document_title: Economy of Puerto Rico

question_text: what is the average annual income in puerto rico

question_tokens: what is the average annual income in puerto rico

text: Economy of Puerto Rico

text: History[edit]

text: Puerto Rico, like many other countries, has transitioned from an agricultural economy to an industrial one. Its economy is currently experiencing a transformation caused by the Information Age, albeit slowly.

text: Pre-colonialism[edit]

text: Not much is known about the economic history of Puerto Rico prior to the arrival of Spaniards. The little that is known about its inhabitants, the Taíno, is that their economy was a mixture of hunting and gathering with agriculture.

text: The Taíno captured and ate small animals, such as mammals, earthworms, lizards, turtles, and birds. Manatees were speared and fish were caught in nets, speared, poisoned, trapped in weirs, or caught with hook and line. Wild parrots were decoyed with domesticated birds, and iguanas were taken from trees and other vegetation. Livestock was not practiced as there were no large animals native to Puerto Rico that could be raised in an agricultural setting in order to produce commodities such as food, fiber, or labor.

text: Fields for important root crops, such as the staple yuca, were prepared by heaping up mounds of soil, called conucos. This improved soil drainage and fertility as well as delaying erosion, and it allowing for longer storage of crops in the ground. Less important crops such as corn were raised in simple clearings created by slash and burn technique. Typically, conucos were three feet high and nine feet in circumference and were arranged in rows. The primary root crop was yuca/cassava, a woody shrub cultivated for its edible and starchy tuberous root. It was planted using a coa, a kind of hoe made completely from wood. Women processed the poisonous variety of cassava by squeezing it to extract the toxic juices. Then they would grind the roots into flour for baking bread. Batata (sweet potato) was the next most important root crop.[27]

text: Contrary to mainland practices, corn was not ground into flour and baked into bread. It was cooked and eaten off the cob. Corn bread becomes moldy faster than cassava bread in the high humidity of the West Indies. The Taíno grew squash, beans, peppers, peanuts, and pineapples. Tobacco, calabashes (West Indian pumpkins) and cotton were grown around the houses. Other fruits and vegetables, such as palm nuts, guavas, and Zamia roots, were collected from the wild.[27]

text: Spanish rule[edit]

text: The economy of Puerto Rico was transformed drastically upon the arrivals of Spaniards in 1493 until their departure in 1898. The economy during that period was driven by slavery of the native population, the Taíno, and by slaves brought from Africa. Slaves were minimally remunerated for or forced to work in farms, mines, households, and other aspects. Agriculture was the primary mean of production, as well as livestock which was originally imported from Europe. Sugar cane, tobacco, coffee, and minor fruits were the primary cultivations which were exported to Europe and, by so, constituted the main economy for the island.[28] Mining of gold, silver, and copper occurred as well, although not as much as in other territories during the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

text: United States rule[edit]

text: This section may lack focus or may be about more than one topic. Please help improve this article, possibly by splitting the article and/or by introducing a disambiguation page, or discuss this issue on the talk page. (November 2012)

text: In the early 20th century the greatest contributor to Puerto Rico's economy was agriculture and its main crop was sugar, displacing other cash crops such as tobacco and coffee. In 1935, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt launched the Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration, which provided agricultural development, public works, and electrification of the island.

text: Economic conditions have improved dramatically since the Great Depression because of external investment in capital-intensive industries such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and technology. Starting in the late 1940s a series of projects called Operation Bootstrap encouraged, using tax exemptions, the establishment of factories. Thus manufacturing replaced agriculture as the main industry of the island. Operation Bootstrap was based on an "industrialization-first" campaign and modernization, focusing the Puerto Rican economy on exports, especially to the United States. As a result, Puerto Rico is now classified as a "high income country" by the World Bank.[29][30] Though initially there were large gains in employment and per capita income, recessions in the United States were magnified in the country and have repeatedly hampered Puerto Rican development.[31]

text: With the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement, Puerto Rico lost a trade advantage over some Latin American countries as the right to duty-free imports to the U.S. market were expanded. Puerto Rico is also subject to the minimum wage laws of the United States, which gives lower-wage countries such as Mexico and the Dominican Republic an economic advantage in the Caribbean.[32] Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the U.S. government, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to U.S. minimum wage legislation. In recent years, some U.S. and foreign owned factories have moved to lower wage countries in Latin America and Asia. Puerto Rico is subject to U.S. trade laws and restrictions.

text: Also, starting around 1950, there was heavy migration from Puerto Rico to the Continental United States, particularly New York City, in search of better economic conditions. Puerto Rican migration to New York displayed an average yearly migration of 1,800 for the years 1930–1940, 31,000 for 1946–1950, 45,000 for 1951–1960, and a peak of 75,000 in 1953.[33] As of 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that more people of Puerto Rican birth or ancestry live in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico.[34]

text: Developments, 2008 to 2017[edit]

text: On May 1, 2006, the Puerto Rican government faced significant shortages in cash flows, which forced the closure of the local Department of Education and 42 other government agencies. All 1,536 public schools closed, and 95,762 people were furloughed in the first-ever partial shutdown of the government in the island's history.[35] On May 10, 2006, the budget crisis was resolved with a new tax reform agreement so that all government employees could return to work. On November 15, 2006, a 5.5% sales tax was implemented. Municipalities are required by law to apply a municipal sales tax of 1.5% bringing the total sales tax to 7%.[36]

text: The public debt of Puerto Rico has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008.[37] In January 2009, Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government's $3.3 billion deficit,[38] including laying off 12,505[39] government employees. Puerto Rico's unemployment rate was 15.9 percent in January 2010.[40] Some analysts said they expect the government's layoffs to propel that rate to 17 percent.[41]

text: In November 2010, Gov. Fortuño proposed a tax reform plan that would be implemented in a six-year period, retroactive to January 1, 2010. The first phase, applicable to year 2010, reduces taxes to all individual taxpayers by 7–15%. By year 2016, average relief for individual taxpayers will represent a 50% tax cut and a 30% cut for corporate taxpayers, whose tax rate will be lowered from 41 to 30%.[42]

text: At the same time, the latest report by the President Task Force on Puerto Rico Status recognizes that the status question and the economy are intimately linked. Many participants in the forums conducted by the Task Force argued that uncertainty about status is holding Puerto Rico back in economic areas. And although there are a number of economic actions that should be taken immediately or in the short term, regardless of the ultimate outcome of the status question, identifying the most effective means of assisting the Puerto Rican economy depends on resolving the ultimate question of status. In short, the long-term economic well-being of Puerto Rico would be dramatically improved by an early decision on the status question.[43]

text: During fiscal year (FY-2012), the Consolidated Budget for the archipelago, including both direct transfers from federal programs (Social Security and Medicare benefits for workers, Veteran's benefits, Pell Grants and student loan's interest subsidies and miscellaneous temporary appropriations -e.g. American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 grants totalling $2.6 billion-) represented more than $28.7 billion, or approximately 30% of its GDP, while revenues surpassed $31 billion.[44] In 2010, federal transfers amounted $16.710 billion, while the Commonwealth's government managed funds of $10.12 billion.

text: As result of the recent reduction of Spain's credit rating, Puerto Rico holds the second highest credit rating awarded by the agency to a Spanish speaking territory in the long term (BBB+, Stable ).[45]

text: In June 2013, a $300 million US Medicaid payment to Puerto Rico was delayed because the Puerto Rican Government had changed their nationally sponsored insurance carrier without obtaining approval from the US Health and Human Services Department. This one of several troubling economic developments, including high debt to population ratios, that have, per Forbes Magazine, caused consternation in the US municipal bond market.[46]

text: Puerto Rico has been experiencing an economic depression for 12 consecutive years, starting in 2006 after a series of negative cash flows and the expiration of the section 936 that applied to Puerto Rico of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code. This section was critical for the economy as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico and allowed its subsidiaries operating in the island to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. The government has also experienced 18 consecutive negative cash flows since 2000, exacerbating its fragile economic situation as the government is forced to incur into new debt in order to pay the old one.[e]

text: Puerto Rico has, however, surprisingly been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade. Academically, most of Puerto Rico's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self-sufficient and self-sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 66% of its gross domestic product throughout time.

text:
Puerto Rico's Economic Activity Index for FY 2005–2013 evidences its depression.

