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree[6]

tag: table

text: After Walt Disney's death in 1966, the company began a slow decline with no clear direction, which culminated in an unsuccessful greenmail attempt to buy the company from current shareholders.

text:
Year

Notable Business Events

Notable Theatrical Releases

Notable Theme Park/destination Openings

Other Premieres

1967

Construction begins on Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida; the underlying governmental structure, called the Reedy Creek Improvement District, is signed into law.

The Jungle Book

Pirates of the Caribbean opens at Disneyland

1968

Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day
The Love Bug

1969

The Haunted Mansion opens at Disneyland

1970

The Aristocats

The Mouse Factory

1971

Roy Oliver Disney dies; Donn Tatum becomes chairman and Card Walker becomes president
Eastern Airlines is branded as "The Official Airline of Walt Disney World"

Bedknobs and Broomsticks

The Walt Disney World Resort opens

1972

1973

Robin Hood

Schoolhouse Rock

1974

Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too

1975

Escape to Witch Mountain

1976

Freaky Friday

The Muppet Show

1977

Walt's nephew Roy E. Disney, resigns from the company citing a decline in overall product quality and issues with manager.

The Rescuers
Pete's Dragon
The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh

1978

Return from Witch Mountain

1979

Don Bluth and 12 fellow animators leave Disney to found their own studio.

The Black Hole (the first PG-rated Disney film, reversing a G-only policy that began with the 1968 introduction of the MPAA ratings system)

1980

1981

Plans for a cable network are announced.
The first Walt Disney's World on Ice show, produced by Feld Entertainment under license by Walt Disney Productions, tours the United States.

The Fox and the Hound

Dumbo is the first animated Disney home video release

1982

The Coca-Cola Company has an unsuccessful buyout attempt for Disney.
Walt's son-in-law Ron W. Miller succeeds Card Walker as CEO.

Tron (Would belatedly be hailed as a bold pioneering work with Computer Generated Imagery)

Experimental Prototype Community Of Tomorrow (EPCOT) Center opens at Walt Disney World Resort

1983

Disney Channel begins, while the anthology series ends.
The live action studio is renamed "Walt Disney Pictures".

Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore
Mickey's Christmas Carol, accompanied by a reissue of The Rescuers.

Tokyo Disneyland opens in Japan

Good Morning, Mickey!
Welcome to Pooh Corner

text: Michael Eisner is hired from Paramount to be the new CEO, along with Frank Wells as president. They bring leadership vision and place an emphasis on theme park expansion and improving the quality of film and television work.

text:
Year

Notable Business Events

Notable Theatrical Releases

Notable Theme Park/destination Openings

Other Premieres

1984

The Touchstone Films label is created to produce films aimed towards more mature audiences.
The studio narrowly escapes a buyout attempt by Saul Steinberg. In its aftermath, Roy Edward Disney and his business partner, Stanley Gold, remove Ron W. Miller as CEO and president, replacing him with Michael Eisner and Frank Wells.
The Walt Disney Classics video collection debuts.

Splash (first ever Touchstone film is released on the 9th of March 1984)
Tiger Town
Country

1985

In a reversal of a three-decade studio policy, the studio begins making cartoons for television beginning with Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears and The Wuzzles.
Touchstone Television (producer of The Golden Girls, Home Improvement and Boy Meets World) is founded
The home video release of Pinocchio becomes a best-seller.
Clarence Nash, the voice of Donald Duck for over 50 years, dies; he is succeeded by Tony Anselmo.
The animation studio is renamed "Walt Disney Feature Animation".

The Black Cauldron (the first PG-rated Disney animated film)
Return to Oz
Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend
The Journey of Natty Gann
My Science Project

Mousercise
Dumbo's Circus
Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears
The Wuzzles

1986

February 2: The anthology series is revived on ABC.
February 6: The company's name is changed from "Walt Disney Productions" to "The Walt Disney Company".
Bankruptcy of Eastern Airlines forces Walt Disney World to re-designate Delta Air Lines as its official airline. Eastern-sponsored "If You Had Wings" in the Magic Kingdom is later revamped and renamed "Delta Dreamflight".
Richard Rich leaves Disney to start his own studio.
The distribution company's name is changed from "Buena Vista Distribution Company" to "Buena Vista Pictures Distribution".
Disney teamed up with Studio Ghibli to distribute anime films internationally.

Down and Out in Beverly Hills (The company's first R-rated film, released under Touchstone Pictures)
The Great Mouse Detective
The Color of Money
Ruthless People

1987

First Disney Store opens in Glendale, California.
The company and the French government sign an agreement for the creation of the first Disney Resort in Europe: the Euro Disney project starts.
The company opens up a Hall of Fame called Disney Legends with Fred MacMurray as the first induction.
Touchstone Films is renamed "Touchstone Pictures".

Ernest Goes to Camp
Good Morning, Vietnam
Three Men and a Baby

DuckTales
Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck comics by Don Rosa

1988

"Walt Disney Computer Software" founded as a video game division of The Walt Disney Company.

Who Framed Roger Rabbit
Oliver & Company
Beaches
Shoot to Kill
Cocktail

The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh
Mickey's 60th Birthday

1989

Disney and Jim Henson discuss the possible acquisition of Jim Henson Productions, including The Muppets.

The Little Mermaid
Honey, I Shrunk the Kids
Dead Poets Society
Disorganized Crime
Turner & Hooch

Disney-MGM Studios opens at Walt Disney World.

Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers

1990

Jim Henson's death extinguishes the deal to buy his holdings.
The anthology series is canceled for the second time.
The Disney Afternoon television syndication block debuts.
"Hollywood Pictures" is created to produce films aimed towards more mature adult audiences.
Disney Adventures magazine begins publication.

The Rescuers Down Under
Green Card
Pretty Woman
Dick Tracy
Arachnophobia The first film by Hollywood Pictures
DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp, first full-length film produced by the Walt Disney Television Animation studio.

TaleSpin
The Muppets at Walt Disney World

1991

December 20: The first Disney Vacation Club Resorts opened at Walt Disney World.

Beauty and the Beast, (the first animated  film to ever be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Picture)
The Rocketeer
Wild Hearts Can't Be Broken
Father of the Bride
White Fang

Darkwing Duck
Dinosaurs

1992

The company is granted permission for a National Hockey League expansion franchise. The team is named the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim to coincide with the release of The Mighty Ducks.
Disney Family Fun Magazine Begins Publication.

The Mighty Ducks
Aladdin
Sister Act
Newsies
The Hand that Rocks the Cradle

Euro Disney Resort opens outside Paris.

Goof Troop
Adventures in Wonderland (quality of the theatrical releases)
The Little Mermaid (TV series)
Raw Toonage

1993

Disney acquires independent film distributor Miramax Films.
Winnie-the-Pooh merchandise outsells Mickey Mouse merchandise for the first time.
The Anaheim Mighty Ducks play their first game at the Anaheim Arena, a brand-new arena located just three miles (5 km) east of Disneyland.

Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey
Cool Runnings
Hocus Pocus
The Nightmare Before Christmas
What's Love Got to Do with It
A Far Off Place

Bonkers
Marsupilami
Boy Meets World
Bill Nye the Science Guy

1994

Frank Wells is killed in a helicopter crash.
Beauty and the Beast opens on Broadway.
Jeffrey Katzenberg resigns to co-found his own studio, DreamWorks SKG.
Plans for Disney's America, a historical theme park in Haymarket, Virginia, are abruptly dropped.
Euro Disneyland is renamed Disneyland Paris.
The Classics is superseded replaced with the Masterpiece Collection.
Disney News changes its name to Disney Magazine.

The Lion King
The Santa Clause
The Jungle Book (1994)
Angels in the Outfield
Blank Check
Quiz Show
Ed Wood

Aladdin (TV series)
Gargoyles

1995

In October, the company hires Hollywood super agent Michael Ovitz to be president.
On October 1, Disney Channel (UK and Ireland) launches at 6:30pm
DIC Entertainment became part of The Walt Disney Company after the acquirement of Capital Cities/ABC.

Pocahontas
Crimson Tide
Man of the House
A Goofy Movie
Toy Story

Runaway Brain
The Shnookums and Meat Funny Cartoon Show
Timon & Pumbaa

1996

The company takes on the name of "Disney Enterprises, Inc." and acquires the Capital Cities/ABC group renaming it ABC, Inc., both as subsidiaries under a new parent company named "The Walt Disney Company"
Disney acquires Jumbo Pictures, producer of the Nickelodeon animated series Doug.
To celebrate the pairing, ABC's first Super Soap Weekend is held at Walt Disney World.
Disney makes deal with Tokuma Shoten for dubbing and releasing of Studio Ghibli films in the U.S. In December, Michael Ovitz, president of the company, leaves "by mutual consent".

The Hunchback of Notre Dame
The Rock
James and the Giant Peach
Ransom
101 Dalmatians (1996)

Quack Pack
Mighty Ducks (TV series)
Doug
Flash Forward
Jungle Cubs

1997

September 28: The anthology series is revived for a third time.
The home video division releases its first DVDs.
Disney takes control of the Major League Baseball franchise the California Angels of the American League, renaming the team the Anaheim Angels in order to coincide with Disney's hockey team the Mighty Ducks and to draw more tourism to Anaheim and nearby Disneyland.
The Lion King (musical) opens on Broadway.

