document_title: Regia Marina

question_text: how big was the italian navy in ww2

question_tokens: how big was the italian navy in ww2

text: Regia Marina

text: Origins[edit]

text: The Regia Marina was established on 17 March 1861 following the proclamation of the formation of the Kingdom of Italy. Just as the Kingdom was a unification of various states in the Italian peninsula, so the Regia Marina was formed from the navies of those states, though the main constituents were the navies of the former kingdoms of Sardinia and Naples. The new Navy inherited a substantial number of ships, both sail- and steam-powered, and the long naval traditions of its constituents, especially those of Sardinia and Naples, but also suffered from some major handicaps.

text: Firstly, it suffered from a lack of uniformity and cohesion; the Regia Marina was a heterogeneous mix of equipment, standards and practice, and even saw hostility between the officers from the various former navies. These problems were compounded by the continuation of separate officer schools at Genoa and Naples, and were not fully addressed until the opening of a unified Naval Academy at Livorno in 1881.

text: Secondly, unification occurred during a period of rapid advances in naval technology and tactics, as typified by the launch of Gloire by France in 1858, and later by the appearance of, and battle between, USS Monitor and CSS Virginia in 1862. These innovations quickly made older warships obsolete. Italy did not possess the shipyards or infrastructure to build the modern ships required, but the then Minister for the Navy, Admiral Carlo di Persano, launched a substantial programme to purchase warships from foreign yards.

text: Seven Weeks War[edit]

text: The new navy's baptism of fire came on 20 July 1866 at the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence (parallel to the Seven Weeks War). The battle was fought against the Austrian Empire and occurred near the island of Vis in the Adriatic sea. This was one of the few fleet actions of the nineteenth century, and as a major sea battle that involved ramming, it had a profound, though with hindsight a detrimental, effect on warship design and tactics.

text: The Italian fleet, commanded by Admiral Persano, mustered 12 ironclad and 17 wooden-hulled ships, though only one, Affondatore, was of the most modern turret ship design. Despite a marked disadvantage in numbers and equipment, superior handling by the Austrians under Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff resulted in a severe defeat for Italy, which lost two armoured ships and 640 men.

text: Decline and resurgence[edit]

text: After the war, the Regia Marina passed through some difficult years as the naval budget was substantially reduced, thus impairing the fleet's efficiency and the pace of new construction; only in the 1870s, under Simone Pacoret de Saint Bon's ministry, did the situation begin to improve. In 1881, the battleship Caio Duilio was commissioned, followed in 1882 by the battleship Enrico Dandolo; at the time these were the most powerful warships in the world, and signalled the Italian fleet's renewed power. In 1896 the corvette Magenta completed a circumnavigation of the world. The following year the Regia Marina conducted experiments with Guglielmo Marconi in the use of radio communications. 1909 saw the first use of aircraft with the fleet. An Italian naval officer, Vittorio Cuniberti, was the first in 1903 to envision in a published article the all-big gun battleship design, which would be later come to be known as dreadnought.

text: Italo-Turkish War[edit]

text: In 1911 and 1912, the Regia Marina was involved in the Italo-Turkish War against forces of the Ottoman Empire. As the majority of the Ottoman fleet stayed behind the relative safety of the Dardanelles, the Italians dominated the Mediterranean during the conflict winning victories against Ottoman light units at the Prevenza and the Battle of Beirut. In the Red Sea the Italian forces were vastly superior to those of the Ottomans who only possessed a squadron of gunboats there. These were destroyed while attempting to withdraw into the Mediterranean at the Battle of Kunfuda Bay.

text: World War I[edit]

text: Before 1914, the Kingdom of Italy built six dreadnought battleships: (Dante Alighieri as a prototype; Giulio Cesare, Conte di Cavour and Leonardo da Vinci of the Conte di Cavour class; and Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio of the Andrea Doria class), but they did not participate in major naval actions in World War I, as they were positioned to intercept a major sortie of the Austro-Hungarian Navy which never came.

text: During the war, the Regia Marina spent its major efforts in the Adriatic Sea, fighting the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The resulting Adriatic Campaign of World War I consisted mainly of Austro-Hungarian coastal bombardments of Italy's Adriatic coast, and wider-ranging German/Austro-Hungarian submarine warfare into the Mediterranean. Allied forces mainly limited themselves to blockading the German/Austro-Hungarian navies in the Adriatic, which was successful in regards to surface units, but failed for the submarines, which found safe harbours and easy passage into and out of the area for the whole of the war. Considered a relatively minor part of the naval warfare of World War I, it nonetheless tied down significant forces.

text: For most of the war the Italian and Austro-Hungarian navies each kept a relatively passive watch over their adversaries. The Italian fleet lost the pre-dreadnought battleship Benedetto Brin at Brindisi (27 September 1915) and the dreadnought Leonardo da Vinci at Taranto (2 August 1916) due to a magazine explosion (although there were rumours of Austrian sabotage). In the last part of the war, the Regia Marina developed new weapons: the MAS boats, that sank the Austro-Hungarian battleship SMS Szent István in the Adriatic Sea on 10 June 1918; and an early type of human torpedo (Mignatta) entered the harbour of Pula and sank the Austro-Hungarian flagship SMS Viribus Unitis on 1 November 1918 shortly after the entire Austro-Hungarian Navy was turned over to the newly founded neutral State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The battleship SMS Tegetthoff (sister of the former two) was handed over to Italy as a war prize in 1919.

text: Interwar years[edit]

text: During the interwar years the Italian government set about modernizing the Regia Marina in a way that could enable it to reach dominance over the Mediterranean Sea. Italian naval construction was limited by the Washington Naval Conference. The 1922 treaty required a parity in naval forces between the Italian and French navies, with equality in total displacement in battleships and carriers. The treaty influenced the development of the Italian fleet over the years between the two world wars. Between the late twenties and early thirties a construction program began, focusing first on cruisers up to 10,000 tons, followed by the building of destroyers and submarines, and lastly the construction of the new Littorio-class battleships; plans were also put in place to modernize the Conte di Cavour-class and Andrea Doria-class battleships. Much of these new naval units were responses to French naval constructions, as the Marine nationale was seen until the mid 1930s as the most likely enemy in a hypothetical conflict.

text: The Regia Marina chose to build fast ships armed with longer ranged guns to give the Italian vessels the ability to minimize close contact with vessels of the Royal Navy, whose crews were more experienced. In theory this would allow them to engage or break off at their own choosing, and would allow them to hit the enemy when he could not yet hit back. New guns were developed with longer ranges than their British counterparts of similar caliber. Speed was emphasized in their new construction. Italian cruisers built in the 1920s, such as the Giovanni dalle Bande Nere were built with a newly designed and relatively thin armour.. This would have a decisive role in a number of naval battles, including the Battle of Cape Spada. Later classes, such as the Zara andò Montecuccoli classes, were built to a more balanced design with thicker armor.

text: The modernization work on the four Great War era battleships turned into a significant reconstruction project, with only 40% of the original structures being left. The ship's guns were upgraded in main armament, going from 13 guns of 305 mm diameter, to 10 guns of 320 mm diameter. The middle turret and the vessel's central tower were eliminated. To increase speed the coal-fired boilers were replaced with modern oil-fired boilers and ten meters were added to the ship's length to improve the coefficient of fineness. Though the ships were improved, they still were not an equal match for the Queen Elizabeth-class battleships and the Renown-class battlecruisers, both of which carried larger guns and heavier armour.

text: Though scientific research on tracking devices such as radar and sonar was being conducted in Italian universities and military laboratories by men such as Ugo Tiberio and Guglielmo Marconi, the conservative Italian leadership had little interest in these new technologies, and did not use them to improve the effectiveness of the Italian vessels. This was mainly due to the influence of Admiral Domenico Cavagnari, whom Mussolini appointed as Chief of Staff of the Navy in 1933, and whom he later promoted to Secretary of the Navy. Likewise technological advancement in radio range finders and gunnery control devices for night combat were not incorporated. Regarding such devices, Cavagnari emphasized "not wanting traps in your way". Writing to Admiral Iachino, he wrote "..procedere con estrema cautela nell'accettare brillanti novità tecniche che non siano ancora collaudate da una esperienza pratica sufficientemente lunga..", which can be translated to "... proceed with extreme caution regarding brilliant technical innovations that have not yet been tested or with which there is no practical experience."  Thus, the Italian navy entered the Second World War with a marked technical inferiority to the British Navy. German General Albert Kesselring, overall commander of Axis forces in the Mediterranean, observed that the Italian navy was "a good weather" force, unable to operate effectively at night or in heavy seas.

text: Two training ships were built during this period, in addition to the effort to modernize and re-equip the combat vessels of the navy. These were square rigged school ships the Regia Marina ordered in 1925. The sailing ships followed a design by Lieutenant Colonel Francesco Rotundi of the Italian Navy Engineering Corps, reminiscent of ships of the line from the Napoleonic era. The first of these two ships, Cristoforo Colombo, was put into service in 1928 and was used by the Italian Navy for training until 1943. After World War II, this ship was handed over to the Soviet Union as part of war reparations and was shortly afterwards decommissioned. The second ship of the design was Amerigo Vespucci. The ship was built in 1930 at the (formerly Royal) Naval Shipyard of Castellammare di Stabia (Naples). She was launched on 22 February 1931, and was put into service in July of that year. She is still being used to this day.

text: In 1928, the unified command of the "Armata Navale" was abolished, and the fleet was divided in two squadrons (Squadre navali), one based at La Spezia and the other based at Taranto.

text: Italo-Ethiopian War[edit]

text: The Regia Marina played a limited role in the invasion of Ethiopia. While the Ethiopian Empire was landlocked, the navy was instrumental in delivering and supplying the invasion forces through Somali and Eritrean ports.

text: Spanish Civil War[edit]

text: At the time of the Italian intervention in the Spanish Civil War, the Regia Marina sent naval units in support of the Italian Corps of Volunteer Troops (Corpo Truppe Volontarie). Approximately 58 Italian submarines took part in operations against Republican naval forces of Spain. These submarines were organized in a Submarine Legion and complemented German U-boat operations as part of Operation Ursula. At least two Republican freighters, one Soviet and another Panamanian were either sunk or forced to run aground by Italian destroyers near the Strait of Sicily.[1] Two light cruisers took part in the shelling of Barcelona and Valencia in 1937, resulting in the deaths of more than 30 civilians.[2]

text: Albania[edit]

text: In 1939, the Regia Marina supported the invasion of Albania. All ground forces involved in the invasion had to cross the Adriatic Sea from mainland Italy and the crossings were accomplished without incident.

text: World War II[edit]

text: On 10 June 1940, following the German invasion of France and the lowlands, the Kingdom of Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom and entered World War II. Italy went to war with the fourth largest navy in the world.[citation needed] Italian dictator Benito Mussolini saw the control of the Mediterranean Sea as an essential prerequisite for expanding his "New Roman Empire" into Nice, Corsica, Tunis and the Balkans. Italian naval building accelerated during his tenure. Mussolini described the Mediterranean as "Mare Nostrum" (Our Sea).[3]

text: Before the declaration of war, Italian ground and air forces prepared to strike at the beaten French forces across the border in the Italian invasion of France. By contrast, the Regia Marina prepared to secure the lines of communications between Italy, Libya and the East African colonies. The Italian High Command (Comando Supremo) did not approve of the plan devised by the Italian Naval Headquarters (Supermarina) to occupy a weakly defended Malta,[4] which proved a crucial mistake. The British, thinking Malta could not be defended due to the proximity of Italian air bases in Italy, Sicily, and Libya, had put little effort into bolstering the islands' defences. Thus, at the outset of the war there were only 42 anti-aircraft guns on the island and twelve Gloster Sea Gladiators, half sitting in crates at the wharf.[5]

text: Entering the war, the Regia Marina was operating under a number of limitations. Though significant assets were available to challenge the Royal Navy for control of the Mediterranean, there had been a lack of emphasis on the incorporation of technological advances such as radar and sonar. This meant that in night engagements or foul weather, the Italian ships were unable to detect the approach of their British adversaries. When engaged, they could only range their guns if they were able to visually locate their targets.

