document_title: Moon landing

question_text: whens the last time someone has been to the moon

question_tokens: whens the last time someone has been to the moon

text: Moon landing

text: Unmanned landings

text: After the unsuccessful attempt by the Luna 1 to land on the moon in 1959, the Soviet Union performed the first hard (unpowered) moon landing later that same year with the Luna 2 spacecraft, a feat the U.S. duplicated in 1962 with Ranger 4. Since then, twelve Soviet and U.S. spacecraft have used braking rockets to make soft landings and perform scientific operations on the lunar surface, between 1966 and 1976. In 1966 the USSR accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during the Luna 9 and Luna 13 missions. The U.S. followed with five unmanned Surveyor soft landings.

text: The Soviet Union achieved the first unmanned lunar soil sample return with the Luna 16 probe on 24 September 1970. This was followed by Luna 20 and Luna 24 in 1972 and 1976, respectively. Following the failure at launch in 1969 of the first Lunokhod, Luna E-8 No.201, the Luna 17 and Luna 21 were successful unmanned lunar rover missions in 1970 and 1973.

text: Many missions were failures at launch.  In addition, several unmanned landing missions achieved the Lunar surface but were unsuccessful, including: Luna 15, Luna 18, and Luna 23 all crashed on landing; and the U.S. Surveyor 4 lost all radio contact only moments before its landing.

text: More recently, other nations have crashed spacecraft on the surface of the Moon at speeds of around 8,000 kilometres per hour (5,000 mph), often at precise, planned locations. These have generally been end-of-life lunar orbiters that, because of system degradations, could no longer overcome perturbations from lunar mass concentrations ("masscons") to maintain their orbit. Japan's lunar orbiter Hiten impacted the Moon's surface on 10 April 1993. The European Space Agency performed a controlled crash impact with their orbiter SMART-1 on 3 September 2006.

text: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) performed a controlled crash impact with its Moon Impact Probe (MIP) on 14 November 2008. The MIP was an ejected probe from the Indian Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter and performed remote sensing experiments during its descent to the lunar surface.

text: The Chinese lunar orbiter Chang'e 1 executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009. The rover mission Chang'e 3 was launched on 1 December 2013 and soft-landed on 14 December.

text: Manned landings

text: A total of twelve men have landed on the Moon. This was accomplished with two US pilot-astronauts flying a Lunar Module on each of six NASA missions across a 41-month period starting on 20 July 1969 UTC, with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on Apollo 11, and ending on 14 December 1972 UTC with Gene Cernan and Jack Schmitt on Apollo 17. Cernan was the last to step off the lunar surface.

text: All Apollo lunar missions had a third crew member who remained on board the Command Module. The last three missions had a rover for increased mobility.

text: Scientific background

text: In order to go to the Moon, a spacecraft must first leave the gravity well of the Earth. The only practical way of accomplishing this currently is with a rocket. Unlike other airborne vehicles such as balloons or jets, a rocket is the only known form of propulsion which can continue to increase its speed at high altitudes in the vacuum outside the Earth's atmosphere.

text: Upon approach of the target moon, a spacecraft will be drawn ever closer to its surface at increasing speeds due to gravity. In order to land intact it must decelerate to less than about 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and be ruggedized to withstand a "hard landing" impact, or it must decelerate to negligible speed at contact for a "soft landing" (which is the only viable option with human occupants). The first three attempts by the U.S. to perform a successful hard moon landing with a ruggedized seismometer package in 1962 all failed.[5] The Soviets first achieved the milestone of a hard lunar landing with a ruggedized camera in 1966, followed only months later by the first unmanned soft lunar landing by the U.S.

text: The speed of a crash landing on its surface is typically between 70 and 100% of the escape velocity of the target moon, and thus this is the total velocity which must be shed from the target moon's gravitational attraction for a soft landing to occur. For Earth's Moon, the escape velocity is 2.38 kilometres per second (1.48 mi/s).[6] The change in velocity (referred to as a delta-v) is usually provided by a landing rocket, which must be carried into space by the original launch vehicle as part of the overall spacecraft. An exception is the soft moon landing on Titan carried out by the Huygens probe in 2005. As the moon with the thickest atmosphere, landings on Titan may be accomplished by using atmospheric entry techniques that are generally lighter in weight than a rocket with equivalent capability.

text: The Soviets succeeded in making the first crash landing on the Moon in 1959.[7]  Crash landings[8] may occur because of malfunctions in a spacecraft, or they can be deliberately arranged for vehicles which do not have an onboard landing rocket. There have been many such moon crashes, often with their flight path controlled to impact at precise locations on the lunar surface. For example, during the Apollo program the S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V moon rocket as well as the spent ascent stage of the lunar module were deliberately crashed on the Moon several times to provide impacts registering as a moonquake on seismometers that had been left on the lunar surface. Such crashes were instrumental in mapping the internal structure of the Moon.

text: To return to Earth, the escape velocity of the Moon must be overcome for the spacecraft to escape the gravity well of the Moon. Rockets must be used to leave the Moon and return to space. Upon reaching Earth, atmospheric entry techniques are used to absorb the kinetic energy of a returning spacecraft and reduce its speed for safe landing.[citation needed] These functions greatly complicate a moon landing mission and lead to many additional operational considerations. Any moon departure rocket must first be carried to the Moon's surface by a moon landing rocket, increasing the latter's required size. The Moon departure rocket, larger moon landing rocket and any Earth atmosphere entry equipment such as heat shields and parachutes must in turn be lifted by the original launch vehicle, greatly increasing its size by a significant and almost prohibitive degree.

text: Political background

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text: The intense efforts devoted in the 1960s to achieving first an unmanned and then ultimately a manned moon landing become easier to understand in the political context of its historical era. World War II  had introduced many new and deadly innovations including blitzkrieg-style surprise attacks used in the invasion of Poland and in the attack on Pearl Harbor; the V-2 rocket, a ballistic missile which killed thousands in attacks on London and Antwerp; and the atom bomb, which killed hundreds of thousands in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In the 1950s, tensions mounted between the two ideologically opposed superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union that had emerged as victors in the conflict, particularly after the development by both countries of the hydrogen bomb.

text: Willy Ley wrote in 1957 that a rocket to the Moon "could be built later this year if somebody can be found to sign some papers".[9] On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 as the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth and so initiated the Space Race. This unexpected event was a source of pride to the Soviets and shock to the U.S., who could now potentially be surprise attacked by nuclear-tipped Soviet rockets in under 30 minutes.[citation needed]   Also, the steady beeping of the radio beacon aboard Sputnik 1 as it passed overhead every 96 minutes was widely viewed on both sides[citation needed]  as effective propaganda to Third World countries demonstrating the technological superiority of the Soviet political system compared to that of the U.S. This perception was reinforced by a string of subsequent rapid-fire Soviet space achievements. In 1959, the R-7 rocket was used to launch the first escape from Earth's gravity into a solar orbit, the first crash impact onto the surface of the Moon, and the first photography of the never-before-seen far side of the Moon. These were the Luna 1, Luna 2, and Luna 3 spacecraft.

text: The U.S. response to these Soviet achievements was to greatly accelerate previously existing military space and missile projects and to create a civilian space agency, NASA. Military efforts were initiated to develop and produce mass quantities of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that would bridge the so-called missile gap and enable a policy of deterrence to nuclear war with the Soviets known as mutual assured destruction or MAD. These newly developed missiles were made available to civilians of NASA for various projects (which would have the added benefit of demonstrating the payload, guidance accuracy and reliabilities of U.S. ICBMs to the Soviets).

text: While NASA stressed peaceful and scientific uses for these rockets, their use in various lunar exploration efforts also had secondary goal of realistic, goal-oriented testing of the missiles themselves and development of associated infrastructure,[citation needed] just as the Soviets were doing with their R-7.

text: Early Soviet unmanned lunar missions (1958–1965)

text: After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, historical records were released to allow the true accounting of Soviet lunar efforts. Unlike the U.S. tradition of assigning a particular mission name in advance of a launch, the Soviets assigned a public "Luna" mission number only if a launch resulted in a spacecraft going beyond Earth orbit. The policy had the effect of hiding Soviet Moon mission failures from public view. If the attempt failed in Earth orbit before departing for the Moon, it was frequently (but not always) given a "Sputnik" or "Cosmos" Earth-orbit mission number to hide its purpose. Launch explosions were not acknowledged at all.

text:
Mission

Mass (kg)

Launch vehicle

Launch date

Goal

Result

Semyorka – 8K72

23 September 1958

Impact

Failure – booster malfunction at T+ 93 s

Semyorka – 8K72

12 October 1958

Impact

Failure – booster malfunction at T+ 104 s

Semyorka – 8K72

4 December 1958

Impact

Failure – booster malfunction at T+ 254 s

Luna-1

361

Semyorka – 8K72

2 January 1959

Impact

Partial success – first spacecraft to reach escape velocity, lunar flyby, solar orbit; missed the Moon

Semyorka – 8K72

18 June 1959

Impact

Failure – booster malfunction at T+ 153 s

Luna-2

390

Semyorka – 8K72

12 September 1959

Impact

Success – first lunar impact

Luna-3

270

Semyorka – 8K72

4 October 1959

Flyby

Success – first photos of lunar far side

Semyorka – 8K72

15 April 1960

Flyby

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Semyorka – 8K72

16 April 1960

Flyby

Failure – booster malfunction at T+ 1 s

Sputnik-25

Semyorka – 8K78

4 January 1963

Landing

Failure – stranded in low Earth orbit

Semyorka – 8K78

3 February 1963

Landing

Failure – booster malfunction at T+ 105 s

Luna-4

1422

Semyorka – 8K78

2 April 1963

Landing

Failure – lunar flyby at 8,000 kilometres (5,000 mi)

Semyorka – 8K78

21 March 1964

Landing

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Semyorka – 8K78

20 April 1964

Landing

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Cosmos-60

Semyorka – 8K78

12 March 1965

Landing

Failure – stranded in low Earth orbit

Semyorka – 8K78

10 April 1965

Landing

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Luna-5

1475

Semyorka – 8K78

9 May 1965

Landing

Failure – lunar impact

Luna-6

1440

Semyorka – 8K78

8 June 1965

Landing

Failure – lunar flyby at 160,000 kilometres (99,000 mi)

