document_title: Cap'n Crunch

question_text: when did captain crunch oops all berries come out

text: Cap'n Crunch

text: Product history[edit]

text:
“

Grandma would like to make this concoction with rice and the sauce that she had; it was a combination of brown sugar and butter. It tasted good, obviously. They'd put it over the rice and eat it as a kind of a treat on Sundays...

—William Low, Pamela Low's brother[3]

”

text: Pamela Low, a flavorist at Arthur D. Little[4] and 1951 graduate of the University of New Hampshire with a microbiology degree,[3] developed the original Cap'n Crunch flavor in 1963—recalling a recipe of brown sugar and butter her grandmother Luella Low served over rice[5][6] at her home in Derry, New Hampshire.[4] Before developing the flavor, the cereal already had a marketing plan,[7] and once having arrived at the flavor coating for Cap'n Crunch, Low described it as giving the cereal a quality she called "want-more-ishness".[7] After her death in 2007, the Boston Globe called Low "the mother of Cap'n Crunch."[5] At Arthur D. Little, Low had also worked on the flavors for Heath,[7] Mounds and Almond Joy candy bars.[8]

text: In 1965, the Quaker Oats Company awarded the Fredus N. Peters Award to Robert Rountree Reinhart, Sr. for his leadership in directing the development team of Cap'n Crunch.[2] Reinhart developed a technique in the manufacture of Cap'n Crunch, using oil in its recipe as a flavor delivery mechanism—which initially presented problems in having the cereal bake properly.[2]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The product line is heralded by a cartoon mascot named Cap'n Crunch.[9] The mascot is depicted as a late 18th-century naval captain, an older man with white eyebrows and a white moustache, who wears a Revolutionary-style naval uniform: a bicorne hat emblazoned with a "C" and a gold-epauletted blue coat with gold bands on the sleeves. While typically an American naval captain wears four bars on his sleeves, the mascot has been variously depicted over the years wearing only one bar (commodore), two bars (lieutenant) or three bars (commander).

text: According to a humorous 2013 Wall Street Journal article, the mascot, whose full name is Horatio Magellan Crunch, captains a ship called the Guppy, and was born "on Crunch Island in the Sea of Milk – a magical place with talking trees, crazy creatures and a whole mountain (Mt. Crunchmore) made out of Cap’n Crunch cereal."[9] The article refers to the Captain's bicorne as a "Napoleon-style" hat,[9] and claims that this has led to speculation that he may be French.[9]

text: Cap'n Crunch's original animated television commercials featured the slogan, "It's got corn for crunch, oats for punch, and it stays crunchy, even in milk."[10]

text: In 2014, Cornell University studied the box designs of 65 brands of cereals and discovered that buyers show 28% greater brand loyalty where the box cover features a mascot making direct eye contact with the purchaser, citing Cap'n Crunch as an example.[11][12]

text: In 2013, sources including the Wall Street Journal[9] and Washington Times[13] reported that the three stripes on the mascot's uniform indicate a rank of Commander and not the four needed on his uniform to be a Captain. In jest, the Wall Street Journal reported that the U.S. Navy had no record of Crunch and that NCIS was investigating him for impersonating a naval officer.[9]

text: Daws Butler provided the original voice of the Cap'n until his death in 1988.[14][15][16][17] Author Philip Wylie wrote a series of short stories, Crunch and Des, beginning in the 1940s, which featured a similarly named Captain Crunch Adams.[18] The Cap'n Crunch commercials have historically used basic cartoon animation by Jay Ward Productions. Vinton Studios produced a claymation ad during the 1980s.[19]

text: Variations[edit]

text:
Cap'n Crunch: The original Cap'n Crunch cereal is made of sweetened, yellow, square-shaped cereal pieces made by combining corn and oats. The cereal was launched in 1963, bolstered by a successful advertising campaign created by noted animator Jay Ward introducing the cereal's longtime naval mascot, Cap'n Crunch.[20]
Cap'n Crunch's Crunch Berries: Cap’n Crunch's Crunch Berries cereal was introduced in 1967 and contained, in addition to the yellow pieces found in the original Cap'n Crunch, spherical red Crunch Berry pieces. There was a version of Crunch Berries available briefly in which the berries, instead of being spherical, were three small berries in a cluster. The Crunch Berry Beast mascot was introduced alongside the cereal. There are currently four Crunch Berry colors: red, green (introduced in 2002), blue, and violet (both introduced in the '90s). All the berry pieces are flavored the same, regardless of color.
Peanut Butter Crunch: First released in 1969, with a large elephant named Smedley as its mascot; according to sales charts, this version was the most successful at the time. It consists of peanut butter-flavored corn puffs.
Punch Crunch, Vanilly Crunch, Jean LaFoote’s Cinnamon Crunch: Three more editions issued in the early 1970s but later discontinued. Punch Crunch was fruit-flavored cereal rings, and the mascot was sailor-clad hippopotamus named Harry.[21] Jean LaFoote's Cinnamon Crunch featured cinnamon flavored corn flakes.
Choco Crunch: In 1982, a variant called Choco Crunch, featuring the mascot "Chockle the Blob", was introduced. This version contained the yellow corn squares, plus chocolate flavored pieces similar to Crunch Berries.
Chocolatey Crunch: Introduced in 2011, consisting of chocolate flavored corn squares.
Christmas Crunch: A special edition first released for the 1988 Christmas holiday season. It contains the signature Cap’n Crunch yellow corn squares with red and green Crunch Berries, shaped like evergreen trees, in a green box with the Cap’n wearing a Santa Claus hat. Originally, it contained a toy or Christmas tree ornament inside the box.[22]
Deep Sea Crunch: A version of the cereal introduced in 1993, which featured Crunch Berries shaped like sea creatures. This version was discontinued but returned in 2009.[23]
Oops! All Berries: First released in 1997, "Oops! All Berries" contained nothing but the berry flavored Crunch Berries and none of the corn squares.[23] This version was discontinued the following year. In 2008, 2009, and again in 2010, "Oops! All Berries" has made limited time only returns.[24] Recent boxes do not state "Limited Time Only" printed on the box. Current "Oops! All Berries" colors are red, purple, blue and green.
Halloween Crunch: A limited edition version of the cereal introduced in 2007. This includes green Crunch Berries in the form of ghosts.[23]
Galactic Crunch: A discontinued version which featured space-related marshmallows.[23]
Choco Doughnuts: A discontinued version which featured chocolate flavored doughnut shaped cereal with candy sprinkles.[23]
Home Run Crunch: A limited edition version of the cereal, currently available, released in 1995 which featured baseball-related marshmallows, like home plates, caps, and mitts. It has the flavor of Crunch Berries but the pieces of the cereal are shaped as bats and balls. It occasionally comes back during the summer.[23]
Cap'n Crunch's Mystery Volcano Crunch: Red and yellow fruit flavored berries with "'free' packet of lava rocks that pop in milk!".[23]
Cap'n Crunch's Oops! Smashed Berries: Oops! All Berries cereal with flat berries that the kids smashed.[23]
Cap'n Crunch's CoZmic Crunch: Star shaped berries with "orange space dust that turns milk green".[23]
Polar Crunch: A version of the cereal in which the Crunch Berries change color to blue when milk is poured.[23]
Cinnamon Roll Crunch: Released in 2013.
Cap'n Crunch's Crunch Treasures: Star shaped crunchy yellow corn and oat rings. Contains half the sugar of regular Cap'n Crunch.[25]
Cap'n Crunch Bars: Later called Cap'n Crunch Treats, they were marshmallow treats similar to Rice Krispies Treats and came in Cap'n Crunch, Crunch Berries, and Peanut Butter Crunch varieties.
Airhead Berries: A crossover between Airheads candy and Cap'n Crunch cereal.[26]
Cap'n Crunch's Sprinkled Donut Crunch: Released in 2014. Donut-flavored cereal rings smothered in sprinkles.
Cap'n Crunch's Orange Creampop Crunch: Modeled after nostalgic orange/vanilla popsicles.[27]
Cap'n Crunch's Blueberry Pancake Crunch: Released in 2016. Features blue, light blue and white corn and oat puffs with natural and artificial blueberry and maple syrup flavoring.[28]

tag: ul

text: Product litigation[edit]

text: On May 21, 2009, Judge Morrison England, Jr., of the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California dismissed the case Sugawara v. PepsiCo, Inc.[29] The plaintiff, Janine Sugawara, claimed she had purchased the cereal Cap'n Crunch with Crunchberries because she believed "crunchberries" indicated she was eating real fruit. Sugawara alleged that after four years of purchasing the product she had only recently discovered to her dismay that said "berries" were in fact simply brightly colored cereal balls. The judge commented "In this case...it is simply impossible for Plaintiff to file an amended complaint stating a claim based upon these facts. The survival of the instant claim would require this Court to ignore all concepts of personal responsibility and common sense. The Court has no intention of allowing that to happen."[30]


document_title: DAR Constitution Hall

question_text: how many seats are in a box at dar constitution hall

root

text: DAR Constitution Hall

text: Description[edit]

text: The hall was designed by architect John Russell Pope and is located at 1776 D Street NW, just east of the Department of the Interior, between the American Red Cross and the Organization of American States, across from the Ellipse in front of the White House. The hall seats 3,702, with 2,208 in the tiers and 1,234 on the orchestra level. Additionally, 52 boxes (containing five seats each) separate the orchestra from the tiers, including one Presidential box.[3]

tag: p

text: The Hall is a Neoclassical style structure, faced with Alabama limestone and houses the largest auditorium in Washington. This auditorium is unusual with its U-shaped balcony, necessary to provide the enormous amount of seating required by the program while retaining practical sight distances. The auditorium holds a three-manual, 40 rank Skinner pipe organ, Opus number 757.[3][4]

text: Events[edit]

text: The Hall is used for concerts, school commencements, conferences, corporate meetings, televised events and other performances. The Hall hosted the 1939 premiere of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington and was the recording site for Eddie Murphy Delirious in 1983; Whitney Houston's Classic Whitney concerts in 1997; Martin Lawrence Live: Runteldat in 2002; Chris Rock's HBO special and album Never Scared in 2004 and Robin Williams HBO special Weapons of Self Destruction in 2009. It has hosted tapings of TV game shows Jeopardy! in 1997, 2004, 2012 and 2016, and Wheel of Fortune in 2000 and the 2004, 2005, 2007, and 2008 Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group.