text: The Regia Marina had six battleships with which to contend for control of the Mediterranean, the four most modern of which were being re-fit at the outbreak of the war. In addition to the six capital ships, the Italians had 19 cruisers, 59 destroyers, 67 torpedo boats, and 116 submarines. Though the Regia Marina had a number of fast new cruisers with good range in their gunnery, the older classes were lightly built and had inadequate defensive armor. Numerically the Italian fleet was formidable, but there were a large number of older vessels, and the service suffered in general from insufficient time at sea for crew training.

text: Italy's lack of raw materials meant that they would have great difficulty building new ships over the course of the war. Thus, the assets they did have were handled with caution by Supermarina. Whereas Allied commanders at sea had a fair degree of autonomy and discretion to fight their vessels as circumstance allowed, Italian commanders were required to confer with their headquarters before committing their forces in an engagement that might result in their loss. This led to delays in arriving at decisions and actions being avoided, even when the Italians had a clear advantage. An example occurred during "Operation Hats", in which the Regia Marina had superior forces but failed to commit them to take advantage of the opportunity.[6]

text: A further key disadvantage in the convoy support and interception battles that dominated the Battle of the Mediterranean was the intelligence advantage the British held in their Ultra intercept system. Ultra decrypts provided the Royal Navy with key information on convoy routes, times of departure, time of arrival, and make up of the convoy.

text: The warships of the Regia Marina had a general reputation as being well-designed. Italian small attack craft lived up to expectations and were responsible for many successful actions in the Mediterranean. Though Italian warships lacked radar, this was partly offset in fair weather by good optical rangefinder and fire-control systems.[7]

text: The Italian Navy lacked a fleet air arm. The high command had reasoned that since the Italian navy would be operating solely in the Mediterranean, their vessels would never be far from an airfield, thus the time and resources needed to develop a naval air arm could be directed elsewhere. This proved problematic on a number of occasions. Though the Italians did have the aircraft carriers Aquila and Sparviero under construction at the start of the war, neither one was ever completed.[3] Lastly, the lack of natural oil reserves and subsequent shortage of oil precluded extensive fleet operations.[4]

text: Mediterranean[edit]

text: The Regia Marina and the Royal Navy engaged in a two-and-a-half-year struggle for control of the Mediterranean. The Regia Marina's primary goal was to support the Axis forces in North Africa while obstructing the supply route to Alexandria and cutting off supplies to Malta. The Royal Navy's major effort was to maintain supply to the military forces and people of Malta, and secondarily to interdict convoy shipments to North Africa.[8][N 1]  The first major action occurred on 11 November 1940 when the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious launched two waves of Swordfish torpedo-bombers in a surprise raid against the Italian Fleet moored at the naval base of Taranto. The raid came in undetected, and three battleships were sunk. Another major defeat was inflicted on the Regia Marina at Cape Matapan, where the Royal Navy and the Royal Australian Navy intercepted and destroyed three heavy cruisers (Zara, Pola and Fiume; all of the same class) and two Oriani-class destroyers in a night ambush, with the loss of over 2,300 seamen. The Allies had Ultra intercepts, which uncovered the Italian movements, and radar, which enabled them to locate the ships and range their weapons at distance and at night. The better air reconnaissance skills of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm and their close collaboration with surface units were other major causes of the Italian debacle.

text: On 19 December 1941, the battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Valiant were sunk in shallow water by limpet mines planted by Italian manned torpedoes, knocking both out of the conflict for almost two years. This action, coming on the heels of the loss of the Prince of Wales and Repulse in the South China Sea, significantly weakened the surface strength of the Royal Navy, making it difficult for them to challenge control of the eastern Mediterranean.[N 2]

text: On the night of 19 December, Force K, comprising three cruisers and four destroyers based at Malta, ran into an Italian minefield off Tripoli. Three cruisers struck mines, with the cruiser HMS Neptune lost, along with the destroyer HMS Kandahar. In addition, another destroyer was seriously damaged. All told 800 seamen were lost, and Force K, which had been effectively interdicting Axis convoys, was put out of action. This series of successes allowed the Regia Marina to achieve naval supremacy in the central Mediterranean. Coupled with an intensive bombing campaign against Malta, the Axis supply routes from southern Europe to North Africa were almost untouched by the Royal Navy or its allies for the next several months.

text: The Italian fleet went on the offensive, blocking or mauling three large Allied convoys bound for Malta. This led to a number of naval engagements, including the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942, Operation Harpoon and Operation Vigorous, (known as the "Battle of Mid-June") and Operation Pedestal (the "Battle of Mid-August"). All of these engagements were favourable to the Axis. Despite this activity, the only real success of the Italian Fleet was the surface attack on the Harpoon convoy, supported by Axis aerial forces. These attacks sank several Allied warships and damaged others. Only two transports of the original six in the convoy reached Malta. This was an undisputed squadron-sized victory for Italian surface forces in World War II.[N 3]

text: Despite the heavy losses suffered by the merchantmen and escorting forces of convoy Pedestal, the oil and supplies brought through allowed the near starving island of Malta to continue to hold out. With Allied landings in North Africa, Operation Torch, in November 1942, the fortunes of war turned against the Italians. Their sea convoys were harassed day after day by the aerial and naval supremacy of the Allies. The maritime lane between Sicily and Tunisia became known as the "route of death". After years of back and forth, the Axis forces were forced to surrender in Tunisia, bringing the campaign for North Africa to a close.

text: The Regia Marina performed well and bravely in its North African convoy duties, but remained at a technical disadvantage. The Italian ships relied on speed but could easily be damaged by shell or torpedo, due to their relatively thin armour. The fatal and final blow to the Italian Navy was a shortage of fuel, which forced its main units to remain at anchor for most of the last year of the Italian alliance with Germany.[11]

text: Atlantic[edit]

text: From 10 June 1940, submarines of the Regia Marina took part in the Battle of the Atlantic alongside the U-Boats of Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine. The Italian submarines were based in Bordeaux, France at the BETASOM base. While more suited for the Mediterranean Sea than the Atlantic Ocean, the thirty-two Italian submarines that operated in the Atlantic sank 109 Allied ships for a total of 593,864 tons.

text: The Regia Marina even planned an attack on New York harbor with midget submarines for December 1942, but this plan was delayed for many reasons and was never carried out.[12]

text: Red Sea[edit]

text: Initially, Italian forces enjoyed considerable success in East Africa. From 10 June 1940, the Regia Marina's Red Sea Flotilla, based at Massawa, Eritrea, posed a potential threat to Allied shipping crossing the Red Sea between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. This threat increased in August 1940 with the Italian conquest of British Somaliland, which allowed the Italians the use of the port of Berbera; in January 1941, however, British and Commonwealth forces launched a successful counterattack in East Africa and the threat posed by the Red Sea Flotilla disappeared.

text: Much of the Red Sea Flotilla was destroyed by hostile action during the first months of war or when the port of Massawa fell in April 1941. However, there were a few survivors. In February 1941, prior to the fall of Massawa, the colonial ship Eritrea and the auxiliary cruisers Ramb I and Ramb II broke out and sailed to Kobe, Japan. While Ramb I was sunk by the New Zealand cruiser HMNZS Leander off the Maldives, Eritrea and Ramb II made it to Kobe. As the port of Massawa was falling, four submarines—Guglielmo, Gauleo Ferraras, Perla, and Archimede—sailed south from Massawa, rounded the Cape of Good Hope and ultimately sailed to German occupied Bordeaux, France. One or two Italian merchant ships from the Red Sea Flotilla made it to Vichy French-controlled Madagascar.

text: On 10 June 1941 the British launched Operation Chronometer, landing a battalion of troops from the British Indian army at Assab, the last Italian-held harbour on the Red Sea.[13]  By 11 June, Assab had fallen. Two days later, on 13 June, the Indian trawler Parvati became the last naval casualty of the East African Campaign when it struck a moored mine near Assab.[14]

text: Black Sea[edit]

text: In May 1942, at German request, the Regia Marina deployed four 24 ton anti-submarine motorboats (Motoscafo Anti Sommergibile, MAS), six CB-class midget submarines, five torpedo motorboats, and five explosive motorboats to the Black Sea. The vessels were transported overland to the Danube River at Vienna, Austria, and then transported by water to Constanța, Romania. The flotilla had an active and successful campaign, based at Yalta and Feodosia.

text: After Italy quit the war, most of the Italian vessels on the Black Sea were transferred to Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine. In early 1944, six MAS boats were transferred to the Royal Romanian Navy.[15] By August 1944, they were ultimately captured by Soviet forces when Constanța was captured.

text: The five surviving midget submarines were transferred to the Royal Romanian Navy.[16][17][18][19][20]

text: Lake Ladoga[edit]

text: The Regia Marina operated a squadron of four MAS boats on Lake Ladoga during the Continuation War (1941–1944). As part of Naval Detachment K, German, Italian, and Finnish vessels operated against Soviet gunboats, escorts and supply vessels during the Siege of Leningrad between 21 June and 21 October 1942. The Italian vessels were ultimately turned over to Finland.

text: Far East[edit]

text: The Regia Marina had a naval base in the concession territory of Tiensin in China. The primary Italian vessels based in China were the mine-layer Lepanto and the gunboat Carlotto. During World War II, Italian supply ships, auxiliary cruisers and submarines operated throughout the waters of the Far East, often in disguise.[citation needed] The Italians also utilized Japanese-controlled port facilities such as Shanghai, China, and Kobe, Japan.

text: Seven Italian submarines operating from France were converted by the Italians into "transport submarines" in order to exchange rare or irreplaceable trade goods with Japan. The submarines Alpino Bagnolini, Barbarigo, Comandante Cappellini, Giuseppe Finzi, Reginaldo Giuliani, Enrico Tazzoli, and Luigi Torelli were converted for service with the Monsun Gruppe ("Monsoon Group"). The name of Comandante Cappellini was changed to Aquila III.

text: Twelve additional R-class blockade running transport submarines were specifically designed for trade with the Far East, but only two of these vessels were completed before Italy quit the war. Both of these submarines were destroyed by Allied action almost as soon as they were launched.

text: The Armistice of 1943[edit]

text: In 1943, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was deposed and the new Italian government agreed to an armistice with the Allies. Under the terms of this armistice, the Regia Marina had to sail its ships to an Allied port. Most sailed to Malta, but a flotilla from La Spezia headed towards Sardinia. This was intercepted and attacked by German aircraft and the battleship Roma was sunk by two hits from Fritz X guided glide-bombs. Among the 1600 sailors killed on board Roma was the Italian Naval Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Carlo Bergamini.[21]

text: As vessels became available to the new Italian government, the Italian Co-Belligerent Navy was formed to fight on the side of the Allies. Other ships were captured in port by the Germans or scuttled by their crews. Few Regia Marina crews chose to fight for Mussolini's new fascist regime in northern Italy, the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana, RSI). Mussolini's pro-German National Republican Navy (Marina Nazionale Repubblicana) hardly reached a twentieth the size attained by the co-belligerent Italian fleet.[22]  In the Far East, the Japanese occupied the Italian concession territory of Tiensin.

text: There was little use for the surrendered Italian battleships and there was doubt about the loyalties of the crews, so these ships were interned in Egypt. In June 1944, the less powerful battleships (Andrea Doria, Caio Duilio and Giulio Cesare) were allowed to return to Augusta harbour in Sicily for training. The others, Vittorio Veneto and Italia (ex-Littorio), remained at Ismaïlia in the Suez Canal until 1947. After the war, Giulio Cesare was passed to the Soviet Union.

text: In the Co-belligerency period, until "VE" (Victory in Europe) Day, Italian light cruisers participated in the naval war in the Atlantic Ocean with patrols against German raiders. Smaller naval units (mainly submarines and torpedo boats) served in the Mediterranean Sea. In the last days of war, the issue of whether Italian battleships and cruisers should participate in the Pacific War was debated by the Allied leaders.

