document_title: Ryan Atwood

question_text: where does ryan go to college in the oc

question_tokens: where does ryan go to college in the oc

text: Ryan Atwood

text: Concept and creation[edit]

text: Casting[edit]

text:
"When Benjamin [McKenzie] came in, he wasn't physically what Josh [Schwartz] had envisioned, but he inhabited the character unlike anyone we had seen. I think that the character of Ryan is a kid that always seems a little lost and has a sense of mystery and danger; Benjamin has all those qualities."

— Patrick Rush on the casting of Benjamin McKenzie as Ryan[1]

text: Casting director Patrick Rush found the role of Ryan Atwood particularly hard to cast for The O.C..[1] Chad Michael Murray turned the role down to play Lucas Scott on One Tree Hill.[2] Rush invited Benjamin McKenzie to audition after Warner Bros. made him aware of the young actor after an unsuccessful audition for a UPN sitcom. McKenzie, who had spent two years in New York and Los Angeles seeking acting work, lacked experience and later described his selection as "a tremendous leap of faith" on the producers' part.[1][3] Show creator Josh Schwartz said in 2014, "[McKenzie] took it really seriously, and brought just a lot of integrity, and integrity is not always required in a Fox teen drama."[4]

text: Characterization[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: Ryan was physically abused by his biological father Frank and some of his mother Dawn's boyfriends. He has a complicated, love-hate relationship with his older brother Trey.[5] Both parents struggled with alcohol – Frank became physically abusive while Dawn neglected and verbally abused him – and it left a deep impression on him, as shown by his aversion to strong alcoholic drinks.[6] By his own statements, Ryan never had a father figure for much of his life, due to Frank being in prison and his mother's revolving door of boyfriends, prior to being adopted by the Cohens.[7] The Atwoods used to live in Fresno but moved to Chino after Frank was imprisoned.[8] In season 4, it is stated that Ryan had not seen Frank in eight years.[9] In regards to his biological family, a major recurring theme was Ryan being abandoned[10] – Dawn abandoned him twice, Trey left for Las Vegas without telling him and their dad left them and their mom "with nothing" after being imprisoned[11] – which contrasts his adopted family, the Cohens, who have stood by him despite his juvenile record, vocal criticisms and disdain from the other "Newpsies" about his adoption and his multiple attempts to run away from them. Although he does not address Sandy and Kirsten as Dad or Mom, he has made it clear that he considers them to be his parents, rather than Frank and Dawn.[9]

text: He generally dislikes speaking about his biological family and has hinted during Christmas and Thanksgiving that the holidays brought up painful memories for him. During his first Chrismukkah in Newport, he tells the Cohens that his holidays mainly consisted of him "getting [his] ass kicked" and sums up his Christmas memories in three words: drinking, crying and cops.[12]

text: Personality[edit]

text: Born and raised in a working class family, Ryan knows the lifestyle and attitudes of people from his neighborhood of Chino, California and the dangers that occur if outsiders are influenced by its environment. His abusive past is reflected by the fact that he has an extremely high pain threshold[13] and displays an impassive expression after being physically beat up. He is tough, cynical and quick-tempered,[6] yet compassionate and empathetic toward people in trouble and those less fortunate than himself. During his first months in Newport, he had the tendency to physically express his anger at the incessant teasing from his schoolmates by punching them, which led them intentionally goad him even more, but he gradually calmed down, after some serious lecturing from Sandy and being sent to anger management counseling. He at times appears burdened by an almost-compulsive need to rescue others at the expense of his own well-being, however, and is overly protective of Marissa and Theresa, his main love interests on the show. The product of an abusive household, he has difficulty trusting or getting close to people emotionally, which could also be due to the fact that his mother Dawn refused to get help for her alcoholism and brother Trey continuously broke his promises to stay out of trouble. He is extremely loyal to his family, both biological and adopted, and those he cares about. The fact that he rarely smiles or says much is something of a running joke among other members of the Cohen household; early in the first season when he first moves in with the Cohens, he often looks down and avoids making eye contact, likely a habit of self-preservation born out of his upbringing in an unstable home and would stiffen when hugged; by the final season, he becomes more open to his adoptive family. Despite his reticent nature and emotionless exterior, Ryan can be quite transparent, often "convey[ing] everything with just a look",[14] and is virtually incapable of lying, as Sandy proved in the episode "The O.Sea" when he caught Ryan trying to cover-up for Seth and Ryan's "guilty face" gave it away.

text: Compared to his adoptive brother, Ryan is the opposite of the socially awkward, sheltered and sometimes naïve Seth; he is street-savvy, which often results in him having to constantly bail Seth out of trouble during the first two seasons, athletic and charismatic, albeit in a more understated way. Seth often joked about he had known Summer and Marissa since they were in elementary but they never talked to one another while Ryan was invited to the annual charity fashion by Marissa barely twenty four hours after setting foot in Newport Beach. Inside the classroom, he has been described as highly intelligent despite his history of behavior problems (he was suspended multiple times for fighting and truancy). In the pilot episode, it is revealed that he had taken his SATs despite being only a sophomore and scored in the 98th percentile. According to Dawn, Ryan had always been "the smart one, the good one" in the family.[8]

text: Ryan's favorite fruit is peaches, and his favorite band is Journey. He suffers from acrophobia, the fear of heights.[14] He is athletic and played football (safety)[15] and soccer (striker) in school;[14] a soccer ball is sometimes seen in the Cohen's pool house. Despite the generosity of his adoptive family, Ryan repeatedly demonstrates he can earn his own keep by taking paying jobs around town, such as a busboy at the Crab Shack, a construction worker, an intern at the Newport Group, and a barback position. He used to smoke, like both Frank[9] and Dawn, but stopped after Sandy tells him on the first night that smoking wasn't allowed in the house.[16]

text: Of the characters in the show, Ryan is closest to his adoptive brother Seth, Summer and Marissa – this "core four" group of friends is the basis of Seth's Atomic County comic series. Ryan and Seth are often able to finish each other's sentences, according to Summer, "like they're composing a lie on the spot"[13] and read each other's body language and facial expressions.[17]

text: Character arc[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: When Ryan and his brother Trey are caught attempting to steal a car, his mother Dawn kicks him out. His attorney, Sandy Cohen, takes him into his home in Newport Beach, California, despite objections from Sandy's wife, Kirsten. Sandy takes note of Ryan's high test scores in spite of his poor grades, which was more likely due to inconsistent attendance rather than Ryan's lack of intelligence. Initially Kirsten is wary of him and insisted Sandy take him back to juvie but, after witnessing him being physically assaulted in juvie for defending her from an unruly inmate, she takes him home. She subsequently welcomes him to stay permanently upon seeing that Dawn was incapable of adequately caring for Ryan due to her alcohol problem.[8] In the episode "The Debut", Sandy and Kirsten become his legal guardians, after Dawn leaves him at the Cohens' in the previous episode. Ryan becomes part of the Cohen family, living in their pool house, and becomes a brother to Sandy and Kirsten's son, Seth Cohen; even Sandy and Kirsten consider him their second son, referring to him as such rather than the more legally accurate term "ward". However, even though he is accepted by the immediate Cohen family, he still feels like and is seen by other characters as an outsider, a recurring theme throughout the season. In particular, Harbor School dean Dr. Kim, water polo team captain Luke Ward, Kirsten's father Caleb Nichol and the Cohens' neighbor Julie Cooper had reservations about Ryan. Shortly after meeting her, he begins a relationship with Marissa Cooper, Julie's daughter.