Hercules
Flubber
Air Bud
Con Air
George of the Jungle

Recess
101 Dalmatians: The Series
Pepper Ann
Bear in the Big Blue House

1998

Disney and the Hong Kong Government announced a new resort in Hong Kong.
Disney Cruise Line sets sail with its first ship.
Toon Disney begins.

Six Days, Seven Nights
Mulan
Armageddon
A Bug's Life
Mighty Joe Young
The Parent Trap

Disney's Animal Kingdom opens.
Disney Magic launched.

PB&J Otter
Hercules (1998 TV series)
The Famous Jett Jackson
Bug Juice
Out of the Box
Rolie Polie Olie

1999

Tarzan
Inspector Gadget
Toy Story 2
Fantasia 2000
The Sixth Sense
The Insider

Disney Cruise Line ship Disney Wonder sets sail.

The Weekenders
Mickey Mouse Works

2000

Robert Iger becomes president.
Disney-owned TV channels including, owned-and-operated ABC stations, are pulled from Time Warner Cable briefly during a dispute over carriage fees.
Disney begins its Gold Classic Collection DVD line.
Disney shuts down Jumbo Pictures
Disney sold DiC Entertainment to Andy Heyward, the then-CEO of DiC Entertainment.

Dinosaur
Remember the Titans
The Emperor's New Groove
102 Dalmatians
Unbreakable
The Tigger Movie

Even Stevens
Teacher's Pet
Buzz Lightyear of Star Command

2001

Disney buys Fox Family Network including Saban Entertainment, owner of entertainment juggernaut Power Rangers, for $3 billion in July, giving Disney programming and cable network reaching 81 million homes.
Disney changes Fox Family Network to ABC Family.
Fort Worth billionaire Sid Bass is forced to sell his Disney holdings due to a margin call caused partially by the stock market fall that followed the 9/11 attacks.
Disney begins its Platinum Edition DVD line with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, as well as the Walt Disney Treasures DVD box set line for the collector's market.

Atlantis: The Lost Empire
Monsters, Inc.
Pearl Harbor
The Princess Diaries
Recess: School's Out

Disney California Adventure Park opens on February 8.
Tokyo DisneySea opens on September 4.

Lizzie McGuire
House of Mouse
The Book of Pooh
Lloyd in Space
The Legend of Tarzan
The Proud Family
Stanley

2002

Miramax acquires the USA rights to the Pokémon movies starting with the fourth movie.
Miramax also acquire the distribution rights of the first three Bionicle movies.
Disney teams up with famous video game company Square (later known as Square Enix) to release their first ever role-playing game with various Disney characters, Kingdom Hearts.
Disney releases Spirited Away in the United States, which goes on to be the first anime film to win an Oscar for Best Animated Film.
Disney begins joint venture business with Sanrio for Sanrio's greeting cards.

Return to Never Land
Lilo & Stitch
Snow Dogs
The Santa Clause 2
Tuck Everlasting
Reign of Fire
Signs
Treasure Planet

Walt Disney Studios Park opens.

Teamo Supremo
Kingdom Hearts
Kim Possible
Fillmore!

2003

Roy E. Disney resigns as the chairman of Feature Animation and from the board of directors, citing similar reasons to those that drove him off 26 years earlier. Fellow director Stanley Gold resigns with him. They establish a group called "Save Disney" to apply public pressure to oust Michael Eisner.
Talks to extend distribution agreement with Pixar break down, and Pixar announces plans to seek a new distribution partner.[7]
Disney sells the Angels to billboard magnate Arturo Moreno.
Disney released their first (non-Touchstone/non-Miramax/non-Dimension/non-Hollywood) PG-13 rated film under the regular Walt Disney Pictures label was Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl.
Release of Toontown Online

Finding Nemo
Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl
Brother Bear
Holes
Freaky Friday

That's So Raven
The Even Stevens Movie
The Cheetah Girls
Lilo & Stitch: The Series
JoJo's Circus
Inspector Gadget 2
Bionicle: Mask of Light
Power Rangers Ninja Storm
Digimon Frontier

2004

Comcast makes an unsuccessful and hostile $54.1-billion bid in stock for the company, plus the assumption of $11.9 billion in Disney debt, $66 billion in total.
Eisner is replaced by George J. Mitchell as chairman of the board after a 43% vote of no confidence.
Disney turns down distributing controversial documentary film Fahrenheit 9/11.
On February 17, Disney buys The Muppets, excluding the Sesame Street and Fraggle Rock characters, from The Jim Henson Company for $75 million.
Disney renames overseas Fox Kids channel/blocks to Jetix, with it appearing as a children's block on ABC Family and Toon Disney.
Disney Store chain sold and licensed to The Children's Place.

Home on the Range
Hidalgo
King Arthur
The Incredibles
The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement
National Treasure

Dave the Barbarian
Phil of the Future
Brandy & Mr. Whiskers
Higglytown Heroes
Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories
Power Rangers Dino Thunder

text: After becoming CEO, Robert Iger begins to rebuild the Disney brand by redirecting focus on core assets, such as feature animation and the theme parks. One early accomplishment was repairing the Disney-Pixar relationship, resulting in Disney's purchase of Pixar for $7 billion.

text:
Year

Notable Business Events

Notable Theatrical Releases

Notable Theme Park/destination Openings

Other Premieres

2005

Disney signs the Cheetah Girls on as a recording act.
Disney sells the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim to Henry Samueli of Broadcom, who changes the team name to Anaheim Ducks.
On July 8, Roy E. Disney rejoins the company as a consultant with the title of Director Emeritus.
Disneyland celebrates its 50th anniversary on July 17.
Bob Iger replaces Eisner as CEO.
Disney Magazine ceases publication.

The Pacifier
Chicken Little
Sky High
Herbie: Fully Loaded
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe

Hong Kong Disneyland opens.

Power Rangers S.P.D.
American Dragon: Jake Long
The Suite Life of Zack & Cody
Club Penguin
The Buzz on Maggie
Life Is Ruff
Kingdom Hearts II
Pokémon: Destiny Deoxys
Bionicle 3: Web of Shadows
Charlie and Lola
Little Einsteins
The Muppets' Wizard of Oz

2006

Disney's most successful tour The Party's Just Begun tour by The Cheetah Girls brings in USD $43 million. The tour was amongst the top 10 tours of 2006 coming in at number 3.
Disney acquires Pixar Animation Studios.
Disney Cinemagic launched on 16 March 2006 in United Kingdom.
Disney re-acquires the rights to Oswald the Lucky Rabbit from NBCUniversal, in exchange for ABC letting commentator Al Michaels work on NBC Sunday Night Football.
Disney introduced its current logo in Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest.

The Wild
Cars
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest
The Santa Clause 3: The Escape Clause

High School Musical
The Emperor's New School
Yin Yang Yo!
Power Rangers Mystic Force
Hannah Montana
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse
The Cheetah Girls 2
The Replacements
Handy Manny
Wondertime magazine

2007

Acquires New Horizon Interactive along with Club Penguin.
ABC Radio Networks along with 22 non-Radio Disney and ESPN Radio affiliates are sold to Citadel Broadcasting.
Disney Adventures magazine ceases publication.
The company's flagship animation studio is renamed from Walt Disney Feature Animation to "Walt Disney Animation Studios".
The company begins to drop the Buena Vista brand from its division (e.g. Buena Vista Pictures Distribution is renamed "Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures").

Meet the Robinsons
Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End
Ratatouille
The Game Plan
Enchanted
National Treasure: Book of Secrets

Cory in the House
Power Rangers Operation Overdrive
Bunnytown
My Friends Tigger & Pooh
Kingdom Hearts: Re:Chain of Memories
Phineas and Ferb
High School Musical 2
Wizards of Waverly Place
Digimon Data Squad

2008

The anthology series is canceled for the third time.
Disney Store chain is reacquired from The Children's Place.
The subscription Disney Family Movies service launches, which streams returns uncut Disney films and shorts to television viewers.[8][9]
Control of The Muppets franchise is transferred from Disney Consumer Products to the Walt Disney Studios.[10]
December 23 – Disney declines the option on the next film in The Chronicles of Narnia series with Walden Media.[11]

The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian
WALL-E
Beverly Hills Chihuahua
High School Musical 3: Senior Year
Bolt
Bedtime Stories

Camp Rock
Power Rangers Jungle Fury
The Cheetah Girls: One World
Kingdom Hearts Coded
Studio DC: Almost Live
The Suite Life on Deck
Imagination Movers
Cars Toons: Mater's Tall Tales
The Little Mermaid opens on Broadway.

2009

Wayne Allwine, who had voiced Mickey Mouse starting with Mickey's Christmas Carol, dies; he is succeeded by Bret Iwan.
Disney XD and DisneyXD.com are launched, replacing Toon Disney and Jetix.[12]
Disney announces the formation of D23, an official fan community.
Walt Disney Studios enters a distribution deal with DreamWorks Pictures, wherein upon DreamWorks' films will be distributed through Touchstone Pictures.
Wondertime magazine ceases publication.
December 16 – Director Emeritus Roy E. Disney dies of stomach cancer.
December 31 – Disney acquires Marvel Entertainment and its properties.[13][14]

Race to Witch Mountain
Hannah Montana: The Movie
Up
Disney's A Christmas Carol
The Princess and the Frog

Wizards of Waverly Place: The Movie
Kid vs. Kat
Zeke and Luther
I'm in the Band
Jimmy Two-Shoes
Have a Laugh!
Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days
Princess Protection Program
Power Rangers RPM
Sonny with a Chance
Jonas L.A.
Special Agent Oso
Jungle Junction
Disney twenty-three magazine begins publication.