Puerto Rico's month-over-month Economic Activity Index for FY2013 evidences its sluggishness and decline.

text: By mid January 2017, the debt had reached $70 billion or $12,000 per capita in a territory with a 45 percent poverty rate and double digit unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average.[23] It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals with creditors to avoid a bankruptcy-like process under PROMESA.[25] In late January, the federal control board gave the Government of Puerto Rico until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31.[48]

text: Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood for Puerto Rico, particularly because of financial benefits that would offer. These include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.[49] A fifth plebiscite is due to be held on June 11, 2017. The two options at that time will be "Statehood" and "Independence/Free Association". It will be the first referendum not to offer the choice of "Commonwealth". Regardless of the outcome, Congress will be the body to make the final decision on the status of Puerto Rico.[50]

text: A review of the economic situation in May 2017 by the Official Monetary and Financial Institutions Forum, an independent think tank, led to a warning that the planned "draconian budget-tightening" will cut up to 6% of the island’s GNP over the next four years, leading to continuing decline. "Puerto Rico urgently needs an International Monetary Fund-style programme involving debt relief in return for a commitment to far-reaching reforms ... that will facilitate growth," the group concluded.[51]

text: Sectors[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The economy of Puerto Rico is mainly driven by manufacturing, primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals, and electronics; followed by the service industry, primarily finance, insurance, real estate, and tourism.

text: Primary sector[edit]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Agriculture constitutes about $808 million US$ or about 0.8% of the island's gross domestic product (GDP).[52] However, Puerto Rico imports 85% of its food even though most of the land is fertile. Only a mere 6% is arable; a fact that poses a direct threat to Puerto Rico's food security.[53][54] This perplexing situation has been caused due to a shift in priorities towards industrialization, bureaucratization, mismanagement of terrains, lack of alternative methods, and a deficient agricultural workforce. Puerto Rico's geographical location within the Caribbean exacerbates these issues, making the scarce existing crops vulnerable to the devastating effects of Atlantic hurricanes.

text: The following fruits are industrially cultivated and widely consumed:[55]

text:
acerola (acerola)
avocado (aguacate)
banana (guineo)
coconut (coco)
grapefruit (toronja)
guava (guayaba)
guinep (quenepa)
lemon (limón)
mango (mangó)
olives (aceitunas)
papaya (papaya)
pineapple (piña)
plantain (plátano)
pumpkin (calabaza)
red banana (guineo manzano)
soursop (guanábana)
tamarind (tamarindo)

text: Apples (manzanas), bananas (guineos), grapes (uvas), oranges (chinas), and watermelons (melones) are imported, as well as some of the aforementioned cultivated fruits.

text: Grains cultivated industrially and widely consumed include barley (cebada), maize (maíz), rice (arroz), rye (centeno), and wheat (trigo). Legumes include black beans (habichuelas negras), chickpea (garbanzo), kidney beans (habichuelas rojas), pea (pitipuá), pigeon peas (gandules), and pink beans (habichuelas rosadas). Tubers include cassava (yuca), eddoe (malanga), potatoes (papas), sweet potatoes (batata), taro (yautía), and yams (ñame).

text: Vegetables include asparagus (espárragos), cabbage (repollo), cauliflower (coliflor), carrots (zanahorias), chayote (chayote), cucumber (pepinillo), eggplant (berenjena), lettuce (lechuga), onions (cebolla), and peppers (ají).

text: Herbs include basil (orégano), bay leaves (hojas de laurel), cilantro (cilantrillo), culantro (culantro), and parsley (perejil). Spices include achiote (achiote), cinnamon (canela), cloves (clavos), garlic (ajo), ginger (jengibre), and paprika (sazón).

text: Recent studies have suggested there is a lack of young farmers and that 65% of the island's agriculture force is over 55 years of age. The decrease in new farmers will have significant negative effects on the island.[dubious – discuss]

text: Energy, water, and public utilities[edit]

text: Puerto Rico does not have any coal, natural gas, nor oil reserves[56] so it must import all its fuel in order to produce energy. The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA), a government-owned corporation, produces 70% of all energy in Puerto Rico through several power plants dependent on fossil fuels. 58% of PREPA's budget goes directly to these costs. Additional indirect costs of imported fossil fuels are paid through power purchase agreements for the 30% of the country's energy produced through private companies dependent on fossil fuels. To meet energy demands, Puerto Rico must import oil at a rate of 8.0 billion kWh and about 1,499,196 km3 of natural gas per year[44] as well as a very large amount of coal.

text: Perplexingly, less than 3% of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65% sunny hours per day in average and 19-knot (22 mph; 35 km/h) winds year round. The island could also generate all its energy through hydroelectric dams thanks to its local geography which features many rivers but it has opted to leave that industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue nuclear power either. Biofuel, biomass, geothermal energy, wave power and tidal power are still in its infant stages although there are some microbusinesses providing energy from those sources or performing research on the subject. The Puerto Rican government has made plans to reduce dependency on costly imported fossil fuels,[56] but lacks funds to make more than modest progress.

text: As a result, Puerto Ricans pay 26¢ per kilowatt per hour of electricity, compared to an average of 11 to 12 cents or less in the United States.[f] This places Puerto Rico at an enormous disadvantage when compared to other states that produce electric power at less than half of Puerto Rico's price.[f][58] Electric utility costs ultimately create a ripple effect on the economy as it adds to the cost of living and the cost of doing business.[g] For example, 20% of Bacardi's expenses on the island come from electricity, while the company that owns all Wendy's, Applebee's, and LongHorn Steakhouse on the island has simply opted to keep the lights and air conditioning off in certain areas when employees arrive.[h][i]

text: The water industry is administered in whole by the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA), another government-owned corporation and government monopoly which owns and manages all the water supply network in Puerto Rico. All potable water comes either from raw water (primarily rainwater, lakes, and rivers) or sewage treatment subject to regulations by the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources of Puerto Rico (DRNA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board (JCA in Spanish), and the Safe Drinking Water Act. The water bottling industry is diverse with several plants on the island.

text: Fishery and seafood[edit]

text: Fishery is common in all coastal towns but Puerto Rico does not have enough wild fisheries to supply the demand required to sustain a profitable fishing industry. There are no industrial fish farms on the island either. Common fish consumed by residents include cod (bacalao), mahi-mahi (pez dorado), marlin (marlín), salmon (salmón), snapper (chillo), trunkfish (chapín), and tuna (atún). Other seafood includes clams (almejas), crabs (cangrejos), lobsters (langostas), mussels (mejillones), octopi (pulpo), oysters (ostras), and squids (calamares). It is quite common for restaurants on the coast to serve fresh seafood.

text: Forestry[edit]

text: Almost all wood used on the island is imported even though a study conducted more than two decades ago by the U.S. Forest Service concluded that local soil could sustain a lumber industry if the proper species were used.[60] Regardless of this, several small sawmills do exist on the island.[61]

text: Livestock and pets[edit]

text: Livestock used for food includes cattle, goats, pigs, and rabbits. Donkeys, horses, and mules are strictly used for labor or recreation as consumption is frowned upon culturally by locals. Cattle is used for both meat and dairy with a strong and self-sufficient local milk industry through processors such as Suiza Dairy and Tres Monjitas. Poultry includes chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and quail. The pet industry is one of the only two industries experiencing consistent significant growth on the island with dogs, cats, fishkeeping, canaries, parakeets, and parrots being quintessential in homes. Consumption of animals commonly used as pets is frowned upon culturally save for rabbits.

text: Mining[edit]

text: There are some metal deposits of copper, gold, silver, zinc, and molybdenum on the island but they are not large enough to sustain a profitable mining industry.[62] Mismanagement of terrains and poor urban planning has made it difficult for the mining industry to thrive as well, as many deposits are directly below or nearby residential complexes. Puerto Rico also possesses industries of lime, marble, salt, cement, clay, crushed stone, dimension stone, industrial sand, gravel, and stone.[63][64] The cement industry is tracked meticulously as it has shown to be highly correlated to the GDP of the island.[65]

text: Secondary sector[edit]

text: Manufacturing is the largest economic sector of the island; composing almost half (about 46%) of its gross domestic product (GDP) through more than 2,000 manufacturing plants scattered throughout the island.[66][67] All[citation needed] manufacturers in Puerto Rico are in some way interconnected with the Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company (PRIDCO) which provides substantial incentives for companies that manufacture in Puerto Rico. Manufacturers are also voluntarily interconnected through the Puerto Rico Manufacturers Association which serves as their primary trade association and their main lobby group upon the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. Most manufacturing in Puerto Rico today is the product of Operation Bootstrap.[citation needed]

text: In terms of specialization, more than half of all manufacturing done in Puerto Rico is attributed to the pharmaceutical industry which generates more than 18,000 jobs, pays more than $3 billion USD in taxes, comprise about half of total exports, and has generated more than 25% of the island's GDP for the past four decades.[68] Comparatively, Puerto Rico is the fifth largest area in the world for pharmaceutical manufacturing with more than 80 plants, including:

text:
Abbott
Amgen
AstraZeneca
Baxter
BD
Biovail
Bristol Myers Squibb
Cardinal Health
CooperVision
Eli Lilly
GlaxoSmithKline (gsk)
Ivax
Johnson & Johnson
Merck Sharp & Dohme
Mylan
Novartis
Patheon
Pfizer
Procter & Gamble
Schering Plough
Warner Chilcott
Watson
Wyeth

text: Puerto Rico is also the third-largest biotechnology manufacturer with more than two million square feet and the seventh-largest medical-device exporter with more than 50 plants. Pharmaceutical companies originally came to Puerto Rico in the late 1960s and 1970s to take advantage of the now-expired federal tax incentive known as Section 936. This incentive allowed U.S.-based manufacturers to send all profits from local plants to stateside parent plants without having to pay any federal taxes. However, expired patents, cheaper manufacturers (such as those in Brazil, China, India, and South Korea), the rise of generic drugs, and high production costs pose a challenge to the industry.[68] As of 2014, Puerto Rico produces 16 of the top 20-selling drugs in the mainland United States.[69]

text: The aeronautical industry is relatively young on the island and concentrates mostly on the northwestern corridor composed by Aguadilla and Isabela. These municipalities serve as local headquarters for Honeywell Aerospace, Lufthansa, and Pratt & Whitney.[70][71] GE Aviation, Lockheed Martin, and Raytheon also have presence on the island although their local operations do not focus on aeronautics but rather focus on business support.