text: There were also Italian naval units in the Far East in 1943 when the new Italian government agreed to an armistice with the Allies. The reactions of their crews varied greatly. In general, surface units, mainly supply ships and auxiliary cruisers, either surrendered at Allied ports (Eritrea at Colombo, Ceylon) or, if in Japanese controlled ports, they were scuttled by their own crew (Conte Verde, Lepanto, and Carlotto at Shanghai). Ramb II was taken over by the Japanese in Kobe and renamed Calitea II. Four Italian submarines were in the Far East at the time of the armistice, transporting rare goods to Japan and Singapore: Ammiraglio Cagni, Comandante Cappellini (Aquilla III), Reginaldo Giuliani, and Luigi Torelli. The crew of Ammiraglio Cagni heard of the armistice and surrendered to the Royal Navy off Durban, South Africa. Comandante Cappellini, Reginaldo Giuliani, and Luigi Torelli and their crews were temporarily interned by the Japanese. The boats passed to German U-boat command and, with mixed German and Italian crews, they continued to fight against the Allies. The German navy assigned new officers to the three submarines. The three were renamed UIT-23, UIT-24 and UIT-25 and took part in German war operations in the Pacific. Reginaldo Giuliani was sunk by the British submarine HMS Tally-Ho in February 1944. In May 1945, the other two vessels were taken over by the Japanese Imperial Navy when Germany surrendered. About twenty Italian sailors continued to fight with the Japanese. Luigi Torelli remained active until 30 August 1945, when, in Japanese waters, this last Fascist Italian submarine shot down a North American B-25 Mitchell bomber of the United States Army Air Forces.[23]

text: After World War II[edit]

text: After the end of hostilities, the Regia Marina started a long and complex rebuilding process. At the beginning of the war, the Regia Marina was the fourth largest navy in the world with a mix of modernised and new battleships. The important combat contributions of the Italian naval forces after the signing of the armistice with the Allies on 8 September 1943 and the subsequent cooperation agreement on 23 September 1943 left the Regia Marina in a poor condition. Much of its infrastructure and bases were unusable and its ports mined and blocked by sunken ships. However, a large number of its naval units had survived the war, albeit in a low efficiency state. This was due to the conflict and the age of many vessels.

text: The vessels that remained were:

text:
2 incomplete and damaged aircraft carriers
5 battleships
9 cruisers
11 destroyers
22 frigates
19 corvettes
44 fast coastal patrol units
50 minesweepers
16 amphibious operations vessels
2 school ships
1 support ship and plane transport
various submarine units

text: On 2 June 1946, the Italian monarchy was abolished by a popular referendum. The Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia) ended and was replaced by the Italian Republic (Repubblica Italiana). The Regia Marina became the Navy of the Italian Republic (Marina Militare).

text: The peace treaty[edit]

text: On 10 February 1947, a peace treaty was signed in Paris between the Italian Republic and the victorious powers of World War II. The treaty was onerous for the Italian Navy. Apart from territorial and material losses, the following restrictions were imposed:

text:
A ban on owning, building or experimenting with atomic weapons, self-propulsion projectiles or related launchers
A ban on owning battleships, aircraft carriers, submarines and amphibious assault units.
A ban on operating military installations on the islands of Pantelleria and Pianosa; and the Pelagie Islands.
The total displacement, battleships excluded, of the future navy was not allowed to be greater than 67,500 tons, while the staff was capped at 25,000 men.

text: The treaty also ordered Italy to put the following ships at the disposals of the victorious nations United States, Soviet Union, Great Britain, France, Greece, Yugoslavia, and Albania as war compensation:

text:
3 battleships: Giulio Cesare, Italia, Vittorio Veneto;
5 cruisers: Emanuele Filiberto Duca d'Aosta, Attilio Regolo, Scipione Africano, Eugenio di Savoia and  Eritrea;
7 destroyers; 5 of the Soldati class, Augusto Riboty and Alfredo Oriani;
6 minesweepers;
8 submarines, including three of the Acciaio class;
1 sailing school ship: Cristoforo Colombo.

text: The convoy escort Ramb III ultimately became the Yugoslav Navy yacht Galeb. Galeb was used by the late President of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Marshal Josip Broz Tito on his numerous foreign trips and to entertain heads of state.

text: Ships[edit]

text: Pre–World War I[edit]

text: Battleships[edit]

text: World War I[edit]

text: Battleships[edit]

text:
Caio Duilio class:
Enrico Dandolo
Ruggiero di Lauria class:
GR104 (ex-Andrea Doria)
Re Umberto class:
Sardegna
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon class:
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon
Emanuele Filiberto
Regina Margherita class:
Regina Margherita
Benedetto Brin
Regina Elena class:
Regina Elena
Vittorio Emanuele
Napoli
Roma
Dante Alighieri
Conte di Cavour class:
Conte di Cavour
Giulio Cesare
Leonardo da Vinci
Andrea Doria class:
Andrea Doria
Caio Duilio

text: Cruisers[edit]

text:
Giuseppe Garibaldi class:
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Varese
Francesco Ferruccio
Vettor Pisani class:
Vettor Pisani
Carlo Alberto
Pisa class:
Pisa
Amalfi
Marco Polo class:
Marco Polo
San Giorgio class:
San Giorgio
San Marco
Piemonte class:
Piemonte
Regioni class:
Lombardia
Liguria
Elba
Puglia
Etruria
Umbria
Libia class:
Libia
Calabria class:
Calabria
Nino Bixio class:
Nino Bixio
Marsala
Campania class:
Campania
Basilicata

text: Destroyers[edit]

text:
Lampo class:
Ostro
Lampo
Euro
Strale
Dardo
Nembo class:
Nembo
Turbine
Espero
Borea
Aquilone
Zeffiro
Soldato class:
Granatiere
Bersagliere
Garibaldino
Corazziere
Lanciere
Artigliere
Alpino
Fuciliere
Pontiere
Ascaro
Indomito class:
Impetuoso
Impavido
Insidioso
Irrequieto
Ardito class:
Ardito
Ardente
Animoso class:
Audace
Animoso
Rosolino Pilo class:
Rosolino Pilo
Giuseppe Cesare Abba
Pilade Bronzetti
Giuseppe Missori
Antonio Mosto
Ippolito Nievo
Francesco Nullo
Simone Schiaffino

text: World War II[edit]

text: Aircraft carriers[edit]

text:
Aquila (modification of the liner Roma, built but never used)
Sparviero (modification of the liner Augustus, never completed)

text: Seaplane carriers[edit]

text: Giuseppe Miraglia (extensively converted merchant ship Città di Messina for the seaplane carrier role, commissioned as a seaplane transport by 1940)

text: Battleships[edit]

text:
Conte di Cavour class (modernised World War I battleships):
Conte di Cavour
Giulio Cesare
Andrea Doria class (modernised World War I battleships):
Andrea Doria
Caio Duilio
Littorio class:
Littorio/Italia
Vittorio Veneto
Roma
Impero (not completed)

text: Heavy cruisers[edit]

text:
Trento class:
Trento
Trieste
Bolzano
Zara class:
Zara
Fiume
Pola
Gorizia
San Giorgio class:
San Giorgio

text: Light cruisers[edit]

text:
Condottieri classes:
Giussano class:
Alberto da Giussano
Alberico da Barbiano
Bartolomeo Colleoni
Giovanni dalle Bande Nere
Cadorna class:
Luigi Cadorna
Armando Diaz
Duca d'Aosta class:
Emanuele Filiberto Duca d'Aosta
Eugenio di Savoia
Duca degli Abruzzi class:
Duca degli Abruzzi
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Montecuccoli class:
Raimondo Montecuccoli
Muzio Attendolo
Capitani Romani class:
Attilio Regolo
Giulio Germanico
Pompeo Magno
Scipione Africano
Ulpio Traiano
Taranto class:
Taranto
Bari

text: Aviation and Transport Cruisers[edit]

text: Bolzano class: Bolzano aviation & transport cruiser (as regular heavy cruiser, extensively damaged by submarine torpedoes and proposed for reconstruction to a hybrid carrier/transport design)

text: Destroyers[edit]

text:
Leone class: 3 vessels – 2283 t
Leone
Pantera
Tigre
Navigatori class: 12 vessels – 2010 t
Alvise da Mosto
Antonio da Noli
Antonio Pigafetta
Antoniotto Usodimare
Emmanuele Pessagno
Giovanni da Verazzano
Lancerotto Malocello
Leone Pancaldo
Luca Tarigo
Nicoloso da Recco
Nicolo Zeno
Ugolino Vivaldi
Oriani class or Poeti class: 4 vessels – 1950 t
Vittorio Alfieri
Giosué Carducci
Vincenzo Gioberti
Alfredo Oriani

text:
Soldati class: 12 vessels (divided into First Soldati or Camicia Nera and Second Soldati class) – 1620 t
Alpino
Artigliere
Ascari
Aviere
Bersagliere
Carabiniere
Corazziere
Fuciliere
Geniere
Granatiere
Lanciere
Maestrale class: 4 vessels – 1449 t
Grecale
Libeccio
Maestrale
Scirocco
Freccia class: 4 vessels – 1450 t
Dardo
Freccia
Saetta
Strale
Mirabello class: 2 vessels – 1383 t
Carlo Mirabello
Augusto Riboti
Folgore class: 4 vessels – 1220 t
Baleno
Folgore
Fulmine
Lampo
Turbine class: 8 vessels – 1092 t
Aquilone
Borea
Espero
Euro
Nembo
Ostro
Turbine
Zeffiro
Sauro class: 4 vessels – 1058 t
Cesare Battisti
Daniele Manin
Francesco Nullo
Nazario Sauro
Sella class: 2 vessels – 935 t
Quintino Sella
Francesco Crispi

text: Torpedo boats[edit]

text:
Spica class: 30 vessels
Airone
Alcione
Aldebaran
Altair
Andromeda
Antares
Aretusa
Ariel
Astore
Calipso
Calliope
Canopo
Cassiopea
Castore
Centauro
Cigno
Circe
Climene
Clio
Libra
Lince
Lira
Lupo
Pallade
Partenope
Perseo
Pleiadi
Polluce
Sagittario
Sirio
Spica
Vega
Rosolino Pilo class: 7 vessels
Audace class: 1 vessel
Audace
G. Sirtori class: 4 vessels
G. La Masa class: 7 vessels
Palestro class: 4 vessels
Palestro
Confienza
San Martino
Solferino
Generali class: 6 vessels
Generale Antonio Cantore
Generale Antonio Cascino
Generale Antonio Chinotto
Generale Carlo Montanari
Generale Marcello Prestinari
Generale Achille Papa
Curtatone class: 4 vessels
Calatafimi
Castelfidardo
Curtatone
Monzambano
Orsa class: 4 vessels
Pegaso
Procione
Orione
Orsa
Ciclone class: 16 vessels
Aliseo
Animoso
Ardente
Ardimentoso
Ardito
Ciclone
Fortunale
Ghibli
Groppo
Impavido
Impetouso
Indomito
Intrepido
Monsone
Tifone
Uragano
Ariete class: 16 vessels
Alabard
Ariete
Arturo
Auriga
Balestra
Daga
Dragone
Eridano
Fionda
Gladio
Lancia
Pugnale
Rigel
Spada
Spica
Stella Polare

text: Submarines[edit]