Luna-7

1504

Semyorka – 8K78

4 October 1965

Landing

Failure – lunar impact

Luna-8

1550

Semyorka – 8K78

3 December 1965

Landing

Failure – lunar impact during landing attempt

text: Early U.S. unmanned lunar missions (1958–1965)

text: In contrast to Soviet lunar exploration triumphs in 1959, success eluded initial U.S. efforts to reach the Moon with the Pioneer and Ranger programs. Fifteen consecutive U.S. unmanned lunar missions over a six-year period from 1958 to 1964 all failed their primary photographic missions;[10][11] however, Rangers 4 and 6 successfully repeated the Soviet lunar impacts as part of their secondary missions.[12][13]

text: Failures included three U.S. attempts[5][12][14] in 1962 to hard land small seismometer packages released by the main Ranger spacecraft. These surface packages were to use retrorockets to survive landing, unlike the parent vehicle, which was designed to deliberately crash onto the surface. The final three Ranger probes performed successful high altitude lunar reconnaissance  photography missions during intentional crash impacts between 2.62 and 2.68 kilometres per second (9,400 and 9,600 km/h).[15][16][17]

text:
Mission

Mass (kg)

Launch vehicle

Launch date

Goal

Result

Pioneer 0

38

Thor-Able

17 August 1958

Lunar orbit

Failure – first stage explosion; destroyed

Pioneer 1

34

Thor-Able

11 October 1958

Lunar orbit

Failure – software error; reentry

Pioneer 2

39

Thor-Able

8 November 1958

Lunar orbit

Failure – third stage misfire; reentry

Pioneer 3

6

Juno

6 December 1958

Flyby

Failure – first stage misfire, reentry

Pioneer 4

6

Juno

3 March 1959

Flyby

Partial success – first US craft to reach escape velocity, lunar flyby too far to shoot photos due to targeting error; solar orbit

Pioneer P-1

168

Atlas-Able

24 September 1959

Lunar orbit

Failure – pad explosion; destroyed

Pioneer P-3

168

Atlas-Able

29 November 1959

Lunar orbit

Failure – payload shroud; destroyed

Pioneer P-30

175

Atlas-Able

25 September 1960

Lunar orbit

Failure – second stage anomaly; reentry

Pioneer P-31

175

Atlas-Able

15 December 1960

Lunar orbit

Failure – first stage explosion; destroyed

Ranger 1

306

Atlas – Agena

23 August 1961

Prototype test

Failure – upper stage anomaly; reentry

Ranger 2

304

Atlas – Agena

18 November 1961

Prototype test

Failure – upper stage anomaly; reentry

Ranger 3

330

Atlas – Agena

26 January 1962

Landing

Failure – booster guidance; solar orbit

Ranger 4

331

Atlas – Agena

23 April 1962

Landing

Partial success – first U.S. spacecraft to reach another celestial body; crash impact – no photos returned

Ranger 5

342

Atlas – Agena

18 October 1962

Landing

Failure – spacecraft power; solar orbit

Ranger 6

367

Atlas – Agena

30 January 1964

Impact

Failure – spacecraft camera; crash impact

Ranger 7

367

Atlas – Agena

28 July 1964

Impact

Success – returned 4308 photos, crash impact

Ranger 8

367

Atlas – Agena

17 February 1965

Impact

Success – returned 7137 photos, crash impact

Ranger 9

367

Atlas – Agena

21 March 1965

Impact

Success – returned 5814 photos, crash impact

text: Pioneer missions

text: Three different designs of Pioneer lunar probes were flown on three different modified ICBMs. Those flown on the Thor booster modified with an Able upper stage carried an infrared image scanning television system with a resolution of 1 milliradian to study the Moon's surface, an ionization chamber to measure radiation in space, a diaphragm/microphone assembly to detect micrometeorites, a magnetometer, and temperature-variable resistors to monitor spacecraft internal thermal conditions. The first, a mission managed by the United States Air Force, exploded during launch; all subsequent Pioneer lunar flights had NASA as the lead management organization. The next two returned to Earth and burned up upon reentry into the atmosphere after achieved maximum altitudes of around 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and 1,450 kilometres (900 mi), far short of the roughly 400,000 kilometres (250,000 mi) required to reach the vicinity of the Moon.

text: NASA then collaborated with the United States Army's Ballistic Missile Agency to fly two extremely small cone-shaped probes on the Juno ICBM, carrying only photocells which would be triggered by the light of the Moon and a lunar radiation environment experiment using a Geiger-Müller tube detector. The first of these reached an altitude of only around 100,000 kilometres (62,000 mi), serendipitously gathering data that established the presence of the Van Allen radiation belts before reentering Earth's atmosphere. The second passed by the Moon at a distance of more than 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi), twice as far as planned and too far away to trigger either of the on-board scientific instruments, yet still becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to reach a solar orbit.

text: The final Pioneer lunar probe design consisted of four "paddlewheel" solar panels extending from a one-meter diameter spherical spin-stabilized spacecraft body that was equipped to take images of the lunar surface with a television-like system, estimate the Moon's mass and topography of the poles, record the distribution and velocity of micrometeorites, study radiation, measure magnetic fields, detect low frequency electromagnetic waves in space and use a sophisticated integrated propulsion system for maneuvering and orbit insertion as well. None of the four spacecraft built in this series of probes survived launch on its Atlas ICBM outfitted with an Able upper stage.

text: Following the unsuccessful Atlas-Able Pioneer probes, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory embarked upon an unmanned spacecraft development program whose modular design could be used to support both lunar and interplanetary exploration missions. The interplanetary versions were known as Mariners; lunar versions were Rangers. JPL envisioned three versions of the Ranger lunar probes: Block I prototypes, which would carry various radiation detectors in test flights to a very high Earth orbit that came nowhere near the Moon; Block II, which would try to accomplish the first Moon landing by hard landing a seismometer package; and Block III, which would crash onto the lunar surface without any braking rockets while taking very high resolution wide-area photographs of the Moon during their descent.

text: Ranger missions

text: The Ranger 1 and 2 Block I missions were virtually identical.[18][19] Spacecraft experiments included a Lyman-alpha telescope, a rubidium-vapor magnetometer, electrostatic analyzers, medium-energy-range particle detectors, two triple coincidence telescopes, a cosmic-ray integrating ionization chamber, cosmic dust detectors, and scintillation counters. The goal was to place these Block I spacecraft in a very high Earth orbit with an apogee of 110,000 kilometres (68,000 mi) and a perigee of 60,000 kilometres (37,000 mi).[18]

text: From that vantage point, scientists could make direct measurements of the magnetosphere over a period of many months while engineers perfected new methods to routinely track and communicate with spacecraft over such large distances. Such practice was deemed vital to be assured of capturing high-bandwidth television transmissions from the Moon during a one-shot fifteen-minute time window in subsequent Block II and Block III lunar descents. Both Block I missions suffered failures of the new Agena upper stage and never left low Earth parking orbit after launch; both burned up upon reentry after only a few days.

text: The first attempts to perform a Moon landing took place in 1962 during the Rangers 3, 4 and 5 missions flown by the United States.[5][12][14] All three Block II missions basic vehicles were 3.1 m high and consisted of a lunar capsule covered with a balsa wood impact-limiter, 650 mm in diameter, a mono-propellant mid-course motor, a retrorocket with a thrust of 5,050 pounds-force (22.5 kN),[12] and a gold- and chrome-plated hexagonal base 1.5 m in diameter. This lander (code-named Tonto) was designed to provide impact cushioning using an exterior blanket of crushable balsa wood and an interior filled with incompressible liquid freon. A 42 kg (56 pounds) 30-centimetre-diameter (0.98 ft) metal payload sphere floated and was free to rotate in a liquid freon reservoir contained in the landing sphere[citation needed].

text: This payload sphere contained six silver-cadmium batteries to power a fifty-milliwatt radio transmitter, a temperature sensitive voltage controlled oscillator to measure lunar surface temperatures, and a seismometer that was designed with sensitivity high enough to detect the impact of a 5 lb (2.3 kg) meteorite on the opposite side of the Moon. Weight was distributed in the payload sphere so it would rotate in its liquid blanket to place the seismometer into an upright and operational position no matter what the final resting orientation of the external landing sphere. After landing, plugs were to be opened allowing the freon to evaporate and the payload sphere to settle into upright contact with the landing sphere. The batteries were sized to allow up to three months of operation for the payload sphere. Various mission constraints limited the landing site to Oceanus Procellarum on the lunar equator, which the lander ideally would reach 66 hours after launch.

text: No cameras were carried by the Ranger landers, and no pictures were to be captured from the lunar surface during the mission. Instead, the 3.1 metres (10 ft) Ranger Block II mother ship carried a 200-scan-line television camera which was to capture images during the free-fall descent to the lunar surface. The camera was designed to transmit a picture every 10 seconds.[12] Seconds before impact, at 5 and 0.6 kilometres (3.11 and 0.37 mi) above the lunar surface, the Ranger mother ships took picture (which may be viewed here).

text: Other instruments gathering data before the mother ship crashed onto the Moon were a gamma ray spectrometer to measure overall lunar chemical composition and a radar altimeter. The radar altimeter was to give a signal ejecting the landing capsule and its solid-fueled braking rocket overboard from the Block II mother ship. The braking rocket was to slow and the landing sphere to a dead stop at 330 metres (1,080 ft) above the surface and separate, allowing the landing sphere to free fall once more and hit the surface[citation needed].

text: On Ranger 3, failure of the Atlas guidance system and a software error aboard the Agena upper stage combined to put the spacecraft on a course that would miss the Moon. Attempts to salvage lunar photography during a flyby of the Moon were thwarted by in-flight failure of the onboard flight computer. This was probably because of prior heat sterilization of the spacecraft by keeping it above the boiling point of water for 24 hours on the ground, to protect the Moon from being contaminated by Earth organisms. Heat sterilization was also blamed for subsequent in-flight failures of the spacecraft computer on Ranger 4 and the power subsystem on Ranger 5. Only Ranger 4 reached the Moon in an uncontrolled crash impact on the far side of the Moon.[citation needed]

text: Heat sterilization was discontinued for the final four Block III Ranger probes.[citation needed] These replaced the Block II landing capsule and its retrorocket with a heavier, more capable television system to support landing site selection for upcoming Apollo manned Moon landing missions. Six cameras were designed to take thousands of high-altitude photographs in the final twenty-minute period before crashing on the lunar surface. Camera resolution was 1,132 scan lines, far higher than the 525 lines found in a typical U.S. 1964 home television. While Ranger 6 suffered a failure of this camera system and returned no photographs despite an otherwise successful flight, the subsequent Ranger 7 mission to Mare Cognitum was a complete success.

text: Breaking the six-year string of failures in U.S. attempts to photograph the Moon at close range, the Ranger 7 mission was viewed as a national turning point and instrumental in allowing the key 1965 NASA budget appropriation to pass through the United States Congress intact without a reduction in funds for the Apollo manned Moon landing program. Subsequent successes with Ranger 8 and Ranger 9 further buoyed U.S. hopes.