text: Education in aeronautics is provided by the Caribbean Aviation Training Institute and the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico. The University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez Campus (UPRM), the Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico (PUPR), and the Turabo University graduate most of the engineers on the island.

text: Tertiary sector[edit]

text: Finance[edit]

text: The financial sector is of great prominence, accounting for 5.75% of Puerto Rico's Gross National Product (GNP) in 2010. Similar to any other state of the union, Puerto Rico's financial sector is also fully integrated into the U.S. financial system. Federal regulations govern the sector, being a constituent part of the jurisdiction of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, responsible for implementing monetary policy enacted by members of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, D.C. throughout the United States.

text: Real estate[edit]

text: The real estate industry constitutes about 14.8% of the GDP, about 1% of all of the employee compensation on the island and, together with finance and insurance (FIRE), about 3.7% of all the employment on the jurisdiction.[j][k][l]

text: Tourism[edit]

text: Tourism is an important component of the Puerto Rican economy supplying an approximate $1.8 billion USD per year. In 1999, an estimated five million tourists visited the island, most from the United States. Nearly a third of these were cruise ship passengers. An increase in hotel registrations, which has been observed since 1998, and the construction of new hotels and the Puerto Rico Convention Center are indicators of the current strength of the tourism industry. In 2009, tourism accounted for nearly 7% of the islands' gross national product.[73]

text: The following includes some public and private projects aimed at increasing the tourism industry in Puerto Rico:

text:
Camuy River Cave Park
Condado
Condado Vanderbilt Hotel
El Yunque National Forest
Flamenco Beach
Fort San Felipe del Morro
Isla Verde
José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum
La Concha Resort
Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport
Old San Juan
Plaza Las Américas
Ponce Art Museum
Puerto Rico Convention Center
The Mall of San Juan

text: Trade[edit]

text: As an unincorporated territory of the United States, travel and trade between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland or other U.S. territory are not subject to international border controls. However, all goods moving from Puerto Rico to the U.S. mainland are subject to agriculture inspection controls by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).[74] Travelers and goods move without restriction between Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories such as U.S. Virgin Islands. Travel and trade between Puerto Rico and territory outside U.S. jurisdiction are subject to international border controls.

text: Mail bound for the mainland from Puerto Rico and Hawaii is subject to USDA inspection for quarantined plant matter.[75]

text: Puerto Rico may collect import duties only to the same degree it taxes the same goods produced domestically.[76]

text: Puerto Rico receives cross-over subsidies, which generated approximately $371 million in 2008.[77]

text:
Puerto Rico's Imports and Exports from 2005 to 2013 (in millions)[78]

Year
Imports
Change
Exports
Change
Balance
Ratio
Total
Change

2005
$41,911

9.5%

$56,995

3.5%

$15,084

15.25%

$
98,905

6.0%

2006
$43,858

4.6%

$59,404

4.2%

$15,546

15.05%

$103,262

4.4%

2007
$44,917

2.4%

$62,558

5.3%

$17,641

16.41%

$107,474

4.1%

2008
$43,422

-3.3%

$63,800

2.0%

$20,378

19.01%

$107,223

-0.2%

2009
$40,113

-7.6%

$59,726

-6.4%

$19,613

19.64%

$
99,840

-6.9%

2010
$41,429

3.3%

$68,555

14.8%

$27,126

24.66%

$109,984

10.2%

2011
$47,031

13.5%

$57,616

-16.0%

$10,585

10.12%

$104,647

-4.9%

2012
$46,067

-2.1%

$58,805

2.1%

$12,738

12.15%

$104,871

0.2%

2013
$43,805

-4.9%

$61,920

5.3%

$18,115

17.13%

$105,726

0.8%

text: Similar to other states of the union, Puerto Rico is subject to trade agreements signed by the United States. As an unincorporated territory, the commonwealth is restricted from joining international organizations without the consent of the United States due to its current political status.[m] However, due to its geographical and cultural nature, the U.S. Department of State allows Puerto Rico to be an observer in most international organizations to which it would potentially belong to if Puerto Rico were a sovereign state.[n]

text:
Organizations to which Puerto Rico belongs under consent by the United States

Name
Abbreviation
Category
Status

Caribbean Community
CARICOM
regional
observer

Caribbean Tourism Organization
CTO
tourism
observer

Organization of American States
OAS
continental
observer

United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
ECLAC
regional
associate member[o]

text:
Countries with whom Puerto Rico can freely engage in trade without diplomatic restrictions

Country
Region
Agreement
Established trade promotion office in foreign country[80]

Australia
Oceania
AUSFTA
 No

Bahrain
Western Asia
USBFTA
 No

Canada
North America
NAFTA
 No

Chile
South America
ChFTA
 No

Colombia
South America
CFTA
 Yes

Costa Rica
Central America
CAFTA
 No

Dominican Republic
Caribbean
CAFTA
 Yes

El Salvador
Central America
CAFTA
 No

Guatemala
Central America
CAFTA
 No

Honduras
Central America
CAFTA
 No

Israel
Western Asia
USIFTA
 No

Jordan
Western Asia
USJFTA
 No

Mexico
North America
NAFTA
 No

Morocco
North Africa
USMFTA
 No

Nicaragua
Central America
CAFTA
 No

Oman
Western Asia
OFTA
 No

Panama
Central America
PTPA
 Yes

Peru
South America
USPTPA
 Yes

Singapore
Southeast Asia
USSFTA
 No

South Korea
East Asia
KFTA
 No

United States
North America
NAFTA
 Yes

text: Quaternary sector[edit]

text: Entrepreneurship and research & development (R&D) is relatively young on the island but has become increasingly important for its economy due to its downturn. Companies like Neolpharma and Rock Solid Technologies possess significant R&D operations on the island.[81] Regarding entrepreneurship, several organizations have presence on the island as well, such as the Founder Institute, the Small Business Administration, SCORE, and Startup Weekend. Most entrepreneurial activities are driven by regional organizations that join academia, local government, and private businesses such as DISUR, INTECO, INTENE, and INTENOR.[82] Other initiatives such as the Puerto Rico Technoeconomic Corridor, the Puerto Rico Science, Technology and Research Trust, and the Puerto Rico Small Business Technology and Development Center provide significant support to entrepreneurship and R&D on the island.

text: Quinary sector[edit]

text: Major management consulting firms have presence in the island including Accenture, the Boston Consulting Group, Booz Allen Hamilton, Deloitte, McKinsey & Company, and PricewaterhouseCoopers.

text: Infrastructure[edit]

text: Puerto Rico has a modern infrastructure and an institutional framework guided by the regulations of U.S. federal agencies, most of which have an active and continued presence in the island. For most intents and purposes Puerto Rico is treated as if it were a state of the United States, albeit not being one. Virtually all federal laws apply on the island, save a few exceptions, including a strong and robust protection for intellectual property and contracts.

text: Education[edit]

text: Preschool education, care, and services (including Early Head Start and Head Start) are free for low income families with private daycares being common and within walking distance in urban areas. Primary and secondary education is compulsory and free regardless of income through more than 1,400 public schools. Only ten public schools are considered prestigious locally, all of them being magnet schools, which graduate the highest scores on the island of the College Board's PEAU (Latin America's equivalent of the SAT). Two examples of these are CIMATEC and CROEM which focus on science, technology, and mathematics. There are more than 700 private schools on the island, most of them Catholic.[83] It is constitutionally illegal to deny entrance or take action against students that profess a difference faith than the school they attend or intend to attend. Students from differing denominations are legally freed from attending religious activities on the schools they attend. Prominent private schools include Academia del Perpetuo Socorro, Academia Maria Reina, Academia San Jorge, Colegio Marista Guaynabo, Colegio San Ignacio de Loyola, and Colegio San José which maintain a high rate of students being accepted into prominent universities in the United States.

text: There is a plethora of junior colleges on the island, the most prominent being the Huertas College, the ICPR Junior College, the Instituto de Banca y Comercio, and the National University College (NUC). There is only one state-run system, the Puerto Rico Technological Institute, which possesses several prestigious programs at the local level and whose costs are significantly below market prices. Thanks to this abundance of junior colleges—and the presence of other institutions of higher education— the percentage of Puerto Ricans with bachelor's degrees, at 18.3% according to the 2000 Census, is roughly comparable to the lower tier of American states.

text: Not a single college and university in Puerto Rico ranks in the top 700 global rankings, with only the state university, the University of Puerto Rico (UPR), appearing on the ranks. Several schools and programs appear on different rankings but not a single one of these is considered a prestigious ranking system neither nationally nor internationally. The three major university systems on the island are the University of Puerto Rico itself with 11 campuses, the Ana G. Méndez University System (SUAGM) with 3 major campuses and some satellites, and the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico (Inter) with 9 campuses and 2 specialized schools.