text:
Acciaio class: 13 vessels – 715 t
Acciaio
Alabastro
Argento
Asterio
Avorio
Bronzo
Cobalto
Giada
Granito
Nichelio
Platino
Porfide
Volframio (ex-Stronzio)
Adua class: 17 vessels – 698 t, coastal submarines
Alagi
Ascianghi
Axum
Dagabur
Dessiè
Sciré
Adua
Aradam
Beilul
Durbo
Gondar
Lafolè
Macallé
Neghelli
Tembien
Uarsciek
Uebi Scebeli
Argonauta class: 7 vessels – 665 t
Argonauta
Salpa
Perla class: 10 vessels – 700 t
Ambra
Berillo
Corallo
Diaspro
Gemma
Iride
Malachite
Onice
Perla
Turchese
Sirena class: 12 vessels – 701 t
Archimede class: 4 vessels – 985 t
Galileo Ferraris
Galileo Galilei
Archimede
Torricelli
Argo class: 2 vessels – 794 t
Argo
Velella
Balilla class: 4 vessels – 1450 t
Balilla
Dominico Millelire
Antonio Sciesa
Enrico Toti
Bandiera class: 4 vessels – 941 t
Fratelli Bandiera
Luciano Manara
Ciro Menotti
Santore Santarossa,
Bragadin class: 2 vessels – 981 t
Marcantonio Bragadin
Filippo Corridoni
Brin class: 5 vessels – 1016 t
Brin
Galvani
Guglielmotti
Archimede
Torricelli
Cagni class: 4 vessels – 1708 t
Ammiraglio Cagni
Ammiraglio Saint-Bon
Ammiraglio Caracciolo
Ammiraglio Millo
Calvi class: 5 vessels – 1550 t
Pietro Calvi
Giuseppe Finzi
Enrico Tazzoli
R class: 2 vessels – 2210 t
Remo
Romolo
Fieramosca class: 1 vessel – 1556 t
Ettore Fieramosca
Flutto class:
1st series: 8 vessels – 958 t
Cernia
Dentice
Flutto
Gorgo
Grongo
Marea
Murena
Nautilo
Sparide
Spigola
Tritone
Vortice
2nd series: 8 vessels – 958 t
Bario
Ferro
Litio
Piombo
Potassio
Rame
Sodio
Zinco
Foca class: 3 vessels – 1333 t
Foca
Zoea
Atropo
Glauco class: 2 vessels – 1055 t
Glauco
Otaria
Liuzzi class: 4 vessels – 1187 t
Reginaldo Giuliani
Console Generale Liuzzi
Alpino Bagnolini
Capitano Tarantini
Mameli class: 3 vessels – 830 t
Goffredo Mameli
Pier Capponi
Giovanni da Procida
Tito Speri
Marcello class: 11 vessels – 1063 t
Mocenigo
Dandolo
Veniero
Provana
Marcello
Nani
Barbarigo
Emo
Morosini
Comandante Cappellini
Comandante Faà di Bruno
Marconi class: 6 vessels – 1195 t
Maggiore Baracca
Michele Bianchi
Alessandro Malaspina
Guglielmo Marconi
Leonardo da Vinci
Luigi Torelli
Pietro Micca class: 1 vessel – 1570 t
Pietro Micca
Vettor Pisani class: 4 vessels – 880 t
Vettor Pisani
Colonna
Bausan
Des Geneys
Settembrini class: 2 vessels – 953 t
Luigi Settembrini
Ruggiero Settimo
Squalo class: 4 vessels – 933 t
Squalo
Delfino
Tricheco
Narvalo

text: Auxiliary cruisers[edit]

text:
Ramb class: 4 vessels (only 2 converted to auxiliary cruisers) – 3,667 t
Ramb I
Ramb II

text: Ranks and ratings of the Navy[edit]

text: Fleet forces[edit]

text: Enlisted ratings, non-commissioned officers and warrant officers[edit]

text:
NATO Code
OR-9
OR-8
OR-7
OR-6
OR-5
OR-4
OR-3
OR-2
OR-1

 Italy

No equivalent

No equivalent

No insignia

Capo di Prima Classe

Capo di Seconda Classe

Capo di Terza Classe

Secondo Capo

Sergente

Sottocapo

Comune di 1ª classe

Comune di 2ª classe

text: Officers[edit]

text:
EquivalentNATO code
OF-10
OF-9
OF-8
OF-7
OF-6
OF-5
OF-4
OF-3
OF-2
OF-1
OF(D) and student officer

 Italy

No equivalent

Grande ammiraglio

Ammiraglio d'armata

Ammiraglio designato d'armata

Ammiraglio di Squadra

Ammiraglio di Divisione

Contrammiraglio

Capitano di Vascello

Capitano di Fregata

Capitano di Corvetta

Primo Tenente di Vascello

Tenente di Vascello

Sottotenente di Vascello

Guardiamarina

Aspirante Guardiamarina

text: Technical services[edit]

text:
Comune di 2ª classe - Seaman apprentice
Comune di 1ª classe - Seaman
Sottocapo - Leading seaman
Sergente - Petty officer 2nd class
Secondo capo - Petty officer 1st class
Capo di terza classe - Chief petty officer 2nd class
Capo di seconda classe -  Chief petty officer 1st class
Capo di prima classe - Warrant officer

text: Officers[edit]

text:
Aspirante – Aspirant
Sottotenente (Sublieutenant) – Second Lieutenant
Tenente – Lieutenant
Primo Tenente – First Lieutenant
Capitano – Captain
Primo Capitano – First Captain
Maggiore – Major
Tenente Colonello – Lieutenant Colonel
Colonello – Colonel
Colonello Comandante – Colonel commandant
Maggiore Generale – Major General
Tenente Generale – Lieutenant general
Generale ispettore – General

text: Photos[edit]

text:
Cruiser Raimondo Montecuccoli in Venice in 1941

Original Maiale (manned torpedo) on display

Major Teseo Tesei, inventor of the Maiale, ready to ride one in Malta.

Italian submarine Adua, sunk on September 1941 near Gibraltar.

The destroyer Sella, one of the major Italian navy units in the Aegean Sea

Auxiliary ship Olterra, outfitted as a secret base for manned torpedoes at Algeciras

Light cruiser Eugenio di Savoia, Admiral Da Zara's flagship during the battle of Mid-June (1942)


document_title: Father's Day (United States)

question_text: in the united states who is considered the founder of father’s day

question_tokens: in the united states who is considered the founder of father 's day

root

text: Father's Day (United States)

text: History[edit]

text: Father's Day was inaugurated in the United States in the early 20th century to complement Mother's Day in celebrating fathers, fathering, and fatherhood.

tag: p

text: Father's Day was founded in Spokane, Washington at the YMCA in 1910 by Sonora Smart Dodd, who was born in Arkansas.[4] Its first celebration was in the Spokane YMCA on June 19, 1910.[4][5] Her father, the Civil War veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there.[4] After hearing a sermon about Jarvis' Mother's Day at Central Methodist Episcopal Church in 1909, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday honoring them.[4][6] Although she initially suggested June 5, her father's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday of June.[7][8]

text: It did not have much success initially. In the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying in the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane.[9] In the 1930s Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again, raising awareness at a national level.[10] She had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present to fathers.[11] Since 1938 she had the help of the Father's Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Men's Wear Retailers to consolidate and systematize the commercial promotion.[12] Americans resisted the holiday during a few decades, perceiving it as just an attempt by merchants to replicate the commercial success of Mother's Day, and newspapers frequently featured cynical and sarcastic attacks and jokes.[13] But the trade groups did not give up: they kept promoting it and even incorporated the jokes into their adverts, and they eventually succeeded.[14] By the mid-1980s the Father's Council wrote that "(...) [Father's Day] has become a Second Christmas for all the men's gift-oriented industries."[15]

text: A bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913.[16] In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson went to Spokane to speak in a Father's Day celebration[17] and wanted to make it official, but Congress resisted, fearing that it would become commercialized.[18] US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed by the nation, but stopped short of issuing a national proclamation.[17] Two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress.[17][19] In 1957, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith wrote a proposal accusing Congress of ignoring fathers for 40 years while honoring mothers, thus "[singling] out just one of our two parents".[19] In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the first presidential proclamation honoring fathers, designating the third Sunday in June as Father's Day.[18] Six years later, the day was made a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.[3][17][18][19]

text: In addition to Father's Day, International Men's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 for men and boys who are not fathers.

text: A "Father's Day" service was held on July 5, 1908, in Fairmont, West Virginia, in the Williams Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church South, now known as Central United Methodist Church.[7] Grace Golden Clayton was mourning the loss of her father when, on December 1907, the Monongah Mining Disaster in nearby Monongah killed 361 men, 250 of them fathers, leaving around a thousand fatherless children. Clayton suggested her pastor Robert Thomas Webb to honor all those fathers.[20][21][22] Clayton chose the Sunday nearest to the birthday of her father, Methodist minister Fletcher Golden.

text: Clayton's event did not have repercussions outside of Fairmont for several reasons, among them: the city was overwhelmed by other events, the celebration was never promoted outside of the town itself and no proclamation was made in the City Council. Also two events overshadowed this event: the celebration of Independence Day July 4, 1908, with 12,000 attendants and several shows including a hot air balloon event, which took over the headlines in the following days, and the death of a 16-year-old girl on July 4. The local church and Council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced in press and it was lost. Finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event or even talked to other persons about it.[20][21][22]

text: Clayton also may have been inspired by Anna Jarvis' crusade to establish Mother's Day; two months prior, Jarvis had held a celebration for her dead mother in Grafton, West Virginia, a town about 15 miles (24 km) away from Fairmont.[citation needed]

text: In 1911, Jane Addams proposed a citywide Father's Day in Chicago, but she was turned down.[8]

text: In 1912, there was a Father's Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J. J. Berringer of the Irvingtom Methodist Church. They believed mistakenly that they had been the first to celebrate such a day.[7] They followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian.[8]

text: Harry C. Meek, member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first the idea for Father's Day in 1915.[7][8] Meek claimed that the third Sunday of June was chosen because it was his birthday (it would have been more natural to choose his father's birthday).[8] The Lions Club has named him "Originator of Father's Day".[7] Meek made many efforts to promote Father's Day and make it an official holiday.[7][8]

text: The U.S. Open golf tournament is scheduled to finish on Father's Day, as was the 2016 NBA Finals. The FireKeepers Casino 400 NASCAR auto race at Michigan International Speedway is sometimes held on Father's Day.

text: Spelling[edit]

text: In the United States, Dodd used the "Fathers' Day" spelling on her original petition for the holiday,[4] but the spelling "Father's Day" was already used in 1913 when a bill was introduced to the U.S. Congress as the first attempt to establish the holiday,[16] and it was still spelled the same way when its creator was commended in 2008 by the U.S. Congress.[23]

text: Dates[edit]

text:
Year

Father's Day

1910
1938
1966
1994
2022
2050
2078
June 19

1911
1939
1967
1995
2023
2051
2079
June 18

1912
1940
1968
1996
2024
2052
2080
June 16

1913
1941
1969
1997
2025
2053
2081
June 15

1914
1942
1970
1998
2026
2054
2082
June 21

1915
1943
1971
1999
2027
2055
2083
June 20

1916
1944
1972
2000
2028
2056
2084
June 18

1917
1945
1973
2001
2029
2057
2085
June 17

1918
1946
1974
2002
2030
2058
2086
June 16

1919
1947
1975
2003
2031
2059
2087
June 15

1920
1948
1976
2004
2032
2060
2088
June 20

1921
1949
1977
2005
2033
2061
2089
June 19

1922
1950
1978
2006
2034
2062
2090
June 18

1923
1951
1979
2007
2035
2063
2091
June 17

1924
1952
1980
2008
2036
2064
2092
June 15

1925
1953
1981
2009
2037
2065
2093
June 21

1926
1954
1982
2010
2038
2066
2094
June 20

1927
1955
1983
2011
2039
2067
2095
June 19

1928
1956
1984
2012
2040
2068
2096
June 17

1929
1957
1985
2013
2041
2069
2097
June 16

1930
1958
1986
2014
2042
2070
2098
June 15

1931
1959
1987
2015
2043
2071
2099
June 21

1932
1960
1988
2016
2044
2072

June 19

1933
1961
1989
2017
2045
2073

June 18

1934
1962
1990
2018
2046
2074

June 17

1935
1963
1991
2019
2047
2075

June 16

1936
1964
1992
2020
2048
2076

June 21

1937
1965
1993
2021
2049
2077

June 20

tag: table


document_title: 2017 Tour de France

question_text: longest stage in the tour de france 2017

text: 2017 Tour de France

text: Teams[edit]

text: The 2017 edition of the Tour de France consisted of 22 teams.[1] All eighteen UCI WorldTeams were entitled, and obliged, to enter the race.[2] On 26 January 2017, the organiser of the Tour, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), announced the four second-tier UCI Professional Continental teams given wildcard invitations, of which three were French-based (Cofidis, Direct Énergie and Fortuneo–Oscaro) and one was Belgian (Wanty–Groupe Gobert, which participated in the race for the first time).[3] Fortuneo–Oscaro were initially invited to the race as Fortuneo–Vital Concept,[4] before a change of sponsorship prior to the opening day of racing.[5] The presentation of the teams – where the members of each team's roster are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries – took place in front of a crowd of 15,000 at the Burgplatz (de) square in Düsseldorf, Germany, on 29 June, two days before the opening stage held in the city.[6]