text: From 1930 until the opening of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in 1971, Constitution Hall was home to the National Symphony Orchestra and the city's principal venue for touring classical music soloists and orchestras. Some of the earliest mainstream country music concerts were also held there, organized by Connie B. Gay. The National Geographic Society presented sold-out film lectures, filling the hall for many decades, three evenings a week until about 1990 when they moved to the National Geographic theater near 16th and M Streets, NW. The free Air Force Band Sunday concerts, featuring famous guest artists, are popular, as is the band's special Christmas gala show.

text: In 1939, the DAR denied African-American singer Marian Anderson the opportunity to sing at the Hall causing first lady Eleanor Roosevelt to resign her membership in protest. The organization would later reverse its racial exclusion policy and Anderson performed at Constitution Hall for an American Red Cross war relief benefit in 1943; in 1964, she chose it as the first venue of her farewell concert tour.[3]

text: Every U.S. president since Calvin Coolidge has attended at least one event at the theater.[5]


document_title: Maize

question_text: where did maize cultivation begin in the americas

question_tokens: where did maize cultivation begin in the americas

text: Maize

text: History

text: Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico.[4] Recent research in the early 21st century has modified this view somewhat; scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication.[5]

text: An influential 2002 study by Matsuoka et al. has demonstrated that, rather than the multiple independent domestications model, all maize arose from a single domestication in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. The study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths. This is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands.[6][7]

text: Archaeologist Dolores Piperno has said:[5]

text: A large corpus of data indicates that it [maize] was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP [5600 BC] and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP [5000-4000 BC].

text: [page needed]

text: Since then, even earlier dates have been published.[8]

text: According to a genetic study by Embrapa, corn cultivation was introduced in South America from Mexico, in two great waves: the first, more than 6000 years ago, spread through the Andes. Evidence of cultivation in Peru has been found dating to about 6700 years ago.[9] The second wave, about 2000 years ago, through the lowlands of South America.[10]

text: Before domestication, maize plants grew only small, 25 millimetres (1 in) long corn cobs, and only one per plant. In Spielvogel's view, many centuries of artificial selection (rather than the current view that maize was exploited by interplanting with teosinte) by the indigenous people of the Americas resulted in the development of maize plants capable of growing several cobs per plant, which were usually several centimetres/inches long each.[11] The Olmec and Maya cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica; they cooked, ground and processed it through nixtamalization. It was believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas.[12] Research of the 21st century has established even earlier dates. The region developed a trade network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops.

text: Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014 (Production table). Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol.[13] Genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009.[14]

text: Columbian exchange

text: After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe and introduced it to other countries. Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for communion bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation and be transformed into the body of Christ.[15] Some Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, they would weaken and risk turning into Indians. "In the view of Europeans, it was the food they ate, even more than the environment in which they lived, that gave Amerindians and Spaniards both their distinctive physical characteristics and their characteristic personalities."[16] Despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize. Archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well.[17]

text: Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates. It was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbus's voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere.[17] Sugar-rich varieties called sweet corn are usually grown for human consumption as kernels, while field corn varieties are used for animal feed, various corn-based human food uses (including grinding into cornmeal or masa, pressing into corn oil, and fermentation and distillation into alcoholic beverages like bourbon whiskey), and as chemical feedstocks.

text: Names

text: The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant, mahiz.[18] It is known by other names around the world.

text: The word "corn" outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, its meaning understood to vary geographically to refer to the local staple.[19][20] In the United States,[19] Canada,[21] Australia, and New Zealand,[22] corn primarily means maize; this usage started as a shortening of "Indian corn".[19] "Indian corn" primarily means maize (the staple grain of indigenous Americans), but can refer more specifically to multicolored "flint corn" used for decoration.[23]

text: In places outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand, corn often refers to maize in culinary contexts. The narrower meaning is usually indicated by some additional word, as in sweet corn, sweetcorn, corn on the cob, baby corn, the puffed confection known as popcorn and the breakfast cereal known as corn flakes.

text: In Southern Africa, maize is commonly called mielie (Afrikaans) or mealie (English),[24] words derived from the Portuguese word for maize, milho.[25]

text: Maize is preferred in formal, scientific, and international usage because it refers specifically to this one grain, unlike corn, which has a complex variety of meanings that vary by context and geographic region.[20] Maize is used by agricultural bodies and research institutes such as the FAO and CSIRO. National agricultural and industry associations often include the word maize in their name even in English-speaking countries where the local, informal word is something other than maize; for example, the Maize Association of Australia, the Indian Maize Development Association, the Kenya Maize Consortium and Maize Breeders Network, the National Maize Association of Nigeria, the Zimbabwe Seed Maize Association. However, in commodities trading, corn consistently refers to maize and not other grains.[citation needed]

text: Structure and physiology

text: The maize plant is often 3 m (10 ft) in height,[26] though some natural strains can grow 12 m (39 ft).[27] The stem is commonly composed of 20 internodes [28] of 18 cm (7.1 in) length.[26] A leaf, which grows from each node, is generally 9 cm (4 in) in width and 120 cm (4 ft) in length.

text: Ears develop above a few of the leaves in the midsection of the plant, between the stem and leaf sheath, elongating by around 3 millimetres (0.12 in) per day, to a length of 18 cm (7 in) [26] with 60 cm (24 in) being the maximum alleged in the subspecies.[29] They are female inflorescences, tightly enveloped by several layers of ear leaves commonly called husks. Certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce many additional developed ears. These are the source of the "baby corn" used as a vegetable in Asian cuisine.

text: The apex of the stem ends in the tassel, an inflorescence of male flowers. When the tassel is mature and conditions are suitably warm and dry, anthers on the tassel dehisce and release pollen. Maize pollen is anemophilous (dispersed by wind), and because of its large settling velocity, most pollen falls within a few meters of the tassel.

text: Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and 18 cm (7 in) in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a "kernel" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as "caryopsis", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the "seed". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the ear. The maximum size of kernels is reputedly 2.5 cm (1 in).[30] An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking them tender first in boiling water.

text:
Female inflorescence, with young silk

mature silk

Stalks, ears, and silk

Male flowers

Full-grown maize plants

Mature maize ear on a stalk

text: Planting density affects multiple aspects of maize. Modern farming techniques in developed countries usually rely on dense planting, which produces one ear per stalk.[31] Stands of silage maize are yet denser,[32] and achieve a lower percentage of ears and more plant matter.

text: Maize is a facultative short-day plant [33] and flowers in a certain number of growing degree days > 10 °C (50 °F) in the environment to which it is adapted.[34] The magnitude of the influence that long nights have on the number of days that must pass before maize flowers is genetically prescribed[35] and regulated by the phytochrome system.[36] Photoperiodicity can be eccentric in tropical cultivars such that the long days characteristic of higher latitudes allow the plants to grow so tall that they do not have enough time to produce seed before being killed by frost. These attributes, however, may prove useful in using tropical maize for biofuels.[37]

text: Immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA). DIMBOA is a member of a group of hydroxamic acids (also known as benzoxazinoids) that serve as a natural defense against a wide range of pests, including insects, pathogenic fungi and bacteria. DIMBOA is also found in related grasses, particularly wheat. A maize mutant (bx) lacking DIMBOA is highly susceptible to attack by aphids and fungi. DIMBOA is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the European corn borer (family Crambidae). As maize matures, DIMBOA levels and resistance to the corn borer decline.

text: Because of its shallow roots, maize is susceptible to droughts, intolerant of nutrient-deficient soils, and prone to be uprooted by severe winds.[38]

text:
Maize kernels

Maize plant diagram

Ear of maize with irregular rows of kernels

text: While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-colored maizes, the kernel coloration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway[39] from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols[40] by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene[41] which encodes an R2R3 myb-like transcriptional activator[42] of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols)[43] while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor.[44] The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments.[41] The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins.[45]

text: Abnormal flowers

text: Maize flowers may sometimes exhibit mutations that lead to the formation of female flowers in the tassel. These mutations, ts4 and Ts6, prohibit the development of the stamen while simultaneously promoting pistil development.[46] This may cause inflorescences containing both male and female flowers, or hermaphrodite flowers.[47]

text: Genetics

text: Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to the amount of starch each has:

text:
Flour corn: Zea mays var. amylacea
Popcorn: Zea mays var. everta
Dent corn : Zea mays var. indentata
Flint corn: Zea mays var. indurata
Sweet corn: Zea mays var. saccharata and Zea mays var. rugosa
Waxy corn: Zea mays var. ceratina
Amylomaize: Zea mays
Pod corn: Zea mays var. tunicata Larrañaga ex A. St. Hil.
Striped maize: Zea mays var. japonica

text: This system has been replaced (though not entirely displaced) over the last 60 years by multivariable classifications based on ever more data. Agronomic data were supplemented by botanical traits for a robust initial classification, then genetic, cytological, protein and DNA evidence was added. Now, the categories are forms (little used), races, racial complexes, and recently branches.

text: Maize is a diploid with 20 chromosomes (n=10). The combined length of the chromosomes is 1500 cM. Some of the maize chromosomes have what are known as "chromosomal knobs": highly repetitive heterochromatic domains that stain darkly. Individual knobs are polymorphic among strains of both maize and teosinte.