text: Soviet unmanned soft landings (1966–1976)

text: The Luna 9 spacecraft, launched by the Soviet Union, performed the first successful soft Moon landing on 3 February, 1966. Airbags protected its 99 kilograms (218 lb) ejectable capsule which survived an impact speed of over 15 metres per second (54 km/h).[20] Luna 13 duplicated this feat with a similar Moon landing on 24 December 1966. Both returned panoramic photographs that were the first views from the lunar surface.[21]

text: Luna 16 was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon and safely return a sample of lunar soil back to Earth.[22] It represented the first lunar sample return mission by the Soviet Union, and was the third lunar sample return mission overall, following the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 missions. This mission was later successfully repeated by Luna 20 (1972) and Luna 24 (1976).

text: In 1970 and 1973 two Lunokhod ("Moonwalker") robotic lunar rovers were delivered to the Moon, where they successfully operated for 10 and 4 months respectively, covering 10.5 km (Lunokhod 1) and 37 km (Lunokhod 2). These rover missions were in operation concurrently with the Zond and Luna series of Moon flyby, orbiter and landing missions.

text:
Mission

Mass (kg)

Booster

Launch date

Goal

Result

Landing zone

Lat/Lon

Luna-9

1580

Semyorka – 8K78

31 January 1966

Landing

Success – first lunar soft landing, numerous photos

Oceanus Procellarum

7.13°N 64.37°W

Luna-13

1580

Semyorka – 8K78

21 December 1966

Landing

Success – second lunar soft landing, numerous photos

Oceanus Procellarum

18°52'N 62°3'W

Proton

19 February 1969

Lunar rover

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Proton

14 June 1969

Sample return

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Luna-15

5,700

Proton

13 July 1969

Sample return

Failure – lunar crash impact

Mare Crisium

unknown

Cosmos-300

Proton

23 September 1969

Sample return

Failure – stranded in low Earth orbit

Cosmos-305

Proton

22 October 1969

Sample return

Failure – stranded in low Earth orbit

Proton

6 February 1970

Sample return

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Luna-16

5,600

Proton

12 September 1970

Sample return

Success – returned 0.10 kg of Moon soil back to Earth

Mare Fecunditatis

000.68S 056.30E

Luna-17

5,700

Proton

10 November 1970

Lunar rover

Success – Lunokhod-1 rover traveled 10.5 km across lunar surface

Mare Imbrium

038.28N 325.00E

Luna-18

5,750

Proton

2 September 1971

Sample return

Failure – lunar crash impact

Mare Fecunditatis

003.57N 056.50E

Luna-20

5,727

Proton

14 February 1972

Sample return

Success – returned 0.05 kg of Moon soil back to Earth

Mare Fecunditatis

003.57N 056.50E

Luna-21

5,950

Proton

8 January 1973

Lunar rover

Success – Lunokhod-2 rover traveled 37.0 km across lunar surface

LeMonnier Crater

025.85N 030.45E

Luna-23

5,800

Proton

28 October 1974

Sample return

Failure – Moon landing achieved, but malfunction prevented sample return

Mare Crisium

012.00N 062.00E

Proton

16 October 1975

Sample return

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Luna-24

5,800

Proton

9 August 1976

Sample return

Success – returned 0.17 kg of Moon soil back to Earth

Mare Crisium

012.25N 062.20E

text: U.S. unmanned soft landings (1966–1968)

text: The U.S. robotic Surveyor program was part of an effort to locate a safe site on the Moon for a human landing and test under lunar conditions the radar and landing systems required to make a true controlled touchdown. Five of Surveyor's seven missions made successful unmanned Moon landings. Surveyor 3 was visited two years after its Moon landing by the crew of Apollo 12. They removed parts of it for examination back on Earth to determine the effects of long-term exposure to the lunar environment.

text:
Mission

Mass (kg)

Booster

Launch date

Goal

Result

Landing zone

Lat/Lon

Surveyor 1

292

Atlas – Centaur

30 May 1966

Landing

Success – 11,000 pictures returned, first U.S. Moon landing

Oceanus Procellarum

002.45S 043.22W

Surveyor 2

292

Atlas – Centaur

20 September 1966

Landing

Failure – midcourse engine malfunction, placing vehicle in unrecoverable tumble; crashed southeast of Copernicus Crater

Sinus Medii

004.00S 011.00W

Surveyor 3

302

Atlas – Centaur

20 April 1967

Landing

Success – 6,000 pictures returned; trench dug to 17.5 cm depth after 18 hr of robot arm use

Oceanus Procellarum

002.94S 336.66E

Surveyor 4

282

Atlas – Centaur

14 July 1967

Landing

Failure – radio contact lost 2.5 minutes before touchdown; perfect automated Moon landing possible but outcome unknown

Sinus Medii

unknown

Surveyor 5

303

Atlas – Centaur

8 September 1967

Landing

Success – 19,000 photos returned, first use of alpha scatter soil composition monitor

Mare Tranquillitatis

001.41N 023.18E

Surveyor 6

300

Atlas – Centaur

7 November 1967

Landing

Success – 30,000 photos returned, robot arm & alpha scatter science, engine restart, second landing 2.5 m away from first

Sinus Medii

000.46N 358.63E

Surveyor 7

306

Atlas – Centaur

7 January 1968

Landing

Success – 21,000 photos returned; robot arm & alpha scatter science; laser beams from Earth detected

Tycho Crater

041.01S 348.59E

text: Transition from direct ascent landings to lunar orbit operations

text: Within four months of each other in early 1966 the Soviet Union and the United States had accomplished successful Moon landings with unmanned spacecraft. To the general public both countries had demonstrated roughly equal technical capabilities by returning photographic images from the surface of the Moon. These pictures provided a key affirmative answer to the crucial question of whether or not lunar soil would support upcoming manned landers with their much greater weight.

text: However, the Luna 9 hard landing of a ruggedized sphere using airbags at a 50 kilometres (31 mi)-per-hour ballistic impact speed had much more in common with the failed 1962 Ranger landing attempts and their planned 160 kilometres (99 mi)-per-hour impacts than with the Surveyor 1 soft landing on three footpads using its radar-controlled, adjustable-thrust retrorocket. While Luna 9 and Surveyor 1 were both major national accomplishments, only Surveyor 1 had reached its landing site employing key technologies that would be needed for a manned flight. Thus as of mid-1966, the United States had begun to pull ahead of the Soviet Union in the so-called Space Race to land a man on the Moon.

text: Advances in other areas were necessary before manned spacecraft could follow unmanned ones to the surface of the Moon. Of particular importance was developing the expertise to perform flight operations in lunar orbit. Ranger, Surveyor and initial Luna Moon landing attempts all utilized flight paths from Earth that traveled directly to the lunar surface without first placing the spacecraft in a lunar orbit. Such direct ascents use a minimum amount of fuel for unmanned spacecraft on a one-way trip.

text: In contrast, manned vehicles need additional fuel after a lunar landing to enable a return trip back to Earth for the crew. Leaving this massive amount of required Earth-return fuel in lunar orbit until it is used later in the mission is far more efficient than taking such fuel down to the lunar surface in a Moon landing and then hauling it all back into space yet again, working against lunar gravity both ways. Such considerations lead logically to a lunar orbit rendezvous mission profile for a manned Moon landing.

text: Accordingly, beginning in mid-1966 both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. naturally progressed into missions which featured lunar orbit operations as a necessary prerequisite to a manned Moon landing. The primary goals of these initial unmanned orbiters were extensive photographic mapping of the entire lunar surface for the selection of manned landing sites and, for the Soviets, the checkout of radio communications gear that would be used in future soft landings.

text: An unexpected major discovery from initial lunar orbiters were vast volumes of dense materials beneath the surface of the Moon's maria. Such mass concentrations ("mascons") can send a manned mission dangerously off course in the final minutes of a Moon landing when aiming for a relatively small landing zone that is smooth and safe. Mascons were also found over a longer period of time to greatly disturb the orbits of low-altitude satellites around the Moon, making their orbits unstable and forcing an inevitable crash on the lunar surface in the relatively short period of months to a few years.

text: Controlling the location of impact for spent lunar orbiters can have scientific value. For example, in 1999 the NASA Lunar Prospector orbiter was deliberately targeted to impact a permanently shadowed area of Shoemaker Crater near the lunar south pole. It was hoped that energy from the impact would vaporize suspected shadowed ice deposits in the crater and liberate a water vapor plume that would be detectable from Earth. No such plume was observed. However, a small vial of ashes from the body of pioneer lunar scientist Eugene Shoemaker was delivered by the Lunar Prospector to the crater named in his honor – currently the only human remains on the Moon.

text: Soviet lunar orbit satellites (1966–1974)

text:
U.S.S.R. mission

Mass (kg)

Booster

Launched

Mission goal

Mission result

Cosmos – 111

Molniya-M

1 March 1966

Lunar orbiter

Failure – stranded in low Earth orbit

Luna-10

1,582

Molniya-M

31 March 1966

Lunar orbiter

Success – 2,738 km x 2,088 km x 72 deg orbit, 178 m period, 60-day science mission

Luna-11

1,640

Molniya-M

24 August 1966

Lunar orbiter

Success – 2,931 km x 1,898 km x 27 deg orbit, 178 m period, 38-day science mission

Luna-12

1,620

Molniya-M

22 October 1966

Lunar orbiter

Success – 2,938 km x 1,871 km x 10 deg orbit, 205 m period, 89-day science mission

Cosmos-159

1,700

Molniya-M

17 May 1967

Prototype test

Success – high Earth orbit manned landing communications gear radio calibration test

Molniya-M

7 February 1968

Lunar orbiter

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit – attempted radio calibration test?

Luna-14

1,700

Molniya-M

7 April 1968

Lunar orbiter

Success – 870 km x 160 km x 42 deg orbit, 160 m period, unstable orbit, radio calibration test?