text: The prestige and eliteness of the University of Puerto Rico within the Caribbean and Puerto Rico is unparalleled:[citation needed]

text:
it produces more than 80% of all post-secondary research on the island,
it graduates the largest number of Hispanic engineers in the United States,
it graduates the largest number of chemical engineers in the United States,
it graduates the second largest number of female engineers in the United States,
it possesses the largest number of patents by a university on the island,
it possesses the largest enrollment on the island and one of the largest in the United States,
it possesses the largest faculty body on the island and one of the largest in the United States,
it possesses the largest number of academic programs on the island and one of the largest in the United States,
it possesses the largest number of doctoral programs on the island,
it possesses the largest number of campuses on the island,
it possesses the highest ratio of students from the island that enroll in graduate studies,
it confers the largest number of post-secondary degrees on the island,
it conducts almost all medical research on the island,
it is considered the best university in all the Caribbean,
its flagship campus has won 24 out of the 89 global cups of the Puerto Rico college athletics, and
it has graduated six out of ten governors of Puerto Rico.

text: The system, however, is highly politicized with its board of trustees, chancellor, rectors, deans, and program directors changing whenever a political party gains power (about every 4 or 8 years) as the university is a government-owned corporation. Its flagship campus is also prone to student strikes, averaging about one strike every three years that halts the whole campus, with the system as a whole averaging about one strike every five years that halts the whole system. Most strikes derive from the extremely cheap costs per credit the institution offers: $55 USD per undergraduate credit and $117 per graduate credit[citation needed]. It is highly unlikely that a student graduates with college debt as a full Pell Grant covers most costs for low income students, and those that don't receive a full Pell Grant or a Pell Grant at all can easily cover tuition costs[citation needed]. This economic accessibility comes at a price for the residents of Puerto Rico however: 9.6% of the General Budget of the Government of Puerto Rico is automatically assigned to the university by law. As the economy shrunk so did the university's endowment, suffocating an already highly indebted university incapable of generating enough revenue to maintain itself.[84] Because of this, the board of trustees increased tuition costs, which led to strikes. Other strikes were caused by the mere mention of lowering the aforementioned percentage automatically assigned to the university even though no bill has ever been filed for such purpose.

text: In terms of specialized schools and programs, not a single school and program in Puerto Rico is ranked in a prestigious system. The University of Puerto Rico possesses the largest academic offer with 472 academic programs of which 32 lead to a doctorate. UPR is also the only system with a business school, an engineering school, a law school, a nursing school, a school of architecture, and a school of medicine. Almost all its schools and programs rank first on the island although competition has increased in the last decades with private universities gaining track at a fast pace. The Ana G. Méndez System, the Interamerican University, and the University of the Sacred Heart possess a business school with the University of Sacred Heart leading in non-profit management and social enterprise, as well as in communications. The Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico and the Turabo University both have engineering schools with the Polytechnic University leading in computer security and offering the only master's degree in computer science on the island. Ranking regarding law schools is subjective with the University of Puerto Rico School of Law, the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico School of Law, and the Eugenio María de Hostos School of Law considered the best although UPR still leads in constitutional law. In terms of medicine the University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine and the University of Puerto Rico School of Dental Medicine are simply unmatched, with the Interamerican University School of Optometry being the only school of optometry on the island. The Carlos Albizu University leads in psychology while the Metropolitan University leads in environmental management although UPR leads by far in environmental science. In terms of arts, the Atlantic University College leads in digital arts by far, while the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico and the Escuela de Artes Plásticas y Diseño de Puerto Rico are considered the most prestigious in music and arts respectively; both by far. The only school of international relations was created in November 2013 under the name of Morales Carrión Diplomatic and Foreign Relations School, ascribed to the Department of State of Puerto Rico and still in development. There are no veterinary schools on the island with most veterinarians studying abroad at the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic.

text: Almost all junior colleges, colleges, universities, and schools are accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. Specific programs tend to possess their respective accreditation as well (such as ABET, AACSB, LCME, and so on) although it is not uncommon for programs to not possess its expected accreditation—for example, only two business schools are accredited by AACSB.

text: Healthcare[edit]

text: The healthcare system in Puerto Rico is quite robust and advanced thanks to the regulations of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services which has jurisdiction over the island, and the local Department of Health of Puerto Rico. Medical offices within walking distance are common in urban areas as well as walk-in clinics, urgent care, emergency rooms, and hospitals. There are specialized hospitals for cardiovascular diseases, cancer treatment, children (pediatrics), psychiatric care, and veterans. Every medical specialty is covered in the island thanks to the different medical schools on the island, including the University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, the Universidad Central del Caribe School of Medicine (UCCSoM), the Ponce School of Medicine, and the San Juan Bautista School of Medicine.

text: Veterinary healthcare is provided by private veterinarians, clinics, and animal hospitals which are common and scattered all over the island.

text: Postal service and shipping[edit]

text: The United States Postal Service has at least one postal office in each municipality in Puerto Rico with the island using zip codes as its postal code system. DHL, FedEx, and UPS have well established operations on the island.

text: Shipping cargo is expensive as Puerto Rico is restricted on using the United States Merchant Marine when shipping from and to the United States due to the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (the Jones Act). Cargo costs can quadruple when shipping to or from Puerto Rico due to this restriction.

text: Security[edit]

text: Local security is overseen by the Puerto Rico Commission on Safety and Public Protection and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security which has jurisdiction over the island. Law enforcement is carried out by the Puerto Rico Police, the local state police force which has many stations scattered throughout all municipalities. Municipal laws are enforced by each respective Puerto Rico municipal police. The legal system is a mix of the civil law and the common law systems. Disputes under local jurisdiction are carried out by a system of municipal courts, district courts, and appellate courts with the highest state court and the court of last resort being the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico.

text: U.S. federal laws apply in Puerto Rico as the island is a territory of the United States. Issues that trespass into federal jurisdiction are managed by the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), the United States Marshals Service (USMS), the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), and other federal agencies. Disputes that trespass the local jurisdiction are managed by the federal court system with the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico being the first in line.

text: Fire protection, rescue, and protection from hazards is provided by the Puerto Rico Firefighters Corps which has at least one fire station in each municipality on the island. A separate agency, the Puerto Rico Medical Emergencies Corps, provides emergency medical services to all Puerto Rico. The island is also part of the 9-1-1 system. All local emergencies and disasters are managed and overseen by the Puerto Rico State Agency for Emergency and Disaster Management (AEMEAD) which works closely and directly with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Puerto Rico also has a local National Weather Service station which provides forecasts and public warnings, as well as a local Puerto Rico Seismic Network which tracks seismic activity and provides public warnings.

text: The local national guard is the Puerto Rico National Guard which has a branch for ground forces, the Puerto Rico Army National Guard, and another for aerial warfare, the Puerto Rico Air National Guard. The state defense force is the Puerto Rico State Guard under the sole jurisdiction of the governor. Both the Puerto Rico National Guard and the Puerto Rico State Guard are considered two of the most active and well-prepared local forces in the nation. Nine servicemen have been bestowed with the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration of the United States, with Puerto Ricans having served in every U.S. military conflict since World War I, including the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War.

text: Key posts include the Puerto Rico Police Superintendent, the Puerto Rico Adjutant General, the Secretary of Justice of Puerto Rico, and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico.

text: Telecommunications[edit]

text: Telecommunications is quite robust on the island, thanks to the regulations of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) which has jurisdiction over the island, and the local Puerto Rico Telecommunications Regulatory Board (JRT in Spanish). Broadcasts are transmitted through radio and television stations, as well as the Internet. Uno Radio Group and the Spanish Broadcasting System are two of the most prominent radio operators on the island. Telemundo, Univision, and WAPA America transmit television from the island through WKAQ-TV, WLII-TV, and WAPA-TV respectively.

text: Several communications service providers offer triple play (Internet + television + telephony) on the island with Claro Puerto Rico, Choice Cable TV, and Liberty Media being the most prominent. Most downtime is caused by power failures in the electric grid rather than in telecommunications networks with outages being rare and fixed within hours. High speed internet access and mobile telephony is ubiquitous with providers such as AT&T, Open Mobile, Sprint, and T-Mobile being the most prominent. Chains like Burger King, Church's Chicken, McDonald's, and Starbucks provide free WiFi at their numerous locals.

text: Submarine communications cables landing in Puerto Rico include ARCOS-1, Americas II, and ANTILLAS I.