text: Barbara McClintock used these knob markers to validate her transposon theory of "jumping genes", for which she won the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Maize is still an important model organism for genetics and developmental biology today.[48]

text: The Maize Genetics Cooperation Stock Center, funded by the USDA Agricultural Research Service and located in the Department of Crop Sciences at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, is a stock center of maize mutants. The total collection has nearly 80,000 samples. The bulk of the collection consists of several hundred named genes, plus additional gene combinations and other heritable variants. There are about 1000 chromosomal aberrations (e.g., translocations and inversions) and stocks with abnormal chromosome numbers (e.g., tetraploids). Genetic data describing the maize mutant stocks as well as myriad other data about maize genetics can be accessed at MaizeGDB, the Maize Genetics and Genomics Database.[49]

text: In 2005, the US National Science Foundation (NSF), Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Department of Energy (DOE) formed a consortium to sequence the B73 maize genome. The resulting DNA sequence data was deposited immediately into GenBank, a public repository for genome-sequence data. Sequences and genome annotations have also been made available throughout the project's lifetime at the project's official site.[50]

text: Primary sequencing of the maize genome was completed in 2008.[51] On November 20, 2009, the consortium published results of its sequencing effort in Science.[52] The genome, 85% of which is composed of transposons, was found to contain 32,540 genes (By comparison, the human genome contains about 2.9 billion bases and 26,000 genes). Much of the maize genome has been duplicated and reshuffled by helitrons—group of rolling circle transposons.[53]

text: Breeding

text: Maize reproduces sexually each year. This randomly selects half the genes from a given plant to propagate to the next generation, meaning that desirable traits found in the crop (like high yield or good nutrition) can be lost in subsequent generations unless certain techniques are used.

text: Maize breeding in prehistory resulted in large plants producing large ears. Modern breeding began with individuals who selected highly productive varieties in their fields and then sold seed to other farmers. James L. Reid was one of the earliest and most successful developing Reid's Yellow Dent in the 1860s. These early efforts were based on mass selection. Later breeding efforts included ear to row selection, (C. G. Hopkins ca. 1896), hybrids made from selected inbred lines (G. H. Shull, 1909), and the highly successful double cross hybrids using 4 inbred lines (D. F. Jones ca. 1918, 1922). University supported breeding programs were especially important in developing and introducing modern hybrids. (Ref Jugenheimer Hybrid Maize Breeding and Seed Production pub. 1958) by the 1930s, companies such as Pioneer devoted to production of hybrid maize had begun to influence long term development. Internationally important seed banks such as International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the US bank at Maize Genetics Cooperation Stock Center University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign maintain germplasm important for future crop development.

text: Since the 1940s the best strains of maize have been first-generation hybrids made from inbred strains that have been optimized for specific traits, such as yield, nutrition, drought, pest and disease tolerance. Both conventional cross-breeding and genetic modification have succeeded in increasing output and reducing the need for cropland, pesticides, water and fertilizer.[54]

text: Global maize program

text: CIMMYT operates a conventional breeding program to provide optimized strains. The program began in the 1980s. Hybrid seeds are distributed in Africa by the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa project.[54]

text: Genetic modification

text: Genetically modified (GM) maize was one of the 26 GM crops grown commercially in 2016.[55][56] Grown since 1997 in the United States and Canada, 92% of the US maize crop was genetically modified in 2016[55][57] and 33% of the worldwide maize crop was GM in 2016.[55][58] As of 2011, Herbicide-tolerant maize varieties were grown in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, El Salvador, the European Union, Honduras, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Philippines, the Russian Federation, Singapore, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, and USA, and insect-resistant corn was grown in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Czech Republic, Egypt, the EU, Honduras, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Philippines, Romania, Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Taiwan, USA, and Uruguay.[59]

text: In September 2000, up to $50 million worth of food products were recalled due to the presence of Starlink genetically modified corn, which had been approved only for animal consumption and had not been approved for human consumption, and was subsequently withdrawn from the market.[60]

text: Origin

text: Maize is the domesticated variant of teosinte.[61] The two plants have dissimilar appearance, maize having a single tall stalk with multiple leaves and teosinte being a short, bushy plant. The difference between the two is largely controlled by differences in just two genes.[61]

text: Several theories had been proposed about the specific origin of maize in Mesoamerica:[62][63]

text:
It is a direct domestication of a Mexican annual teosinte, Zea mays ssp. parviglumis, native to the Balsas River valley in south-eastern Mexico, with up to 12% of its genetic material obtained from Zea mays ssp. mexicana through introgression. This theory was further confirmed by the 2002 study of Matsuoka et al.[6]
It has been derived from hybridization between a small domesticated maize (a slightly changed form of a wild maize) and a teosinte of section Luxuriantes, either Z. luxurians or Z. diploperennis.
It has undergone two or more domestications either of a wild maize or of a teosinte. (The term "teosinte" describes all species and subspecies in the genus Zea, excluding Zea mays ssp. mays.)
It has evolved from a hybridization of Z. diploperennis by Tripsacum dactyloides.

tag: ol

text: In the late 1930s, Paul Mangelsdorf suggested that domesticated maize was the result of a hybridization event between an unknown wild maize and a species of Tripsacum, a related genus. This theory about the origin of maize has been refuted by modern genetic testing, which refutes Mangelsdorf's model and the fourth listed above.[62]:40

text: The teosinte origin theory was proposed by the Russian botanist Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov in 1931 and the later American Nobel Prize-winner George Beadle in 1932.[62]:10 It is supported experimentally and by recent studies of the plants' genomes. Teosinte and maize are able to cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. A number of questions remain concerning the species, among them:

text:
how the immense diversity of the species of sect. Zea originated,
how the tiny archaeological specimens of 3500–2700 BC could have been selected from a teosinte, and
how domestication could have proceeded without leaving remains of teosinte or maize with teosintoid traits earlier than the earliest known until recently, dating from ca. 1100 BC.

text: The domestication of maize is of particular interest to researchers—archaeologists, geneticists, ethnobotanists, geographers, etc. The process is thought by some to have started 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. Research from the 1950s to 1970s originally focused on the hypothesis that maize domestication occurred in the highlands between the states of Oaxaca and Jalisco, because the oldest archaeological remains of maize known at the time were found there.

text: Connection with 'parviglumis' subspecies

text: Genetic studies led by John Doebley identified Zea mays ssp. parviglumis, native to the Balsas River valley in Mexico's southwestern highlands, and also known as Balsas teosinte, as being the crop wild relative teosinte genetically most similar to modern maize.[64] This has been confirmed by further more recent studies, which refined this hypothesis somewhat. Archaeobotanical studies published in 2009 now point to the middle part of the Balsas River valley as the more likely location of early domestication; this river is not very long, so these locations are not very distant. Stone milling tools with maize residue have been found in an 8,700-years old layer of deposits in a cave not far from Iguala, Guerrero.[65][66][67]

text: Also, Doebley was part of the team that is credited with first finding, back in 2002, that maize had been domesticated only once, about 9000 years ago, and then spread throughout the Americas.[6][68]

text: A primitive corn was being grown in southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America 7,000 years ago. Archaeological remains of early maize ears, found at Guila Naquitz Cave in the Oaxaca Valley, date back roughly 6,250 years; the oldest ears from caves near Tehuacan, Puebla, date ca. 3,450 BC.[12]

text: Maize pollen dated to 7300 cal B.P. from San Andres, Tabasco, on the Caribbean coast has also been recovered.[66]

text: As maize was introduced to new cultures, new uses were developed and new varieties selected to better serve in those preparations. Maize was the staple food, or a major staple – along with squash, Andean region potato, quinoa, beans, and amaranth – of most pre-Columbian North American, Mesoamerican, South American, and Caribbean cultures. The Mesoamerican civilization, in particular, was deeply interrelated with maize. Its traditions and rituals involved all aspects of maize cultivation – from the planting to the food preparation. Maize formed the Mesoamerican people's identity.

text: It is unknown what precipitated its domestication, because the edible portion of the wild variety is too small and hard to obtain to be eaten directly, as each kernel is enclosed in a very hard bivalve shell. It is possible that, early on, teosinte may have been gathered as preferred feed for domestic animals.

text: Also, back in 1939, George Beadle demonstrated that the kernels of teosinte are readily "popped" for human consumption, like modern popcorn.[69] Some have argued it would have taken too many generations of selective breeding to produce large, compressed ears for efficient cultivation. However, studies of the hybrids readily made by intercrossing teosinte and modern maize suggest this objection is not well founded.

text: Spreading to the north

text: Around 2500 BC, maize began to spread to the north; it was first cultivated in what is now the United States at several sites in New Mexico and Arizona, about 2100 BC.[70]

text: During the first millennium AD, maize cultivation spread more widely in the areas north. In particular, the large-scale adoption of maize agriculture and consumption in eastern North America took place about A.D. 900. Native Americans cleared large forest and grassland areas for the new crop.[71]

text: In 2005, research by the USDA Forest Service suggested that the rise in maize cultivation 500 to 1,000 years ago in what is now the southeastern United States corresponded with a decline of freshwater mussels, which are very sensitive to environmental changes.[72]

text: Cultivation

text: Planting

text: Because it is cold-intolerant, in the temperate zones maize must be planted in the spring. Its root system is generally shallow, so the plant is dependent on soil moisture. As a C4 plant (a plant that uses C4 carbon fixation), maize is a considerably more water-efficient crop than C3 plants (plants that use C3 carbon fixation) like the small grains, alfalfa and soybeans. Maize is most sensitive to drought at the time of silk emergence, when the flowers are ready for pollination. In the United States, a good harvest was traditionally predicted if the maize were "knee-high by the Fourth of July", although modern hybrids generally exceed this growth rate. Maize used for silage is harvested while the plant is green and the fruit immature. Sweet corn is harvested in the "milk stage", after pollination but before starch has formed, between late summer and early to mid-autumn. Field maize is left in the field very late in the autumn to thoroughly dry the grain, and may, in fact, sometimes not be harvested until winter or even early spring. The importance of sufficient soil moisture is shown in many parts of Africa, where periodic drought regularly causes maize crop failure and consequent famine. Although it is grown mainly in wet, hot climates, it has been said to thrive in cold, hot, dry or wet conditions, meaning that it is an extremely versatile crop.[73]

text: Maize was planted by the Native Americans in hills, in a complex system known to some as the Three Sisters. Maize provided support for beans, and the beans provided nitrogen derived from nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria which live on the roots of beans and other legumes; and squashes provided ground cover to stop weeds and inhibit evaporation by providing shade over the soil.[74] This method was replaced by single species hill planting where each hill 60–120 cm (2.0–3.9 ft) apart was planted with three or four seeds, a method still used by home gardeners. A later technique was "checked maize", where hills were placed 40 in (1.0 m) apart in each direction, allowing cultivators to run through the field in two directions. In more arid lands, this was altered and seeds were planted in the bottom of 10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in) deep furrows to collect water. Modern technique plants maize in rows which allows for cultivation while the plant is young, although the hill technique is still used in the maize fields of some Native American reservations. When maize is planted in rows, it also allows for planting of other crops between these rows to make more efficient use of land space.[75]

text: In most regions today, maize grown in residential gardens is still often planted manually with a hoe, whereas maize grown commercially is no longer planted manually but rather is planted with a planter. In North America, fields are often planted in a two-crop rotation with a nitrogen-fixing crop, often alfalfa in cooler climates and soybeans in regions with longer summers. Sometimes a third crop, winter wheat, is added to the rotation.