Luna-19

5,700

Proton

28 September 1971

Lunar orbiter

Success – 140 km x 140 km x 41 deg orbit, 121 m period, 388-day science mission

Luna-22

5,700

Proton

29 May 1974

Lunar orbiter

Success – 222 km x 219 km x 19 deg orbit, 130 m period, 521-day science mission

text: Luna 10 became the first spacecraft to orbit the Moon on 3 April 1966.

text: U.S. lunar orbit satellites (1966–1967)

text:
U.S. mission

Mass (kg)

Booster

Launched

Mission goal

Mission result

Lunar Orbiter 1

386

Atlas – Agena

10 August 1966

Lunar orbiter

Success – 1,160 km X 189 km x 12 deg orbit, 208 m period, 80-day photography mission

Lunar Orbiter 2

386

Atlas – Agena

6 November 1966

Lunar orbiter

Success – 1,860 km X 52 km x 12 deg orbit, 208 m period, 339-day photography mission

Lunar Orbiter 3

386

Atlas – Agena

5 February 1967

Lunar orbiter

Success – 1,860 km X 52 km x 21 deg orbit, 208 m period, 246-day photography mission

Lunar Orbiter 4

386

Atlas – Agena

4 May 1967

Lunar orbiter

Success – 6,111 km X 2,706 km x 86 deg orbit, 721 m period, 180-day photography mission

Lunar Orbiter 5

386

Atlas – Agena

1 August 1967

Lunar orbiter

Success – 6,023 km X 195 km x 85 deg orbit, 510 m period, 183-day photography mission

text: Soviet circumlunar loop flights (1967–1970)

text: It is possible to aim a spacecraft from Earth so that it will loop around the Moon and return to Earth without entering lunar orbit, following the so-called free return trajectory. Such circumlunar loop missions are simpler than lunar orbit missions because rockets for lunar orbit braking and Earth return are not required. However, a manned circumlunar loop trip poses significant challenges above and beyond those found in a manned low-Earth-orbit mission, offering valuable lessons in preparation for a manned Moon landing. Foremost among these are mastering the demands of re-entering the Earth's atmosphere upon returning from the Moon.

text: Manned Earth-orbiting vehicles such as the Space Shuttle return to Earth from speeds of around 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km/h; 7,600 m/s). Due to the effects of gravity, a vehicle returning from the Moon hits Earth's atmosphere at a much higher speed of around 25,000 miles per hour (40,000 km/h; 11,000 m/s). The g-loading on astronauts during the resulting deceleration can be at the limits of human endurance even during a nominal reentry. Slight variations in the vehicle flight path and reentry angle during a return from the Moon can easily result in fatal levels of deceleration force.

text: Achieving a manned circumlunar loop flight prior to a manned lunar landing became a primary goal of the Soviets with their Zond spacecraft program. The first three Zonds were unmanned planetary probes; after that, the Zond name was transferred to a completely separate manned program. The initial focus of these later Zonds was extensive testing of required high-speed reentry techniques. This focus was not shared by the U.S., who chose instead to bypass the stepping stone of a manned circumlunar loop mission and never developed a separate spacecraft for this purpose.

text: Initial manned spaceflights in the early 1960s placed a single person in low Earth orbit during the Soviet Vostok and U.S. Mercury programs. A two-flight extension of the Vostok program known as Voskhod effectively used Vostok capsules with their ejection seats removed to achieve Soviet space firsts of multiple person crews in 1964 and spacewalks in early 1965. These capabilities were later demonstrated by the U.S. in ten Gemini low Earth orbit missions throughout 1965 and 1966, using a totally new second-generation spacecraft design that had little in common with the earlier Mercury. These Gemini missions went on to prove critical techniques for orbital rendezvous and docking that were crucial to a manned lunar landing mission profile.

text: After the end of the Gemini program, the Soviets Union began flying their second-generation Zond manned spacecraft in 1967 with the ultimate goal of looping a cosmonaut around the Moon and returning him immediately to Earth. The Zond spacecraft was launched with the simpler and already operational Proton launch rocket, unlike the parallel Soviet manned Moon landing effort also underway at the time based on third-generation Soyuz spacecraft requiring development of the advanced N-1 booster. The Soviets thus believed they could achieve a manned Zond circumlunar flight years before a U.S. manned lunar landing and so score a propaganda victory. However, significant development problems delayed the Zond program and the success of the U.S. Apollo lunar landing program led to the eventual termination of the Zond effort.

text: Like Zond, Apollo Moon flights were generally launched on a free return trajectory that would return them to Earth via a circumlunar loop in the event that a Service Module malfunction failed to place them in lunar orbit as planned. This option was implemented after an explosion aboard the Apollo 13 mission in 1970, which is the only manned circumlunar loop mission flown to date.

text:
U.S.S.R mission

Mass (kg)

Booster

Launched

Mission goal

Payload

Mission result

Cosmos-146

5,400

Proton

10 March 1967

High Earth Orbit

unmanned

Partial success – Successfully reached high Earth orbit, but became stranded and was unable to initiate controlled high speed atmospheric reentry test

Cosmos-154

5,400

Proton

8 April 1967

High Earth Orbit

unmanned

Partial success – Successfully reached high Earth orbit, but became stranded and was unable to initiate controlled high speed atmospheric reentry test

Proton

28 September 1967

High Earth Orbit

unmanned

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Proton

22 November 1967

High Earth Orbit

unmanned

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Zond-4

5,140

Proton

2 March 1968

High Earth Orbit

unmanned

Partial success – launched successfully to 300,000 km high Earth orbit, high speed reentry test guidance malfunction, intentional self-destruct to prevent landfall outside Soviet Union

Proton

23 April 1968

Circumlunar Loop

non-human biological payload

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit; launch preparation tank explosion kills three in pad crew

Zond-5

5,375

Proton

15 September 1968

Circumlunar Loop

non-human biological payload

Success – looped around Moon, returned live biological payload safely to Earth despite landing off-target outside the Soviet Union in the Indian Ocean

Zond-6

5,375

Proton

10 November 1968

Circumlunar Loop

non-human biological payload

Partial success – looped around Moon, successful reentry, but loss of cabin air pressure caused biological payload death, parachute system malfunction and severe vehicle damage upon landing

Proton

20 January 1969

Circumlunar Loop

non-human biological payload

Failure – booster malfunction, failed to reach Earth orbit

Zond-7

5,979

Proton

8 August 1969

Circumlunar Loop

non-human biological payload

Success – looped around Moon, returned biological payload safely to Earth and landed on-target inside Soviet Union. Only Zond mission whose reentry G-forces would have been survivable by human crew had they been aboard.

Zond-8

5,375

Proton

20 October 1970

Circumlunar Loop

non-human biological payload

Success – looped around Moon, returned biological payload safely to Earth despite landing off-target outside Soviet Union in the Indian Ocean

text: Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to carry life from Earth to the vicinity of the Moon and return, initiating the final lap of the Space Race with its payload of turtles, insects, plants and bacteria. Despite the failure suffered in its final moments, the Zond 6 mission was reported by Soviet media as being a success as well. Although hailed worldwide as remarkable achievements, both of these Zond missions flew off-nominal reentry trajectories resulting in deceleration forces that would have been fatal to human crewmembers had they been aboard.

text: As a result, the Soviets secretly planned to continue unmanned Zond tests until their reliability to support manned flight had been demonstrated. However, due to NASA's continuing problems with the lunar module, and because of CIA reports of a potential Soviet manned circumlunar flight in late 1968, NASA fatefully changed the flight plan of Apollo 8 from an Earth-orbit lunar module test to a lunar orbit mission scheduled for late December 1968.

text: In early December 1968 the launch window to the Moon opened for the Soviet launch site in Baikonur, giving the USSR their final chance to beat the US to the Moon. Cosmonauts went on alert and asked to fly the Zond spacecraft then in final countdown at Baikonur on the first manned trip to the Moon. Ultimately, however, the Soviet Politburo decided the risk of crew death was unacceptable given the combined poor performance to that point of Zond/Proton and so scrubbed the launch of a manned Soviet lunar mission. Their decision proved to be a wise one, since this unnumbered Zond mission was destroyed in another unmanned test when it was finally launched several weeks later.

text: By this time flights of the third generation U.S. Apollo spacecraft had begun. Far more capable than the Zond, the Apollo spacecraft had the necessary rocket power to slip into and out of lunar orbit and to make course adjustments required for a safe reentry during the return to Earth. The Apollo 8 mission carried out the first manned trip to the Moon on 24 December 1968, certifying the Saturn V booster for manned use and flying not a circumlunar loop but instead a full ten orbits around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. Apollo 10 then performed a full dress rehearsal of a manned Moon landing in May 1969. This mission orbited within 47,400 feet (14.4 km) altitude above the lunar surface, performing necessary low-altitude mapping of trajectory-altering mascons using a factory prototype lunar module that was too overweight to allow a successful landing. With the failure of the unmanned Soviet sample return Moon landing attempt Luna 15 in July 1969, the stage was set for Apollo 11.

text: Manned Moon landings (1969–1972)

text: US strategy

text: Plans for manned Moon exploration originated during the Eisenhower administration. In a series of mid-1950s articles in Collier's magazine, Wernher von Braun had popularized the idea of a manned expedition to the Moon to establish a lunar base. A manned Moon landing posed several daunting technical challenges to the US and USSR. Besides guidance and weight management, atmospheric re-entry without ablative overheating was a major hurdle. After the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, von Braun promoted a plan for the United States Army to establish a military lunar outpost by 1965.

text: After the early Soviet successes, especially Yuri Gagarin's flight, US President John F. Kennedy looked for a US project that would capture the public imagination. He asked Vice President Lyndon Johnson to make recommendations on a scientific endeavor that would prove US world leadership. The proposals included non-space options such as massive irrigation projects to benefit the Third World. The Soviets, at the time, had more powerful rockets than the United States, which gave them an advantage in some kinds of space mission.

text: Advances in US nuclear weapon technology had led to smaller, lighter warheads, and consequently, rockets with smaller payload capacities. By comparison, Soviet nuclear weapons were much heavier, and the powerful R-7 rocket was developed to carry them. More modest potential missions such as flying around the Moon without landing or establishing a space lab in orbit (both were proposed by Kennedy to von Braun) were determined to offer too much advantage to the Soviets, since the US would have to develop a heavy rocket to match the Soviets. A Moon landing, however, would capture world imagination while functioning as propaganda.

text: Johnson had championed the US manned space program ever since the Sputnik scare, sponsoring the legislation which created NASA when he was in the Senate in 1958. When Kennedy asked him in 1961 to research the best manned space achievement to counter the Soviets' lead, Johnson responded that the US had an even chance of beating the USSR to a manned lunar landing, but not for anything less. Kennedy seized on Apollo as the ideal focus for efforts in space. He ensured continuing funding, shielding space spending from the 1963 tax cut, but diverting money from other NASA scientific projects. This last dismayed NASA's leader, James E. Webb, who perceived the need for NASA's support from the scientific community.

text: The Moon landing required development of the large Saturn V launch vehicle, which achieved a perfect record of zero catastrophic failures or launch vehicle-caused mission failures, in thirteen launches.

text: For the program to succeed, its proponents would have to defeat criticism from politicians on the left, who wanted more money spent on social programs, and on those on the right, who favored a more military project. By emphasizing the scientific payoff and playing on fears of Soviet space dominance, Kennedy and Johnson managed to swing public opinion: by 1965, 58 percent of Americans favored Apollo, up from 33 percent two years earlier. After Johnson became President in 1963, his continuing defense of the program allowed it to succeed in 1969, as Kennedy planned.

text: Soviet strategy

text: Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said in October 1963 that the USSR was "not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon," while insisting that the Soviets had not dropped out of the race. Only after another year would the USSR fully commit itself to a Moon-landing attempt, which ultimately failed.

text: At the same time, Kennedy had suggested various joint programs, including a possible Moon landing by Soviet and U.S. astronauts and the development of better weather-monitoring satellites. Khrushchev, sensing an attempt by Kennedy to steal Russian space technology, rejected the idea: if the USSR went to the Moon, it would go alone. Sergey Korolev, the Soviet space program's chief designer, had started promoting his Soyuz craft and the N1 launcher rocket that would have the capability of carrying out a manned Moon landing.