2010

March 12, 2010 – Disney annonuces the closure of ImageMovers Digital for January 2011.[15]
Disney sells the Power Rangers franchise to Saban Brands for USD $100 million.
Disney lost the rights of Digimon in May 2010.
Disney sells Miramax Films to Filmyard Holdings for $660 million.[16]
Disney Channel ends one of its most successful television series, Hannah Montana.

Alice in Wonderland
Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time
Toy Story 3
The Sorcerer's Apprentice
Tangled
Tron: Legacy

Good Luck Charlie
Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil
The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes
Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep
Pair of Kings
Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam
Shake It Up
Take Two with Phineas and Ferb
Kingdom Hearts Re:coded
Epic Mickey
Fish Hooks
The Octonauts

2011

Disney Wonder repositioned to the West Coast.
Disney licenses global theme park rights to the Avatar franchise from James Cameron and Lightstorm Entertainment, and announces the first Avatar-themed project at Animal Kingdom in Walt Disney World.
Playhouse Disney on Disney Channel rebrands as Disney Junior.

Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides
Cars 2
Winnie the Pooh
The Help
Real Steel
The Muppets
War Horse

The Disney Dream ship sets sail.

Jake and the Never Land Pirates
The Suite Life Movie
Lemonade Mouth
Phineas and Ferb the Movie: Across the 2nd Dimension
Good Luck Charlie, It's Christmas
Minnie's Bow-Toons
Sharpay's Fabulous Adventure
Once Upon a Time
Disney Universe
Geek Charming
Lego Pirates of the Caribbean: The Video Game
Jessie
So Random!
Kinect Disneyland Adventures
Kickin' It
Fort Boyard: Ultimate Challenge
A.N.T. Farm
Austin & Ally

2012

March 23: The anthology series is revived for a fourth time.
Disney Channel ends Wizards of Waverly Place, now beating That's So Raven as the longest running Disney Channel Original Series to date.
Disney Junior launches its own spin-off channel, replacing SoapNet on some providers, but not on all providers.
Rich Ross resigns as Chairman of The Walt Disney Studios, and is replaced by Alan F. Horn.
Disney acquires Lucasfilm from George Lucas, including its Star Wars and Indiana Jones properties for approximately $4.06 billion.[17]

John Carter
Marvel's The Avengers
Brave
Frankenweenie
Wreck-It Ralph
Lincoln

Disney California Adventure is re-dedicated.
The Disney Fantasy ship sets sail

Frenemies
Radio Rebel
Let It Shine
Lab Rats
Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance
Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two
Gravity Falls
Code: 9
Dog With a Blog
Tron: Uprising
Crash & Bernstein
Randy Cunningham: 9th Grade Ninja
Epic Mickey: Power of Illusion
Doc McStuffins
Sofia the First
Ultimate Spider-Man (TV series)

2013

Disney Cinemagic replaced with Sky Movies Disney at 18:00 on 28 March 2013 in United Kingdom.
Disney Interactive Studios shuts down development studio Junction Point Studios following the disappointing sales of Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two.
Lucasfilm closes its video game division LucasArts.
Frozen became the highest grossing animated feature, passing both The Lion King and Toy Story 3

Oz the Great and Powerful
Iron Man 3
Monsters University
The Lone Ranger
Thor: The Dark World
Frozen
Saving Mr. Banks

Mystic Point opened at Hong Kong Disneyland

Disney Infinity
Liv and Maddie
Teen Beach Movie
DuckTales: Remastered
Mickey Mouse (2013 TV series)
Henry Hugglemonster
Wander Over Yonder
Avengers Assemble
Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.
Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix
The Wizards Return: Alex vs. Alex
Mighty Med

2014

Frozen wins the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 86th Academy Awards, becoming the first win in the category for Walt Disney Animation Studios.
Big Hero 6 is the first Disney animated feature to use the in-credit text that it was created and produced at Walt Disney Animation Studios.
Disney acquired Maker Studios for $500 million.

Muppets Most Wanted
Captain America: The Winter Soldier
Maleficent
Guardians of the Galaxy
Big Hero 6
Into the Woods

The 7D
Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix
Fantasia: Music Evolved
I Didn't Do It
Kirby Buckets
Star Wars Rebels
Win, Lose or Draw
Girl Meets World
Sheriff Callie's Wild West
Disney Magical World
Disney Infinity: Marvel Super Heroes

2015

Big Hero 6 wins the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 87th Academy Awards.
Disney combines its Consumer Products and Interactive Media divisions into one unified segment, Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media.
Marvel Studios is reorganized under the Walt Disney Studios.

Cinderella
Tomorrowland
Avengers: Age of Ultron
Inside Out
The Good Dinosaur
Ant-Man
Bridge of Spies
Star Wars: The Force Awakens

Penn Zero: Part-Time Hero
Star vs. the Forces of Evil
K.C. Undercover
Miles From Tomorrowland
Best Friends Whenever
Gamer's Guide to Pretty Much Everything
BUNK'D
Descendants
We Love Disney
Disney Infinity 3.0
Pickle and Peanut
Guardians of the Galaxy
The Muppets
Gravity Falls: Legend of the Gnome Gemulets
The Lion Guard
Star Wars: Battlefront

2016

January 12: ABC Family changes its name to Freeform.
April 14: Construction on a 14-acre Star Wars-themed land begins at Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios.
DreamWorks ends its film distribution deal with Disney.
May 10: Disney Interactive Studios exited from publishing its own games in order to focus on third-party development of video game adaptations of its franchises by other developers.

Zootopia
The Jungle Book
Captain America: Civil War
Finding Dory
Doctor Strange
Moana
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story

Shanghai Disneyland opens on June 16

Stuck in the Middle
Elena of Avalor
Adventures in Babysitting
Lab Rats: Elite Force
Disney Art Academy
Kingdom Hearts χ
Disney Magical World 2
Backstage (2016 TV series)
Bizaardvark
Walk the Prank
Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue
Lego Star Wars: The Force Awakens
Lego Star Wars: The Freemaker Adventures
Future-Worm!
Milo Murphy's Law
Mech-X4

2017

Zootopia wins the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 89th Academy Awards.
Disney ends its deal with Netflix beginning in 2019.
Disney announces that it had exercised an option to increase its stake in BAMTech to 75%, and would launch a subscription video-on-demand service featuring its entertainment content in 2019, which will replace Netflix as the subscription VOD rightsholder of all Disney theatrical film releases.
John Lasseter announces that he is taking a six-month leave of absence from the company, after acknowledging "missteps" in his behavior with employees. Media outlets report that Lasseter had a history of alleged sexual misconduct towards employees.
Disney announces its acquisition of key assets and businesses of 21st Century Fox from Rupert Murdoch.

Beauty and the Beast
Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2
Cars 3
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales
Thor: Ragnarok
Coco
Star Wars: The Last Jedi

Pandora – The World of Avatar opens at Disney's Animal Kingdom

DuckTales
Mickey and the Roadster Racers
Big Hero 6: The Series
Tangled: The Series
Puppy Dog Pals
Andi Mack
Cars 3: Driven to Win
Billy Dilley's Super-Duper Subterranean Summer
The Disney Afternoon Collection
Raven's Home
Star Wars Battlefront II

2018

Disney announces that Lasseter would leave the company, and that Pete Docter and Jennifer Lee would assume the roles of chief creative officer for Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios, respectively.
In June, Comcast announces a $65 billion all cash counter-offer to acquire the Fox assets that Disney was set to purchase. Disney counterbid with a $71.3 billion offer. Comcast drops offer in pursuit of Sky PLC and Disney is free to acquire 21 Century Fox and all of the assets.

Black Panther
Avengers: Infinity War
Solo: A Star Wars Story
Ant-Man and the Wasp
Incredibles 2
Christopher Robin
The Nutcracker and the Four Realms
Ralph Breaks the Internet: Wreck-It Ralph 2
Mary Poppins Returns

Toy Story Land opens at Shanghai Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios

Big City Greens
Muppet Babies
Fancy Nancy
Kingdom Hearts III
Lego The Incredibles
Zombies
Legend of the Three Caballeros
Freaky Friday

text: Footnotes

text:
Notable Theatrical Releases are films that were the first to use a particular technology (sound, color, etc.), received major award nominations (Academy Award, Golden Globe, etc.), or are otherwise historically significant to The Walt Disney Company. Not all films released by Disney appear in this list; please see Lists of films released by Disney for a complete company listing.
Theme Park/destination Openings indicate when Disney theme parks open. The opening of attractions and park name changes will not appear in this list.
Other Premieres are the premiere dates for other notable Disney products, such as TV franchises (The Cheetah Girls, Hannah Montana, The Jonas Brothers), consumer products, video games (Kingdom Hearts), or home media premieres that were the first to use a particular technology. Other notability requirements include major award nominations (Emmy Award, Grammy Award), or are otherwise historically significant to The Walt Disney Company. Not all Disney products, TV programs, video games, or home media releases appear in this list.

tag: ul


document_title: List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances

question_text: when did hitchcock start appearing in his movies

text: Cameo appearances in Hitchcock films[edit]

text: This is a list of Hitchcock's cameo appearances in films that he directed.

text:
Title
Year
H:M[:S]
Description

The Birds
1963
0:02:18
Leaving the pet shop with two of his own Sealyham terriers, Geoffrey and Stanley, as Tippi Hedren enters.[3]

Blackmail
1929
0:10:25
Being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the London Underground. This cameo is 19 seconds long.