text: Each squad was allowed a maximum of nine riders, resulting in a start list total of 198 riders.[7] Of these, 49 were competing in their first Tour de France.[8] The total number of riders that finished the race was 167.[9] The riders came from 32 countries. Six countries had more than 10 riders in the race: France (39), Italy (18), Belgium (16), Germany (16), the Netherlands (15), and Spain (13).[7] The average age of riders in the race was 29.4 years,[10] ranging from the 22-year-old Élie Gesbert (Fortuneo–Oscaro) to the 40-year-old Haimar Zubeldia (Trek–Segafredo).[11][12] Cannondale–Drapac had the youngest average age while Team Dimension Data had the oldest.[13]

text: UCI WorldTeams

text:
AG2R La Mondiale
Astana
Bahrain–Merida
BMC Racing Team
Bora–Hansgrohe
Cannondale–Drapac
Team Dimension Data
FDJ
Team Katusha–Alpecin
LottoNL–Jumbo
Lotto–Soudal
Movistar Team
Orica–Scott
Quick-Step Floors
Team Sky
Team Sunweb
Trek–Segafredo
UAE Team Emirates

tag: ul

text: UCI Professional Continental teams

text:
Cofidis
Direct Énergie
Fortuneo–Oscaro
Wanty–Groupe Gobert

text: Pre-race favourites[edit]

text: In the lead up to the 2017 Tour de France, Chris Froome (Team Sky) was seen by many as the top pre-race favourite for the general classification.[14][15][16][17][18] His closest rivals were thought to be Richie Porte (BMC Racing Team), Nairo Quintana (Movistar Team), Alberto Contador (Trek–Segafredo), Romain Bardet (AG2R La Mondiale) and Fabio Aru (Astana).[16][17][18][19][20][21][22] The other riders considered contenders for the general classification were Alejandro Valverde (Movistar Team), Jakob Fuglsang (Astana), Thibaut Pinot (FDJ), Esteban Chaves (Orica–Scott), Geraint Thomas (Team Sky), Dan Martin (Quick-Step Floors), Simon Yates (Orica–Scott), and Louis Meintjes (UAE Team Emirates).[17][20][21][22]

text: Froome, who won the 2013, 2015 and 2016 editions of the Tour, had not won a race in the 2017 season prior to the Tour's start. His best result was fourth overall at the Critérium du Dauphiné, a race considered to be the warm-up for the Tour and one he has won before his three previous Tour victories. Despite this, he was thought to have one of the strongest teams in the race that would ride in total support of him.[16][18] The 32-year-old Porte, who placed fifth in the 2016 Tour, won the general classification in two stage races so far in 2017, the Tour Down Under and the Tour de Romandie, and came second in the Dauphiné.[18] Quintana, third in the 2016 Tour, placed second at the Giro d'Italia, with overalls wins at the Tirreno–Adriatico and the Volta a la Comunitat Valenciana earlier in the season.[21] The two-time winner (2007 and 2009) 34-year-old Contador came second overall in four stage races in 2017 before the Tour, Paris–Nice, the Vuelta a Andalucía, the Volta a Catalunya and the Tour of the Basque Country.[21] Bardet, the 2017 Tour runner-up, placed sixth overall in the Dauphiné, with his best other result sixth in the one-day Classic race Liège–Bastogne–Liège.[18] Aru started the Tour sharing team leadership with the Dauphiné winner Fuglsang. Aru won the Italian National Road Race Championships a week before the Tour and placed fifth at the Dauphiné.[21]

text: The sprinters considered favourites for the points classification and wins on the flat or hilly bunch sprint finishes were Peter Sagan (Bora–Hansgrohe), Marcel Kittel (Quick-Step Floors), Mark Cavendish (Team Dimension Data), André Greipel (Lotto–Soudal), and Alexander Kristoff (Team Katusha–Alpecin). Others expected to contend for sprint finishes included Michael Matthews (Team Sunweb), Arnaud Démare (FDJ), Dylan Groenewegen (LottoNL–Jumbo), John Degenkolb (Trek–Segafredo), Sonny Colbrelli (UAE Team Emirates) and Nacer Bouhanni (Cofidis).[19][23][24][25][26][27] Double reigning world road race champion Sagan had won the five previous points classifications of the Tour, one away from matching Erik Zabel's record of six from 1996 to 2001.[19][28] His form in the 2017 season before the Tour included winning the one-day race Kuurne–Brussels–Kuurne and the points classifications in Tirreno–Adriatico, the Tour de Suisse and the Tour of California.[29] Kittel had gained eight wins so far in 2017, as well as the general and points classifications in the Dubai Tour at the start of the season.[30] Cavendish's season before the Tour was affected by glandular fever, missing around three months;[19] his only success had been a stage win and the points classification at the Abu Dhabi Tour.[31] Greipel had amassed four wins in 2017 before the Tour, including one at the Giro.[26] Kristoff had taken six wins so far in 2017, and the points classifications at the Tour of Oman, the Étoile de Bessèges and the Three Days of De Panne.[32]

text: Route and stages[edit]

text: The start of the 2017 Tour de France (known as the Grand Départ) was originally scheduled to be in London, United Kingdom; this would have been the third time the Tour had visited London, following the 2007 and 2014 editions. In September 2015, a week before this was due to be announced, Transport for London pulled out of the bid.[33] It was later revealed that this was the decision of the then Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, on the grounds of cost: hosting the Grand Depart would have cost £35 million.[34] In December 2015, the ASO announced that the Grand Départ would take place with stages based in Düsseldorf; the fourth time the Tour has begun in Germany and the first since 1987. The bid to host the Tour was only narrowly approved by the city council. The return to Germany followed a resurgence in German professional cycling.[35] On 14 January 2016, details of the opening two stages were announced. The first stage would be a 13-kilometre (8.1 mi) individual time trial in Düsseldorf itself. The second stage would also begin in Düsseldorf.[36] The full route was announced by race director Christian Prudhomme on 18 October 2016 at the Palais des Congrès in Paris.[37]

text: After the first time trial, the race left Germany during stage two, which finished in the Belgian city of Liège.[38] Stage three headed south, and after a brief passage through Luxembourg, ended with a climb in Longwy.[39] After a transitional stage, stage five saw the first major climb, the finish at La Planche des Belles Filles.[38] The next two stages headed south-west,[38] before stage eight in the Jura Mountains, featured three categorised climbs.[40] The ninth stage included the steep climbs of the Col de la Biche (fr), the Col du Grand Colombier, and, after a 42-year absence, the Signal du Mont du Chat, its summit 25 km (15.5 mi) from the finish in Chambéry.[41][42] After a transfer during the rest day, stage ten took place in the Dordogne region, between Périgueux and Bergerac. Stage eleven was a transitional stage, followed by two stages in the Pyrenees. Stage twelve started from Pau and ended at the Peyragudes ski resort.[38] The next stage was short, at 110 km (68 mi), but included three climbs before a descent finish into Foix.[43] After leaving the Pyrenees, the riders headed north-east; stage fourteen finished with a climb towards the end of the stage.[44] Stage fifteen featured the first appearance of the Col de Peyra Taillade, with its conclusion in Le Puy-en-Velay.[45] Stage sixteen, the first after the final rest day, was a transitional stage, heading east, towards the Alps.[38] Stage seventeen included the Col d'Ornon, the Col de la Croix de Fer, the Col du Télégraphe and the highest point of elevation in the race, the Col du Galibier, before a descent finish into Serre Chevalier.[46] Stage eighteen was the final day of mountains; it had two climbs, the Col de Vars and the finishing climb, the Col d'Izoard.[47] It was the first time the Tour finished on the 2,360 m (7,743 ft)-high mountain pass.[48] After another transitional stage, heading south, came stage twenty, a 23 km (14.3 mi) individual time trial in Marseille.[38] Starting at the Stade Vélodrome, the course headed around the city, designated 2017 European Capital of Sport, before ending also at the Stade Vélodrome.[49] The final stage started in Montgeron, which hosted the start of the first Tour, before concluding with the traditional laps of the Champs-Élysées.[37][38]

text: There were 21 stages in the race, covering a total distance of 3,540 km (2,200 mi), 13 km (8.1 mi) shorter than the 2016 Tour.[38][50] There were two time trial events, both of which were individual, a total of 36 km (22.4 mi).[38] Of the remaining nineteen stages, eight were officially classified as flat, six as medium mountain and five as high mountain.[51][38] The longest mass-start stage was stage 19, at 222.5 km (138 mi), and the shortest was stage 13, at 101 km (63 mi).[38] For the first time since the 1992 edition, the route included all five of mainland France's mountainous regions; the Vosges, the Jura, the Pyrenees, the Massif Central and the Alps.[52][53] There were summit finishes on stage 12 to Peyragudes and stage 18 to the Col d'Izoard. Additionally, the hilly stage 3 had a hilltop finish in Longwy, and stage 5 ended at La Planche des Belles Filles.[54] The highest point of the race was the 2,642 m (8,668 ft)-high Col du Galibier mountain pass on stage seventeen.[55] It was among seven hors catégorie (English: "out of category") rated climbs in the race.[54] There was ten new start or finish locations. The rest days were after stage 9, in the Dordogne, and 15, in Le Puy-en-Velay.[38]

text:
Stage characteristics and winners[56][38]

Stage
Date
Course
Distance
Type
Winner

1
1 July
Düsseldorf (Germany)
14 km (9 mi)

Individual time trial
 Geraint Thomas (GBR)

2
2 July
Düsseldorf (Germany) to Liège (Belgium)
203.5 km (126 mi)

Flat stage
 Marcel Kittel (GER)

3
3 July
Verviers (Belgium) to Longwy
212.5 km (132 mi)

Medium mountain stage
 Peter Sagan (SVK)

4
4 July
Mondorf-les-Bains (Luxembourg) to Vittel
207.5 km (129 mi)

Flat stage
 Arnaud Démare (FRA)

5
5 July
Vittel to La Planche des Belles Filles
160.5 km (100 mi)

Medium mountain stage
 Fabio Aru (ITA)

6
6 July
Vesoul to Troyes
216 km (134 mi)

Flat stage
 Marcel Kittel (GER)

7
7 July
Troyes to Nuits-Saint-Georges
213.5 km (133 mi)

Flat stage
 Marcel Kittel (GER)

8
8 July
Dole to Station des Rousses
187.5 km (117 mi)

Medium mountain stage
 Lilian Calmejane (FRA)

9
9 July
Nantua to Chambéry
181.5 km (113 mi)

High mountain stage
 Rigoberto Urán (COL)

10 July
Dordogne

Rest day

10
11 July
Périgueux to Bergerac
178 km (111 mi)

Flat stage
 Marcel Kittel (GER)

11
12 July
Eymet to Pau
203.5 km (126 mi)

Flat stage
 Marcel Kittel (GER)

12
13 July
Pau to Peyragudes
214.5 km (133 mi)

High mountain stage
 Romain Bardet (FRA)

13
14 July
Saint-Girons to Foix
101 km (63 mi)

High mountain stage
 Warren Barguil (FRA)

14
15 July
Blagnac to Rodez
181.5 km (113 mi)

Medium mountain stage
 Michael Matthews (AUS)

15
16 July
Laissac-Sévérac-l'Église to Le Puy-en-Velay
189.5 km (118 mi)

Medium mountain stage
 Bauke Mollema (NED)

17 July
Le Puy-en-Velay

Rest day

16
18 July
Le Puy-en-Velay to Romans-sur-Isère
165 km (103 mi)

Medium mountain stage
 Michael Matthews (AUS)

17
19 July
La Mure to Serre Chevalier
183 km (114 mi)

High mountain stage
 Primož Roglič (SLO)

18
20 July
Briançon to Col d'Izoard
179.5 km (112 mi)

High mountain stage
 Warren Barguil (FRA)

19
21 July
Embrun to Salon-de-Provence
222.5 km (138 mi)

Flat stage
 Edvald Boasson Hagen (NOR)

20
22 July
Marseille
22.5 km (14 mi)

Individual time trial
 Maciej Bodnar (POL)