text: Many of the maize varieties grown in the United States and Canada are hybrids. Often the varieties have been genetically modified to tolerate glyphosate or to provide protection against natural pests. Glyphosate is an herbicide which kills all plants except those with genetic tolerance. This genetic tolerance is very rarely found in nature.

text: In the midwestern United States, low-till or no-till farming techniques are usually used. In low-till, fields are covered once, maybe twice, with a tillage implement either ahead of crop planting or after the previous harvest. The fields are planted and fertilized. Weeds are controlled through the use of herbicides, and no cultivation tillage is done during the growing season. This technique reduces moisture evaporation from the soil, and thus provides more moisture for the crop. The technologies mentioned in the previous paragraph enable low-till and no-till farming. Weeds compete with the crop for moisture and nutrients, making them undesirable.

text: Harvesting

text: Before the 20th century, all maize harvesting was by manual labour, by grazing, or by some combination of those. Whether the ears were hand-picked and the stover was grazed, or the whole plant was cut, gathered, and shocked, people and livestock did all the work. Between the 1890s and the 1970s, the technology of maize harvesting expanded greatly. Today, all such technologies, from entirely manual harvesting to entirely mechanized, are still in use to some degree, as appropriate to each farm's needs, although the thoroughly mechanized versions predominate, as they offer the lowest unit costs when scaled to large farm operations. For small farms, their unit cost can be too high, as their higher fixed cost cannot be amortized over as many units.

text: Before World War II, most maize in North America was harvested by hand. This involved a large numbers of workers and associated social events (husking or shucking bees). From the 1890s onward, some machinery became available to partially mechanize the processes, such as one- and two-row mechanical pickers (picking the ear, leaving the stover) and corn binders, which are reaper-binders designed specifically for maize (for example, Video on YouTube). The latter produce sheaves that can be shocked. By hand or mechanical picker, the entire ear is harvested, which then requires a separate operation of a maize sheller to remove the kernels from the ear. Whole ears of maize were often stored in corn cribs, and these whole ears are a sufficient form for some livestock feeding use. Today corn cribs with whole ears, and corn binders, are less common because most modern farms harvest the grain from the field with a combine and store it in bins. The combine with a corn head (with points and snap rolls instead of a reel) does not cut the stalk; it simply pulls the stalk down. The stalk continues downward and is crumpled into a mangled pile on the ground, where it usually is left to become organic matter for the soil. The ear of maize is too large to pass between slots in a plate as the snap rolls pull the stalk away, leaving only the ear and husk to enter the machinery. The combine separates out the husk and the cob, keeping only the kernels.

text: When maize is a silage crop, the entire plant is usually chopped at once with a forage harvester (chopper) and ensiled in silos or polymer wrappers. Ensiling of sheaves cut by a corn binder was formerly common in some regions but has become uncommon.

text: For storing grain in bins, the moisture of the grain must be sufficiently low to avoid spoiling. If the moisture content of the harvested grain is too high, grain dryers are used to reduce the moisture content by blowing heated air through the grain. This can require large amounts of energy in the form of combustible gases (propane or natural gas) and electricity to power the blowers.[76]

text: Production

text: Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world, and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other grain.[77] In 2014, total world production was 1.04 billion tonnes, led by the United States with 35% of the total (table). China produced 21% of the global total.

text:
Maize production - 2014[78]

Country
Production (millions of tonnes)

 United States
361.1

 China
215.6

 Brazil
79.9

 Argentina
33.1

 Ukraine
28.5

 India
23.7

 Mexico
23.3

 World

1037.8

tag: table

text: United States

text: In 2016, corn (maize) production was forecast to be over 15 billion bushels, an increase of 11% over 2014 American production.[79] Based on conditions as of August 2016, the expected yield would be the highest ever for the United States.[79] The area of harvested maize was forecast to be 87 million acres, an increase of 7% over 2015.[79]

text: Pests

text: Insects

text:
African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta)
African sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina)
Common armyworm (Pseudaletia unipuncta)
Common earwig (Forficula auricularia)
Corn delphacid (Peregrinus maidis)
Corn leaf aphid (Rhopalosiphum maidis)
Corn rootworms (Diabrotica spp) including Western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte), Northern corn rootworm (D. barberi) and Southern corn rootworm (D. undecimpunctata howardi)
Corn silkfly (Euxesta stigmatias)
Asian corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis)
European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) (ECB)
Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) Some sweet corn varieties have developed partial resistance to fall army worms by producing a unique 33-kD proteinase that significantly retards fall army worm growth.[80][81]
Corn earworm/Cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa zea)
Lesser cornstalk borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus)
Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais)
Northern armyworm, Oriental armyworm or Rice ear-cutting caterpillar (Mythimna separata)
Southwestern corn borer (Diatraea grandiosella)
Stalk borer (Papaipema nebris)

text: The susceptibility of maize to the European corn borer and corn rootworms, and the resulting large crop losses which are estimated at a billion dollars worldwide for each pest,[82][83][84] led to the development of transgenics expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin. "Bt maize" is widely grown in the United States and has been approved for release in Europe.

text: Diseases

text:
Rust
Corn smut or common smut (Ustilago maydis): a fungal disease, known in Mexico as huitlacoche, which is prized by some as a gourmet delicacy in itself
Northern corn leaf blight (Purdue Extension site) (Pioneer site)
Southern corn leaf blight
Maize downy mildew (Peronosclerospora spp.)
Maize dwarf mosaic virus
Maize streak virus
Stewart's wilt (Pantoea stewartii)
Goss's wilt (Clavibacter michiganensis)
Grey leaf spot
Mal de Río Cuarto virus (MRCV)
Stalk rot
Ear rot

text: Uses

text: Human food

text: Maize and cornmeal (ground dried maize) constitute a staple food in many regions of the world.

text: Maize is central to Mexican food. Virtually every dish in Mexican cuisine uses maize. In the form of grain or cornmeal, maize is the main ingredient of tortillas, tamales, pozole, atole and all the dishes based on them, like tacos, quesadillas, chilaquiles, enchiladas, tostadas and many more. In Mexico even a fungus of maize, known as huitlacoche is considered a delicacy.

text: Introduced into Africa by the Portuguese in the 16th century, maize has become Africa's most important staple food crop.[85] Maize meal is made into a thick porridge in many cultures: from the polenta of Italy, the angu of Brazil, the mămăligă of Romania, to cornmeal mush in the US (and hominy grits in the South) or the food called mealie pap in South Africa and sadza, nshima and ugali in other parts of Africa. Maize meal is also used as a replacement for wheat flour, to make cornbread and other baked products. Masa (cornmeal treated with limewater) is the main ingredient for tortillas, atole and many other dishes of Central American food.

text: Popcorn consists of kernels of certain varieties that explode when heated, forming fluffy pieces that are eaten as a snack. Roasted dried maize ears with semihardened kernels, coated with a seasoning mixture of fried chopped spring onions with salt added to the oil, is a popular snack food in Vietnam. Cancha, which are roasted maize chulpe kernels, are a very popular snack food in Peru, and also appears in traditional Peruvian ceviche. An unleavened bread called makki di roti is a popular bread eaten in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan.

text: Chicha and chicha morada (purple chicha) are drinks typically made from particular types of maize. The first one is fermented and alcoholic, the second is a soft drink commonly drunk in Peru.

text: Corn flakes are a common breakfast cereal in North America and the United Kingdom, and found in many other countries all over the world.

text: Maize can also be prepared as hominy, in which the kernels are soaked with lye in a process called nixtamalization; or grits, which are coarsely ground hominy. These are commonly eaten in the Southeastern United States, foods handed down from Native Americans, who called the dish sagamite.

text: The Brazilian dessert canjica is made by boiling maize kernels in sweetened milk. Maize can also be harvested and consumed in the unripe state, when the kernels are fully grown but still soft. Unripe maize must usually be cooked to become palatable; this may be done by simply boiling or roasting the whole ears and eating the kernels right off the cob. Sweet corn, a genetic variety that is high in sugars and low in starch, is usually consumed in the unripe state. Such corn on the cob is a common dish in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Cyprus, some parts of South America, and the Balkans, but virtually unheard of in some European countries. Corn on the cob was hawked on the streets of early 19th-century New York City by poor, barefoot "Hot Corn Girls", who were thus the precursors of hot dog carts, churro wagons, and fruit stands seen on the streets of big cities today.[86] The cooked, unripe kernels may also be shaved off the cob and served as a vegetable in side dishes, salads, garnishes, etc. Alternatively, the raw unripe kernels may also be grated off the cobs and processed into a variety of cooked dishes, such as maize purée, tamales, pamonhas, curau, cakes, ice creams, etc.