text: Initially Ryan has trouble fitting in at Harbor School, the local private school most "Newpsies" attend. He joins the soccer team, only to find that Luke was also on the team.[14] The fact that Luke, his rival for Marissa's affections and the water polo team captain, was there exacerbated the problem. Ryan takes it out on Luke with a rash tackle during soccer practice, earning him a suspension and a stern reminder from Sandy that they (the Cohens) were "always one mistake away from someone taking you from us".[14] He and Luke become friends in the aftermath of the discovery that Luke's father was gay and is the first person Luke vents his frustration and anger to.[7] Luke becomes unlikely friends with Ryan and his circle of "outcasts": Marissa, who was ostracized by other girls following her parents' divorce and suicide attempt, and the socially awkward Seth, whom he and other jocks used to bully.

text: Ryan's relationship with Marissa is interrupted by Oliver Trask, a deeply disturbed boy Marissa meets in therapy who becomes obsessed with her. Ryan becomes suspicious, which brings significant trust issues between the couple, eventually resulting in a breakup, although they remain friends.

text: At the same time, Theresa Diaz, Ryan's childhood sweetheart, comes to Newport, resulting in a rekindled romance between them. However, Theresa leaves Newport after her fiancé Eddie, one of Ryan's friends in Chino, convinces her to return to Chino with him. Ryan and Marissa resume their relationship shortly after, but this is complicated when Theresa returns after suffering domestic abuse by Eddie. Theresa reveals she is pregnant but does not know whether the father is Ryan or Eddie. She decides to keep the baby and return home to Chino to be with her mother. Feeling compelled to help her bring up the child, Ryan decides to go with Theresa, leaving Marissa, the Cohens, and everything else in his life behind.

text: Season 2[edit]

text: Having quit school and working in construction, Ryan lives with Theresa, but she realizes he is unhappy and encourages him to visit Seth in Portland, Oregon, where he ran away following Ryan's departure. He hesitantly goes, hoping to convince his friend to go home to his parents before the fall semester starts, but while he stays in Portland, Theresa notifies him through the telephone she has miscarried. Although Ryan is devastated and wants to return to her, Theresa tells him he needs to go back to Newport with Seth.[18]

text: Ryan returns to school and is still uncertain about his plans beyond high school. By chance, he catches Sandy and Kirsten's contractor cutting corners and quickly points out discrepancies in the floor plan and finished product. The school counselor discovers some technical drawings and sketches of the lower floor of the Cohens' home in his notebook and advises him to consider architecture as a career.[19]

text: As part of Seth's idea of a reunion of the "Fab Four" (consisting of Ryan, Marissa, Seth and his girlfriend Summer Roberts), Ryan and Marissa are pulled closer together. When he overhears Marissa admitting to Summer that Ryan is the only one she ever loved and she misses him every day, he confesses his own lingering feelings for her. The two get back together, just as Ryan's brother Trey is released from jail.[5] Ryan, along with the Cohens and Marissa, attempts to get Trey back onto his feet. However, during his trip to Florida with Sandy and Seth to pay Sandy's mother a visit, Trey tries to rape Marissa while intoxicated on drugs. Marissa does not tell anyone, causing tension with Ryan, who suspects she cheated on him with Trey. After he questions his brother, who hides at a bar in Chino and blames a drunken Marissa, Ryan bumps into Theresa and confides his problems. She tells him that out of the two, Marissa would never hurt him and she would be the one to trust. Following Theresa's advice, Ryan makes up with Marissa.

text: Meanwhile, Sandy becomes concerned with Kirsten's alcoholism and decides to stage an intervention. Ryan reassures Sandy he is doing the right thing. Ryan takes part, stating that, having lost his mother to alcoholism, he would not be able to bear it if he lost someone else he loved to the bottle. Following similar statements of love from the rest of the Cohens, Kirsten gives in and checks herself into rehab. When Marissa tells Summer about Trey's attempted rape, Summer informs Seth. Seth, knowing he cannot lie to Ryan, tells him, who prompts a confrontation with his brother. The brothers fight, and Trey almost kills Ryan. Marissa turns up and shoots Trey in the back with his own gun.

text: Season 3[edit]

text: Trey survives the gunshot but remains in a coma. When he regains consciousness, Marissa's mother Julie blackmails him to place the blame on Ryan so Marissa's innocence will clear her reputation in society, but following Ryan's initial arrest, Marissa convinces him to tell the truth. With Ryan's charges dropped, Trey flees Newport, leaving Marissa expelled from Harbor High to instead attend public school. When she befriends amateur surfer Johnny Harper, Ryan becomes suspicious of their closeness, fueling their on and off relationship. After Johnny dies in an accident, Ryan questions Marissa's true feelings towards Johnny, ending their relationship. Following their split, Marissa begins spiraling down a disastrous relationship with Kevin Volchok, Johnny's former surfing rival, while Ryan develops his own rivalry against Volchok, including instances of blackmail, extortion and violence.

text: In the season finale, Ryan, Marissa, Seth and Summer graduate from high school, following their prospective futures. Ryan became the first in his family to graduate from high school[20] and is accepted by the University of California, Berkeley, Sandy and Kirsten's alma mater. Volchok attempts to blackmail Ryan, threatening to inform the authorities of Ryan's earlier involvement in a robbery which he was forced to assist him with. In an effort to fulfill Volchok's ransom, Marissa gives Ryan her mother's graduation gift: pearls he can pawn for the money. Volchok doesn't accept the money, demanding more, including a talk with Marissa, which she refuses, instead staying with Ryan. While Ryan drives Marissa to the airport, Volchok, drunk and furious, attempts to crash Ryan's car. In a blind rage, he sideswipes Ryan's vehicle, knocking it over a barrier to roll down an embankment. Ryan manages to pull an unconscious Marissa out of the wreckage before the car exploded due to the leaking gas tank. Marissa dies of her injuries in his arms minutes later.