text: Khrushchev directed Korolev's design bureau to arrange further space firsts by modifying the existing Vostok technology, while a second team started building a completely new launcher and craft, the Proton booster and the Zond, for a manned cislunar flight in 1966. In 1964 the new Soviet leadership gave Korolev the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all manned projects under his direction.

text: With Korolev's death and the failure of the first Soyuz flight in 1967, the co-ordination of the Soviet Moon landing program quickly unraveled. The Soviets built a landing craft and selected cosmonauts for the mission that would have placed Aleksei Leonov on the Moon's surface, but with the successive launch failures of the N1 booster in 1969, plans for a manned landing suffered first delay and then cancellation.

text: A program of automated return vehicles was begun, in the hope of being the first to return lunar rocks.  This had several failures.  It eventually succeeded with Luna 16.[23]  But this had little impact, because the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 lunar landings and rock returns had already taken place by then.

text: Apollo missions

text: In total, twenty-four U.S. astronauts have traveled to the Moon. Three have made the trip twice, and twelve have walked on its surface. Apollo 8 was a lunar-orbit-only mission, Apollo 10 included undocking and Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI), followed by LM staging to CSM redocking, while Apollo 13, originally scheduled as a landing, ended up as a lunar fly-by, by means of free return trajectory; thus, none of these missions made landings. Apollo 7 and Apollo 9 were Earth-orbit-only missions. Apart from the inherent dangers of manned Moon expeditions as seen with Apollo 13, one reason for their cessation according to astronaut Alan Bean is the cost it imposes in government subsidies.[24]

text: Manned Moon landings

text:
Mission name

Lunar lander

Lunar landing date

Lunar liftoff date

Lunar landing site

Duration on lunar surface

Crew

Number of EVAs

Total EVA Time (HH:MM)

Apollo 11

Eagle

20 July 1969

21 July 1969

Sea of Tranquility

21:31

Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin

1

2:31

Apollo 12

Intrepid

19 November 1969

21 November 1969

Ocean of Storms

1-day, 7:31

Charles "Pete" Conrad, Alan Bean

2

7:45

Apollo 14

Antares

5 February 1971

6 February 1971

Fra Mauro

1-day, 9:30

Alan B. Shepard, Edgar Mitchell

2

9:21

Apollo 15

Falcon

30 July 1971

2 August 1971

Hadley Rille

2 days, 18:55

David Scott, James Irwin

3

18:33

Apollo 16

Orion

21 April 1972

24 April 1972

Descartes Highlands

2 days, 23:02

John Young, Charles Duke

3

20:14

Apollo 17

Challenger

11 December 1972

14 December 1972

Taurus–Littrow

3 days, 2:59

Eugene Cernan, Harrison "Jack" Schmitt

3

22:04

text: Other aspects of the Apollo Moon successful landings

text: Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has remained unaffected in a direct way regarding the desire for territorial expansion. After the successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.

text: President Richard Nixon had speechwriter William Safire prepare a condolence speech for delivery in the event that Armstrong and Aldrin became marooned on the Moon's surface and could not be rescued.[25]

text: In 1951, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke forecast that man would reach the Moon by 1978.[26]

text: On 16 August 2006, the Associated Press reported that NASA is missing the original Slow-scan television tapes (which were made before the scan conversion for conventional TV) of the Apollo 11 Moon walk. Some news outlets have mistakenly reported that the SSTV tapes were found in Western Australia, but those tapes were only recordings of data from the Apollo 11 Early Apollo Surface Experiments Package.[27]

text: Scientists believe the six American flags planted by astronauts have been bleached white because of more than 40 years of exposure to solar radiation.[28] Using LROC images, five of the six American flags are still standing and casting shadows at all of the sites, except Apollo 11.[29] Astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported that the flag was blown over by the exhaust from the ascent engine during liftoff of Apollo 11.[29]

text: Late 20th century–Early 21st century unmanned crash landings

text: Hiten (Japan)

text: Launched on 24 January 1990, 11:46 UTC. At the end of its mission, the Japanese lunar orbiter Hiten was commanded to crash into the lunar surface and did so on 10 April 1993 at 18:03:25.7 UT (11 April 03:03:25.7 JST).[30]

text: Lunar Prospector (USA)

text: Lunar Prospector was launched on 7 January 1998. The mission ended on 31 July 1999, when the orbiter was deliberately crashed into a crater near the lunar south pole after the presence of water ice was successfully detected.[31]

text: SMART-1 (ESA)

text: Launched 27 September 2003, 23:14 UTC from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. At the end of its mission, the ESA lunar orbiter SMART-1 performed a controlled crash into the Moon, at about 2 km/s. The time of the crash was 3 September 2006, at 5:42 UTC.[32]

text: SELENE (Japan)

text: SELENE or Kaguya was launched on 14 September 2007.  After successfully orbiting the Moon for a year and eight months, the main orbiter was instructed to impact on the lunar surface near the crater Gill at 18:25 UTC on 10 June 2009.[33]

text: Chang'e 1 (China)

text: The Chinese lunar orbiter Chang'e 1, launched 24 October 2007, 10:05 UTC, executed a controlled crash onto the surface of the Moon on 1 March 2009, 20:44 GMT, after a 16-month mission.[34]

text: Chandrayaan-1 and Chandrayaan-2 (India)

text: Chandrayaan-1 was launched on 22 October 2008, 00:52 UTC. The impactor, the Moon Impact Probe, impacted near Shackleton Crater at the south pole of the lunar surface at 14 November 2008, 20:31 IST.[35] Chandrayaan-2 is scheduled for launch in 2019.

text: LCROSS (USA)

text: The LCROSS data collecting shepherding spacecraft was launched together with the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) on 18 June 2009 on board an Atlas V rocket with a Centaur upper stage. On 9 October 2009, at 11:31 UTC, the Centaur upper stage impacted the lunar surface, releasing the kinetic energy equivalent of detonating approximately 2 tons of TNT (8.86 GJ).[36] Six minutes later at 11:37 UTC, the LCROSS shepherding spacecraft also impacted the surface.[37]

text: GRAIL (USA)

text: The GRAIL mission consisted of two small spacecraft: GRAIL A (Ebb), and GRAIL B (Flow). They were launched on 10 September 2011 on board a Delta II rocket. GRAIL A separated from the rocket about nine minutes after launch, and GRAIL B followed about eight minutes later.[38][39] The first probe entered orbit on 31 December 2011 and the second followed on 1 January 2012.[40] The two spacecraft impacted the Lunar surface on 17 December 2012.[41]

text: LADEE (USA)

text: LADEE was launched on 7 September 2013.[42] The mission ended on 18 April 2014, when the spacecraft's controllers intentionally crashed LADEE into the far side of the Moon,[43][44] which, later, was determined to be near the eastern rim of Sundman V crater.[45][46]

text: 21st century unmanned soft landings

text: Chang'e 3 (China)

text: On 14 December 2013 at 13:12 UTC[47] Chang'e 3 soft-landed a rover on the Moon. This was the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 on 22 August 1976.[48]

text: Landings on moons of other Solar System bodies

text: Progress in space exploration has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the Solar System as well. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn performed a successful unmanned moon landing on Titan in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe Phobos 2 came within 120 mi (190 km) of performing an unmanned moon landing on Mars' moon Phobos in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called Fobos-Grunt ("grunt" means "soil" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low Earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on Jupiter's Europa moon to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.

text: Proposed future missions

text: China is planning to land another rover and collect samples in the Chang'e 4 mission and return lunar soil samples by 2018 in the Chang'e 5 mission.[49]

text: ISRO, the Indian National Space agency, is planning a second version of Chandrayaan named Chandrayaan 2. According to former ISRO Chairman G. Madhavan Nair, "The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) hopes to land two rovers – one Indian and another Russian – on the Moon in 2018, as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission. The rover will be designed to move on wheels on the lunar surface, pick up samples of soil or rocks, do on-site chemical analysis and send the data to the mother-spacecraft Chandrayaan II, which will be orbiting above. Chandrayaan II will transmit the data to Earth."  The payloads have already been finalized.[50][51] ISRO has mentioned that due to weight restrictions it will not be carrying any overseas payloads on this mission. The lander weight is projected to be 1,250 kg, and the spacecraft will be launched by the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle.

text: Russia's Luna-Glob 1 is expected to be launched in 2018.[52] In 2007 the head of the Russian Space Agency announced plans to send cosmonauts to the Moon by 2025 and establish a permanent robotically operated base there in 2027–2032.[53] In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place a cosmonaut on the Moon by 2030, leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid another Space Race.[54]

text: The Lunar Precursor Robotic Program (LPRP) is a program of robotic spacecraft missions which NASA will use to prepare for future Moon landings.[55] Three orbiters have been launched in the program, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), and the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE), launched in 2013, but no Moon landings are scheduled yet.

text:
The Google Lunar X Prize competition offers a $20 million award for the first privately funded team to land a robotic probe on the Moon. Like the Ansari X Prize before it, the competition aims to advance the state of the art in private space exploration.[56] Of the several competing teams, Puli Space Technologies at one time (2012) planned to launch in 2014[57][needs update]
and Astrobotic Technology plans to launch in the second half of 2016 with their own rover plus another team's lunar rovers from Hakuto.[58][59]

text: In 2019, a consortium of Vodafone, Audi and PT Scientists are planning a moon landing. The mission is to launch a lander and two small rovers to the moon from Cape Canaveral, Florida on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket during the 50th-anniversary year of NASA's Apollo 11 moon landing.[60] Nokia will assist to setup a LTE network in moon to manage lunar terrestrial communication system of the mission.[61]

text: Historical empirical evidence

text: Many conspiracy theorists hold that the Apollo Moon landings were a hoax;[62] however, empirical evidence is readily available to show that manned moon landings did indeed occur. Anyone on Earth with an appropriate laser and telescope system can bounce laser beams off three retroreflector arrays left on the Moon by Apollo 11,[63] 14 and 15, verifying deployment of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment at historically documented Apollo Moon landing sites and so proving equipment constructed on Earth was successfully transported to the surface of the Moon. In addition, in August 2009 NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter began to send back high resolution photos of the Apollo landing sites. These photos show not only the large Descent Stages of the lunar landers left behind but also tracks of the astronauts' walking paths in the lunar dust.[64]


document_title: It (miniseries)

question_text: who played the clown in the movie it by stephen king

root

text: It (miniseries)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In Derry, Maine, in 1960, Georgie Denbrough plays in the streets with a paper sailboat made by his stuttering big brother Bill. It goes down a storm drain, where Georgie encounters Pennywise the Dancing Clown. Pennywise entices Georgie to reach in to retrieve his boat, only to kill him. Months later, Bill and asthmatic Eddie Kaspbrak befriend the overweight new kid Ben Hanscom. They are later joined by Beverly Marsh, who lives with her abusive father, the comical Richie Tozier, and Jewish boy scout Stan Uris. Besides being bullied by a gang led by Henry Bowers, the children all encounter Pennywise.