21
23 July
Montgeron to Paris (Champs-Élysées)
103 km (64 mi)

Flat stage
 Dylan Groenewegen (NED)

Total
3,540 km (2,200 mi)

text: Race overview[edit]

text: The opening stage's individual time trial was won by Geraint Thomas with a time of 16 min 4 s over the 14 km (8.7 mi) course. Thomas took the yellow and green jerseys as the leader of the general and points classifications respectively. Chris Froome was the highest placed of the general classification favourites, in sixth place, sixteen seconds down.[58] Overall contender Alejandro Valverde crashed on the wet roads and his injuries forced him to withdraw from the Tour.[59] Marcel Kittel won stage two's bunch sprint, and with it the green jersey. Breakaway rider Taylor Phinney (Cannondale–Drapac) took the first polka dot jersey as the leader of the mountains classification.[60] The uphill sprint finish of stage three was won by Peter Sagan; Nathan Brown (Cannondale–Drapac) took over the polka dot jersey.[61] The fourth stage ended with a bunch sprint and was won by Démare, with him also taking the green jersey.[62] There were two crashes leading up to the finish, the first was in the peloton around 1 km (0.6 mi) to go and the second involved the sprinters at the end. In the sprint finish, Mark Cavendish crashed into the barriers at the side of the road, withdrawing later that day from the race from his injuries. Sagan, second in the stage, was disqualified after race officials judged that he caused Cavendish to crash, with the jury president Philippe Marien saying that he "endangered some of his colleagues seriously".[63][64]

text: In the fifth stage, a group containing the overall contenders caught the last of the breakaway riders 5 km (3.1 mi) from the summit finish at La Planche des Belles Filles. With 2.4 km (1.5 mi) remaining, Fabio Aru attacked and won with a margin of sixteen seconds over the group. Thomas lost twenty seconds on the group and lost the yellow jersey to teammate Froome. Aru took over the lead of the mountains classification.[65] Kittel won the following two stages which ended in bunch sprints.[66][67] The latter stage was decided by a photo finish, with Kittel 6 mm ahead of Edvald Boasson Hagen (Team Dimension Data); Kittel regained the green jersey.[67] In stage eight, the first high mountain stage, Lilian Calmejane of Direct Énergie attacked over the category 1 climb of Montée de la Combe de Laisia Les Molunes from a six-strong lead breakaway and soloed for 11.5 km (7.1 mi) to take the win 37 seconds ahead of second placed and lone chaser Robert Gesink (LottoNL–Jumbo). Calmejane put himself into the polka dot jersey.[68] The ninth stage saw a select group of general classification favourites join Warren Barguil (Team Sunweb) after the final of the Mont du Chat and contest a sprint finish, won by Rigoberto Urán (Cannondale–Drapac). Barguil took lead of the mountains classification.[69] Richie Porte crashed descending the Mont du Chat whilst in the group of overall contenders and withdrew from the race.[70] The following day was the Tour's first rest rest day.[38]

text: Stages ten and eleven were won from bunch sprints by Kittel, taking his total of wins at the race to five.[71] The twelfth stage saw the overall contenders all reach the foot of the short steep climb to Peyragudes; Romain Bardet won by a margin of two seconds. Froome came seventh, 22 seconds down, and lost the overall lead to third-placed Aru.[72] The 101 km (62.8 mi)-long stage thirteen was won by Barguil, who won the sprint after a descent from an elite group with Nairo Quintana, Alberto Contador and Mikel Landa (Team Sky). The chasing group of overall contenders came in 1 min 39 s down.[73] In the fourteenth stage, a reduced peloton contested the uphill sprint finish at Rodez, which was won Matthews. Aru's advantage of six seconds over Froome was changed to a deficit of eighteen, after Aru came in thirty seconds down in thirtieth place and Froome was seventh, one second behind the Matthews.[74]

text: Stage fifteen saw Trek–Segafredo's Bauke Mollema attack a breakaway group over the top of the Col de Peyra Taillade with 31 km (19.3 mi) to go and solo to victory. In the large group containing the overall contenders, Bardet's team AG2R La Mondiale forced a high pace on the Peyra Taillade. A further 6 km (3.7 mi) later on the climb, Froome suffered a broken spoke, and, after receiving a new wheel from a teammate and some assistance from three other teammates, he was able to chase back up to the group.[75][76] The next day was the second rest day of the race.[38] In the sixteenth stage, the high pace set by Matthews's Team Sunweb dropped the green jersey wearer Kittel; Matthews, who was second to Kittel in points classification, won the stage.[77] Primož Roglič (LottoNL–Jumbo), second behind Barguil in the mountains classification, won the following mountainous stage after a solo attack on the Col du Galibier, finishing in Serre Chevalier after a descent over a minute ahead of a four-man group containing the new top overall top three in the general classification Froome, Urán and Bardet, respectively, and also Barguil. Aru dropped from second overall to fourth. Kittel crashed and withdrew from the Tour, putting Matthews in the green jersey.[78]

text: The final high mountain stage of the Tour, the eighteenth, saw Barguil claim his second victory of the race on the summit finish at Col d'Izoard; he was initially caught by the group of overall favourites on the final climb after being the one of last survivors from the breakaway, with only Darwin Atapuma (UAE Team Emirates) ahead. Barguil's winning move came with 3 km (1.9 mi) remaining, passing Atapuma to win by twenty seconds. A three-way sprint for fourth place saw Bardet finish just ahead of Froome with Urán placing fifth; Bardet moved up to second overall, six seconds ahead of Urán, with Froome holding a 23 second advantage.[79] Boasson Hagen won stage nineteen with an attack from a reduced breakaway with 2.5 km (1.6 mi) to go.[80] Maciej Bodnar of Bora–Hansgrohe won the 22.5 km (14.0 mi) individual time trial of the penultimate stage, setting a time of 28 min 15 s. Froome was third, six seconds down, increasing his lead in the general classification to 54 seconds. Bardet dropped to third overall after he lost over two minutes in the stage, and Urán was 31 seconds in arrears.[81]

text: The final stage in Paris was won by Dylan Groenewegen in a bunch sprint on the Champs-Élysées. Froome finished the race to win his fourth Tour de France.[82] Urán placed second overall, 54 seconds down, with Bardet 2 min 20 s behind, just one second ahead of Landa (fourth overall). Matthews won the points classification with a total of 370, 136 ahead of André Greipel in second. Barguil won the mountains classification with 169 points, 89 ahead of second-placed Roglič. The best young rider was seventh-placed overall Simon Yates, who was followed by Louis Meintjes (eighth overall) in second, 2 min 6 s down. An Orica–Scott rider won the classification for the second consecutive year, after Yates' twin brother Adam won in 2016. Team Sky finished as the winners of the team classification, 7 min 14 s ahead of second-placed AG2R La Mondiale.[9]

text: Classification leadership[edit]

text: There were four main individual classifications being contested in the 2017 Tour de France, as well as a team competition. The most important was the general classification, which was calculated by adding each rider's finishing times on each stage.[83] Time bonuses were awarded at the end of every stage apart from the two individual time trials. The first three riders get 10, 6, and 4 seconds, respectively.[84] For crashes within the final 3 km (1.9 mi) of a stage, not including time trials and summit finishes, any rider involved received the same time as the group they were in when the crash occurred.[85] The rider with the lowest cumulative time was the winner of the general classification and was considered to be the overall winner of the Tour.[83] The rider leading the classification wore a yellow jersey.[86]

text:
Points classification points for the top 15 positions by type[83]

Type
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Flat stage
50
30
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

Medium mountain stage
30
25
22
19
17
15
13
11
9

High mountain stage
20
17
15
13
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Individual time trial

Intermediate sprint

text: The second classification was the points classification. Riders received points for finishing among the highest placed in a stage finish, or in intermediate sprints during the stage. The points available for each stage finish were determined by the stage's type.[83] The leader was identified by a green jersey.[86]

text: The third classification was the mountains classification. Points were awarded to the riders that reached the summit of the most difficult climbs first. The climbs were categorized, in order of increasing difficulty, as fourth-, third-, second-, and first-category and hors catégorie.[83] Double points were awarded on the summit finish of the Col d'Izoard on stage 18.[83] The leader wore a white jersey with red polka dots.[86]

text: The final individual classification was the young rider classification. This was calculated the same way as the general classification, but the classification was restricted to riders who were born on or after 1 January 1992.[84] The leader wore a white jersey.[86]

text: The final classification was a team classification. This was calculated using the finishing times of the best three riders per team on each stage; the leading team was the team with the lowest cumulative time. The number of stage victories and placings per team determined the outcome of a tie.[84] The riders in the team that led this classification were identified with yellow number bibs on the back of their jerseys and yellow helmets.[86]

text: In addition, there was a combativity award given after each stage to the rider considered, by a jury, to have "made the greatest effort and who demonstrated the best qualities of sportsmanship".[84] No combativity awards were given for the time trials and the final stage.[87] The winner wore a red number bib the following stage.[84] At the conclusion of the Tour, Warren Barguil won the overall super-combativity award,[9] again, decided by a jury.[84]

text: A total of €2,280,950 was awarded in cash prizes in the race.[87] The overall winner of the general classification received €500,000, with the second and third placed riders getting €200,000 and €100,000 respectively.[88] All finishers in the top 160 were awarded with money.[88] The holders of the classifications benefited on each stage they led; the final winners of the points and mountains were given €25,000, while the best young rider and most combative rider got €20,000.[89] The team classification winners were given €50,000.[90] €11,000 was given to the winners of each stage of the race, with smaller amounts given to places 2–20.[88] There was also a special award with a prize of €5,000, the Souvenir Henri Desgrange, given to first rider (Primož Roglič) to pass the summit of the highest climb in the Tour, the Col du Galibier on stage seventeen.[87][78]

text:
Classification leadership by stage

Stage
Winner
General classification

Points classification

Mountains classification

Young rider classification

Team classification

Combativity award

1
Geraint Thomas
Geraint Thomas
Geraint Thomas[a]
no award
Stefan Küng[a]
Team Sky
no award

2
Marcel Kittel
Marcel Kittel
Taylor Phinney
Yoann Offredo

3
Peter Sagan
Nathan Brown
Pierre Latour
Lilian Calmejane

4
Arnaud Démare
Arnaud Démare
Guillaume Van Keirsbulck

5
Fabio Aru
Chris Froome
Fabio Aru
Simon Yates
Philippe Gilbert

6
Marcel Kittel
Vegard Stake Laengen

7
Marcel Kittel
Marcel Kittel
Dylan van Baarle

8
Lilian Calmejane
Lilian Calmejane
Lilian Calmejane

9
Rigoberto Urán
Warren Barguil
Warren Barguil

10
Marcel Kittel
Élie Gesbert

11
Marcel Kittel
Maciej Bodnar

12
Romain Bardet
Fabio Aru
Steve Cummings

13
Warren Barguil
Alberto Contador

14
Michael Matthews
Chris Froome
Thomas De Gendt

15
Bauke Mollema
Bauke Mollema

16
Michael Matthews
Sylvain Chavanel

17
Primož Roglič
Michael Matthews
Alberto Contador

18
Warren Barguil
Darwin Atapuma

19
Edvald Boasson Hagen
Jens Keukeleire

20
Maciej Bodnar
no award

21
Dylan Groenewegen

Final
Chris Froome
Michael Matthews
Warren Barguil
Simon Yates
Team Sky
Warren Barguil

text: Final standings[edit]

text:
Legend

Denotes the winner of the general classification[86]

Denotes the winner of the mountains classification[86]

Denotes the winner of the points classification[86]

Denotes the winner of the young rider classification[86]

Denotes the winner of the team classification[86]

Denotes the winner of the combativity award[86]

text: General classification[edit]

text:
Final general classification (1–10)[9]

Rank
Rider
Team
Time

1
 Chris Froome (GBR)
Team Sky
86h 20' 55"

2
 Rigoberto Urán (COL)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 54"

3
 Romain Bardet (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2' 20"

4
 Mikel Landa (ESP)
Team Sky
+ 2' 21"

5
 Fabio Aru (ITA)
Astana
+ 3' 05"

6
 Dan Martin (IRL)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 4' 42"

7
 Simon Yates (GBR)
Orica–Scott
+ 6' 14"

8
 Louis Meintjes (RSA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 8' 20"

9
 Alberto Contador (ESP)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 8' 49"

10
 Warren Barguil (FRA)
Team Sunweb
+ 9' 25"

text:
[show]Final general classification (11–167)[9]