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police. The island's metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a rapid transit system. Other forms of public transportation include seaborne ferries (that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago) as well as share taxis.

text: The island has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport (SJU) in Carolina, Mercedita Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla. Puerto Rico is also served by another 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean, and one of the largest in the world in terms of passenger and cargo movement.[85]

text: Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively.[85] The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty-foot containers (TEUs) per year.[86]

text: Comparative advantages[edit]

text: Puerto Rico does not have any comparative advantages in international markets but has a few at the U.S. national level.[p] Its high costs of doing business are the primary factor, amongst many, that hinder the island from competing against foreign markets. These costs are typically offset by a combination of incentives or subsidies where the government either does not collect taxes against the foreign firm, assumes capital expenditures, subsidizes workers salaries and trainings, or, more often than not, offers a combination thereof. This is the case for Lufthansa's operations in Aguadilla where the local government invested $46 million USD against $20 million invested by the company, aiming at recouping the investment in the long run.[q][r][s]

text: Domestically, however, several comparative advantages emerge when comparing Puerto Rico to other U.S. jurisdictions. These advantages base themselves on lower wages and beneficial legal loopholes that exist as a result of Puerto Rico's political status. For example, a company like Microsoft may create a subsidiary based in Puerto Rico in order to transfer its intellectual property to it, so that it can benefit from transfer pricing loopholes thereafter.[89] Since the subsidiary is based in Puerto Rico, the company lawfully uses a loophole that allows it to undervalue the transferred intellectual property through the use of cost-sharing agreements, and by taking advantage of the revenue exceptions within the U.S. legal framework that apply exclusively to Puerto Rico.[90]

text: This lack of advantages pervades the economy of the island extensively. As the territory is unable to compete against foreign markets, multinational corporations choose to close operations on the island and open them elsewhere. All while domestic businesses struggle to export their products and services when competing against external firms that offer lower prices. The same scenario occurs against other U.S. jurisdictions capable of producing goods and services at lesser costs.

text: Public finance[edit]

text: Monetary policy[edit]

text: Puerto Rico does not have a local coin, using instead the United States dollar as its local and only currency. Because of this, Puerto Rico does not control its money supply nor its interest rates, being subject instead to the monetary policy of the United States particularly to the operations performed by the Federal Reserve System. Puerto Rico, however, has a representative in the Federal Reserve Bank of New York through a local businessman by the name of Richard Carrión, Chairman and CEO of Popular, Inc., who has served as member of the board for the reserve bank several times.

text: Public debt[edit]

text: The public debt of Puerto Rico has grown at a faster pace than the growth of its economy, reaching $46.7 billion in 2008.[91] In January 2009, Governor Luis Fortuño enacted several measures aimed at eliminating the government's $3.3 billion deficit.[92]

text: Since 2000, the government of Puerto Rico has experienced 18 consecutive negative cash flows which has contributed to the enlargement of its public debt, as the government incurs in new debt in order to pay the older one.

text: On February 4, 2014 Standard & Poor's downgraded the debt of Puerto Rico to junk status. Puerto Rico has roughly $70 billon outstanding debt for a population of four million inhabitants. Despite its small population it is the third issuer of municipal bonds in all 50 states and territories. First being California, second New York.[93]

text: In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding debt of $70 billion or $12,000 per capita[22] at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 14.2% unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average.[23][22]

text: The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. Newly elected governor Ricardo Rosselló discussed the situation in an interview with the international Financial Times in mid January and indicated that he would seek an amicable resolution with creditors and also make fiscal reforms. "There will be real fiscal oversight and we are willing to sit down. We are taking steps to make bold reforms. ... What we are asking for is runway to establish these reforms and have Washington recognise that they have a role to play." He had instructed Puerto Rican government agencies to cut operating expenses by 10 per cent and reduce political appointees by 20 percent.[94] To ensure that funds would be available to pay for "essential" government services, Rosselló signed a fiscal emergency law on January 28, 2017 that would allow for setting aside funds that might otherwise be required for debt payments.[95]

text: In mid January, the cash strapped government was having difficulty maintaining health care funding. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico’s ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico", according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico’s inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth."[96] In late January, the federal control board created under PROMESA gave the government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors) to solve the problems. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy-like process under PROMESA.[25] A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31.[48]

text: Governor Rosselló hired investment expert Rothschild & Co in January 2017 to assist in convincing creditors to take deeper losses than they had expected on Puerto Rico's debts. The company was also exploring the possibility of convincing insurers that had guaranteed some of the bonds against default, to contribute more to the restructuring, according to reliable sources. The governor also planned to negotiate restructuring of about $9 billion of electric utility debt, a plan that could result "in a showdown with insurers". Political observers suggest that his negotiation of the electrical utility debt indicated Rosselló's intention to take a harder line with creditors. Puerto Rico has received authority from the federal government to reduce its debt with legal action and this may make creditors more willing to negotiate instead of becoming embroiled in a long and costly legal battle.[97]

text: Taxation[edit]

text: Taxation is highly complex due to a lack of uniformity in the local internal revenue code and a disparate amount of incentives, subsidies, tax exemptions, tax breaks, and tax deductions.. For example, an ordinary retail sale might have to pay: import taxes, sales taxes, property taxes, corporate net income taxes, national taxes, excise taxes, and sin taxes depending on the item being sold. Regardless of all this, American citizens that reside in Puerto Rico do not pay federal income taxes unless they work for the federal government, do business with the federal government, or send funds to the United States. This peculiarity has been taken as an advantage by the local government which now offers a plethora of tax exemptions and tax benefits for high-net-worth individuals that relocate to the island. These benefits have been ratified into law through Act 20 of 2012, Act 22 of 2012, and Act 273 of 2012.[98] Thanks to these acts, business owners residing on the island might be completely exempt from paying any local and federal taxes at all, depending on their line of business.

text: On November 15, 2006, the government implemented a 5.5% sales tax.[99] An optional 1-1.5% municipal tax had been in effect since May 2006. On July 1, 2015, the government raised the sales tax from 7% to 11.5%.[100]

text: Comparatives[edit]

text: Business sizes[edit]

text: More than 99% of all businesses in Puerto Rico are considered small businesses (less than 250 employees) with more than 74% being micro-enterprises (less than 10 employees).[101][102] However, in terms of payroll, small businesses constitute about 61% of all payroll on the island with about 13% of all payroll coming from medium businesses (between 250–499 employees) and about 25% coming from large enterprises (more than 500 employees).[101]

text:
Business sizes and payroll in Puerto Rico[101]

Number of employees
Number of businesses
Annual payroll
(in thousands)

1–5
25,084

$
941,924

5–9
9,092

$
1,112,328

10–19
5,756

$
1,430,291

20–49
3,955

$
2,350,065

50–99
1,318

$
1,948,341

100–249
738

$
2,595,622

250–499
252

$
2,263,827

500–999
110

$
1,974,641

1,000+
43

$
2,352,945

Total
46,348

$
16,969,984

text: Only 7.5% of the corporations registered in the Department of State of Puerto Rico—or about 6,000 out of 80,000—exceed $3M in revenue.[103] Of these 6,000, a mere six compose more than 30% of all of Puerto Rico's corporate income tax collections; all six being multinationals.

text: Cost of living[edit]

text: The cost of living in Puerto Rico, specifically San Juan, is quite high compared to most major cities in the United States.[t] One factor is housing prices which are comparable to Miami and Los Angeles, although property taxes are considerably lower than most places in the United States.[u] Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States". While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other United States territories.

text: The median home value in Puerto Rico ranges from $100,000 USD to $214,000 USD, while the national median home value sits at $119,600.[v]

text: Ease of doing business[edit]

text: Puerto Rico is considered the 40th economy out of 189 in rank of ease of doing business by the World Bank; surpassed only by Chile in Latin America.[107] It ranks very poorly in construction permits but very well in getting credit and protecting investors.[108]

text: Income[edit]

text: This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (December 2015)

text: Puerto Ricans had median household income of $18,314 for 2009, which makes Puerto Rico's economy comparable to the independent nations of Latvia or Poland.[109] By comparison, the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi, had median household income of $36,646 in 2009.[109] Nevertheless, Puerto Rico's GDP per capita compares favorably to other independent Caribbean nations, and is one of the highest in North America. See List of North American countries by GDP per capita

text: Puerto Rico has a GDP per capita of $16,300 (2010 est.). Compared to the rest of the world they are ranked 73rd.[11] Puerto Rico's GDP per capita has been declining in recent years ($18,100 (2008 est.), and $17,400 (2009 est.)). According to statistics from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), its GDP per capita is the 10th highest in the Caribbean, behind the Bahamas ($30,400), Aruba ($25,300) Barbados ($25,000), Trinidad and Tobago ($20,000), Antigua & Barbuda ($17,800) and British dependencies Cayman Islands ($43,800), British Virgin Islands ($42,300) and Turks & Caicos ($29,100).[11]

text: In terms of personal income, federal transfer payments to Puerto Rico make up more than 20% of the island's personal income.[110] By comparison, the poorest state, Mississippi, had a median level of $21,587, according to the U.S. Census Bureau's Current Population Survey, 2002 to 2004 Annual Social and Economic Supplements.[111] Since 1952, the gap between Puerto Rico's per capita income and the national level has changed substantially – from one third the U.S. national average and roughly half that of the poorest state in 1952, to 10% less than the poorest state in 2007.

text: In 2010 the median income in Puerto Rico was $19,370, which is just over half that of the poorest state (Mississippi, $37,838) and 37% of the nationwide average ($51,144).[112] According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the Department of Labor of the United States,[113] the mean annual salary of residents of Puerto Rico is $27,190, the lowest among U.S. territories continuously surveyed periodically by this institution. Guam has the second lowest mean salary to $31,840, closely followed Mississippi, a state, with $34,770. This spread in mean wages could be explained by a minimum wage law for certain industries that are capped to 70% of the federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour.[114][115]

text: Workforce[edit]

text: Puerto Rico's most competitive advantage lies on its labor force: a highly competitive, educated, and skilled labor force that enjoys American citizenship. This allows U.S.-based companies to relocate some of its operations to the island for cheaper labor costs while still maintaining a labor force subject to the rights and benefits given by American citizenship and federal regulations. Educated workers tend to be bilingual as well while costing 30–35% less than a worker in the mainland.[69][116]

text:
Puerto Rico's labor force by sector[117]