Dial M for Murder
1954
0:13:13
On the left side in the class-reunion photo.

Easy Virtue
1928
0:21:15
Walking past a tennis court carrying a walking stick.

Family Plot
1976
0:40:00
In silhouette through the door of the Registrar of Births and Deaths.

Foreign Correspondent
1940
0:12:44
After Joel McCrea leaves his hotel, wearing a coat and hat and reading a newspaper.

Frenzy
1972
0:04:07
In the center of a crowd, wearing a bowler hat; he is the only one not applauding the speaker; and a minute later, right after the victim washes ashore, standing next to a gray-haired man with a gray beard.

I Confess
1953
0:01:33
Crossing the top of a flight of steps.

The Lady Vanishes
1938
1:32:31
In Victoria Station, wearing a black coat, smoking a cigarette, and making a strange movement with his head.

Lifeboat
1944
0:00:25
In the "before" and "after" pictures in the newspaper ad for "Reduco Obesity Slayer".

The Lodger
1927
0:03
At a desk in the newsroom.

0:01:34
In the mob scene next to Detective Joe who's bearing the lodger's weight on the fence by holding his arms.

The Man Who Knew Too Much
1956
0:25:12
As the McKennas watch the acrobats in market place, Hitchcock appears at the left in a suit and puts his hands in his pockets.

The Man Who Knew Too Much
1934
0:33:25
Walking across a road in a dark trench coat as a bus passes.

Marnie
1964
0:00:05
Entering from the left of the hotel corridor after Tippi Hedren passes by, and clearly breaking the fourth wall by looking the audience straight in the eye.

Mr. & Mrs. Smith
1941
0:42:57
Passing Robert Montgomery in front of his building.

Murder!
1930
0:59:45
Walking past the house where the murder was committed with a female companion, at the end of Sir John's visit to the scene with Markham and his wife Lucy.

North by Northwest
1959
0:02:09
Missing a bus, just after his credit passes off screen during the title sequence.

Notorious
1946
1:04:44
At the big party in Claude Rains' mansion, drinking champagne and then quickly departing.

Number Seventeen
1932
0:51:25
On the bus amongst other passengers, in a dark coat and hat, facing away, he bounces up and down; approx. four seconds.

The Paradine Case
1947
0:38:00
Leaving the train at a railway station, carrying a cello case.

Psycho
1960
0:06:59
Seen through an office window wearing a Stetson cowboy hat as Janet Leigh comes through the door.

Rear Window
1954
0:26:12
Winding the clock in the songwriter's apartment.

Rebecca
1940
2:06:57
Walking near the phone booth just after George Sanders makes a call.

Rope
1948
0:55:00
In the background as a red flashing neon sign of his trademark profile.

Sabotage
1936
0:08:56
Just after the lights come back on in front of the Bijou, looking up as he crosses in front of the crowd.

Saboteur
1942
1:04:45
Standing in front of "Cut Rate Drugs" as the saboteurs' car stops.

Shadow of a Doubt
1943
0:16:27
On the train to Santa Rosa, playing cards, back to the camera.

Spellbound
1945
0:38:50
Coming out of an elevator at the Empire State Hotel, carrying a violin case and smoking a cigarette.

Stage Fright
1950
0:39:49
Turning to look back at Jane Wyman in her disguise as Marlene Dietrich's maid.

Strangers on a Train
1951
0:10:34
Boarding a train with a double bass as Farley Granger gets off in his hometown.

Suspicion
1941
0:03:25
Walking a horse across the screen at the hunt meet.

0:44:58
Mailing a letter at the village postbox (long shot).

The 39 Steps
1935
0:06:56
The man tossing a white cigarette box while the bus pulls up for Robert Donat and Lucie Mannheim to leave the theatre.

To Catch a Thief
1955
0:09:40
Sitting next to Cary Grant on the bus.

Topaz
1969
0:32:27
Being pushed in a wheelchair in the airport. Hitchcock gets up from the chair, shakes hands with a man, and walks off to the right.

Torn Curtain
1966
0:00:08
Sitting in the Hotel d'Angleterre lobby with a baby on his knee. He shifts the child from one knee to the other. The music playing at this point in the film is an adaptation of Charles Gounod's Funeral March of a Marionette, a song now associated with Hitchcock due to it being used as the theme for his television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents

The Trouble with Harry
1955
0:22:14
Seen outside of the window—the man walking past the parked limousine of an old man who is looking at paintings.

Under Capricorn
1949
0:02:11
In the town square during new governor's speech, wearing a blue coat and brown hat.

0:12:17
One of three men on the steps of Government House.

Vertigo
1958
0:11:40
In a grey suit walking in the street with a trumpet case.

The Wrong Man
1956
0:00:18
Seen in silhouette narrating the film's prologue. Donald Spoto's biography says that Hitchcock chose to make an explicit appearance in this film (rather than a cameo) to emphasize that, unlike his other movies, The Wrong Man was a true story about an actual person.

Young and Innocent
1937
0:15:00
Outside the courthouse, holding a camera.

text: Other cameo appearances[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Alfred Hitchcock regularly made cameo appearances in his films. However, only once did he appear in an installment of his Alfred Hitchcock Presents television show (aside from his personal introductions and closings). The one cameo was in the 1958 episode of the third season titled "Dip in the Pool". At 5:15 minutes into the episode, Hitchcock appears on the cover of a magazine being read by Mr. Renshaw (Philip Bourneuf).
Hitchcock's image shows up in Alain Resnais's Last Year at Marienbad, as an homage to Hitchcock's cameo appearances.
Director Richard Franklin incorporates a Hitchcock cameo into Psycho II (1983), even though Hitchcock had been dead for three years. When Mary Samuels and Norman Bates pay an early nighttime visit to Mother's bedroom, Hitchcock's famous silhouette can be seen in shadow on the far right wall just after they enter the room and before they turn on the lights.
In Gus Van Sant's 1998 shot-for-shot remake of Psycho, Van Sant can be seen standing next to a Hitchcock look-alike at the same point in the film as in the original.
As pointed out by Nick @ Nite Rewind, Alfred's shadow appears in an episode of The Odd Couple.


document_title: Sea urchin

question_text: where do sea urchins live in the world

question_tokens: where do sea urchins live in the world

text: Sea urchin

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: Sea urchins are members of the phylum Echinodermata, which also includes sea stars, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and crinoids. Like other echinoderms, they have five-fold symmetry (called pentamerism) and move by means of hundreds of tiny, transparent, adhesive "tube feet". The symmetry is not obvious in the living animal, but is easily visible in the dried test.

text: Specifically, the term "sea urchin" refers to the "regular echinoids", which are symmetrical and globular, and includes several different taxonomic groups, including two subclasses : Euechinoidea ("modern" sea urchins, including irregular ones) and Cidaroidea or "slate-pencil urchins", which have very thick, blunt spines, with algae and sponges growing on it. The irregular sea urchins are an infra-class inside the Euechinoidea, called Irregularia, and include Atelostomata and Neognathostomata. "Irregular" echinoids include: flattened sand dollars, sea biscuits, and heart urchins.

text: Together with sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea), they make up the subphylum Echinozoa, which is characterized by a globoid shape without arms or projecting rays. Sea cucumbers and the irregular echinoids have secondarily evolved diverse shapes. Although many sea cucumbers have branched tentacles surrounding their oral openings, these have originated from modified tube feet and are not homologous to the arms of the crinoids, sea stars, and brittle stars.

text:
Paracentrotus lividus, a regular sea urchin (Euechinoidea, infraclass Carinacea).

A sand dollar, an irregular sea urchin (Irregularia).

Phyllacanthus imperialis, a cidaroid sea urchin (Cidaroidea).