Rank
Rider
Team
Time

11
 Damiano Caruso (ITA)
BMC Racing Team
+ 14' 48"

12
 Nairo Quintana (COL)
Movistar Team
+ 15' 28"

13
 Alexis Vuillermoz (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 24' 38"

14
 Mikel Nieve (ESP)
Team Sky
+ 25' 28"

15
 Emanuel Buchmann (GER)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 33' 21"

16
 Brice Feillu (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 36' 46"

17
 Bauke Mollema (NED)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 37' 43"

18
 Carlos Betancur (COL)
Movistar Team
+ 37' 47"

19
 Serge Pauwels (BEL)
Team Dimension Data
+ 39' 36"

20
 Tiesj Benoot (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 42' 04"

21
 Tony Gallopin (FRA)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 42' 39"

22
 Jan Bakelants (BEL)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 50' 04"

23
 Guillaume Martin (FRA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 53' 52"

24
 Roman Kreuziger (CZE)
Orica–Scott
+ 59' 58"

25
 Sylvain Chavanel (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 1h 04' 22"

26
 Romain Hardy (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 1h 12' 51"

27
 Daniel Navarro (ESP)
Cofidis
+ 1h 15' 26"

28
 Sergio Henao (COL)
Team Sky
+ 1h 16' 32"

29
 Pierre Latour (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 1h 18' 45"

30
 Mathias Frank (SUI)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 1h 21' 16"

31
 Robert Kišerlovski (CRO)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 1h 25' 25"

32
 Amaël Moinard (FRA)
BMC Racing Team
+ 1h 32' 02"

33
 Nicolas Roche (IRL)
BMC Racing Team
+ 1h 32' 35"

34
 Thomas Degand (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 1h 34' 02"

35
 Lilian Calmejane (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 1h 35' 16"

36
 Rudy Molard (FRA)
FDJ
+ 1h 35' 55"

37
 Ben Gastauer (LUX)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 1h 38' 33"

38
 Primož Roglič (SLO)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 1h 44' 41"

39
 Diego Ulissi (ITA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 1h 45' 23"

40
 Marco Minnaard (NED)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 1h 48' 11"

41
 Darwin Atapuma (COL)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 1h 50' 31"

42
 Pierre-Luc Périchon (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 1h 57' 29"

43
 Nathan Brown (USA)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 1h 57' 52"

44
 Andrey Zeits (KAZ)
Astana
+ 1h 59' 09"

45
 Janez Brajkovič (SLO)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 2h 00' 38"

46
 Jarlinson Pantano (COL)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 2h 01' 30"

47
 Daryl Impey (RSA)
Orica–Scott
+ 2h 01' 59"

48
 Cyril Gautier (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2h 03' 24"

49
 Andrew Talansky (USA)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 03' 27"

50
 Kristijan Đurasek (CRO)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 2h 04' 53"

51
 Thomas De Gendt (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 2h 05' 36"

52
 Haimar Zubeldia (ESP)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 2h 06' 30"

53
 Gianluca Brambilla (ITA)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 2h 06' 57"

54
 Pierre Rolland (FRA)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 11' 54"

55
 Maxime Bouet (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 2h 13' 23"

56
 Luis Ángel Maté (ESP)
Cofidis
+ 2h 15' 28"

57
 Michał Kwiatkowski (POL)
Team Sky
+ 2h 17' 48"

58
 Greg Van Avermaet (BEL)
BMC Racing Team
+ 2h 19' 14"

59
 Jens Keukeleire (BEL)
Orica–Scott
+ 2h 22' 26"

60
 Jonathan Castroviejo (ESP)
Movistar Team
+ 2h 22' 44"

61
 Michael Valgren (DEN)
Astana
+ 2h 25' 36"

62
 Esteban Chaves (COL)
Orica–Scott
+ 2h 27' 34"

63
 Oliver Naesen (BEL)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2h 28' 02"

64
 Simon Geschke (GER)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 28' 57"

65
 Eduardo Sepúlveda (ARG)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 2h 31' 05"

66
 Romain Sicard (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 2h 33' 24"

67
 Laurens ten Dam (NED)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 34' 56"

68
 Axel Domont (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 2h 35' 33"

69
 Michael Matthews (AUS)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 36' 36"

70
 Koen de Kort (NED)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 2h 38' 33"

71
 Alexey Lutsenko (KAZ)
Astana
+ 2h 39' 10"

72
 Michael Schär (SUI)
BMC Racing Team
+ 2h 41' 54"

73
 Tsgabu Grmay (ETH)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 2h 42' 15"

74
 Tiago Machado (POR)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 2h 43' 36"

75
 Maurits Lammertink (NED)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 2h 44' 01"

76
 Nicolas Edet (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 2h 45' 11"

77
 Dylan van Baarle (NED)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 47' 11"

78
 Edvald Boasson Hagen (NOR)
Team Dimension Data
+ 2h 48' 12"

79
 Stefan Küng (SUI)
BMC Racing Team
+ 2h 49' 17"

80
 Paweł Poljański (POL)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 2h 53' 42"

81
 Danilo Wyss (SUI)
BMC Racing Team
+ 2h 53' 51"

82
 Paul Martens (GER)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 2h 54' 14"

83
 Ben Swift (GBR)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 2h 54' 48"

84
 Nikias Arndt (GER)
Team Sunweb
+ 2h 54' 54"

85
 Élie Gesbert (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 2h 55' 13"

86
 Simon Clarke (AUS)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 55' 27"

87
 Andrey Amador (CRC)
Movistar Team
+ 2h 56' 43"

88
 Damien Howson (AUS)
Orica–Scott
+ 2h 56' 57"

89
 Angelo Tulik (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 2h 57' 05"

90
 Alberto Bettiol (ITA)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 57' 56"

91
 Thomas Voeckler (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 2h 58' 51"

92
 Imanol Erviti (ESP)
Movistar Team
+ 3h 00' 21"

93
 Bakhtiyar Kozhatayev (KAZ)
Astana
+ 3h 04' 11"

94
 Jay McCarthy (AUS)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 05' 13"

95
 Nils Politt (GER)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 3h 05' 52"

96
 Marco Marcato (ITA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 05' 53"

97
 Jesús Herrada (ESP)
Movistar Team
+ 3h 06' 05"

98
 Michael Albasini (SUI)
Orica–Scott
+ 3h 06' 55"

99
 Alessandro De Marchi (ITA)
BMC Racing Team
+ 3h 07' 25"

100
 Pieter Vanspeybrouck (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 09' 38"

101
 Tony Martin (GER)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 3h 10' 18"

102
 Zdeněk Štybar (CZE)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 3h 12' 12"

103
 Florian Vachon (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 3h 13' 10"

104
 Daniele Bennati (ITA)
Movistar Team
+ 3h 13' 44"

105
 Jack Bauer (NZL)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 3h 15' 13"

106
 Perrig Quéméneur (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 15' 40"

107
 Scott Thwaites (GBR)
Team Dimension Data
+ 3h 16' 28"

108
 Jasha Sütterlin (GER)
Movistar Team
+ 3h 17' 53"

109
 Yukiya Arashiro (JPN)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 18' 16"

110
 Yoann Offredo (FRA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 20' 50"

111
 Matteo Bono (ITA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 20' 59"

112
 Vasil Kiryienka (BLR)
Team Sky
+ 3h 21' 15"

113
 Adam Hansen (AUS)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 3h 22' 31"

114
 Patrick Bevin (NZL)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 3h 23' 00"

115
 Dmitriy Gruzdev (KAZ)
Astana
+ 3h 24' 42"

116
 Maciej Bodnar (POL)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 26' 58"

117
 Julien Simon (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 29' 21"

118
 Reinardt Janse van Rensburg (RSA)
Team Dimension Data
+ 3h 30' 54"

119
 Javier Moreno (ESP)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 32' 06"

120
 Andriy Hrivko (UKR)
Astana
+ 3h 32' 14"

121
 John Degenkolb (GER)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 3h 35' 14"

122
 Sonny Colbrelli (ITA)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 36' 22"

123
 Lars Bak (DEN)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 3h 37' 04"

124
 Dion Smith (NZL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 39' 24"

125
 Laurent Pichon (FRA)
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 3h 39' 45"

126
 Adrien Petit (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 41' 34"

127
 Vegard Stake Laengen (NOR)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 3h 41' 52"

128
 Cyril Lemoine (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 43' 45"

129
 Mike Teunissen (NED)
Team Sunweb
+ 3h 43' 52"

130
 Alexander Kristoff (NOR)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 3h 45' 40"

131
 Marcus Burghardt (GER)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 3h 45' 57"

132
 Frederik Backaert (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 46' 36"

133
 Christophe Laporte (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 46' 47"

134
 Yohann Gène (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 47' 08"

135
 Markel Irizar (ESP)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 3h 47' 10"

136
 Jürgen Roelandts (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 3h 47' 20"

137
 Andrea Pasqualon (ITA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 51' 18"

138
 Nacer Bouhanni (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 3h 51' 29"

139
 Julien Vermote (BEL)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 3h 52' 54"

140
 Thomas Boudat (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 3h 53' 08"

141
 Stephen Cummings (GBR)
Team Dimension Data
+ 3h 53' 10"

142
 Roy Curvers (NED)
Team Sunweb
+ 3h 53' 38"

143
 Grega Bole (SLO)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 3h 55' 29"

144
 Christian Knees (GER)
Team Sky
+ 3h 55' 31"

145
 Rick Zabel (GER)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 3h 55' 48"

146
 Michael Gogl (AUT)
Trek–Segafredo
+ 3h 59' 06"

147
 Guillaume Van Keirsbulck (BEL)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 3h 59' 48"

148
 Ramon Sinkeldam (NED)
Team Sunweb
+ 4h 01' 54"

149
 André Greipel (GER)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 4h 02' 54"

150
 Reto Hollenstein (SUI)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 4h 03' 45"

151
 Mathew Hayman (AUS)
Orica–Scott
+ 4h 05' 17"

152
 Davide Cimolai (ITA)
FDJ
+ 4h 06' 15"

153
 Bernhard Eisel (AUT)
Team Dimension Data
+ 4h 10' 18"

154
 Fabio Sabatini (ITA)
Quick-Step Floors
+ 4h 10' 25"

155
 Marco Haller (AUT)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
+ 4h 13' 50"

156
 Dylan Groenewegen (NED)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 4h 16' 02"

157
 Albert Timmer (NED)
Team Sunweb
+ 4h 16' 21"

158
 Olivier Le Gac (FRA)
FDJ
+ 4h 17' 21"

159
 Taylor Phinney (USA)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 4h 18' 15"

160
 Borut Božič (SLO)
Bahrain–Merida
+ 4h 18' 41"

161
 Florian Sénéchal (FRA)
Cofidis
+ 4h 19' 17"

162
 Jaco Venter (RSA)
Team Dimension Data
+ 4h 20' 16"

163
 Dimitri Claeys (BEL)
Cofidis
+ 4h 25' 01"

164
 Robert Wagner (GER)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 4h 25' 12"

165
 Rüdiger Selig (GER)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 4h 26' 43"

166
 Tom Leezer (NED)
LottoNL–Jumbo
+ 4h 32' 21"

167
 Luke Rowe (GBR)
Team Sky
+ 4h 35' 52"

text: Points classification[edit]

text:
Final points classification (1–10)[9]

Rank
Rider
Team
Points

1
 Michael Matthews (AUS)
Team Sunweb
370

2
 André Greipel (GER)
Lotto–Soudal
234

3
 Edvald Boasson Hagen (NOR)
Team Dimension Data
220

4
 Alexander Kristoff (NOR)
Team Katusha–Alpecin
174

5
 Sonny Colbrelli (ITA)
Bahrain–Merida
168

6
 Thomas De Gendt (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
149

7
 Dylan Groenewegen (NED)
LottoNL–Jumbo
144

8
 Chris Froome (GBR)
Team Sky
133

9
 Rigoberto Urán (COL)
Cannondale–Drapac
106

10
 Dan Martin (IRL)
Quick-Step Floors
106

text: Mountains classification[edit]

text:
Final mountains classification (1–10)[9]