text: Season 4[edit]

text: Following Marissa's death, Ryan moves into a storage closet at a bar where he works while avoiding the Cohens and starts cage fighting, which becomes an outlet for his anger and grief. The Cohens repeatedly call him up to check up on him and ask him to come over for dinner and Sandy even goes to the bar to look for Ryan himself but Ryan continues to elude them on purpose. Meanwhile, a desperate Seth calls Summer, who is away at Brown University in Rhode Island, to come back and hopefully convince Ryan to return home with the Cohens. Sandy, Kirsten and Seth finally convince him to return home after they reveal to him, through Seth's Atomic County comic strips, how he has changed their family for the better. Julie, finding any way necessary to cope with her grief, hires a private investigator to dig up evidence of Volchok's whereabouts, in hopes of exacting her revenge. She passes the information to Ryan, the only person who can truly understand the pain she feels, and suggests he do with Volchok whatever he wishes, as giving the police the information is too valuable a deal to pass up. Ryan heads to Mexico to finish the job, but Seth tags along to ensure Ryan doesn't ruin his life by committing murder. Seth calls Sandy and Kirsten, who have driven to Mexico to find the boys, then warns Volchok to leave town before Ryan gets to him and advises that he take advantage of his lawyer father. His plan fools Ryan, who returns home; his relationship with Seth is severely compromised, however. Heeding Seth's advice, Volchok contacts Sandy to be his defense attorney, although Ryan discovers it. Sandy, knowing Ryan would never kill anyone, drives him to the hotel where he's housed Volchok. Inside, Ryan puts a broken bottle against Volchok's throat; he spares Volchok's life, however, leaving him for the police.

text: Ryan settles back down to life in Newport, determined to have an uneventful summer, until Taylor Townsend returns from France trapped in a loveless marriage, seeking a divorce. Ryan is reluctantly drawn in and, during a heart-to-heart conversation with Sandy, he is reminded that he's always been the one to help people when they need it the most. Ryan kisses Taylor in front of her husband's lawyer, who can grant a divorce only if one member was unfaithful and agrees that their kiss was heartfelt. Seth warns Ryan that Taylor is unstable and clings to anyone who shows her kindness; while Ryan appreciates the notion, he admits that he is not yet over Marissa and decides to confront Taylor; she initially denies her own feelings but later confesses that she is attracted to him. Following a second kiss, the idea being to discover if it sparks any feelings, he admits he does like her, except that he does not want anything too serious.

text: During Chrismukkah (a combination of Christmas and Hanukkah celebrated at the Cohen house), Ryan discovers a letter in the mail from Marissa but gets distracted by Kirsten. While he's hanging decorations on the house roof, Taylor arrives with her gift to him; he is preoccupied by Marissa's letter, however, and acts coldly towards her. When she climbs the ladder he's working on to angrily give him his present, the ladder falls, along with the two of them, knocking them both unconscious. While in the hospital, Ryan and Taylor dream of being in an alternate dream universe of Newport, as if Ryan had never been adopted by the Cohen family. When Taylor misunderstands a conversation with a housekeeper from this world, she informs Ryan that Marissa is alive; Ryan says he never wants to wake up so he can be with her again. When he finds out about her arrival at an airport from Berkeley and goes to meet her, he finds this world's version of Marissa's sister Kaitlin, who tells him that Marissa had died of the overdose he had saved her from. In the real world, Kirsten shows Julie Marissa's letter to Ryan, which she had written to Ryan before she left for Greece. In the letter, Marissa states that she had to leave because, even though she still loved him, they could not be together. After Julie sets the note beside an unconscious Ryan, it appears for him to read in his dream, during which he realizes he has to forgive himself for Marissa's death and to move on. Moments later, he regains consciousness. He finally gathers the courage to visit Marissa's grave, where he bumps into Julie, who consoles him with the knowledge that at least Marissa did not die alone. Since her daughter's death, Julie has softened towards Ryan after realizing that he sincerely cared for Marissa.

text: Days later, Ryan finds out from Sandy that his biological father, Frank Atwood, is out of jail and wishes to see him. Ryan is hesitant, recalling the abuse he suffered at Frank's hands, but Frank convinces him by claiming that he has lung cancer. However, following dinner with the Cohens, an already-suspicious Sandy reveals that Frank lied about the cancer after checking up with his contacts in the prison system.[9] Frank leaves Newport, although he returns apologetically and with help from Taylor forms a tentative relationship with his son. The situation becomes even more awkward when Frank begins dating Julie and stays at her house. They remain on friendly terms but Ryan has made it clear that even though he addresses Frank as "dad", he considers Sandy to be his father figure.[9]

text: Meanwhile, Taylor's ex-husband Henri-Michel comes to Newport on a book tour for his best-selling novel about their marriage. Feeling insecure about Taylor's exotic life in France, Ryan breaks up with her, claiming they are "too different". A week later, Ryan decides he was wrong but discovers it might be too late as Taylor is already considering a reconciliation with Henri, who still loves her. Ryan upstages a poetry reading by Henri at a book store with a poem of his own, where he confesses he can grow to love Taylor, given time.

text: Series finale[edit]

text: To make up for giving a pocket dictionary for her nineteenth birthday, Ryan gives Taylor his original present of a bound book full of love poems that she translated. He admits he loves her, but as they reconcile, an earthquake hits Newport. The two survive, but Ryan is injured while protecting Taylor and is brought to the hospital for recovery. Six months later, Ryan and Taylor spend time together before she leaves Newport for college in Paris. Ryan thanks her for saving him from self-destruction, and he and the Cohens depart from their Newport home, damaged beyond repair, to Sandy and Kirsten's old home in Berkeley, California, while Seth leaves for RISD.

text: In a flashforward, Ryan attends UC Berkeley, where Sandy is now a law professor. At Seth and Summer's wedding, he is best man and shares a smile with Taylor, the maid of honor (their relationship status is left ambiguous). Ryan achieves his dream of becoming an architect. As he walks away from a construction site, he notices a teenager down on his luck, seemingly in the same situation Ryan was when he was kicked out of his home. As he offers the youth help, Ryan's story comes full circle.


document_title: Amniotic fluid

question_text: abnormal discharge of amniotic fluid is a condition during pregnancy called

root

text: Amniotic fluid

text: Development[edit]

text: Amniotic fluid, also known as Camerons fluid is present from the formation of the gestational sac. Amniotic fluid is in the amniotic sac. It is generated from maternal plasma, and passes through the fetal membranes by osmotic and hydrostatic forces. When fetal kidneys begin to function in about week 16, fetal urine also contributes to the fluid.[1] In earlier times, it was believed that the amniotic fluid was composed entirely of fetal urine.

tag: p

text: The fluid is absorbed through the fetal tissue and skin.[citation needed] After the 15th-25th week of pregnancy when the keratinization of an embryo's skin occurs,[citation needed] the fluid is primarily absorbed by the fetal gut.[1]

text: Contents[edit]

text: At first, amniotic fluid is mainly water with electrolytes, but by about the 12-14th week the liquid also contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and phospholipids, and urea, all of which aid in the growth of the fetus.