tag: p

text: The group are joined by Mike Hanlon, an African American new kid in town being pursued by Bowers’ gang. They chase them off with a rock fight, Bowers vowing to kill the children, who are dubbed the Losers Club. While looking through Mike’s history scrapbook, the Losers realise that Pennywise, which they refer to as “It”, is a monster who awakens every thirty years to devour children. Bill realizes It killed Georgie, leading the Losers into Derry’s sewers to kill the clown.

text: Stan is ambushed by Bowers and his friends Victor Criss and Belch Huggins, but the latter are both killed by It. Henry is left traumatized, his hair turned white. Stanley regroups with the Losers, but is grabbed by It. The Losers use It’s ability to access their imaginations and use it against him. Eddie imagines his inhaler is full of battery acid, melting half of It’s face. Beverly fires silver bullets at It, the Losers believing it can kill the clown. It escapes down a drain to hibernate. The Losers make a vow to return to Derry as adults, should It return. Bowers, driven insane, takes credit for the child murders and is institutionalised.

text: In 1990, Mike works as a librarian in Derry. It resurfaces and murders several children, prompting Mike to contact his estranged friends to fulfil their vow. Bill has become a bestselling horror novelist married to British actress Audra Phillips, Ben is an architect, Beverly is a fashion designer abused by her husband Tom Rogan, Richie is a late night television comedian, Eddie runs a limousine service but still lives with his overbearing mother, and Stan is a married real estate broker. All of the Losers, save Stan, promise to return. Stan’s wife later discovers he has committed suicide in the bath.

text: The other Losers return to Derry, tormented by Pennywise, and reunite, later learning of Stan’s suicide. Henry escapes from the asylum with help from It, to murder the Losers. Audra travels to Derry but is captured by It, hypnotised by the monster’s “Deadlights”. Henry ambushes Mike, but is stabbed by his own knife when Eddie and Ben fight him. Mike is hospitalised, giving Bill the two pieces of silver he retrieved from the sewers. The five remaining Losers return to the sewers to confront It. Bill discovers Audra has been taken prisoner, but is supported by his friends.

text: They reach It's inner sanctum, find the catatonic Audra, and It's true form of a gigantic, otherworldly spider. Bill, Ben, and Richie are entranced by the Deadlights, while Beverly scrambles to retrieve the silver bullets after misfiring them. Eddie attempts to repeat the wound he inflicted on It as a child, but is mortally wounded. Beverly frees her friends, but Eddie dies. The others chase the injured It, ripping out its heart and killing It. They remove Eddie’s body and the catatonic Audra from the sewers.

text: The Losers go their separate ways once again, their memories of It fading over time. Mike recovers in hospital, Beverly and Ben get married and expect their first child, and Richie is cast in a film. Bill is the last to leave Derry, coaxing Audra out of her catatonia by riding down a street on his childhood bike “Silver”. Audra recovers, she and Bill kissing in the middle of town.

text: Cast[edit]

text: The Losers Club[edit]

text:
Richard Thomas as Bill Denbrough

Jonathan Brandis as Young Bill Denbrough

John Ritter as Ben Hanscom

Brandon Crane as Young Ben Hanscom

Annette O'Toole as Beverly Marsh

Emily Perkins as Young Beverly Marsh

Harry Anderson as Richie Tozier

Seth Green as Young Richie Tozier

Dennis Christopher as Eddie Kaspbrak

Adam Faraizl as Young Eddie Kaspbrak

Tim Reid as Mike Hanlon

Marlon Taylor as Young Mike Hanlon

Richard Masur as Stanley Uris

Ben Heller as Young Stanley Uris

tag: ul

text: Forms of It[edit]

text:
Tim Curry as Pennywise the Dancing Clown
Steve Makaj as Captain Hanscom
Florence Paterson as Mrs. Kersh

text: The Bowers Gang[edit]

text:
Michael Cole as Henry Bowers

Jarred Blancard as Young Henry Bowers

Gabe Khouth as Victor Criss
Chris Eastman as Belch Huggins

text: The Losers Club relatives[edit]

text:
Olivia Hussey as Audra Phillips/Denbrough
Frank C. Turner as Alvin "Al" Marsh
Tony Dakota as George "Georgie" Denbrough
Steven Hilton as Zack Denbrough
Sheelah Megill as Sharon Denbrough
Ryan Michael as Tom Rogan
Caitlin Hicks as Patti Uris
Susan Astley as Aunt Jean
Claire Vardiel as Arlene Hanscom
Sheila Moore as Ms. Sonya Kaspbrak

text: Derry townspeople[edit]

text:
Terence Kelly as Officer Nell
Jay Brazeau as Derry Cab Driver
Donna Peerless as Miss Douglas
Merrilyn Gann as Mrs. Winterbarger
Chelan Simmons as Laurie Anne Winterbarger
William B. Davis as Mr. Gedreau
Laura Harris as Loni
Garry Chalk as Coach
Kim Kondrashoff as Joey
Helena Yea as Rose
Venus Terzo as Cyndi
Charles Siegel as Nat
Noel Geer as Bradley
Amos Hertzman as "Chubby Kid"
Megan Leitch as Library aide
Boyd Norman as Gas station attendant
Suzie Payne as Female cabbie
Scott Swanson as Rademacher
Nicola Cavendish as Desk clerk
Tom Heaton as Mr. Keene
Paul Batten as Pharmacist
Russell Roberts as Greco
Bill Croft as Koontz
Deva Neil DePodesta as Bum
Katherine Banwell as Television announcer
Douglas Newell as Doctor
Gary Hetherington as Police deputy

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: ABC had acquired the rights to a television mini-series of It, for what would be the first made-for-television film based on a Stephen King work since Salem's Lot (1979), directed by Tobe Hooper.[2] Lawrence D. Cohen, who had previously written the film adaptation of Carrie in 1976, was hired to write It.[2] According to both Stephen King and Cohen, King had little to no involvement in the writing of the miniseries.[2] George A. Romero had originally been signed on to direct the project, which at the time ABC had planned for an eight-to-ten-hour series that would run over four two-hour blocks.[2] Romero left the project due to scheduling conflicts, after which ABC condensed it to a three-part series. Shortly after, Tommy Lee Wallace was brought in to direct. After Wallace signed on to the project, ABC had ultimately decided to condense the series to two parts.[2]

text: According to writer Cohen: "Speaking candidly, ABC was always nervous about It, primarily the fact that it was in the horror genre, but also the eight-to-ten hour commitment. They loved the piece, but lost their nerve in terms of how many hours they were willing to commit. Eventually, they agreed to a two-night, four-hour commitment."[2] Given the length of the King novel, which runs 1,138 pages,[3] a great deal of material was left out of Cohen's adaptation, including subplots concerning the personal lives of the adult characters, one of which had the main male characters each losing their virginity to Beverly.[2][4] "I can’t even begin to enumerate my favorite scenes from the book that we had to cut, because there are so many of them," Cohen reflected. "I look at it as a glass half full situation. There are scenes in both nights that were created by Steve [King] on the page, and I'm delighted that they survived, like the fortune cookie scene and adult Beverly going to her childhood house. The way I see it, the best moments from the book made the cut and the rest are casualties of war."[2]

text: However, Wallace and Cohen retained the centrality of Pennywise in the source novel; as noted by film scholar Tony Magistrale in Hollywood's Stephen King, the miniseries retains the "association between the adult world of Derry and It [which] is further established in the masterful choice of a carnival clown as a unifying symbol for the various creatures representing the monster."[5]

text: Casting[edit]

text: The majority of the adult actors in the film, including John Ritter, Dennis Christopher, Tim Reid and Harry Anderson, were hand-chosen by Wallace and Cohen for their roles.[2] Annette O'Toole was cast in the film at the suggestion of Ritter, with whom she had recently shot The Dreamer of Oz: The L. Frank Baum Story (1990): "I think [John] may have talked to somebody, because I got an offer [to play Beverly]," O'Toole recalled. "It happened really fast; I don’t think I even went in for a reading. I was living in Oregon at the time, and the next thing I knew, I was in Vancouver hanging out with the coolest, most fun guys of all time."[2]

text: Emily Perkins and Marlon Taylor, who played the young Beverly Marsh and Mike Hanlon, were cast out of Vancouver, while Seth Green and Jonathan Brandis were cast out of Los Angeles for the parts of young Richie and Bill.[2]

text: According to Cohen, he had written the script for the series without a specific actor in mind for the role of Pennywise.[2] According to director Tommy Lee Wallace, before he was attached to the project, Malcolm McDowell and Roddy McDowall were in consideration to play Pennywise, but Wallace wanted Tim Curry for the role; Wallace had previously worked with the latter in Fright Night Part 2 (1988).[2]

text: Filming[edit]

text: It was shot over a period of three months in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on a budget of $12 million.[6] Given that the shooting entailed an adult cast with child counterparts, Wallace sought to have the adult actors meet with the children playing the younger versions of their characters: "We made a point of bringing the adult and children actors together for a couple of days, even though it was costly, since the adults and the kids have no scenes together."[2] Filming locations in Vancouver included Stanley Park, Beaver Lake and Saint Thomas Aquinas High School Convent in North Vancouver.[7] Wallace told The Hollywood Reporter that his job as a director "was to give Tim the stage and not get in his way too much. He was like Robin Williams in the way he brought a spontaneous improvisation to the part." Curry gave Pennywise a Bronx accent in order to sound like "an old-time Catskills comic". "I just let it happen," Curry said. "Clowns are your worst fear realized. I think I scared a lot of children."[8]

text: Special effects[edit]

text: Original storyboards for Pennywise featured exaggerated cheekbones, a sharp chin, and bulbous forehead. According to director Wallace, "Tim [Curry] objected strongly to all the rubber. He had recently been in several movies which covered him in prosthetics and I’m sure he felt all the glue and latex would just get in his way. He was right, of course. With those eyes, and that mouth, and his crazy, sardonic sense of humor, less turned out to be more in the makeup department."[2]

text: Special effects coordinator Bart Mixon began working on a head cast for the Pennywise character after Curry was cast in the role; he also designed three clay molds for testing. According to Mixon, he based the shape of Pennywise's head on Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925), "stylized into a clown."[2] Three different versions of the clown's face were created, one of which resembled a hobo clown, another that was "a little meaner," and the final one seen in the series.[2] To achieve the white complexion, Curry wore prosthetic make-up cream to make him appear "almost like a living cartoon."[2]

text: The majority of the special effects in the film were done practically without digital alteration, aside from the shower scene in which Pennywise comes out of the drain; this scene was done with replacement animation, an animation technique similar to stop motion animation.[2]