Rank
Rider
Team
Points

1
 Warren Barguil (FRA)
Team Sunweb
169

2
 Primož Roglič (SLO)
LottoNL–Jumbo
80

3
 Thomas De Gendt (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
64

4
 Darwin Atapuma (COL)
UAE Team Emirates
55

5
 Chris Froome (GBR)
Team Sky
51

6
 Romain Bardet (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
47

7
 Mikel Landa (ESP)
Team Sky
45

8
 Bauke Mollema (NED)
Trek–Segafredo
37

9
 Alberto Contador (ESP)
Trek–Segafredo
36

10
 Serge Pauwels (BEL)
Team Dimension Data
32

text: Young rider classification[edit]

text:
Final young rider classification (1–10)[9]

Rank
Rider
Team
Time

1
 Simon Yates (GBR)
Orica–Scott
86h 27' 09"

2
 Louis Meintjes (RSA)
UAE Team Emirates
+ 2' 06"

3
 Emanuel Buchmann (GER)
Bora–Hansgrohe
+ 27' 07"

4
 Tiesj Benoot (BEL)
Lotto–Soudal
+ 35' 50"

5
 Guillaume Martin (FRA)
Wanty–Groupe Gobert
+ 47' 38"

6
 Pierre Latour (FRA)
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 1h 12' 31"

7
 Lilian Calmejane (FRA)
Direct Énergie
+ 1h 29' 02"

8
 Michael Valgren (DEN)
Astana
+ 2h 19' 22"

9
 Alexey Lutsenko (KAZ)
Astana
+ 2h 32' 56"

10
 Dylan van Baarle (NED)
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 40' 57"

text: Team classification[edit]

text:
Final team classification (1–10)[9]

Rank
Team
Time

1
Team Sky
259h 21' 06"

2
AG2R La Mondiale
+ 7' 14"

3
Trek–Segafredo
+ 1h 44' 46"

4
BMC Racing Team
+ 1h 49' 49"

5
Orica–Scott
+ 1h 52' 21"

6
Movistar Team
+ 1h 55' 52"

7
Cannondale–Drapac
+ 2h 15' 25"

8
Fortuneo–Oscaro
+ 2h 18' 18"

9
Lotto–Soudal
+ 2h 28' 18"

10
Astana
+ 2h 28' 39"

text: UCI rankings[edit]

text: The race was the 25th of the 38 events in the UCI World Tour,[91] with riders from the WorldTeams competing for individually and for their teams for points that contributed towards the rankings. Riders from both the WorldTeams and Professional Continental teams also competed individually and for their nations for points that contributed towards the UCI World Ranking, which included all UCI races.[92] Both rankings used the same points scale, awarding points to the top sixty in the general classification, each yellow jersey given at the end of a stage, the top five finishers in each stage and for the top three in the final points and mountains classifications.[93] The points accrued by Chris Froome moved him up to sixth from twentieth in the World Tour and kept his fifth in the World Ranking. Greg Van Avermaet (BMC Racing Team) held the lead of both individual rankings, with Etixx–Quick-Step and Belgium also holding the lead of the World Tour team ranking and World Ranking nation ranking respectively.[94][95]

text:
UCI World Tour individual ranking on 23 July 2017 (1–10)[94]

Rank
Prev.
Name
Team
Points

1
1
 Greg Van Avermaet (BEL)
BMC Racing Team
2628

2
4
 Alejandro Valverde (ESP)
Movistar Team
2105

3
21
 Dan Martin (IRL)
Quick-Step Floors
2040

4
3
 Richie Porte (AUS)
BMC Racing Team
1882

5
2
 Tom Dumoulin (NED)
Team Sunweb
1851

6
20
 Chris Froome (GBR)
Team Sky
1824

7
9
 Michał Kwiatkowski (POL)
Team Sky
1771

8
11
 Philippe Gilbert (BEL)
Quick-Step Floors
1765

9
5
 Nairo Quintana (COL)
Movistar Team
1711

10
6
 Peter Sagan (SVK)
Bora–Hansgrohe
1570

text:
UCI World Ranking individual ranking on 24 July 2017 (1–10)[95]

Rank
Prev.
Name
Team
Points

1
1
 Greg Van Avermaet (BEL)
BMC Racing Team
5057.25

2
9
 Peter Sagan (SVK)
Bora–Hansgrohe
3896

3
2
 Alejandro Valverde (ESP)
Movistar Team
3295

4
8
 Nairo Quintana (COL)
Movistar Team
3275

5
5
 Chris Froome (GBR)
Team Sky
3066

6
5
 Philippe Gilbert (BEL)
Quick-Step Floors
2419.4

7
25
 Michael Matthews (AUS)
Team Sunweb
2409

8
4
 Tom Dumoulin (NED)
Team Sunweb
2402

9
11
 Alberto Contador (ESP)
Trek–Segafredo
2400

10
7
 Dan Martin (IRL)
Quick-Step Floors
2349


document_title: Thamnophis sauritus sauritus

question_text: what kind of a snake is black and yellow

text: Thamnophis sauritus sauritus

text: Description[edit]

text: The eastern ribbon snake gets its name from its very thin body. At maturity, it grows to between 18 and 86 cm in length.[3] It is a slender, black snake with a yellow mid-back stripe and one on each side. A brown stripe of one or two rows of scales extends onto the sides of the belly. The rest of the belly is a greenish-white color. It also has two rows of black spots between the back and side stripes. It also has a long tail that is about a third of the length of its body. The labial scales around the mouth of the snake are unmarked and uniformly bright yellow or white. A white or light-yellow bar borders the front of the eyes.[4] Juveniles are colored like adults.[5] Some aspects of the eastern ribbon snake make it different from a close relative, the garter snake. The eastern has a much thinner body than a garter snake. Its tail makes up about one third of its body length. This snake has stripes on the third and fourth scale rows. The eastern ribbon snake has pure white lips and a mark of white color in front of its eyes. This snake is not venomous.

text: Habitats[edit]

text: The eastern ribbon snake is typically found in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada, usually in wetlands and near the edges of ponds and streams.[6] They are found both in and out of water; they are adapted to both environments. When they are frightened, they take to the water or bushes. They do not dive like water snakes; they glide across the surface of the water, instead.[7]

text: The only parts of Canada known to have this reptile are southern Ontario, southwest Nova Scotia and Quebec.

text: Diet[edit]

text: The ribbon snake generally eats small fish, tadpoles, salamanders, small frogs and toads, and occasionally insects. In some cases, the female has been observed eating her young. The typical time for snakes to hunt is in the morning or early evening. Once the snake has spotted its prey, it will quickly slither to catch its prey and swallow it whole.[8]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Reproduction in eastern ribbon snakes takes place after they emerge from hibernation in the spring, in April or May. Mating occasionally takes place in the fall, but the female will delay fertilization and development until the next spring. The average gestation period is three months. The average number of young is around 12, but can range four to 27. Females give birth in late summer or the early fall. After birth, no parental care is involved; the young are left to fend for themselves. Most young reach sexual maturity after two years, but most usually wait until the third year.[9]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: T. s. sauritus stays active year around. However, in colder months, the snake may be forced to hibernate, typically in ant mounds, mole tunnels, crayfish burrows, muskrat lodges, and bank burrows. Ribbon snakes rarely bite when handled, but they do produce a foul musk from their anal glands when they feel threatened.[10]


document_title: Embryo

question_text: where does the young ones develop in humans

text: Embryo

text: Etymology[edit]

text: First attested in English in the mid-14c., the word embryon derives from Medieval Latin embryo, itself from Greek ἔμβρυον (embruon), lit. "young one",[2] which is the neuter of ἔμβρυος (embruos), lit. "growing in",[3] from ἐν (en), "in"[4] and βρύω (bruō), "swell, be full";[5] the proper Latinized form of the Greek term would be embryum.

text: Development[edit]

text: In animals, the development of the zygote into an embryo proceeds through specific recognizable stages of blastula, gastrula, and organogenesis. The blastula stage typically features a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel, surrounded by a sphere or sheet of cells, also called blastomeres. In a placental mammal, an ovum is fertilized in a fallopian tube through which it travels into the uterus. An embryo is called a fetus at a more advanced stage of development and up until birth or hatching. In humans, this is from the eleventh week of gestation. However, animals which develop in eggs outside the mother's body, are usually referred to as embryos throughout development; e.g. one would refer to a chick embryo, not a "chick fetus", even at later stages.

text: During gastrulation the cells of the blastula undergo coordinated processes of cell division, invasion, and/or migration to form two (diploblastic) or three (triploblastic) tissue layers. In triploblastic organisms, the three germ layers are called endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm. The position and arrangement of the germ layers are highly species-specific, however, depending on the type of embryo produced. In vertebrates, a special population of embryonic cells called the neural crest has been proposed as a "fourth germ layer", and is thought to have been an important novelty in the evolution of head structures.

text: During organogenesis, molecular and cellular interactions between germ layers, combined with the cells' developmental potential, or competence to respond, prompt the further differentiation of organ-specific cell types.[citation needed] For example, in neurogenesis, a subpopulation of ectoderm cells is set aside to become the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. Modern developmental biology is extensively probing the molecular basis for every type of organogenesis, including angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing ones), chondrogenesis (cartilage), myogenesis (muscle), osteogenesis (bone), and many others.

text: Plant embryos[edit]

text: In botany, a seed plant embryo is part of a seed, consisting of precursor tissues for the leaves, stem (see hypocotyl), and root (see radicle), as well as one or more cotyledons. Once the embryo begins to germinate—grow out from the seed—it is called a seedling (plantlet).

text: Bryophytes and ferns also produce an embryo, but do not produce seeds. In these plants, the embryo begins its existence attached to the inside of the archegonium on a parental gametophyte from which the egg cell was generated. The inner wall of the archegonium lies in close contact with the "foot" of the developing embryo; this "foot" consists of a bulbous mass of cells at the base of the embryo which may receive nutrition from its parent gametophyte. The structure and development of the rest of the embryo varies by group of plants. Once the embryo has expanded beyond the enclosing archegonium, it is no longer termed an embryo.

text: Research and technology[edit]

text:
Embryos are used in various fields of research and in techniques of assisted reproductive technology. An egg may be fertilized in vitro and the resulting embryo may be frozen for later use.
The potential of embryonic stem cell research, reproductive cloning, and germline engineering are currently being explored. Prenatal diagnosis or preimplantation diagnosis enables testing embryos for diseases or conditions.

text: Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is a practice in which animal germplasms, such as embryos are collected and stored at low temperatures with the intent of conserving the genetic material.

text: The embryos of Arabidopsis thaliana have been used as a model to understand gene activation, patterning, and organogenesis of seed plants.[6]

text: In regards to research using human embryos, the ethics and legalities of this application continue to be debated.[7][8][9]

text: Researchers from MERLN Institute and the Hubrecht Institute in the Netherlands managed to grow samples of synthetic rodent embryos, combining certain types of stem cells. This method will help scientists to more deeply study the very first moments of the process of the birth of a new life, which, in turn, can lead to the emergence of new effective methods to combat infertility and other genetic diseases.[10]

text: Fossilized embryos[edit]

text: Fossilized animal embryos are known from the Precambrian, and are found in great numbers during the Cambrian period. Even fossilized dinosaur embryos have been discovered.[11]

text: Miscarriage & abortion[edit]

text: Some embryos do not survive to the next stage of development. When this happens naturally, it is called spontaneous abortion or miscarriage.[12] There are many reasons why this may occur. The most common natural cause of miscarriage is chromosomal abnormality in animals[13] or genetic load in plants.[14]

text: In species which produce multiple embryos at the same time, miscarriage or abortion of some embryos can provide the remaining embryos with a greater share of maternal resources. This can also disturb the pregnancy, causing harm to the second embryo. Genetic strains which miscarry their embryos are the source of commercial seedless fruits.

text: Abortion is the process of artificially (non-naturally) removing the embryo through deliberate pharmaceutical or surgical methods.