text: Volume[edit]

text: The volume of amniotic fluid increases with the growth of fetus. From the 10th to the 20th week it increases from 25ml to 400ml approximately.[citation needed] Approximately in the 10th-11th week the breathing and swallowing of the fetus slightly decrease the amount of fluid, but neither urination nor swallowing contributes significantly to fluid quantity changes, until the 25th week, when keratinization of skin is complete. Then the relationship between fluid and fetal growth stops. It reaches a plateau of 800ml by the 28-week gestational age. The amount of fluid declines to roughly 400 ml at 42 weeks.[2] There is about 1L of amniotic fluid at birth.[1]

text: Rupture of membranes[edit]

text: The forewaters are released when the amnion ruptures. This is commonly known as the time when a woman's "water breaks". When this occurs during labour at term, it is known as "spontaneous rupture of membranes". If the rupture precedes labour at term, however, it is referred to as "premature rupture of membranes". The majority of the hindwaters remain inside the womb until the baby is born. Artificial rupture of membrane (ARM), a manual rupture of the amniotic sac, can also be performed to release the fluid if the amnion has not spontaneously ruptured.[3]

text: Function[edit]

text: Swallowed amniotic fluid creates urine and contributes to the formation of meconium. Amniotic fluid protects the developing baby by cushioning against blows to the mother's abdomen, allowing for easier fetal movement and promoting muscular/skeletal development. Amniotic fluid swallowed by the fetus helps in the formation of the gastrointestinal tract. Contrary to popular belief, amniotic fluid has not been conclusively shown to be inhaled and exhaled by the fetus. In fact, studies from the 1970s show that in a healthy fetus, there is no inward flow of amniotic fluid into the airway.[4] Instead, lung development occurs as a result of the production of fetal lung fluid which expands the lungs. It also prevents the fetus from mechanical jerks and shocks.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Collection[edit]

text: Amniotic fluid is removed from the mother by an amniocentesis procedure, where a long needle is inserted through the abdomen into the amniotic sac, using ultrasound guidance such that the fetus is not harmed. Amniocentesis is an abnormal procedure, and is only performed if there is a suspicion of health defects in the fetus, or if an early delivery of the fetus may be necessary, since there can be complications from the procedure. If warranted, fluid is collected between 16–42 weeks of fetal development, and 20-30ml of fluid are removed.

text: Analysis[edit]

text: Analysis of amniotic fluid can reveal many aspects of the baby's genetic health as well as the age and viability of the fetus. This is because the fluid contains metabolic wastes and compounds used in assessing fetal age and lung maturity, but amniotic fluid also contains fetal cells, which can be examined for genetic defects.

text: Amniotic fluid normally has a pH of 7.0 to 7.5.[5] Because pH in the upper vagina is normally acidic (pH 3.8-4.5), a vaginal pH test showing a pH of more than 4.5 strengthens a suspicion of rupture of membranes in case of clear vaginal discharge in pregnancy.[5] Other tests for detecting amniotic fluid mainly include nitrazine paper test and fern test.[6] One main test that is performed on amniotic fluid is the L/S ratio test (lecithin/sphigomyelin). This test is used to determine fetal lung maturity. Both lecithin and sphingomyelin are lung surfactants that are present in increasing amounts in the maturing fetus, though past week 33, sphigomyelin levels remain relatively constant. Measuring a ratio of L/S of 2:1 or greater indicates that the fetus can be safely delivered, with functioning lungs.

text: Complications related to amniotic fluid[edit]

text: Too little amniotic fluid (oligohydramnios) can be a cause or an indicator of problems for the mother and baby. The majority of pregnancies proceed normally and the baby is born healthy, but this isn't always the case. Babies with too little amniotic fluid can develop contractures of the limbs, clubbing of the feet and hands, and also develop a life-threatening condition called hypoplastic lungs. If a baby is born with hypoplastic lungs, which are small underdeveloped lungs, this condition is potentially fatal and the baby can die shortly after birth due to inadequate oxygenation. Potter sequence refers to a constellation of findings related to insufficient amniotic fluid and includes shortened and malformed limbs with clubbed feet and the underdeveloped lungs that can lead to perinatal death.

text: On every prenatal visit, the obstetrician/gynaecologist or midwife should measure the patient's fundal height with a tape measure. It is important that the fundal height be measured and properly recorded to track proper fetal growth and the increasing development of amniotic fluid. The obstetrician/gynaecologist or midwife should also routinely ultrasound the patient—this procedure will also give an indication of proper fetal growth and amniotic fluid development. Oligohydramnios can be caused by infection, kidney dysfunction or malformation (since much of the late amniotic fluid volume is urine), procedures such as chorionic villus sampling (CVS), and preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM). Oligohydramnios can sometimes be treated with bed rest, oral and intravenous hydration, antibiotics, steroids, and amnioinfusion.[citation needed] It is also important to keep the baby warm and moist.

text: The opposite of oligohydramnios is polyhydramnios, an excess volume of amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac.

text: A rare but very often fatal condition (fatal for both mother and child) connected with amniotic fluid is amniotic fluid embolism.

text: Stem cell research[edit]

text: Recent studies show that amniotic fluid contains a considerable quantity of stem cells.[7] These amniotic stem cells[8][9] are pluripotent and able to differentiate into various tissues, which may be useful for future human application.[10][11][12] Some researchers have found that amniotic fluid is also a plentiful source of non-embryonic stem cells.[13] These cells have demonstrated the ability to differentiate into a number of different cell-types, including brain, liver and bone.

text: It is possible to conserve the stem cells extracted from amniotic fluid in private stem cells banks. Some private companies offer this service for a fee.


document_title: United States Department of Homeland Security

question_text: who controls funding for all departments within homeland security

question_tokens: who controls funding for all departments within homeland security

text: United States Department of Homeland Security

text: Function[edit]

text: Whereas the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism.[7] On March 1, 2003, DHS absorbed the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and assumed its duties. In doing so, it divided the enforcement and services functions into two separate and new agencies: Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Citizenship and Immigration Services. The investigative divisions and intelligence gathering units of the INS and Customs Service were merged forming Homeland Security Investigations. Additionally, the border enforcement functions of the INS, including the U.S. Border Patrol, the U.S. Customs Service, and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service were consolidated into a new agency under DHS: U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The Federal Protective Service falls under the National Protection and Programs Directorate.

text: Structure[edit]

text: The Department of Homeland Security is headed by the Secretary of Homeland Security with the assistance of the Deputy Secretary. The department contains the components listed below.[8]

text:
Subordinate agency

Title of head or leader

Incumbent

Citizenship & Immigration Services Ombudsman

Director

Julie Kirchner

Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office

Assistant Secretary

James F. McDonnell

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Administrator

Brock Long

Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers

Director

Thomas J. Walters[9]

Federal Protective Service

Director

Eric L. Patterson

Management Directorate

Under Secretary

Claire Grady

National Protection and Programs Directorate

Acting Under Secretary

Christopher Krebs

Office for Civil Rights & Civil Liberties

Officer

Cameron Quinn

Office of General Counsel

Acting General Counsel

Joseph Maher

Office of Intelligence and Analysis

Under Secretary

David Glawe

Office of Legislative Affairs

Acting Assistant Secretary

David Wonnenberg

Office of Operations Coordination

Director

Richard M. Chávez[10]