text: Maize is a major source of starch. Cornstarch (maize flour) is a major ingredient in home cooking and in many industrialized food products. Maize is also a major source of cooking oil (corn oil) and of maize gluten. Maize starch can be hydrolyzed and enzymatically treated to produce syrups, particularly high fructose corn syrup, a sweetener; and also fermented and distilled to produce grain alcohol. Grain alcohol from maize is traditionally the source of Bourbon whiskey. Maize is sometimes used as the starch source for beer. Within the United States, the usage of maize for human consumption constitutes about 1/40th of the amount grown in the country. In the United States and Canada, maize is mostly grown to feed livestock, as forage, silage (made by fermentation of chopped green cornstalks), or grain. Maize meal is also a significant ingredient of some commercial animal food products, such as dog food.

text: Nutritional value

text:
Sweetcorn, yellow, raw
(seeds only)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy
360 kJ (86 kcal)

Carbohydrates

18.7 g

Starch
5.7 g

Sugars
6.26 g

Dietary fiber
2 g

Fat

1.35 g

Protein

3.27 g

Tryptophan
0.023 g

Threonine
0.129 g

Isoleucine
0.129 g

Leucine
0.348 g

Lysine
0.137 g

Methionine
0.067 g

Cystine
0.026 g

Phenylalanine
0.150 g

Tyrosine
0.123 g

Valine
0.185 g

Arginine
0.131 g

Histidine
0.089 g

Alanine
0.295 g

Aspartic acid
0.244 g

Glutamic acid
0.636 g

Glycine
0.127 g

Proline
0.292 g

Serine
0.153 g

Vitamins

Vitamin A equiv.
lutein zeaxanthin

(1%)
9 μg
644 μg

Thiamine (B1)

(13%)
0.155 mg

Riboflavin (B2)

(5%)
0.055 mg

Niacin (B3)

(12%)
1.77 mg

Pantothenic acid (B5)

(14%)
0.717 mg

Vitamin B6

(7%)
0.093 mg

Folate (B9)

(11%)
42 μg

Vitamin C

(8%)
6.8 mg

Minerals

Iron

(4%)
0.52 mg

Magnesium

(10%)
37 mg

Manganese

(8%)
0.163 mg

Phosphorus

(13%)
89 mg

Potassium

(6%)
270 mg

Zinc

(5%)
0.46 mg

Other constituents

Water
75.96 g

Link to USDA Database entry
One ear of medium size (6-3/4" to 7-1/2" long)
maize has 90 grams of seeds

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: Raw, yellow, sweet maize kernels are composed of 76% water, 19% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a 100-gram serving, maize kernels provide 86 calories and are a good source (10-19% of the Daily Value) of the B vitamins, thiamin, niacin, pantothenic acid (B5) and folate (right table for raw, uncooked kernels, USDA Nutrient Database). In moderate amounts, they also supply dietary fiber and the essential minerals, magnesium and phosphorus whereas other nutrients are in low amounts (table).

text: Maize has suboptimal amounts of the essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine, which accounts for its lower status as a protein source.[87]

text: Feed and fodder for livestock

text: Maize is a major source of both grain feed and fodder for livestock. It is fed to the livestock in various ways. When it is used as a grain crop, the dried kernels are used as feed. They are often kept on the cob for storage in a corn crib, or they may be shelled off for storage in a grain bin. The farm that consumes the feed may produce it, purchase it on the market, or some of both. When the grain is used for feed, the rest of the plant (the corn stover) can be used later as fodder, bedding (litter), or soil amendment. When the whole maize plant (grain plus stalks and leaves) is used for fodder, it is usually chopped all at once and ensilaged, as digestibility and palatability are higher in the ensilaged form than in the dried form. Maize silage is one of the most valuable forages for ruminants.[88] Before the advent of widespread ensilaging, it was traditional to gather the corn into shocks after harvesting, where it dried further. With or without a subsequent move to the cover of a barn, it was then stored for weeks to several months until fed to the livestock. Today ensilaging can occur not only in siloes but also in silage wrappers. However, in the tropics maize can be harvested year-round and fed as green forage to the animals.[89]

text: Chemicals

text: Starch from maize can also be made into plastics, fabrics, adhesives, and many other chemical products.

text: The corn steep liquor, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize wet milling process, is widely used in the biochemical industry and research as a culture medium to grow many kinds of microorganisms.[90]

text: Chrysanthemin is found in purple corn and is used as a food coloring.

text: Bio-fuel

text: "Feed maize" is being used increasingly for heating;[91] specialized corn stoves (similar to wood stoves) are available and use either feed maize or wood pellets to generate heat. Maize cobs are also used as a biomass fuel source. Maize is relatively cheap and home-heating furnaces have been developed which use maize kernels as a fuel. They feature a large hopper that feeds the uniformly sized maize kernels (or wood pellets or cherry pits) into the fire.

text: Maize is increasingly used as a feedstock for the production of ethanol fuel.[92] When considering where to construct an ethanol plant, one of the site selection criteria is to ensure there is locally available feedstock.[93] Ethanol is mixed with gasoline to decrease the amount of pollutants emitted when used to fuel motor vehicles. High fuel prices in mid-2007 led to higher demand for ethanol, which in turn led to higher prices paid to farmers for maize. This led to the 2007 harvest being one of the most profitable maize crops in modern history for farmers. Because of the relationship between fuel and maize, prices paid for the crop now tend to track the price of oil.[citation needed]

text: The price of food is affected to a certain degree by the use of maize for biofuel production. The cost of transportation, production, and marketing are a large portion (80%) of the price of food in the United States. Higher energy costs affect these costs, especially transportation. The increase in food prices the consumer has been seeing is mainly due to the higher energy cost. The effect of biofuel production on other food crop prices is indirect. Use of maize for biofuel production increases the demand, and therefore price of maize. This, in turn, results in farm acreage being diverted from other food crops to maize production. This reduces the supply of the other food crops and increases their prices.[94][95]

text: Maize is widely used in Germany as a feedstock for biogas plants. Here the maize is harvested, shredded then placed in silage clamps from which it is fed into the biogas plants. This process makes use of the whole plant rather than simply using the kernels as in the production of fuel ethanol.

text: A biomass gasification power plant in Strem near Güssing, Burgenland, Austria, began in 2005. Research is being done to make diesel out of the biogas by the Fischer Tropsch method.

text: Increasingly, ethanol is being used at low concentrations (10% or less) as an additive in gasoline (gasohol) for motor fuels to increase the octane rating, lower pollutants, and reduce petroleum use (what is nowadays also known as "biofuels" and has been generating an intense debate regarding the human beings' necessity of new sources of energy, on the one hand, and the need to maintain, in regions such as Latin America, the food habits and culture which has been the essence of civilizations such as the one originated in Mesoamerica; the entry, January 2008, of maize among the commercial agreements of NAFTA has increased this debate, considering the bad labor conditions of workers in the fields, and mainly the fact that NAFTA "opened the doors to the import of maize from the United States, where the farmers who grow it receive multimillion dollar subsidies and other government supports. (...) According to OXFAM UK, after NAFTA went into effect, the price of maize in Mexico fell 70% between 1994 and 2001. The number of farm jobs dropped as well: from 8.1 million in 1993 to 6.8 million in 2002. Many of those who found themselves without work were small-scale maize growers.").[96] However, introduction in the northern latitudes of the US of tropical maize for biofuels, and not for human or animal consumption, may potentially alleviate this.

text: As a result of the US federal government announcing its production target of 35 billion US gallons (130,000,000 m3) of biofuels by 2017, ethanol production will grow to 7 billion US gallons (26,000,000 m3) by 2010, up from 4.5 billion in 2006, boosting ethanol's share of maize demand in the US from 22.6 percent to 36.1 percent.[97]

text: Commodity

text: Maize is bought and sold by investors and price speculators as a tradable commodity using corn futures contracts. These "futures" are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) under ticker symbol C. They are delivered every year in March, May, July, September, and December.[98]

text: Ornamental and other uses

text: Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used.

text: Corncobs can be hollowed out and treated to make inexpensive smoking pipes, first manufactured in the United States in 1869.

text: An unusual use for maize is to create a "corn maze" (or "maize maze") as a tourist attraction. The idea of a maize maze was introduced by the American Maze Company who created a maze in Pennsylvania in 1993.[99] Traditional mazes are most commonly grown using yew hedges, but these take several years to mature. The rapid growth of a field of maize allows a maze to be laid out using GPS at the start of a growing season and for the maize to grow tall enough to obstruct a visitor's line of sight by the start of the summer. In Canada and the US, these are popular in many farming communities.

text: Maize kernels can be used in place of sand in a sandboxlike enclosure for children's play.[100]

text: Stigmas from female maize flowers, popularly called corn silk, are sold as herbal supplements.[citation needed]

text: Maize is used as a fish bait, called "dough balls". It is particularly popular in Europe for coarse fishing.

text: Additionally, feed corn is sometimes used by hunters to bait animals such as deer or wild hogs.