Sector
Number of persons
(in thousands)
Percentage

Government
244.4
26%

Trade, Transportation, and Utilities
178.6
19%

Education & Health Services
123.3
13%

Professional & Business Services
118.0
13%

Leisure & Hospitability
80.0
9%

Manufacturing
76.0
8%

Finance
43.4
5%

Mining, Logging, and Construction
29.5
3%

Information
18.7
2%

Other Services
17.8
2%

Total
929.7
100.0%

text: Challenges[edit]

text: Costs of doing business[edit]

text: One of the most significant contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 (also known as the Jones Act) which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports (a practice known as cabotage).[w][x][y][z][aa] Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa cannot stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico-bound goods, load mainland-bound Puerto Rico-manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico-bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships.[ab]

text: Puerto Rican consumers ultimately bear the expense of transporting goods again across the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea on U.S.-flagged ships subject to the extremely high operating costs imposed by the Jones Act.[ac] This also makes Puerto Rico less competitive with Caribbean ports as a shopping destination for tourists from home countries with much higher taxes (like mainland states) even though prices for non-American manufactured goods in theory should be cheaper since Puerto Rico is much closer to Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa.

text: The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success.[ad] The most recent measure has been taken by the 17th Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico through R. Conc. del S. 21.[121][122] These measures have always received support from all the major local political parties. In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report[123] which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs" and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S.-flag competition could lower costs."[z][aa] The report, however, concluded that the effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain for both Puerto Rico and the United States, particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the United States.[119]

text: The costs of doing business in Puerto Rico are further increased by complex labor laws that force employers to pay for several employee benefits from their own pockets.[124][125][126][127] Puerto Rico also lacks at-will employment which puts significant restraints on employers when they want to dismiss an employee.

text: Residents of Puerto Rico are also subject to a highly complex tax system with many different exemptions and disparities between taxes.[ae]

text: Inefficient government[edit]

text: The political class has proven to be highly stubborn when examining existent public policies.[af][ag] This stubbornness ultimately forced Puerto Rico to incur in higher opportunity costs. For example, even though the island's geography features many rivers, the government has opted to leave the hydroelectric industry behind. Public policy has also opted not to pursue nuclear power either. Instead, even though Puerto Rico does not have any oil-based resources, it has opted to power its electric plants with fossil fuels: less than 3% of all energy is produced through renewable energy even though Puerto Rico enjoys more than 65% sunny hours per day in average and 19-knot (22 mph; 35 km/h) winds year round. This forces PREPA, the government-owned corporation and government monopoly that owns and manages all electric power distribution and transmission, to spend 58% of its operational expenses in fuel purchases alone.

text: In terms of food production, Puerto Rico imports 85% of its food even though most of the land is fertile with only a mere 6% being arable.[53][54] This perplexing situation has been caused due to a shift in priorities towards industrialization, bureaucratization, mismanagement of land, lack of alternative methods, and a deficiency in the number of agricultural workforce.

text: Similarly, when looking at forestry, even though a study conducted more than two decades ago by the U.S. Forest Service concluded that local soil could sustain a lumber industry if the proper species were used, almost all wood used on the island is imported.[60]

text: Higher education suffers the same fate: Puerto Rico spends almost $800M per year on its state university even though none of its programs and schools appear in any prestigious ranking whatsoever[according to whom?]. In addition, the system graduates about 50,000 students per year even though the labor market generates only about 6,000 jobs per year of which 25% of them require a college education.[ah] This effectively means that the Puerto Rican labor market has no demand for 97% of those who graduate with an undergraduate or graduate degree in Puerto Rico.

text: The same occurs in primary education and secondary education: Puerto Rico spends almost $4 billion per year in its public education system even though 40% of all the students that enter tenth grade in public schools in Puerto Rico drop out and never finish secondary education.[131][132] In addition, ninety-five percent (95%) of public school students in Puerto Rico graduate at a sub-basic level while sixty percent (60%) do not even graduate.[133] Furthermore, according to the Department of Education of Puerto Rico, thirty-nine percent (39%) of public school students perform at a basic level (average performance) in Spanish in the Puerto Rican Tests of Academic Achievement.[134] Likewise, 36% perform at a basic level in Mathematics while 35% perform at a basic level in English and 43% at a basic level in Science in the relevant tests.[134] Overall, 1,321 out of 1,466 public schools in Puerto Rico (about 90%) do not comply with the academic progress requirements established by the No Child Left Behind Act.[135]

text: The local government has also proven to be highly inefficient in terms of management and planning; with some newspapers, such as El Vocero, stating that the main problem is inefficiency rather than lack of funds.[ai][aj] As an example, the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico is incapable of collecting 44% of the Puerto Rico Sales and Use Tax (or about $900 million USD), did not match what taxpayers reported to the department with the income reported by the taxpayer's employer through Form W-2's, and did not collect payments owned to the department by taxpayers that submitted tax returns without their corresponding payments.[ak][138][139] The Treasury department also tends to publish its comprehensive annual financial report (CAFR) late, sometimes 15 months after a fiscal year ends, while the government as a whole constantly fails to comply with its continuing disclosure obligations on a timely basis.[140][al] Furthermore, the government's accounting, payroll and fiscal oversight information systems and processes also have deficiencies that significantly affect its ability to forecast expenditures.[am]

text: Similarly, salaries for government employees tend to be quite disparate when compared to the private sector and other positions within the government itself. For example, a public teacher's base salary starts at $24,000 while a legislative advisor starts at $74,000. The government has also been unable to set up a system based on meritocracy, with many employees, particularly executives and administrators, simply lacking the competencies required to perform their jobs.[an][ao]

text: There was a similar situation at the municipal level with 36 out of 78 municipalities experiencing a budget deficit, putting 46% of the municipalities in financial stress.[144] Just like the central government, the municipalities would issue debt through the Puerto Rico Municipal Financing Agency to stabilize its finances rather than make adjustments. In total, the combined debt carried by the municipalities of Puerto Rico account for $3.8 billion USD or about 5.5% of Puerto Rico's outstanding debt.[ap][aq]

text: Population decline[edit]

text: From 2000 to 2010, the population of Puerto Rico decreased, the first such decrease in census history for Puerto Rico; it went from 3,808,610 residents registered in 2000 to 3,725,789 in 2010 (a −2.2% decrease);[147] it peaked at 3.91 million in 2005.[148] A declining and aging population presents additional problems for any society as its labor force decreases and, consequently, so does its economic output.[ar] Two years later, another estimate noted that the population of Puerto Rico decreased further to 3,667,084 residents from April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2012; a −1.6% decrease.[149]

text: Emigration is also major part of Puerto Rico's declining population. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfare, and promotion by the local government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the United States. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1% in 2012 and an additional 1% (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration.[150]

text: The US Census Bureau's estimate for July 1, 2016 was 3,411,307 people, down substantially from the 2010 data which had indicated 3,725,789 people.[151] As fewer people reside in Puerto Rico, the government collects less revenue from its residents. As revenues were declining in the past, the government opted to issue more outstanding debt (such as bonds) to maintain its operations rather than making adjustments. Hence, it's clear that the declining - and aging - population continues to present problems for the Commonwealth.

text: Suzerainty to the United States[edit]

text: Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the Constitution of the United States and, therefore, is restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing most of the opportunities and limitations that state governments have, albeit not being one. Puerto Rico is also subject to the different treaties and trade agreements ratified by the United States, as well as all other laws enacted at the federal level.

text: Unemployment[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2015)

text: Unemployment is a significant issue in Puerto Rico with the unemployment rate being as high as 11.7% in 2006. By November 2009, it stood at 12% and had increased to 15.7% by October 2010.[152] Currently the unemployment rate is at 13.7%[153] The U.S. state with the highest unemployment in October 2007 was Michigan, at 7.7%,[154] and the U.S. average was 4.4%.[155]

text: In mid January 2017, unemployment remained in the double digits and the poverty rate was at 45 percent. By that time, the Commonwealth's debt had increased to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita.[23][22] The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.[24] It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy-like process under PROMESA.[25]

text:
Puerto Rico's labor force from 2005 to 2014 evidences a decline.[156]

Puerto Rico's unemployment rate (seasonally adjusted) is significantly higher than the U.S. national average.[156][157]

Percent population living below poverty level in Puerto Rico by census tract in 2015.

text: Facts & figures[edit]

text:
Debt - External: $70 billion (January 23, 2017 2010 est.)[158]
GDP

Purchasing Power Parity: $64.84 billion (2010 est.)[11]
Official Exchange Rate: $93.52 billion (2010 est.)[11]
Real Growth Rate: -5.8% (2010 est.)[11]
Per Capita: $16,300 (2010 est.)[11]

Inflation Rate (consumer prices): 2.9% (2011 est.)[11]
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Median household income (2016 est.):[159]

$19,350

Persons living in poverty (2016 est.):[159]

46.1%

Budget:

revenues: $8.1 billion Central Government, $25 Billion with Public Corporations
expenditures: $9.6 billion Central Government

Electricity

production: 23,720 GWh
consumption: 22,600 GWh
exports: 0 kWh
imports: 0 kWh (2007 est.)