Office of Partnership & Engagement

Acting Assistant Secretary

John Barsa

Office of Strategy, Policy, and Plans

Acting Under Secretary

Ambassador James D. Nealon

Office of Public Affairs

Assistant Secretary

Jonathan Rath Hoffman

Office of the Inspector General

Acting Inspector General

John V. Kelly

Privacy Office

Chief Privacy Officer/Chief FOIA Officer

Philip S. Kaplan

Science & Technology Directorate

Acting Under Secretary

William Bryan

Transportation Security Administration

Administrator

David Pekoske

United States Citizenship and Immigration Services

Director

Lee Cissna

United States Coast Guard

Commandant

Admiral Karl L. Schultz[11]

U.S. Customs and Border Protection

Commissioner

Kevin McAleenan[12]

U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

Acting Director

Ronald Vitiello[13]

United States Secret Service

Director

Randolph Alles[14]

tag: table

text:
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services: Processes and examines citizenship, residency, and asylum requests from aliens.
U.S. Customs and Border Protection: Law enforcement agency that enforces U.S. laws along its international borders (air, land, and sea) including its enforcement of U.S. immigration, customs, and agriculture laws while at and patrolling between all U.S. ports-of-entry.
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement: Law enforcement agency divided into two bureaus:

tag: ul

text:
An agency that enforces U.S. laws while it investigates and gathers intelligence on national and international criminal activities that threaten the security of the homeland (Homeland Security Investigations); and
An agency that investigates violations of the Immigration and Nationality Act and enforces the detention, deportation, and removal of violators of United States immigration law (Enforcement and Removal Operations).

tag: ol

text:
Transportation Security Administration: Responsible for aviation security (domestic and international, most notably conducting passenger screenings at airports), as well as land and water transportation security
United States Coast Guard: Military service responsible for law enforcement, maritime security, national defense, maritime mobility, and protection of natural resources.[15]
United States Secret Service: Law enforcement agency tasked with two distinct and critical national security missions:

text:
Investigative Mission – The investigative mission of the USSS is to safeguard the payment and financial systems of the United States from a wide range of financial and electronic-based crimes.
Protective Mission – The protective mission of the USSS is to ensure the safety of the President of the United States, the Vice President of the United States, their immediate families, and foreign heads of state.

text: Federal Emergency Management Agency: agency that oversees the federal government's response to natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, forest fires.

text: (Passports for U.S. citizens are issued by the United States Department of State, not the Department of Homeland Security.)

text: Advisory groups:

text:
Homeland Security Advisory Council: State and local government, first responders, private sector, and academics
National Infrastructure Advisory Council: Advises on security of public and private information systems
Homeland Security Science and Technology Advisory Committee: Advise the Under Secretary for Science and Technology.
Critical Infrastructure Partnership Advisory Council: Coordinate infrastructure protection with private sector and other levels of government
Interagency Coordinating Council on Emergency Preparedness and Individuals with Disabilities
Task Force on New Americans: "An inter-agency effort to help immigrants learn English, embrace the common core of American civic culture, and become fully American."

text: Other components:

text:
Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office: Counter attempts by terrorists or other threat actors to carry out an attack against the United States or its interests using a weapon of mass destruction. Secretary Kirstjen Nielsen established the CWMD Office in December 2017 by consolidating primarily the Domestic Nuclear Detection Office and a majority of the Office of Health Affairs, as well as other DHS elements.
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center: Interagency law enforcement training facilities located in Georgia, New Mexico, and South Carolina.
National Protection and Programs Directorate: risk-reduction, encompassing both physical and virtual threats and their associated human elements.
Federal Protective Service: Federal law enforcement and security agency that protects and investigates crimes against U.S. federal buildings, properties, assets, and federal government interests.
National Communications System
Directorate for Science and Technology: Research and development
Directorate for Management: Responsible for internal budgets, accounting, performance monitoring, and human resources
Office of Strategy, Policy, and Plans: Long-range policy planning and coordination
Office of Immigration Statistics
Office of Intelligence and Analysis: Identify and assess threats based on intelligence from various agencies
Office of Operations Coordination: Monitor domestic security situation on a daily basis, coordinate activities with state and local authorities and private sector infrastructure
Office of the Secretary includes the Privacy Office, Office for Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, Office of Inspector General, Citizenship and Immigration Services Ombudsman, Office of Legislative Affairs, Office of the General Counsel, Office of Public Affairs, Office of Counternarcotics Enforcement (CNE), Office of the Executive Secretariat (ESEC), and the Military Advisor's Office.
National Cybersecurity Center

text: In an August 5, 2002 speech, President Bush said: "We are fighting [...] to secure freedom in the homeland."[16] Prior to the creation of DHS, U.S. Presidents had referred to the U.S. as "the nation" or "the republic" and to its internal policies as "domestic".[17] Also unprecedented was the use, from 2002, of the phrase "the homeland" by White House spokespeople.[17]

text: National Terrorism Advisory System[edit]

text: In 2011, the Department of Homeland Security phased out the old Homeland Security Advisory System, replacing it with a two-level National Terrorism Advisory System. The system has two types of advisories: Alerts and Bulletins. NTAS Bulletins permit the secretary to communicate critical terrorism information that, while not necessarily indicative of a specific threat against the United States, can reach homeland security partners or the public quickly, thereby allowing recipients to implement necessary protective measures. Alerts are issued when there is specific and credible information of a terrorist threat against the United States. Alerts themselves have two levels: Elevated and Imminent. An Elevated Alert is issued when there is credible information about an attack but only general information about timing or a target. An Imminent Alert is issued when the threat is very specific and impending in the very near term.

text: On March 12, 2002, the Homeland Security Advisory System, a color-coded terrorism risk advisory scale, was created as the result of a Presidential Directive to provide a "comprehensive and effective means to disseminate information regarding the risk of terrorist acts to Federal, State, and local authorities and to the American people." Many procedures at government facilities are tied into the alert level; for example a facility may search all entering vehicles when the alert is above a certain level. Since January 2003, it has been administered in coordination with DHS; it has also been the target of frequent jokes and ridicule on the part of the administration's detractors about its ineffectiveness. After resigning, Tom Ridge stated that he did not always agree with the threat level adjustments pushed by other government agencies.[18]

text: In January 2003, the office[clarification needed] was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security.[19]

text: As of January 13, 2011, the DHS advised the American public of an 'elevated national threat' level, recommending that all Americans 'should establish an emergency preparedness kit and emergency plan for themselves and their family, and stay informed about what to do during an emergency'.[20]

text: History[edit]

text: Creation[edit]

text: In response to the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate "homeland security" efforts. The office was headed by former Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge, who assumed the title of Assistant to the President for Homeland Security. The official announcement stated:

text: The mission of the Office will be to develop and coordinate the implementation of a comprehensive national strategy to secure the United States from terrorist threats or attacks. The Office will coordinate the executive branch's efforts to detect, prepare for, prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from terrorist attacks within the United States.[19]

text: Ridge began his duties as OHS director on October 8, 2001.

text: According to Peter Andreas, a border theorist, the creation of DHS constituted the most significant government reorganization since the Cold War,[21] and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947, which placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency. DHS also constitutes the most diverse merger of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies into a single organization.[22]

text: The Department of Homeland Security was established on November 25, 2002, by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. It was intended to consolidate U.S. executive branch organizations related to "homeland security" into a single Cabinet agency. The following 22 agencies were incorporated into the new department:[23]

text:
Original agency
Original department
New agency or office after transfer

U.S. Customs Service
Treasury
U.S. Customs and Border ProtectionU.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