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: Urchins typically range in size from 6 to 12 cm (2.4 to 4.7 in), although the largest species can reach up to 36 cm (14 in).[4]

text: Fivefold symmetry[edit]

text: Like other echinoderms, sea urchin early larvae have bilateral symmetry,[5] but they develop five-fold symmetry as they mature. This is most apparent in the "regular" sea urchins, which have roughly spherical bodies with five equally sized parts radiating out from their central axes. Several sea urchins, however, including the sand dollars, are oval in shape, with distinct front and rear ends, giving them a degree of bilateral symmetry. In these urchins, the upper surface of the body is slightly domed, but the underside is flat, while the sides are devoid of tube feet. This "irregular" body form has evolved to allow the animals to burrow through sand or other soft materials.[4]

text: Feet[edit]

text: Sea urchins' tube feet arise from the five ambulacral grooves. Tube feet are moved by a water vascular system, which works through hydraulic pressure, allowing the sea urchin to pump water into and out of the tube feet, enabling it to move.

text: Organs and test[edit]

text: The lower half of a sea urchin's body is referred to as the oral surface, because it contains the mouth, while the upper half is the aboral surface. The internal organs are enclosed in a hard shell or "test" composed of fused plates of calcium carbonate covered by a thin dermis and epidermis. The test is rigid, and divides into five ambulacral grooves separated by five interambulacral areas. Each of these areas consists of two rows of plates, so the sea urchin test includes 20 rows of plates in total. The plates are covered in rounded tubercles, to which the spines are attached. The inner surface of the test is lined by peritoneum.[4] Sea urchins convert aqueous carbon dioxide using a catalytic process involving nickel into the calcium carbonate portion of the test.[6]

text: Mouth/anus[edit]

text: The mouth lies in the centre of the oral surface in regular urchins, or towards one end in irregular urchins. It is surrounded by lips of softer tissue, with numerous small, bony pieces embedded in it. This area, called the peristome, also includes five pairs of modified tube feet and, in many species, five pairs of gills. On the upper surface, opposite the mouth, is the periproct, which surrounds the anus. The periproct contains a variable number of hard plates, depending on species, one of which contains the madreporite.[4] The structure of the mouth and teeth have been found to be so efficient at grasping and grinding that their structure has been tested for use in real-world applications.[7]

text: Endoskeleton[edit]

text: The sea urchin builds its spicules, the sharp, crystalline "bones" that constitute the animal’s endoskeleton, in the larval stage. The fully formed spicule is composed of a single crystal with an unusual morphology. It has no facets, and within 48 hours of fertilization, assumes a shape that looks much like the Mercedes-Benz logo.[8]

text: In other echinoderms, the endoskeleton is associated with a layer of muscle that allows the animal to move its arms or other body parts. This is entirely absent in sea urchins, which are unable to move in this way.

text:
Test of an Echinus esculentus, a regular sea urchin.

Test of an Echinodiscus tenuissimus, an irregular sea urchin ("sand dollar").

Test of a Phyllacanthus imperialis, a cidaroid sea urchin. These are characterised by their big tubercles, bearing large radiola.

Close-up on the test of a regular sea urchin. One can see an ambulacrum (yellow) with its two rows of pore-pairs, between two interambulacra (green). The tubercles are non perforated.

Close-up on a cidaroid sea urchin apical disc : the 5 holes are the gonopores, and the central one is the anus ("periproct"). The biggest genital plate is the madreporite.

text: Spines[edit]

text: Typical sea urchins have spines about 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) in length, 1 to 2 mm (0.039 to 0.079 in) thick, and more or less sharp. The genus Diadema, familiar in the tropics, has the longest spines; they are thin and can reach 10 to 30 cm (3.9 to 11.8 in) long.

text: The spines, long and sharp in some species, protect the urchin from predators. They inflict a painful wound when they penetrate human skin, but are not themselves dangerous if fully removed promptly; if left in the skin, further problems may occur.[9]

text: Some families of tropical sea urchins are known to have venomous spines, like Diadematidae and Echinothuriidae. The first family contains the "Diadem" sea urchins, and the latter the "fire urchins".

text: Many urchins in the Toxopneustidae are venomous as well, but the danger does not come from their spines (short and blunt) but from their pedicellariae, like the collector urchin and especially the flower urchin, the only potentially lethal echinoderm known to date.[10][self-published source?]

text: Reproductive organs[edit]

text: Sea urchins are dioecious, having separate male and female sexes, although distinguishing the two is not easy, except for their locations on the sea bottom. Males generally choose elevated and exposed locations, so their milt can be broadcast by sea currents. Females generally choose low-lying locations in sea bottom crevices, presumably so the tiny larvae can have better protection from predators. Indeed, very small sea urchins are found hiding beneath rocks. Regular sea urchins have five gonads, lying underneath the interambulacral regions of the test, while the irregular forms have only four, with the hindmost gonad being absent. Each gonad has a single duct rising from the upper pole to open at a gonopore lying in one of the genital plates surrounding the anus. The gonads are lined with muscles underneath the peritoneum, and these allow the animal to squeeze its gametes through the duct and into the surrounding sea water where fertilization takes place.[4]

text: Physiology[edit]

text: Digestion[edit]

text: The mouth of most sea urchins is made up of five calcium carbonate teeth or jaws, with a fleshy, tongue-like structure within. The entire chewing organ is known as Aristotle's lantern (image), from Aristotle's description in his History of Animals:

text: However, this has recently been proven to be a mistranslation. Aristotle's lantern is actually referring to the whole shape of sea urchins, which look like the ancient lamps of Aristotle's time.[11][12]

text: Heart urchins are unusual in not having a lantern. Instead, the mouth is surrounded by cilia that pull strings of mucus containing food particles towards a series of grooves around the mouth.[4]

text: The lantern, where present, surrounds both the mouth cavity and the pharynx. At the top of the lantern, the pharynx opens into the esophagus, which runs back down the outside of the lantern, to join the small intestine and a single caecum. The small intestine runs in a full circle around the inside of the test, before joining the large intestine, which completes another circuit in the opposite direction. From the large intestine, a rectum ascends towards the anus. Despite the names, the small and large intestines of sea urchins are in no way homologous to the similarly named structures in vertebrates.[4]

text: Digestion occurs in the intestine, with the caecum producing further digestive enzymes. An additional tube, called the siphon, runs beside much of the intestine, opening into it at both ends. It may be involved in resorption of water from food.[4]

text: Circulation[edit]

text: Sea urchins possess both a water vascular system and a hemal system, the latter containing blood. However, the main circulatory fluid fills the general body cavity, or coelom. This fluid contains phagocytic coelomocytes, which move through the vascular and hemal systems. The coelomocytes are an essential part of blood clotting, but also collect waste products and actively remove them from the body through the gills and tube feet.[4]

text: Respiration[edit]

text: Most sea urchins possess five pairs of external gills, located around their mouths. These thin-walled projections of the body cavity are the main organs of respiration in those urchins that possess them. Fluid can be pumped through the gills' interiors by muscles associated with the lantern, but this is not continuous, and occurs only when the animal is low on oxygen. Tube feet can also act as respiratory organs, and are the primary sites of gas exchange in heart urchins and sand dollars, both of which lack gills.[4]

text: Nervous system[edit]

text: The nervous system of sea urchins has a relatively simple layout. With no true brain, the neural center is a large nerve ring encircling the mouth just inside the lantern. From the nerve ring, five nerves radiate underneath the radial canals of the water vascular system, and branch into numerous finer nerves to innervate the tube feet, spines, and pedicellariae.[4]

text: Senses[edit]

text: Sea urchins are sensitive to touch, light, and chemicals. Although they do not have eyes or eye spots (except for diadematids, which can follow a threat with their spines), the entire body of most regular sea urchins might function as a compound eye.[13] They also have statocysts, called spheridia, located within the ambulacral plates to help the animal remain upright.[4]

text: Development[edit]

text: Ingression of primary mesenchyme cells[edit]

text: During early development, the sea urchin embryo undergoes 10 cycles of cell division,[14] resulting in a single epithelial layer enveloping a blastocoel.[15] The embryo must then begin gastrulation, a multipart process which involves the dramatic rearrangement and invagination of cells to produce the three germ layers.

text: The first step of gastrulation is the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and ingression of primary mesenchyme cells into the blastocoel.[15] Primary mesenchyme cells, or PMCs, are located in the vegetal plate specified to become mesoderm.[16] Prior to ingression, PMCs exhibit all the features of other epithelial cells that comprise the embryo. Cells of the epithelium are bound basally to a laminal matrix and apically to an extraembryonic matrix.[16] The apical microvilli of these cells reach into the hyaline layer, a component of the extraembryonic matrix.[17] Neighboring epithelial cells are also connected to each other through apical junctions,[18] protein complexes containing adhesion molecules, such as cadherins, linked to catenins.