text: The spider figure in the conclusion of the series was hand-constructed by Mixon and his art department team. Wallace recalled of the spider:

text: We labored long and hard designing a spider that was very beefy and muscular, almost reptilian in appearance. It looked great in the drawings, and I even recall a little clay model Bart did, which sealed the deal and won my enthusiastic approval. Bart and team went back to Hollywood to work the whole thing up full-size, and shooting started. When the SVFX team returned to Vancouver and unpacked the full-size spider, what I expected to see was the big version of that original model, the beefy, reptilian thing that was scary on sight. What they assembled on set was very, very different. Not chunky at all, very lean and mean."[2]

text: In a panel at Fan Expo Canada in 2017, Tim Curry remarked of the spider, "It was... not very scary. Or convincing."[9]

text: Broadcast history[edit]

text: It originally aired on ABC in 1990 on the nights of November 18[10] and November 20.[11] Part 1 was the fifth highest rated program of the week with an 18.5/29 rating/share, and being watched in 17.5 million households.[10] Part 2 was the second highest rated program of the week with a 20.6/33 rating/share, and watched in 19.2 million households.[11] According to writer Cohen, It was considered a major success for ABC, garnering nearly 30 million viewers over its two-night premiere.[2]

text: Reception[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2017)

tag: table

text: As of February 2018[update], on Rotten Tomatoes, the film held an approval rating of 57% based on 14 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 5.5/10.[12]

text: Matt Roush of USA Today gave the series a positive review, writing: "If Twin Peaks is a midnight movie for prime-time live, It is the mini-series equivalent of those Saturday matinee shockers that merrily warped a generation before Freddie and Jason began stalking their more graphic turf... Accept It on its own popcorn-munching terms, and keep the lights on high."[13]

text: Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly praised the performances in the film, but had a negative response to its special effects and pacing, noting: "It features a high level of ensemble acting rare for any horror film... in addition to It's slow pace, I found the ending a big letdown—unimaginative special effects animate the monster in its final incarnation. But the cast is terrific, Curry's cackle is chilling, and King's usual buried theme—about the pain adults inflict on children without even realizing it (It?)—is always worth pondering."[13]

text: The Hollywood Reporter called It "one big kicky ride thanks to the charismatic acting of Curry as savage, sneering malevolence."[8]

text: Sandra Harris of Movie Pilot said, "There’s some gorgeous scenery too and a nice interweaving of flashbacks with the regular scenes. For Stephen King fans, this film is a must for your collection. For fans of horror in general, I’d say you could do a lot worse. Take the phone off the hook and burrow under the duvet for three hours with the popcorn and the remote control."[14]

text: Ian Jane of DVD Talk highlighted the mini-series' combination of childhood nostalgia with horror elements and praised Curry's performance as Pennywise.[15]

text: Bloody Disgusting's John Campopiano commended director Tommy Lee Wallace for "relying less on jump scares and more on creating an unsettling atmosphere to contrast against the kids and their stories."[16]

text: In 2017, Rolling Stone writer Sean T. Collins called the miniseries "legendary" and commented that it had become a cult classic. He said although the miniseries "largely bungles Pennywise's powers", Curry's portrayal of Pennywise is "the stuff sleepless nights are made of. He gloats, he giggles, he taunts, he devours the scenery like the monster himself devours middle-schoolers – and he generally sears his way right into the brain of the viewer."[17]

text: Dan Stephens from the UK website Top 10 Films awarded the film four out of five stars. In his review Stephens praised the film's story, character development, and suspense during the first half. But criticized the second half as disappointing and criticizing the lack of "friendship and togetherness" of the main characters that was present during the first half, and clichéd ending.[18]

text: Stephen King commented on the miniseries in a 2015 interview, saying, "You have to remember, my expectations were in the basement. Here was a book that sprawled over 1,000 pages, and they were going to cram it into four hours, with commercials. But the series really surprised me by how good it was. It’s a really ambitious adaptation of a really long book."[2]

text: Home media[edit]

text: It was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1991.[19] The original VHS release was on two cassette tapes, one for each part. The VHS and Laserdisc releases feature It as originally aired. In 1998, It was re-released on VHS, this time, on one cassette tape (in EP format). The film was later released on DVD in 2002 and on Blu-ray on October 4, 2016.[15] Both the DVD and the Blu-ray feature an edited version of the film, which presents It as one "movie". The suicide scene at the end of Part 1 is shortened, the hotel scene from Part 2 is missing, and the graveyard scene toward the beginning of Part 2 is also slightly shortened to remove the on-screen credits that originally appeared.[citation needed]

text: Musical score[edit]

text: A 2-CD release of the mini-series' complete score by Richard Bellis was released on November 15, 2011.[20] The music of the film ranges from orchestral music to trumpet-heavy music that accompanies the setting of Derry to unsteady electronic instrument arrangements for the film's scarier moments.[20] Bellis won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music Composition for a mini-series or a Special (Dramatic Underscore) for his work on the film.[21]

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
[show]Disc 1

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Main Title"
1:52

2.
"Enter the Clown"
3:04

3.
"Georgie Dies"
4:17

4.
"Ben Gets the News"
0:51

5.
"Punks"
2:18

6.
"I Hate It Here"
1:53

7.
"Bedroom Jazz Source"
2:24

8.
"The Slap"
1:45

9.
"Die if You Try"
4:02

10.
"Richie's Talk Show Play-Off"
0:34

11.
"The Beast – First Encounter"
2:05

12.
"Mike Remembers"
0:58

13.
"Mike Joins the Group"
5:07

14.
"Pennywise"
0:39

15.
"Circus Source"
1:10

16.
"Target Practice"
2:51

17.
"The Sewer Hole"
3:13

18.
"Stan Gets Nabbed"
4:27

19.
"The Fog"
3:25

20.
"The Pact"
1:43

21.
"Stan's Suicide"
0:50

22.
"End Credits I"
1:00

Total length:
50:28

text:
[show]Disc 2

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Main Title Part II"
1:51

2.
"The Graves"
1:48

3.
"Library Balloons"
2:53

4.
"Ben's Flashback"
0:35

5.
"Skeleton on the Pond"
0:40

6.
"Guillory's Muzak"
1:27

7.
"Hydrox"
2:49

8.
"Audra"
1:45

9.
"Fortune Cookie"
1:54

10.
"Silver Flyer"
2:22

11.
"Leftover Stan"
1:52

12.
"Henry and Belch"
2:20

13.
"Every Thirty Years"
1:56

14.
"Audra Arrives"
2:02

15.
"This Time It's for Real"
4:26

16.
"The Smell of Death"
1:59

17.
"Something's Coming"
4:00

18.
"The Spider's Web"
5:11

19.
"Hi Ho Silver"
4:33

20.
"End Credits Part II"
1:00

Total length:
47:23


document_title: Adam's apple

question_text: what does it mean if u have a big adam's apple

question_tokens: what does it mean if u have a big adam 's apple

text: Adam's apple

text: Structure[edit]

text: The structure of the Adam's apple forms a bump under the skin. It is typically larger in adult males, in whom it is usually clearly visible and palpable. In females, the bump is much less visible and is hardly perceived on the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage.[1]

text: Sex difference[edit]

text: An Adam's apple is usually a feature of adult males, because its size in males tends to increase considerably during puberty. However, some women also have an Adam’s apple.[2]

text: Its development is considered a secondary sexual characteristic of males that appears as a result of hormonal activity. Its level of development varies among individuals and the widening of that area in the larynx can occur very suddenly and quickly.[citation needed]

text: Function[edit]

text: The Adam's apple, in conjunction with the thyroid cartilage which forms it, helps protect the walls and the frontal part of the larynx, including the vocal cords (which are located directly behind it).

text: Another function of the Adam's apple is related to the deepening of the voice. During adolescence, the thyroid cartilage grows together with the larynx. Consequently, the laryngeal prominence grows in size mainly in men. Together, a larger soundboard is made up in phonation apparatus and, as a result, the man gets a deeper voice note.[3][4]

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: Cosmetic surgery to reshape  the Adam's apple is called chondrolaryngoplasty (thyroid cartilage reduction).  The surgery is effective, such that complications tend to be few and, if present, transient.[5]

text: Etymology[edit]

text:
There are two main theories as to the origin of the term "Adam's apple".
The "Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable" and the 1913 edition of Webster's Dictionary point at an ancient belief that a piece of forbidden fruit was embedded in the throat of Adam, who according to the Abrahamic religions was the first man.[6] However, neither the Bible nor other Judeo-Christian or Islamic writings mention such a story. In fact, the biblical story does not even specify the type of fruit that Adam ate.[7]

text: Linguist Alexander Gode claimed that the Latin phrase to designate the laryngeal prominence was very probably translated incorrectly from the beginning. The phrase in Latin was "pomum Adami" (literally: 'Adam's apple'). This, in turn, came from the Hebrew "tappuach ha adam" meaning "apple of man". The confusion lies in the fact that in Hebrew language the proper name "Adam" (אדם) literally means "man", while the Hebrew word "apple" means "swollen", thus in combination: the swelling of a man.[8][9] Proponents of this version contend that the subsequent phrases in Latin and other Romance languages represent a mistranslation from the start.[10]

text: The medical term "prominentia laryngea" (laryngeal prominence) was introduced by the Basle Nomina Anatomica in 1895.[11]

text: In the American South, goozle is used colloquially to describe the Adam's apple, likely derived from guzzle.[12][13][14][15]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Laryngeal prominence

Laryngeal prominence

Laryngeal prominence


document_title: Jumanji

question_text: how did judy and peter's parents die in jumanji

question_tokens: how did judy and peter 's parents die in jumanji

text: Jumanji

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1869, in Brantford, New Hampshire, two brothers, Caleb and Benjamin, bury a chest and hope that no one ever finds it.

text: A century later in 1969, 12-year-old Alan Parrish escapes a group of bullies led by Billy Jessup and retreats to his father Sam's shoe factory. He meets his friend, Carl Bentley, one of his father's employees, who reveals a new shoe prototype he made by himself. Alan misplaces the shoe and damages a machine, but Carl takes responsibility and gets fired. After being beaten up by Jessup's group, who also steal his bicycle, Alan follows the sound of tribal drumbeats to a construction site. He finds the chest containing a board game called "Jumanji" and brings it home.

text: At home, after an argument with Sam about attending Cliffside, a boarding school for boys, Alan plans to run away. His best friend, Sarah Whittle, arrives to return his bicycle, and Alan shows her Jumanji and invites her to play. With each roll of the dice, the game piece moves by itself and a cryptic message describing the roll's outcome appears in the crystal ball at the center of the board. Sarah reads the first message on the board and hears an eerie sound. Alan then unintentionally rolls the dice after being startled by the chiming clock; a message tells him to wait in a jungle until someone rolls a 5 or 8. Alan is sucked into the game, and a swarm of bats chases Sarah out of the mansion.