Immigration and Naturalization Service
Justice
U.S. Customs and Border ProtectionU.S. Immigration and Customs EnforcementU.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services

Federal Protective Service
General Services Administration
National Protection and Programs Directorate

Transportation Security Administration
Transportation
Transportation Security Administration

Federal Law Enforcement Training Center
Treasury
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service(part)
Agriculture
U.S. Customs and Border Protection

Federal Emergency Management Agency
none
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Strategic National StockpileNational Disaster Medical System
Health and Human Services
Returned to HHS, July, 2004

Nuclear Incident Response Team
Energy
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

Domestic Emergency Support Team
Justice
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

Center for Domestic Preparedness
Justice (FBI)
Responsibilities distributed within FEMA

CBRN Countermeasures Programs
Energy
Science & Technology Directorate

Environmental Measurements Laboratory
Energy
Science & Technology Directorate

National Biological WarfareDefense Analysis Center
Defense
Science & Technology Directorate

Plum Island Animal Disease Center
Agriculture
Science & Technology Directorate

Federal Computer Incident Response Center
General Services Administration
US-CERT, Office of Cybersecurity and CommunicationsNational Programs and Predaredness Directorate

National Communications System
Defense
Office of Cybersecurity and CommunicationsNational Programs and Predaredness Directorate

National Infrastructure Protection Center
Justice (FBI)
Office of Operations CoordinationOffice of Infrastructure Protection

Energy Security and Assurance Program
Energy
Office of Infrastructure Protection

U.S. Coast Guard
Transportation
U.S. Coast Guard

U.S. Secret Service
Treasury
U.S. Secret Service

text: Prior to the signing of the bill, controversy about its adoption centered on whether the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Central Intelligence Agency should be incorporated in part or in whole (neither were included). The bill was also controversial for the presence of unrelated "riders", as well as for eliminating certain union-friendly civil service and labor protections for department employees. Without these protections, employees could be expeditiously reassigned or dismissed on grounds of security, incompetence or insubordination, and DHS would not be required to notify their union representatives.

text: The plan stripped 180,000 government employees of their union rights.[24] In 2002, Bush officials argued that the September 11 attacks made the proposed elimination of employee protections imperative.[25]

text: Congress ultimately passed the Homeland Security Act of 2002 without the union-friendly measures, and President Bush signed the bill into law on November 25, 2002. It was the largest U.S. government reorganization in the 50 years since the United States Department of Defense was created.

text: Tom Ridge was named secretary on January 24, 2003, and began naming his chief deputies. DHS officially began operations on January 24, 2003, but most of the department's component agencies were not transferred into the new Department until March 1.[19]

text: After establishing the basic structure of DHS and working to integrate its components and get the department functioning, Ridge announced his resignation on November 30, 2004, following the re-election of President Bush. Bush initially nominated former New York City Police Department commissioner Bernard Kerik as his successor, but on December 10, Kerik withdrew his nomination, citing personal reasons and saying it "would not be in the best interests" of the country for him to pursue the post.

text: Changes under Michael Chertoff[edit]

text: On January 11, 2005, President Bush nominated federal judge Michael Chertoff to succeed Ridge. Chertoff was confirmed on February 15, 2005, by a vote of 98–0 in the U.S. Senate. He was sworn in the same day.[19]

text: In February 2005, DHS and the Office of Personnel Management issued rules relating to employee pay and discipline for a new personnel system named MaxHR. The Washington Post said that the rules would allow DHS "to override any provision in a union contract by issuing a department-wide directive" and would make it "difficult, if not impossible, for unions to negotiate over arrangements for staffing, deployments, technology and other workplace matters."[25]

text: In August 2005, U.S. District Judge Rosemary M. Collyer blocked the plan on the grounds that it did not ensure collective-bargaining rights for DHS employees.[25]

text:
A federal appeals court ruled against DHS in 2006; pending a final resolution to the litigation, Congress's fiscal year 2008 appropriations bill for DHS provided no funding for the proposed new personnel system.[25]
DHS announced in early 2007 that it was retooling its pay and performance system and retiring the name "MaxHR".[19]

text: In a February 2008 court filing, DHS said that it would no longer pursue the new rules, and that it would abide by the existing civil service labor-management procedures. A federal court issued an order closing the case.[25]

text: Seal[edit]

text: A DHS press release dated June 6, 2003[26] explains the seal as follows:

text: The seal is symbolic of the Department's mission – to prevent attacks and protect Americans – on the land, in the sea and in the air. In the center of the seal, a graphically styled white American eagle appears in a circular blue field. The eagle's outstretched wings break through an inner red ring into an outer white ring that contains the words "U.S. DEPARTMENT OF" in the top half and "HOMELAND SECURITY" in the bottom half in a circular placement. The eagle's wings break through the inner circle into the outer ring to suggest that the Department of Homeland Security will break through traditional bureaucracy and perform government functions differently. In the tradition of the Great Seal of the United States, the eagle's talon on the left holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 seeds while the eagle's talon on the right grasps 13 arrows.

text: Centered on the eagle's breast is a shield divided into three sections containing elements that represent the American homeland – air, land, and sea. The top element, a dark blue sky, contains 22 stars representing the original 22 entities that have come together to form the department. The left shield element contains white mountains behind a green plain underneath a light blue sky. The right shield element contains four wave shapes representing the oceans alternating light and dark blue separated by white lines.

text: The seal was developed with input from senior DHS leadership, employees, and the U.S. Commission on Fine Arts. The Ad Council – which partners with DHS on its Ready.gov campaign – and the consulting company Landor Associates were responsible for graphic design and maintaining heraldic integrity.

text: Headquarters[edit]

text: Since its inception, the department has had its temporary headquarters in Washington, D.C.'s Nebraska Avenue Complex, a former naval facility. The 38-acre (15 ha) site, across from American University, has 32 buildings comprising 566,000 square feet (52,600 m2) of administrative space.[27] In early 2007, the department submitted a $4.1 billion plan to Congress to consolidate its 60-plus Washington-area offices into a single headquarters complex at the St. Elizabeths Hospital campus in Anacostia, Southeast Washington, D.C. The earliest DHS would begin moving to St. Elizabeths is 2012.[28]

text:
The move is being championed by District of Columbia officials because of the positive economic impact it will have on historically depressed Anacostia. The move has been criticized by historic preservationists, who claim the revitalization plans will destroy dozens of historic buildings on the campus.[29] Community activists have criticized the plans because the facility will remain walled off and have little interaction with the surrounding area.[30]
On January 8, 2009, the National Capital Planning Commission approved the Department of Homeland Security's plans to move into the campus of St. Elizabeths Hospital.[31]
In February 2015 the General Services Administration said that the site would open in 2021.[32]

text: Disaster preparedness and response[edit]

text: Congressional budgeting effects[edit]