Electricity – production by source:

fossil fuel: 98.06%
hydro: 1.96%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1998)

Agriculture – products: sugarcane, coffee, pineapples, plantains, bananas; livestock products, chickens [11]
Exports – commodities: chemicals, electronics, apparel, canned tuna, rum, beverage concentrates, medical equipment [11]
Exports: $64.88 billion (2011 est.) [11]
Imports – commodities: chemicals, machinery and equipment, clothing, food, fish, petroleum products[11]
Imports: $44.67 billion (2011 est.) [11]
Tax: 9.0%
Labor Force: 1.286 million (March 2012)[11]


document_title: Lotto Max

question_text: what do you win on lotto max with 3 numbers

root

text: Lotto Max

text: Organization[edit]

text: Lotto Max is administered by the Interprovincial Lottery Corporation, which works with the five regional lottery corporations owned by the 10 provinces and 3 territories in Canada. Retailers receive from the lottery a percentage for tickets sold by their store (the money is not taken from the prizes.) Retailer agreements vary by jurisdiction.

tag: p

text: Prize structure[edit]

text:
Match
Prize
Chance of Winning on a C$5 play.[3]

7/7
Jackpot Win or share of 89.25% of Pools Fund
1 in 28,633,528

6/7 + bonus number
Win or share of 3.15% of Pools Fund
1 in 4,090,506.5

6/7
Win or share of 3.35% of Pools Fund
1 in 99,768.7

5/7
Share of 4.25% of Pools Fund
1 in 1,583.96

4/7
C$20.00
1 in 71.60

3/7 + bonus number
C$20.00
1 in 77.08

3/7
Free Play
1 in 8.421

Maxmillions (7 of 7) (exact match only)*
Win or share C$1 million each set drawn
1 in 28,633,528.

tag: table

text: * When applicable. The 6+/7 pool swells with a $60 million capped jackpot as excess funds not used toward a Maxmillions prize goes into this pool. When a capped jackpot is won, the Maxmillions prizes not won go towards the next jackpot cycle, often resulting in a starting jackpot above $10 million.[4]

text: Largest draws[edit]

text: Main prize[edit]

text: The July 17, 2015 drawing was the first held under new rules allowing the main jackpot to exceed $50 million.[1] The $55 million prize was won by a group of 20 employees of a Rona store in Quebec. At the time, it was the second-largest lottery jackpot in Canadian history, behind a $63.4 million Lotto 6/49 drawing in 2013.[5][6]

text: The Lotto Max record was first surpassed on September 25, 2015 by the first ever Lotto Max drawing for $60 million, with a single winning ticket sold in Brampton, Ontario.[7][8]

text: Prize pool[edit]

text: The July 6, 2012 drawing was the first to offer a major prize pool (for matching all 7 numbers exactly) of $100 million, with a $50 million jackpot and 50 of the $1 million Maxmillions prizes.[9] Three consecutive weeks of rollovers fuelled the large payout, which marked the largest Lotto Max drawing under the previous caps.[10] This combination of a $50 million jackpot and 50 of the $1 million Maxmillions prizes, totalling $100 million in main prizes, has been replicated on other occasions, including June 2015.[11]

text: A new record was established on the August 12, 2016 draw, with a total major prize pool (for matching all 7 numbers exactly) of $102 million, anchored with the new cap of $60 million for the main jackpot and 42 of the $1 million Maxmillions prizes.[12] The jackpot had rolled over for eight consecutive weeks, fuelling the new prize pool record.[12] The $102 million prize pool figure ($60 million plus 42 of the $1 million Maxmillions) was replicated on the draw of January 6, 2017.[13]


document_title: Electric chair

question_text: when was the last time an electric chair used

text: Electric chair

text: Invention[edit]

text: In the late 1870s to early 1880s, spread of arc lighting, a type of brilliant outdoor street lighting that required high voltages in the range of 3000-6000 volts, was followed by one story after another in newspapers about how the high voltages used were killing people, usually unwary linemen, a strange new phenomenon that seemed to instantaneously strike a victim dead without leaving a mark.[6] One of these accidents, in Buffalo, New York on August 7, 1881, led to the inception of the electric chair.[7] That evening a drunken dock worker, looking for the thrill of a tingling sensation he had noticed before, managed to sneak his way into a Brush Electric Company arc lighting power house and grabbed the brush and ground of a large electric dynamo. He died instantly. The coroner who investigated the case brought it up at a local Buffalo scientific society. Another member, Alfred P. Southwick, a dentist who had a technical background, thought some application could be found for the curious phenomenon.[8]

text: Southwick, local physician George E. Fell, and the head of the Buffalo ASPCA performed a series of experiments electrocuting hundreds of stray dogs, experimenting with animals in water, out of water, electrode types and placement, and conductive material until they came up with a repeatable method to euthanize animals using electricity.[9] Southwick went on in the early 1880s to advocate that this method be used as a more humane replacement for hanging in capital cases, coming to national attention when he published his ideas in scientific journals in 1882 and 1883. He worked out calculations based on the dog experiments, trying to develop a scaled-up method that would work on humans. Early on in his designs he adopted a modified version of the dental chair as a way to restrain the condemned, a device that from then on would be called the electric chair.[10]

text: The Gerry Commission[edit]

text: After a series of botched hangings in the United States, there was mounting criticism of this form of capital punishment and the death penalty in general. In 1886, newly elected New York State governor David B. Hill set up a three-member death penalty commission, which was chaired by the human rights advocate and reformer Elbridge Thomas Gerry and included New York lawyer and politician Matthew Hale and Southwick, to investigate a more humane means of execution.[11]

text: The commission members surveyed the history of execution and sent out a fact-finding questionnaire to government officials, lawyers, and medical experts all around the state asking for their opinion.[12] The questionnaires were a bit skewed because they pushed forward electrocution and did not include the choice of abolishing the death penalty, but, despite that, a slight majority of respondents recommended hanging over electrocution, and a few recommended the abolition of capital punishment. The commission also contacted electrical experts, including Thomson-Houston Electric Company's Elihu Thomson (who recommended high voltage AC connected to the head and the spine) and the inventor Thomas Edison (who also recommended AC, as well as using a Westinghouse generator).[13][14][15] They also attended electrocutions of dogs by George Fell who had worked with Southwick in the early 1880s experiments. Fell was conducting further experiments, electrocuting anesthetized dissected dogs trying to discern exactly how electricity killed a subject.[16][13]

text: In 1888, the Commission recommended electrocution using Southwick's electric chair idea with metal conductors attached to the condemned person's head and feet.[7] They further recommended that executions be handled by the state instead of the individual counties with three electric chairs set up at Auburn, Clinton, and Sing Sing prisons. A bill following these recommendations passed the legislature and was signed by Governor Hill on June 4, 1888, set to go into effect on January 1, 1889.

text: The Medico-Legal commission[edit]

text: The bill itself contained no details on the type or amount of electricity that should be used and the New York Medico-Legal Society, an informal society composed of doctors and lawyers, was given the task of determining these factors. In September 1888, a committee was formed and recommended 3000 volts, although the type of electricity, direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC), was not determined, and since tests up to that point had been done on animals smaller than a human (dogs), some members were unsure that the lethality of AC had been conclusively proven.[17]

text: At this point the state's efforts to design the electric chair became intermixed with what has become to be known as the War of Currents, a competition between Thomas Edison's direct current power system and George Westinghouse's alternating current based system. The two companies had been competing commercially since 1886 and a series of events had turned it into an all-out media war in 1888. The committee head, neurologist Frederick Peterson, enlisted the services of Harold P. Brown as a consultant. Brown had been on his own crusade against alternating current after the shoddy installation of pole-mounted AC arc lighting lines in New York City had caused several deaths in early 1888. Peterson had been an assistant at Brown's July 1888 public electrocution of dogs with AC at Columbia College, an attempt by Brown to prove AC was more deadly than DC.[17] Technical assistance in these demonstrations was provided by Thomas Edison's West Orange laboratory and there grew to be some form of collusion between Edison Electric and Brown.[18][19][20] Back at West Orange on December 5, 1888 Brown set up an experiment with members of the press, members of the Medico-Legal Society including Elbridge Gerry who was also chairman of the death penalty commission, and Thomas Edison looking on. Brown used alternating current for all of his tests on animals larger than a human, including 4 calves and a lame horse, all dispatched with 750 volts of AC.[21] Based on these results the Medico-Legal Society recommended the use of 1000-1500 volts of alternating current for executions and newspapers noted the AC used was half the voltage used in the power lines over the streets of American cities. Westinghouse criticized these test as a skewed self-serving demonstration designed to be a direct attack on alternating current and accused Brown of being in the employ of Edison.[22]

text: At the request of death penalty commission chairman Gerry, Medico-Legal Society members; electrotherapy expert Alphonse David Rockwell, Carlos Frederick MacDonald, and Columbia College professor Louis H. Laudy, were given the task of working out the details of electrode placement.[23][24][25] They again turned to Brown to supply the technical assistance. Brown asked Edison Electric Light to supply equipment for the tests and treasurer Francis S. Hastings (who seemed to be one of the primary movers at the company trying to portray Westinghouse as a peddler of death dealing AC current[20]) tried to obtain a Westinghouse AC generator for the test but found none was to be had.[23] They ended up using Edison's West Orange laboratory for the animal tests they conducted in mid-March 1889. Superintendent of Prisons Austin E. Lathrop asked Brown to design the chair, but Brown turned down the offer.[23] Dr. George Fell drew up the final designs for a simple oak chair and went against the Medico-Legal Society recommendations, changing the position of the electrodes to the head and the middle of the back.[16] Brown did take on the job of finding the generators needed to power the chair. He managed to surreptitiously acquire three Westinghouse AC generators that were being decommissioned with the help of Edison and Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, a move that made sure that Westinghouse's equipment would be associated with the first execution.[26] The electric chair was built by Edwin F. Davis, the first "state electrician" (executioner) for the State of New York.[27]