text: As PMCs begin to undergo an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, the lamina which binds them dissolves to begin the mechanical release of the cells.[17] Expression of the membrane protein that binds laminin, integrin, also becomes irregular at the beginning of ingression.[19] The microvilli which secure PMCs to the hyaline layer shorten,[20] as the cells reduce their affinity for the extraembryonic matrix.[21] These cells concurrently increase their affinity for other components of the basal matrix, such as fibronectin, in part driving the movement of cells inward.[21] The apical junctions which bind PMCs to their neighboring epithelial cells become disrupted during this transition, and are absent in cells that have fully ingressed into the blastocoel.[17] Because staining for cadherins and catenins in ingressing cells decreases and develops as intracellular accumulations, apical junctions are thought to be cleared by endocytosis during ingression.[22][23]

text: Once the PMCs disrupt all attachment to their former location, the cells themselves change their morphology by contracting their apical surfaces, apical constriction, and enlarging their basal surfaces, thus acquiring a "bottle cell" phenotype.[16] Cytoskeletal rearrangements mediate the shape changes of PMCs; though the cytoskeleton assists in the mechanics of ingression, other mechanisms drive the process. Experimentally disrupting microtubule dynamics in the species Strongylocentrotus pupuratus by applying colchicine stalls the ingression of PMCs, but does not inhibit it.[24] Similarly, experimentally disrupting actin-myosin contraction using inhibitors slows down ingression, but does not arrest the process.[25]

text: The morphogenetic movements of the PMCs are an autonomous cellular behavior. Experimentally grafting PMCs into heterotopic tissue does not prevent the cells from ingressing.[21] In studies where PMCs are cultured in insolation, the cells were observed to gain affinity for fibronectin and simultaneously lose affinity for extraembryonic matrix, independent of the embryonic environment.[21]

text: Life history[edit]

text: At first glance, sea urchins often appear incapable of moving. Sometimes, the most visible life sign is the spines, which attach to ball-and-socket joints and can point in any direction. In most urchins, touch elicits a prompt reaction from the spines, which converge toward the touch point. Sea urchins have no visible eyes, legs, or means of propulsion, but can move freely over hard surfaces using adhesive tube feet, working in conjunction with the spines. Regular sea urchins don't have any favourite walking direction.[26]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: In most cases, the female's eggs float freely in the sea, but some species hold onto them with their spines, affording them a greater degree of protection. The fertilized egg, once met with the free-floating sperm released by males, develops into a free-swimming blastula embryo in as few as 12 hours. Initially a simple ball of cells, the blastula soon transforms into a cone-shaped echinopluteus larva. In most species, this larva has 12 elongated arms lined with bands of cilia that capture food particles and transport them to the mouth. In a few species, the blastula contains supplies of nutrient yolk and lacks arms, since it has no need to feed.[4]

text: Several months are needed for the larva to complete its development, which begins with the formation of the test plates around the mouth and anus. Soon, the larva sinks to the bottom and metamorphoses into adult form in as quickly as one hour. In some species, adults reach their maximum size in about five years.[4]

text: Predators[edit]

text: Adult sea urchins are usually well protected against most predators by their strong and sharp spines, which can be poisonous in some species,[27] but when they are damaged they quickly attract lots of fish and other omnivorous animals.

text: Sea urchins are one of the favourite food of many lobsters, crabs, triggerfish, California sheephead, sea otter and wolf eels : all these animals carry particular adaptations (teeth, pincers, claws) and a strength that allow them to overcome the excellent protective features of sea urchins.

text: Sea urchins can also be infected by many parasites, be they internal or external. Pedicellaria[28] are a good means of defense against ectoparasites, but not a panacea as some of them actually feed on it.[29] The hemal system ensures against endoparasites.

text:
A sea otter feeding on a purple sea urchin.

A crab (Carpilius convexus) attacking a slate pencil sea urchin (Heterocentrotus mamillatus).

A wrasse finishing the remains of a damaged Tripneustes gratilla.

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Sea urchins feed mainly on algae but can feed on sea cucumbers and a wide range of invertebrates, such as mussels, polychaetes, sponges, brittle stars, and crinoids.[30] Population densities vary by habitat, with more dense populations in barren areas as compared to kelp stands.[31][32] Even in these barren areas, greatest densities are found in shallow water. Populations are generally found in deeper water if wave action is present.[32] Densities decrease in winter when storms cause them to seek protection in cracks and around larger underwater structures.[32]

text: Sea urchins are some of the favorite foods of sea otters and California sheephead, and are the main source of nutrition for wolf eels. Left unchecked, urchins devastate their environments, creating what biologists call an urchin barren, devoid of macroalgae and associated fauna. Sea otters have re-entered British Columbia, dramatically improving coastal ecosystem health.[33]

text: Range and habitat[edit]

text: Sea urchins have conquered most sea habitats, on an extremely wide range of depths.[34] Some species, such as Cidaris abyssicola, can live down to several thousands of meters deep. Many genera are totally indentured to the abyssal zone, such as many cidaroids, most of the genera in the Echinothuriidae family, or the strange genus Dermechinus. One of the deepest-living family is the Pourtalesiidae,[35] strange bottle-shaped irregular sea urchins that live only in the hadal zone and have been collected as far as 6850 meters deep in the Java trench.[36] Nevertheless, this makes sea urchin the class of echinoderms living the least deep, compared to sea cucumbers and crinoids that remain abundant below 8000 m.[36]

text: Sea urchins can be found in all climates, from warm seas to polar oceans [34] (like the polar sea urchin Sterechinus neumayeri). They adapt their diet to their environment: In rich ecosystems they feed mainly on algae that allow a quick growth; in less rich bottoms they adopt a slower metabolism, adapted to a less calorific diet.

text: The shingle urchin (Colobocentrotus atratus), which lives on exposed shorelines, is particularly resistant to wave action. It is one of the few sea urchin that can survive many hours out of water.[37]

text: Despite their presence in nearly all the marine ecosystems, most species are encountered on temperate and tropical coasts, between the surface and some tens of meters deep, close to photosynthetic food sources.[34]

text:
Purple sea urchins at low tide in California. They dig a cavity in the rock to hide from predators during the day.

"Sand dollars" live in the sediment, and feed on it.

Dermechinus horridus, an abyssal species, at thousands of meters deep.

text: Evolutionary history[edit]

text: The earliest echinoid fossils date to the upper part of the Ordovician period (circa 450 Mya), and the taxon has survived to the present as a successful and diverse group of organisms. Spines may be present in well-preserved specimens, but usually only the test remains. Isolated spines are common as fossils. Some echinoids (such as Tylocidaris clavigera, from the Cretaceous period's English Chalk Formation) had very heavy, club-shaped spines that would be difficult for an attacking predator to break through and make the echinoid awkward to handle. Such spines simplify walking on the soft sea floor.

text: Most of the fossil echinoids from the Paleozoic era are incomplete, consisting of isolated spines and small clusters of scattered plates from crushed individuals, mostly in Devonian and Carboniferous rocks. The shallow-water limestones from the Ordovician and Silurian periods of Estonia are famous for echinoids. Paleozoic echinoids probably inhabited relatively quiet waters. Because of their thin tests, they would certainly not have survived in the wave-battered coastal waters inhabited by many modern echinoids. During the upper part of the Carboniferous period, a marked decline in echinoid diversity occurred, and this trend continued to the Permian period. They neared extinction at the end of the Paleozoic era, with just six species known from the Permian period. Only two lineages survived this period's massive extinction and into the Triassic: the genus Miocidaris, which gave rise to modern cidaroida (pencil urchins), and the ancestor that gave rise to the euechinoids. By the upper part of the Triassic period, their numbers began to increase again. Cidaroids have changed very little since the Late Triassic and are today considered to be living fossils. Diversity of echinoids have been fluctuating across the eons. Among the different proxies, marine facies variation in combination with outcrop area best explains the palaeodiversity curve.[38]

text: The euechinoids, though, diversified into new lineages throughout the Jurassic and into the Cretaceous periods, and from them emerged the first irregular echinoids (superorder Atelostomata) during the early Jurassic, and later the other superorder (Gnathostomata) of irregular urchins, which evolved independently. These superorders today represent 47% of all extant species of echinoids because of their adaptive breakthroughs, which allowed them to exploit habitats and food sources unavailable to regular echinoids. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, the echinoids flourished. Most echinoid fossils are often abundant in the restricted localities and formations where they occur. An example of this is Enallaster, which exists by the thousands in certain outcrops of limestone from the Cretaceous period in Texas. Many fossils of the Late Jurassic Plesiocidaris still have the spines attached.

text: Some echinoids, such as Micraster, which is found in the Cretaceous period Chalk Formation of England and France, serve as zone or index fossils. Because they evolved rapidly, they aid geologists in dating the surrounding rocks. However, most echinoids are not abundant enough and are of too limited range to serve as zone fossils.

text: In the Paleogene and Neogene periods (circa 66 to 1.8 Mya), sand dollars (order Clypeasteroida) arose. Their distinctive, flattened tests and tiny spines were adapted to life on or under loose sand. They form the newest branch on the echinoid tree.

text: Phylogeny

text: According to WoRMS:[40]

text:
Sub-class Euechinoidea Bronn, 1860

Infra-class Acroechinoidea Smith, 1981

Order Aspidodiadematoida Kroh & Smith, 2010
Order Diadematoida Duncan, 1889
Order Micropygoida Kroh & Smith, 2010
Order Pedinoida Mortensen, 1939

Infra-class Carinacea Kroh & Smith, 2010

Super-order Calycina Gregory, 1900

Order Phymosomatoida Mortensen, 1904 †
Order Salenioida Delage & Hérouard, 1903

Super-order Echinacea Claus, 1876

Order Arbacioida Gregory, 1900
Order Camarodonta Jackson, 1912
Order Stomopneustoida Kroh & Smith, 2010

Order Echinothurioida Claus, 1880
Infra-class Irregularia Latreille, 1825

Super-order Atelostomata von Zittel, 1879

Order Holasteroida Durham & Melville, 1957
Order Spatangoida L. Agassiz, 1840a

Order Echinoneoida H. L. Clark, 1925
Order Holectypoida Ducan, 1889 †
Super-order Neognathostomata Smith, 1981

Order Cassiduloida Claus, 1880
Order Clypeasteroida A. Agassiz, 1872
Order Echinolampadoida Kroh & Smith, 2010
Order Nucleolitidae L. Agassiz & Desor, 1847 †