text: During a Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee hearing on the reauthorization of DHS, Elaine Duke, deputy secretary of DHS, said there is a weariness and anxiety within DHS about the repeated congressional efforts to agree to a long-term spending plan, which has resulted in several threats to shutdown the federal government. "Shutdowns are disruptive," Duke said. She said the "repeated failure on a longtime spending plan resulting in short-term continuing resolutions (CRs) has caused "angst" among the department's 240,000 employees in the weeks leading up to the CRs."[33] The uncertainty about funding hampers DHS's ability to pursue major projects and it takes away attention and manpower from important priorities. Seventy percent of DHS employees are considered essential and are not furloughed during government shutdowns.[33]

text: Ready.gov[edit]

text: Soon after the formation of Department of Homeland Security, the department worked with the Ad Council to launch the Ready Campaign, a national public service advertising (PSA) campaign to educate and empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies including natural and man-made disasters. With pro bono creative support from the Martin Agency of Richmond, Virginia, the campaign website "Ready.gov" and materials were conceived in March 2002 and launched in February 2003, just before the launch of the Iraq War.[34][35][36] One of the first announcements that garnered widespread public attention to this campaign was one by Tom Ridge in which he stated that in the case of a chemical attack, citizens should use duct tape and plastic sheeting to build a homemade bunker, or "sheltering in place" to protect themselves.[37][38] As a result, the sales of duct tape skyrocketed and DHS was criticized for being too alarmist.[39]

text: On March 1, 2003, the Federal Emergency Management Agency was absorbed into the DHS, and in fall of 2008, took over coordination of the campaign. The Ready Campaign and its Spanish language version Listo.gov asks individuals to do three things: build an emergency supply kit,[40] make a family emergency plan[41] and be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and how to respond.[42] The campaign messages have been promoted through television, radio, print, outdoor and web PSAs,[43] as well as brochures, toll-free phone lines and the English and Spanish language websites Ready.gov and Listo.gov.

text: The general campaign aims to reach all Americans, but targeted resources are also available via "Ready Business" for small- to medium-sized business  and "Ready Kids" for parents and teachers of children ages 8–12. In 2015, the campaign also launched a series of PSAs to help the whole community,[44] people with disabilities and others with access and functional needs prepare for emergencies, which included open captioning, a certified deaf interpreter and audio descriptions for viewers who are blind or have low vision.[45]

text: National Incident Management System[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: On March 1, 2004, the National Incident Management System (NIMS) was created. The stated purpose was to provide a consistent incident management approach for federal, state, local, and tribal governments. Under Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5, all federal departments were required to adopt the NIMS and to use it in their individual domestic incident management and emergency prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation program and activities.

text: National Response Framework[edit]

text: In December 2004, the National Response Plan (NRP) was created, in an attempt to align federal coordination structures, capabilities, and resources into a unified, all-discipline, and all-hazards approach to domestic incident management. The NRP was built on the template of the NIMS.

text: On January 22, 2008, the National Response Framework was published in the Federal Register as an updated replacement of the NRP, effective March 22, 2008.

text: Surge Capacity Force[edit]

text: The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act directs the DHS Secretary to designate employees from throughout the department to staff a Surge Capacity Force (SCF). During a declared disaster, the DHS Secretary will determine if SCF support is necessary. The secretary will then authorize FEMA to task and deploy designated personnel from DHS components and other Federal Executive Agencies to respond to extraordinary disasters.[46]

text: Cyber-security[edit]

text: The DHS National Cyber Security Division (NCSD) is responsible for the response system, risk management program, and requirements for cyber-security in the U.S. The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System.[47][48] The DHS Science and Technology Directorate helps government and private end-users transition to new cyber-security capabilities. This directorate also funds the Cyber Security Research and Development Center, which identifies and prioritizes research and development for NCSD.[48] The center works on the Internet's routing infrastructure (the SPRI program) and Domain Name System (DNSSEC), identity theft and other online criminal activity (ITTC), Internet traffic and networks research (PREDICT datasets and the DETER testbed), Department of Defense and HSARPA exercises (Livewire and Determined Promise), and wireless security in cooperation with Canada.[49]

text: On October 30, 2009, DHS opened the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center. The center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure.[50]

text: In January 2017, DHS officially designated state-run election systems as critical infrastructure. The designation made it easier for state and local election officials to get cybersecurity help from the federal government. In October 2017, DHS convened a Government Coordinating Council (GCC) for the Election Infrastructure Subsection with representatives from various state and federal agencies such as the Election Assistance Commission and National Association of Secretaries of State.[51]

text: Expenditures[edit]

text:
In the United States Federal Budget for 2010, entitled 'A New Era of Responsibility', the DHS was allocated a discretionary budget of $42.7 billion (financial year 2009: $40.1 billion).[52] The end-of-year
DHS Annual Financial Report for financial year 2010 showed a net cost of operations of $56.4 billion (FY 2009, restated: $49.9 billion), out of total budgetary resources of $83.2 billion (FY 2009, restated: $85.2 billion).[53] The components with the highest net cost were US Coast Guard ($12.1 billion), U.S. Customs and Border Protection ($11.6 billion), and Federal Emergency Management Agency ($10.5 billion).[53] Revenues of $10.4 billion were generated in the year (FY 2009, restated: $9.8 billion).[53]

text: According to the Washington Post, "DHS has given $31 billion in grants since 2003 to state and local governments for homeland security and to improve their ability to find and protect against terrorists, including $3.8 billion in 2010."[54]

text: Audit of expenditures[edit]

text: The DHS independent auditor is KPMG, one of the Big Four audit firms.[55] Due to the level of material weaknesses identified, KPMG was unable to audit the DHS financial statements for FY 2010.[55] KPMG was unable to express an audit opinion on the FY 2009,[56] FY 2008,[57] FY 2007,[58] FY 2005,[59] and FY 2003[60] financial statements. Attempts to access the reports for FY 2006 and FY 2004 within the 'information for citizens' portal met with a 404 error.[61] The message from the DHS chief financial officer in the FY 2010 report states "This Annual Financial Report (AFR) is our principal financial statement of accountability to the President, Congress and the American public. The AFR gives a comprehensive view of the Department's financial activities and demonstrates the Department's stewardship of taxpayer dollars."[62] The message from the DHS chief financial officer concludes "I am extremely proud of the Department's accomplishments  ... we will continue to build upon our successes."[62] The Secretary of Homeland Security endorsed this message, saying that the DHS is "continuing to be responsible stewards of taxpayer resources. The scope of our mission is broad, challenging, and vital to the security of the Nation  ... Thank you for your partnership and collaboration. Yours very truly, Janet Napolitano."[63]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: The Department of Homeland Security has received substantial criticism over excessive bureaucracy, waste, fraud, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Its information sharing centers have been accused of violating American civil liberties and targeting American citizens as potential threats to national security.