text: United States usage breakdown

text: The breakdown of usage of the 12.1-billion-bushel (307-million-tonne) 2008 US maize crop was as follows, according to the World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates Report by the USDA.[101]

text:
Use
Amount

million bushels
million tonnes
percentage

livestock feed
5,250
133.4
43.4

ethanol production
3,650
92.7
30.2

exports
1,850
47.0
15.3

production of starch, corn oil, sweeteners (HFCS, etc.)
943
24.0
7.8

human consumption—grits, corn flour, corn meal, beverage alcohol
327
8.3
2.7

text: In the US since 2009/2010, maize feedstock use for ethanol production has somewhat exceeded direct use for livestock feed; maize use for fuel ethanol was 5,130 million bushels (130 million tonnes) in the 2013/2014 marketing year.[102]

text: A fraction of the maize feedstock dry matter used for ethanol production is usefully recovered as DDGS (dried distillers grains with solubles). In the 2010/2011 marketing year, about 29.1 million tonnes of DDGS were fed to US livestock and poultry.[103] Because starch utilization in fermentation for ethanol production leaves other grain constituents more concentrated in the residue, the feed value per kg of DDGS, with regard to ruminant-metabolizable energy and protein, exceeds that of the grain. Feed value for monogastric animals, such as swine and poultry, is somewhat lower than for ruminants.[103]

text: Comparison to other staple foods

text:
Nutrient contents in %DV of common foods (raw, uncooked) per 100 g

[show]
Protein
Fiber
Vitamins
Minerals

Food
DV
Q
DV
A
B1
B2
B3
B5
B6
B9
B12
Ch.
C
D
E
K
Ca
Fe
Mg
P
K
Na
Zn
Cu
Mn
Se

cooking Reduction %

10
30
20
25

25
35
0
0
30

10
15
20
10
20
5
10
25

Corn
20
55
6
1
13
4
16
4
19
19
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
11
31
34
15
1
20
10
42
0

Rice
14
71
1.3
0
12
3
11
20
5
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
9
6
7
2
0
8
9
49
22

Wheat
27
51
40
0
28
7
34
19
21
11
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
20
36
51
12
0
28
28
151
128

Soybean(dry)
73
132
31
0
58
51
8
8
19
94
0
24
10
0
4
59
28
87
70
70
51
0
33
83
126
25

Pigeon pea(dry)
42
91
50
1
43
11
15
13
13
114
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
29
46
37
40
1
18
53
90
12

Potato
4
112
7.3
0
5
2
5
3
15
4
0
0
33
0
0
2
1
4
6
6
12
0
2
5
8
0

Sweet potato
3
82
10
284
5
4
3
8
10
3
0
0
4
0
1
2
3
3
6
5
10
2
2
8
13
1

Spinach
6
119
7.3
188
5
11
4
1
10
49
0
4.5
47
0
10
604
10
15
20
5
16
3
4
6
45
1

Dill
7
32
7
154
4
17
8
4
9
38
0
0
142
0
0
0
21
37
14
7
21
3
6
7
63
0

Carrots
2

9.3
334
4
3
5
3
7
5
0
0
10
0
3
16
3
2
3
4
9
3
2
2
7
0

Guava
5
24
18
12
4
2
5
5
6
12
0
0
381
0
4
3
2
1
5
4
12
0
2
11
8
1

Papaya
1
7
5.6
22
2
2
2
2
1
10
0
0
103
0
4
3
2
1
2
1
7
0
0
1
1
1

Pumpkin
2
56
1.6
184
3
6
3
3
3
4
0
0
15
0
5
1
2
4
3
4
10
0
2
6
6
0

Sunflower oil
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
205
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Egg
25
136
0
10
5
28
0
14
7
12
22
45
0
9
5
0
5
10
3
19
4
6
7
5
2
45

Milk
6
138
0
2
3
11
1
4
2
1
7
2.6
0
0
0
0
11
0
2
9
4
2
3
1
0
5

Chicken Liver
34
149
0
222
20
105
49
62
43
147
276

30
0
4
0
1
50
5
30
7
3
18
25
13
78

text: Ch. = Choline; Ca = Calcium; Fe = Iron; Mg = Magnesium; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium; Na = Sodium; Zn = Zinc; Cu = Copper; Mn = Manganese; Se = Selenium; %DV = % daily value i.e. % of DRI (Dietary Reference Intake) Note: All nutrient values including protein and fiber are in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light Gray color and bold letters. [104][105] Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo-lacto-vegetables group[106][107] Q = Quality of Protein in terms of completeness without adjusting for digestability.[107]

text: The following table shows the nutrient content of maize and major staple foods in a raw harvested form. Raw forms are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these staples are different from that of raw form of these staples reported in the table below.

text:
Nutrient content of major staple foods per 100 g portion[108]

Nutrient component:
Maize / Corn[A]
Rice (white)[B]
Rice (brown)[I]
Wheat[C]
Potato[D]
Cassava[E]
Soybean (Green)[F]
Sweet potato[G]
Yam[Y]
Sorghum[H]
Plantain[Z]
RDA

Water (g)
10
12
10
13
79
60
68
77
70
9
65
3000

Energy (kJ)
1528
1528
1549
1369
322
670
615
360
494
1419
511
8368–10,460

Protein (g)
9.4
7.1
7.9
12.6
2.0
1.4
13.0
1.6
1.5
11.3
1.3
50

Fat (g)
4.74
0.66
2.92
1.54
0.09
0.28
6.8
0.05
0.17
3.3
0.37

Carbohydrates (g)
74
80
77
71
17
38
11
20
28
75
32
130

Fiber (g)
7.3
1.3
3.5
12.2
2.2
1.8
4.2
3
4.1
6.3
2.3
30

Sugar (g)
0.64
0.12
0.85
0.41
0.78
1.7
0
4.18
0.5
0
15

Calcium (mg)
7
28
23
29
12
16
197
30
17
28
3
1000

Iron (mg)
2.71
0.8
1.47
3.19
0.78
0.27
3.55
0.61
0.54
4.4
0.6
8

Magnesium (mg)
127
25
143
126
23
21
65
25
21
0
37
400

Phosphorus (mg)
210
115
333
288
57
27
194
47
55
287
34
700

Potassium (mg)
287
115
223
363
421
271
620
337
816
350
499
4700

Sodium (mg)
35
5
7
2
6
14
15
55
9
6
4
1500

Zinc (mg)
2.21
1.09
2.02
2.65
0.29
0.34
0.99
0.3
0.24
0
0.14
11

Copper (mg)
0.31
0.22

0.43
0.11
0.10
0.13
0.15
0.18
-
0.08
0.9

Manganese (mg)
0.49
1.09
3.74
3.99
0.15
0.38
0.55
0.26
0.40
-
-
2.3

Selenium (μg)
15.5
15.1

70.7
0.3
0.7
1.5
0.6
0.7
0
1.5
55

Vitamin C (mg)
0
0
0
0
19.7
20.6
29
2.4
17.1
0
18.4
90

Thiamin (B1)(mg)
0.39
0.07
0.40
0.30
0.08
0.09
0.44
0.08
0.11
0.24
0.05
1.2

Riboflavin (B2)(mg)
0.20
0.05
0.09
0.12
0.03
0.05
0.18
0.06
0.03
0.14
0.05
1.3

Niacin (B3) (mg)
3.63
1.6
5.09
5.46
1.05
0.85
1.65
0.56
0.55
2.93
0.69
16

Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg)
0.42
1.01
1.49
0.95
0.30
0.11
0.15
0.80
0.31
-
0.26
5

Vitamin B6 (mg)
0.62
0.16
0.51
0.3
0.30
0.09
0.07
0.21
0.29
-
0.30
1.3

Folate Total (B9) (μg)
19
8
20
38
16
27
165
11
23
0
22
400

Vitamin A (IU)
214
0
0
9
2
13
180
14187
138
0
1127
5000

Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg)
0.49
0.11
0.59
1.01
0.01
0.19
0
0.26
0.39
0
0.14
15

Vitamin K1 (μg)
0.3
0.1
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.9
0
1.8
2.6
0
0.7
120

Beta-carotene (μg)
97
0

5
1
8
0
8509
83
0
457
10,500

Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg)
1355
0

220
8
0
0
0
0
0
30

Saturated fatty acids (g)
0.67
0.18
0.58
0.26
0.03
0.07
0.79
0.02
0.04
0.46
0.14

Monounsaturated fatty acids (g)
1.25
0.21
1.05
0.2
0.00
0.08
1.28
0.00
0.01
0.99
0.03

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g)
2.16
0.18
1.04
0.63
0.04
0.05
3.20
0.01
0.08
1.37
0.07

text:
A yellow corn

B raw unenriched long-grain white rice

C hard red winter wheat

D raw potato with flesh and skin

E raw cassava

F raw green soybeans

G raw sweet potato

H raw sorghum

Y raw yam

Z raw plantains

I raw long-grain brown rice

text: Hazards

text: Pellagra

text: When maize was first introduced into farming systems other than those used by traditional native-American peoples, it was generally welcomed with enthusiasm for its productivity. However, a widespread problem of malnutrition soon arose wherever maize was introduced as a staple food. This was a mystery, since these types of malnutrition were not normally seen among the indigenous Americans, for whom maize was the principal staple food.[109]

text: It was eventually discovered that the indigenous Americans had learned to soak maize in alkali-water—made with ashes and lime (calcium oxide) since at least 1200–1500 BC by Mesoamericans and North Americans—which liberates the B-vitamin niacin, the lack of which was the underlying cause of the condition known as pellagra.[110]

text: Maize was introduced into the diet of nonindigenous Americans without the necessary cultural knowledge acquired over thousands of years in the Americas. In the late 19th century, pellagra reached epidemic proportions in parts of the southern US, as medical researchers debated two theories for its origin: the deficiency theory (which was eventually shown to be true) said that pellagra was due to a deficiency of some nutrient, and the germ theory said that pellagra was caused by a germ transmitted by stable flies. A third theory, promoted by the eugenicist Charles Davenport, held that people only contracted pellagra if they were susceptible to it due to certain "constitutional, inheritable" traits of the affected individual.[111]

text: Once alkali processing and dietary variety were understood and applied, pellagra disappeared in the developed world. The development of high lysine maize and the promotion of a more balanced diet have also contributed to its demise. Pellagra still exists today in food-poor areas and refugee camps where people survive on donated maize.Thompson, Janice J.; Manore, Melinda; Vaughan, Linda (15 January 2016). "Nutrients involved in energy metabolism". The Science of Nutrition. Pearson Education. pp. 292–321. ISBN 978-0-13-429880-1.  Also ISBN 978-0-321-64316-2.</ref>

text: Allergy

text: Maize contains lipid transfer protein, an indigestible protein that survives cooking. This protein has been linked to a rare and understudied allergy to maize in humans.[112] The allergic reaction can cause skin rash, swelling or itching of mucous membranes, diarrhea, vomiting, asthma and, in severe cases, anaphylaxis. It is unclear how common this allergy is in the general population.