Sub-class Cidaroidea Smith, 1984

Order Cidaroida Claus, 1880

text:
Aspidodiadema hawaiiense, an Aspidodiadematoida

Diadema antillarum, a Diadematoida

Caenopedina hawaiiensis, a Pedinoida

Salenocidaris hastigera (dried), a Salenioida

Arbacia lixula, an Arbacioida

Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, a Camarodonta

Stomopneustes variolaris, a Stomopneustoida

Asthenosoma marisrubri, an Echinothurioida

Pourtalesia wandeli (dried), a Holasteroida

Maretia planulata, a Spatangoida

Echinoneus cyclostomus, an Echinoneoida

Clypeaster reticulatus, a Clypeasteroida

Echinolampas depressa, an Echinolampadoida

Eucidaris metularia, a Cidaroida

text: Relation to humans[edit]

text: "Stings" to humans[edit]

text: Sea urchin injuries are caused by contact with sea urchins, and are characterized by puncture wounds inflicted by the animal's brittle, fragile spines.[41]:431

text: Sea urchin puncture wounds are a common source of injury to ocean swimmers, especially along coastal surfaces where coral with stationary sea urchins are present. Their stings vary in severity depending on the species.Their spines can be venomous or cause infection. Granuloma and staining of the skin from the natural dye inside the sea urchin can also occur. Breathing problems may indicate a serious reaction to toxins in the sea urchin.[42]

text: If no infection occur on a non-venomous sea urchin injury, the sting can stay for a while inside the flesh. Pain and discomfort will be present. On a long period of time, the sting will dissolve in the body or will be expelled from the flesh.

text: In biological research[edit]

text: Sea urchins are traditional model organisms in developmental biology. This use originated in the 1800s, when their embryonic development became easily viewed by microscopy. The transparency of the urchin's eggs enabled them to be used to observe that sperm cells actually fertilize ova.[43]

text: The more recent resurgence for the organism has come from two scientists in particular, Eric H. Davidson and Roy John Britten.[citation needed] Over 30 years ago[when?] the two men stationed at the California Institute of Technology began pushing for the use of urchins as a model organism due to their easy availability, high fecundity, and long lifespan. Beyond the study of embryo development, urchins provide an opportunity to research the structure and function of cis-regulation.[44]

text: They continue to be utilized for embryonic studies, as prenatal development continues to seek testing for fatal diseases. Sea urchins are being used in longevity studies for comparison between the young and old of the species, particularly for their ability to regenerate tissue as needed.[45] Scientists at the University of St Andrews have discovered a genetic sequence, the '2A' region, in sea urchins previously thought to have belonged only to viruses that afflict humans like Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus.[46] Oceanography has taken in interest in monitoring the health of urchins and their populations as a way to assess overall ocean acidification,[47] temperatures, and ecological impact studies.

text: Genome[edit]

text: The organism's evolutionary placement and unique embryology with five-fold symmetry were the major arguments in the proposal to seek the sequencing of its genome. Importantly, urchins act as the closest living relative to chordates and thus may shed light on the evolution of vertebrates.[48] The genome of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, was completed in 2006 and established homology between sea urchin and vertebrate immune system-related genes. Sea urchins code for at least 222 Toll-like receptor genes and over 200 genes related to the Nod-like-receptor family found in vertebrates.[49] This increases its usefulness as a valuable model organism for studying the evolution of innate immunity. The sequencing also revealed that while some genes were thought to be limited to vertebrates, there were also innovations that have previously never been seen outside the chordate classification, such as immune transcription factors PU.1 and SPIB.[48]

text: As food[edit]

text: The gonads of both male and female sea urchins, usually called sea urchin roe or corals,[50] are culinary delicacies in many parts of the world.[51][52][53]

text: In cuisines around the Mediterranean, Paracentrotus lividus is often eaten raw, or with lemon,[54] and known as ricci on Italian menus where it is sometimes used in pasta sauces. It can also flavour omelettes, scrambled eggs, fish soup,[55] mayonnaise, béchamel sauce for tartlets,[56] the boullie for a soufflé,[57] or Hollandaise sauce to make a fish sauce.[58] In Chilean cuisine, it is served raw with lemon, onions, and olive oil.

text: Though the edible Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis is found in the North Atlantic, it is not widely eaten. However, sea urchins (called uutuk in Alutiiq) are commonly eaten by the Alaska Native population around Kodiak Island. It is commonly exported, mostly to Japan.[59]

text: In the West Indies, slate pencil urchins are eaten.[60]

text: On the Pacific Coast of North America, Strongylocentrotus franciscanus was praised by Euell Gibbons; Strongylocentrotus purpuratus is also eaten.

text: In New Zealand, Evechinus chloroticus, known as kina in Maori, is a delicacy, traditionally eaten raw. Though New Zealand fishermen would like to export them to Japan, their quality is too variable.[61]

text: In Japan, sea urchin is known as uni (うに), and its roe can retail for as much as ¥40000 ($360) per kg;[62] it is served raw as sashimi or in sushi, with soy sauce and wasabi. Japan imports large quantities from the United States, South Korea, and other producers. Japanese demand for sea urchin corals has raised concerns about overfishing.[63]

text: Native Americans in California are also known to eat sea urchins.[64] The coast of Southern California is known as a source of high quality uni, with divers picking sea urchin from kelp beds in depths as low as 24 m/80 ft.[65] As of 2013, the state was limiting the practice to 300 sea urchin diver licenses.[65]

text: Aquaria[edit]

text: Some species of sea urchins, such as the slate pencil urchin (Eucidaris tribuloides), are commonly sold in aquarium stores. Some species are effective at controlling hair algae, and they make good additions to an invertebrate tank.

text: Bibliography[edit]

text:
Smith, Andrew B. (1984), Echinoid Palaeobiology (Special topics in palaeontology). London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-04-563001-1
Schultz, Heinke. (2005), Sea-Urchins, a guide to worldwide shallow water species . hpsp scientific publications, Germany. ISBN 3-9809868-1-0
Animal Diversity Web Classification of the Echinoidea
Ocean Alliance giving advice on sea urchin cleaning


document_title: Age of candidacy

question_text: how old do you have to be to be prime minister of uk

text: Age of candidacy

text: Controversies[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Many youth rights groups view current age of candidacy requirements as unjustified age discrimination.[2] Occasionally people who are younger than the minimum age will run for an office in protest of the requirement or because they don't know that the requirement exists. On extremely rare occasions, young people have been elected to offices they do not qualify for and have been deemed ineligible to assume the office.

text: In 1934, Rush Holt of West Virginia was elected to the Senate of the United States at the age of 29. Since the U.S. Constitution requires senators to be at least 30, Holt was forced to wait until his 30th birthday, six months after the start of the session, before being sworn in.[3]

text: In 1954, Richard Fulton won election to the Tennessee Senate. Shortly after being sworn in, Fulton was ousted from office because he was only 27 years old at the time. The Tennessee State Constitution required that senators be at least 30.[4] Rather than hold a new election, the previous incumbent, Clifford Allen, was allowed to resume his office for another term. Fulton went on to win the next State Senate election in 1956 and was later elected to the US House of Representatives where he served for 10 years.

text: In South Carolina, two Senators aged 24 were elected, but were too young according to the State Constitution: Mike Laughlin in 1969 and Bryan Dorn (later a US Congressman) in 1941. They were seated anyway.[5]

text: On several occasions, the Socialist Workers Party (USA) has nominated candidates too young to qualify for the offices they were running for. In 1972, Linda Jenness ran as the SWP presidential candidate, although she was only 31 at the time. Since the U.S. Constitution requires that the President and Vice President be at least 35 years old, Jenness was not able to receive ballot access in several states in which she otherwise qualified.[6] Despite this handicap, Jenness still received 83,380 votes.[7] In 2004, the SWP nominated Arrin Hawkins as the party's vice-presidential candidate, although she was only 28 at the time. Hawkins was also unable to receive ballot access in several states due to her age.[8]

text: Reform efforts[edit]

text: In the United States, many groups have attempted to lower age of candidacy requirements in various states. In 1994, South Dakota voters rejected a ballot measure that would have lowered the age requirements to serve as a State Senator or State Representative from 25 to 18. In 1998, however, they approved a similar ballot measure that reduced the age requirements for those offices from 25 to 21. In 2002, Oregon voters rejected a ballot measure that would have reduced the age requirement to serve as a State Representative from 21 to 18.

text: During the early 2000s, the British Youth Council and other groups successfully campaigned to lower age of candidacy requirements in the United Kingdom.[9] The age of candidacy was reduced from 21 to 18 in England, Wales and Scotland on 1 January 2007,[10] when section 17 of the Electoral Administration Act 2006 entered into force.[11]

text: In various countries[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In Australia, any person 18 years of age or older may stand for election to public office at federal, state or local government level.

text: The youngest ever member of the House of Representatives was 20-year-old Wyatt Roy elected in the 2010 federal election after the Electoral Act 1918 was amended (in 1973) to reduce the age of candidacy for that office from 21 to 18.[citation needed]

text: Austria[edit]

text: In Austria, a person must be 18 years of age or older to stand in elections to the European Parliament or National Council.[12] The Diets of regional Länder are able to set a minimum age lower than 18 for candidacy in elections to the Diet itself as well as to municipal councils in the Land.[13] In presidential elections the candidacy age is 35.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: Any Belgian who has reached the age of 21 years can stand for election for the Chamber of Representatives, can become a member of the Senate, or can be elected in one of the regional parliaments.[citation needed] This is regulated in the Constitution and in the Special Law on the Reform of the Institutions.