text: Excess, waste, and ineffectiveness[edit]

text: The Department of Homeland Security has been dogged by persistent criticism over excessive bureaucracy, waste, ineffectiveness and lack of transparency. Congress estimates that the department has wasted roughly $15 billion in failed contracts (as of  September 2008[update]).[64] In 2003, the department came under fire after the media revealed that Laura Callahan, Deputy Chief Information Officer at DHS with responsibilities for sensitive national security databases, had obtained her bachelor, masters, and doctorate computer science degrees through Hamilton University, a diploma mill in a small town in Wyoming.[65] The department was blamed for up to $2 billion of waste and fraud after audits by the Government Accountability Office revealed widespread misuse of government credit cards by DHS employees, with purchases including beer brewing kits, $70,000 of plastic dog booties that were later deemed unusable, boats purchased at double the retail price (many of which later could not be found), and iPods ostensibly for use in "data storage".[66][67][68][69]

text: A 2015 inspection of IT infrastructure found that the department was running over a hundred computer systems whose owners were unknown, including Secret and Top Secret databases, many with out of date security or weak passwords. Basic security reviews were absent, and the department had apparently made deliberate attempts to delay publication of information about the flaws.[70]

text: Data mining (ADVISE)[edit]

text: The Associated Press reported on September 5, 2007, that DHS had scrapped an anti-terrorism data mining tool called ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight and Semantic Enhancement) after the agency's internal Inspector General found that pilot testing of the system had been performed using data on real people without required privacy safeguards in place.[71][72] The system, in development at Lawrence Livermore and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory since 2003, has cost the agency $42 million to date. Controversy over the program is not new; in March 2007, the Government Accountability Office stated that "the ADVISE tool could misidentify or erroneously associate an individual with undesirable activity such as fraud, crime or terrorism." Homeland Security's Inspector General later said that ADVISE was poorly planned, time-consuming for analysts to use, and lacked adequate justifications.[73]

text: Fusion centers[edit]

text: Fusion centers are terrorism prevention and response centers, many of which were created under a joint project between the Department of Homeland Security and the US Department of Justice's Office of Justice Programs between 2003 and 2007. The fusion centers gather information not only from government sources, but also from their partners in the private sector.[74][75]

text: They are designed to promote information sharing at the federal level between agencies such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Department of Justice, US Military and  state and local level government. As of  July 2009[update], the Department of Homeland Security recognized at least seventy-two fusion centers.[76] Fusion centers may also be affiliated with an Emergency Operations Center that responds in the event of a disaster.

text: There are a number of documented criticisms of fusion centers, including relative ineffectiveness at counterterrorism activities, the potential to be used for secondary purposes unrelated to counterterrorism, and their links to violations of civil liberties of American citizens and others.[77]

text: David Rittgers of the Cato Institute has noted:

text: a long line of fusion center and DHS reports labeling broad swaths of the public as a threat to national security. The North Texas Fusion System labeled Muslim lobbyists as a potential threat; a DHS analyst in Wisconsin thought both pro- and anti-abortion activists were worrisome; a Pennsylvania homeland security contractor watched environmental activists, Tea Party groups, and a Second Amendment rally; the Maryland State Police put anti-death penalty and anti-war activists in a federal terrorism database; a fusion center in Missouri thought that all third-party voters and Ron Paul supporters were a threat ...[78]

text: MIAC report[edit]

text: The Missouri Information Analysis Center (MIAC) made news in 2009 for targeting supporters of third party candidates (such as Ron Paul), pro-life activists, and conspiracy theorists as potential militia members.[79] Anti-war activists and Islamic lobby groups were targeted in Texas, drawing criticism from the American Civil Liberties Union.[80]

text: According to the Department of Homeland Security:[81]

text: The Privacy Office has identified a number of risks to privacy presented by the fusion center program:

text:
Justification for fusion centers
Ambiguous Lines of Authority, Rules, and Oversight
Participation of the Military and the Private Sector
Data Mining
Excessive Secrecy
Inaccurate or Incomplete Information
Mission Creep

text: 2009 Virginia terrorism threat assessment[edit]

text: In 2009, the Virginia Fusion Center came under criticism for publishing a terrorism threat assessment which stated that certain universities are potential hubs for terror related activity.[82] The report targeted historically black colleges and identified hacktivism as a form of terrorism.[83]

text: Mail interception[edit]

text: In 2006, MSNBC reported that Grant Goodman, "an 81-year-old retired University of Kansas history professor, received a letter from his friend in the Philippines that had been opened and resealed with a strip of dark green tape bearing the words "by Border Protection" and carrying the official Homeland Security seal."[84] The letter was sent by a devout Catholic Filipino woman with no history of supporting Islamic terrorism.[84] A spokesman for U.S. Customs and Border Protection "acknowledged that the agency can, will and does open mail coming to U.S. citizens that originates from a foreign country whenever it's deemed necessary":

text: "All mail originating outside the United States Customs territory that is to be delivered inside the U.S. Customs territory is subject to Customs examination," says the CBP Web site. That includes personal correspondence.  "All mail means 'all mail,'" said John Mohan, a CBP spokesman, emphasizing the point.[84]

text: The department declined to outline what criteria are used to determine when a piece of personal correspondence should be opened or to say how often or in what volume Customs might be opening mail.[84]

text: Goodman's story provoked outrage in the blogosphere,[85] as well as in the more established media. Reacting to the incident, Mother Jones remarked that "[u]nlike other prying government agencies, Homeland Security wants you to know it is watching you."[86] CNN observed that "[o]n the heels of the NSA wiretapping controversy, Goodman's letter raises more concern over the balance between privacy and security."[87]

text: Employee morale[edit]

text: In July 2006, the Office of Personnel Management conducted a survey of federal employees in all 36 federal agencies on job satisfaction and how they felt their respective agency was headed. DHS was last or near to last in every category including;

text:
33rd on the talent management index
35th on the leadership and knowledge management index
36th on the job satisfaction index
36th on the results-oriented performance culture index

text: The low scores were attributed to major concerns about basic supervision, management and leadership within the agency. Examples from the survey reveal most concerns are about promotion and pay increase based on merit, dealing with poor performance, rewarding creativity and innovation, leadership generating high levels of motivation in the workforce, recognition for doing a good job, lack of satisfaction with various component policies and procedures and lack of information about what is going on with the organization.[88][89]

text: DHS is the only large federal agency to score below 50% in overall survey rankings. It was last of large federal agencies in 2014 with 44.0% and fell even lower in 2015 at 43.1%, again last place.[90]

text: Freedom of Information Act processing performance[edit]

text: In the Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data), the Department of Homeland Security earned a D by scoring 69 out of a possible 100 points, i.e. did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. It also had not updated its FOIA policies since the 2007 FOIA amendments.[91]

text: Fourteen Words slogan and "88" reference[edit]

text: In 2018, the DHS was accused of referencing the white supremacist Fourteen Words slogan in an official document, by using a similar fourteen-worded title, in relation to illegal immigration and border control:[92]

text: We Must Secure The Border And Build The Wall To Make America Safe Again.[93]

text: Although dismissed by the DHS as a coincidence, both the use of "88" in a document, and the similarity to the slogan's phrasing ("We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children"), drew criticism and controversy from several media outlets.[94][95]