text: First execution[edit]

text: The first person in line to die under New York's new electrocution law was Joseph Chappleau, convicted for beating his neighbor to death with a sled stake, but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment.[28] The next person scheduled to be executed was William Kemmler, convicted of murdering his wife with a hatchet. An appeal on Kemmler's behalf was made to the New York Court of Appeals on the grounds that use of electricity as a means of execution constituted a cruel and unusual punishment and was thus contrary to the constitutions of the United States and the state of New York.[29] On December 30, 1889, the writ of habeas corpus sworn out on Kemmler's behalf was denied by the court, with Judge Dwight writing in a lengthy ruling:

text: We have no doubt that if the Legislature of this State should undertake to proscribe for any offense against its laws the punishment of burning at the stake, breaking at the wheel, etc., it would be the duty of the courts to pronounce upon such attempt the condemnation of the Constitution. The question now to be answered is whether the legislative act here assailed is subject to the same condemnation. Certainly, it is not so on its face, for, although the mode of death described is conceded to be unusual, there is no common knowledge or consent that it is cruel; it is a question of fact whether an electric current of sufficient intensity and skillfully applied will produce death without unnecessary suffering.[30]

text: Kemmler was executed in New York's Auburn Prison on August 6, 1890; the "state electrician" was Edwin F. Davis. The first 17-second passage of 1,000 volts AC of current through Kemmler caused unconsciousness, but failed to stop his heart and breathing. The attending physicians, Edward Charles Spitzka and Carlos F. MacDonald, came forward to examine Kemmler. After confirming Kemmler was still alive, Spitzka reportedly called out, "Have the current turned on again, quick, no delay." The generator needed time to re-charge, however. In the second attempt, Kemmler received a 2,000 volt AC shock. Blood vessels under the skin ruptured and bled, and the areas around the electrodes singed. The entire execution took about eight minutes. George Westinghouse later commented that, "They would have done better using an axe",[31] and a witnessing reporter claimed that it was "an awful spectacle, far worse than hanging".[32]

text: Adoption[edit]

text: The electric chair was adopted by Ohio (1897), Massachusetts (1900), New Jersey (1906) and Virginia (1908), and soon became the prevalent method of execution in the United States, replacing hanging. Most of the states that currently use or have used the electric chair lie east of the Mississippi River. The electric chair remained the most prominent execution method until the mid-1980s when lethal injection became widely accepted for conducting judicial executions.

text: Other countries appear to have contemplated using the method, sometimes for special reasons. The only country other than the United States to use the electric chair was the Philippines, although the method was discontinued after 1976.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: The United Kingdom considered replacing hanging with the electric chair (as well as considering the gas chamber and lethal injection) during the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment, the findings of which were published in 1953. The Commission concluded that the electric chair had no particular advantages over hanging, and so, the electric chair was not adopted for use in the United Kingdom.

text: The United Kingdom performed its last execution in 1964, and abolished capital punishment for murder the following year, thereby rendering any debate over method moot.

text: Current use[edit]

text: A number of states still allow the condemned person to choose between electrocution and lethal injection. In all, twelve inmates nationwide - seven in Virginia, three in South Carolina, and one each in Arkansas and Tennessee - have opted for electrocution over lethal injection. The last use of the chair was on January 16, 2013, when Robert Gleason, Jr., decided to go to the electric chair in Virginia.[33]

text: After 1966, electrocutions ceased for a time in the United States, but the method continued in the Philippines.[34] A well-publicized triple execution took place in May 1972, when Jaime Jose, Basilio Pineda and Edgardo Aquino were electrocuted for the 1967 abduction and gang-rape of the young actress Maggie dela Riva.

text: Notable persons and events in the United States[edit]

text: Serial killer Lizzie Halliday was the first woman sentenced to die in the electric chair, in 1894, but governor Roswell P. Flower commuted her sentence to life in a mental institution after a medical commission declared her insane.[35][36] A second woman sentenced to death in 1895, Maria Barbella, was acquitted the next year.[37] Martha M. Place became the first woman to receive the deadly current in the electric chair at Sing Sing Prison on March 20, 1899, for the murder of her 17-year-old stepdaughter, Ida Place.[38]

text: In a botched electrocution at Sing Sing in 1903, Fred Van Wormer was electrocuted and pronounced dead, but, upon arrival in the autopsy room, he was seen to be breathing once again. The executioner had gone home, and was called back to re-electrocute Wormer. Before the executioner returned, Wormer had died.

text: The electrocution of housewife Ruth Snyder at Sing Sing on the evening of January 12, 1928, for the March 1927 murder of her husband was made famous when news photographer Tom Howard, working for the New York Daily News, smuggled a hidden camera into the death chamber and photographed her in the electric chair as the current was turned on. The photograph was a front-page sensation the following morning, and remains one of the most famous photojournalism photographs of all time.[39]

text: A record was set on July 13, 1928, when seven men were executed consecutively in the electric chair at the Kentucky State Penitentiary in Eddyville.

text: On August 8, 1942, six German agents convicted of espionage and attempted sabotage in the Quirin case for their role in Operation Pastorius during World War II were executed by electric chair at the District of Columbia jail.[40]

text: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed by electric chair in 1953, after being convicted of espionage, involving sharing secrets related to the atomic bomb with the Soviet Union.

text: James French was executed on August 10, 1966, the last person electrocuted until 1979. French was the first person executed in Oklahoma since Richard Dare was electrocuted June 1, 1963, and the only person executed in 1966.[citation needed]

text: On May 25, 1979, John Spenkelink became the first person to be electrocuted after the Gregg v. Georgia decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1976. He was the first person to be executed in the United States in this manner since 1966.

text: The last person to be executed by electric chair without the choice of an alternative method was Lynda Lyon Block on May 10, 2002, in Alabama.[41]

text: Decline[edit]

text: The use of the electric chair has declined as legislators sought what they believed to be more humane methods of execution. Lethal injection became the most widely used method, aided by media reports of botched electrocutions in the early 1980s.

text: The electric chair has been criticized because of several instances in which the subjects were killed only after being subjected to multiple electric shocks. This led to a call for ending of the practice, because many see it as cruel and unusual punishment.[42] Trying to address such concerns, Nebraska introduced a new electrocution protocol in 2004, which called for administration of a 15-second-long application of electric current at a potential of 2,450 volts; after a 15-minute wait, an official then checks for signs of life. New concerns raised regarding the 2004 protocol resulted, in April 2007, in the ushering in of the current Nebraska protocol, calling for a 20-second-long application of electric current at a potential of 2,450 volts. (Prior to the 2004 protocol change, an initial eight-second application of current at 2,450 volts was administered, followed by a one-second pause, then a 22-second application at 480 volts. After a 20-second break, the cycle was repeated three more times.)

text: In 1946, the electric chair failed to kill Willie Francis, who reportedly shrieked, "Take it off! Let me breathe!", after the current was applied. It turned out that the portable electric chair had been improperly set up by an intoxicated prison guard and inmate.[43] A case was brought before the U.S. Supreme Court (Louisiana ex rel. Francis v. Resweber),[44] with lawyers for the condemned arguing that although Francis did not die, he had, in fact, been executed. The argument was rejected on the basis that re-execution did not violate the double jeopardy clause of the 5th Amendment of the United States Constitution, and Francis was returned to the electric chair and successfully executed in 1947.

text: Recorded incidents of botched electrocutions were prevalent after the national moratorium ended January 17, 1977; two in Alabama, three in Florida, one in Georgia, one in Indiana, and three in Virginia. All five states now have lethal injection as the default method if a choice is not made.

text: As of 2015[update], the only places in the world which still reserve the electric chair as an option for execution are the U.S. states of Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. (Arkansas and Oklahoma laws provide for its use should lethal injection ever be held to be unconstitutional.) Inmates in the other states must select either it or lethal injection. In Kentucky, only inmates sentenced before a certain date can choose to be executed by electric chair. Tennessee was among the states that provided inmates with a choice of the electric chair or lethal injection; however, in May 2014, the state passed a law allowing the use of the electric chair if lethal injection drugs were unavailable or made unconstitutional.[45] In the state of Florida, on July 8, 1999, Allen Lee Davis, convicted of murder, was executed in the Florida electric chair "Old Sparky". Davis' face was bloodied, and photographs were taken, which were later posted on the Internet. The 1997 execution of Pedro Medina in Florida created controversy when flames burst from the inmate's head. Lethal injection has been the primary method of execution in the state of Florida since 2000. On February 15, 2008, the Nebraska Supreme Court declared execution by electrocution to be "cruel and unusual punishment" prohibited by the Nebraska Constitution.[46]

text: Robert Gleason, executed in the electric chair at Greensville Correctional Center, Virginia, on January 16, 2013, is the most recent individual to choose electrocution over lethal injection.[47][48]