text: Belize[edit]

text: According to the Constitution of Belize, a person must be at least 18 years old to be elected as a member of the House of Representatives and must be at least 30 to be Speaker of the House. A person must be at least 18 years old to be appointed to the Senate and must be at least 30 to be President or Vice-President of the Senate. As only members of the House of Representatives are eligible to be appointed Prime Minister, the Prime Minister must be at least 18 years old. A person must also be at least 18 years old to be elected to a village council.[14]

text: Brazil[edit]

text: The Brazilian Constitution (Article 14, Section 3 (VI)) defines 35 years as the minimum age for someone to be elected President, Vice-President or Senator; 30 years for state Governor or Vice-Governor; 21 for Federal or State Deputy, Mayor or Vice-Mayor; and 18 for city Councilman.[15]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, any person 18 years of age or older may stand for election to public office. However, to be appointed to the Senate, one must be at least 30 years of age, must possess land worth at least $4,000 in the province for which he or she is appointed, and must own real and personal property worth at least $4,000, above his or her debts and liabilities.[citation needed]

text: Chile[edit]

text: In Chile the minimum age required to be elected President of the Republic is 35 years on the day of the election. Before the 2005 reforms the requirement was 40 years, and from 1925 to 1981 it was 30 years. For senators it is 35 years (between 1981 and 2005 it was 40 years) and for deputies it is 21 years (between 1925 and 1970 it was 35 years).[16]

text: China[edit]

text: In China the minimum age to be elected as president or vice-president is 45.[17]

text: Cyprus[edit]

text: In Cyprus the minimum age to be elected president is 35 years.

text: Denmark[edit]

text: In Denmark, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.

text: Estonia[edit]

text: In Estonia, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in local elections, and 21 years or older in parliamentary elections. Minimum age for the President of Estonia is 40.[18]

text: France[edit]

text: In France, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected to the lower house of Parliament, and 24 years or older for the Senate. The minimum age for the President of France is 18.

text: Germany[edit]

text: In Germany, any citizen 18 years of age or older can be elected in national, regional or local elections. The only exception is the Landtag election in Hesse where a minimum age of 21 is required.[19] Minimum age for the President of Germany is 40 by constitution.

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong a person must be at least 21 to be candidate in a district council or Legislative Council election. A person must be at least 40 to be candidate in the Chief Executive election, and also at least 40 to be candidate in the election for the President of the Legislative Council from among the members of the Legislative Council.

text: India[edit]

text: In India a person must be at least:

text:
35 to be the President or Vice President, Governor and Lieutenant-Governor of the States as specified in the Constitution of India
30 to be a member of Rajya Sabha (the upper house of Parliament of India) and a Vidhan Parishad (the upper house of a State Legislature, in those states where the legislature is bicameral.)
25 to be the Prime Minister, Lok Sabha Speaker, Union Minister, Chief Minister, Vidhan Sabha Speaker, Minister in the State Governments. Additionally, to be a member of Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament of India) and a Vidhan Sabha (the lower house a State Legislature in the States of India.)
21 to be the Mayor, Chairman, Head and a Member (Members are variously called Corporators/Councillors/Ward Members according to the type of their respective local bodies) of a Nagar Nigam (Municipal Corporation), Nagar Palika (Municipal Council), Nagar Panchayat (Town Committee), Gram Sabha (Village Council) and Gram Panchayat (Village Committee) respectively.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In Indonesia a person must be at least:

text:
35 to be President or Vice President as specified in the Constitution of Indonesia
30 to be Governor or Lieutenant Governor, as specified in the 2004 Regional Government Act
25 to be Regent, Vice Regent, Mayor, or Deputy Mayor, as specified in the 2004 Regional Government Act
21 to be Senator or Representative in both national and local parliament, as specified in the 2008 Election Act

text: Israel[edit]

text: In Israel one must be at least 21 to become a member of the Knesset (Basic Law: The Knesset section 6(a)) or a municipality. When the Prime Minister was directly elected, one must have been a member of the Knesset who is at least 30 to be a candidate for Prime Minister. Every Israeli Citizen (including minors) can be elected as President of Israel, but the role is mostly ceremonial and elected by the Parliament.

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy a person must be at least 50 to be President of the Republic, 40 to be a Senator, and 25 to be a Deputy, as specified in the 1947 Constitution of Italy. 18 years of age is sufficient, however, to be elected member of the Council of Regions, Provinces, and Municipalities (Communes).

text: Iran[edit]

text: In Iran a person must be at least 21 years old to run for president.[20]

text: Iraq[edit]

text: In Iraq, the constitution states that a person must be at least 40 years old to run for president[21] and 35 years old to run for Prime Minister.[22] The Iraqi Election Law No. 45 of 2013 states that a person must be 30 years old to run for the House of Representatives.[23] There are proposals by various MP's to amend the Law and reduce the age from 30 to 25.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: The 1937 Constitution of Ireland requires the President to be at least 35 and members of the Oireachtas (legislature) to be 21.[24][25] Members of the European Parliament for Ireland must also be 21.[25][26] Members of local authorities must be 18, reduced from 21 in 1973.[25][27] The 1922–37 Constitution of the Irish Free State required TDs (members of the Dáil, lower house) to be 21,[28] whereas Senators had to be 35 (reduced to 30 in 1928).[29] The Thirty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution (Age of Eligibility for Election to the Office of President) Bill 2015 proposes to lower the presidential age limit to 21.[30] However, this proposal was rejected by 73% of the voters.

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan a person must be at least:[31]

text:
25 to be the Member of parliament of the House of Representatives with Japanese nationality
30 to be the Member of parliament of the House of Councillors with Japanese nationality
See also: House of Peers (Japan)

25 to be the Member of metropolitan, prefecture, city, town or village with valid vote rights
30 to be the Governor
25 to be the Mayor

text: Korea, South[edit]

text:
President : 40
Member of National Assembly : 25
Governor, Mayor : 25

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: In Malaysia, any citizen 21 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected to the Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Undangan Negeri. Minimum age for the Senator is 30.

text: Mexico[edit]

text: In Mexico a person must be at least 35 to be President, 25 to be a Senator, or 21 to be a Congressional Deputy, as specified in the 1917 Constitution of Mexico.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In the Netherlands, any adult 18 years of age or older can become a candidate and be elected in any public election.

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: In New Zealand the minimum age required to be elected Prime Minister of New Zealand is 18 years old. Citizens and permanent residents who are enrolled as an elector are eligible to be a candidate for election as a Member of Parliament.[33]

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: In Nigeria, a person must be at least 40 years of age to be elected President or Vice President, 35 to be a Senator or State Governor, and 30 to be a Representative in parliament.

text: Norway[edit]

text: In Norway, any adult can become a candidate and be elected in any public election, from the calendar year that he or she turns 18 years.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: In Pakistan, a person must be at least 40 years old to be President.

text: Philippines[edit]

text:
President and Vice President: 40
Senator: 35
Regional governor: 35
Member of the House of Representatives: 25
Provincial-level elected official: 23
City-level elected official: 21
Municipal-level elected official: 21
Member of the regional legislative assembly: 21
Barangay-level elected official: 18
Member of youth councils: 18-24

text: Poland[edit]

text:
President: 35
Senator: 30
Mayor/Wójt: 25
Poseł: 21
Member of the European Parliament: 21
Councillor: 18

text: South Africa[edit]

text: Section 47, Clause 1 of the 1996 Constitution of South Africa states that "Every citizen who is qualified to vote for the National Assembly is eligible to be a member of the Assembly", defaulting to Section 46 which "provides for a minimum voting age of 18 years" in National Assembly elections; Sections 106 and 105 provide the same for provincial legislatures.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: The 1876 constitution set the age for parliamentary eligibility as 30. This remained unchanged until 13 October 2006, when it was lowered to 25 through a constitutional amendment. In 2017, it was further lowered to 18, the same as the voting age.[34]

text: The Prime Minister of Turkey has to be a member of the parliament, hence it has the same requirements as parliamentary eligibility. The age of candidacy for the President is 40.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the UK (other than in Scotland) a person must be aged 18 or over (16 in Scotland) to stand in elections to all parliaments, assemblies, and councils at the European, UK, devolved, or local level. This age requirement also applies in elections to any individual elective public office; the main example is that of an elected mayor, whether of London or a local authority. There are no higher age requirements for particular positions in public office. Candidates are required to be aged 18 on both the day of nomination and the day of the poll. This was reduced from 21 by the Electoral Administration Act 2006.

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, a person must be at least 35 to be President or Vice President, 30 to be a Senator, and 25 to be a Representative, as specified in the U.S. Constitution. Most states in the U.S. also have age requirements for the offices of Governor, State Senator, and State Representative.[35] Some states have a minimum age requirement to hold any elected office (usually 21 or 18).

text: Venezuela[edit]

text: In Venezuela, a person must be at least 30 to be President or Vice President,[36] 21 to be a deputy for the National Assembly [37] and 25 to be the Governor of a state.[38]