text: Art

text: Maize has been an essential crop in the Andes since the pre-Columbian era. The Moche culture from Northern Peru made ceramics from earth, water, and fire. This pottery was a sacred substance, formed in significant shapes and used to represent important themes. Maize was represented anthropomorphically as well as naturally.[113]

text: In the United States, maize ears along with tobacco leaves are carved into the capitals of columns in the United States Capitol building. Maize itself is sometimes used for temporary architectural detailing when the intent is to celebrate the fall season, local agricultural productivity and culture. Bundles of dried maize stalks are often displayed often along with pumpkins, gourds and straw in autumnal displays outside homes and businesses. A well-known example of architectural use is the Corn Palace in Mitchell, South Dakota, which uses cobs and ears of colored maize to implement a mural design that is recycled annually. Another well known example is the Field of Corn in Dublin, Ohio, where hundreds of concrete ears of corn lay in a grassy field.

text: A maize stalk with two ripe ears is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 1 lipa coin, minted since 1993.[114]


document_title: Girl Don't Tell Me

question_text: who sang lead on girl don't tell me

question_tokens: who sang lead on girl do n 't tell me

text: Girl Don't Tell Me

text: Origins[edit]

text: Brian Wilson wrote the song in early 1965 while on honeymoon with Marilyn. He recalled that "a whole song came to me. It was 'Girl Don't Tell Me.' I didn't have any way to get it down. But I just heard the whole thing up there, from start to finish, and I remembered it well enough to go later and write down the lyrics on a piece of paper."[1]

text: Recording[edit]

text: The Beach Boys recorded "Girl Don't Tell Me" on April 30, 1965 at United Western Recorders. Chuck Britz was the engineer.[2] It was one of the first songs to feature Carl Wilson as lead vocalist[3] (his first unshared lead was on "Pom Pom Play Girl"),[citation needed], and is one of the few Beach Boys tracks from the era to feature no backing vocals. It was also the first recording session that Bruce Johnston participated in as a member of The Beach Boys.[citation needed]

text: Beach Boys biographer David Leaf has likened "Girl Don't Tell Me" to the Beatles' 1965 single "Ticket to Ride", in terms of its guitar breaks, drum fills and vocal delivery.[3] Brian Wilson cited this as an example of how each new Beatles release over this period inspired him as a songwriter, and how, with "Girl Don't Tell Me", "I even tried writing a Beatles song."[4] He said that Carl's drawn-out phrasing over the words "you'll write" was taken from "Ticket to Ride".[4] It has been claimed that Brian intended to submit "Girl Don't Tell Me" to the Beatles.[5]

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Sourced from Musician's Union AFM contract sheets and surviving session audio, documented by Craig Slowinski.[2]

text:
Bruce Johnston – celesta
Brian Wilson – bass guitar
Carl Wilson – lead vocals, guitars
Dennis Wilson – drums

text: Ron Swallow – tambourine

text: Covers[edit]

text:
1965 – Keith Green
1966 – Tony Rivers and the Castaways
1980 – The Smithereens, Girls About Town
1996 – Fuzzy, Electric Juices
2000 – Truly, Twilight Curtains
2000 – Souvenir, Caroline Now! (as "Ne dis pas")
2001 – Al Jardine, Live in Las Vegas
2008 – Vivian Girls
2009 – The Shins[citation needed]
2011 – My Cousin, The Emperor, Don't Steal the Covers!


document_title: FIFA World Cup top goalscorers

question_text: who has scored the most goals in a world cup

text: FIFA World Cup top goalscorers

text: Overall top goalscorers[edit]

text:
Tournaments in parentheses, e.g., (1982): played in the tournament, but did not score a goal
Tournaments in square brackets: e.g., [1994]: part of the squad for the tournament, but did not play
Players in bold↑: have continued playing for their national team after the 2014 tournament

text:
Players with at least 5 goals at the FIFA World Cup tournaments[1][6]

Rank
Player
Team
Goals
scored
Matches
played
Goals
per game
Tournaments
Notes

1
Klose, MiroslavMiroslav Klose
Germany ! Germany
16
24
0.67
2002, 2006, 2010, 2014
[7]

2
Ronaldo, Ronaldo
 Brazil
15
19
0.79
[1994], 1998, 2002, 2006
[8]

3
Müller, GerdGerd Müller
West Germany ! West Germany
14
13
1.08
1970, 1974
[9]

4
Fontaine, JustJust Fontaine
 France
13
6
2.17
1958
[10]

5
Pelé, Pelé
 Brazil
12
14
0.86
1958, 1962, 1966, 1970
[11]

6
Kocsis, SándorSándor Kocsis
 Hungary
11
5
2.20
1954
[12]

Klinsmann, JürgenJürgen Klinsmann
Germany ! Germany
17
0.65
1990, 1994, 1998
[13]

8
Rahn, HelmutHelmut Rahn
Germany ! West Germany
10
10
1.00
1954, 1958
[14]

Lineker, GaryGary Lineker
 England
12
0.83
1986, 1990
[15]

Batistuta, GabrielGabriel Batistuta
 Argentina
12
0.83
1994, 1998, 2002
[16]

Cubillas, TeófiloTeófilo Cubillas
 Peru
13
0.77
1970, 1978, (1982)
[17]

Müller, ThomasThomas Müller↑
Germany ! Germany
13
0.77
2010, 2014
[18]

Lato, GrzegorzGrzegorz Lato
 Poland
20
0.50
1974, 1978, 1982
[19]

14
Eusébio, Eusébio
 Portugal
9
6
1.50
1966
[20]

Vieri, ChristianChristian Vieri
 Italy
9
1.00
1998, 2002
[21]

Vavá, Vavá
 Brazil
10
0.90
1958, 1962
[22]

Villa, DavidDavid Villa↑
 Spain
12
0.75
2006, 2010, 2014
[23]

Rossi, PaoloPaolo Rossi
 Italy
14
0.64
1978, 1982, [1986]
[24]

Jairzinho, Jairzinho
 Brazil
16
0.56
1966a !(1966), 1970, 1974
[25]

Baggio, RobertoRoberto Baggio
 Italy
16
0.56
1990, 1994, 1998
[26]

Rummenigge, Karl-HeinzKarl-Heinz Rummenigge
Germany ! West Germany
19
0.47
1978, 1982, 1986
[27]

Seeler, UweUwe Seeler
Germany ! West Germany
21
0.43
1958, 1962, 1966, 1970
[28]

23
Stábile, GuillermoGuillermo Stábile
 Argentina
8
4
2.00
1930
[29]

Leônidas, Leônidas
 Brazil
5
1.60
1934, 1938
[nb 1][31]

Ademir, Ademir
 Brazil
6
1.33
1950
[nb 2][34]

Míguez, ÓscarÓscar Míguez
 Uruguay
7
1.14
1950, 1954
[35]

Rivaldo, Rivaldo
 Brazil
14
0.57
1998, 2002
[36]

Völler, RudiRudi Völler
Germany ! Germany
15
0.53
1986, 1990, 1994
[37]

Maradona, DiegoDiego Maradona
 Argentina
21
0.38
1982, 1986, (1990), 1994
[38]

30
Nejedlý, OldřichOldřich Nejedlý
 Czechoslovakia
7
6
1.17
1934, 1938
[nb 3][39]

Tichy, LajosLajos Tichy
 Hungary
8
0.88
1958, 1962, [1966]
[40]

Careca, Careca
 Brazil
9
0.78
1986, 1990
[41]

Szarmach, AndrzejAndrzej Szarmach
 Poland
13
0.54
1974, 1978, 1982
[42]

Rep, JohnnyJohnny Rep
 Netherlands
13
0.54
1974, 1978
[43]

Schäfer, HansHans Schäfer
Germany ! West Germany
15
0.47
1954, 1958, (1962)
[44]

36
Hugi, JosefJosef Hügi
  Switzerland
6
3
2.00
1954
[45]

Salenko, OlegOleg Salenko
 Russia
3
2.00
1994
[46]

Morlock, MaxMax Morlock
Germany ! West Germany
5
1.20
1954
[47]

Probst, ErichErich Probst
 Austria
5
1.20
1954
[48]

Sarosi, GyorgyGyörgy Sárosi
 Hungary
5
1.20
1934, 1938
[49]

Rodríguez, JamesJames Rodríguez↑
 Colombia
5
1.20
2014
[50]

Schillaci, SalvatoreSalvatore Schillaci
 Italy
7
0.86
1990
[51]

Šuker, DavorDavor Šuker
 Croatia
8
0.75
1990b ![1990], 1998, (2002)
[nb 4][52]

Haller, HelmutHelmut Haller
Germany ! West Germany
9
0.67
1962a !(1962), 1966, (1970)
[53]

Stoichkov, HristoHristo Stoichkov
 Bulgaria
10
0.60
1994, (1998)
[54]

Forlan, DiegoDiego Forlán
 Uruguay
10
0.60
2002, 2010, (2014)
[55]

Gyan, AsamoahAsamoah Gyan↑
 Ghana
11
0.55
2006, 2010, 2014
[56]

Bergkamp, DennisDennis Bergkamp
 Netherlands
12
0.50
1994, 1998
[57]

Rensenbrink, RobRob Rensenbrink
 Netherlands
13
0.46
1974, 1978
[58]

Rivellino, Rivellino
 Brazil
15
0.40
1970, 1974, (1978)
[59]

Bebeto, Bebeto
 Brazil
15
0.40
1990a !(1990), 1994, 1998
[60]

Robben, ArjenArjen Robben↑
 Netherlands
15
0.40
2006, 2010, 2014
[61]

Boniek, ZbigniewZbigniew Boniek
 Poland
16
0.37
1978, 1982, (1986)
[62]