text: Twenty-six years later in 1995, after their parents died in an accident on a ski trip, siblings Judy and Peter Shepherd move into the vacant Parrish mansion with their aunt Nora. Soon after, Judy and Peter find Jumanji in the attic and begin playing it. Their rolls release a swarm of big mosquitoes and a troop of monkeys. The game rules state that everything will be restored when the game ends, so they continue playing. Peter's next roll releases a lion and an adult Alan. As Alan makes his way around town, he encounters Carl, who is now working as a police officer. Alan, Judy, and Peter go to the now-closed shoe factory, where a derelict tells Alan that after his disappearance, Sam abandoned the business and searched for Alan until his death just four years earlier.

text: Realizing they need Sarah to finish the game, the three locate her, now suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder after Alan's disappearance, and they persuade her to join them. Sarah's roll releases fast-growing carnivorous plants, and Alan's next roll releases a big-game hunter named Van Pelt. Judy's next roll releases a stampede of various animals, and a pelican steals the game. Peter retrieves it, but Alan is arrested by Carl. Later, Van Pelt catches up to Alan's friends and steals the game. Sarah, Judy, and Peter follow Van Pelt to a department store, where they retrieve the game, dodge him, and reunite with Alan, who has managed to hijack Carl's car. When the four return to the mansion, it is now completely overrun by jungle wildlife. They release and dodge numerous calamities, until Van Pelt arrives and confronts Alan. When Alan drops the dice, he wins the game which causes everything that happened as a result of the game to be reversed.

text: Alan and Sarah return to 1969 as children, but have full memories of everything that happened. Alan reconciles with his father and admits that he was responsible for the shoe that damaged the factory's machine. Carl is rehired, and Sam tells his son that he does not have to attend boarding school. Alan and Sarah throw Jumanji into a river, and then share a kiss.

text: Twenty-six years later, Alan and Sarah are married and expecting their first child. Alan runs the factory after Sam has retired (but is still alive). He and Sarah reunite with Judy and Peter (who have no memories of the game), and meet their parents Jim and Martha during a Christmas party. The Parrishes offer Jim a job and convince the Shepherds to cancel their upcoming ski trip, averting their deaths.

text: On a beach in France, two young girls hear drumbeats while walking, as Jumanji lies partially buried in the sand.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Robin Williams as Alan Parrish, a man trapped in Jumanji for 26 years

Adam Hann-Byrd as Young Alan

Bonnie Hunt as Sarah Whittle, Alan's friend who is traumatized by Jumanji and devastated by Alan's disappearance

Laura Bell Bundy as Young Sarah

Kirsten Dunst as Judy Shepherd, Peter's older sister
Bradley Pierce as Peter Shepherd, Judy's younger brother
David Alan Grier as Carl Bentley, an employee at Sam's shoe factory and Alan's oldest friend, who later becomes a police officer
Jonathan Hyde as Van Pelt, a big-game hunter from the game who tries to hunt Alan

Hyde also portrays Samuel "Sam" Parrish, Alan's father

Bebe Neuwirth as Nora Shepherd, Judy and Peter's aunt
Patricia Clarkson as Carol-Anne Parrish, Alan's mother
Malcolm Stewart as Jim Shephard, Judy and Peter's father
Annabel Kershaw as Martha Shepherd, Judy and Peter's mother
Gary Joseph Thorup as Billy Jessup, the leader of the bullies that picks on Alan for being friends with Sarah.
Frank Welker provides the special vocal effects.

text: Production[edit]

text: While Peter Guber was visiting Boston, he invited author Chris Van Allsburg, who lives in Providence, Rhode Island, to option his book. Van Allsburg wrote one of the screenplay's drafts, which he described as "sort of trying to imbue the story with a quality of mystery and surrealism".[2]

text: Tristar Pictures agreed to finance the film on the condition that Robin Williams play the starring role. However, Williams turned down the role based on the first script he was given. Only after director Joe Johnston and screenwriters Jonathan Hensleigh, Greg Taylor and Jim Strain undertook extensive rewrites did Williams accept.[3] Johnston had reservations over casting Williams because of the actors' reputation for improvisation, fearing that he wouldn't adhere to the script. However, Williams understood that it was "a tightly structured story" and filmed the scenes as outlined in the script, often filming duplicate scenes afterwards where he was allowed to improvise with Bonnie Hunt.[4]

text: Shooting took place in various New England locales, mainly Keene, New Hampshire, which represented the story's fictional town of Brantford, New Hampshire, and North Berwick, Maine, where the Olde Woolen Mill stood in for the Parrish Shoe Factory.[5][6] Additional filming took place in Vancouver, British Columbia, where a mock-up of the Parrish house was built.[7]

text: Special effects were a combination of more traditional techniques like puppetry and animatronics (provided by Amalgamated Dynamics) with state-of-the-art digital effects overseen by Industrial Light & Magic.[8][9] ILM developed two new software programs specially for Jumanji, one called iSculpt, which allowed the illustrators to create realistic facial expressions on the computer-generated animals in the film, and another which for the first time created realistic digital hair, used on the monkeys and the lion.[10] Actor Bradley Pierce (Peter) underwent three and a half hours of prosthetic makeup application daily for a period of two and a half months to film the scenes where he transformed into a monkey.[11]

text: The film was dedicated to visual effects supervisor Stephen L. Price, who died before the film's release.[12]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Jumanji: Complete Motion Picture Score

Film score (Digital download)/Audio CD by James Horner

Released
November 21, 1995

Length
51:04

Label
Epic Soundtrax

text: Commercial songs from film, but not on soundtrack

text:
"Una Voce Poco Fa"

Written by Gioacchino Rossini
Performed by Agnes Baltsa and the Vienna Symphony
Orchestra and Chorus conducted by Ian Marin

"Night & Day"

Written by Cole Porter

"Serenade in D, Op. 44"

Composed by Antonín Dvořák
Performed by Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields
Conducted by Neville Marriner

"Locomotive Breath"

Written by Ian Anderson
Performed by Jethro Tull

"The Ballad of Gilligan's Isle" (Theme from Gilligan's Island)

Written by Sherwood Schwartz & George Wyle

text: Reception[edit]

text: Jumanji did well at the box office, earning $100.5 million in the United States and Canada and an additional $162.3 million overseas, bringing the worldwide gross to $262.8 million.[13][14]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50% from 34 reviews, with a average rating of 5.6/10.[15] On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 39 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[16] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.

text: Van Allsburg of the Los Angeles Times approved of the film despite the changes from the book and its not being as "idiosyncratic and peculiar", declaring that "[t]he film is faithful in reproducing the chaos level that comes with having a jungle animal in the house. It's a good movie."[2]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: An animated television series was produced between 1996 and 1999. While it borrowed heavily from the film – incorporating various characters, locations and props, and modeling Alan's house and the board game on the way they appeared in the film – the series retcons[jargon] rather than using the film's storyline. In the series version, on each turn the players are given a "game clue" and then sucked into the jungle until they solve it. Alan is stuck in Jumanji because he has not seen his clue. Judy and Peter try to help him leave the game, providing their motivation during the series. Sarah is absent from the series.

text: In 2005 Jumanji was listed 48 in Channel 4's 100 Greatest Family Films documentary just behind Dumbo and Spider-Man.

text: In 2011, Robin Williams recorded an audiobook for Van Allsburg's book's 30th edition to coincide its release.[17]

text: In 2014, a game board prop from the movie was auctioned on eBay and sold for US$60,800.[18][19]

text: Games[edit]

text: Jumanji is a board game originally published by Milton Bradley in the US and MB Spiele in Germany in 1995. [20]

text: Jumanji is a North American-exclusive game for Microsoft Windows that was released on 1996, which was based on the film. It was developed by Studio Interactive and published by Philips Media.[21] It contains five different action-arcade-based mini-games that are based on popular scenes from the film. Clips of cutscenes from the film can also be viewed.[22] There are five different mini-games that the player can choose from, with different rules and objectives. Animals from the film provide instructions to the player for each mini-game, except for the Treasure Maze mini-game, where the Jumanji board game spirit provides instructions instead. Notably, players cannot play the actual Jumanji board game from the film. All of these mini-games contain rounds (or levels) and when players reach a goal, that level is cleared and the player advances to a more difficult version of the mini-game. The player must try to score as many points as possible, and set the best high score.

text: A video game based on the film was released in Europe for the PlayStation 2 in 2006.[23]

text: In 2007, Fujishoji released a Pachinko game, using clips from the film and also used 3D rendered CGI anime character designs for the game as part of the screen interaction.

text: Similar film[edit]

text: Zathura: A Space Adventure, the spiritual successor that was marketed as being from the same continuity with varied uses of the tagline, "From the world of Jumanji"[24] was released as a feature film in 2005. Unlike the book Zathura, the film makes no references to the previous film outside of the marketing statement. Both films are based on books written by Chris Van Allsburg. With the films being based on books which take place in the same series, the films vaguely made reference to that concept from the novels by having a similar concept and themes.

text: Sequels[edit]

text: Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle[edit]

text: In July 2012, rumors emerged that a remake of the film was already in development. In a conversation with The Hollywood Reporter, Columbia Pictures president Doug Belgrad said: "We're going to try and reimagine Jumanji and update it for the present."[25] On August 1, 2012, it was confirmed that Matthew Tolmach would be producing the new version alongside William Teitler, who produced the original film.[26]

text: On August 5, 2015, Sony Pictures Entertainment announced their plans to film a remake and set the release date as December 25, 2016.[27] Internet reception to this announcement was negative, with some posters remarking that this announcement came too soon after the death of Williams.[28][29] The news was also heavily criticized by Bradley Pierce and E! News, the latter of which stated that they felt that the remake was "unnecessary and kind of insulting".[30][31] On January 14, 2016, it was announced that Jake Kasdan will direct the remake.[32][33] On January 20, 2016, it was announced that the remake would be pushed back to July 28, 2017.[34] In April 2016, Dwayne Johnson signed on to produce and star in the remake,[35] while Variety, TheWrap and Deadline.com reported that Kevin Hart, Jack Black, and Nick Jonas were in early talks to co-star.[36][37][38] In August 2016, Dwayne Johnson confirmed that the film would not be a reboot, rather a continuation of the 1995 film and that it would be filmed in Hawaii.[39][40] In August, Johnson announced on Instagram that Karen Gillan has been cast in the film.[41][42] In September 2016, Johnson released a concept art of his character "The Smoldering" Dr. Bravestone.[43]

text: The film, officially titled Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, was released on December 20, 2017.

text: Jumanji 3[edit]

text: Jack Black, Dwayne Johnson, and Nick Jonas have discussed in interviews what a third installment would be about. Karen Gillan has also said that an alternate ending for Welcome to the Jungle would have left the door open for another film.[44][45][46][47]