Henry, ThierryThierry Henry
 France
17
0.35
1998, (2002), 2006, (2010)
[63]

Sneijder, WesleyWesley Sneijder↑
 Netherlands
17
0.35
2006a !(2006), 2010, 2014
[64]

van Persie, RobinRobin van Persie↑
 Netherlands
17
0.35
2006, 2010, 2014
[65]

Kempes, MarioMario Kempes
 Argentina
18
0.33
1974a !(1974), 1978, (1982)
[66]

Matthäus, LotharLothar Matthäus
Germany ! Germany
25
0.24
1982a !(1982), 1986, 1990, 1994, (1998)
[67]

59
Cea, PedroPedro Cea
 Uruguay
5
4
1.25
1930
[68]

Piola, SilvioSilvio Piola
 Italy
4
1.25
1938
[69]

Zsengellér, GyulaGyula Zsengellér
 Hungary
4
1.25
1938
[70]

McParland, PeterPeter McParland
 Northern Ireland
5
1.00
1958
[71]

Skuhravý, TomášTomáš Skuhravý
 Czechoslovakia
5
1.00
1990
[72]

Schiaffino, Juan AlbertoJuan Alberto Schiaffino
 Uruguay
6
0.83
1950, 1954
[73]

Hurst, GeoffGeoff Hurst
 England
6
0.83
1966, 1970
[74]

Tomasson, Jon DahlJon Dahl Tomasson
 Denmark
6
0.83
2002, 2010
[75]

Altobelli, AlessandroAlessandro Altobelli
 Italy
7
0.71
1982, 1986
[76]

Andersson, KennetKennet Andersson
 Sweden
7
0.71
1994
[77]

Morientes, FernandoFernando Morientes
 Spain
7
0.71
1998, 2002
[78]

Romário, Romário
 Brazil
8
0.62
1990a !(1990), 1994
[79]

Wilmots, MarcMarc Wilmots
 Belgium
8
0.62
1990b ![1990], (1994), 1998, 2002
[80]

Cahill, TimTim Cahill↑
 Australia
8
0.62
2006, 2010, 2014
[81]

Suárez, LuisLuis Suárez↑
 Uruguay
8
0.62
2010, 2014
[82]

Ivanov, ValentinValentin Ivanov
 Soviet Union
9
0.55
1958, 1962
[83]

Milla, RogerRoger Milla
 Cameroon
9
0.55
1982a !(1982), 1990, 1994
[84]

Butragueño, EmilioEmilio Butragueño
 Spain
9
0.55
1986, (1990)
[85]

Krankl, HansHans Krankl
 Austria
10
0.50
1978, 1982
[86]

Raúl, Raúl
 Spain
11
0.45
1998, 2002, 2006
[87]

Higuaín, GonzaloGonzalo Higuaín↑
 Argentina
11
0.45
2010, 2014
[88]

Garrincha, Garrincha
 Brazil
12
0.42
1958a !(1958), 1962, 1966
[89]

Neeskens, JohanJohan Neeskens
 Netherlands
12
0.42
1974, (1978)
[90]

Hierro, FernandoFernando Hierro
 Spain
12
0.42
1990b ![1990], 1994, 1998, 2002
[91]

Zidane, ZinedineZinedine Zidane
 France
12
0.42
1998, (2002), 2006
[92]

Donovan, LandonLandon Donovan
 United States
12
0.42
2002, (2006), 2010
[93]

Larsson, HenrikHenrik Larsson
 Sweden
13
0.38
1994, 2002, 2006
[94]

Platini, MichelMichel Platini
 France
14
0.36
1978, 1982, 1986
[95]

Zico, Zico
 Brazil
14
0.36
1978, 1982, (1986)
[96]

Messi, LionelLionel Messi↑
 Argentina
14
0.36
2006, (2010), 2014
[97]

Podolski, LukasLukas Podolski
 Germany
15
0.33
2006, 2010, (2014)
[98]

Beckenbauer, FranzFranz Beckenbauer
Germany ! West Germany
18
0.28
1966, 1970, (1974)
[99]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
Progressive list of footballers that have held the record for most goals scored at the FIFA World Cup final tournaments

Goals
Date
Player
Team
Match
Opponent
Previous goals
Ref

1
July 13, 1930
Lucien Laurent
 France
 1930 – Group stage
 Mexico
N/A
[nb 5]

Bart McGhee
 United States
 1930 – Group stage
 Belgium

Marcel Langiller
 France
 1930 – Group stage
 Mexico

André Maschinot
 France
 Mexico

Tom Florie
 United States
 1930 – Group stage
 Belgium

Bert Patenaude
 United States
 Belgium

Juan Carreño
 Mexico
 1930 – Group stage
 France

2
André Maschinot
 France
 Mexico

July 16, 1930
Carlos Vidal
 Chile
 1930 – Group stage
 Mexico
1930 vs Mexico
[102]

July 17, 1930
Ivan Bek
 Yugoslavia
 1930 – Group stage
 Bolivia
1930 vs Brazil
[103]

3

Bert Patenaude
 United States
 1930 – Group stage
 Paraguay
1930 vs Belgium, Paraguay
[104]

4

July 22, 1930
Guillermo Stábile
 Argentina
 1930 – Group stage
 Chile
1930 vs Mexico (3)
[105]

5

6
July 26, 1930
 1930 – Semi-final
 United States

7

8
July 30, 1930
 1930 – Final
 Uruguay

June 19, 1938
Leônidas
 Brazil
 1938 – 3rd place
 Sweden
1934 vs Spain
1938 vs Poland (3), Czechoslovakia, Czechoslovakia, Sweden (2)
[106]

July 13, 1950
Ademir
 Brazil
 1950 – Final round
 Spain
1950 vs Mexico (2), Yugoslavia, Sweden (3), Spain
[34]

June 27, 1954
Sándor Kocsis
 Hungary
 1954 – Quarter-final
 Brazil
1954 vs South Korea (3), Germany (4)
[107]

9

10
June 30, 1954
 1954 – Semi-final
 Uruguay

11

June 28, 1958
Just Fontaine
 France
 1958 – 3rd place
 West Germany
1958 vs Paraguay (3), Yugoslavia (2), Scotland, Northern Ireland (2), Brazil, West Germany (4).
[108]

12

13

July 3, 1974
Gerd Müller
 West Germany
 1974 – Second round
 Poland
1970 vs Morocco, Bulgaria (3), Peru (3), England, Italy (2)
1974 vs Australia, Yugoslavia
[9]

14
July 7, 1974
 1974 – Final
 Netherlands

June 22, 2006
Ronaldo
 Brazil
 2006 – Group stage
 Japan
1998 vs Morocco, Chile (2), Netherlands
2002 vs Turkey, China, Costa Rica (2), Belgium, Turkey, Germany (2)
2006 vs Japan
[109]

15
June 27, 2006
 2006 – Round of 16
 Ghana

June 21, 2014
Miroslav Klose
 Germany
 2014 – Group stage
 Ghana
2002 vs Saudi Arabia (3), Ireland, Cameroon
2006 vs Costa Rica (2), Ecuador (2), Argentina
2010 vs Australia, England, Argentina (2)
[110]

16
July 8, 2014
 2014 – Semi-final
 Brazil

text: Top goalscorers for each tournament[edit]

text:
Top goalscorers at each FIFA World Cup final tournament[111]

World Cup
Player
Team
Goals
scored
Matches
played
Golden
Boot
Other FIFA Awards

1930 ! 1930
Stabile, GuillermoGuillermo Stábile
 Argentina
8
4

1934 ! 1934
Nejedly, OldrichOldřich Nejedlý
 Czechoslovakia
5
4

1938 ! 1938
Leonidas Leônidas
 Brazil
7
5

1950 ! 1950
Ademir, Ademir
 Brazil
8
6

1954 ! 1954
Kocsis, SandorSándor Kocsis
 Hungary
11
5

1958 ! 1958
Fontaine, JustJust Fontaine
 France
13
6

1962 ! 1962
Garrincha, Garrincha
 Brazil
4
6

Vava Vavá
 Brazil
6

Sanchez, LeonelLeonel Sánchez
 Chile
6

Albert, FlorianFlórián Albert
 Hungary
4

Best Young Player

Ivanov, ValentinValentin Ivanov
 Soviet Union
4

Jerkovic, DrazanDražan Jerković
 Yugoslavia
6

1966 ! 1966
Eusébio Eusébio
 Portugal
9
6

1970 ! 1970
Muller, GerdGerd Müller
Gern ! West Germany
10
6

Best Young Player

1974 ! 1974
Lato, GrzegorzGrzegorz Lato
 Poland
7
7

1978 ! 1978
Kempes, MarioMario Kempes
 Argentina
6
7

Golden Ball

1982 ! 1982
Rossi, PaoloPaolo Rossi
 Italy
6
7

Golden Ball

1986 ! 1986
Lineker, GaryGary Lineker
 England
6
5

1990 ! 1990
Schillaci, SalvatoreSalvatore Schillaci
 Italy
6
7

Golden Ball

1994 ! 1994
Stoichkov, HristoHristo Stoichkov
 Bulgaria
6
7

Bronze Ball

Salenko, OlegOleg Salenko
 Russia
3

1998 ! 1998
Šuker, DavorDavor Šuker
 Croatia
6
7

Silver Ball

2002 ! 2002
, RonaldoRonaldo
 Brazil
8
7

Silver Ball

2006 ! 2006
Klose, MiroslavMiroslav Klose
 Germany
5
7

2010 ! 2010
Muller, ThomasThomas Müller
 Germany
5
6

Best Young Player

Villa, DavidDavid Villa
 Spain
7

Silver Boot, Bronze Ball

Sneijder, WesleyWesley Sneijder
 Netherlands
7

Bronze Boot, Silver Ball

Forlan, DiegoDiego Forlán
 Uruguay
7

Golden Ball

2014 ! 2014
Rodríguez, JamesJames Rodríguez
 Colombia
6
5